Contrasting Genetic Diversity of European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) Across Three Invasive Continental Distributions

European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) represent one of the most widespread and problematic avian invasive species in the world. Therefore, understanding their unique population history and current population dynamics can contribute to conservation efforts and clarify evolutionary processes over short timescales. European starlings were introduced to Central Park, New York in 1890, and from a founding group of about 100 birds, they have expanded across North America with a current population of approximately 200 million. There were also multiple introductions in Australia in the mid-19th century, and at least one introduction in South Africa in the late 19th century. These three independent introductions provide a robust evolutionary system to further understand invasion genetics. In this study, we compare mitochondrial diversity in European starlings from North America, Australia and South Africa, and a portion of the native-range in the United Kingdom. Of the three invasive ranges, the North American population shows the highest haplotype diversity and evidence of both sudden demographic expansion and current expansion. Comparatively, the Australian population shows the highest nucleotide diversity, and only evidence for sudden demographic expansion. We find no evidence of population structure in North America or South Africa, and three distinct haplogroups in the Australian population. Interestingly, none of the invasive ranges share any haplotypes with each other. The only shared haplotypes occur between the native-range and either North America or Australia. This suggests these three invasive populations represent independent subsamples of the vast diversity of the native range, and that novel haplotypes unique to each population may have emerged since introduction. Introduction Here, we use mitochondrial DNA to track the diversity and population structure of the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris ) in three geographically independent invasive ranges throughout the world. European starlings are native to Eurasia, yet over the last 163 years have been strikingly successful at living outside of its native range in North America, South Africa, and Australia (Jenkins, 1977). They are part of the family Sturnidae and order Passeriformes(Feare, 1984). Although this group is historically found in the Palearctic, their success as an invasive species and their multiple introductions have led to their existence on every continent, except for Antarctica (BirdLife International, 2016; Sulliven, 2009). Their invasion success likely results from a suite of life-history and behavioral traits that facilitate their ecological flexibility. For example, they are often classified as diet generalists, preferring insects, but they will eat most other foods depending on availability of resources (Cabe, 1993). There is some indication that they are not as successful in urban areas and not complete diet generalists but have been able to adapt to surroundings in order to exploit the environment (Mennechez and Clergeau, 2006). They are cavity nesters utilizing natural features such as crevasses and trees but can also nest in man-made structures allowing them to breed in rural and urban environments (Cabe, 1993). Starlings benefit from associations with other species; they are commensal with humans and are often found around livestock that disturb the soil with their hooves, exposing invertebrates to starlings (East and Pottinger, 1975). They normally lay one or two broods a year, which include between