Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
Reinforcement Learning: A review

: Reinforcement learning is considered a sort of machine learning that acquires knowledge of solving problems using the trial-and-error technique. The process starts with the main actor that is the agent interacting with a given environment and attempting to achieve a multi-step goal within this environment. The environment is characterized by a state that the agent detects and examines. On the other hand, due to the agent’s several actions, the environment’s state changes according to these modifications. Eventually, and at this stage, the agent gets reward signals as it proceeds nearer to its goal. The agent uses these rewards signals to determine which actions were successful and which actions were not. The state action is then repeated and the reward is looped until the agent learns how to operate e ff ectively within the environment using the trial-and-error concept. The agent’s main objective is to learn how to always choose the right action given any state of the environment that leads it closer to its goal. In this paper, we gathered all the methods used in the literature. Multi-armed bandits, the Markov decision process, Monte Carlo methods, dynamic programming as well as temporal-di ff erence learning are some of the corresponding methods used to solve reinforcement learning issues. The current paper is organized and structured as follows: we’ll start with an introduction followed by a reinforcement learning section where we discussed all the methods and techniques used in the literature. Furthermore, the third section will be about deep reinforcement learning, here we gathered deep reinforcement learning techniques. In the fourth section, we will summarize the reinforcement and deep reinforcement learning algorithms in detail. Furthermore, we will finalize the article with a discussion and a conclusion.
Retrieving soil surface temperature under snowpack using special sensor microwave/imager brightness temperature in forested areas of Heilongjiang, China: an improved method

Abstract. Soil surface temperature (Ts) is an important indicator of global temperature change and a key input parameter for retrieving land surface variables using remote sensing techniques. Due to the masking in the thermal infrared band and the scattering in the microwave band of snow, the temperature of soil surfaces covered by snow is difficult to infer from remote sensing data. We attempted to estimate Ts under snow cover using brightness temperature data from the special sensor microwave/imager. Ts under snow cover was underestimated due to the strong scattering effect of snow on upward soil microwave emissions at 37 GHz. The underestimated portion of Ts is related to snow properties, such as depth, grain size, and moisture. Based on the microwave emission model of layered snowpacks, the simulated results revealed a linear relationship between the underestimated Ts and the brightness temperature difference (TBD) at 19 and 37 GHz. When TBDs at 19 and 37 GHz were introduced to the Ts estimation method, accuracy improved, i.e., the root mean square error and bias of the estimated Ts decreased greatly, especially for dry snow. This improvement allows Ts estimation of snow-covered surfaces from 37 GHz microwave brightness temperature.
Compounded Biological Soil Conditioner for Soybean Crop Production at Brazil

Aim: To evaluate the agronomic efficiency of Bacillus-based soil conditioner on soybean crop development and productivity in different cropping areas. Study Design: Randomized complete block design with six treatments and eight replications. Place and Duration of Study: Municipalities of Uberlândia, Paracatú, Araxá and Guarda Mor, all in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, during the 2019/20 season. Methodology: The treatments consisted of untreated control, 300 kg ha-1 of mineral fertilizer, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5 L ton-1 of Bacillus-based soil conditioner applied to mineral fertilizer (BSC2.0; BSC2.5; BSC3.0; BSC3.5). Leaf and grain P and K concentration, soybean yield components (grains per pod, pods per plant, weight of a thousand grains) and grain yield were evaluated. Data were subject to ANOVA at P = 0.10. Treatments means were separated using the Duncan test at a 0.10 level of significance. Results: The biological soil conditioner (BSC) had a statistically superior response than mineral fertilizer in all evaluated doses. In Uberlândia, the BSC2.0 treatment was more efficient in increasing the foliar P concentration in soybean. In Araxá, BSC3.0 provided greater grain yield, as it increased the number of pods per plant and soybean yield. BSC3.5 obtained higher grain yield in Paracatú and Guarda Mor. The average soybean yield achieved in all areas was higher than that obtained in the state of Minas Gerais. Conclusion: This study revealed that using Bacillus-based soil conditioner on soybean crops is a valuable strategy to increase the soil activity, development and crop yield.
Dynamics and Instability of a Vortex Ring Impinging on a Wall

Dynamics and instability of a vortex ring impinging on a wall were investigated by means of large eddy simulation for two vortex core thicknesses corresponding to thin and thick vortex rings. Various fundamental mechanisms dictating the flow behaviors, such as evolution of vortical structures, formation of vortices wrapping around vortex rings, instability and breakdown of vortex rings, and transition from laminar to turbulent state, have been studied systematically. The evolution of vortical structures is elucidated and the formation of the loop-like and hair-pin vortices wrapping around the vortex rings (called briefly wrapping vortices) is clarified. Analysis of the enstrophy of wrapping vortices and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) in flow field indicates that the formation and evolution of wrapping vortices are closely associated with the flow transition to turbulent state. It is found that the temporal development of wrapping vortices and the growth rate of axial flow generated around the circumference of the core region for the thin ring are faster than those for the thick ring. The azimuthal instabilities of primary and secondary vortex rings are analyzed and the development of modal energies is investigated to reveal the flow transition to turbulent state. The modal energy decay follows a characteristic −5/3 power law, indicating that the vortical flow has become turbulence. Moreover, it is identified that the TKE with a major contribution of the azimuthal component is mainly distributed in the core region of vortex rings. The results obtained in this study provide physical insight of the mechanisms relevant to the vortical flow evolution from laminar to turbulent state. AMS subject classifications: 76F65, 76D17, 76F06
Modified Approach for Feature Space Improvement of Imagery

1 Abstract: This paper addresses the technique which is based on the maximum feature space improvement for the detailed analysis of the plant leaf images, implementation of the super-resolution to the given plant leaf image is possible by the method of locally linear embedding (LLE). In LLE, the feature space can be improved by imposing the neighbor pixels into feature space.
Quantum Theory of Mesoscopic Fractional Electric Fields in a Cavity of Viscous Medium

With conjecture of fractional charge quantization (quantum dipole/multiple moments), Fourier transform stretching, twisting and twigging of an electron quanta and waver strings of electron quanta, the mathematical expressions for mesoscopic fractional electron fields in a cavity of viscous medium and the associated quantum dielectric susceptibility are developed. Agreement of this approach is experimentally evidenced on barite and Fanja site molecular sieves. These findings are in conformity with experimental results of 2012 Physics Nobel prize winning scientists, Serge Haroche and David J. Wineland especially for cavity quantum electro-dynamics electron and its associated mesoscopic electric fields. The mover electron quanta strings lead to warping of space and time following the behaviour of quantum electron dynamics.
SimPS-Net: Simultaneous Pose and Segmentation Network of Surgical Tools

Localisation of surgical tools during operation is of paramount importance in the context of robotic assisted surgery. 3D pose estimation can be utilised to explore the interaction of tools with registered tissue and improve the motion planning of robotic platforms, thus avoiding potential collisions with external agents. With the problems of traditional tracking systems being cost and the need to redesign surgical tools to accommodate markers, there has been a shift towards image-based, markerless tracking techniques. This study introduces a network capable of detecting and localising tools in 3D using a monocular setup. For training and validation, a novel dataset, 3dStool, was produced, and the network was trained to obtain a mean Dice coefficient of 85.0% for detection, along with a mean position and orientation error of 5.5mm and 3.3° respectively. The presented method is significantly more versatile than various state of the art solutions, as it requires no prior knowledge regarding the 3D structure of the tracked tools. The results were compared to standard pose estimation networks using the same dataset and demonstrated lower errors along most metrics.In addition, the generalisation capabilities of the proposed network were explored by performing inference on a previously unseen pair of scissors.
Epistemic Modals Are Assessment‐Sensitive

By “epistemic modals,” I mean epistemic uses of modal words: adverbs like “necessarily,” “possibly,” and “probably,” adjectives like “necessary,” “possible,” and “probable,” and auxiliaries like “might,” “may,” “must,” and “could. ” It is hard to say exactly what makes a word modal, or what makes a use of a modal epistemic, without begging the questions that will be our concern below, but some examples should get the idea across. If I say “Goldbach’s conjecture might be true, and it might be false,” I am not endorsing the Cartesian view that God could have made the truths of arithmetic come out differently. I make the claim not because I believe in the metaphysical contingency of mathematics, but because I know that Goldbach’s conjecture has not yet been proved or refuted. Similarly, if I say “Joe can’t be running,” I am not saying that ∗I presented earlier versions of this paper at the University of Utah (2003), the University of Chicago (2005), Ohio State (2005), the Arché Center at St. Andrews (2005), UC Santa Cruz (2005), the Eastern Division APA meeting in New York (2005), and Berkeley’s Logic Colloquium (2006). I am grateful to all these audiences for stimulating questions. I would particularly like to thank Kent Bach, Fabrizio Cariani, Richard Dietz, Branden Fitelson, Graham Priest, Brian Weatherson, and Matt Weiner for useful comments. Finally, I acknowledge the financial support of an ACLS/Andrew W. Mellon Fellowship for Junior Faculty and a Berkeley Humanities Research Fellowship. Readers of Egan et al. 2005 will notice substantial overlap in our conclusions and arguments. We arrived at these conclusions and arguments independently (though I was inspired by Hawthorne 2004, 27 n. 68, and they by MacFarlane 2003).
A REVIEW ON THE PHYTOPHARMACOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, UNANI AND MODERN PHARMACOLOGY OF BISFAYEJ (POLYPODIUM VULGARE LINN)

Different herbs and their constituents are used for medicinal purposes by approximately 80 percent of the world population, which is evidenced by the rapidly growing global and national markets of herbal drugs. This review is aimed at presenting an overview of the medicinal properties of P. vulgare, its phytoconstituents and diverse pharmacological activities. To retrieve the information related to this drug, a thorough literature survey was undertaken using the various classical Unani and Herbal literature books viz., Al-Qānūn fi’l Tibb, Makhzan al-Mufradat, Kanzul Advia Mufradah, Ilmul Adwiya Nafisi, Taj al-Mufradat, Indian Materia Medica, Indian Medicinal Plants among others. Further, for other traditional uses, phytoconstituents, pharmacological activities and research studies of the drug, various online bibliographic databases like Pub Med, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Web of Science and Scopus were meticulously searched. The keywords used for the search included “Polypodium vulgare”, “Bisfayej”, “Polypody root and rhizome”, “Phytoconstituents of Polypodium vulgare”. P vulgare is proven to possess neuro-psycho-pharmacological, CNS depressant and anti-epileptic activity through its anti-cholinesterase and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) stimulatory effect. Various clinical researches validate the use of P vulgare in the management of conditions such as Epilepsy, Arthritis, Leprosy, Melancholy and Alzheimer’s disease. Further studies are needed to unravel its other pharmacological activities.
ISOMAP based on minimal connected neighborhood graph

It is well known that ISOMAP is poorly robust and topologically unstable,mainly because "shortcut" edges may emerge in the neighborhood graph due to the noise or the unsuitable neighborhood size.The emergence of "shortcut" edges can make the corresponding neighborhood graph represent the neighborhood structure of the data falsely,and thus ISOMAP cannot be applied successfully.Therefore,this paper presented a more robust and more topologically stable ISOMAP algorithm,i.e.MCNG-ISOMAP(Minimal Connected Neighborhood Graph-based ISOMAP),which can prune effectively "shortcut" edges,existed possibly in the neighborhood graph,based on that the minimal connected neighborhood graph can avoid "shortcut" edges effectively.MCNG-ISOMAP is much less sensitive to the neighborhood size and thus can be applied to data visualization more easily than ISOMAP.In addition,MCNG-ISOMAP can also find the true intrinsic dimensionality of the data independent of the neighborhood size unlike ISOMAP.Finally,the feasibility of MCNG-ISOMAP is verified by experimental results very well.
An Alternative Bayesian Approach to the Bradley-Terry Model for Paired Comparisons

In recent years new Bayesian approaches have been developed for the estimation of parameters in multinomial models and contingency tables. The standard methods involving conjugate prior distributions are replaced by less conventional alternatives based upon logistic transformations and employing multivariate normal distributions for the transformed parameters. The latter lead to a more flexible approach readily allowing for prior relationships between the parameters, and permitting meaningful hierarchical prior distributions. The posterior estimates typically enable the statististician to combine information from various sources and to cope with zero cell frequencies in a formal manner. Estimates of similar spirit are now proposed for the treatment parameters in the Bradley-Terry model for paired comparisons, thus providing possible alternatives to the procedures proposed by Davidson and Solomon. The parameters might for example be related in an ordered fashion, or depend upon some explanatory variables. In the important situation where the parameters are a priori exchangeable, the maximum likelihood estimates are constrained towards a common value. In a biological example the Bayesian estimates are used to investigate the distribution of genital display in a colony of squirrel monkeys. This provides a method for coping with a commonly occurring type of incomplete contingency table with several zero entries.
Detecting Corner Features of Planar Objects

Corner points or features determine significant geometrical locations of the digital images. They provide important clues for shape representation and analysis. Corner points represent important features of an object that may be useful at subsequent levels of processing. If the corner points are identified properly, a shape can be represented in an efficient and compact way with sufficient accuracy in many shape analysis problem. This chapter reviews some well referred algorithms in the literature together with empirical study. Users can easily pick one that may prove to be superior from all aspects for their applications and requirements.
The Urgency of Agency Theory in Minimizing Financial Fraud

Fraud that still occurs in certain corporations, including in specific construction industries, is a problem that must be addressed in the current era of good corporate governance (GCG). Based on secondary data and with a qualitative approach, it is concluded that the weakness of corporations in applying agency theory has led to fraud in the form of motives, incentives, opportunities, and rationalizations carried out by agents. In comparison, one of the implementations of agency theory in tackling fraud in financial statements is to apply accountability through contractual relationships that are strictly binding on agents and principals.
Rigidity of the frobenius, matlis reflexivity, and minimal flat resolutions

use flat, cotorsion module theory to show that if R has finite Krull dimension, then an R-module M has finite flat dimension if and only if Tor R i (R (e) , M) = 0 for all i > 0 and infinitely many e > 0. Using methods involving the derived category, we show that one only needs vanishing for dim R + 1 consecutive values of i for infinitely many values of e to conclude that M has finite flat dimension. We also study a general notion of Matlis duality and prove a change of rings result for Matlis reflexive modules. Finally, we determine some properties of minimal flat resolutions and prove that if the Frobenius map is finite, then tensoring with R (e) preserves minimal flat resolutions. We also demonstrate a version of the New Intersection Theorem for complexes of flat, cotorsion modules. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First, I wish to acknowledge Jesus Christ, the Savior of the world, through whom all things, including mathematics, were made and without whom nothing would exist. Second, I give my thanks to Tom Marley, without whose constant guidance and patient consideration I would never have been able to conduct this research and so enter into an academic career. Third, I must also thank those with whom I have had mathematical discussions, in particular Brittney Falahola, Peder Thompson, and Mark Webb. I hope the conversations were as fruitful for them as they were for me. Also, I am indebted to serving on my Ph.D. committee. Fourth, to the many professors and graduate students in UNL's Math Department who have prepared me so well to be a teacher of mathematics: Thank you for helping me to find my professional calling. To Nathan Wakefield, in particular, I owe a great deal of thanks for his many hours of mentorship and assistance. Fifth, I may have never studied mathematics were it not for my high school math teacher, Rita Ahmann. I hope to inspire my students as she once inspired me. Also, to my undergraduate professors who so strongly encouraged me in my academic pursuits I give heartfelt thanks. Sixth, to my friends and colleagues in the Mathematics Department, whose companionship made graduate school much more enjoyable and who have bought me more beer than I have bought for them: I hope I wasn't a drag on you, and I will settle the debt to you someday. …
The measurement of semantic complexity: how to get by if your language lacks generalized quantifiers

Do languages vary in their semantic complexity? And if they do, does Universal Grammar place limits on that variation? These questions are not easy to answer. While there is a substantial literature investigating syntactic complexity in human language (see the other chapters in this volume, and references therein), semantic complexity has received much less attention, especially in the formal literature. We do not yet have an accepted definition of semantic complexity, nor do we know how to measure the semantic complexity of individual constructions, let alone entire languages. Empirically, we also have a problem: We know relatively little about how languages vary in their semantics in the first place. Given this state of the art, my goals in this chapter are relatively modest. My first aim is to illustrate how one goes about detecting semantic variation. I do this by means of a case study on quantification in St’át’imcets (Salish). Based on the St’át’imcets data, I argue (following Davis 2010, but contra Matthewson 1998) that languages differ significantly in the semantics of their quantifier-like elements. To be specific, some languages lack generalized quantifiers. The moral of this section is that semantic variation exists, but is not surface-visible or easy to detect.
The Allelopathic Effects of Artemisia herba-alba Asso. Aqueous Extracts on Seed Germination and Seedling Development of Ceratonia siliqua L.

This study aims to investigate the allelopathic effects of Artemisia herba-alba Asso. aqueous extracts on the germination of Ceratonia siliqua L. seeds and seedlings. Three concentrations 100%, 50 %, 25%, and control (distill water) were used for testing. Seeds and seedlings of Ceratonia siliqua were exposed to the above-mentioned concentrations. A one-way ANOVA test was adopted to examine the effect of these treatments on the germination rate and root length for the seeds of Ceratonia siliqua. Our results showed no significant differences between the concentrations on germination rate as the F-Value and P-Value were 2.88 and 0.08 respectively. However, high significance occurred after testing concentrations against root length with F-value reaching (139.89). Tukey HSD (Honestly Significant Difference) test showed that the highest significance in means was imposed by both (100 % and 50 %) levels of concentration on root length. It also shows a strong inverse relation between root length and concentration levels reflected in the R-squared value of (0.93). The treatments affected Ceratonia siliqua roots by inhibiting their length significantly (F-Value: 21.1). In conclusion, the increase in concentration levels result in the inhibition of mainly root length. That may explain the law survival of Ceratonia siliqua seedlings in regions where Artemisia herba-alba grows. However, further studies are required to investigate other factors.
Inequalities for the total variation between the distributions of a sequence and its translate and applications@@@Inequalities for the total variation between the distributions of a sequence and its translate and applications

Let ξ =( ξk)k∈N∗ be a stationary homogeneous Markov chain and its translate ξ + a =( ξk + ak)k∈N∗ be a realsequence. We prove an inequal ity for the totalvariation between the distributions of ξ and ξ + a. This result allows us to give sufficient conditions for absolute continuity of these distributions. Next, we consider ξ =( ξk)k∈N∗ a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables and another sequence of independent variables η =( ηk)k∈N∗ , which is independent of ξ. We estimate the totalvariation between the distributions of ξ and ξ + η and apply the obtained results to the problem of absolute continuity. � p � p (x) � 2 p(x) dx. Let a =( ak)k∈N∗ be a real sequence.We denote by P and P a , respectively, the distributions of the sequences ξ and ξ +a.In this case, if I(p) < ∞, Davydov obtained �P a −P � � I(p) � �