Is there a future for genome‐editing technologies in conservation?

In a recent review, Pimm et al. (2015) highlight emerging technologies in protecting biodiversity. While their list is noteworthy, the authors’ exclusion of innovations in genomic research, with the exception of single-species DNA barcoding methods, was surprising given recent advances in genome-editing technology and its potential application to conservation. Taylor & Gemmell (2016) address that deficiency in a subsequent commentary identifying three avenues where emerging genomic technologies have great potential for increasing our ability to conserve biodiversity. Those areas include the use of next-generation sequencing technologies and methods such as RADseq for monitoring genetic diversity, effective population size, and introgression (Andrews et al., 2016); the use of environmental DNA (eDNA) and metabarcoding approaches to map species occurrence and interaction networks (Evans et al., 2016); and the use of genomic data and gene-editing technology to identify and alter regions of the genome that may impact fitness and limit survival in endangered taxa (Taylor & Gemmell, 2016). Here, we extend that the theme with additional discussion on how genome-editing technologies can benefit the conservation of threatened and endangered species. Genome-editing technologies as referenced herein include methods that can insert, delete or replace DNA within an organism’s genome. One particular editing technique called CRISPR-Cas9 (Jinek et al., 2012) has gained considerable momentum over the past three years achieving Science’s 2015 Breakthrough of the Year (Travis, 2015), largely due to its simplicity, relative low cost and precise genomic-editing capabilities (Mei et al., 2016). The CRISPR-Cas9 technique was developed from the adaptive immune response of bacteria and archaea against invading viruses and plasmids (Jinek et al., 2012; see also Lander, 2016). It is essentially an RNA-guided molecule that is programmed to identify a specific location within the genome and subsequently cut and replace target DNA (i.e. RNA-guided endonuclease; see Mei et al., 2016 and Wright, Nu~ nez & Doudna, 2016, for specific details). The CRISPR-Cas9 technology has already been shown to have great potential to benefit humans in a variety of ways including improving crops (Kim et al., 2015), eliminating disease (McLean & Jacobs-Lorena, 2016) and targeted medical therapies (Savi c & Schwank, 2016). There is no reason why the technology could not be used as a tool to support biodiversity conservation. We acknowledge that much needs to be done to increase awareness within the conservation community about how genome-editing technology can benefit conservation in practice. That is no easy task largely because of the widely held negative perception of genetically modified (GM) organisms used in agriculture, particularly by the for-profit commercial industry (Au, 2015; see also Redford et al., 2014). However, the use of GM pharmaceuticals in human medicine has received less negative attention (Locwin, 2015). The conservation community can learn from this dichotomy, and identify tactful approaches for its advocacy in conservation. How can genome-editing technology benefit conservation? First, most people agree that the prevention and mitigation of non-native invasive organisms is increasingly difficult and costly due to expanding global trade and travel (Banks et al., 2015). Our ability to combat invasive species effectively is relevant for conserving biodiversity because non-native species are a significant contributor to recent vertebrate extinctions (Bellard, Cassey & Blackburn, 2016). Genomic-engineering technologies, and specifically those that utilize CRISPR-Cas9 gene drive methodologies to alter reproductive capacity (Esvelt