Processes in karst systems : physics, chemistry, and geology

1 Introduction. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 The Process of Karstification. - 1.2 Approaches to an Explanation of Karst Development. - 1.3 Organization of the Book. - I Basic Principles from Physics and Chemistry. - 2 Chemistry of the System H2 O-CO2 -CaCO3. - 2.1 Reactions and Equilibria. - 2.2 Boundary Conditions for Achieving Equilibrium. - 2.2.1 The General Case. - 2.2.2 Change of Boundary Conditions. - 2.2. 3 Saturated CaCO3 Solutions. - 2.2. 4 Mixing of Saturated Waters in the Closed System. - 2.2. 5 Influence of Foreign Ions on Calcite Dissolution. - 3 Mass Transport. - 3.1 The Random Walk Problem as Principle for Diffusional Mass Transport. - 3.2 The Laws of Diffusion. - 3.2.1 Some Basic Solutions. - 3.3 Diffusive and Advective Mass Transport. - 3.3.1 Diffusion in Turbulent Flow. - 3.3.2 Hydrodynamic Dispersion. - 3.4 Diffusion Coefficients and Their Magnitudes. - 3.4.1 Molecular Diffusion. - 3.4.2 Eddy Diffusion. - 3.4.3 Hydrodynamic Dispersion. - 4 Chemical Kinetics. - 4.1 Rate Laws of Elementary and Overall Reactions. - 4.1.1 Elementary Reactions. - 4.1.2 Overall Reactions. - 4.1.3 Temperature Dependence of Rate Constants. - 4.2 Approaching Equilibrium. - 4.2.1 Irreversible Reactions. - 4.2.2 Reversible Reactions. - 4.3 The Kinetics of the Reaction H2 O + CO2 ? H++HCO? 3. - 4.3.1 Examples. - 4.4 Mixed Kinetics. - 5 Hydrodynamics of Flow. - 5.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow. - 5.1.1 The Law of Bernoulli. - 5.1.2 Laminar Flow. - 5.1.3 Turbulent Flow. - 5.1. 4 An Example of Hydraulic Characteristics of Karst Aquifers. - 5.1. 5 Flow Through Porous Media. - II Principles of Dissolution and Precipitation of CaCO3. - 6 Dissolution and Precipitation of Calcite: The Chemistry of the Heterogeneous Surface. - 6.1 Experimental Methods of Calcite Dissolution. - 6.1.1 Rotating Disc System. - 6.1.2 Batch Experiments. - 6.1.3 Measurement of Dissolution Rates. - 6.2 The Kinetics of Calcite Dissolution. - 6.2.1 Three Regions of Calcite Dissolution. - 6.2.2 The Mechanistic Model of Plummer, Wigley and Parkhurst (PWP Model). - 6.2. 3 Comparison of the Mechanistic Model with Other Experiments. - 6.3 Kinetics of Calcite Precipitation. - 6.4 Dissolution Close to Equilibrium. - 7 Modelling the Kinetics of Calcite Dissolution and Precipitation in Natural Environments of Karst Areas. - 7.1 Statement of the Problem. - 7.2 The Mass Transport Equation. - 7.3 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics in the Open System. - 7.3.1 Calculation of Dissolution and Precipitation Rates. - 7.3.2 Results for the Open System. - 7.4 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics in the Closed System. - 7.4.1 Calculation of the Rates. - 7.4.2 Results for the Closed System. - 7.5 The Influence of the Diffusion Boundary Layer to Dissolution and Precipitation Rates in Turbulent Flow. - 7.5.1 Calculation of Dissolution and Precipitation Rates. - 7.5. 2 Experimental Verification. - 7.6 Dissolution in Natural Systems. - 7.6.1 Influence of Foreign Ions on Dissolution Rates Far from Equilibrium. - 7.6.2 Influence of Lithology on Dissolution Rates. - 7.6.3 Dissolution in Porous Media. - III Conceptual Models of Karst Processes. - 8 Karst Systems. - 8.1 Fractures and Discontinuities in Limestone Rocks. - 8.1.1 Joints. - 8.1.2 Faults. - 8.1.3 Bedding Planes. - 8.2 Structural Segments and Tectonic Control of Caves. - 8.3 Karst Aquifers. - 8.4 Caves. - 8.5 Development of Caves. - 9 Models of Karst Development from the Initial State to Maturity. - 9.1 Pressure Fields in Fractures and Their Influence on the Development of Early Channels. - 9.2 The Network Linking Models of Ewers. - 9.2.1 The Low Dip Model. - 9.2.2 The High Dip Model. - 9.2. 3 The Restricted Input Model. - 9.3 Dissolution Kinetics and the Concept of Penetration Length. - 9.3.1 The Concept of Penetration Length. - 9.3.2 Penetration Lengths in Turbulent Flow. - 9.4 Karst Development from the Initial State to Maturity. - 9.5 Geomorphological Theories from the Viewpoint of the Mathematical Model. - 9.6 Experimental Models. - 9.7 Karst Processes on the Surface. - 9.7.1 The Formation of Dolines and Shafts. - 9.7.2 Karst Denudation. - 9.7.3 Denudation Rates on Bare Rock at the Surface and in Caves. - 10 Precipitation of Calcite in Natural Environments. - 10.1 Speleothems: Growth and Morphology. - 10.2 Stalagmites. - 10.2.1 Morphology of Stalagmites. - 10.2.2 Growth Rates of Stalagmites and Related Diameters. - 10.3 Calcite Precipitation in Surface Streams. - 11 Conclusion and Future Perspective. - References.