Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
Saturn's upper atmosphere from the Voyager 2 Euv solar and stellar occultations

The temperature and composition of the upper atmosphere of Saturn have been inferred from Voyager 2 ultraviolet spectrometer occultation measurements made by observing the sun and the star δ-Scorpii while they were being occulted by Saturn. The observations analyzed here provide atmospheric parameters from 2900 km down to 960 km above the 1-bar level referred to the equator. The temperature in the model simulation of the data is 420±30 K down to about 1600 km. Below 1600 km the temperature decreases with a variable lapse rate down to 120±30 K near the methane homopause located at 1010±40 km. A constant temperature at 120 K is applied in the model for the region of the methane homopause down to 960 km where the present analysis terminates. Column amounts of H2 and H were measured from 2900 km down to about 1100 km, giving densities of [H2] ∼ 1.0×108 cm−3 and [H] ∼ 5.5×106 cm−3 near the exobase at 2500 km. Near the methane homopause the H2 density is [H2] = 1.2 × 1012 cm−3 with a CH4 number density mixing ratio of 6.0×10−5. The eddy diffusion coefficient in the vicinity of the methane homopause is estimated to be ∼5.0×106 cm² s−1. The atomic hydrogen density profile suggests a downward H flux of ∼1.8×109 cm−2 s−1 from near the exobase down to a terminal boundary of about 1200 km.
The in(a/tan/β) index:how to calculate it and how to use it within the topmodel framework

Topographic indices may be used to attempt to approximate the likely distribution of variable source areas within a catchment. One such index has been applied widely using the distribution function catchment model, TOPMODEL, of Beven and Kirkby (1979). Validation of the spatial predictions of TOPMODEL may be affected by the algorithm used to calculate the model's topographic index. A number of digital terrain analysis (DTA) methods are therefore described for use in calculating the TOPMODEL topographic index, ln(a/tan beta) (a = upslope contributing area per unit contour; tan beta = local slope angle). The spatial pattern and statistical distribution of the index is shown to be substantially different for different calculation procedures and differing pixel resolutions. It is shown that an interaction between hillslope contributing area accumulation and the analytical definition of the channel network has a major influence on calculated ln(a/tan beta) index patterns. A number of DTA tests were performed to explore this interaction. The tests suggested that an 'optimum' channel. initiation threshold (CIT) may be identified for positioning river headwaters in a raster digital terrain model (DTM). This threshold was found to be dependent on DTM grid resolution. Grid resolution is also suggested to have implications for the validation of spatial model predictions, implying that 'optimum' TOPMODEL parameter sets may be unique to the grid scale used in their derivation. Combining existing DTA procedures with an identified CIT, a procedure is described to vary the directional diffusion of contributing area accumulation with distance from the channel network.
Closed genome sequences of two Listeria monocytogenes ST121 strains

ABSTRACT We performed Oxford Nanopore and Illumina sequencing to generate accurate, closed genomes for the Listeria monocytogenes strains 6179 and L58-55. The new assemblies were generally similar to the previous Illumina-based assemblies, but additional rRNA operons and repeat regions were identified in the new assembly for strain 6179.
NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES USES AND ABUSES OF EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE IN THE DEATH PENALTY DEBATE

Does the death penalty save lives? A surge of recent interest in this question has yielded a series of papers purporting to show robust and precise estimates of a substantial deterrent effect of capital punishment. We assess the various approaches that have been used in this literature, testing the robustness of these inferences. Specifically, we start by assessing the time series evidence, comparing the history of executions and homicides in the United States and Canada, and within the United States, between executing and non-executing states. We analyze the effects of the judicial experiments provided by the Furman and Gregg decisions and assess the relationship between execution and homicide rates in state panel data since 1934. We then revisit the existing instrumental variables approaches and assess two recent state-specific execution morartoria. In each case we find that previous inferences of large deterrent effects based upon specific examples, functional forms, control variables, comparison groups, or IV strategies are extremely fragile and even small changes in the specifications yield dramatically different results. The fundamental difficulty is that the death penalty – at least as it has been implemented in the United States – is applied so rarely that the number of homicides that it can plausibly have caused or deterred cannot be reliably disentangled from the large year-to-year changes in the homicide rate caused by other factors. As such, short samples and particular specifications may yield large but spurious correlations. We conclude that existing estimates appear to reflect a small and unrepresentative sample of the estimates that arise from alternative approaches. Sampling from the broader universe of plausible approaches suggests not just “reasonable doubt” about whether there is any deterrent effect of the death penalty, but profound uncertainty – even about its sign.
Strain-Rate Effects in Shear Highlighted by a Dynamical Systems Model

AbstractSoil shear can be described as a dynamical system in which particles move at random shear strains into the steady-state flow structure in a process governed by simple friction. This paper studies strain-rate effects in soil shear in the context of dynamical systems soil-shear theory. The theory highlights the fact that conditions at the start of plastic deformation are strain-rate dependent and that much of the initial linear variation of stresses with strain is not attributable to the elasticity behavior of the soil but rather is the expected small-strain behavior of a nonlinear process of plastic deformation. The static coefficient of friction dominates at very small strains, after which the friction coefficient reduces to its dynamic value. Variations with strain rate in the stress-strain and void ratio–strain curves are small because of the correspondingly small dependence of the friction coefficients on strain rate.
An effective filtering for GRACE time‐variable gravity: Fan filter

Spatial low‐pass filtering is necessary for processing the GRACE time‐variable gravity (TVG) data which are otherwise plagued with short‐wavelength noises. Here we devise a new non‐isotropic filter, called the fan filter: In terms of the spherical harmonic spectrum, the fan filter is simply a 2‐D double filter consisting of a low‐pass along the degree n (the same as the conventional isotropic filter) simultaneously with a low‐pass along the order m, whose contour projection onto the (n, m) plane is fan‐shaped. It is deterministic and independent of a priori or external information, its implementation is straightforward, and the result is objective. Most importantly, we show that this simple filter performs well among its counterparts under similar conditions, in particular against the N‐S striping noises prevalent in the GRACE TVG solutions. We demonstrate this with Gaussian weights at filter length and hence spatial resolution as fine as 300 km. We also deduce the fan filter's nominal amplitude‐reduction factor as a function of the filter length for TVG signals that follow the Kaula rule.
Order and Disorder—: A Model of Latin American Urban Land Use

Should a physics professor wish to demonstrate the concept of inertia he or she could choose no better example than models of urban spa tial structure. For nearly sixty years the principal models of urban structure were all based on United States cities. Text after text pro moted (and still promote! ) the classical concentric zone, sector, and multiple nuclei models as though these abstractions represented all cities everywhere. Eventually, investigators recognized the need for other models in other cultural situations and began to produce culture specific generalizations. Latin American cities, among others, began to receive attention, and Gilbert's recent characterization of them suggests their singularity:
Numerical models of Martian mantle evolution induced by magmatism and solid‐state convection beneath stagnant lithosphere

[1] Numerical models of magmatism in a convecting mantle are presented to understand Martian mantle evolution. The viscosity is strongly temperature dependent, and the lithosphere is stagnant. Magmatism is modeled as a permeable flow of basaltic magma generated by decompression melting. When the initial mantle temperature is sufficiently high, a magma ocean develops to generate a thick basaltic crust and create a compositionally layered mantle. The upper layer of the mantle consists of compositionally buoyant residue of the basaltic crust, while the lower layer consists of compositionally denser materials that are not as depleted in the basaltic component. Hot plumes grow from the lower layer making it thinner with time by erosion. The hot plumes also induce magmatism, which extracts heat-producing elements (HPEs) from the mantle. The HPE extraction regulates plume magmatism activity and controls the duration of plume magmatism. Plume magmatism also keeps the mantle temperature below the solidus by efficiently extracting heat as soon as the mantle temperature exceeds the solidus. The Martian mantle is likely to have evolved as a relaxation from a compositionally layered state formed by the magma ocean, and plume magmatism has probably played a crucial role in the relaxation process.
LARGE AREA HYDROLOGIC MODELING AND ASSESSMENT PART I: MODEL DEVELOPMENT 1

ABSTRACT: A conceptual, continuous time model called SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) was developed to assist water resource managers in assessing the impact of management on water supplies and nonpoint source pollution in watersheds and large river basins. The model is currently being utilized in several large area projects by EPA, NOAA, NRCS and others to estimate the off‐site impacts of climate and management on water use, non‐point source loadings, and pesticide contamination. Model development, operation, limitations, and assumptions are discussed and components of the model are described. In Part II, a GIS input/output interface is presented along with model validation on three basins within the Upper Trinity basin in Texas.
Long-term effects of afforestation with Pinus radiata on soil carbon, nitrogen, and pH: a case study

Planting of Pinus radiata D. Don in previously grazed pastures is a common land-use change in New Zealand. Although carbon (C) accumulates relatively rapidly in the trees, there have been no studies of the annual effect on soil C content during the early years of establishment. Here, we study soil properties under P. radiata and pasture each year over 11 years after P. radiata was planted into pasture that had been grazed by sheep. Under the growing trees, grass was gradually shaded out by the unpruned trees, and completely disappeared after 6 years; needle litterfall had then increased appreciably. By year 9, soil microbial C and nitrogen (N), and net N mineralisation, were significantly lower under pine than under pasture. Soil pH, sampled at 0–100 mm in early spring each year, decreased by ~0.3 units under pine and increased by ~0.3 units under pasture. Close to the pine stems, total C and N decreased significantly for 3 years, while ~100 kg N/ha accumulated in the trees. Soil C and N increased in subsequent years, when litterfall increased. Overall, the mineral soil under pine lost ~500 kg N/ha over 11 years, consistent with uptake by the trees. Leaching losses (estimated using lysimeters) in year 9 were 4.5 kg N/ha.year. These data indicate that ~6 Mg C/ha may have been lost from the mineral soil at this site. The difficulties associated with measuring losses of C are discussed.
High resolution ISAR imaging of high speed moving targets

Range-Doppler (RD) algorithms are idely used i inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) imaging. I the standard RD algorithm, envelope alignment and autofocus are first applied to transform the original data into equivalent turntable target data, and the FFT is used for the image formation. Usually, the migratio through resolution cells (MTRCs) due to target rotatio is ignored. ith the improvement of resolutio or the increase of target size, MTRCs cannot be ignored and must be mitigated. For high speed moving targets, the most idely used 'stop-and-go' data model is violated. I this case, the mitigation of MTRCs becomes eve more complicated. I the paper, technical issues associated ith high resolutio ISAR imaging of high speed moving targets are addressed. A preprocessing algorithm is first proposed to convert the non-coherent ra ISAR data into coherent data, the a keystone formatting algorithm developed for the imaging of slo ground moving targets i SAR is applied to mitigate the MTRCs o ing to rotational motion, and, finally, a high resolutio time-frequency analysis based range-instantaneous Doppler (RID) algorithm is used to produce the focused ISAR image. Numerical examples are provided to illustrate the performance of the proposed approach.
Elemental and isotopic signatures of particulate organic carbon in the Zengjiang River, southern China

Riverine total suspended sediment (TSS) at the lower reach section of the Zengjiang River, a low‐turbidity river in the southern China, was sampled on a 4‐week basis from March 2002 to February 2003. The gross TSS was divided into sedimentary and suspended fractions (SED and SUS) by the sedimentation method. Organic carbon and nitrogen, 14C and 13C were analysed using an elemental analyser and accelerator mass spectrometer respectively. The results show that particulate organic carbon (POC) yield is 0·8 × 106 g km−2 year−1 in the Zengjiang River drainage basin, which is about one‐tenth of that in the Zhujiang (Pearl) River drainage basin. The C/N ratio demonstrates that aquatic biomass is the major contributor to POC in the Zengjiang River. The average share of aquatic biomass in the SUS‐fraction POC and SED‐fraction POC is about 88·89% and 62·76% respectively, with a substantial seasonal variation. δ13C values of SUS‐fraction POC (−26·56 to − 22·89‰) is slightly lighter than that of SED‐fraction POC (−25·05 to − 22·20‰), indicating that the contribution of aquatic biomass to δ13C values is more pronounced in the SUS‐fraction POC than in the SED‐fraction POC. The ‘bomb’–14C signature is not detected in the POC of Zengjiang River, and the contribution from geological organic carbon is very little. Δ14C values of the SED‐fraction POC vary from − 44 to − 223‰, and the Δ14C values of the SUS‐fraction POC vary from − 33 to − 165‰. For most paired samples, the SED‐fraction POC is generally more depleted in 14C than that of its counterpart SUS‐fraction POC. Compared with other small mountainous rivers, the 14C enrichment of POC in the Zengjiang River indicates slight drainage basin erosion. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Wages, Employment, and Capital in Capitalist and Worker-Owned Firms

The authors investigate how worker-owned and capitalist enterprises differ with respect to wages, employment, and capital in Italy, the market economy with the greatest incidence of worker-owned and worker-managed firms. Estimates calculated using a matched employer-worker panel data set for the years 1982–94 largely corroborate the implications of orthodox behavioral models of the two types of enterprise. Co-ops had 14% lower wages than capitalist enterprises, on average; more volatile wages; and less volatile employment. Given the quality of the data set analyzed, the authors argue, these results can be regarded as having broad generality.
Factors influencing the stable carbon isotopic signature of methane from combustion and biomass burning

Factors controlling the δ13C of methane released by combustion include the combustion efficiency of the fire and the δ13C of the fuel. Smoldering fires produced 13C-depleted methane relative to hot, flaming fires in controlled forest and grassland burns and within a wood stove. Pine forest burns in the southeastern United States produced methane which ranged from −21 to −30‰, while African grassland burns varied from −17 to −26‰, depending upon combustion phase. African woodland burns produced methane at −30‰. In forest burns in the southeastern United States, the δ13C of methane released with smoldering was significantly 13C depleted relative to methane released under hot flaming conditions. Methane released with smoldering was depleted by 2–3‰ relative to the fuel δ13C, but this difference was not significant. The δ13C of methane produced in a variety of wood stove conditions varied from −9 to −25‰ and also depended upon combustion efficiency. Similar results were found for methane produced by gasoline automobile engines, where the δ13C of methane varied from −9 to −22‰. For combustion occurring within the confining chamber of a wood stove or engine the δ13C of methane was clearly 13C enriched relative to the δ13C of the fuel, possibly because of preferential combustion of 12CH4 in the gas phase. Significant quantities of ethylene (up to 25 to 50% of methane concentrations) were produced in southeastern U.S. forest fires, which may have consequences for physiological and reproductive responses of plants in the ecosystem. Methane production in these fires varied from 0.2 to 8.5% of the carbon dioxide production.
Crustal thickness variations across the Colorado Rocky Mountains from teleseismic receiver functions

Variations in crustal thickness from the Great Plains of Kansas, across the Colorado Rocky Mountains, and into the eastern Colorado Plateau are determined by receiver function analysis of broadband teleseismic P waveforms recorded during the 1992 Rocky Mountain Front Program for Array Seismic Studies of the Continental Lithosphere (PASSCAL) experiment. The receiver functions are calculated using a time domain deconvolution approach and are interpreted in terms of a single crustal layer, with thickness determined by a grid-search comparison of observed receiver functions with synthetics. The average crustal thicknesses determined by these methods are Kansas Great Plains, 43.8±0.4 km; Colorado Great Plains, 49.9±1.2 km; Colorado Rocky Mountains, 50.1±1.3 km; and northeast Colorado Plateau, 43.1±0.9 at latitudes of 38°–40°N. The main variations in crustal thickness that we observe are between the Kansas Great Plains and the Colorado Great Plains and between the Rocky Mountains and the Colorado Plateau. There is not a significant crustal thickness difference between the Colorado Great Plains and the Colorado Rocky Mountains. Together with gravity data and mass balance calculations, these results are incompatible with the hypothesis that the compensation of the Rocky Mountains relative to the Great Plains is accommodated purely by an Airy-type crustal root or any other mechanism that restricts compensation solely to the crust and requires significant support for the excess topography of the Rocky Mountains to come from the mantle. Models with a rigid elastic plate may match receiver function estimates of crustal thickness but underpredict the amplitude of the gravity low over the Rockies. Our favored model includes lateral variations in crustal velocities obtained from refraction studies and crustal thickness variations constrained by the receiver functions. These models indicate that there is a profound transition in mantle density structure near the eastern range front.
Gas/Particle Partitioning and Secondary Organic Aerosol Yields

Secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation is considered in the framework of the gas/particle partitioning absorption model outlined by Pankow. Expressions for the fractional SOA yield (Y) are developed within this framework and shown to be a function of the organic aerosol mass concentration, M_o. These expressions are applied to over 30 individual reactive organic gas (ROG) photooxidation smog chamber experiments. Analysis of the data from these experiments clearly shows that Y is a strong function of M_o and that secondary organic aerosol formation is best described by a gas/particle partitioning absorption model. In addition to the 30 individual ROG experiments, three experiments were performed with ROG mixtures. The expressions developed for Y in terms of M_o, used in conjunction with the overall yield data from the individual ROG experiments, are able to account for the M_o generated in the ROG mixture experiments. This observation not only suggests that SOA yields for individual ROGs are additive but that smog chamber SOA yield data may be confidently extrapolated to the atmosphere in order to determine the important ambient sources of SOA in the environment.
Natural subsidence of the Venice area during the last 60 Myr

Integrated geohistory analysis performed on high‐resolution stratigraphy of Venezia 1 and Lido 1 wells (Quaternary–Pliocene interval) and low‐resolution stratigraphy of a simulated well extending Lido 1 down to the base of Cenozoic (Palaeocene–Miocene interval) is used to reconstruct the interplay between subsidence and sedimentation that occurred in the Venice area (eastern Po Plain) during the last 60 Myr, and to discuss the relationships between calculated subsidence rates and time resolution of stratigraphic data. Both subsidence and sedimentation are mostly related to the tectonic evolution of the belts that surround the Venice basin, influencing the lithosphere vertical motions and the input of clastic sediments through time. In particular, two subsidence phases are recorded between 40–33.5 and 32.5–24 Myr (0.13 and 0.14 mm year−1, respectively), coeval with tectonic phases in the Dinaric belt. Vice versa, during the main South‐Alpine orogenic phase (middle–late Miocene), quiescence or little uplift (−0.03 mm year−1) reflects the location of the Venice area close to the peripheral bulge of the South‐Alpine foreland system. Early Pliocene evolution is characterised by a number of subsidence/uplift events, among which two uplifts occurred between 5–4.5 and 3–2.2 Myr (at −0.4 and −0.2 mm year−1, respectively) and can be correlated with tectonic motions in the Apennines. During the last million years, the Venice area was initially characterised by uplift (−0.6 mm year−1 rising to −1.5 mm year−1 between 0.4 and 0.38 Myr), eventually replaced by subsidence at a rate ranging between 1.6 and 1.0 mm year−1 up to 0.12 Myr and then decreased to 0.4 mm year−1, as an average, up to present. Our results highlight that time resolution of the stratigraphic dataset deeply influences the order of magnitude obtained for the calculated subsidence rate. This is because subsidence seems to have worked through short‐lived peaks (in the order of 105 years), alternating with long relatively quiescent intervals. This suggests caution when components of subsidence are deduced by subtracting long‐term to short‐term subsidence rate.
Apple computer, Inc.

Twenty years after it was founded, Apple is no longer the major power it once was in personal computing. Apple was the first mainstream vendor of personal computers and is still an important player, setting the pace for ease of use and graphical interfaces, but Apple has become a niche player. The company was born out of the desire of two spirited innovators, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs (Fig. 1), who wanted to bring computing power to ordinary people.