The effects of response cards on the performance and generalization of parenting skills

Previous research has provided convincing evidence of the efficacy of behavior analytic interventions to improve parenting skills with biological parents, however many studies lament generalization failure from training to home settings. Previous research has also examined the effects of response card use with children at various grade levels and with post-secondary students with a sole focus on academic outcomes. This study examined the effects of color coded response cards on active student responding and parenting skills proficiency of three foster parents in a parent training program and generalization of these skills to their homes. During baseline, participants role-played their responses to various child scenarios. A 10-week parent training course was completed with alternating instruction between standard lecture and response card conditions. Role-plays of child scenarios were videotaped after class, a post-course set of role-plays were completed and direct observation of their use of the parenting skills in their homes was conducted. Response card instruction produced higher levels of active student responding with 1 participant. Proficiency rates for response card instructed skills were higher however, for two of three participants in all extra-training settings. 1 Chapter One Introduction Parenting skills training are an often-used intervention designed to strengthen parenting behaviors that may function to increase appropriate child behavior. Parent training based on behavioral principals grew initially from the field of behavior modification during the 1960’s and 1970’s (Graziano and Diament, 1992). Citing a literature review conducted by Bourke & Nielsen (1995), Bourret (2002) stated that by 1995, there were over 400 publications of empirical research on parent training. In a review of research conducted over the course of 20 years, Kazdin, Ayers, Bass & Rogers (1990), found that at least 95% of empirical research was based at least partly on behavioral principles. In addition to its empirical effectiveness, behavioral parent training was found to be less expensive than other forms of therapy (Serletich and Dumas, 1996). Parent training programs range in their design from targeting specific behaviors with individuals to more comprehensive programs where a broad array of parenting skills are taught in group settings. In a study targeting discrete responses of a single subject, Budd, Green and Baer (1976) evaluated parent training variables salient for producing decreases in a mother’s behavior hypothesized to maintain her child’s noncompliant behavior. A multiple baseline across behaviors design was used and instruction, feedback and positive reinforcement were the independent variables. Four parent responses served as dependent variables, specifically instruction repetition, instruction contingent on 2 inappropriate behavior, praise following physical intervention and tangential verbalizations. A gradual increase in child appropriate behavior was observed, however complete reduction in child inappropriate behavior was not obtained until the mother was taught a timeout procedure for noncompliance. Maintenance of parent behaviors was observed during 2, 10 and 16 week probes. Also examining the training of discrete responses of individuals, Forehand and King (1977) evaluated the effects of parent training on parent behavior, child noncompliant behavior and parent attitude change toward their children. Subjects included 11 children and their mothers who were referred to two university psychology clinics. For comparison purposes, 11 non-clinic mother-child pairs were selected as a control group. Child noncompliance, parental commands, questions and rewards were the dependent variables. Each mother-child dyad was treated individually and was taught to utilize reinforcement and time-out procedures in several phases. Parents met competency criteria for trained procedures before moving to the next phase of instruction. Statistical significance was obtained for all dependent variables across a mean of nine treatment sessions. Increases in child compliance over baseline levels were observed during three month in-clinic follow-up observations. The authors reported that the clinic mothers utilized more rewards and their children exhibited higher levels of compliance than the children of non-clinic mothers. On a class of parent attitudes, the clinic mothers perceived their children as better adjusted after treatment. Various methods have been used to improve parenting skills training including comprehensive programs with specially designed curricula for use with groups in classroom settings. Utilizing a between groups design, Brightman, Baker, Clark, & 3 Ambrose (1982), compared individual vs. group parent training of families of children with developmental disabilities. Thirty seven families were randomly assigned to group training, 16 to individual training and 13 to a delayed training control group. The training curriculum was consistent across formats with emphasis on self-help skills, implementing behavior programs and enhancing speech and play skills. The group and individual formats were equally effective and trained parents gained significantly more than the control parents in the areas of knowledge of behavior modification and teaching proficiency with their children. Child self-help skills however, showed comparable gains in trained and control families. Both groups continued to demonstrate equal performance on six month in home structured interviews. Examining numerous parent responses, Gordon (2000) evaluated a selfadministered, interactive CD-ROM parent training program. The program was designed as a preventative intervention and teaches “adaptive parenting skills” developed from cognitive-behavioral and family systems models. In a case study format, vignettes of families responding to child behavior problems were presented. The parent is instructed to choose one of three solutions that is most similar to the way they would respond and a vignette portrayal of that solution is then displayed. The software then critiques the chosen solution, providing feedback as to the positive and negative consequences of their choice. When the most effective solution is chosen, an on-screen quiz provides the parent an opportunity to evaluate their learning. The author cites several independent studies finding significant decreases in child problem behaviors and increased knowledge and use of effective parenting skills. When compared with a control group at one-month follow-up, parents in the treatment group demonstrated significantly greater knowledge 4 of parenting skills and reported greater decreases in the frequency and intensity of child problem behaviors than did parents in the control group. O’Dell, Quin, Alford, O’Briant, Bradlyn, & Giebenhain (1982) also evaluated the impact of various training methods on multiple parental responses. The effectiveness of four training methods designed to improve parents’ ability to provide reinforcement for child appropriate behavior were compared. In addition to a minimal instructions control group, 100 fathers and mothers of children aged 2–10 were randomly assigned to one of four training groups including reading a written manual, reviewing an audiotaped manual, videotaped modeling and live modeling with rehearsal. The manual, audiotape and videotape were constructed in similar content. All parents participated in a 20 minute observational assessment period which consisted of a semi-structured play session with their children. Twelve dependent variables selected as components of parental reinforcement skills were measured. During a 90-minute session the parents assigned to the written, audiotape and videotaped manual groups read, listened to and viewed the material. The live modeling sessions were conducted individually. Parents received an inhome booster session an average of five days after training. An observational assessment was conducted of parental reinforcement skills an average of 4.5 days after the booster session. The authors report that all training methods were superior to the minimal instructions control group. The audiotaped manual was significantly less effective than the written manual or live modeling with rehearsal and there were no significant differences among the written, videotaped and live modeling with rehearsal training