Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
The Business Judgment Rule in Overview

Some people are fortunate since they have never heard of the business judgment rule. Less fortunate are people who sense the general purport of the business judgment rule to be that courts do not hold corporate directors liable for bad business judgments and who have then thought no more about it. Not at all fortunate are the members of this morning's audience who are consigned to sit through the upcoming vivisection of the rule. Least fortunate are we on this platform who have been assigned to explicate the anatomy of the modem business judgment rule, diagnose its problems, and prescribe remedies. The unhappy fact is that while hard working businessmen, lawyers, and other sensible people have been quietly going about their business, a jurisprudential fire has broken out deep in the hold of American corporate jurisprudence in the container marked "business judgment rule. " Current debate about the rule has the quality of a febrile theological controversy that is ultimately resolved only by Chalcedon or Nicaea and is followed by banishment, as heretics, of all who hold views at variance with the currently accepted dogma. As it happens, that sort of doctrinal hammering is under way at this very time with regard to the business judgment rule in two different conventicles. One synod consists of the custodial solons of the Committee on Corporate Laws (CCL), the drafters of the American Bar Association's Model Business Corporation Act (MBCA). The other is made up of the high priests of the American Law Institute (ALI). Professor Hamilton, a prelate of cardinal rank from the CCL order, and Professor Goldschmid, of equal station within the ALI, are with us today on the platform. We all learn in first year physics that when a substance is put under pressure, its temperature rises. The business judgment rule has been put under pressure by the current undertaking of the CCL to update the entire MBCA and by the current Corporate Governance Project of the ALI, and the temperature has risen. Debate about the business judgment rule would have escalated in recent years anyway. One cause lies, sadly, in the eroding public regard for the nation's institutional structures which has occurred during the last ten or fifteen years; since Watergate and the revelations of political bribery overseas by United States corporations, pressure for closer scrutiny of the corporate boardroom has increased. The second cause of the heated debate concerning the business judgement rule is the frequent conversion of the rule from a protective shield into an aggressive sword. The following hypothetical illustrates this phenomenon. Suppose a shareholder (or in reality a lawyer from the plaintiffs' bar) brings a derivative action on behalf of the corporation. A committee of disinterested directors, perhaps supplemented by other outside persons, subsequently looks into the matter and resolves that in its business
The effect of local heat and cold therapy on the intraarticular and skin surface temperature of the knee.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effects of local application of ice chips, ligno-paraffin, short-wave diathermy, and nitrogen-cold air on skin and intraarticular temperature. METHODS Forty-two healthy subjects were divided into 4 treatment groups. A temperature probe was inserted into the knee joint cavity and another placed on the overlying skin, and changes in temperature over 3 hours, by treatment group, were recorded. RESULTS The mean skin surface temperature dropped from 27.9 degrees C to 11.5 degrees C after application of ice chips, and from 28.8 degrees C to 13.8 degrees C after application of cold air. The mean intraarticular temperature decreased from 31.9 degrees C to 22.5 degrees C and from 32.9 degrees C to 28.8 degrees C, respectively, after these 2 treatments. Shortwave diathermy increased skin temperature by 2.4 degrees C; intraarticular temperature was increased only 1.4 degrees C by short-wave diathermy. Treatment with ligno-paraffin increased the skin surface temperature 8.9 degrees C; the temperature in the joint cavity was increased 3.5 degrees C. CONCLUSION The use of short-wave diathermy and superficial heat packs in the treatment of patients with arthritis may potentially cause harm by increasing intraarticular temperature. This may have major implications regarding treatment policy for patients with arthritis.
Evidence for Combinatorial Variability of Tenascin-C Isoforms and Developmental Regulation in the Mouse Central Nervous System*

The extracellular matrix glycoprotein tenascin-C (TN-C) displays a restricted and developmentally regulated distribution in the mouse central nervous system. Defined modules of the molecule have been shown to mediate specific functions, such as neuron migration, neurite outgrowth, cell adhesion, and cell proliferation. The smallest TN-C form contains a stretch of eight fibronectin type III (FNIII) domains, which are common to all TN-C isoforms. Unrestricted and independent alternative splicing of six consecutive FNIII cassettes between the fifth and sixth constitutive FNIII domain bears the potential to generate 64 different combinations that might code for TN-C proteins with subtly different functions. To explore TN-C isoform variability in mouse brain, the alternatively spliced region of TN-C mRNAs was examined by the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction technique. Polymerase chain reaction products of uniform size were subcloned and analyzed using domain-specific probes to reveal the expression of particular combinations of alternatively spliced FNIII domains. 27 TN-C isoforms were identified to be expressed in mouse central nervous system, of which 22 are novel. Furthermore, during development, specific TN-C isoforms were found to occur in distinct relative frequencies, as demonstrated for isoforms containing two alternatively spliced FNIII domains. We conclude that TN-C is expressed in a complex and regulated pattern in mouse central nervous system. These findings highlight the potential role of TN-C in mediating specific neuron glia interactions.
Frequency of Radiologic Procedures in Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis

BackgroundPatients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) undergo radiologic investigations for disease and comorbidity evaluation. The actual use of radiologic imaging in RA is unknown. MethodsUsing the Rochester Epidemiology Project medical record linkage system, adult patients from previously assembled population-based cohorts of Olmsted County, Minnesota, residents who fulfilled the 1987 American College of Rheumatology criteria for RA in 1988 to 2007 and comparator subjects without RA of similar age and gender were studied. Data on all radiologic procedures performed were collected. ResultsThe study included 650 patients with RA and 650 patients without RA. Patients with RA had significantly more radiographs of the chest (rate ratio [RR], 1.33; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.28–31.38), upper extremity (RR, 2.97; 95% CI, 2.80–83.17), lower extremity (RR, 2.05; 95% CI, 1.94–102.16), spine (RR, 1.46; 95% CI, 1.35–41.59), and hip, pelvis, or sacroiliac joints (RR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.03–11.26), as well as bone radionuclide (RR, 1.90; 95% CI, 1.50–52.44) and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry imaging (RR, 1.77; 95% CI, 1.59–61.98) compared with patients without RA. Among patients with RA, having a positive rheumatoid factor was associated with an increased likelihood of undergoing radiologic procedures (RR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02–11.07). Women with RA underwent more imaging procedures than men (RR, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.16–21.23). ConclusionsPatients with RA undergo more radiologic procedures than patients without RA. Among patients with RA, women and patients with a positive rheumatoid factor have more radiologic procedures. The utilization of radiography is likely a reflection of overall disease burden. Despite some guidelines, routine hand wrist radiographs were not obtained with regularity; “overuse” is unlikely.
Joint pricing and advertising strategy with reference price effect

Consumers are susceptible to reference price effects when they make purchase decisions for a certain product. Meanwhile, the sales price and advertisement are the determinable factors that have impact on consumers’ reference price which are also fundamental marketing strategies. Therefore, how to determine an appropriate sales price and advertising effort level to maximise firms’ profits is an essential task. A joint pricing and advertising problem for a monopolistic firm with consideration of reference price effect is investigated, where consumer demand rate is price-sensitivity and depends on the gap between the sales price and the reference price in consumers’ mind. An optimisation model is established to maximise the firm’s total profit by making a joint pricing and advertising strategy. The static and dynamic joint strategies are obtained by applying Pontryagin’s maximum principle. Results show that the dynamic strategies dominate the static ones. Furthermore, the dynamic pricing and dynamic advertising strategies are strategic complements. Additionally, the length of the sales period plays a key role in determining the superiority of the two dynamic strategies. Specifically, a relatively short sales period highlights the value of the dynamic advertising while a long sales period strengthens the function of the dynamic pricing.
What Are the Contributory and Compensatory Relationships Between Physical Education and Physical Activity in Children?

Limited data are available on the contributory and compensatory relationships between physical education and physical activity in children. Four hundred eighty-five (280 girls) children in first through sixth grades wore sealed pedometers during waking hours, including normally scheduled physical education lessons. The least, moderately, and most active children accumulated approximately 1,700, 1,100, and 2,500 more steps/day, respectively, on school days with physical education. No compensatory increases in physical activity were found on school days that did not offer physical education. The implications of the contributory relationship are highlighted by the evidence that 50% of the least active children were at risk for overweight or overweight and that no compensatory increases in physical activity were found on school days when physical education classes were not scheduled.
Carbon Tax Salience and Gasoline Demand

We demonstrate that the carbon tax imposed by the Canadian province of British Columbia, a unique carbon pricing policy that comprehensively applies to all fossil fuels, caused a decline in short-run gasoline demand that is significantly greater than would be expected from an equivalent increase in the market price of gasoline. That the carbon tax is more salient, or yields a larger change in demand than equivalent market price movements, is robust to a range of specifications including intuitively plausible and strong instrumental variables. Along with calculating the reduction in carbon dioxide emissions attributable to the tax, we discuss potential explanations for the differential consumer responses to the carbon tax relative to the marketdetermined price.
Disruption of oxidative balance in the gut of the western honeybee Apis mellifera exposed to the intracellular parasite Nosema ceranae and to the insecticide fipronil

The causes underlying the increased mortality of honeybee colonies remain unclear and may involve multiple stressors acting together, including both pathogens and pesticides. Previous studies suggested that infection by the gut parasite Nosema ceranae combined with chronic exposure to sublethal doses of the insecticide fipronil generated an increase in oxidative stress in the midgut of honeybees. To explore the impact of these two stressors on oxidative balance, we experimentally infected bees with N. ceranae and/or chronically exposed to fipronil at low doses for 22 days, and we measured soluble reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ROS damage by quantifying both protein and lipid oxidation in the midgut. Our results revealed a disruption of the oxidative balance, with a decrease in both the amount of ROS and ROS damage in the presence of the parasite alone. However, protein oxidation was significantly increased in the N. ceranae/fipronil combination, revealing an increase in oxidative damage and suggesting higher fipronil toxicity in infected bees. Furthermore, our results highlighted a temporal order in the appearance of oxidation events in the intestinal cells and revealed that all samples tended to undergo protein oxidation during ageing, regardless of treatment.
Idiopathic hyperglycinemia and hyperglycinuria: a new disorder of amino acid metabolism. I.

Observations are reported of a patient afflicted with a disease previously unknown to us. The outstanding features of the syndrome are: onset in the neonatal period of episodes of vomiting, lethargy and ketosis; neutropenia; periodic thrombocytopenia; hypogammaglobulinemia; hyperglycinemia and hyperglycinuria; developmental retardation; and intolerance of protein of more than approximately 0.5 gm/kg of body weight/day and of protein hydrolysate and of leucine.
In vitro study toward the endocrine activity and the genotoxic potential of migration products from plastic baby bottles

1 Laboratory of Food Analysis, FARAH – Veterinary Public Health, Department of Food Sciences, CART, University of Liege, Bd de Colonster, 20, BatB43b, Liege, BELGIUM; 2 Toxicology center, Faculty of sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitplein 1, Wilrijk, BELGIUM, 3 WIV-ISP, Scientific Institute of Public Health, R. Juliette Wystman, 14, Brussels, BELGIUM ; 4 Analytical and Environmental Chemistry, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Bd de la plaine 2, Ixelles, BELGIUM ; 5 CODA-CERVA, Leuvensesteenweg, 17, Tervuren, BELGIUM
Disruption of the alpha5 helix of transducin impairs rhodopsin-catalyzed nucleotide exchange.

Photoactivated rhodopsin (R) catalyzes nucleotide exchange by transducin, the heterotrimeric G protein of the rod cell. Recently, we showed that certain alanine replacement mutants of the alpha5 helix of the alpha subunit of transducin (Galpha(t)) displayed very rapid nucleotide exchange rates even in the absence of R [Marin, E. P., Krishna, A. G. , and Sakmar, T. P. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 27400-27405]. We suggested that R catalyzes nucleotide exchange by perturbing residues on the alpha5 helix. Here, we characterize deletion, insertion, and proline replacement mutants of amino acid residues in alpha5. In general, the proline mutants exhibited rates of uncatalyzed nucleotide exchange that were 4-8-fold greater than wild type. The proline mutants also generally displayed decreased rates of R-catalyzed activation. The degree of reduction of the activation rate correlated with the position of the residue replaced with proline. Mutants with replacement of residues at the amino terminus of alpha5 exhibited mild (<2-fold) decreases, whereas mutants with replacement of residues at the carboxyl terminus of alpha5 were completely resistant to R-catalyzed activation. In addition, insertion of a single helical turn in the form of four alanine residues following Ile339 at the carboxyl terminus of alpha5 prevented R-catalyzed activation. Together, the results provide evidence that alpha5 serves an important function in mediating R-catalyzed nucleotide exchange. In particular, the data suggest the importance of the connection between the alpha5 helix and the adjacent carboxyl-terminal region of Galpha(t).
Human Capital, Polarisation and Pareto‐improving Activating Welfare

Human capital not only generates market income but is a direct source of utility as well. The interaction between the non-economic motive for effort and the standard economic motive can generate multiple stationary solutions for individual household optimization. Depending on the initial distribution of skills, this multiplicity divides each group of otherwise identical households into two perpetually separated groups: one rich and educated, one poor and uneducated. If the rich have an interest in the education of the poor, polarized equilibria are typically Pareto-inefficient. While unconditional transfers only reduce the incentive of the uneducated to accumulate skills, there exist activating tax-transfer systems that Pareto-dominate any non-redistributing system. Transfers are transitory and there is a negative marginal income tax on household income below a certain threshold.
Competitive Capabilities and Business Performance among Manufacturing SMEs: Evidence from an Emerging Economy, Malaysia

ABSTRACT This study examines whether the manufacturing competitive capabilities that Malaysian small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the manufacturing sector currently pursue yield satisfactory returns in terms of financial and nonfinancial performance. A sample of 145 manufacturing SMEs were analyzed to examine the relationship between manufacturing competitiveness (price, delivery dependability, innovation, and quality) and business performance (financial and nonfinancial) using partial least squares approach via Smart PLS 2.0. The study reveals that competitive capabilities did not lead to satisfactory financial performance. However, manufacturing competitive capabilities, in terms of delivery dependability and quality, did lead to satisfactory nonfinancial performance.
Distinct Mitochondrial and Cytosolic Enzymes Mediate Trypanothione-dependent Peroxide Metabolism in Trypanosoma cruzi *

The American trypanosome Trypanosoma cruzi is exposed to toxic oxygen metabolites that are generated by drug metabolism and immune responses in addition to those produced by endogenous processes. However, much remains to be resolved about the parasite oxidative defense system, including the mechanism(s) of peroxide reduction. Here we show that reduction of peroxides inT. cruzi is catalyzed by two distinct trypanothione-dependent enzymes. These were localized to the cytosol and mitochondrion. Both are members of the peroxiredoxin family of antioxidant proteins and are characterized by the presence of two conserved domains containing redox active cysteines. The role of these proteins in protecting T. cruzi from peroxide-mediated damage was demonstrated following overexpression of enzyme activity. The parasite-specific features of T. cruzicytoplasmic peroxiredoxin and T. cruzi mitochondrial peroxiredoxin may be exploitable in terms of drug development.
Natural history of liver cirrhosis in south China based on a large cohort study in one center: a follow-up study for up to 5 years in 920 patients.

BACKGROUND The natural history of liver cirrhosis in China has not been well understood. This study aimed to elucidate the profile and development of the complications of liver cirrhosis as well as the mortality of those cirrhotics with miscellaneous complications. METHODS We assembled data from the clinical characteristics, especially from the profile complications of cirrhosis on admission, and collected information by telephone or interview with patients and/or their family members in clinic to evaluate the development of complications in 920 patients enrolled in a prospective non-randomized cohort study, and followed up from June 2006 to October 2010. Mortality was calculated using Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox regress analysis. We employed both of the Child-Pugh scoring system and model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) scoring system to compare with the accordance and veracity between liver function and the long-term outcome. RESULTS On admission, only 7.4% patients had no complications, 44.5% patients with one complication (ascites, esophageal/gastric varices or hepatocellular carcinoma), 33.8% patients with two coexisting complications, and 7.5% patients had complications concurrently with ascites, esophageal/gastric varices and hepatocellular carcinoma. During the follow-up (mean follow-up time was 17 months, ranging from 1.0 to 52.2 months) of all the patients, 37.5% patients survived without new complications, 62.5% patients had new complications, and the overall mortality was 53.9%. Patients with one or more complications had higher mortality (total mortality, 1-year or 3-year mortality) and shorter mean survival time than those without any complication; the major cause of mortality of these cirrhotic patients was hepatocellular carcinoma (59%). Evaluated with the Child-Pugh score system, the total mortality in those with the scores more than 12 (class C) was 71.4%, the 1-year and 3-year mortalities were 57.1% and 71.4% respectively; while evaluated with the MELD scoring system, the mortality of those with the scores more than 30 was 58.6%, the 1-year and 3-year mortalities were 44.2% and 57.8% respectively.
A SHORT REVIEW OF RECENT EVIDENCE ON THE DISINCENTIVE EFFECTS OF UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND NEW EVIDENCE FROM NEW YORK STATE

This paper examines two sets of evidence on the effects of unemployment insurance (UI). First, we discuss two recent lines of research on the effects of UI, one of which argues that UI is more welfare enhancing than previously thought, and a second that suggests that its distortions are often larger than previously argued. We point out limitations in each research program, but conclude that both significantly advance our knowledge. Second, we summarize the evidence on the effect of UI on claim duration from a 36 percent increase in the maximum weekly benefit in New York State. This policy change sharply increased benefits for a large group of claimants, while leaving them unchanged for a large share of claimants who provide a natural comparison group. The New York benefit increase has the special features that it was unexpected and applied to in-progress spells. These features allow the effects on duration to be more convincingly separated from effects on incidence. The results show a fall in the hazard of leaving UI that coincides with the increase in benefits. The estimated unemployment duration elasticities with respect to the UI benefit range from 0.1–0.2, towards the low end of past estimates. We do not find larger effects for those who are more likely to be liquidity constrained. We also examine the extent of bias in standard methods that identify duration effects through nonlinearities in the benefit schedule, finding mixed results.