Self-Efficacy of First-Generation College Students and the Relationship to Academic Performance and College Adjustment

The present study examined whether self-efficacy mediated the relationship between generational status and two academic outcome indicators of one hundred ninety-two college students. Self-efficacy did not mediate the relationship between generational status and academic performance or college adjustment. However, self-efficacy was a significant predictor of college adjustment. High self-efficacy at the beginning of the year predicted better college adjustment at the end of the first year, regardless of generational status. Between group comparisons indicated that first-generation college students had significantly lower self-efficacy than non-first generation college students. Findings suggest that for college students in general, self-efficacy seems to be related to better college adjustment, which in turn, could increase persistence toward graduation. Recommendations for counselors are discussed. Final Pre-Print Version: Journal of College Counseling Self-Efficacy and First-Generation 3 Self-Efficacy of First-Generation and Non-First Generation College Students: The Relationship With Academic Performance and College Adjustment Universities and researchers have expressed a growing concern regarding the experiences of first-generation college students in the literature (Bui, 2002; Hertel, 2002; London, 1989; Olenchak & Hebert, 2002; Strage, 1999; Pascarella, Wolniak, Pierson, & Terenzini, 2003; Pike & Kuh, 2005; York-Anderson & Bowman, 1991). Billson and Terry (1982) defined firstgeneration college students as those whose parents did not attend college, whereas second and non-first generation (traditional college students) have at least one parent who graduated from a four-year university. For the purpose of this study, the term non-first generation college student will be used generally to refer to participants who had at least one parent complete a college degree. The term traditional college student will only be used to maintain the integrity of studies reviewed in the literature. Comparative studies (Bui, 2002; Riehel, 1994) indicate that first-generation college students often encounter more challenges than their peers. This body of research indicates that first-generation college students experience difficulties prior to and during their college experience leaving them vulnerable to lower academic performance (Bui, 2002) and problematic transitions as they adjust to college (Terenzini, Springer, Yeager, Pascarella, & Nora, 1996). Bui (2002) found that a significant portion of first-generation college students encountered challenges with respect to being over-represented in the lower socioeconomic strata, coming from an under-represented ethnic group and speaking a language other than English in the home (Bui, 2002). Less familial support to attend college was also evident (Fallon, 1997; York & Bowman, 1991; Zalaquett, 1999). Fallon (1997) hypothesized that parents who did not attend college were often unable to provide their children with the guidance and mentoring needed in Final Pre-Print Version: Journal of College Counseling Self-Efficacy and First-Generation 4 the college admissions process. This was corroborated by Warburton, Bugarin, and Nunez (2001) who reported that first-generation college students perceived themselves as less prepared, lacked basic knowledge about post-secondary education, and worried more about financial concerns (Bui, 2002; Fallon, 1997) compared to traditional college students. These challenges often translated to a different set of experiences once in college. Differential college experiences between first-generation students and non-first generation college students were evident throughout their academic careers. Terenzini et al. (1996) found that compared to traditional college students, first-generation college students took fewer humanities courses, studied fewer hours, took fewer credits, worked more hours, and were less likely to participate in honors programs. Pascarella et al. (2003) reported similar findings for first-generation college students in a community college setting. Other studies have found that first-generation college students had lower academic performance (Mitchell, 1997; Riehl, 1994), more problematic transitions (Terenzini et al., 1996), and higher levels of attrition (Brooks-Terry, 1988; Thayer, 2000; York-Anderson & Bowman, 1991) than traditional college students. Overall, the body of evidence indicates that first-generation college students encounter more obstacles in college than their peers. The focus on academic performance (e.g., GPA) and college adjustment are particularly relevant, as they have been linked to persistence and attrition in college (Cone, 1992; Gerdes & Mallinckrodt, 1994), problematic issues for first-generation college students (Brooks-Terry, 1988; Thayer, 2000; York-Anderson & Bowman, 1991). However, not all evidence with regard to GPA has been consistent. Contrary to previous findings, Zalaquett (1999) found no difference in GPA between first-generation and traditional college students. This could suggest that other factors could be influencing academic performance. The author hypothesized that students’ similar comfort level Final Pre-Print Version: Journal of College Counseling Self-Efficacy and First-Generation 5 with the college environment accounted for the similarity in GPA between the two groups (firstgeneration vs. non-first generation college students). Thus, students’ internal experience mediated the relationship with their generational status and their academic performance. It would follow that if comfort level mediated the association between generational status and GPA for first-generation college students, then other internal factors may mediate generational status as well. In addition, despite the obstacles many first-generation college students encounter, many do persist toward graduation. Therefore, examining other possible internal factors that mediate external challenges deserves further study. Unfortunately, little attention has been given to internal resources that may be related to academic performance and college adjustment of first-generation college students (McGregor, Mayleben, Buzzanga, Davis, & Becker, 1991). In one of the only studies that addressed internal resources of first-generation college students, McGregor et al. (1991) found that traditional college students had higher self-esteem scores than the first-generation comparison group. The authors indicated that having had parents who completed college made it easier for traditional college students to adjust to the demands of their environment. The advantage of having parents who could guide them in their transition to college likely led to higher confidence and positive beliefs about their ability to succeed and adjust at a four-year university. Given the challenges first-generation college students experience, it is reasonable to conclude that beliefs (internal cognitive process) about their abilities are negatively affected, resulting in lower academic performance. The effects of cognitive processes on outcomes are best understood through social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997). The theory maintains that one class of cognitive processes, self-efficacy, influences behavior and subsequently influences outcomes. Self-efficacy is defined as beliefs about one’s ability to successfully execute a behavior required to produce a Final Pre-Print Version: Journal of College Counseling Self-Efficacy and First-Generation 6 certain outcome (Bandura, 1997). In fact, level of self-efficacy is related to whether or not a person engages in a particular behavior or activity. People may avoid or exert less effort in situations where they possess lower self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986). Conversely, high expectations of self may increase performance and a person’s willingness to persevere (Bandura, 1997). Such has been the case for academic performance. The contribution of self-efficacy to academic performance is well developed in the literature (Bryan & Bryan, 1991; Chemers, Hu, & Garcia, 2001; Elias & Loomis, 2002; Hackett, Betz, Casas, & Rocha-Singh, 1992; Hamptom & Mason, 2003; Lent, Brown, & Larkin, 1984, 1986; Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991; Zimmerman, Bandura, & Marinez-Pons, 1992). Lent et al. (1986) found a positive relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement for college students in technical and scientific majors. Hackett et al. (1992) supported these findings using a college sample of engineering students. Most notably, Chemers et al. (2001) reported that academic self-efficacy was directly related to academic performance of first-year college students, the year in which students encountered the hardest transition. Given the significant relationship between self-efficacy and performance outcomes, it was reasonable to conclude that this would extend to first-generation college students as well. It is possible that self-efficacy could mitigate the first year challenges of this population faces. Unfortunately, research investigating self-efficacy and generational status of college students is limited. Phinney and Haas (2003) examined self-efficacy and coping strategies of first-generation college students but did not address academic performance or college adjustment. Therefore, research examining the relationship between self-efficacy, academic outcomes and transitions of first-generation college students merits further investigation in order to develop interventions necessary to ensure a smooth transition to college. Final Pre-Print Version: Journal of College Counseling Self-Efficacy and First-Generation 7 The purpose of the current study was to extend previous research by applying social cognitive theory to help understand the association between self-efficacy and two academic outcomes for first-generation college students. The study was guided by three inquiries. First, did self-efficacy mediate the relationship between generational