Développement et fonctionnement des mécanismes de résonance motrice chez l'humain

The discovery of cells in the macaque brain that respond both to action production and perception brings support to the hypothesis that these mirror-neurons (MN) code for the representation of action. These cells, and the system they form (the so-called mirror neuron system; MNS), appear to underlie action understanding by simulating the perceived action into the observer’s brain. Beyond simple action understanding, it has been suggested that this system contributes to higher-order processes related to social cognition.    In human adults, recent imaging studies have shown important ovelaps in the activity patterns during both action production and execution, supporting the existence of a system similar to that shown in monkeys.  However, surprisingly few studies have investigated the presence and the development of the MNS in the human child, and its relationship with socio-cognitive abilities in healthy individuals. Moreover, we still ignore the specificity of measures widely used to assess this system.      The studies that follow aim at clarifying these issues. More specifically, the main objectives of this work are to : (1) establish the existence and the properties of motor resonance mechanisms in children; (2) clarify the relationship between activity of the MNS and social abilities in healthy individuals; and (3) determine the specificity of neurophysiological tools widely used to measure MNS activity in humans.    In the first article, quantitative electroencephalography is used to assess the activity of sensorimotor regions in a group of school-age children during the observation of simple hand movements. We show a modulation of mu rhtyhm activity at central sites not only during motor production, but also during passive action observation. These results support the existence of an action-execution pairing system sensitive to visual actions in the immature brain.     In the second article, we present an experiment conducted in a 12 year-old child undergoing presurgical monitoring for intractable epilepsy. Intracranial electroencephalography is used to assess motor cortex involvement in the perception of action-related sounds. We show a modulation of motor cortex activity at two distinct time-periods in the alpha and beta bands. These results suggest the presence of a motor matching system sensitive to auditory stimuli in the child’s brain.         In the third article, we present an overview of behavioral and neurophysiological data supporting the idea that an action-understanding system is present from birth in humans. We propose a theoretical model whereby neonatal imitation is the result on an uninhibited motor resonance system.    In order to adequatly measure the presence of empathic and autistic traits in healhy individuals to assess their link with motor resonance, article 4 consists of a french validation of questionnaires used in the fifth article, the Empathy Quotient (Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2004) and the Autism Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001). Translated versions of these scales were administered to 100 healthy adults and 23 individuals with autistic spectrum disorders. Our results replicate faithfully those obtained with the original version of the scales.     In the fifth article, transcranial magnetic stimulation is used to assess the timecourse of motor cortex activity during action observation, as well as its relationship with empthic and autistic traits in healthy individuals. We show that the motor cortex is rapidly modulated following movement onset, and that its activity correlates with specific socio-cognitives measures. These results suggest the presence of a rapid mechanism taking place in the motor resonance system that is related to social ability.      The sixth acticle aims at clarifying the specificity of the neurophysiological tools used in the preceeding studies to quantify MNS, namely transcranial magnetic stimulation and quantitative electroencephalography. Using both techniques simultaneously during action observation, imagination and execution, we show that these measures capture different aspects of motor resonance.      In summary, this thesis aims at documenting the existence of a motor resonance  mechanism in children, establishing the relationship between  MNS activity and socio-cognitive traits and assessing the specificity of the measures used to quantify activity within this system. Although further studies are needed to complete the task begun here, these studies contribute significantly to our understanding of the development and function of motor resonance mechanism is humans. In the long run, they could contribute to the elaboration of diagnostic markers, and ultimately therapeutic targets, in clinical populations where abnormalities of this system have been documented.

Keyphrases: electroencephalography, development, mu rhythm, transcranial magnetic stimulation, action understanding, mirror neurons, autism