Nitric oxide signalling in astrocytes

In the brain, astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells and play various roles including maintenance of tripartite synapses and regulation of CBF. An endogenous signal molecule that has a potential to have an effect on regulation of both synaptic activity and CBF is nitric oxide (NO). Previous studies have demonstrated that NO is produced in endothelial cells and neurons by endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), respectively. However, the source of NO production in astrocyte remains uncertain. Therefore, we propose that constitutive NOS signalling pathways may exist in astrocyte and can be activated by different neurotransmitters. The aim of this thesis is to identify the sources and activators of NO production in mouse cortical astrocytes. Identification of constitutive NOS isoforms done by means of electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry revealed the expression of both eNOS and nNOS in astrocytes. All preparations were performed in astrocyte cultures and brain slice preparations labeled with 4- amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorescein (DAF-FM) diacetate, a cell-permeant NO indicator that becomes cell-impermeable once inside cells. Therefore, I took advantage of this feature to evaluate NO production exclusively in astrocytes using single and multi-photon confocal microscopy. We then tested whether cholinergic and glutamatergic agonists that have the capacity to increase intracellular Ca2+ concentration can induce an increase in astrocytic NO. Both in vitro and ex vivo, NO production levels indicate that cholinergic and glutamatergic stimulations can induce astrocytic NO increases, which was abolished by the non-selective NOS inhibitor L- NG -Nitro-arginine. Moreover, the NO response to ACh was absent in eNOS-/- mice, while trans-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (t-ACPD) barely affected NO production in nNOS-/- mice. These results imply that astrocytic eNOS and nNOS can be triggered discretely by distinct activation cascades (cholinergic and metabotropic glutamatergic). Furthermore, studies on cytosolic Ca2+ mobilization point out the importance of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ as key in the mechanism of NO production, and suggests a signalling pathway that t-ACPD causes IP3Rs to elicit RyRs-mediated Ca2+ efflux, which in turn, activates adjacent nNOS and leads to NO production. Furthermore, superfusion of in vitro and ex vivo preparations with N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) evoked an increase in NO in eNOS-/- and nNOS-/- mice. The NO production was attenuated through removal of PSD-95/nNOS complex. This result posits that astrocytic NMDA receptor may comprise the functional NR2B/PSD- 95/nNOS signalling cassette. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that: i) cortical astrocytes express both eNOS and nNOS; ii) nNOS colocalizes with ryanodine receptor 2 and 3, whereas membrane nNOS colocalizes with NR2B-containing NMDA receptor; iii) neuronal stimulation has the capacity of inducing eNOS- and nNOS-produced NO in astrocytes via different activation signalling; iv) activation of cytosolic nNOS requires the activation of ryanodine receptors. Collectively, these data suggest a compartmentalized and specific NO production following neuronal stimulation probably for a fine and polarized regulation of astrocytic functions. This work provides new insight into physiological consequences for neuronal and vascular functions and ameliorates our understanding of astrocytic NO function in the brain.

Keyphrases: Nitric oxide, Endothelial nitric oxide synthase, Neuronal nitric oxide synthase, Astrocyte, Astrocytic endfoot, Microdomains, Cholinergic, Glutamatergic, Cortex somatosensoriel, Somatosensory cortex