The peopling of Europe from the maternal and paternal perspectives.

Although Rosser et al. (2000xY-chromosomal diversity within Europe is clinal and influenced primarily by geography rather than language. Rosser, ZH, Zerjal, T, Hurles, M, Adojaan, M, Alavantic, D, Amorim, A, Amos, W et al. Am J Hum Genet. 2000; 66: 1526–1543Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | Scopus (403)See all References2000) have provided the most comprehensive survey to date of European Y-chromosome variation, their studies were limited by their ability to estimate dates for the dispersal of the observed haplogroups. Hence, a direct comparison of Y-chromosome and mtDNA results in Europeans remains tenuous. This limitation may be eased in the near future, as additional single-nucleotide polymorphisms are identified and used in population surveys (e.g., Underhill et al. 1997xDetection of numerous Y chromosome biallelic polymorphisms by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography. Underhill, PA, Jin, L, Lin, AA, Mehdi, SQ, Jenkins, T, Vollrath, D, Davis, RW, Cavalli-Sforza, LL, and Oefner, PJ. Genome Res. 1997; 7: 996–1005PubMedSee all References1997) and as more accurate locus-specific microsatellite mutation rates are determined (Heyer et al. 1997xEstimating Y chromosome specific microsatellite mutation frequencies using deep rooting pedigrees. Heyer, E, Puymirat, J, Dieltjes, P, Bakker, E, and deKnijff, P. Hum Mol Genet. 1997; 6: 799–803Crossref | PubMedSee all References1997; Bianchi et al. 1998xCharacterization of ancestral and derived Y-chromosome haplotypes of New World native populations. Bianchi, NO, Catanesi, CI, Bailliet, G, Martinez-Marignac, VL, Bravi, CM, Vidal-Rioja, LB, Herrera, RJ, and Lopez-Camelo, JS. Am J Hum Genet. 1998; 63: 1862–1871Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMed | Scopus (125)See all References1998; Kayser et al. 2000xCharacteristics and frequency of germline mutations at microsatellite loci from the human Y chromosome, as revealed by direct observation in father/son pairs. Kayser, M, Roewer, L, Hedman, M, Henke, L, Henke, J, Brauer, S, Kruger, C, Krawczak, M, Nagy, M, Dobosz, T, Szibor, R, de Knijff, P, Stoneking, M, and Sajantila, A. Am J Hum Genet. 2000; 66: 1580–1588Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMed | Scopus (270)See all References2000). Even given the current limitations of the Y-chromosome analysis, the emerging similarities in the geographic patterns of autosomal, mtDNA, and Y-chromosome variation are striking. With the current articles, we are beginning to see congruence in the results of all three systems in relation to the demic expansion of the Neolithic Near Eastern farmers into Europe. Richards et al. (2000xTracing European founder lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool. Richards, M, Macauley, V, Hickey, E, Vega, E, Sykes, B, Guida, V, Rengo, C et al. Am J Hum Genet. 2000; 67: 1251–1276Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMedSee all References2000) now propose that approximately one-fifth (23% using their most stringent founder-identification criteria) of the extant European mtDNA lineages arrived during the Neolithic. This value is very near the proportion of variance described by the first principal component of classic genetic-marker studies (26%–28%) (Menozzi et al. 1978xSynthetic maps of human gene frequencies in Europeans. Menozzi, P, Piazza, A, and Cavalli-Sforza, LL. Science. 1978; 201: 786–792Crossref | PubMedSee all References1978; Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994xCavalli-Sforza, LL, Menozzi, P, and Piazza, A. See all References1994, 1997xPaleolithic and Neolithic lineages in the European mitochondrial gene pool. Cavalli-Sforza, LL and Minch, E. Am J Hum Genet. 1997; 61: 247–254Abstract | Full Text PDF | PubMedSee all References1997; Piazza et al. 1995xGenetics and the origin of European languages. Piazza, A, Rendine, S, Minch, E, Menozzi, P, Mountain, J, and Cavalli-Sforza, LL. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1995; 92: 5836–5840Crossref | PubMed | Scopus (54)See all References1995). Similarly, Rosser et al. (2000xY-chromosomal diversity within Europe is clinal and influenced primarily by geography rather than language. Rosser, ZH, Zerjal, T, Hurles, M, Adojaan, M, Alavantic, D, Amorim, A, Amos, W et al. Am J Hum Genet. 2000; 66: 1526–1543Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | Scopus (403)See all References2000) have proposed that almost half of the European Y chromosomes exhibit a major southeast-northwest cline, consistent with a major Neolithic expansion. Since haplogroups 1 and 9, respectively, are only three and two mutational steps removed from the ancestral Y-chromosome haplotype, there is a good possibility that additional biallelic markers will reveal greater structure in the European Y-chromosome haplogroups, allowing for more accurate descriptions of Y-chromosome expansions. Perhaps as more refined estimates of Y-chromosome locus-specific microsatellite mutation rates are obtained (e.g., Kayser et al. 2000xCharacteristics and frequency of germline mutations at microsatellite loci from the human Y chromosome, as revealed by direct observation in father/son pairs. Kayser, M, Roewer, L, Hedman, M, Henke, L, Henke, J, Brauer, S, Kruger, C, Krawczak, M, Nagy, M, Dobosz, T, Szibor, R, de Knijff, P, Stoneking, M, and Sajantila, A. Am J Hum Genet. 2000; 66: 1580–1588Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMed | Scopus (270)See all References2000) and applied to the dating of lineages, the ages of the European Y-chromosome expansions will be found to coincide with those of the mtDNA and the classic markers. Thus, even allowing for real differences in the evolutionary history of mtDNA and Y-chromosome molecules, it is not unreasonable to hope that in the not-too-distant future they will be found to provide complementary information on the peopling of Europe.