From Paper Maps to Virtual Reality — A View from Hong Kong

Paper maps have been used by human beings for centuries for navigation, exploration, codification, planning, indexing and many other purposes. They have been used rigorously to reflect different contexts, cultures, times and places in human history (Perkins, 2003). Most countries produce maps in different scales, fixed tiles and update them regularly to suit the need of map users. Maps are normally printed using paper as the most commonly used media of presentation and production in various formats including single sheet paper maps, fold maps for convenient use in the field, pocket size books, booklets and atlases. No matter in what format and at what scale the maps are produced, there is a dual emphasis on both the scientific representation of accurate surveyed information as well as an translation and manifestation of this information through an articulation of graphical attributes in the processes of compilation, design and production focusing on graphicacy (Balchin, 1976). Standardized graphic components have been designed and devised to facilitate map reading, interpretation and analysis (Campbell, 2001). The emphasis of communication in cartography links cartographers and map users together in terms of the conveyance of information and infiltration process between both ends. Cartographic skills and map analysis techniques are deemed important in this communication process. With the advent of computer, computer cartography and then geographic information systems have transformed, if not replaced, the role and communication process of paper maps. Computer cartography, at least in the earliest phase of development, still emphasized on the production of paper maps. Software such as SYMUV, SYMAP, CALFORM reflected the early attempt in using computers for manipulating spatial data and final plotting of maps with the aid of various output devices onto papers as the media of production. With the further development in geographic information systems and the associated information technology, an entirely new horizon appears in cartography. Enhanced flexibility, new mapping tools and a shift of focus to the development of spatial databases has embarked a renewed interest in spatial representation (Fairbairn et al., 2001). Although maps in paper format, or the tangible map, are still in demand in the market, it is no longer the only medium. More and more electronic maps are produced in various intangible formats. Maps can now be integrated with other media including pictures, video, animation and sound for presentation (Cartwright et al., 1999; Dransch, 2000). The development of multimedia cartography reconfigures how maps are produced and used with new emphases on interactive communication, use of network and databases. Symbolization is no longer limited to static symbols as animation is practiced in various forms. Web-based GIS has enhanced communication through geocollaboration in either same place group work (MacEachren, 2000) or synchronous different place work (MacEachren, 2001). Development and representation in virtual geographic environments open further arena for research which is impossible with paper maps (Dodge and Kitchin, 2002). In this paper, we would like to highlight some of these changes and focus our discussion on the following themes: increase in media used in mapping; changes in cartographic communication; the role of cartographer versus map users; and virtual reality.