Female West African Immigrants in the United States: Challenges and Empowering Strategies

IntroductionFollowing the 1960s independence of former European colonies in Africa, waves of migrants headed to Europe, more specifically toward metropolitan countries such as Belgium, Spain, Portugal, France, and Great Britain. More often, those migrations involved males who relocated either because they had earned the colonial power's citizenship and decided to join that country or because their level of education required that they register in higher education institutions in order to further their studies.In the last twenty years, more and more women have joined this trend, but, instead of leaving Africa for educational purposes, many of them have pursued economic and financial goals in order to improve their own welfare and that of their family. Lately, as access to Europe has become more difficult, male and female adults as well as minor migrants have been using boats and sometimes makeshift rafts to cross the Mediterranean Sea. During this journey, a large number of people have lost their lives, and many more have been discouraged from attempting these dangerous trips.Because access to Europe has become almost impossible, the United States has been included among the preferred destinations. The United States has attracted a record number of West African migrants from sub-Saharan countries such as Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Togo, and Senegal. Kebbeh (2014) reported that, between 1970 and 2010, the number of Africans in the United States increased by almost 2,000 percent, from less than 100,000 to over 1.6 million. They entered this country as documented immigrants, visitors, asylum seekers, refugees, or temporary workers. After admission, a large number of them decided to settle in one American state either permanently or for a period longer than allowed. Consequently, many of them became undocumented aliens and were subsequently designated as illegal immigrants, defined as "all foreign-born non-citizens who are not legal residents" of the United States (Hoefer, Rytina, & Baker, 2011, p. 1). In fact, Hoefer and colleagues noted that most unauthorized residents either entered the United States without inspection or were admitted temporarily and stayed past the date when they were required to leave.Although it is nearly impossible to exactly estimate the number of illegal aliens, Hoefer and colleagues noted that, according to the U.S Department of Homeland Security, the unauthorized immigrant population in 2009 was estimated at 10.8 million, whereas Passel and Cohn (2011) reported that there were 12 million undocumented immigrants in the United States. This large number of illegal immigrants, who are widely varied in terms of immigration status and country of origin, as well as their impact on the U.S. economy, has complicated the U.S gration warranting in-depth studies to enhance decision makers' knowledge of this phenomenon. In fact, as indicated by the following literature review, the processes of migration and resettlement in foreign countries have been the focus of many researchers who study migrants' characteristics and motivations, as well as the various aspects and consequences of these migrations.Literature ReviewThis study is intended to contribute to the literature on immigration focusing on West African women. Because no such sample had been previously studied, this researcher reviewed studies on immigrants in the United States in general. These studies highlighted themes on immigrants' characteristics, factors involved in their decision to leave their countries of origin, and the nature of the relationships developed to adjust to their new environment.With regard to immigrants' characteristics, it has been found that their age, gender, strong social ties, and family relationships were determinant factors in a successful integration into the United States (Flores, 2007; Greenwell, Valdez, & DaVanzo, 1997; Myers, Gao, & Emeka, 2009; Zentgraf, 2002). …