The Impact of Self Esteem, Family Rituals, Religiosity, and Participation in Conforming Activities upon Delinquency: A Comparison of Young Adults in Turkey and the United States

INTRODUCTIONSociologists, criminologists, and family researchers around the world have attempted to identity the antecedents of deviance in adolescent behavior (Dryfoos, 1990; Garbarino, 1995; Resnick, et al., 1997; Stouthhamer-Loeber, Loeber, Wei, Farrington, & Wikstrom, 2002). Researchers have recognized that some young people are more vulnerable to negative influences than others. Several factors have been associated with the incidence and prevalence of deviance including self-esteem, family rituals, religiosity, and participation in conforming activities (Cox, 1998; Doherty, 1997; Fiese, 1992; Fiese, 1993; Haugland, 2005; Hirschi, 1969;Pipher, 1996). Findings from a study completed in Turkey and a study completed in the United States (U.S.) are compared. Each study examined self-esteem and family rituals and their roles as agents of social control for the behavior of young adults. In addition, the role of religiosity was studied in Turkey and the role of participation in conforming activities was studied in the U.S. Specifically, both studies explored the impact of self-esteem and family rituals upon delinquent behavior prior to adulthood among young adults in Turkey and the U.S. Further the impact of religiosity on delinquent behavior was assessed in Turkey, and the impact of participation in conforming activities on delinquent behavior was assessed in the U.S. The initial study was conducted in the U.S. in 1998 (Roberts, 2003). Data on most of the same concepts were collected in the Turkish study in 2007 (Gunes, 2008). The present paper compares data from these studies and the two different nations.THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKMultiple theories and explanations for delinquent behavior have been developed with no one theory accounting for all these behaviors (Conklin, 2003). One particular theory, social control theory, focuses on the strategies and techniques that contribute to conforming behavior (Hirschi, 1969; Reckless, 1973). Walter C. Reckless (1961) proposed a social control theory called Containment Theory. Reckless' ( 1 96 1 ) basic premise was that psychological or internal factors and social or external factors work together to contribute to conforming behavior. The focal point of inner containment is on self-concept, and the focal point for outer containment is on the various social institutions with which individuals come in contact (Reckless, 1973a). In the U.S. study, inner containment was measured by self-esteem and outer containment was measured by family rituals and participation in conforming activities. In the Turkish study, inner containment was measured by self-esteem and religiosity and outer containment was measured by family rituals.MAJOR CONCEPTSSelf-esteemIn its most general terms, self-esteem is the concept that reflects the emotional or evaluative component of one's self-knowledge (Hook, 2007). It has been described as the process by which we evaluate our specific characteristics and our self identities as good, bad, acceptable or unacceptable (Wiggins, Wiggins, & Zanden, 1994) Support exists for the view that low self-esteem may contribute to deviant behavior (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003). The relationship between self-esteem and delinquency has consistently been negative. However, this association varies among different studies, and the association has often been found to be very weak.ReligiosityBeside self-esteem, in the Turkish study, religion was used as an inner containment concept. Religion is a system of beliefs and practices by which groups of people interpret and respond to what they feel is supernatural and sacred (Johnstone, 1975). Numerous studies report an association between religiosity and deviance. For example, Regnerus (2003) found that parents' conservative Protestant affiliation showed consistent direct negative effects on delinquency. In an earlier study, Burkett (1993) found that parents' religiosity was a significant predictor of an adolescents' delinquent behavior. …