Running Head: EXPLORATION IN THE BEHAVIORIST’S WAY OF KNOWING 1 An Exploration in the Behaviorist’s Way of Knowing

The present paper discusses the behaviorist’s way of knowing through the lens of an instructional designer and provides a historical overview of behaviorism and its key principles. Additional subtopics include the application of behaviorism to instructional design methodology, academic management, and performance management. Behaviorism is also compared to two other prominent learning theory models, cognitivism and constructivism. Finally the paper discusses how behaviorism has impacted the author and her personal way of knowing, and considers potential research questions pertaining to the re-design of instructional design methodology to move away from behaviorism and instead to a more constructivist approach. EXPLORATION IN THE BEHAVIORIST’S WAY OF KNOWING _____________ 3 An Exploration in the Behaviorist’s Way of Knowing Instructional designers and learning facilitators (e.g. teachers, trainers) study learning theories in order to create effective learning experiences for their students. As one of the earliest models of learning, behaviorism has provided the foundation for many other models of learning that are applied in modern classrooms. The behaviorist’s way of knowing emphasizes observable learning outcomes that are influenced by environmental stimuli (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). The author chose the topic of behaviorism due its profound influence on learning development models and its important applications to the author’s profession, employee training and performance improvement. The present paper provides a historical overview of behaviorism and its key principles. Additional subtopics include the application of behaviorism to instructional design methodology, academic management, and performance management. Next behaviorism is compared to two other prominent learning theory models: cognitivism and constructivism. Finally the paper discusses how behaviorism has impacted the author and her personal way of knowing, and potential research questions are introduced. Historical Foundations of Behaviorism Behaviorism partially grew from psychology’s need to provide observable data to explain behavior, and similar to the practices of the other sciences (Schunk, 2004, p. 29). Schunk (2004) traces the origin of behaviorism back to the early 1900’s through Thorndike’s work on “trial and error” learning (p. 30). Trial and error learning suggests that the most basic form of learning results from associations between sensory stimuli and neural responses (referred to as “connectionism”) (Schunk, p. 30). Trial and error learning occurs over time as correct responses become engrained in the learner. Central to Thorndike’s paradigm are the Law of Exercise and the Law of Effect (Schunk, p. 31). The first principle, the Law of Exercise, denotes the EXPLORATION IN THE BEHAVIORIST’S WAY OF KNOWING _____________ 4 requirement for learning to be practiced or used in order to maintain the connection. Disuse leads to broken connections. The Law of Effect describes the need for consequences to learner responses to determine future responses. Thorndike’s ideas paved the way for classical conditioning and operant conditioning models of behaviorism. Classical conditioning refers to the process of generating involuntary responses resulting from a conditioned stimulus, often called “respondent behavior” (Driscoll, 2000, p. 36). The first model of classical conditioning is traced to Pavlov and his research on the digestive system of dogs. Accidently discovered, Pavlov noticed the dogs drooling (saliva production is part of the digestion process) before the food was provided (Schunk, 2004, p. 36). Schunk (2004) provides the following example of classical conditioning (p. 37). In the first phase, the researcher identifies the unconditioned stimulus (food powder) and the unconditioned response (salivation). During the second phase, the researcher presents a conditioned stimulus (metronome) followed by the unconditioned stimulus (food powder), which results in an unconditioned response (salivation). Over time, the conditioned stimulus (metronome) solicits the conditioned response (salivation) when presented on its own without the unconditioned stimulus (food powder). If a response is voluntarily emitted, the behavior is referred to as an operant behavior, which was made famous by Skinner in the mid 20th century (Driscoll, 2000, p. 36). Skinner modified the behaviorist paradigm by arguing behavior could be explained by environmental cues and their results (Driscoll, 2000, p. 34). This description of learning is frequently illustrated by the black box metaphor, where the learner’s mind is compared to a black box because nothing inside can be seen, however, the responses can still be observed (Driscoll, 2000, p. 35). Skinner’s EXPLORATION IN THE BEHAVIORIST’S WAY OF KNOWING _____________ 5 research primarily utilized pigeons and rats as participants, which allowed him to control the environment and environmental cues (Alonzo, LaCagnina, & Olsen, 1977). Through the concept of operant conditioning, Skinner introduced the ideas of reinforcement and punishment (Alonzo, LaCagnina, & Olsen, 1977). To strengthen a response or increase the likeliness of it occurring in the future, Skinner paired the desired response with a reinforcer (Driscoll, 2000, p. 39). A reinforcer (similar to a reward) can be positive (given) such as a bonus, or negative (taken away) such as decreasing the number of chores required. To decrease the likeliness of an undesired behavior, the learner may receive a punishment. Punishment can also be positive such as a traffic ticket, or negative such as taking away a privilege. Reinforcers are generally favored whereas a punishment is typically unwanted by the learner (Driscoll, 2000, p. 39). Skinner’s theoretical framework on operant conditioning provided the foundation for the discovery of other concepts in behaviorism. For example, “learned helplessness” is a phenomenon where the learner’s behavior has been continuously paired with a punishment that when the punishment is removed the learner still believes they are unable to perform the behavior (Driscoll, 2000, p. 43). Another concept is “extinction” where the reinforcement contingencies disappear and consequently the paired behaviors disappear over time as well (Driscoll, 2000, p. 44). Learners can also identify how to generalize reinforced behaviors to other situations and discriminate in different situations (Schunk, 2004, pp. 57-58). A key component to successful reinforcement methodology is identifying when the reinforcer should be presented after the desired behavior is displayed. Four different contingency schedules are widely accepted: fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, and variable interval (Driscoll, 2000, p. 51). EXPLORATION IN THE BEHAVIORIST’S WAY OF KNOWING _____________ 6 Many of the concepts described here have been applied to develop other behavioral methods including behavior modification also known as behavior therapy (Schunk, 2004, p. 61). Behaviorism’s Modern Applications Behaviorist-based principles have numerous applications to the modern classroom and workplace. As discussed previously, behaviorism requires observable performance to indicate learning has occurred (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Although learning requires both the learner and environmental factors to take place, behaviorists place more emphasis on arranging the learning environment to include appropriate stimuli and consequences for learner responses (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). This section reviews three examples of behaviorist applications. First, instructional design methodology is analyzed on how it provides the foundation and structure for learning through the behaviorist lens. Next this section will discuss behaviorism in the classroom in regards to the management of long-term academic goals. Finally, performance management represents the key to creating top performing organizations. The author chose these topics because of professional interests (instructional design and performance management) and personal interests (academic management to pursue a doctoral degree). The Instructional Design Process Behaviorist-based methods can be easily observed through the instructional tools and strategies applied by instructional designers, primarily because instructional design was founded on behaviorist principles (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Consider the instructional design process, ADDIE, which is described as the most basic of models (Brown & Green, 2006). The acronym ADDIE stands for Analysis, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate – the five basic phases for successful course development (Brown & Green, 2006). In the Analysis phase, the instructional designer conducts task analyses, learner analyses, and performance gap analyses. EXPLORATION IN THE BEHAVIORIST’S WAY OF KNOWING _____________ 7 Each type of analysis relies on observable data, a requirement of behaviorism (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). During the Design phase, the instructional designer writes behaviorally based learning objectives and arranges content for mastery learning (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). The Development phase may include creation of simulations through computer-based instruction (Cooper, 1993). The instructor during the Implementation phase provides opportunities for practice and reinforces content through rewards and feedback (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Evaluation of the course derives from observable learning through assessments, practice, and application of learning (Ermer & Newby, 1993). Academic Management In addition to course development, behaviorism may also be applied to the management of learners and the achievement of academic goals through different types of reinforcement techniques. Breslaw (1973) manipulated the grading system of her college classes where the goal of students was to achieve points (instead of detracting points for poor performance). Students received points for attendance and for completing course as