The (non-)universality of syntactic selection and functional application

ing away from the particulars of the various algebraic logics that Quine proposes as possible substitutes for a more traditional first-order predicate logic, three critical aspects of how complex formulas are built are relevant for our purposes: (i) conjunction of atomic formulas, (ii) identification of variables within conjuncts and across conjuncts, and (iii) selection of a variable for ‘outside composition,’ that is, selection of a variable within a formula which will be targeted by an operator that outscopes that formula. As we now show, all three features of Quine’s reanalysis play an essential role in our model of the syntax/semantics interface of Oneida. We focus in this paper on three of the five major constructions we have identified in Oneida. For considerations of space, the description is informal or semi-formal, and we focus on the semantic effect of the syntactic combination, in particular on the conjunctive mode of semantic composition (see Koenig and Michelson 2012 for details on the syntactic component of these constructions). 4.1. How a conjunctive mode of semantic composition works We discuss the most frequent construction first, the combination of a verb and an external NP. The semantic content of words and phrases is represented through the values of two attributes, INDEX and CONTENT. The value of the INDEX attribute stands for the (discourse) referent of an expression; the value of the CONTENT attribute for the semantic content of a word or phrase. We assume that values of the INDEX attribute are sorted so as to distinguish between nominal and situational indices. We illustrate our use of these attributes on the first of the three constructions we discuss, namely, the construction responsible for combining a verb and an NP, informally described in (27a). As is traditional in HPSG, identically numbered tags represent shared information. Thus, the presence of the two tags 1 ensures that the meanings of the two daughters share a variable. (27) a. A phrase with a nominal index i and a phrase with a situational index j, one of whose participants is i, can form a phrase with index j. b. nominal-dislocation⇒ [ INDEX 1 esit CONTENT∃x( 4 Q( 1 e, 3 x)∧ 2 P( 3 x)) ] [ INDEX 1 esit CONTENT 4 Q( 1 e, 3 x) ] [ INDEX 3 xnom CONTENT 2 P( 1 x) ] In (27), the left daughter corresponds to the verb, and the right daughter to the NP. For ease of exposition, we describe the construction as the local combination of a verb (a situationdenoting phrase) with an NP. As mentioned before, in reality the dependency between the NP and the verb can be unbounded. Note also that the order of the two daughters is not a matter of grammar. The nominal dislocation construction says that the content of the combination of an NP and a verb will include the conjunction of the content of the NP together with that of the verb (or sentence) it is adjoined to.7 Aside from existential closure, the construction says that the content of the mother node is the conjunction of the contents of the daughters (with identically numbered tags 2 and 4 indicating, as usual, shared information). 7Our informal statement of the construction is loosely based on Lexical Resource Semantics, see Richter and Sailer 2004. We simplify the representation and include existential closure of co-indexed variables so as to make our semantic contents look more familiar to readers. We treat semantic arguments of verbs as definite by default (represented here, informally, as pronouns). We also omit issues having to do with the underspecification of semantic scope, as they are not relevant to the main purpose of this paper.