Elementary education in two Indian states: comparative analysis of literacy in rural districts of Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh

The thesis is about elementary education in rural districts of the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan. The main questions addressed are: · How successful are the state education systems in rural areas of Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan in providing universal elementary education that achieves at least basic levels of literacy? · Have the state education systems in rural areas of the two states moved beyond attainment of basic literacy to aspire to a broader, quality, education? · What are the factors that account for the different levels of outcomes of the elementary state education systems in these two states? · What do girls themselves in the study regions report about factors that affect their education? In setting the context for examining these questions, the thesis provides a short historical survey of Indian education and a detailed, but concise, summary of contemporary elementary education in India. As literacy is often seen as the prime purpose of elementary education, a chapter is devoted to examining contrasting view of ‘literacy’, as well as factors to do with its benefits and measurement. Conceptual models are outlined, contrasting simplistic notions of the ways schools are perceived to operate with more complex ones better representing factors that affect students education. Emphasis is placed on the distinction between the provision of education (via access to schools staffed by teachers) and educational outcomes as assessed by the capabilities of students emerging from schools. Extensive summaries of the fieldwork in each state are reported and discussed. The fieldwork summaries are based on observations in 40 schools and interviews with teachers, students and parents about 120 in total. Data about education provision and student achievement in the study districts obtained from government and NGO sources is compared with that obtained from fieldwork. The differences between Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh reported in government and NGO sources were confirmed by fieldwork observations, which in fact found the extent of the differences even greater. Observations in operating classrooms showed a stark contrast between the states with negligible attempt at teaching in Rajasthan schools. Interviews with teachers revealed very different attitudes from Rajasthan and Himachal teachers towards the education of children in their classes. Interviews with parents and students confirmed the very different experiences of schooling of students in the two states. The different elementary education outcomes in Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan are not the result of factors that obtain maximum government attention: infrastructure, facilities and incentives (concrete buildings, drinking water, uniforms, mid-day meal etc). The assumption that that student enrolment and attendance automatically lead to education is incorrect. The most important factor in improving education is the role of teachers, in respect of which, apart from teacher presence in schools, pedagogical knowledge, ability to engage and willingness to teach is required.