Experiential training and risk management behaviour amongst pilots

I II Acknowledgments . IV List of Tables . VIII List of Figures.X Chapter 1: Introduction . 1 1.1 Errors.7 1.1.1 Violations.10 1.1.2 Cognitive Failures versus Attitude, Belief and Values.15 1.1. 3 Violations and the Current Study.17 1.1. 4 Research on Violators . 19 1.1. 5 Aggression, Frustration, Stress, and Information Processing Ability.27 1.2 Summary . 33 Chapter 2: Risk . 35 2.1 Risk Management . 35 2.2 Hazard Perception.40 2.3 Risk Perception . 46 2.4 Risk Acceptance and Tolerance.49 2.5 Personal Biases Affecting Decision-Making . 53 2.6 Cognition and Risk Management.58 2.7 Anticipation, Decision-Making and Risk Management.61 2.8 Summary . 69 Chapter 3: Behavioural Modification through Attitude . 71 3.1 Cultures, Norms and Aviation . 71 3.2 Imitation of Others.77 3.3 Conformity.79 3.4 Categorisation . 81 3.5 Summary . 84 Chapter 4: Behavioural Modification through Cognitive Processes.85 4.1 Human Reasoning.85 4.2 Application of Case-Based Training.88 4.2.1 Process of Case-Based Reasoning . 94 4.2.2 Case Similarity.98 4.3 Artificiality and Transfer of Training . 100 4.4 Transfer of Learning . 101 4.5 Case Salience . 105 4.6 Information Processing and Automaticity . 106 4.7 Summary . 111 Chapter 5: Experiment 1-Cognitive Involvement and Risk-Taking.114 5.1 Method . 116 5.1.1 Participants.116 5.2 Design . 118 5.3 Materials . 118 5.4 Procedure . 125 5.5 Results.128 5.5.1 Frequency of Pilots Descending Beneath 500 Feet . 130 5.5.2 Mean Minimum Altitude Descended for Group.133 5.5.3 Pilots’ Orientation towards Risk.134 VI 5.6 Discussion . 135 5.7 Implications of Not Obtaining a Significant Result.138 5.7.1 Similarity of Case Examples.139 5.7.2 Better than the Norm.143 5.7.3 Active Participation in Training Helps Facilitate the Acquisition of Knowledge . 145 Chapter 6: Experiment 2-Cognitive Involvement and Risk Management . 147 6.1 Improving Performance through Direct Involvement.147 6.2 Effects of Feedback and Memory on Risk Management Performance . 151 6.3 Improving Pilots’ Risk Management Behaviour . 156 6.4 Method . 158 6.4.1 Participants.158 6.5 Design . 160 6.6 Materials . 161 6.7 Procedure . 162 6.8 Results.165 6.8. 1 Frequency of Pilots Descending Beneath 500 Feet . 166 6.8. 2 Mean Minimum Altitude Descended for Group.168 6.8. 3 Pilot’s Orientation towards Risk.172 6.9 Discussion . 174 6.9. 1 Selecting a Source Analogy . 175 6.9. 2 The Abstract Nature of Similarities between Tasks . 177 6.9. 3 Limitations of the Study.179 6.9. 4 Future Research Direction . 181 Chapter 7: Experiment 3-Generalisati on under Varying Levels of Cognitive Load.182 7.1 Transfer of Training.182 7.2 Varying Levels of Cognitive Loads and Effective Transfer . 190 7.3 Individual Differences . 196 7.3.1 Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale . 196 7.3.2 Hunter’s Risk Perception Scales.198 7.3.3 Hypotheses pertaining to ‘No’ Variation in Cognitive Load.201 7.3.4 Hypotheses pertaining to ‘Minimal’ Variation in Cognitive Load.203 7.4 Method . 205 7.4.1 Participants.205 7.5 Design . 206 7.6 Materials . 208 7.7 Procedure . 209 7.8 Results.214 7.8. 1 Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale . 214 7.8. 2 Risk Perception . 216 7.9 Results from the Four Simulated Test Flights . 217 7.10 Analysis of Data Relating to ‘Traffic’ Test Flight.218 7.10. 1 Frequency of Pilots Descending Beneath 500 Feet . 219 7.10. 2 Mean Minimum Altitude Descended for Group.221 7.11 Analysis of Data Relating to ‘Freight Train’ Test Flight.222 7.11.1 Frequency of Pilots Descending Beneath 500 Feet . 223 7.11.2 Mean Minimum Altitude Descended for Group.224 7.12 Analysis of Data Relating to ‘Cliff Face’ Test Flight.225 7.12.1 Frequency of Pilots Descending Ben