Attention and Self-Regulation: A Control-Theory Approach to Human Behavior

I. Background. - 1. Introduction. - A Statement of Intentions. - Organizational Plan. - 2. Cybernetics, Information, and Control. - Information. - Levels of Information. - Classification of Input. - Control. - Negative Feedback Loop and TOTE Unit. - Organizations Among Feedback Loops. - Positive Feedback Loops. - Hierarchical Organization and Time Scales. - Section Summary. - Applications to Living Systems. - Homeostasis. - Adaptation-Level Theory. - Behavior Regulation. - Information, Control, and Personality-Social Psychology. - 3. Focus of Attention, Inside and Outside the Laboratory. - Defining Terms. - Attention. - Self-Focus and Environment Focus. - Maintaining the Distinction. - Varying Attention in Research. - General Issues in Research Strategy. - Experimental Manipulations and Individual Differences. - Experimental Manipulations: Their Nature and Timing. - Manipulations of Self-Attention. - Validation. - Individual Differences in Self-Focus. - Validation. - Convergence of Manipulation and Disposition. - Validity. - Private and Public Self-Awareness. - Beyond the Laboratory. - Naturalistic Variations in Attentional Focus. - Attention to the Environment. - Attention to the Self. - Conclusion. - II. Information and the Use of Recognitory Schemas. - 4. Cognitive Theory: Schemas, Attributes, and Decision Biases. - Models of Abstraction. - Instance Theories. - Prototype Theories. - Frequency-Distribution Theories. - Section Summary. - Schemas and Prototypes. - Abstraction: Some Additional Issues. - A Hierarchy of Attribute Qualities. - Frames and Scripts. - Decision Making. - Biases in Decision Making. - Section Summary. - 5. Focus on the Environment: Perception of Places and Persons. - Behavioral Settings and Environmental Taxonomies. - Person Perception. - Traits as Recognitory Schemas. - Determinants of Initial Category Placement. - Consequences of Initial Category Placement. - Organization of Perception of Sequences. - Segmenting of Behavior Units. - Focus of Attention and Perception of the Environment. - 6. Focus on the Self: Perception of Self-Aspects. - Trait Schemas and the Self. - Self Schemas and Encoding. - Component Schemas and Degrees of Schematicity. - Conclusion. - Access to Self Schemas. - Self-Focus and Encoding by Self-Reference. - Self-Focus and Activation of the Self Schema. - Access and Attribution. - Internal States: Emotions and Symptoms. - Three Sources of Influence on Perceived Internal States. - Impact of Each Element on Subjective Experience. - Schemas and Symptom Distress. - Evoked Schemas and the By-Passing of Awareness. - Summary. - III. Attention and Motivation. - 7. Standards of Behavior. - Standards. - What is a Behavioral Standard? - Categorization and the Specification of Behavior. - Section Summary. - A Hierarchy of Standards. - Levels of Behavioral Standards. - Conceptual Levels and the Physical. - Execution of Behavior. - Distinctions Within Levels. - Summary. - Programs, Principles, and Consciousness. - Effects of Attending to Well-Learned Behavior. - Closing Comment. - 8. Self-Focus and Feedback Loops. - Discrepancy Reduction. - Theory. - Duval and Wicklund's Theory. - The Comparison of Present State Versus Standard. - Self-Awareness and Information Seeking. - Self-Consciousness and Information Seeking. - Self-Consciousness and the Seeking of Diagnostic Information. - Self-Awareness and the Seeking of Diagnostic Information. - Conclusions and Boundary Condition. - Behavioral Matching to Standard. - Nonprovoked Aggression. - Responses to Erotica. - Children's Use of Standards. - Section Summary. - Discrepancy Enlargement. - Reactance. - Self-Awareness and Reactance. - Self-Consciousness and Reactance. - Self-Attention, Reactance, and Feedback Loops. - Negative Reference Groups. - Self-Consciousness and Use of Negative Reference Groups. - Positive Feedback Loop. - Social Comparison: A Theoretical Integration. - 9. Absence of Regulation, and Misregulation. - A Conceptual Distinction. - The Absence of Regulation. - Causes. - Deindividuation and the Absence of Regulation. - Remaining Issues Regarding Deindividuation Related Issues. - Misregulation. - Ilustrations from Behavioral Medicine. - Illustrations from. - Social Behavior. - Summary. - IV. Interruption, Expectancy and the Reassertion-Withdrawal Decision. - 10. Theory: Interrupting the Feedback Loop, and the Role of Expectancy. - Interruption of the System: An Example. - Response to Interruption: Assessment of Outcome Expectancy. - Bases of Expectancies. - Prior Success and Failure. - Other Bases for Expectancies. - Consequences of Expectancy Judgments. - Behavioral Consequences. - Relationship to Other Theories. - Affective Consequences of Expectancy Judgments. - Summary. - 11. Research: Persistence and Task Performance. - Early Research. - Discrepancy and the Avoidance of Self-Focusing Stimul. - Discrepancy and Selective Exposure to Self. - Subsequent Research Concerning Outcome Expectancy. - Avoidance and the Flexibility of the Discrepancy. - Self-Focus and Expectancies: Persistence and Withdrawal. - Self-Consciousness, Prior Outcomes, and Persistence. - Self-Esteem, Self-Attention, and Task Performance. - Self-Awareness, Relevance, and Persistence. - Outcome Expectancy and Efficacy Expectancy. - Links Between Cognition and Emotion in Achievement. - Attributions, Expectancy, and Achievement Behavior. - Prior Outcomes, Attribution, and Maze Performance. - Summary. - 12. Research: Anxiety-Related Behavior. - Self-Attention and Fear. - Self-Awareness and Phobic Behavior. - Self-Consciousness, Standards, and Fear. - Expectancies, Fear, and the Approach-Withdrawal Decision. - Self-Attention and Test Anxiety. - Test Anxiety, Self-Focus, and Facilitation of Performance. - Theoretical Comparisons. - Theories of Test Anxiety. - Self-Efficacy. - Summary. - 13. Additional Conceptual Issues: Achievement Motivation, Helplessness, and Egotism. - Achievement Motivation. - Atkinson's Formulation. - Relationship to Present Model. - The Role of Causal Attributions. - Section Summary. - Helplessness. - Reassertion and Giving Up. - Attributions, Behavior, and Affect. - Section Summary. - Egotism and Self-Esteem Maintenance. - Control Theory and Self-Esteem Maintenance. - Egotism and Attribution. - Egotism and Helplessness. - Expectancies, Outcomes, and the Effect of Perceived Difficulty. - Conceptual Similarities Self-Esteem Protection: Public or Private? - Section Summary. - Summary. - V. Implications for Specific Problems in Social and Personality Psychology. - 14. Relationship Between Self-Report and Behavior. - Problems of Measurement. - Levels of Specificity of Self-Report and Behavior. - Insufficient Sampling of Behavior. - Assessment of Behavioral Inconsistency. - Conceptual Problems. - Veridicality of Self-Reports. - The Role of Direct Experience in Attitude Formation. - Relevance of Attitudes as Behavioral Standards. - Self-Awareness and the Use of Evoked Attitudes. - Types of Self-Report. - 15. Social Facilitation. - Drive Theory and Social Facilitation. - Alternative Drive Theories. - Control Theory and Social Facilitation. - Comparisons Among Theories. - Evidence Regarding Mediating States. - Self-Focus and Comparison with Standards. - Drive. - Palmar Sweat and Social Facilitation. - Results and Discussion. - Additional Questions. - Social Interference. - Comparisons Among Manipulations. - Physiological Response Patterning. - 16. Private and Public Selves. - Self-Completion, or Self-Presentation? - Impact on Research Areas. - Self, or Selves? - Aspects of Self. - Implications. - The Consciousness of Public Versus Private Self-Aspects. - Public and Private Selves in a Compliance Setting. - Public and Private Selves and Reactions to Coercion. - The Public Expression of Privately Held Opinions. - Private and Public Self-Awareness Reinterpreting Other Research. - Section Summary. - Self-Monitoring. - Summary, Critique, and Integration. - 17. Cognitive Dissonance. - Self-Attention and Dissonance. - Public and Private Self-Aspects Tests of the Public-Private Analysis. - Self-Focus Manipulations and Dissonance Reduction. - Self-Consciousness and Dissonance Reduction. - Relationship to Other Dissonance Research. - Dissonance, or Impression Management? - VI. Conclusion. - 18. Afterword: Theory and Meta-Theory. - Changes in the Learning Paradigm. - Meta-Theoretical Issues. - Reinforcement. - Control Theory. - Conclusion. - References. - Author Index.