Mindfulness and Impulsivity I The Effects ofa Brief Mindfulness Intervention on Impulsivity in College Students

This study investigated the impact of a brief, introductory mindfulness intervention on attention, executive control, and impulsivity. I randomly assigned fortyseven undergraduate students to a treatment group (TG) receiving mindfulness training and a waiting list control group (WLG). Participants completed a battery ofself-report que tionnaires and standardi zed neuropsychological tests before and after the intervention. Parti cipants high in trait mindfulness suffered less interference on a Stroop task, were less impulsive on the Balloon Analogue Risk Task, but also evidenced less cogni tive flexibility on a dual fluency test at baseline. The TG demonstrated greater improvement than the WLG from baseline to re-test on one cognitive measure (Mental Control). Paradoxically, they also demonstrated a greater increase in impulsivity on the Balloon Analogue Risk Ta k than the WLG. lite its limited effects on attention, executive function, and impulse control, my 2-hour mindfulness intervention successfully motivated college tudents to engage in the component exercises of meditation, body scanning, and yoga . Perhaps future studies incorporating more extensive training and a longer practice interval will yield larger effects on cognition. Mindfulness and Impulsivity 3 The Effects of a Brief Mindfulness Intervention on Impulsivity in Coll ege Stud ents As defined by modem psychology, mindfulness is the cultivation of attention and awareness brought to bear on present moment experiences. Mindfulness theory is rooted in ancient Buddhism, but its concepts are being gradually transplanted into western science. M indfulnes is an "open awareness and attention which may be reflected in a more regular or sustained consciousness of ongoing events and experiences" (Brown & Ryan, 2003, p. 822). This ongoing awareness and attention is cultivated and maintained through a variety of meditative exercises. Mindfulness has recei ved compelling support for its status as an effective form of behavioral medicine. It has been used successfully to treat anxiety, depression, chronic pain, binge eating, and substance abuse (Kabat-Zinn , 1990; KabatZinn et aI., 1992; Kriste ller & Hallen, 1999; Teasdale, Segal, Williams, Ridgeway, Soulsby, & Lau , 2000). More than 250 medical institutions in the United States currently offer mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) programs (Kabat-Zinn. 2003; Kabat-Zinn et aI., 1992). The objective of the current study is to inve tigate the impact of a brief, introductory mindfulness intervention on attention, executive control, and impulsivity in college undergraduates . Impulsivity can be defined as a tendency to respond quickly to a gi en stimulus without deliberation and evaluation of consequences (Buss & Plomin, 1975). Impulsivity is a failure of emotiona l regulation that has been linked to both maladaptive risk-taking behaviors and weak executive cogniti ve function (Aytaclar, Tarter, Kirisci, & Lu , 1999; White, Moffitt " Caspi, Bartusch , Needles, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1994). Hoffman, Friese, and Roefs (2009) found that regulation of impulses involves separate Mindfulness and Impuls ivity 4 contributions from executive attention, inhibitory control, and affective regulation . The strength of any of these central systems mediates the impact of automatic affective reactions that initiate impulsive behavior. Logan, Schachar, and Tannock (1997) suggest deficient inhibitory regulation is the predominant factor underlying impulsivity. Previous research indicates that children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) a disorder commonly characterized by impulsivity have more trouble inhibiting action than both normal controls and controls with other psychiatric diagnoses (Schachar, Tannock, & Logan, 1993). Barkley (1997) further emphasizes the importance of inhibitory control as it purportedly creates a delay that allows executive functions to proceed unimpeded by irrelevant information. Both insufficient inbibition and poor executive functioning are associated with decreased attention and working memory (Brocki & Bohlin, 2006). Contemporary neurological research suggests that visceral, emotional responses (impulses) originate from the amygdala, but can be modified or filtered by the prefrontal cortex (PFC) before a full-fledged behavioral response is executed (Davidson et aI., 2003). Cresswell, Eisenberger, & Lieberman, 2007 provide evidence that mindfulness training can improve the PFC's ability to regulate limbic responses. Mindfulness treatment has been shown to decrease overgeneralization and to improve cognitive flexibility (Heeren, Van Broeck & Phillippot, 2009). Furthermore, Jha, Krompinger, and Baime (2007) provide evidence that mindfulness modifies multiple subsystems of attention in order to improve behavioral responses. Many researchers believe that mindfulness practice achieves these results by operating on the pivotal mechanism of inhibitory control. Mindfulness incorporates intense, sustained survei llance of one's Mindfulness and Impulsivity 5 breath. Bishop (2004) suggests that redirecting attention from intruding thoughts to breathing helps inhibit secondary processing of extraneous thoughts, feelings, and sensations. Moreover, the deliberate shifting of attention, which is integral to many mindfulness techniques, may strengthen cognitive flexibility (Bishop, 2004; Alexander, Langer, Neman, Chandler & Davies, 1989). Complimentary evidence that mindfulness enhances executive functions has emerged from a growing body of biological observations. Newberg, Wintering, Waldman, Amen, Khalsa, & Alavi, (20 I 0) showed that mindfulness practitioners experience increased cerebral blood flow in the PFC. Researchers have also concluded that mindfulness practice can cause direct anatomical changes in the brain based on evidence from structural MRI scans. Individuals with extensive meditation experience have thicker cortices and increased gray matter concentration in the PFC than individuals who do not meditate regularly (Lazar, Kerr, Wasserman , Gray , Greve , Treadway, et aI., 2005; Holzel, Ott, Gard , Hempel , Weygandt, Morgen, et et aI., 2008; Luder, Toga, Lepore, & Gaser, 2009). All of these discoveries suggest that mindfulness facilitates attentional regulation and may help inhibit impulses. However, little experimental research has examined the impact of mindfulness on standardized neuropsychological and self-report measures of impulsivity.