Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
Book Review Linguistic Fundemantals for Natural Language Processing II: 100 Essentials from Semantics and Pragmatics

Semantics is commonly defined as “the study of meaning” and pragmatics is generally referred to as “the study of meaning in context”. In other words, semantics deal with the sentence meaning (e.g., literal meaning of “How are you? ”), whereas pragmatics is more concerned with the speaker/utterance meaning (e.g., the greeting meaning of “How are you? ”). Both fields interact with each other and with other lower layers of language such as phonology, morphology, and syntax in many ways. Semantics and pragmatics have been established as research fields a long time ago and been widely studied ever since, as also evidenced by a number of introductory text books dating from the 1980s to today (Levinson 1983; Cruse 2000; Kadmon 2001; Birner 2012/2013; Kroeger 2018). Previous introductory books are remarkably rich with linguistic theorems and provide a comprehensive introduction to the topic. However, the majority offer a linguistic perspective that may be hard to understand for young generations of NLP researchers because of the changing dynamics of the NLP field. As the field has been dominated with end-to-end data driven models, the linguistic phenomena that may help NLP researchers in various ways (e.g., more insightful analysis, more sensible evaluation techniques, more informed model designs, more diverse data collection/annotation schemes) have been mostly neglected. This book, authored by Emily Bender and Alex Lascarides, aims to fill this gap and intends to create a common language between linguists and today’s NLP researchers to ease collaboration. The book covers most of the key issues in semantics and pragmatics, ranging from “meaning of words” to “meaning of utterances in dialogue”, including the discourse structure and coherence relations for which not many resources were available. The book contains 14 chapters and 101 essentials/sections. Each chapter is organized as a collection of self-explanatory sections with sentence headers like “#10 There is ambiguity at all levels”,1 such that a summary of the book can easily be generated by concatenating the headers. The book is organized cleverly: Even though the chapters are kept connected throughout the book, most sections can still be grasped when read separately. Plenty of examples are provided in a variety of languages for each concept, leaving the reader with a feeling of appreciation and an increased level of awareness for linguistic diversity. The examples
Climate Variability: changing weather patterns over New Zealand

The original intention of this thesis was to investigate Climate Change (CC), in particular the meteorological impacts of CC on New Zealand (NZ). Succinctly, “to understand what NZ’s future weather may entail”. However, as the research progressed it has led to the larger circulation and has highlighted the teleconnections that are present and the importance of the wider circulation and to NZ. It is apparent that the larger scale circulation needs to be considered in conjunction with, if not before, the synoptic scale. Thus, in order to understand NZ’s future weather first we must understand the Southern Hemisphere and the circulation within it. CC is often described in a broad global scale and it is difficult to translate and relate these mechanisms into day to day weather terms, which have the advantage of being commonly understood. Synoptic Climatology (SC) can bridge this gap by simplifying the wide variety of weather into a small grouping of types, and thus can provide an understandable alternative. To undertake this research an existing SC scheme known as the Kidson Types (KTs) was extended with the use of General Circulation Model (GCM) output. The KTs have been widely used in NZ, thus work detailing their future would be advantageous. The GCMs were able to reproduce the observed frequencies of occurrence of the KTs during the late 20th century. Future projections for the late 21st century surprisingly showed little change in annual type frequencies. To investigate this further a sensitivity study was undertaken, which revealed that the methodology was insensitive to annual type frequency change. The range of response from the GCM projections also inhibited determining significant changes in KT frequencies. Additionally, trend analysis using four realisations from one GCM noted both positive and negative trends in some of the types. This also
Efficient Perovskite Light‐Emitting Diodes Using Polycrystalline Core–Shell‐Mimicked Nanograins

Making small nanograins in polycrystalline organic–inorganic halide perovskite (OIHP) films is critical to improving the luminescent efficiency in perovskite light‐emitting diodes (PeLEDs). 3D polycrystalline OIHPs have fundamental limitations related to exciton binding energy and exciton diffusion length. At the same time, passivating the defects at the grain boundaries is also critical when the grain size becomes smaller. Molecular additives can be incorporated to shield the nanograins to suppress defects at grain boundaries; however, unevenly distributed molecular additives can cause imbalanced charge distribution and inefficient local defect passivation in polycrystalline OIHP films. Here, a kinetically controlled polycrystalline organic‐shielded nanograin (OSN) film with a uniformly distributed organic semiconducting additive (2,2′,2′′‐(1,3,5‐benzinetriyl)‐tris(1‐phenyl‐1‐H‐benzimidazole), TPBI) is developed mimicking core–shell nanoparticles. The OSN film causes improved photophysical and electroluminescent properties with improved light out‐coupling by possessing a low refractive index. Finally, highly improved electroluminescent efficiencies of 21.81% ph el−1 and 87.35 cd A−1 are achieved with a half‐sphere lens and four‐time increased half‐lifetime in polycrystalline PeLEDs. This strategy to make homogeneous, defect‐healed polycrystalline core–shell‐mimicked nanograin film with better optical out‐coupling will provide a simple and efficient way to make highly efficient perovskite polycrystal films and their optoelectronics devices.
Sex beyond the genitalia: The human brain mosaic

Significance Sex/gender differences in the brain are of high social interest because their presence is typically assumed to prove that humans belong to two distinct categories not only in terms of their genitalia, and thus justify differential treatment of males and females. Here we show that, although there are sex/gender differences in brain and behavior, humans and human brains are comprised of unique “mosaics” of features, some more common in females compared with males, some more common in males compared with females, and some common in both females and males. Our results demonstrate that regardless of the cause of observed sex/gender differences in brain and behavior (nature or nurture), human brains cannot be categorized into two distinct classes: male brain/female brain. Whereas a categorical difference in the genitals has always been acknowledged, the question of how far these categories extend into human biology is still not resolved. Documented sex/gender differences in the brain are often taken as support of a sexually dimorphic view of human brains (“female brain” or “male brain”). However, such a distinction would be possible only if sex/gender differences in brain features were highly dimorphic (i.e., little overlap between the forms of these features in males and females) and internally consistent (i.e., a brain has only “male” or only “female” features). Here, analysis of MRIs of more than 1,400 human brains from four datasets reveals extensive overlap between the distributions of females and males for all gray matter, white matter, and connections assessed. Moreover, analyses of internal consistency reveal that brains with features that are consistently at one end of the “maleness-femaleness” continuum are rare. Rather, most brains are comprised of unique “mosaics” of features, some more common in females compared with males, some more common in males compared with females, and some common in both females and males. Our findings are robust across sample, age, type of MRI, and method of analysis. These findings are corroborated by a similar analysis of personality traits, attitudes, interests, and behaviors of more than 5,500 individuals, which reveals that internal consistency is extremely rare. Our study demonstrates that, although there are sex/gender differences in the brain, human brains do not belong to one of two distinct categories: male brain/female brain.
Centralized Rate Allocation and Control in 802.11-based Wireless Mesh Networks

Wireless Mesh Networks (WMNs) built with commodity 802.11 radios are a cost-effective means of providing last mile broadband Internet access. Their multihop architecture allows for rapid deployment and organic growth of these networks. 802.11 radios are an important building block in WMNs. These low cost radios are readily available, and can be used globally in license-exempt frequency bands. However, the 802.11 Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) medium access mechanism does not scale well in large multihop networks. This produces suboptimal behavior in many transport protocols, including TCP, the dominant transport protocol in the Internet. In particular, cross-layer interaction between DCF and TCP results in flow level unfairness, including starvation, with backlogged traffic sources. Solutions found in the literature propose distributed source rate control algorithms to alleviate this problem. However, this requires MAC-layer or transport-layer changes on all mesh routers. This is often infeasible in practical deployments. In wireline networks, router-assisted rate control techniques have been proposed for use alongside end-to-end mechanisms. We evaluate the feasibility of establishing similar centralized control via gateway mesh routers in WMNs. We find that commonly used router-assisted flow control schemes designed for wired networks fail in WMNs. This is because they assume that: (1) links can be scheduled independently, and (2) router queue buildups are sufficient for detecting congestion. These abstractions do not hold in a wireless network, rendering wired scheduling algorithms such as Fair Queueing (and its variants) and Active Queue Management (AQM) techniques ineffective as a gateway-enforceable solution in a WMN. We show that only non-work-conserving rate-based scheduling can effectively enforce rate allocation via a single centralized traffic-aggregation point. In this context we propose, design, and evaluate a framework of centralized, measurement-based, feedback-driven mechanisms that can enforce a rate allocation policy objective for adaptive traffic streams in a WMN. In this dissertation we focus on fair rate allocation requirements. Our approach does not require any changes to individual mesh routers. Further, it uses existing data traffic as capacity probes, thus incurring a zero control traffic overhead. We propose two mechanisms based on this approach: aggregate rate control (ARC) and per-flow rate control (PFRC). ARC limits the aggregate capacity of a network to the sum of fair rates for a given set of flows. We show that the resulting rate allocation achieved by DCF is approximately max-min fair. PFRC allows us to exercise finer-grained control over the
Science and Technology in Society: From Biotechnology to the Internet

Acknowledgments. Abbreviations. 1. Science is Political/ Technology is Social: Concerns, Concepts, and Questions. Why is Thinking about Science and Technology so Hard? Technoscience is Social. Technoscience is Political. 2. Ceding Debate: Biotechnology and Agriculture. Biotechnology and the Social Organization of Agriculture and Agri-business. The Discursive Landscape in the Debate over Biotechnology. Conclusions. 3. Rethinking Information Technology: Caught in the World Wide Web. Understanding the Digital Divide. High Technology Education. Politics, Civil Action, and the Internet. Conclusions. 4. Owning Technoscience: Understanding the New Intellectual Property Battles. Intellectual Property, Social Common Sense, and the Knowledge Commons. Intellectual Property and the Information Technology Revolution. Owning Life: Intellectual Property in Biological Materials. Intellectual Property and Innovation. Conclusion. 5. Technoscience in the Third World: The Politics of Indigenous Resources. Introduction. Science, Technology, and Colonialism. From Colonialism to Bio-Colonialism. Towards Equity in the Exchange of Biological Resources. Conclusions. 6. Gender and the Ideology of Merit: Women, Men, Science, and Engineering. "Merit" and Stratification in Science. Women, Men, and Academic Science. Women and Men in Science-Based Industry. Beyond Stratification in Science and Engineering: Artifacts and Research as Gendered. Conclusions. 7. Democracy and Expertise: Citizenship in a High Tech Age. The Limits to Expert Knowledge. The Virtues of Lay Knowledge. Barriers to Democratizing Technoscience and Expertise. Strategies for Overcoming the Obstacles. Conclusions. 8. Confronting the Problem: A Summary and Coda. References. Index.
The Invention of Race: Black Culture and the Politics of Representation

Introduction. 1. Racist Discourse and the Negro-Ape Metaphor. 2. Slavery, Modernity and the Reclamation of Anterior Cultures. 3. Frederick Douglass on the Myth of the Black Rapist. 4. Du Bois on the Invention of Race. 5. Black Consciousness in the Art of Sargent Johnson. 6. Black Vernacular Representation and Cultural Malpractice. 7. Marooned in America: Black Urban Youth Culture and Social Pathology. 8. Black Marxist in Babylon: Bayard Rustin and the 1968 UFT Strike. 9. A No-Theory Theory of Contemporary Black Cinema. 10. Prime Time Blackness. Notes Bibliography Index
Foreign Direct Investment in China: Effects on Growth and Economic Performance

By almost all accounts, foreign direct investment (FDI) in China has been one of the major success stories of the past 10 years. Starting from a base of less than $19 billion in 1990, the stock of FDI in China rose to over $300 billion at the end of 1999. Ranked by the stock of inward FDI, China thus has become the leader among all developing nations and second among the APEC nations (only the United States holds a larger stock of inward FDI). China's FDI consists largely of greenfield investment, while inward FDI in the United States by contrast has been generated more by takeover of existing enterprises than by new establishment, a point developed later in this paper. The majority of FDI in China has originated from elsewhere in developing Asia (i.e., not including Japan). Hong Kong, now a largely self-governing "special autonomous region" of China itself, has been the largest source of record. The dominance of Hong Kong, however, is somewhat illusory in that much FDI nominally from Hong Kong in reality is from elsewhere. Some of what is listed as Hong Kong-source FDI in China is, in fact, investment by domestic Chinese that is "round-tripped" through Hong Kong (see footnote 2). Other FDI in China listed as Hong Kong in origin is in reality from various western nations and Taiwan that is placed into China via Hong Kong intermediaries. Alas, no published records exist to indicate exactly how much FDI in China that is nominally from Hong Kong is in fact attributable to other nations. According to official sources, in the period 1992-96, FDI from developing Asian nations dominated total FDI flows into China, but since 1996 a growing portion of these flows has come from other sources (i.e., Europe, North America, and Japan). This latter FDI generally has been of a different character than FDI from developing Asian nations. While the latter has been concentrated in export-processing activities in sectors in which China has revealed comparative advantage, much of the former has been directed more toward the domestic market in sectors in which China has no revealed comparative advantage. Thus one consequence of a rising percentage of FDI from Japan, Europe, and North America has been that overall the activities of foreign-invested enterprises in China have become somewhat more focused on the domestic market, and less on export markets, in the late 1990s relative to the mid-1990s. The consequences are discussed in more detail later in this paper. This includes an econometric test of whether FDI in China has contributed to increased total factor productivity growth in those provinces that have received large amounts of FDI. The tests suggest that the result is positive, and hence that FDI has contributed significantly to economic growth in China beyond that which results from faster capital accumulation.
Psychology of Group Influence

Preface. 1. Paul B. Paulus An Overview and Evaluation of Group Influence Part 1: Basic Group Influence 2. Russell G. Geen Alternative Conceptions of Social Facilitation 3. Eric S. Knowles Spatial Behavior of Individuals and Groups 4. Steven Prentice-Dunn and Ronald W. Rogers Deindividuation and the Self-Regulation of Behavior 5. Paul B. Paulus and Dinesh Nagar Environmental Influences on Groups Part 2: Social Influence Processes in Groups 6. Richard L. Moreland and John M. Levine Newcomers and Oldtimers in Small Groups 7. John M. Levine Reaction to Opinion Deviance in Small Groups 8. John C. Turner and Penelope J. Oakes Self-Categorization Theory and Social Influence Part 3: Social and Cognitive Processes in Interactive Groups 9. Garold Stasser, Norbert L. Kerr and James H. Davis Influence Processes and Consensus Models in Decision-Making Groups 10. Charles E. Miller The Social Psychological Effects of Group Decision Rules 11. Noel K. Clark and Geoffrey M. Stephenson Group Remembering 12. Robert A. Wicklund The Appropriation of Ideas. Author Index. Subject Index.
Stress and caregiver sensitivity among childcare staff in Santiago, Chile

ABSTRACT Background: This exploratory study examines the relationship between stress and caregiver sensitivity among non-parental childcare centre staff who attend Chilean daycare centres serving low-income children between 12- and 24-months-old. Method: Participants were 23 childcare providers (nine teachers and 14 childcare technicians) who were evaluated with an average of three children each at one time. Stress associated to caregiving practices was assessed using the Parenting Stress Index–Short Form (PSI–SF), and caregiver sensitivity was measuring using the Child–Adult Relationship Experimental Index Toddlers (CARE-index). Results: No association was found between global level of stress and caregiver sensitivity. However, there was a significant association between the caregiver–child dysfunctional interaction subscale and caregiver sensitivity, specifically with the cognitive aspects of sensitive response and when a caregiver was nonresponsive. Furthermore, the ‘Difficult Child’ PSI subscale was associated with the cognitive aspects of the caregiver´s sensitive response. Conclusions: These findings support the relevance of children's early interactions with their non-parental caregivers and demonstrate how daily stress can affect the cognitive aspects of the caregivers’ sensitive response to the infants’ needs.
The Use of a “Caution Factor” to Increase the Predictive Value of the A.C.E. Examination for Students of Engineering

THE AMERICAN Council on Education Psychological Examination for College Freshmen is used at approximately four hundred colleges and universities in the United States every year for the purpose of de termining the individual's aptitude for college academic work. Much weight is attached to the results of this test by administrators and per sonnel workers. However, in some situations it becomes apparent that the validity of the instrument is rather low? that the correlations between grades achieved in some subject-matter combinations and A. C. E. scores are not at all high. These low correlations are prob ably due to the complex of factors entering into the college academic situation, making it possible for a student with higher basic academ ic intelligence than the average to get low grades, or vice versa. The validity of the A. C. E. test as a predicting instrument for success in engineering may be increased by scoring it for one of these factors, which may be called the factor of "caution". As this test is now scored, the raw score is the number of correct responses. Since the test is a speed test, this would seem to handicap the person who pro ceeds slowly and cautiously, but who may answer correctly most of the questions attempted. Conversely, the person who guesses the ans wers to those questions which he does not immediately know will cov er more territory. As there is no penalty for errors, he would seem to have a better chance of making a higher score. In spite of this high er score this latter type of individual might not be as good a potential student. This could be particularly true in such a curriculum as is found in schools of engineering which, because of the nature of the materials studied, demand work of a high degree of care and accuracy. Definition of "Caution Factor". The term "caution factor", as used in this study, indicates the ratio of the number of correct re sponses to the number of responses attempted on either a portion o r
The OR/MS Ecosystem: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats

This paper is dedicated to Arthur Geoffrion, who serves as role model of a great researcher, educator, and practitioner. We believe that research, teaching, and practice are becoming increasingly disengaged from one another in the OR/MS ecosystem. This ecosystem comprises researchers, educators, and practitioners in its core along with end users, universities, and funding agencies. Continuing disengagement will result in OR/MS occupying only niche areas and disappearing as a distinct field even though its tools would live on. To understand the reasons for this disengagement better and to engender discussion among academics and practitioners on how to counter it, we present the ecosystem's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Incorporated in this paper are insights from a cluster of sessions at the 2006 INFORMS meeting in Pittsburgh (“Where Do We Want to Go in OR/MS? ”) and from the literature.
Capturing a Fusion Intermediate of Influenza Hemagglutinin with a Cholesterol-conjugated Peptide, a New Antiviral Strategy for Influenza Virus*

Background: Growing resistance to influenza antivirals calls for novel therapeutics. Results: Cholesterol conjugates of HA-derived peptides inhibit influenza infection. HA refolding is trapped at an intermediate stage, arresting fusion. Conclusion: Cholesterol-conjugated peptides, which potently block fusion of extracellularly fusing viruses, are now shown to block fusion of the intracellularly fusing influenza virus. Significance: We described a new potential anti-influenza strategy. We previously described fusion-inhibitory peptides that are targeted to the cell membrane by cholesterol conjugation and potently inhibit enveloped viruses that fuse at the cell surface, including HIV, parainfluenza, and henipaviruses. However, for viruses that fuse inside of intracellular compartments, fusion-inhibitory peptides have exhibited very low antiviral activity. We propose that for these viruses, too, membrane targeting via cholesterol conjugation may yield potent compounds. Here we compare the activity of fusion-inhibitory peptides derived from the influenza hemagglutinin (HA) and show that although the unconjugated peptides are inactive, the cholesterol-conjugated compounds are effective inhibitors of infectivity and membrane fusion. We hypothesize that the cholesterol moiety, by localizing the peptides to the target cell membrane, allows the peptides to follow the virus to the intracellular site of fusion. The cholesterol-conjugated peptides trap HA in a transient intermediate state after fusion is triggered but before completion of the refolding steps that drive the merging of the viral and cellular membranes. These results provide proof of concept for an antiviral strategy that is applicable to intracellularly fusing viruses, including known and emerging viral pathogens.