Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
The process theory of causality: an overview

This article offers an informal overview of the category-theoretical approach to causal modeling introduced by Jacobs et al. (2019) and explores some of its conceptual as well as methodological implications. The categorical formalism emphasizes the aspect of causality as a process, and represents a causal system as a network of connected mechanisms. We show that this alternative perspective sheds new light on the long-standing issue regarding the validity of the Markov condition, and also provides a formal mapping between micro-level causal models and abstracted macro models.
Toward Understanding Why Adam Converges Faster Than SGD for Transformers

While stochastic gradient descent (SGD) is still the most popular optimization algorithm in deep learning, adaptive algorithms such as Adam have established empirical advantages over SGD in some deep learning applications such as training transformers. However, it remains a question that why Adam converges significantly faster than SGD in these scenarios. In this paper, we propose one explanation of why Adam converges faster than SGD using a new concept directional sharpness. We argue that the performance of optimization algorithms is closely related to the directional sharpness of the update steps, and show SGD has much worse directional sharpness compared to adaptive algorithms. We further observe that only a small fraction of the coordinates causes the bad sharpness and slow convergence of SGD, and propose to use coordinate-wise clipping as a solution to SGD and other optimization algorithms. We demonstrate the effect of coordinate-wise clipping on sharpness reduction and speeding up the convergence of optimization algorithms under various settings. We show that coordinate-wise clipping improves the local loss reduction when only a small fraction of the coordinates has bad sharpness. We conclude that the sharpness reduction effect of adaptive coordinate-wise scaling is the reason for Adam's success in practice and suggest the use of coordinate-wise clipping as a universal technique to speed up deep learning optimization.
PurN Is Involved in Antibiotic Tolerance and Virulence in Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus can cause chronic infections which are closely related to persister formation. Purine metabolism is involved in S. aureus persister formation, and purN, encoding phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase, is an important gene in the purine metabolism process. In this study, we generated a ΔpurN mutant of the S. aureus Newman strain and assessed its roles in antibiotic tolerance and virulence. The ΔpurN in the late exponential phase had a significant defect in persistence to antibiotics. Complementation of the ΔpurN restored its tolerance to different antibiotics. PurN significantly affected virulence gene expression, hemolytic ability, and biofilm formation in S. aureus. Moreover, the LD50 (3.28 × 1010 CFU/mL) of the ΔpurN for BALB/c mice was significantly higher than that of the parental strain (2.81 × 109 CFU/mL). Transcriptome analysis revealed that 58 genes that were involved in purine metabolism, alanine, aspartate, glutamate metabolism, and 2-oxocarboxylic acid metabolism, etc., were downregulated, while 24 genes involved in ABC transporter and transferase activity were upregulated in ΔpurN vs. parental strain. Protein-protein interaction network showed that there was a close relationship between PurN and GltB, and SaeRS. The study demonstrated that PurN participates in the formation of the late exponential phase S. aureus persisters via GltB and regulates its virulence by activating the SaeRS two-component system.
248 nm induced vacuum UV spectral changes in optical fibre preform cores: support for a colour centre model of photosensitivity

UV (248 nm) induced changes in the UV spectrum (165–300 nm) of optical fibre preform cores have been measured which can account for refractive index changes observed on writing Bragg gratings in optical fibres. The changes are thermally reversed at 900°C. A fibre grating has been thermally erased and rewritten with no significant change in fibre photosensitivity.
Reconstruction of shape from shading in color images

We propose a method for shape reconstruction from color shades produced by multiple chromatic light sources. The linear relation between surface-normal vectors and three-dimensional response vectors for a uniformly colored and illuminated region of a surface can be reconstructed in two steps. In the first step a quadratic form of metric in response space induced from a natural metric in normal space is reconstructed. At this stage proper image segmentation can be obtained. In the second step an exact mapping from response space into the space of surface normals is reconstructed. The matrix for this mapping is one of the square roots of the quadratic-form matrix that satisfies the integrability constraint. The method is in all respects much simpler than existing methods for solving the depth-from-shading task for monochromatic images.
A generalized circle criterion and its fields of application

The feedback interconnection of passive systems always leads to a stable control loop. This theorem can be taken as basis for the proof of the circle criterion which allows a stability analysis of closed-loop structures with sector nonlinearities. The circle criterion in its traditional form features an easy graphical evaluation but this advantage must be paid for by conservatism: not all nonlinearities fit sector conditions, and for nonlinearities with more than two inputs a sector evaluation becomes almost unfeasible. With respect to these disadvantages the present paper introduces a less conservative generalized circle criterion and points out its fields of application.
Development and utilization of ``Plate Changer'' system for neutrino interaction locations in OPERA emulsion target

In the OPERA experiment, so-called Scan Back method is used to locate neutrino interaction vertices in the emulsion target named ECC (Emulsion Cloud Chamber). In Scan Back method, tracks detected in the most downstream emulsion plate in ECCs are followed to upstream plate by plate until it reaches to the interaction points. In order to treat a number of neutrino interactions recorded in OPERA, dedicated systems called Plate Changer has been developed and utilized to neutrino event location in Japan. The details of the system have been described in this report. Until the end of November 2012, 6223 Scan Back trials have been performed using this system, and strongly contributed to the detection of tau neutrino appearance.
A Brownian‐Motion Model for the Eigenvalues of a Random Matrix

A new type of Coulomb gas is defined, consisting of n point charges executing Brownian motions under the influence of their mutual electrostatic repulsions. It is proved that this gas gives an exact mathematical description of the behavior of the eigenvalues of an (n × n) Hermitian matrix, when the elements of the matrix execute independent Brownian motions without mutual interaction. By a suitable choice of initial conditions, the Brownian motion leads to an ensemble of random matrices which is a good statistical model for the Hamiltonian of a complex system possessing approximate conservation laws. The development with time of the Coulomb gas represents the statistical behavior of the eigenvalues of a complex system as the strength of conservation‐destroying interactions is gradually increased. A ``virial theorem'' is proved for the Brownian‐motion gas, and various properties of the stationary Coulomb gas are deduced as corollaries.
KLASIFIKASI WILAYAH DESA-PERDESAAN DAN DESA-PERKOTAAN WILAYAH KABUPATEN SEMARANG DENGAN SUPPORT VECTOR MACHINE (SVM)

This research will be carry out classification based on the status of the rural and urban regions that reflect the differences in characteristics/ conditions between regions in Indonesia with Support Vector Machine (SVM) method. Classification on this issue is working by build separation functions involving the kernel function to map the input data into a higher dimensional space. Sequential Minimal Optimization (SMO) algorithms is used in the training process of data classification of rural and urban regions to get the optimal separation function (hyperplane). To determine the kernel function and parameters according to the data, grid search method combined with the leave-one-out cross-validation method is used. In the classification using SVM, accuracy is obtained, which the best value is 90% using Radial Basis Function (RBF) kernel functions with parameters C=100 dan γ=2 -5 . Keywords : classification, support vector machine, sequential minimal optimization, grid search, leave-one-out, cross validation, rural, urban
Neural Cellular Automata on a Focal Plane

The cellular automata is a discrete mathematical model of computation that consists of a regular grid of cells, each being in one of the finite number of states, with its next iteration determined by a set of rules applied locally at each cell. Traditionally those rules are predefined and crafted for a specific, desired operation, though recently it has been shown that they can also be learned with convolutional neural networks and applied to perform image classification or segmentation. The locality of the computation and presence of independent and organised agents resembles the architecture of the Focal Plane Sensor Processors (FPSP), a family of vision chips where every pixel/photo-diode in the array is equipped with a processing unit allowing for computations directly on a focal plane. In this thesis, we investigate the suitability of FPSP architectures for hosting the neural cellular automata (NCA) by implementing an example automaton for the self-classification of MNIST digits. In the process, we present a comprehensive analysis of the computational and memory requirements of the NCA and relates them to the capabilities of existing FPSP devices, providing guidelines for the development of automata that is less resource consuming. We develop a step-by-step quantisation procedure customised for the application of neural cellular automata on FPSP, which reduces the 32-bit floating-point model into the integer representation with 5-bit weights, 10-bit input and 9-bit activations while entirely maintaining its performance and precision. Our implementation of this quantised NCA achieves an operation at 74 FPS with using 77.68 mJ energy per frame on the simulated FPSP device. This work could also be treated as an exploration of neural cellular automata as a potential general computation algorithm for the FPSP family architectures and also as an exploration for the possible development directions of the next generation of FPSPs. Hence, we conclude this thesis with a discussion on the discovered bottlenecks and limitations and describing the ideas on possible solutions, such as more sophisticated patch multiplexing/superpixels.
Microfluidic analog of the four-roll mill

We describe a microfluidic trap, for analysis of fluids and suspensions, that simulates the function of a four-roll mill, a rheological tool with adjustable flow type and rate. These flow characteristics were designed with the assistance of flow simulations and are measured here by micro-particle-image-velocimetry. This miniature device permits microscopic manipulations and measurements (e.g., of cells, particles, and drops) and it is capable of a range of flow types, including simple shear.
Pressure dependence of SiO2 growth kinetics and electrical properties on SiC

Dry oxidations between 0.25 and 4 atm at 1150 °C are used to characterize the pressure dependence of the growth kinetics of SiO2 along three orientations of the 4H-SiC polytype. The growth curves are studied using the Deal-Grove model. The extracted linear and parabolic constants are found to scale linearly with the pressure up to 2 atm. However, the data indicate that the (0001) Si-face exhibits a retarded growth rate above 2 atm. It is also found that, like Si, there is a critical oxide thickness below which the linear-parabolic model cannot be applied. This value is found to be between 36 and 40 nm for SiO2 on 4H-SiC, and is apparently independent of the crystal orientation and oxidation pressure. The extracted critical thickness and its properties are similar to what is observed on Si, suggesting that the fast growth regime is dictated by the nature of the oxide. Finally, it is shown that the density of interface states (Dit) on the (0001) Si-face is not reduced by faster oxide growth rates within the.
Ionic thermal effects on ion-acoustic waves in plasmas with negative ions

Ion-acoustic waves in warm-ion plasma which includes some negative ions are studied using the properties of a modified Korteweg-de Vries equation. The equation, which describes the amplitude, width and velocity variation of the solitons is studied, taking into account the ion thermal effects. As in the case of a cold plasma, the warm negative ions also introduce a critical concentration at which the wave breaks up, which could play an important role in exploiting the ion-heating mechanism. The results obtained are compared with those for plasmas with cold ions.
Parametric decay of ''kinetic Alfven wave'' and its application to plasma heating

Because of its electrostatic properties, the rate of the parametric growth of the kinetic Alfven wave (Alfven wave with lambdaequivalentk/sub perpendicular//sup 2/c/subs//sup 2//.omega./subc//subi//sup 2/approx.0(1)) is shown to be larger than that of the classic result by a factor of lambda.omega. /subc//subi//. omega. /subA/, where . omega. /subc//subi/ and . omega. /subA/ are the ion-cyclotron and the Alfven frequencies, k/sub perpendicular/ is the perpendicular wave number, and c/subs/ is the ion sound speed. This fact can be utilized to heat a plasma with typical tokamak parameters. (AIP)
Strain distributions in quantum dots of arbitrary shape

A method based on the Green’s function technique for calculating strain in quantum dot (QD) structures has been developed. An analytical formula in the form of a Fourier series has been obtained for the strain tensor for arrays of QDs of arbitrary shape taking into account the anisotropy of elastic properties. Strain distributions using the anisotropic model for semiconductor QDs are compared to results of a simplified model in which the elastic properties are assumed to be isotropic. It is demonstrated that, in contrast to quantum wells, both anisotropic and isotropic models give similar results if the symmetry of the QD shape is less than or equal to the cubic symmetry of the crystal. The strain distribution for QDs in the shape of a sphere, cube, pyramid, hemisphere, truncated pyramid, and flat cylinder are calculated and analyzed. It is shown that the strain distributions in the major part of the QD structure are very similar for different shapes and that the characteristic value of the hydrostatic st.
Adaptive tracking control for a class of wheeled mobile robots with unknown skidding and slipping

This study presents an adaptive tracking control approach for trajectory tracking of wheeled mobile robots with torque saturation in the presence of unknown skidding and slipping. The robot kinematics and dynamics are induced from the perturbed non-holonomic constraints. The adaptive control system using the kinematics transformed in polar coordinates is developed to compensate unknown skidding and slipping at the dynamic level of mobile robots with the input saturation. All signals of the controlled closed-loop system are uniformly bounded and the point tracking errors converge to an adjustable neighbourhood of the origin regardless of large initial tracking errors, input saturation and unknown skidding and slipping. Simulation results are provided to demonstrate the performance and stability of the proposed control scheme.
Radiometric calibration for MWIR cameras

Korean Multi-purpose Satellite-3A (KOMPSAT-3A), which weighing about 1,000 kg is scheduled to be launched in 2013 and will be located at a sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) of 530 km in altitude. This is Korea's rst satellite to orbit with a mid-wave infrared (MWIR) image sensor, which is currently being developed at Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI). The missions envisioned include forest re surveillance, measurement of the ocean surface temperature, national defense and crop harvest estimate. In this paper, we shall explain the MWIR scene generation software and atmospheric compensation techniques for the infrared (IR) camera that we are currently developing. The MWIR scene generation software we have developed taking into account sky thermal emission, path emission, target emission, sky solar scattering and ground re ection based on MODTRAN data. Here, this software will be used for generating the radiation image in the satellite camera which requires an atmospheric compensation algorithm and the validation of the accuracy of the temperature which is obtained in our result. Image visibility restoration algorithm is a method for removing the eect of atmosphere between the camera and an object. This algorithm works between the satellite and the Earth, to predict object temperature noised with the Earth's atmosphere and solar radiation. Commonly, to compensate for the atmospheric eect, some softwares like MODTRAN is used for modeling the atmosphere. Our algorithm doesn't require an additional software to obtain the surface temperature. However, it needs to adjust visibility restoration parameters and the precision of the result still should be studied.
RADIATIVE HEATING OF THE SOLAR CORONA

We investigate the effect of solar visible and infrared radiation on electrons in the Sun's atmosphere using a Monte Carlo simulation of the wave–particle interaction and conclude that sunlight provides at least 40% and possibly all of the power required to heat the corona, with the exception of dense magnetic flux loops. The simulation uses a radiation waveform comprising 100 frequency components spanning the solar blackbody spectrum. Coronal electrons are heated in a stochastic manner by low coherence solar electromagnetic radiation. The wave “coherence time” and “coherence volume” for each component is determined from optical theory. The low coherence of solar radiation allows moving electrons to gain energy from the chaotic wave field which imparts multiple random velocity “kicks” to these particles causing their velocity distribution to broaden or heat. Monte Carlo simulations of broadband solar radiative heating on ensembles of 1000 electrons show heating at per particle levels of 4.0 × 10−21 to 4.0 × 10−20 W, as compared with non-loop radiative loss rates of ≈1 × 10−20 W per electron. Since radiative losses comprise nearly all of the power losses in the corona, sunlight alone can explain the elevated temperatures in this region. The volume electron heating rate is proportional to density, and protons are assumed to be heated either by plasma waves or through collisions with electrons.
A concept of reliability evaluation for reuse and remanufacturing

As reliability is critical to ensure market acceptance and economic feasibility of reused products, this paper proposes a methodology to determine a threshold value of reliability for reuse evaluation. The methodology is novel and can be integrated in some current models for assessing the technical reusability potential. Three different scenarios are outlined representing items that are suitable for reuse, remanufacturing, or recycling. Some trade-offs between warranty cost and remanufacturing cost are also discussed as the implications of threshold selection. The critical part in this methodology is the selection of the reliability level by manufacturers.
Global study of the simple pendulum by the homotopy analysis method

Techniques are developed to find all periodic solutions in the simple pendulum by means of the homotopy analysis method (HAM). This involves the solution of the equations of motion in two different coordinate representations. Expressions are obtained for the cycles and periods of oscillations with a high degree of accuracy in the whole range of amplitudes. Moreover, the convergence of the method is easily checked. The aim of this work is to show how the dynamics of a simple example of oscillatory systems may be studied globally with the HAM and to incentivize the interest of advanced undergraduate students in this type of techniques.
Review of the Foundational Knowledge Required for Assessing Horse Welfare

Simple Summary The key starting points for assessing horse welfare are a detailed understanding of what is usual for horses under optimal conditions, and knowledge about conditions that may impact welfare. This review presents the foundational knowledge required for undertaking comprehensive assessments of horse welfare organised according to a novel holistic framework, i.e., the Five Domains Model. It is a resource specifically tailored to assist those wishing to assess the welfare of horses in free-roaming or domestic situations. Abstract A detailed understanding of what is usual for a species under optimal conditions is critical for identifying and interpreting different features of body function that have known impacts on animal welfare and its assessment. When applying the Five Domains Model to assess animal welfare, the key starting point is therefore to acquire extensive species-specific knowledge relevant to each of the four physical/functional Domains of the Model. These Domains, 1 to 4, address areas where objective information is evaluated and collated. They are: (1) Nutrition; (2) Physical environment; (3) Health; and (4) Behavioural interactions. It is on the basis of this detailed knowledge that cautious inferences can then be made about welfare-relevant mental experiences animals may have, aligned with Domain 5, Mental State. However, this review is focused entirely on the first four Domains in order to provide a novel holistic framework to collate the multidisciplinary knowledge of horses required for undertaking comprehensive welfare assessments. Thus, inferring the potential mental experiences aligned with Domain 5, the final step in model-based welfare assessments, is not considered here. Finally, providing extensive information on free-roaming horses enables a better understanding of the impacts of human interventions on the welfare of horses in both free-roaming and domestic situations.
H I Observations of Barred Magellanic Spirals. II. The Frequency and Impact of Companions

The results of an H I 21 cm line survey of a sample of Magellanic spiral galaxies with apparent optical companions reveal that only four of 13 systems have confirmed H I–detected neighbors. The current interactions are affecting the morphology of the main galaxy in only two cases, NGC 3664 and NGC 3995. The presence of companions near NGC 2537 and UGC 5391 appears to have no effect on the morphology of those galaxies. Overall, there is little difference between the asymmetry of the H I profiles of those galaxies with and without companions, and on average, these Magellanic spirals have H I profiles that are no more asymmetric than a random sample of spirals in the field. We conclude that current interactions cannot be responsible for the lopsided morphology of most of the galaxies in this sample and that, whatever its original cause, lopsidedness must be a long-lived characteristic of these galaxies.