Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
A Review on Traditional Caries Diagnostic Systems and Introduction of New International Caries Detection and Assessment System (ICDAS)

Dental caries is a chronic infection disease that manifests itself through demineralization of dental tissues and cavitations in the tooth structure. The diagnosis of dental caries poses challenges due to the complex interaction of multiple endogenous causal factors. Naturally, visual and visual-tactile examinations have been the most commonly used diagnostic aids in caries examination for many years. A major drawback in common dental examination was the use of varied diagnostic criteria by various authors. Some extensive reviews regarding this have emphasized the need for a unique system for the diagnosis of such caries. Thus, International Caries Detection and Assessment System (ICDAS) emerged as a benchmark for detection and assessment of dental caries. The main objective of the new system is to improve the level of information to help make informed decision about diagnosis, prognosis, and clinical management of caries at both individual and public health levels. This study aimed to review traditional caries diagnosis methods and also describe the philosophy of the new ICDAS system for diagnosis and assessment of caries and also demonstrate how it can serve as a basis and benchmark for clinical and epidemiological research. Key words: Caries D etection, Caries A ssessment, ICDAS, Epidemiology
The pattern of endocranial ontogenetic shape changes in humans

Humans show a unique pattern of brain growth that differentiates us from all other primates. In this study, we use virtual endocasts to provide a detailed description of shape changes during human postnatal ontogeny with geometric morphometric methods. Using CT scans of 108 dried human crania ranging in age from newborns to adults and several hundred landmarks and semi‐landmarks, we find that the endocranial ontogenetic trajectory is curvilinear with two bends, separating three distinct phases of shape change. We test to what extent endocranial shape change is driven by size increase and whether the curved ontogenetic trajectory can be explained by a simple model of modular development of the endocranial base and the endocranial vault. The hypothesis that endocranial shape change is driven exclusively by brain growth is not supported; we find changes in endocranial shape after adult size has been attained and that the transition from high rates to low rates of size increase does not correspond to one of the shape trajectory bends. The ontogenetic trajectory of the endocranial vault analyzed separately is nearly linear; the trajectory of the endocranial base, in contrast, is curved. The endocranial vault therefore acts as one developmental module during human postnatal ontogeny. Our data suggest that the cranial base comprises several submodules that follow their own temporally and/or spatially disjunct growth trajectories.
The origin, molecular regulation and therapeutic potential of myogenic stem cell populations

Satellite cells, originating in the embryonic dermamyotome, reside beneath the myofibre of mature adult skeletal muscle and constitute the tissue‐specific stem cell population. Recent advances following the identification of markers for these cells (including Pax7, Myf5, c‐Met and CD34) (CD, cluster of differentiation; c‐Met, mesenchymal epithelial transition factor) have led to a greater understanding of the role played by satellite cells in the regeneration of new skeletal muscle during growth and following injury. In response to muscle damage, satellite cells harbour the ability both to form myogenic precursors and to self‐renew to repopulate the stem cell niche following myofibre damage. More recently, other stem cell populations including bone marrow stem cells, skeletal muscle side population cells and mesoangioblasts have also been shown to have myogenic potential in culture, and to be able to form skeletal muscle myofibres in vivo and engraft into the satellite cell niche. These cell types, along with satellite cells, have shown potential when used as a therapy for skeletal muscle wasting disorders where the intrinsic stem cell population is genetically unable to repair non‐functioning muscle tissue. Accurate understanding of the mechanisms controlling satellite cell lineage progression and self‐renewal as well as the recruitment of other stem cell types towards the myogenic lineage is crucial if we are to exploit the power of these cells in combating myopathic conditions. Here we highlight the origin, molecular regulation and therapeutic potential of all the major cell types capable of undergoing myogenic differentiation and discuss their potential therapeutic application.
O3-5.2 UK biobank: the need for large prospective epidemiological studies

Scientists have known for many years that our risks of developing different diseases are due to the complex interplay of different factors: our lifestyle and environment; our personal susceptibility; and the play of chance. But, despite this longstanding awareness, a clear picture of the combined effects of different factors on the risks of different diseases in different circumstances is yet to emerge. For the comprehensive and reliable quantification of the combined effects of lifestyle, environment, genotype and other exposures, prospective studies have a number of advantages. As well as allowing effects on a wide range of different conditions to be studied, exposures can be assessed prior to disease development, which avoids recall bias and allows investigation of factors that might be affected by disease processes and treatments, or an individual's response to developing some condition. Prospective studies are also able to assess those conditions that cannot readily be investigated retrospectively and can include all cases that have high fatality rates. Cohorts to date have typically been characterised by small numbers of disease cases (which may yield unstable estimates due to random variations), incomplete or inadequate measures of potential risk factors (which may yield systematic under-estimates of disease associations) and incomplete or inadequate measures of confounding factors (which may yield over- or under-estimates). Consequently, to help assess the main causes of various chronic diseases quantitatively, there is a strategic need to establish some large blood-based prospective studies of well phenotyped individuals, with prolonged and detailed follow-up of cause-specific morbidity and mortality.
Nursing Home Deficiency Citations for Medication Use

Deficiency citations for medication use in nursing homes, including those for psychoactive drug use, are examined. The variables of interest include eight structural and market factors. Data primarily came from the 1997 through 2003 Online Survey, Certification and Recording data and the 2004 Area Resource File. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used with generalized estimating equations and multinomial logistic regression models with Huber-White robust estimation. Smaller nursing homes and high Medicaid reimbursement rates were consistently significantly associated with fewer deficiency citations in general and fewer repeat deficiency citations. For the other structural and market factors, varying results were identified depending on whether the deficiency citation was specifically for psychoactive drugs, medication errors, or medication administration. Relatively few facilities received psychoactive-specific deficiency citations, whereas numerous facilities were identified with medication error deficiency citations and medication administration deficiency citations. In addition, a relatively large number of facilities received these same citations repeatedly.
Rac1 and Cholesterol Metabolism in Macrophage

Abstract: In the early stages of atherosclerotic lesion development, cholesterol is mostly present as esterified cholesterol stored in macrophage cytoplasmic lipid droplets. However, when the lesion evolves, free cholesterol accumulates in other compartments, such as lysosomes and plasma membrane. A number of studies support a role for intracellular cholesterol content and distribution in regulating several cell functions. Particularly, membrane free cholesterol content has a specific effect on signaling pathways involved in regulating cell motility and organization of the actin cytoskeleton. These processes are regulated by several signaling pathways including the small GTPase Rac1. Rac1 belongs to the Rho GTPases of the Ras protein superfamily involved in the regulation of multiple cell functions, including cell proliferation, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, degranulation, and superoxide production. In this review, we discuss the role of Rac1 in macrophage with respect to cholesterol metabolism and trafficking as critical aspects for the development of atherosclerotic plaque.
Visualization of 3D osteon morphology by synchrotron radiation micro‐CT

Cortical bone histology has been the subject of scientific inquiry since the advent of the earliest microscopes. Histology – literally the study of tissue – is a field nearly synonymous with 2D thin sections. That said, progressive developments in high‐resolution X‐ray imaging are enabling 3D visualization to reach ever smaller structures. Micro‐computed tomography (micro‐CT), employing conventional X‐ray sources, has become the gold standard for 3D analysis of trabecular bone and is capable of detecting the structure of vascular (osteonal) porosity in cortical bone. To date, however, direct 3D visualization of secondary osteons has eluded micro‐CT based upon absorption‐derived contrast. Synchrotron radiation micro‐CT, through greater image quality, resolution and alternative contrast mechanisms (e.g. phase contrast), holds great potential for non‐destructive 3D visualization of secondary osteons. Our objective was to demonstrate this potential and to discuss areas of bone research that can be advanced through the application of this approach. We imaged human mid‐femoral cortical bone specimens derived from a 20‐year‐old male (Melbourne Femur Collection) at the Advanced Photon Source synchrotron (Chicago, IL, USA) using the 2BM beam line. A 60‐mm distance between the target and the detector was employed to enhance visualization of internal structures through propagation phase contrast. Scan times were 1 h and images were acquired with 1.4‐μm nominal isotropic resolution. Computer‐aided manual segmentation and volumetric 3D rendering were employed to visualize secondary osteons and porous structures, respectively. Osteonal borders were evident via two contrast mechanisms. First, relatively new (hypomineralized) osteons were evident due to differences in X‐ray attenuation relative to the surrounding bone. Second, osteon boundaries (cement lines) were delineated by phase contrast. Phase contrast also enabled the detection of soft tissue remnants within the vascular pores. The ability to discern osteon boundaries in conjunction with vascular and cellular porosity revealed a number of secondary osteon morphologies and provided a unique 3D perspective of the superimposition of secondary osteons on existing structures. Improvements in resolution and optimization of the propagation phase contrast promise to provide further improvements in structural detail in the future.
Internal morphology of human facet joints: comparing cervical and lumbar spine with regard to age, gender and the vertebral core

Back pain constitutes a major problem in modern societies. Facet joints are increasingly recognised as a source of such pain. Knowledge about the internal morphology and its changes with age may make it possible to include the facets more in therapeutic strategies, for instance joint replacements or immobilisation. In total, 168 facets from C6/7 and L4/5 segments were scanned in a micro‐computed tomography. Image analysis was used to investigate the internal morphology with regard to donor age and gender. Additional data from trabecular bone of the vertebral core allowed a semi‐quantitative comparison of the morphology of the vertebral core and the facets. Porosity and pore spacing of the cortical sub‐chondral bone does not appear to change with age for either males or females. In contrast, bone volume fraction decreases in females from approximately 0.4 to 0.2 , whereas it is constant in males. Trabecular thickness decreases during the ageing process in females and stays constant in males , whereas trabecular separation increases during the ageing process in both genders. The results of this study may help to improve the understanding of pathophysiological changes in the facet joints. Such results could be of value for understanding back pain and its treatment.
What Determines the Vertical Displacement of the Body During Normal Walking?

Conventional wisdom states that the vertical excursion of the body is reduced by several of six “determinants” of gait to minimize the energy expenditure of walking. However, we have shown that pelvic obliquity and stance-phase knee flexion—the second and third determinants of gait—have little or no effect on the magnitude of the body’s vertical excursion during normal walking because the timing of these actions is wrong for reduction of vertical movement to occur. We believe that stance-phase knee flexion and pelvic obliquity provide shock absorption in normal walking during the loading response phase of gait. Our data show that for a given individual the vertical displacement of the body is determined by effective leg length, foot rocker radius, and step length. Using a rocker-based inverted pendulum model of walking, we have derived equations relating walking parameters such as the vertical excursion, step length, cadence, and walking speed. Results from our theoretical analysis compared favorably with actual measurements from able-bodied ambulators walking across a range of speeds from about 0.8 to 2.0 m/sec. We believe that some pathological gaits may be improved through modification of the foot rocker shape and by making adequate provisions for shock absorption.
Pharmacotherapy of Methamphetamine Addiction: An Update

Methamphetamine dependence is a serious public health problem worldwide for which there are no approved pharmacological treatments. Psychotherapy is still the mainstay of treatment; however, relapse rates are high. The search for effective pharmacological treatment has intensified in the last decade. This review will highlight progress in pharmacological interventions to treat methamphetamine dependence as well as explore new pharmacological targets. Published data from clinical trials for stimulant addiction were searched using PubMed and summarized, as well as highlights from a recent symposium on methamphetamine pharmacotherapy presented at the ISAM 2006 meeting, including interim analysis data from an ongoing D-amphetamine study in Australia. Early pilot data are encouraging for administering D-amphetamine and methylphenidate as treatment for heavy amphetamine users. Abilify at 15 mg/day dose increased amphetamine use in an outpatient pilot study. Sertraline, ondansetron, baclofen, tyrosine, and imipramine were ineffective in proof-of-concept studies. Development of pharmacotherapy for methamphetamine dependence is still in an early stage. Data suggesting D-amphetamine and methylphenidate as effective pharmacotherapy for methamphetamine addiction will need to be confirmed by larger trials. Preclinical data suggest that use of GVG, CB1 antagonist, and lobeline are also promising therapeutic strategies.
Early childhood aetiology of mental health problems: a longitudinal population-based study.

BACKGROUND Mental health problems comprise an international public health issue affecting up to 20% of children and show considerable stability. We aimed to identify child, parenting, and family predictors from infancy in the development of externalising and internalising behaviour problems by age 3 years. METHODS Design Longitudinal, population-based survey completed by primary caregivers when children were 7, 12, 18, 24 and 36 months old. Participants 733 children sequentially recruited at 6-7 months from routine well-child appointments (August-September 2004) across six socio-economically and culturally diverse government areas in Victoria, Australia; 589 (80%) retained at 3 years. Measures 7 months: sociodemographic characteristics, maternal mental health (Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS)), substance misuse, home violence, social isolation, infant temperament; 12 months: partner relationship, parenting (Parent Behavior Checklist (PBC)); 18, 24 and 36 months: child behaviour (Child Behavior Checklist 1(1/2)-5 (CBCL)), PBC, DASS. RESULTS Sixty-nine percent of all families attending well-child clinics took part. The consistent and cumulative predictors of externalising behaviours were parent stress and harsh discipline. Predictors of internalising behaviours included small family size, parent distress, and parenting. Twenty-five percent of variation in early externalising behaviour and 17% of variation in early internalising behaviour was explained. CONCLUSIONS Effective and cost-efficient population approaches to preventing mental health problems early in childhood are urgently needed. Programmes must support parents in reducing personal stress as well as negative parenting practices.
Estimating the Causal Effect of Conduct Disorder on the Time from First Substance Use to Substance Use Disorders Using G-Estimation

Background The effect of conduct disorder (CD) as a major risk factor of substance use disorder (SUD), controlling for other psychiatric problems, has been well established in the literature. However, other psychiatric problems are associated as confounders with an increased risk of SUD. When confounding exists, the use of the standard survival analysis approach would lead to a biased estimate of the effect of a time-varying exposure on the time to event. Methods The authors used a G-estimation approach to estimate the causal effect of CD while controlling for time-varying confounders. Results The present study (N = 1420) found a substantial difference in the estimated hazard ratio of CD (4.49 vs. 1.93) when the results from G-estimation and Cox regression were compared. Conclusions G-estimation fixed the problem of underestimating the hazard ratio of conduct disorder (CD) while controlling for all measured covariates.
Diffusion-weighted MR Imaging of the brain

The publication of this book is timely. Although diffusion-weighted imaging is routinely available on most modern clinical MRI machines there are few resources that even approach a comprehensive evaluation in clinical practice. Whilst it was generally accepted that a diffusion-weighted abnormality represented irreversible ischaemia in the setting of acute stroke, subsequent work has shown that this tissue may be pathologically heterogenous and can even be reversible. This understanding is slowly filtering into books describing imaging in stroke. This book introduces the principles of diffusionweighted imaging, normal findings and, importantly, pitfalls and artefacts, the latter chapter being extremely helpful. There is then a chapter dedicated to the differentiation between cytotoxic and vasogenic oedema. The book then sequentially discusses infarction, haemorrhage, vasculopathies, epilepsy, demyelination, metabolic diseases, infection, trauma, neoplasia and paediatrics. All of these discussions are comprehensive and very well illustrated with numerous examples. One of the novelties of the book is the final section entitled ‘how to use this book’. This basically does the reverse of the previous chapters in that it is based primarily on the differences seen with the diffusionweighted image, the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) image and the T2 image, i.e., it discusses the differential diagnosis of an image, e.g., with increased diffusion weighting, low ADC and increased T2. This section is likely to be of great assistance to individuals seeing a combination of signal changes for the first time. There are very few negative points associated with the book, areas such as mislabelling of some of the figures in Chapter 14 which should have been picked up by the publisher. Overall the authors should be complimented for putting together such a rich resource of cases in such a balanced manner. The book is very accessible and will mainly be of interest to radiologists involved in reporting diffusion-weighted studies and should be a welcome addition to the reading room area for reference. There will be other individuals within clinical neuroscience who will also find the book of interest.
Alcohol and Associated Characteristics among Older Persons Living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus on Antiretroviral Therapy

Background Alcohol use, and particularly unhealthy alcohol use, is associated with poor human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related outcomes among persons living with HIV (PLWH). Despite a rapidly growing proportion of PLWH ≥50 years, alcohol use and its associated characteristics are underdescribed in this population. The authors describe alcohol use, severity, and associated characteristics using data from a sample of PLWH ≥50 years who participated in a trial of a telephone-based intervention to improve adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART). Methods Participants were recruited from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) service organizations in 9 states and included PLWH ≥50 years who were prescribed ART, reported suboptimal adherence at screening (missing >1.5 days of medication or taking medications 2 hours early or late on >3 days in the 30 days prior to screening), and consented to participate. The AUDIT-C (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test—Consumption) alcohol screen, sociodemographic characteristics, substance use, and mental health comorbidity were assessed at baseline. AUDIT-C scores were categorized into nondrinking, low-level drinking, and mild-moderate unhealthy, and severe unhealthy drinking (0, 1–3, 4–6, and 7–12, respectively). Analyses described and compared characteristics across drinking status (any/none) and across AUDIT-C categories among drinkers. Results Among 447 participants, 57% reported drinking in the past year (35%, 15%, and 7% reported low-level drinking, mild-moderate unhealthy drinking, and severe unhealthy drinking, respectively). Any drinking was most common among men and those who were lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT), married/partnered, had received past-year alcohol treatment, and never used injection drugs (P values all <.05). Differences in race, employment status, past-year alcohol treatment, and positive depression screening (P values all <.05) were observed across AUDIT-C categories, with African American race, less than full-time employment, past-year alcohol treatment, and positive depression screening being most common among those with the most severe unhealthy drinking. Conclusions In this sample of older PLWH with suboptimal ART adherence, a majority reported past-year alcohol use and 22% screened positive for unhealthy alcohol use. Any and unhealthy alcohol use were associated with demographics, depression, and substance use history. Further research is needed regarding alcohol use among older PLWH.