Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
The development and use of communication networks in the prehistoric North Island of New Zealand

new ecology and the temperate climatic conditions led to major changes in settlement and economics and these environmentally influenced adaptations have been a focus of much archaeological discussion. Of equal importance, although less widely discussed, is the consideration of the effect that the geography of New Zealand had on the traditional patterns of interaction between distant communities. This paper examines some of the constraints imposed by the North Island landscape on patterns of long distance communication and some of the benefits and advantages as well. It will be shown that the North Island environment led to a major realignment of the traditional East Polynesian patterns of transport and communication. In particular, I will argue that, whereas in tropical East Polynesia the communication routes were generally coastal or offshore, the safest and most reliable routes in the North Island were inland and these also tended to be the fastest means of communicating over long distances. This paper examines the various prehistoric transport options in reference to the specific conditions of the North Island environment. These options are examined on the basis of their speed, safety and long term reliability in maintaining communication links. These factors were chosen as they are prime considerations when choosing among the different travel options. As well as examining the physical characteristics of travel in prehistoric New Zealand, the observed behaviour of Maori travellers in the historic period will also be discussed in order to see how the communication system operated in practice. First, the experiences of early visitors travelling with Maori parties in the North Island will be examined and the style of travel favoured by the Maori discussed. In later sections the speed, safety and reliability of the prehistoric travel options will be established. These findings will allow an understanding of why a certain type of communication system was more likely than others to have developed in the North Island. The effect of such a system on patterns of inter-regional communication will then be briefly examined. For the purposes of this study the factors of speed, safety and reliability are defined as follows. Speed: the distance that could be covered in one day's travel by a particular mode of transport over a specific type of terrain.
Hydromorphological adjustment in meandering river systems and the role of flood events

This paper takes a selection of meandering rivers in the UK to address issues of morphological adjustment and change. The occurrence of peak flow events over recent decades is analysed for patterns and trends. Certain hydrological phases are identifiable. Changes in morphology and activity of the channels are examined through repeat field and aerial photograph mapping and some detailed observations over a period of 20 years. These show major variations, some of which appear to be related to discharge fluctuations. The differing impact of the highest floods within the period of record is demonstrated. The state of the system, particularly the degree of meander development, is of crucial importance. A seasonal difference in the impact of high flow events is also detected. Relationships between morphological changes and discharge characteristics are complex and the effects of other factors, particularly growing season and ramped effects of growth of vegetation may be significant.
Why was there a delayed radiation after the end‐Palaeozoic extinctions?

Data from widespread dysaerobic facies, carbon/sulphur ratios and cerium anomalies suggest that the early Triassic was a time when anoxic conditions spread widely over epicontinental seas. These conditions, associated with marine transgression following the latest Permian regression, are likely to be a prime cause of the mass extinction of Palaeozoic marine faunas. The occurrence of many Lazarus taxa in the Middle and Upper Triassic indicates, however, that the extinctions at the end of the Permian were less severe than has been widely assumed, and that the turnover from Palaeozoic to Mesozoic faunas was considerably extended in time, being finally accomplished only after the end‐Triassic mass extinction event.
Cyclical summit collapse events at Ascraeus Mons, Mars

The sequential development of multiple summit calderas of shield volcanoes gives clues about how the spatial location of shallow magma chambers evolves with time and how the magma supply into these chambers evolves. We re-interpret the sequence in which caldera collapse events took place at the Martian shield volcano Ascraeus Mons and argue that the formation of the central caldera, usually accepted to be the most recent, was followed by two further collapse events. We also present structural evidence for an early, large central caldera and, therefore, also an early large magma reservoir. This challenges the current hypothesis for Ascraeus Mons that successive magma reservoirs have increased in size as this volcano matured and that a reservoir occupied a central location within the volcano only at the end of its active lifespan. We propose that there has been a cyclical oscillation in the site of shallow storage of magma at Ascraeus Mons between central and peripheral magma reservoirs. The earliest reservoir formed centrally, but magma was subsequently redirected into peripheral reservoirs, over which the peripheral calderas formed. Later, the central location was utilized again, only to be followed once more by a development of peripheral storage reservoirs. This alternating pattern implies substantial variations with position and time in both the magma supply rate from the Martian mantle and the distribution of stresses within the volcanic edifice.
Flow through Discovery Gap

Abstract A narrow gap (Discovery Gap) in the East Azores Fracture Zone at 37°N in the eastern Atlantic provides a channel for the exchange of bottom water between the Madeira and Iberian abyssal basins. A detailed survey defines its length (150 km), width (10–50 km), depth of sills (near 4800 m) and sediment thickness (0–500 m). Year-long measurements of deep flow are made from six moorings and ten current meters. Mean flows are about 5 cm s−1. These data are supplemented by 10 days of float tracking near 4700 m and numerous density profiles within and around the gap. A persistent southwest-northeast flow of dense water is found in Discovery Gap, and the flux of water colder than a potential temperature of 2.05°C is measured to be (0.21 ± .04) × 106 m3 s−1. This discharge spreads over an area of about 1011 m2 beyond the Gap exit, where it is warmed both by geothermal heating and by mixing with overlying water. An estimate of 1.5 to 4 cm2 s−1 is derived for the diapycnal diffusivity, similar to values dete.
Impacts on tree diversity in a Malagasy lowland rainforest of soil type, a devastating cyclone and an invading pioneer

Impacts du type de sol, d'un cyclone devastateur et d'une plante pionniere envahissante sur la diversite des ligneux d'une foret pluvieuse malgache de basse altitude. - Deux releves de toutes les plantes ligneuses (diametre ≥ 5 cm) ont ete effectues en octobre 2005 dans la Reserve Speciale de Manombo (foret de basse altitude, au sud-est de Madagascar), l'un sur une parcelle (50 × 50 m) sur sable blanc, l'autre sur une parcelle (50 × 48 m) sur sol ferralitique d'origine volcanique (basaltique). La foret sur sol sableux est utilisee par les villageois tandis que la parcelle sur sol basaltique, qui a subi peu d'action anthropique (sauf la disparition des lemuriens), fut devastee par un cyclone en janvier 1997 et se trouve envahie par l'espece pionniere introduite Cecropia peltata. On compte 37 especes pour les 453 tiges de la parcelle sur sol sableux et ca 145 especes pour les 777 tiges de la parcelle sur sol basaltique. La composition floristique differe bien davantage entre ces deux parcelles qu'entre les releves effectues sur des parcelles de 50 x 50 m dans les Reserves Speciales d'Analamazaotra (a 1 000 m d'altitude) et d'Ambohitantely (a 1 500 m d'altitude) eloignees l'une de l'autre de 200 km. La diversite des especes ligneuses de la parcelle de Manombo sur sol basaltique non seulement n'a pas ete diminuee par le passage du cyclone mais, qui plus est, les especes d'origine de cette foret sont en train de surcimer et vont probablement remplacer l'espece envahissante Cecropia peltata.
Emissions from international shipping: 2. Impact of future technologies on scenarios until 2050

[1] In this study the today's fleet-average emission factors of the most important ship exhausts are used to calculate emission scenarios for the future. To develop plausible future technology scenarios, first upcoming regulations and compliance with future regulations through technological improvements are discussed. We present geographically resolved emission inventory scenarios until 2050, based on a mid-term prognosis for 2020 and a long-term prognosis for 2050. The scenarios are based on some very strict assumptions on future ship traffic demands and technological improvements. The four future ship traffic demand scenarios are mainly determined by the economic growth, which follows the IPCC SRES storylines. The resulting fuel consumption is projected through extrapolations of historical trends in economic growth, total seaborne trade and number of ships, as well as the average installed power per ship. For the future technology scenarios we assume a diesel-only fleet in 2020 resulting in fuel consumption between 382 and 409 million metric tons (Mt). For 2050 one technology scenario assumes that 25% of the fuel consumed by a diesel-only fleet can be saved by applying future alternative propulsion plants, resulting in a fuel consumption that varies between 402 and 543 Mt. The other scenario is a business-as-usual scenario for a diesel-only fleet even in 2050 and gives an estimate between 536 and 725 Mt. Dependent on how rapid technology improvements for diesel engines are introduced, possible technology reduction factors are applied to the today's fleet-average emission factors of all important species to estimate future ship emissions. Combining the four traffic demand scenarios with the four technology scenarios, our results suggest emissions between 8.8 and 25.0 Tg (NO2) in 2020, and between 3.1 to 38.8 Tg (NO2) in 2050. The development of forecast scenarios for CO2, NOx, SOx, CO, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter is driven by the requirements for global model studies of the effects of these emissions on the chemical composition of the atmosphere and on climate. The developed scenarios are suitable for use as input for chemical transport models (CTMs) and coupled chemistry-climate models (CCMs).
Biogeochemical controls on palaeoceanographic environmental proxies: a review

Abstract Scientific observations of our oceans and climate go back no more than a couple of hundred years. Most of our information about the evolution of Earth's ocean-climate system relies instead on proxies – primarily measurements of sediment components that respond to changes in environmental parameters. This paper provides an overview of some of the most important biological and geochemical proxies and outlines their contribution to our understanding of the ocean-climate system. We also discuss some of the challenges that need to be overcome to obtain accurate records. These include: better understanding of the controls on the mechanisms of biomineralization; the impacts of post-depositional dissolution and diagenesis on primary proxy relationships; proxy validation; and analytical considerations.
Field relations between the spectral composition of ground motion and hydrological effects during the 1999 Chi‐Chi (Taiwan) earthquake

[1] The possibility that the frequency content of ground motion in earthquakes affects hydrological responses to earthquakes has yet to be extensively tested in the field. The Mw = 7.6 Chi-Chi earthquake provided an opportunity to do so, as widespread liquefaction and groundwater level changes were recorded by instrumentation in the Choshui Alluvial Fan. Analysis of the resulting data shows that ground motion parameters that measure low-frequency ground motions are more strongly correlated with coseismic groundwater level change and the occurrence of liquefaction than parameters that measure high-frequency motions. Notably, horizontal peak ground acceleration, a metric often used to enumerate the strength of ground motion in liquefaction analysis, is weakly correlated with these hydrological effects. It is unclear from this analysis whether low-frequency ground motion caused coseismic groundwater level change and liquefaction or whether the hydrological changes changed the spectral composition of the observed seismograms during the Chi-Chi earthquake.
Space weathering on the Moon: Patina on Apollo 17 samples 75075 and 76015

Abstract— We studied patinas on lunar rocks 75075 and 76015 from the Apollo collection using a multi‐disciplinary approach, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive x‐ray spectrometry (EDS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), wavelength‐dispersive x‐ray (WDS) mapping, Mössbauer spectroscopy, spectral reflectance, and microspectrophotometry. Based on SEM petrography, we have defined three textural types of patina: glazed, fragmental, and classic (cratered). The presence of classic patina is diagnostic of lunar samples that have been exposed directly to the space weathering environment. It is characterized by the presence of microcraters and glass pancakes and is the patina type studied by earlier workers. Classic patina is found on 76015 but not on 75075. Glazed patina is found on both 76015 and 75075, whereas fragmental patina is found only on 75075. The glazed and fragmental patinas on 75075 were probably formed as a result of relatively large nearby impacts; and although these two types of patina are not strictly the result of direct exposure to the space weathering environment, they are important because they affect the optical properties of the rocks. Field emission gun SEM (FE‐SEM) of classic patina on 76015 shows evidence of possible solar wind sputtering erosion. Transmission electron microscope studies of 76015 reveal the presence of impact‐generated deposits and solar flare particle tracks which, like microcraters and pancakes, are diagnostic of direct exposure to space weathering processes. The outermost surface of the 76015 patina consists of an amorphous rim very much like the rims found on individual lunar soil grains; this amorphous patina rim probably formed by similar processes of impact‐generated vapor condensation and possible sputter deposition. Wavelength‐dispersive x‐ray element maps of polished thin sections of 75075 and 76015 indicate that patina compositions are poor indicators of the compositions and mineralogies of the rocks underlying them. On average, the reflectance spectra of patinas on both samples are slightly darker than those of their unweathered equivalents. Microreflectance measurements show that a thick patina can dramatically alter the optical properties of the rock on which it forms. The backscatter Mössbauer (BaMS) spectrum of a patina‐covered surface of 76015 is very similar to that of an unweathered surface, indicating that the Mössbauer signal is generated from beneath the patina. Because BaMS “sees” through surface space‐weathering effects to the underlying rock, this technique has great potential for use in robotic missions to other planetary bodies.
A recent and abrupt decline in the East African long rains

The successive failure of the East African short rains (typically October‐December) and subsequent long rains (March‐May) in 2010–11 plunged much of the region into severe drought, impacting millions of people and triggering a humanitarian crisis. While poor short rains in 2010 were generally anticipated given linkages with La Niña, the subsequent long rains do not exhibit similar predictability. Here we show the long rains failure in boreal spring of 2011 is consistent with a recurrent large‐scale precipitation pattern that followed their abrupt decline around 1999. Using observations and climate model simulations, we show the abrupt decline in long rains precipitation is linked to similarly abrupt changes in sea surface temperatures, predominately in the tropical Pacific basin.
Community Biodiversity Management : Promoting resilience and the conservation of plant genetic resources

The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are issues that have been high on the policy agenda since the first Earth Summit in Rio in 1992. As part of efforts to implement in situ conservation, a methodology referred to as community biodiversity management (CBM) has been developed by those engaged in this arena. CBM contributes to the empowerment of farming communities to manage their biological resources and make informed decisions on the conservation and use of agrobiodiversity. This book is the first to set out a clear overview of CBM as a methodology for meeting socio-environmental changes. CBM is shown to be a key strategy that promotes community resilience, and contributes to the conservation of plant genetic resources. The authors present the underlying concepts and theories of CBM as well as its methodology and practices, and introduce case studies primarily from Brazil, Ethiopia, France, India, and Nepal. Contributors include farmers, leaders of farmers’ organizations, professionals from conservation and development organizations, students and scientists.
First geodetic observations of a deep earthquake: The 2013 Sea of Okhotsk Mw 8.3, 611 km‐deep, event

We analyze the first ever GPS observations of static surface deformation from a deep earthquake: the 24 May 2013 Mw 8.3 Sea of Okhotsk, 611 km‐deep, event. Previous studies of deep earthquake sources relied on seismology and might have missed evidence for slow slip in the rupture. We observed coseismic static offsets on a GPS network of 20 stations over the Sea of Okhotsk region. The offsets were inverted for the best fitting double‐couple source model assuming a layered spherical Earth. The seismic moment calculated from static offsets is only 7% larger than the seismological estimate from Global Centroid Moment Tensor (GCMT). Thus, GPS observations confirm shear faulting as the source model, with no significant slow‐slip component. The relative locations of the U.S. Geological Survey hypocenter, GCMT centroid, and the fault from GPS indicate slip extending for tens of kilometers across most of the slab thickness.
Mars Orbiter Camera observation of linear and curvilinear features in the Hellas basin: Indications for multiple processes of formation

[1] The high resolution of the Mars Orbiter Camera images reveals many detailed landforms on Mars' surface, which include thin dark or bright linear/curvilinear features. The latter are generally only a few tens of meters wide but can be a couple of kilometers in length. Some of these features have previously been attributed to the action of dust devils. Our study of the linear/curvilinear features in the Hellas basin reveals a variety that can only be explained by the formation from many different processes. In order to evaluate different causes for their formation we created a mapping based on a classification scheme where the linear/curvilinear features were sorted into three groups and compared to terrestrial analogues. Features in group 1 are most frequent, and contain streaks that appear only to affect the ground surface. The best analogue is dust devil tracks. The second, very rare, group appears to penetrate the surface in a way expected of fractures. In the third, likewise rare, group the features have a topographic expression that makes them similar to grooves and/or trenches between narrow ridges. This group is probably formed by multiple processes. Possible terrestrial analogues are found in glacial and periglacial environments (e.g., glacial scouring, fluted moraine, cryoturbation patterns, and iceberg plow marks). The existence of such landforms in the Hellas basin is consistent with previously presented glacial models and has an important implication for the understanding of the past climatic evolution of Mars.
Seasonal cycles of ozone and oxidized nitrogen species in northeast Asia. 1. Impact of regional climatology and photochemistry observed during RISOTTO 1999-2000

[1] Measurements of oxidized nitrogen species, including peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), nitrogen oxides (NOx), nitric acid (HNO3), and nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHCs), were made along with ozone (O3) and carbon monoxide (CO) at Rishiri Island, a remote island in northern Japan, as part of the Rishiri Island Study of Oxidants and Transport for Tropospheric Ozone (RISOTTO). Full seasonal observations of O3, CO, NMHCs, and PAN, together with data sets of NOx, and HNO3 for 6 months reveal short-term and seasonal characteristics of chemistry of the air masses in northeast Asia. Temporal variations of O3, PAN, and HNO3 typically show day-to-day variations in winter and diurnal variations in summer, dominated by long-range transport and local photochemistry, respectively. Seasonal variations of O3 and PAN show a spring maximum and a summer minimum, which are consistent with previous field observations made in Europe and North America. Air mass segregation based on back trajectory calculation suggests that PAN, which is photochemically produced in continental source regions, is most effectively transported to remote sites in spring owing to low temperatures in this season, while HNO3 is not effectively transported due to its high deposition velocity. It is concluded that transport of polluted air masses from continental source regions considerably enhances the April maximum in O3 and PAN observed at remote sites in northeast Asia. Back trajectory analysis also indicates that the seasonal cycles of PAN in the Eurasian continental background air masses are maximum in spring, minimum in summer, and show a secondary maximum in fall in contrast to NOx and HNO3 which have a summer maximum and a winter minimum.
A simple two‐parameter model for scaling hillslope surface runoff

The objective of this research was to develop and parameterise a physically justified yet low‐parameter model to quantify observed changes in surface runoff ratios with hillslope length. The approach starts with the assumption that a unit of rainfall‐excess runoff generated at a point is a fraction β of precipitation P (m) which travels some variable distance down a slope before reinfiltrating, depending on the local rainfall, climate, soils, etc. If this random distance travelled Y is represented by a distribution, then a survival function will describe the probability of this unit of runoff travelling further than some distance x (m). The total amount of per unit width runoff Q (m2) flowing across the lower boundary of a slope of length λ (m) may be considered the sum of all the proportions of the units of rainfall excess runoff integrated from the lower boundary x = 0 to the upper boundary x = λ of the slope. Using these assumptions we derive a model Q(λ) = βPμλ/(μ + λ), (μ > 0, 0 ≤ β ≤ 1, λ ≥ 0) that describes the change in surface runoff with slope length, where μ (m) is the mean of the random variable Y. Dividing both sides of this equation by Pλ yields a simple two‐parameter equation for the dimensionless hillslope runoff ratio Qh(λ) = βμ/(μ + λ). The model was parameterised with new rainfall and runoff data collected from three replicates of bounded 2 m wide plots of four different lengths (0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 m) for 2 years from a forested SE Australian site, and with 32 slope length–runoff data sets from 12 other published studies undertaken between 1934 and 2010. Using the parameterised model resulted in a Nash and Sutcliffe statistic between observed and predicted runoff ratio (for all data sets combined) of 0.93, compared with –2.1 when the runoff ratio was fixed at the value measured from the shortest plot. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.