Toward Creating Computer-Based Math Learning Favoring High-School Females

Research indicates that teenage females prefer to work and perform better at the learning environment that supports frequent interactions and allows them to build relationships with others. This paper will introduce a computer-based algebra-learning environment MathGirls equipped with pedagogical agents (digital life-like characters) that simulate real-world social interactions and relations. The goal of MathGirls is to help young women of high-school age build positive attitudes toward and self-efficacy in math learning through this simulated social context. To investigate the efficacy of MathGirls, a classroom experiment was conducted with 83 high-school females. The experiment examined the effects of agent attributes (female teacher-like, male teacher-like, female peer-like, and male peer-like) and learner ethnicity (Caucasian vs. minorities). The results indicated that minority females’ math attitudes were significantly higher after working with the female-teacher-like agent than with the other agents. Second, Caucasian females’ math attitudes were significantly higher after working with the male agents, whereas minority females’ math attitudes were significantly higher after working with the female agents. Third, both groups of the female students perceived the peer-like agents to be significantly more affable than the teacher-like agents. Fourth, Caucasian females performed significantly higher after working with the teacher-like agents, whereas minority females performed higher with the peer-like agents. From the results, the author conjectures that the concept of attribute similarity (the similarity in personal characteristics of a role model and a learner) seems to have applied more to minority females. In contrast, the projection of real-world social stereotypes seems to have applied Computer-Based Math Learning 3 more to Caucacian females. Overall, the findings support the instructional utility of agent attributes to address the needs of diverse groups of young female learners. Computer-Based Math Learning 4 INTRODUCTION Gender differences in academic interest and cognitive and interaction style are well documented (Arroyo, Murray, Woolf, & Beal, 2003; Evans, Schweingruber, & Stevenson, 2002; Hakkarainen & Palonen, 2003; Slotte, Lonka, & Lindblom-Ylanne, 2001). In particular, the gender differences in motivation to learn science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) have become more salient with recent concern about workforce imbalances in the fields of science and engineering. Young women’s lack of motivation to learn STEM subjects has been mainly attributed to the social influence of family, friends, and teachers, which impose gender-related social stereotypes and expectations on young women. Ultimately, that is a societal issue that might not be immediately resolved. As an alternative, a team of multidisciplinary researchers created a computerbased math learning environment (MathGirls), funded by the National Science Foundation (HRD-0522634) equipped with digital simulated friends and teachers (called pedagogical agents), with the speculation that the virtual environment might be able to simulate social relationships in the real world and help high-school females improve their attitudes toward and self-efficacy in math learning. Traditionally, various technologies have been utilized to promote K-12 math learning – e.g., Cognitive Tutors by Carnegie Mellon University (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995) and Virtual Manipulatives (http://enlvm.usu.edu/ma/nav/doc/intro.jsp) by groups of researchers funded by the National Science Foundation. Unlike those existing interventions, the uniqueness of the current learning environment (MathGirls) is highlighted with its attempts to address the affective aspect of math learning; a major goal of MathGirls is to Computer-Based Math Learning 5 build high-school females’ positive math attitudes and confidence through the virtual social modeling with pedagogical agents and, eventually, to motivate the females to take elective math-related courses and pursue careers in STEM in the long term. This paper introduces an experimental study that examined the efficacy of the MathGirls environment, whether the persuasive messages presented by the pedagogical agents to build positive math attitudes would contribute to the improvement of highschool females’ positive math attitudes, math self-efficacy, and math learning. In particular, given the concept of attribute similarities – the similarities of personal characteristics between a social model and a learner in the real world (Bandura, 1997; Schunk, 1987), the study focused on the investigation of the impact of the pedagogical agents’ attributes defined by agent age and gender among Caucasian and minority highschool females. Detailed descriptions of the study follow. THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS Females’ Lack of Motivation toward STEM Many young females tend to hold beliefs that interfere with their learning of STEM and limit their pursuit of careers in those fields. They often identify STEM areas as associated with men, believe STEM aptitude to be a fixed ability (Heyman, Martyna, & Bhatia, 2002), perceive scientists and engineers as “geeks” (Muller, 2002), and doubt their own ability to succeed in science and engineering (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). These beliefs are attributable mainly to the social and cultural influences of family, friends, and teachers (Clewell & Campbell, 2002; Sandler, Silverberg, & Hall, 1996; Wood, 2002), which include low expectations for girls in STEM, less attention and intellectual Computer-Based Math Learning 6 encouragement to girls than boys in STEM classes, expectations that girls will be polite rather than active in class, and lack of role models (fewer females in STEM areas). Those social influences lead females to have low confidence in and negative attitudes toward STEM learning and eventually pursuing careers in STEM. Studies indicate that girls’ performances are often equal to or even better than those of boys in math and science during elementary school years (Baker, 2002; Brownlow, Jacobi, & Rogers, 2000). Through less-than-favorable educational experiences in traditional classrooms, young females are frequently imbued with gender-related stereotypes and develop negative beliefs about their potential to learn STEM (Sandler et al., 1996). To counter these influences, organizations (e.g., NSF and Society of Women Engineers) have initiated various mentoring programs to match female scientists and engineers with young females and to guide their career choices. Female-friendly websites have been developed to familiarize young females with learning math/science concepts. As such, female-friendly STEM-related interventions should be warranted in order to proactively invite females who, because of stereotypic expectations, are not interested in learning STEM. In other words, females need to be exposed to the environments that will encourage them to overcome ungrounded social stereotypes and to build constructive views of their confidence and competence in STEM. Ultimately, the females’ unfavorable educational experiences might be a societal issue, involving parents, teachers, and friends, whose stereotypic views seem unlikely to change immediately. However, with the advances of computing technology, a femalefriendly virtual environment that simulates social interaction can be instantiated. This Computer-Based Math Learning 7 environment may counter the undesirable social influences in the real world and foster social interaction favoring the young females who learn STEM. Girls’ Preference for Social Interaction in Learning In classrooms, females tend to be more aware of social influences than males. Sandler and colleagues (1996) argued that girls’ participation in class is more affected by teacher behavior than that of boys. A developmental theorist Gilligan (1993) contends that girls more than boys value relationships and connections with others and construct their identities as a result of the interpersonal relationships they have created and maintained. Lightbody and Siann (1996) show that female students are more likely than boys to interact by cooperating and synthesizing and to feel more comfortable in making connections and negotiating closeness in relationships. In the study, the female students also reported liking friends, interactions, and relationships, whereas the boys reported liking sports and school clubs. However, according to Jones and Dindia (2004), in classroom practices, girls seem to have fewer opportunities than boys to interact with their teachers. The researchers conducted a meta-analysis of 32 empirical studies to examine patterns of gender differences in teacher-initiated teacher/student interactions. They found a tendency for teachers to initiate more overall interactions with male students than with female students. This phenomenon contradicts females’ preferences for interactive learning experiences. Given that STEM areas have fewer role models for females, the phenomenon may influence females to feel isolated in STEM classrooms and, eventually, limit their motivation toward STEM learning. It is highly plausible that females can be more successful in STEM learning environments that afford social context in which they can interact and build relations. For instance, for women successful in Computer-Based Math Learning 8 mathematics-related careers, social influences such as encouragement and support from family members and teachers are found to be the foundation on which these women build their academic confidence to overcome obstacles in their progression through maledominated academic programs (Zeldin & Pajares, 2000). Females’ inclinations toward interactions and relationships in conventional settings are consistently demonstrated in computer-based environments. They are more sensitive than boys to help messages (Arroyo et al., 2003) and perform b