Grubs and Grasshoppers: Challenge‐Based Recreation and the Collective Efficacy of Families with At‐Risk Youth

This study examined the influence of challenge-based recreation on the collective efficacy of families with at-risk adolescents. Thirty-four families participated in one of three experimental groups and a control group. Collective family recreation efficacy and conflict resolution efficacy increased for families in all three recreation contexts. These findings support the theory that collective efficacy in one domain may generalize to other domains of family life. Key Words: at-risk adolescents, conflict resolution, efficacy, family, recreation. (Family Relations, 2004, 53, 326-333) Helping adolescents develop into healthy adults is a challenging experience, especially when youth are at risk of engaging in harmful behaviors. Improving the relationships between parents and adolescents can moderate the likelihood of adolescent involvement in at-risk behaviors (Burt, Resnick, & Novick, 1998; Peterson, 1987; Reichertz & Frankel, 1990; Schellenbach & Guerney, 1988). Many programs focus directly on changing behaviors within families. However, substantial research with individuals suggests that changing beliefs or efficacy perceptions is an effective and necessary antecedent for long-term behavioral change (e.g., Bandura, 1997; Grossman, Brink, & Hauser, 1987). This same research also suggests that group or collective efficacy functions similarly to individual efficacy. Thus, changing beliefs in group capabilities also may be an effective method to bring about behavioral change in families (Bandura, 1997). Families with adolescents may struggle with important skills such as communication and problem solving. As such, changing beliefs regarding the functional ability of the entire family may improve these skills. However, little attention in family studies has been paid to the idea that family members may be affected by their belief in their ability to collectively perform tasks, or their collective efficacy. Considerable attention has been paid to other constructs related to family functioning, such as cohesion and adaptability, which when properly balanced lead to healthy family functioning (Olson & DeFrain, 1994). Changing collective efficacy might be a more effective approach to strengthening families than focusing directly on changing family behaviors. One unique and potentially powerful context to promote collective family efficacy is recreation. Some research suggests that family recreation can promote aspects of family strength, including relational needs, family problem solving, parent-child bonds, and social support (Orthner, 1997). However, engaging in recreational activities that require the acquisition and use of skills to overcome a designated challenge optimizes the experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 1997) and could help individuals develop a sense of recreation efficacy. Such efficacy beliefs might then transfer to other areas more salient to family life, such as conflict resolution. Consequently, experiences that present challenges motivate family members to continue valuing and strengthening their relationships (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). The purpose of the present study was to examine the influence of challenge-based family recreation on the collective efficacy of families with adolescents. In addition, the extent to which increases in collective challenge-based recreation efficacy generalized to collective conflict resolution efficacy among families was evaluated. Collective Efficacy The roots of collective efficacy and its importance to families can be understood via Bandura's (1977) concept of self-efficacy. Bandura sees self-efficacy as "people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute a course of action required to attain designated types of performances" (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Persons with high efficacy are more likely to perceive the outcome of their actions as positive and, therefore, will be more motivated to persist in the face of adversity (Bandura, 1997). …