THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DATING RELATIONSHIPS The Use of Technology in Dating Relationships

The following study examined predictors of cyber dating abuse. Early life factors including attachment style, history of bullying as well as relationship attributes (trust, jealousy and frequency of communication) were examined. The primary goal was to test the relative strength of one’s early life factors, peer experiences and current relationship qualities. The first hypothesis proposed that early life factors would be more significant variables than relationship attributes in predicting cyber dating abuse. The secondary hypothesis tested for potential moderating effects of attachment style on trust and jealousy predicting cyber dating abuse. A total of 110 undergraduate students from 18-25 years (M = 20.73, SD = 1.86), who were in a current romantic relationship completed a series of self-reports. Using multiple regression, avoidant attachment style, bullying perpetration, relationship trust and emotional jealousy were all significant predictors of Cyber Dating Abuse (CDA). The study showed no interaction between avoidant attachments with other predicting variables. These findings can be added to the limited body of research on cyber dating abuse in hopes to stimulate further investigation on the possible risk factors of cyber dating abuse. THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DATING RELATIONSHIPS 3 The Use of Technology in Dating Relationships Technology has become an essential in our everyday life with its main advantage of keeping us connected to our loved ones. The benefits of technology are furthermore appreciated for those in romantic relationships. Technology has allowed couples to constantly stay connected through its various forms such as text messages, phone calls and emails, despite geographical barriers. Although technology can be very rewarding, it is not a surprise that it also has its limitations. In extreme cases, technology can be used as a tool to abuse a partner. Cyber dating abuse is a phenomena characterized by one’s intent to humiliate, harass, stalk or control their partner through the use of technology (Zweig, Lachman, Yahner & Dank, 2013). The prevalence of cyber dating abuse is especially prevalent in younger demographics with 15% of 6 graders involved in cyber dating abuse perpetration (Peskin et al., 2017). This form of abuse also occurs in young adults with 50% of college students reporting to have experienced cyber dating abuse at least once (Borrajo, Galmez & Calvete, 2015). In response to these alarming rates, researchers are interested in investigating the risk factors in perpetration. Studies show that cyber dating abuse occurs under the context of jealousy, reciprocity, anger and humour (Borrajo, Galmez & Calvete, 2015). In addition, individual factors such as being a female, having poor problem solving skills and psychological issues influence cyber dating abuse perpetration (Peskin et al.,2017). To date, studies on cyber dating abuse is still in its preliminary stages. The purpose of this study is to further investigate potential factors that may influence the perpetration of cyber THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DATING RELATIONSHIPS 4 dating abuse. This will be done by exploring the role of attachment style, history of bullying, trust, jealousy and frequency of communication. Furthermore, I aim to see if attachment style and bullying experiences pose a greater influence on cyber dating abuse perpetration than relationship qualities. Attachment and Cyber Dating Abuse Attachment Theory, a concept developed by John Bowlby (1973), emphasizes the importance of parenting as a model for secondary relationships whether platonic or romantic. According to Bowlby the level of attachment a child adopts in the future depends on the degree to which a child’s needs were met by their caregiver (Shieh, 2000). Someone with a secure attachment views their caregiver as reliable and protective. In contrast, those with an insecure attachment such as anxious attachment, had parents who were inconsistent in meeting their needs while children who grow to have an avoidant attachment had parents who were rejecting, cold and critical (Shieh, 2000). Bowlby hypothesized that the type of bond established between the child and parent will not only influence the type of relationship the child will have in later life, but will also create an internal working model that will dictate how the child perceives one’s self and others. Good parent-child relationships result in a securely attached individual viewing themselves and others as competent, lovable and worthy (Shieh, 2000). In contrast, poor early life interactions leads to an insecure attachment style paired with negative evaluations of the self and others known as “early maladaptive schemas”. Early maladaptive schemas are distorted truths one carries, such as feelings of inferiority, low self-esteem or fear of abandonment. Studies have shown that children insecure attachments are associated with higher rates of early maladaptive schemas against those THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DATING RELATIONSHIPS 5 with secure attachments (Simard, Moss & Pascuzzo, 2011). These toxic beliefs can influence the development of personality traits deemed threatening to a relationship and in turn affect overall relationship satisfaction. For instance, people with an anxious or avoidant attachment show lower levels of trust, stability, relationship satisfaction (Marshall et al. 2013) and jealous tendencies (Hazan & Shaver, 1987) making them more likely to exhibiting problematic or abusive behaviour in relationships. Several studies also outline the link between insecure attachment and cyber dating abuse. A study by Fox & Warber (2014) demonstrates how partner surveillance is most often endorsed by those with preoccupied and fearful attachments. In another study, Facebook jealousy is seen to be positively correlated to those with anxious attachments in comparison to other attachment styles. In addition their pessimistic schema allows them to interpret cryptic information as threatening (Marshall et al., 2013). Overall, a dysfunctional upbringing and maladaptive schema can make one with an insecure attachment more likely to experience jealousy, interpersonal conflicts and abuse in relationships in comparison to those with secure attachment styles. History of Bullying and Cyber Dating Abuse Studies have shown how parent-child attachment predicts one’s behaviour with peers. It is evident that differences in attachment styles also produce distinct experiences in friendships. Those with secure attachments have closer connection with their peers, experience lower anxiety and exhibit effective conflict resolution skills (Zimmerman, 2004). In contrast, those with preoccupied attachments were more hostile in their friendships, possess poor conflict resolution skills and were more socially anxious (Zimmerman, 2004). Finally avoidant attached people are emotionally independent and do not place much importance in their relationships (Zimmerman, THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DATING RELATIONSHIPS 6 2004). Studies have also shown how parenting styles can vary the likelihood of bullying experiences in children. Children of overprotective, cold or rejecting parents are more likely to be perpetrators of bullying whereas parental permissiveness is associated with bullying victimization in girls (Van der Watt, 2014). Furthermore avoidant and anxious attached children are more likely to be the aggressive towards peers in comparison to securely attached individuals. For example, relational aggression is most often seen in girls who develop an anxious attachment toward their mother. Physical aggression is most often seen in males with an anxious attachment toward their father (Williams & Kennedy, 2012). Unfortunately, aggressive behaviour displayed by those with insecure attachments is not only limited to peer relationships. As of now, many studies have shown the link between bullying and physical dating violence. A longitudinal study sampling grade 6 children show that physical bullying was a significant predictor of physical dating violence (Foshee et al., 2014). In addition, group membership may also serve as a predictor to dating violence. Adolescents who associate with peer groups who engage in high levels of relational aggression are more likely to be victims or perpetrators of dating violence (Ellis, Chung-Hall & Dumas, 2013). Moreover, aggression and violent behaviour may further be reinforced and justified for youths who associate with others who also show aggression in peer group context (Ellis, Chung-Hall & Dumas, 2013). To date, only a few studies show the relationship between traditional bullying and cyber dating abuse. Victims and perpetrators of bullying are twice as likely to become perpetrators of cyber dating abuse than those who have never experienced any form of bullying (Yahner, Dank, Zweig & Lachman, 2015). It is important to note as well that the relationship between bullying and cyber dating abuse can be explained by a traumatic or abusive upbringing. Children exposed to harsh discipline or abuse were more likely to view their parents’ behaviour as normal. This increases THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DATING RELATIONSHIPS 7 the likelihood of a child repeating or expecting this behaviour in future relationships (Smith & Wilson, 1998). This study will investigate the influence of bullying perpetration and victimization online and offline on the onset of cyber dating abuse perpetration. Relationship Attributes and Cyber Dating Abuse In general, romantic relationships characterized by abusive behaviours are lower in overall quality (Ellis, Chung-Hall & Dumas, 2013). Studies have also shown the link between relationship attributes, jealousy and trust, and the occurrence of cyber dating abuse. Jealousy can be explained by one’s emotional or cognitive response to a perceived threat. Both cognitive and emotional appraisal of jealousy can lead to abusive behaviours in a relationship. The cognitive aspect of jealo