The Effect of Smartphone Separation and Dependence on Selective Attention

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3 Introduction--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4 Method--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 Results--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19 Discussion----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26 Conclusion---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34 References---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36 Appendices--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------40 THE EFFECT OF SMARTPHONE SEPARATION AND DEPENDENCE ON SELECTIVE ATTENTION 3 Abstract The current study investigated the effect of smartphone dependence and subsequent smartphone separation on selective attention. Performance on selective attention tasks was operationalized as response time and accuracy on two versions of the stroop response inhibition task. Smartphone dependency was operationalized as a score which exceeds the cutoff on the Smartphone Addiction Scale Revised edition ( SAS-R). To create smartphone separation students were asked to place their smartphone in a provided basket during the experiment. It was hypothesised that students who are deemed smartphone dependent and then separated from their smartphones would perform worse across all blocks of the stroop task compared to those who do meet the cutoff score for smartphone dependency. Across standard stroop trials in block 1 and block 2 a congruency effect was found such that reaction time was significantly slower for incongruent word/color pairs then congruent word color pairs. However no effect of smartphone dependency was found across all blocks such that smartphone dependent individuals did not perform significantly worse compared to non dependent individuals.The current study investigated the effect of smartphone dependence and subsequent smartphone separation on selective attention. Performance on selective attention tasks was operationalized as response time and accuracy on two versions of the stroop response inhibition task. Smartphone dependency was operationalized as a score which exceeds the cutoff on the Smartphone Addiction Scale Revised edition ( SAS-R). To create smartphone separation students were asked to place their smartphone in a provided basket during the experiment. It was hypothesised that students who are deemed smartphone dependent and then separated from their smartphones would perform worse across all blocks of the stroop task compared to those who do meet the cutoff score for smartphone dependency. Across standard stroop trials in block 1 and block 2 a congruency effect was found such that reaction time was significantly slower for incongruent word/color pairs then congruent word color pairs. However no effect of smartphone dependency was found across all blocks such that smartphone dependent individuals did not perform significantly worse compared to non dependent individuals. THE EFFECT OF SMARTPHONE SEPARATION AND DEPENDENCE ON SELECTIVE ATTENTION 4 Introduction In the recent decade the emergence of smartphones and electronic devices has allowed for rapid and immediate relay of information from person to person. Smartphones and mobile devices occupy a significant role in the majority of people's lives. Over 86% of adults ages 20-24 report owning a smartphone whereas 91% of adults aged 18-19 report owning one (Pearson, 2015). With access to information and social media content, smartphones provide immediate and long term access to the digital world. However, with the average consumer spending considerable hours per day on social media, the question emerges (as) to the degree that constant smartphone usage, media consumption, and electronic device usage negatively impact attention. Current research suggests that habitual and instantaneous access to the digital world through mobile devices likely impacts attention, focus, and cognition in negative ways. Technology Use in the Context of Addiction An addiction is defined as a psychological or physiological need for a habit forming substance or object. Upon separation from that habit forming substance, the dependent individual often feels cravings, anxiety, and depending on the substance, physiological withdrawal symptoms. In accordance with the DSM V ( diagnostic and statistical manual for mental disorders) addictive disorders fall into two broad categories: substance related addictive disorders and non substance related disorders, which include gambling disorders, and internet gaming disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Internet gaming disorder is defined as repeated playing of video games which can negatively impact one's emotional well being, ability to maintain relationships, career, and education. Research suggests that excessive video game use can have negative consequences on psychological and social well being. A 2018 study investigating disordered THE EFFECT OF SMARTPHONE SEPARATION AND DEPENDENCE ON SELECTIVE ATTENTION 5 video game use in adolescents found that students ( ages 12-15) with gaming disorder, showed significantly worse academic performance along with lowered perceived social competence and life satisfaction (Eijnden, Koning, Doornwaard, Gurp & Bogt, 2018). Some research is also present on the relationship between internet gaming disorder and selective attention. In 2017, Kuss, Pontes, & Griffiths (2017) conducted a systematic literature review examining neurobiological correlates in internet gaming disorder. Analyzing the results from 27 studies, utilizing FMRI, EEG and other brain imaging techniques, it was found that compared to controls, gaming addicts showed worse performance on tasks of working memory, response inhibition, and emotional regulation, suggesting that internet gaming disorder negatively impacts both well being and cognitive functions (Kuss et al., 2017). Regarding smartphone dependency, given then smartphone use involves constant interaction with mobile devices it might be logical to assume that smartphone dependency might have similar negative consequences on attention. Effects of Mobile Device Use on Attention and Cognition Attention can be defined as a cognitive and behavioral process involving selectively concentrating on a stimulus. Attention can then be divided into two key areas: focused attention and divided attention. Focused attention can be defined as the capacity to attend diligently to a singular source of information while ignoring other incoming stimuli, whereas divided attention refers to the capacity to attend to multiple stimuli simultaneously (​Wen, Yamashita, & Asama 2016). There have been a number of studies illustrating the negative effects of electronic device usage and media consumption on cognitive performance particularly in individuals who use several media mediums at once. These individuals are known as multitaskers. Baumgartner, Weeda & Huizinga (2014) found that media multitaskers reported issues with executive THE EFFECT OF SMARTPHONE SEPARATION AND DEPENDENCE ON SELECTIVE ATTENTION 6 functions, and Ralph, Thomson, Seli, Carriere, & Smilek (2013) found that frequent media multitaskers reported increased levels of attentional issues. Further, Ophir, Nass & Wagner (2009) found that frequent media multitaskers perform worse in tasks that require task switching. Since task switching refers to the ability to consciously shift between one task to another, Ophir et al. (2009) posited that lowered performance on task switching was due to an inability for multitaskers to filter out and inhibit incoming stimuli suggesting that media multitasking may negatively impact executive functioning ability. There are a variety of ways in which attention can be diverted or lost. Mechanisms by which attention is diverted are conventionally known as distractors. Typically distractors come in two forms: endogeneous distractors, where one's own thoughts and drives alert attention and exogenous distractors where an external environmental cue alters attention (Wilmer, Sherman & Chein 2017). In terms of distractors, as it relates to smartphone usage, an alert appearing on one’s phone is an example of exogenous distractor, where the notification prompts the individual to check their phone (thereby) creating an interruption in attention. The relevance of exogenous distractors as it relates to smartphone usage is present in the current literature. Stothart, Mitchum, & Yehnert. (2015) found that simply hearing the sound of a smartphone notification significantly affected performance on a selective attention based task in an order of magnitude similar to that of active phone usage. In terms of endogenous distractors, individuals who are prompted by one's own internal thoughts and understanding can come from looking at them in relation to immediate gratification. In other words, when looking at one’s smartphone one might feel compelled to check social media, texts or messaging services as a means to seek immediate gratification. Logically then, delays in gratification may lead to further distraction since the THE EFFECT OF SMARTPHONE SEPARATION AND DEPENDENCE ON SELECTIVE ATTENTION 7 individual's compulsion to check the phone further commands and occupies their attention. Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch (1973) proposed a theory on emotional gratification suggesting that compulsions for technology use could be defined as a product of psychological factors that motivate media consumption and gratification as a perceived fulfillment of those compulsions. Several studies have attempted to investigate the impact of media consumption and technology use on