Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
Prevalence of Marijuana Use Disorders in the United States Design, Setting, and Participants Face-to-face Interviews Were Conducted in 2

M ARIJUANA HAS BEEN THE most common illicit substance used in the United States for several decades. 1,2 Understanding changes in the use of marijuana over time is important for a number of reasons. Marijuana use is associated with impaired educational attainment, 3 reduced workplace productivity , 4 and increased risk of use of other substances. 5 Marijuana use plays a major role in motor vehicle crashes 6 and has adverse effects on the respiratory and car-diovascular systems. Marijuana use also is a necessary, although not a sufficient, condition for developing marijuana abuse and dependence as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), which are clear indicators of problems in and of themselves. 11 Marijuana abuse is defined in the DSM-IV as repeated instances of use under hazardous conditions ; repeated, clinically meaningful impairment in social/occupational/ educational functioning, or legal problems related to marijuana use. Marijuana dependence is defined in the DSM-IV as increased tolerance, compulsive use, impaired control, and continued use despite physical and psychological problems caused or exacerbated by use. Beyond the seriousness of these disorders in their own right, marijuana abuse and dependence increase the risk of other serious consequences , most significantly, major mood, anxiety, and personality psy-chopathology. Context Among illicit substance use disorders, marijuana use disorders are the most prevalent in the population. Yet, information about the prevalence of current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) marijuana use disorders and how prevalence has changed is lacking. Main Outcome Measures Rates of past year marijuana use, abuse, and dependence. Results Among the adult US population, the prevalence of marijuana use remained stable at about 4.0% over the past decade. In contrast, the prevalence of DSM-IV marijuana abuse or dependence significantly (P=.01) increased between 1991-1992 (1.2%) and 2001-2002 (1.5%), with the greatest increases observed among young black men and women (PϽ.001) and young Hispanic men (P = .006). Further, marijuana use disorders among marijuana users significantly increased (P = .002) in the absence of increased frequency and quantity of marijuana use, suggesting that the con-comitant increase in potency of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (⌬ 9-THC) may have contributed to the rising rates. Conclusions Despite the stability in the overall prevalence of marijuana use, more adults in the United States had a marijuana use disorder in 2001-2002 than in 1991-1992. Increases in the prevalence of marijuana use disorders were most …
Game-theoretic Interpretation of Type Theory Part II: Uniqueness of Identity Proofs and Univalence

In the present paper, based on the previous work (Part I), we present a game semantics for the intensional variant of intuitionistic type theory that refutes the principle of uniqueness of identity proofs and validates the univalence axiom, though we do not interpret non-trivial higher propositional equalities. Specifically, following the historic groupoid interpretation by Hofmann and Streicher, we equip predicative games in Part I with a groupoid structure, which gives rise to the notion of (predicative) gamoids. Roughly, gamoids are "games with (computational) equalities specified", which interpret subtleties in Id-types. We then formulate a category with families of predicative gamoids, equipped with dependent product, dependent sum, and Id-types as well as universes, which forms a concrete instance of the groupoid model. We believe that this work is an important stepping-stone towards a complete interpretation of homotopy type theory.
An Overview of the Function and Maintenance of Sexual Reproduction in Dikaryotic Fungi

Sexual reproduction likely evolved as protection from environmental stresses, specifically, to repair DNA damage, often via homologous recombination. In higher eukaryotes, meiosis and the production of gametes with allelic combinations different from parental type provides the side effect of increased genetic variation. In fungi it appears that while the maintenance of meiosis is paramount for success, outcrossing is not a driving force. In the subkingdom Dikarya, fungal members are characterized by existence of a dikaryon for extended stages within the life cycle. Such fungi possess functional or, in some cases, relictual, loci that govern sexual reproduction between members of their own species. All mating systems identified so far in the Dikarya employ a pheromone/receptor system for haploid organisms to recognize a compatible mating partner, although the paradigm in the Ascomycota, e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is that genes for the pheromone precursor and receptor are not found in the mating-type locus but rather are regulated by its products. Similarly, the mating systems in the Ascomycota are bipolar, with two non-allelic idiomorphs expressed in cells of opposite mating type. In contrast, for the Basidiomycota, both bipolar and tetrapolar mating systems have been well characterized; further, at least one locus directly encodes the pheromone precursor and the receptor for the pheromone of a different mating type, while a separate locus encodes proteins that may regulate the first locus and/or additional genes required for downstream events. Heterozygosity at both of two unlinked loci is required for cells to productively mate in tetrapolar systems, whereas in bipolar systems the two loci are tightly linked. Finally, a trade-off exists in wild fungal populations between sexual reproduction and the associated costs, with adverse conditions leading to mating. For fungal mammal pathogens, the products of sexual reproduction can be targets for the host immune system. The opposite appears true for phytopathogenic fungi, where mating and pathogenicity are inextricably linked. Here, we explore, compare, and contrast different strategies used among the Dikarya, both saprophytic and pathogenic fungi, and highlight differences between pathogens of mammals and pathogens of plants, providing context for selective pressures acting on this interesting group of fungi.
The Problem of Pornography: Regulation and the Right to Free Speech

Introduction 1. The liberal defence of pornography 2. The types of harm 3. Proving harm 4. Diversity and autonomy 5. Feminism, truth and infallibility 6. Free speech and majoritarianism 7. The slippery slope 8. Feminism and puritanism 9. The protection of free speech 10. Interpreting the First Amendment 11. The civil rights ordinances 12. Freedom of speech and the regulation of pornography in English law 13. The "right" to consume pornography 14. Incitement to sexual hatred 15. Conclusion Notes Bibliography Table of statutes Table of cases.
Filtering spam with behavioral blacklisting

Spam filters often use the reputation of an IP address (or IP address range) to classify email senders. This approach worked well when most spam originated from senders with fixed IP addresses, but spam today is also sent from IP addresses for which blacklist maintainers have outdated or inaccurate information (or no information at all). Spam campaigns also involve many senders, reducing the amount of spam any particular IP address sends to a single domain; this method allows spammers to stay "under the radar". The dynamism of any particular IP address begs for blacklisting techniques that automatically adapt as the senders of spam change. This paper presents SpamTracker, a spam filtering system that uses a new technique called behavioral blacklisting to classify email senders based on their sending behavior rather than their identity. Spammers cannot evade SpamTracker merely by using "fresh" IP addresses because blacklisting decisions are based on sending patterns, which tend to remain more invariant. SpamTracker uses fast clustering algorithms that react quickly to changes in sending patterns. We evaluate SpamTracker's ability to classify spammers using email logs for over 115 email domains; we find that SpamTracker can correctly classify many spammers missed by current filtering techniques. Although our current datasets prevent us from confirming SpamTracker's ability to completely distinguish spammers from legitimate senders, our evaluation shows that SpamTracker can identify a significant fraction of spammers that current IP-based blacklists miss. SpamTracker's ability to identify spammers before existing blacklists suggests that it can be used in conjunction with existing techniques (e.g., as an input to greylisting). SpamTracker is inherently distributed and can be easily replicated; incorporating it into existing email filtering infrastructures requires only small modifications to mail server configurations.
Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior

Porter, Foreword. Part 1. How Theories of Work Motivation are Developed. Work Motivation, Productivity, and the Economy. Methods of Inquiry in Work Motivation Theory and Research. Part 2. Alternative Models of Human Functioning. Human Nature: Needs and Values as Motives at Work. Human Nature: Affect and Emotions as Motives to Work. Power, Love, and Sex as Motives at Work. Social Motivation and Self-Esteem at Work. Job Design as a Contextual Source of Work Motivation. Causes and Consequences of Frustration at Work. Part 3. Concepts of Work Motivation and Ultimate Determinants of Behavior. Beliefs, Attitudes, and Intentions. Human Reactions to Work, Jobs, and Organizations. Equity, Fairness, and Justice Motives Related to Work. Expectancy-Valence Theories of Work Motivation. Goal-Directed Theories. Part 4. Views of "Work Motivation" and Work Behavior. Learning, Behavior Control, Social-Cognitive Theory, and Self-Management. Part 5. Summary and Evaluation of Progress. Profit, Slaves, and Hopes for Strawberry Fields of the Future.
The history of star formation in a lcdm universe

Employing hydrodynamic simulations of structure formation in a ⁄CDM cosmology, we study the history of cosmic star formation from the \dark ages" at redshift z » 20 to the present. In addition to gravity and ordinary hydrodynamics, our model includes radiative heating and cooling of gas, star formation, supernova feedback, and galactic winds. By making use of a comprehensive set of simulations on interlocking scales and epochs, we demonstrate numerical convergence of our results on all relevant halo mass scales, ranging from 10 8 to 10 15 h i1 Mfl. The predicted density of cosmic star formation, _ ‰? (z), is broadly consistent with measurements, given observational uncertainty. From the present epoch, _ ‰? (z) gradually rises by about a factor of ten to a peak at z » 5 i 6, which is beyond the redshift range where it has been estimated observationally. In our model, fully 50% of the stars are predicted to have formed by redshift z ’ 2:14, and are thus older than 10.4 Gyr, while only 25% form at redshifts lower than z ’ 1. The mean age of all stars at the present is about 9 Gyr. Our model predicts a total stellar density at z = 0 of ›? = 0:004, corresponding to about 10% of all baryons being locked up in long-lived stars, in agreement with recent determinations of the luminosity density of the Universe. We determine the \multiplicity function of cosmic star formation" as a function of redshift; i.e. the distribution of star formation with respect to halo mass. At redshifts around z ’ 10, star formation occurs preferentially in halos of mass 10 8 i10 10 h i1 Mfl, while at lower redshifts, the dominant contribution to _ ‰? (z) comes from progressively more massive halos. Integrating over time, we flnd that about 50% of all stars formed in halos less massive than 10 11:5 h i1 Mfl, with nearly equal contributions per logarithmic mass interval in the range 10 10 i 10 13:5 h i1 Mfl, making up » 70% of the total. We also brie∞y examine possible implications of our predicted star formation history for reionisation of hydrogen in the Universe. According to our model, the stellar contribution to the ionising background is expected to rise for redshifts z > 3, at least up to redshift z » 5, in accord with estimates from simultaneous measurements of the H and He opacities of the Lyman-fi forest. This suggests that the UV background will be dominated by stars for z > 4, provided that there are not signiflcantly more quasars at high-z than are presently known. We measure the clumping factor of the gas from the simulations and estimate the growth of cosmic HII regions, assuming a range of escape fractions for ionising photons. We flnd that the star formation rate predicted by the simulations is su‐cient to account for hydrogen reionisation by z » 6, but only if a high escape fraction close to unity is assumed.
An Iterative MapReduce Based Frequent Subgraph Mining Algorithm

Frequent subgraph mining (FSM) is an important task for exploratory data analysis on graph data. Over the years, many algorithms have been proposed to solve this task. These algorithms assume that the data structure of the mining task is small enough to fit in the main memory of a computer. However, as the real-world graph data grows, both in size and quantity, such an assumption does not hold any longer. To overcome this, some graph database-centric methods have been proposed in recent years for solving FSM; however, a distributed solution using MapReduce paradigm has not been explored extensively. Since MapReduce is becoming the de-facto paradigm for computation on massive data, an efficient FSM algorithm on this paradigm is of huge demand. In this work, we propose a frequent subgraph mining algorithm called FSM-H which uses an iterative MapReduce based framework. FSM-H is complete as it returns all the frequent subgraphs for a given user-defined support, and it is efficient as it applies all the optimizations that the latest FSM algorithms adopt. Our experiments with real life and large synthetic datasets validate the effectiveness of FSM-H for mining frequent subgraphs from large graph datasets. The source code of FSM-H is available from www.cs. iupui.edu/~alhasan/ software/
Human Bocavirus and Gastroenteritis

To the Editor: We read with great interest the recent study by Vicente and colleagues, who suspect the human bocavirus (HBoV), a newly detected parvovirus initially described as a respiratory pathogen, to be a possible causative agent of gastroenteritis in children (1). These researchers investigated the presence of HBoV DNA in 527 stool samples from ambulatory patients (<36 months of age) with unrelated respiratory symptoms. Of these stool samples, 48 (9.1%) were positive for HBoV DNA. Other enteric pathogens were found in 58% of all HBoV-positive fecal samples. A close taxonomic relationship exists between HBoV and bovine parvovirus, an animal virus capable of causing gastrointestinal symptoms in cattle (2). Taking into account the assumed high tenacity of this parvovirus against environmental factors and hospital-grade disinfectants (3,4), we believe the possibility of fecal-oral transmission, in addition to transmission via respiratory droplets, has to be considered in interpreting the observations of Vicente et al. (1). Gastroenteric symptoms have been described in up to 25% of all patients with respiratory HBoV infections (5–7). Although these observations suggest that HBoV may contribute to gastroenteritis or even be a causative agent, further studies are needed. Such studies should include control groups of asymptomatic patients and should test stool samples for HBoV. The correlation between detection of HBoV and clinical symptoms of gastroenteritis needs further confirmation in animal models, which are still not available. Nevertheless, the study by Vicente et al. did not clarify the extent of respiratory symptoms in patients with HBoV-positive stool samples. Taking into account the nature of parvovirus particles, we believe the virus likely passed through the gastrointestinal tract, as patients frequently swallow virus-containing sputum or nasal secretions. Thus, the observation that HBoV is an enteric pathogen should be considered a preliminary finding. Finally, we suggest that the role of HBoV should be investigated through histologic examination of mucosa biopsy specimens (e.g., from patients with chronic gastrointestinal diseases) to confirm pathogenicity.
An architecture for encoding sentence meaning in left mid-superior temporal cortex

Significance The 18th-century Prussian philosopher Wilhelm von Humbolt famously noted that natural language makes “infinite use of finite means. ” By this, he meant that language deploys a finite set of words to express an effectively infinite set of ideas. As the seat of both language and thought, the human brain must be capable of rapidly encoding the multitude of thoughts that a sentence could convey. How does this work? Here, we find evidence supporting a long-standing conjecture of cognitive science: that the human brain encodes the meanings of simple sentences much like a computer, with distinct neural populations representing answers to basic questions of meaning such as “Who did it? ” and “To whom was it done? ” Human brains flexibly combine the meanings of words to compose structured thoughts. For example, by combining the meanings of “bite,” “dog,” and “man,” we can think about a dog biting a man, or a man biting a dog. Here, in two functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiments using multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA), we identify a region of left mid-superior temporal cortex (lmSTC) that flexibly encodes “who did what to whom” in visually presented sentences. We find that lmSTC represents the current values of abstract semantic variables (“Who did it? ” and “To whom was it done? ”) in distinct subregions. Experiment 1 first identifies a broad region of lmSTC whose activity patterns (i) facilitate decoding of structure-dependent sentence meaning (“Who did what to whom? ”) and (ii) predict affect-related amygdala responses that depend on this information (e.g., “the baby kicked the grandfather” vs. “the grandfather kicked the baby”). Experiment 2 then identifies distinct, but neighboring, subregions of lmSTC whose activity patterns carry information about the identity of the current “agent” (“Who did it? ”) and the current “patient” (“To whom was it done? ”). These neighboring subregions lie along the upper bank of the superior temporal sulcus and the lateral bank of the superior temporal gyrus, respectively. At a high level, these regions may function like topographically defined data registers, encoding the fluctuating values of abstract semantic variables. This functional architecture, which in key respects resembles that of a classical computer, may play a critical role in enabling humans to flexibly generate complex thoughts.
The Association of Immigrant- and Non-Immigrant-Specific Factors With Mental Ill Health Among Immigrants in Sweden

Background: It has often been shown that immigrants are particularly at risk for mental ill health. The aim of the study was to investigate the association of immigrant- and non-immigrant-specific factors with mental ill health within a diverse immigrant population. Method: An extensive questionnaire was sent out to a stratified random sample of three immigrant populations from Finland, Iraq and Iran. The 720 respondents completed a Swedish, Arabic or Farsi (Persian) version of the questionnaire including the WHO (10) Well-Being Index and the HSCL-25. Results: The results indicate that mental ill health among immigrants is independently associated with non-immigrant-specific factors (i.e. high number of types of traumatic episodes, divorced/widowed, poor social network, economic insecurity and being female) and immigrant-specific factors (i.e. low level of sociocultural adaptation). These results were obtained regardless of whether mental ill health was operationalized as low subjective well-being or a high symptom level of anxiety/depression. Conclusions: These fi ndings support the notion that mental ill health among immigrants is a multi-faceted phenomenon that needs to be tackled within a wide range of sectors — e.g. the healthcare system, the social service sector and, of course, the political arena.
Class Politics, American-Style

Jacob S. Hacker and Paul Pierson's Winner-Take-All Politics: How Washington Made the Rich Richer—And Turned Its Back on the Middle Class is both a work of political science and a contribution to broad public discussion of distributive politics. Its topic could not be more relevant to a US polity wracked by bitter partisan disagreements about taxes, social spending, financial regulation, social insecurity, and inequality. The political power of “the rich” is a theme of widespread public attention. The headline on the cover of the January–February 2011 issue of The American Interest—“Inequality and Democracy: Are Plutocrats Drowning Our Republic? ”—is indicative. Francis Fukuyama's lead essay, entitled “Left Out,” clarifies that by “plutocracy,” the journal means “not just rule by the rich, but rule by and for the rich. We mean, in other words, a state of affairs in which the rich influence government in such a way as to protect and expand their own wealth and influence, often at the expense of others. ” Fukuyama makes clear that he believes that this state of affairs obtains in the United States today. Readers of Perspectives on Politics will know that the topic has garnered increasing attention from political scientists in general and in our journal in particular. In March 2009, we featured a symposium on Larry Bartels's Unequal Democracy: The Political Economy of the New Gilded Age. And in December 2009, our lead article, by Jeffrey A. Winters and Benjamin I. Page, starkly posed the question “Oligarchy in the United States? ” and answered it with an equally stark “yes. ” Winner-Take-All Politics thus engages a broader scholarly discussion within US political science, at the same time that it both draws upon and echoes many “classic themes” of US political science from the work of Charles Beard and E. E. Schattschneider to Ted Lowi and Charles Lindblom. In this symposium, we have brought together a group of important scholars and commentators who offer a range of perspectives on the book and on the broader themes it engages. While most of our discussants are specialists on “American politics,” we have also sought out scholars beyond this subfield. Our charge to the discussants is to evaluate the book's central claims and evidence, with a focus on three related questions: 1) How compelling is its analysis of the “how” and “why” of recent US public policy and its “turn” in favor of “the rich” and against “the middle class”? 2) How compelling is its critique of the subfield of “American politics” for its focus on the voter–politician linkage and on “politics as spectacle” at the expense of an analysis of “politics as organized combat”? 3) And do you agree with its argument that recent changes in US politics necessitate a different, more comparative, and more political economy–centered approach to the study of US politics? —Jeffrey C. Isaac, Editor