Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
The high‐latitude solar wind near sunspot Maximum

We use an empirical relation between solar wind speed and coronal flux‐tube expansion to predict what Ulysses might have seen had it flown over the solar poles during 1989–1991 instead of 1994–1996. The wind speed patterns, derived from solar magnetograph data, show the following characteristics: (1) high‐speed streams having recurrence rates of 28–29 days and originating from midlatitude extensions of the polar coronal holes dominate the rising phase of the sunspot cycle (1987–1989); (2) the persistent high‐speed polar wind disappears and low‐speed wind is found at all latitudes during 1989–1990; (3) very fast, episodic “polar jets” are generated as active region fields surge to the poles at the time of polar field reversal (1990–1991). The wind speed patterns that Ulysses encounters during its second polar orbit are expected to show the same general characteristics.
Comparative analysis of statistical and catchment modelling approaches to river flood frequency estimation

The paper compares results from two approaches to the quantification of river flood frequencies applicable nationally in Britain. One approach uses both the flood peak and event‐based methods of the Flood Estimation Handbook (FEH) of current water industry practice and the other approach is a recently developed set of continuous simulation techniques using parameter‐sparse modelling of catchment flood runoff response. The methods were applied to over a hundred sites in Britain, treated as if without flow data, although such observations existed and were used only for testing purposes. Errors of ≤20% in peak flows at ungauged sites are currently very good in this hydrologically challenging context; errors of up to around 35% may have to be contended with in flood management practice. The results from the FEH statistical method reinforce its established role in peak‐flow estimation. On the basis of the aspects that have been tested here, the emerging continuous simulation approaches show considerable potential to offer good performance for peaks and flow time series. The errors associated with the FEH unit hydrograph approach reflect the additional challenge it incorporates of ungauged rainfall estimation in addition to ungauged discharge.
Subcentury scale variability in height-increment and tree-ring width chronologies of Scots pine since ad 745 in northern Fennoscandia

Height-increment and tree-ring width data of Scots pine from northern Fennoscandia were updated and their sample replication increased considerably. Standard chronologies as well as low-frequency chronologies were built and compared during their common period in ad 745–2007. The two chronologies correlate significantly (r = 0.58) with each other and have several extreme years in common, e.g. 1089 and 1601. The low-frequency chronologies indicate four significant periods of above-average growth and eight periods of below-average growth, which occur in both chronologies. These include the early 20th century growth surges that occurred during 1917–1955 in height increment and during 1919–1961 in ring width. In both chronologies, this latest increasing trend unequivocally turns to a fall and comes to an end by the 1960s. Tree-ring chronologies of Scots pine from northern Sweden and the Khibiny Low Mountains region (northwestern Russia) as well as from Siberia show coincidence in the decadal- to century-scale with our chronologies.
Primary magmas and mantle temperatures

The composition of olivine phenocrysts in Hawaiian tholeiitic picrites and in Mid-Ocean Ridge picrites vary up to Mg#91.3 and Mg#92.1 respectively. The compositions and liquidus temperatures of the magmas crystallizing the most magnesian phenocrysts can be estimated and we find that anhydrous liquidus temperatures (at 1 bar pressure) of Hawaiian tholeiitic picrites average 1365°C, for E-MOR picrites average 1355°C, and for N-MOR picrites average 1335°C. Water contents of the magmas decrease in the order Hawaiian picrites, E-MOR picrites to N-MOR picrites, and consideration of liquidus depression by these water contents leads to the conclusion that magma temperatures for all types were approximately 1325°C at ∼ 1 bar. The data from parental or primary magmas suggests that the temperature contrast between ‘Hot-Spot and MOR magmas is ≤ 20°C. Application of information from partial melting studies of lherzolites and liquidus studies of the Hot-Spot and MOR picrites leads to the conclusion that both ‘Hot-Spot’ and MOR primary basalts are derived from mantle with potential temperature Tp ∼ 1430°C. Insofar as primitive magmas may be used to infer the potential temperature of their sources, there is no evidence for a temperature contrast of Δ Tp = 100–250°C between ‘Hot-Spot’ or ‘Deep Mantle Plume’ sources and ambient (MOR source) asthenospheric mantle. Although magma temperatures are similar, the residual mantle compositions for Hawaiian picrites are refractory harzburgites, more refractory (including Cr/Cr+Al ratio) than the lherzolite to harzburgite residue from MOR picrite extraction. It is argued that the buoyancy plume and geophysically anomalous mantle beneath the Hawaiian Arch is due to compositional and not temperature contrasts in the upper mantle. The four-component mixing identified in the Hawaiian source is attributed to interaction between old subducted lithospheric slabs, buoyant or suspended in the upper mantle, and surrounding ambient mantle at Tp = 1430°C. This paper was presented at the EMPG VIII meeting in Bergamo, Italy (April 2000)
Nuclear Power Plants and Sustainability

Background Sustainability is one of the most important concepts of the future, while being major issue in fossil fuel driven electricity generation sector. Nuclear power plants do not emit large amounts of greenhouse gases, but are they any better than fossil-fueled power plants in terms of sustainability? This question is answered in this thesis by literature review. Results Nuclear power plants can provide cheap electricity, with smaller amount of global problems than fossil-fueled power plants. In the future, as nuclear power plant technology is moving forward, more advanced technologies will be available. These new technologies will bring nuclear power plants close to sustainable electricity generation. However, nuclear power is not the solution to cover the electricity demand in long term. There are energy forms available, which are more sustainable, while problem lies in missing or too expensive technology. Conclusion With only flawed options to provide electricity for the next hundred years, using nuclear power is the most sustainable path to fully sustainable world. Nuclear Power Plants and Sustainability Timo Martti Heikki Koivumaki Thesis submitted to the School of Science and Engineering at Reykjavik University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MSc in Sustainable Energy
Measurements and Modeling of Variable Gravity Effects on Water Distribution and Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media

Liquid behavior under reduced gravity conditions is of considerable interest for various components of life‐support systems required for manned space missions. High costs and limited opportunities for spaceflight experiments hinder advances in reliable design and operation of elements involving fluids in unsaturated porous media such as plant growth facilities. We used parabolic flight experiments to characterize hydraulic properties under variable gravity conditions deduced from variations in matric potential over a range of water contents. We designed and tested novel measurement cells that allowed dynamic control of water content. Embedded time domain reflectometry probes and fast‐responding tensiometers measured changes in water content and matric potential. For near‐saturated conditions, we observed rapid establishment of equilibrium matric potentials during the recurring 20‐s periods of microgravity. As media water content decreased, the concurrent decrease in hydraulic diffusivity resulted in limited attainment of equilibrium distributions of water content and matric potential in microgravity, and water content heterogeneity within the sample was influenced by the preceding hypergravity phase. For steady fluxes through saturated columns, we observed linear and constant hydraulic gradients during variable gravity, yielding saturated hydraulic conductivities similar to values measured under terrestrial gravity. Our results suggest that water distribution and retention behavior are sensitive to varied gravitational forces, whereas saturated hydraulic conductivity appears to be unaffected. Comparisons between measurements and simulations based on the Richards equation were in reasonable agreement, suggesting that fundamental laws of fluid flow and distribution for macroscopic transport derived on Earth are also applicable in microgravity.
Finite element models of non‐Newtonian crater relaxation

Models of viscous crater relaxation proposed to date for the icy satellites of the outer solar system assume the behavior of a Newtonian medium, with viscosity η independent of effective stress τ. While this is reasonable if both effective stresses and temperatures are very low, laboratory data on ice indicate that, at effective shear stresses (τ ∼0.1 MPa) and temperatures (∼173 K) likely to occur in regions underlying craters, non-Newtonian behavior is probable. Such material would have a viscosity-effective stress relation given by η (τ) ∝ τ1−n, where n≈4. It is likely, due to the low activation energy of ice at these temperatures, that stress differences may affect the profile of relaxing craters to a greater extent than temperature differences. To investigate the effects of a non-Newtonian rheology on the profiles of relaxing craters, two-dimensional finite element simulations have been performed. Initially, effective stresses are highest in the region below the crater center, producing a zone of relatively low viscosity. Relaxation flow forces this region into a convex bulge as the crater relaxes. At later stages, the low viscosity region moves to beneath the crater rim, leading to enhanced relaxation of crater rims, compared to a Newtonian rheology. The reduction of effective stress as the crater relaxes increases viscosity in the region beneath the crater. As a result, relaxation rates are quite rapid compared to those in later stages. This is in marked contrast to the exponential behavior of depth with time associated with Newtonian relaxation. The short relaxation times observed for the craters modeled indicate that a silicate component may be required in the crusts of icy satellites to account for the observed crater populations.
Discriminating among distinct source models of the 1908 Messina Straits earthquake by modelling intensity data through full wavefield seismograms

1 2 The mitigation of seismic risk requires an ever deeper knowledge of both recent seismicity and historical earthquakes for the evaluation of their impact. In this respect, macroseismic intensities are the only available data for most historical earthquakes and often represent the unique source of information for crucial events in the definition of seismic hazard. Here we present the results of a recent paper by Convertito and Pino (2014) aimed at getting insight into source characteristics by reproducing the observed intensity field of 1908 Messina Straits earthquake (MW=7.1). By considering that the present population in the area is in excess of 700000, with 500000 in the Messina urban area and 190000 in Reggio Calabria, with constructive quality of the buildings far from the optimal, the determination of a reliable fault model is not trivial nor it represents an academic dispute. In this study, we focused on the simulation of the macroseismic field associated with large events, by computing the broad-band ground motion produced by realistic seismic sources. We applied this technique to the source of the 1908 Messina Straits event and pointed at discriminating among distinct published fault models. In particular, we tested three distinct fault models deduced from the analysis of geodetic data. The first model was proposed by Boschi et al. (1989). The second is a slightly modified version of the one by De Natale and Pingue (1991), derived by using their slip distribution and the focal mechanism published by Capuano et al. (1988). This latter is very similar to the one by De Natale and Pingue (1991), with planes orientation differing by only a few degrees. The third was recently published by Aloisi et al. (2013) (hereinafter indicated as M1, M2 and M3, respectively). The first two are almost comparable, while the third one displays very different fault plane dimension and dip orientation. The main features of three models are listed in Table 1 while their surface projections are shown in Figure 1.
Evaluation of interrill erosion under forest canopy

Soil loss plots on open and under canopy sites were installed to study the effect of the canopy on interrill erosion. The erosion rate under the canopy was smaller than that on an open site, and it was highly correlated with the maximum rainfall intensity for 3 hour and total rainfall, independent of the slope angle. The throughfall rate showed a relatively continuous value under high rainfall intensity conditions, although varied with rainfall intensity. When the throughfall rate was initiated at a relatively continuous value, the rainfall intensity was very similar to the threshold of rainfall intensity for erosion under a canopy. These results imply that the canopy storage had been changed due to the rainfall intensity, and this change affected the interrill erosion under the canopy. These results will contribute to the development of an erosion prediction model under a forest canopy.
Four Decades of Progress in Monitoring and Modeling of Processes in the Soil-Plant-

Abstract Many landscapes are comprised of a variety of vegetation types with different canopy structure, rooting depth, physiological characteristics, including response to environmental stressors, etc. Even in agricultural regions, different management practices, including crop rotations, irrigation scheduling, planting density, seed varieties, and other factors result in complex patterns in vegetation growth stages, canopy cover, canopy architecture and cropping densities. This variability at the canopy, field and landscape scale, makes it very challenging for quantifying spatially-distributed surface fluxes. This paper describes a robust but relatively simple thermal-based energy balance model that parameterizes the key soil/substrate and vegetation exchange processes affecting the radiative balance and turbulent energy transport with the overlying atmosphere. The thermal-based model, called the Two-Source Energy Balance (TSEB) model solves for the soil/substrate and canopy temperatures that achieves a balance in the radiation and turbulent heat flux exchange with the lower atmosphere for the soil/substrate and vegetation elements. The TSEB scheme permits interaction between soil/substrate and canopy elements which are both coupled to the atmosphere via the canopy-air temperature; this canopy-air temperature is highly correlated to the aerodynamic surface temperature used in computing surface sensible heat flux. As a result, the TSEB modeling framework is applicable to a wide range of atmospheric and canopy cover conditions. An overview of recent applications of the TSEB modeling framework to a variety of agricultural landscapes is presented. © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of the conference.
Selkirk fan structure, southeastern Canadian Cordillera: Tectonic wedging against an inherited basement ramp

A revised cross section through the Selkirk fan structure provides the basis for a new model for the Middle Jurassic tectonic evolution of the southern Omineca belt, Canadian Cordillera. Palinspastic restoration of this cross section shows that the southwest-verging structures along the west flank of the Selkirk fan structure formed as a result of tectonic wedging of distal North American strata (Clachnacudainn complex) beneath more proximal North American strata, and that the Selkirk fan structure developed outboard from a crustal ramp (Dogtooth high) inherited from Late Proterozoic–early Paleozoic rifting along the western margin of North America. The first episode of Mesozoic deformation in southeastern British Columbia occurred between 187 and 173 Ma and involved the northeastward juxtaposition of the Intermontane superterrane over the outer part of the North American continental terrace wedge. It resulted in deep burial (20–25 km) of the outer margin of North America. A crustal ramp, localized along the western edge of the Late Proterozoic–early Paleozoic Dogtooth high, impeded the northeastward propagation of the orogenic wedge comprising the Intermontane superterrane and the imbricate, underlying northeast-verging thrust sheets of North American supracrustal rocks. Tectonic wedging, involving southwest-verging deformation, occurred within the orogenic wedge, and the resulting crustal thickening established sufficient topography and gravitational potential to drive the propagation of the deformation eastward into the Dogtooth Range and the Rocky Mountains. The southwest-verging structures along the west flank of the Selkirk fan developed between approximately 173 and 168 Ma concurrent with synorogenic extension and ∼10 km of exhumation. The initial subsidence of the foreland basin during Kimmeridgian time (ca. 154 Ma) provides the first indication of tectonic loading and lithospheric flexure of the North American plate. It is interpreted to mark the time at which the orogenic wedge overrode the crustal ramp of the Dogtooth high and advanced onto relatively thick and rigid continental lithosphere. The tectonic model proposed for the Selkirk fan structure illustrates how the configuration of the rifted margin influenced the style of crustal thickening during subsequent compressional deformation.
Glacial inceptions: Past and future

Abstract The realistic simulation of northern hemisphere glacial inceptions, which occurred during the Quaternary period, has challenged scores of climate theoreticians and modellers. After reviewing the Milankovitch theory of glaciation, a number of earlier modelling studies of the last glacial inception (LGI) which have employed either high‐resolution General Circulation Models (GCMs) or Earth system Models of Intermediate Complexity (EMICs) are described. The latter class of models has been developed over the past two decades in order to investigate the many interactions and feedbacks among the geophysical and biospheric components of the Earth system that take place over long time scales. Following a description of the McGill Paleoclimate Model (MPM) and other EMICs, some recent McGill simulations of the LGI in response to orbital (Milankovitch) and radiative (atmospheric CO2) forcings are presented. Special attention is given to determining the relative roles of the ocean's thermohaline circulation, freshwater fluxes into the ocean, orography, cryospheric processes and vegetation dynamics during the inception phase. In particular, it is shown that with the vegetation‐albedo feedback included in the model, the buildup of ice sheets over North America is larger than over Eurasia, in agreement with observations. This paper concludes with a discussion on the (possible) occurrence of the next glacial period. To address this issue, which has been inspired by recent publications of Berger and Loutre, MPM simulations of the climate for the next 100 kyr, forced by various prescribed atmospheric CO2 levels, as well as the future insolation changes as calculated by the Berger algorithm, are presented. The influence of a near‐term global warming scenario on glacial inception is also examined. If it is assumed that after such a warming scenario the concentration of CO2in the atmosphere returns to pre‐industrial levels (in the range of 280–290 ppm), then the MPM predicts that the next glacial would start at around 50 kyr after present, which is consistent with the results of Berger and Loutre. Finally, recent simulations of future glacial inceptions using the Potsdam EMIC which includes an atmosphere‐ocean carbon cycle component are described. From one of these simulations in which 5000 GtC are released into the atmosphere due to human activities, it is concluded that the current interglacial will last for at least another half‐million years because of the limited ability of the oceans to absorb such a large carbon release to the atmosphere.
Projecting climate change impacts on stream flow regimes with tracer‐aided runoff models ‐ preliminary assessment of heterogeneity at the mesoscale

The northern mid‐high latitudes form a region that is sensitive to climate change, and many areas already have seen – or are projected to see – marked changes in hydroclimatic drivers on catchment hydrological function. In this paper, we use tracer‐aided conceptual runoff models to investigate such impacts in a mesoscale (749 km2) catchment in northern Scotland. The catchment encompasses both sub‐arctic montane sub‐catchments with high precipitation and significant snow influence and drier, warmer lowland sub‐catchments. We used downscaled HadCM3 General Circulation Model outputs through the UKCP09 stochastic weather generator to project the future climate. This was based on synthetic precipitation and temperature time series generated from three climate change scenarios under low, medium and high greenhouse gas emissions. Within an uncertainty framework, we examined the impact of climate change at the monthly, seasonal and annual scales and projected impacts on flow regimes in upland and lowland sub‐catchments using hydrological models with appropriate process conceptualization for each landscape unit. The results reveal landscape‐specific sensitivity to climate change. In the uplands, higher temperatures result in diminishing snow influence which increases winter flows, with a concomitant decline in spring flows as melt reduces. In the lowlands, increases in air temperatures and re‐distribution of precipitation towards autumn and winter lead to strongly reduced summer flows despite increasing annual precipitation. The integration at the catchment outlet moderates these seasonal extremes expected in the headwaters. This highlights the intimate connection between hydrological dynamics and catchment characteristics which reflect landscape evolution. It also indicates that spatial variability of changes in climatic forcing combined with differential landscape sensitivity in large heterogeneous catchments can lead to higher resilience of the integrated runoff response. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PRECIPITATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES: AN ANALYSIS OF AREA‐AVERAGE DATA UPDATED TO 1995

This paper updates precipitation series forEngland and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland for 1990 and 1995 A new precipitation series for the whole of Ireland for 1840 to 1995 is developed. Redent changes in seasonal precipitation totals in all three regions are discussed. In all regions, recent precipitation in winter (DJF) has increased and summer (JJA) precipitation has decreased. This trend is most evident in Scotland, where the November to April total for 1986 to 1995 is 30 per cent more than corresponding values in 1951 to 1980. For England and Wales the 1995 summer was the driest in the record, with 7 mm less rainfall than in 1976, the previous driest summer. Over Scotland and Ireland the 1995 summer was also dry but not as exceptional.