Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
Datasheets for Energy Datasets: An Ethically-Minded Approach to Documentation

This work presents an argument for the use of specific documentation for the ethical development, use, and sharing of energy datasets, and an evaluation of current practice in the energy AI community. Drawing on a recently developed resource from the broader machine learning community and applying it to the specific context of energy AI research, opportunities for more transparent collection and distribution of energy datasets are revealed. To help elucidate the utility of the datasheets and the energy community’s current level of documentation, two publicly available energy datasets are chosen for analysis. One has published documentation covering 66% of the datasheet questionnaire, while the second covers 42% of the suggested information. Two additional questions are recommended for energy-relevant datasheets that will promote ethical AI practices in the energy domain. A new resource for exploring and aligning energy datasets with demographic data is provided.
Testing and Improving the Correctness of Wi-Fi Frame Injection

Investigating the security of Wi-Fi devices often requires writing scripts that send unexpected or malformed frames, to subsequently monitor how the devices respond. Such tests generally use Linux and off-the-self Wi-Fi dongles. Typically, the dongle is put into monitor mode to get access to the raw content of received Wi-Fi frames and to inject, i.e., transmit, customized frames. In this paper, we demonstrate that monitor mode on Linux may, unbeknownst to the user, mistakenly inject Wi-Fi frames or even drop selected frames instead of sending them. We discuss cases where this causes security testing tools to misbehave, making users to believe that a device under test is secure while in reality it is vulnerable to an attack. To remedy this problem, we create a script to test raw frame injection, and we extend the Radiotap standard to gain more control over frame injection. Our extension is now part of the Radiotap standard and has been implemented in Linux. We tested it using commercial Wi-Fi dongles and using openwifi, which is an open implementation of Wi-Fi on top of software-defined radios. With our improved setup, we reproduced tests for the KRACK and FragAttack vulnerabilities, and discovered previously unknown vulnerabilities in three smartphones.
Countering Relay and Spoofing Attacks in the Connection Establishment Phase of Wi-Fi Systems

To establish a secure Wi-Fi connection, a station first exchanges several unprotected management frames with an access point (AP) to eventually authenticate each other and install a pairwise key. It is, therefore, possible for an adversary to spoof elements of those unprotected frames at the physical (PHY) or MAC layers, facilitating additional attacks (e.g., man-in-the-middle and starvation attacks). Despite a few ad hoc efforts, there is still no practical way to counter these attacks jointly. In this paper, we propose practical schemes to employ cryptography at the PHY layer combined with a time-bound technique to detect and mitigate such attacks in enterprise and 802.1X-based public networks. Our backward-compatible schemes embed a digital signature of the AP (or a message authentication code) in frame preamble signals and add only a negligible delay to the connection establishment process and achieve a 98.9% true positive rate in detecting an attacker who tries to relay valid preambles. Furthermore, we conduct a formal security analysis of our scheme using a model checker and a cryptographic protocol verifier and evaluate its performance in a commercial AP-and-USRP~testbed.
Modulation of Polar Low Activity by the Madden‐Julian Oscillation

The impacts of the Madden‐Julian Oscillation (MJO) on polar low (PL) activity are examined. We found that PL frequency increases over the Irminger Sea and decreases over the Norwegian‐Barents Seas following the MJO Phases 2–4, and nearly opposite changes are found for Phases 6–8. Further analysis reveals significant anomalies of static stability and low‐level baroclinicity for different MJO phases, which have opposing effects on PL activity in many regions. The diagnosis of the PL genesis potential index agrees well with the observed PL activity. The agreement confirms the robustness of the MJO impacts on PL activity and suggests that such impacts can be largely explained by background environmental conditions. Significant anomalies of PL activity are also found over the North Pacific but with a weaker magnitude, which can be attributed to the comparatively lower PL frequency and the larger cancellation between static stability and low‐level baroclinicity anomalies in that basin.
Transpiration and evaporative partitioning at a boreal forest and shrub taiga site in a subarctic alpine catchment, Yukon territory, Canada

Despite widespread observations of climate‐change induced treeline migration and shrubification, there remains few direct measurements of transpiration and dynamics of evaporative partitioning in northern climates. Here, we present eddy covariance and sap flow data at a low elevation boreal white spruce forest and a mid‐elevation shrub taiga comprised of tall willow (Salix spp.) and birch (Betula spp.) in a subarctic, alpine catchment in Yukon Territory, Canada over two hydrologically distinct years. Specific research questions addressed were: (1) How do contributions of T to ET vary between sites and years? and (2) What are the primary meteorological, phenological, and soil moisture controls and limits on ET and T across vegetation covers? In the mid‐growing season, mean T rates were greater at the dense shrub site (2.0 ± 0.75 mm d−1) than the forest (1.47 ± 0.52 mm d−1). During this time, T:ET was lower at the forest (0.48) than at the tall, dense shrub site (0.80). Of the 2 years, 2020 was considerably wetter and cooler than 2019 during the growing season. At the shrub site, during the mid‐growing season (July 1‐Aug 15), T dropped considerably in 2020 (−26%), as T was suppressed during the short, wet growing season. In contrast, T at the forest was only moderately suppressed (−3%) between years in this same period. Evapotranspiration was more strongly controlled by air temperature during the early and late season at the forest, while ET at the shrub site was more sensitive to warmer temperatures in the mid‐growing season. Distinct differences in sap flux densities, sensitivities to environmental drivers, and stomatal resistances existed between shrub species. Results suggest that warming temperatures, increases in growing season length, and increased rainfall will cause differences in evaporative response and partitioning over complex, heterogenous alpine watersheds.
Estimation of the Nucleation Location and Rupture Extent of the 1850 Xichang, Sichuan, China, Earthquake by Dynamic Rupture Simulations on a Multi‐Segment Stepover Structure

We simulated the rupture dynamics and ground motion of the 1850 Xichang, China, earthquake on the Zemuhe fault, which consists of the Lijinbao segment, the Dajing segment, the Chechejie segment, and the Songxin segment, with the curved grid finite‐difference method, and compared the simulation results with the field observed data and written records inferred data. We focused on the rupture extent of this earthquake and the effects of the maximum principal stress azimuth and nucleation location on the rupture process and the corresponding damage distribution. Numerical simulation results suggest that the regional maximum principal stress orientation that surrounds the Zemuhe fault was approximately N55°W, which is identical with the azimuth from the stress relief experiment in the neighboring area. Our simulations further imply that the nucleation location is under Lanbiluo. The simulation of this preferred nucleation location model suggests that the rupture propagated through the entire Dajing segment and the Chechejie segment, and the rupture gradually arrested at shallow depths after it transferred to the Lijinbao segment and the Songxin segment. Moreover, the simulation suggests that the rupture on the Chechejie segment was initiated at the surface and then mainly propagated downward due to the free surface effect. In addition, the Xichang earthquake may have exhibited a low rupture velocity on the Dajing segment. Furthermore, our simulation results emphasize the importance of the stepover width in the earthquake dynamics.
Whole Heliosphere and Planetary Interactions (WHPI): The Big Picture on Solar Cycle Minima

The Whole Heliosphere and Planetary Interactions (WHPI) is an international initiative to study the most recent solar minimum and its impact on the interconnected solar‐heliospheric‐planetary system by facilitating and encouraging interdisciplinary activities. Particular WHPI science foci include the global connected structure of the heliosphere and planetary space environments/atmospheres, the origins and impacts of high‐speed solar wind streams, coronal mass ejections from Sun‐to‐Heliopause, and comparative solar minima. This is achieved through a series of coordinated observing campaigns, including Parker Solar Probe perihelia, and scientific virtual interactions including a dedicated workshop where observers and modelers gathered to discuss, compare, and combine research results. This introduction sets the scene for the WHPI interval, placing it into the context of prior initiatives and describing the overall evolution of the system between 2018 and 2020. Along with the accompanying articles, it presents a selection of key scientific results on the interconnected solar‐heliospheric‐planetary system at solar minimum.
The Influence of Database Characteristics on the Internal Consistency of Predictive Models of Trace Element Partitioning for Clinopyroxene, Garnet, and Amphibole

Understanding the processes that produce the major and trace element signature of igneous materials requires quantitative models of the behavior of trace elements under the full range of natural conditions. Such predictive models are based on the results of laboratory experiments used to calibrate expressions via regression analysis. The predictive accuracy of those expressions depends on the number of experiments where a specific element was measured and the analytical precision/accuracy of the measurements, together with models that accommodate the known dependencies. A factor that has rarely been considered in such models is the “coverage” with respect to the range of composition, pressure, and temperature in the experimental data. The goal of this research is to evaluate how partition coefficients (Di) for clinopyroxene, amphibole, and garnet correlate with a variety of intensive and compositional variables for minerals with different substitution mechanisms. Our results show that the number of experimental determinations, even within a group of elements that behave systematically (e.g., REE), may vary by as much as a factor of five. Further, there are significant differences in the average composition, temperature, and pressure of the experimental database for each element. In addition, the combination of database differences and analytical precision for each element result in systematic differences in the magnitude of the controlling parameters. All of these factors impact the predictive power of the regressions on which we rely and can produce a bias in the predicted behavior that may be correlated with analytical error or average composition of the experiments.
Role of Mixed Layer Depth in Kuroshio Extension Decadal Variability

Sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the Kuroshio Extension (KE) have been suggested to play a crucial role in decadal climate variability of the North Pacific affecting global climate and marine ecosystem variability. By analyzing the mixed layer heat budget, taking into account seasonality and mixed layer depth (MLD) variations, we here show for the first time that the KE SST front undergoes large decadal variations mainly owing to decadal modulations of the effective heat capacity affecting the SST sensitivity to surface heat fluxes during 1982–2015. More specifically, when the mixed layer becomes anomalously thick (shallow) to the south (north) of the front, it becomes less (more) sensitive to wintertime surface cooling. As a result, the SST front is strengthened, with positive (negative) SST anomalies to the south (north). A heat conservation model suggests that MLD anomalies are mainly due to thermocline depth anomalies.
The Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection on Extreme Fire Weather Risk

Stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI) would potentially be effective in limiting global warming and preserving large‐scale temperature patterns; however, there are still gaps in understanding the impact of SAI on wildfire risk. In this study, extreme fire weather is assessed in an Earth system model experiment that deploys SAI beginning in 2035, targeting a global temperature increase of 1.5°C above pre‐industrial levels under a moderate warming scenario. After SAI deployment, increases in extreme fire weather event frequency from climate change are dampened over much of the globe, including the Mediterranean, northeast Brazil, and eastern Europe. However, SAI has little impact over the western Amazon and northern Australia and causes larger increases in extreme fire weather frequency in west central Africa relative to the moderate emissions scenario. Variations in the impacts of warming and SAI on moisture conditions on different time scales determine the spatiotemporal differences in extreme fire weather frequency changes, and are plausibly linked to changes in synoptic‐scale circulation. This study highlights that regional and spatial heterogeneities of SAI climate effects simulated in a model are amplified when assessing wildfire risk, and that these differences must be accounted for when quantifying the possible benefit of SAI.
Three Gorges Dam Operations Affect the Carbon Dioxide Budget of a Large Downstream Connected Lake

The effects of dams on carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes in downstream lakes remain elusive. Here we combined eddy covariance observations and random forest models to examine multi‐decadal variations in CO2 fluxes in the Poyang Lake, the largest freshwater lake in China, and quantified the contribution of the Three Gorges Dam (TGD), the world's largest hydraulic project. We found the lake fluctuated between CO2 source and sink in 1961–2016, and tended to be CO2 sink in the post‐TGD period (2003–2016) when vegetation expanded early and spatially due to declining water level. TGD can explain approximately 6% of the total differences in annual CO2 fluxes, with major contributions in the impoundment period (up to 22% in middle September to October). The results show a positive side of operational major hydraulic projects on lake carbon sink, and probably caution the negative side of carbon release after dam removal.
Rapid Aggregation and Dissolution of Organic Aerosols in Liquid Methane on Titan

Complex organic aerosols in the upper atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan reach the troposphere and surface, where a methane (CH4)‐based hydrological cycle occur. Previous studies have assumed no interactions between organic aerosols and liquid CH4, although the dissolution of low‐molecular‐weight photochemical products in liquid CH4 has been considered. Here we report experimental results of soaking a laboratory analog (so‐called tholin) of Titan's organic aerosols in liquid CH4 at 93–98 K for several hours and then evaporating the liquid, simulating wet–dry cycling on Titan. After wet–dry cycling, residual tholin particles form aggregates through cementation. Solid evaporitic deposits formed by evaporation of interacted liquid contain nitrogen‐bearing aromatics, suggesting selective dissolution of aromatics. Our results suggest that organic aerosols or high‐molecular‐weight compounds adsorbed on them partly dissolve in liquid CH4 on Titan, even during short‐term wetting events, promoting the growth of aerosols to dune particles via aggregation and providing aromatics to evaporites.
Multi‐Scale Rupture Growth With Alternating Directions in a Complex Fault Network During the 2023 South‐Eastern Türkiye and Syria Earthquake Doublet

A devastating doublet of earthquakes with moment magnitude MW 7.9 and MW 7.6 earthquakes contiguously occurred in SE Türkiye near the NW border of Syria. Here we perform a potency‐density tensor inversion to simultaneously estimate rupture evolution and fault geometry for the doublet. We find the initial MW 7.9 earthquake involved discrete episodes of supershear rupture and back‐rupture propagation, and was triggered by initial rupture along a bifurcated splay of the East Anatolian Fault. The second MW 7.6 event was triggered by the earlier MW 7.9 event, and it involved more extensive supershear rupture along a favorably curved fault, and was likely stopped by geometric barriers at the fault ends. Our results highlight the multi‐scale cascading rupture growth across the complex fault network that affects the diverse rupture geometries of the 2023 Türkiye earthquake doublet, contributing to the strong ground shaking and associated devastation.
Evaluating the effects of stream power on rill flow resistance

Limited information is currently available on how sediment transport affects rill flow resistance and the influence of hydraulic variables, as stream power, on sediment transport capacity for rill flows. In this paper, the available measurements of hydraulic variables (flow depth, channel slope, mean flow velocity, Reynolds number, Froude number, and Darcy–Weisbach friction factor) carried out by Ban et al. (Measurement of rill and ephemeral gully flow velocities and their model expression affected by flow rate and slope gradient. Journal of Hydrology, 589, 125172) and Ban (Measurements and estimation of flow velocity in mobile bed rills. International Journal of Sediment Research, 38(1), 97–104) for fixed and mobile bed rills are used to test the applicability of a theoretically deduced rill flow resistance equation based on a power‐velocity profile. The results allowed for stating that (i) the theoretical flow resistance approach can predict Darcy–Weisbach friction factor for flows over fixed and mobile beds, (ii) the stream power, dependent on flow discharge and slope, determines different flow behaviour, and (iii) the data are supportive of the slope independence hypothesis of rill velocity, for the mobile bed condition, only for the highest investigated discharge values (greater than 0.133 L s−1).
Improved Vegetation Photosynthetic Phenology Monitoring in the Northern Ecosystems Using Total Canopy Solar‐Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence Derived From TROPOMI

Solar‐Induced chlorophyll Fluorescence (SIF) from the TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) with substantially improved spatiotemporal resolutions provides a new potential to improve satellite‐based phenology monitoring. The performance of TROPOMI SIF for tracking vegetation photosynthetic phenology, and how it compares to conventional vegetation indices (VIs)‐based approaches, however, have not been adequately assessed. Total canopy SIF, as a better proxy of Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) than original directional SIF, is a new SIF to estimate phenology while its performance has not been investigated. This study assesses the capability of TROPOMI SIF before and after canopy correction for phenology monitoring and improves our understanding of these questions. Benchmarked by tower‐based GPP, TROPOMI SIF generally performed better than VIs, especially for capturing the End Of Season (EOS) of vegetation photosynthetic activity at deciduous broadleaf forest (DBF), evergreen forest (ENF), and croplands (CRO) sites, but not for Start Of Season (SOS). This suggested that the advantage of SIF over VIs depended on phenological metrics. The total canopy SIF emission obtained through canopy correction generally performed better than the original SIF retrievals, especially in estimating the EOS of forest sites (DBF, MF, ENF), but soil correction did not further improve the accuracy of phenological monitoring. When comparing SIF‐ and VI‐based phenological metrics over northern terrestrial ecosystems, SIF showed earlier senescence date widely, while the differences in onset date were region dependent. These results indicate the necessity of canopy correction to convert directional SIF to canopy total SIF when using satellite SIF products to estimate phenological metrics.
High‐Resolution Snowstorm Measurements and Retrievals Using Cross‐Platform Multi‐Frequency and Polarimetric Radars

Many studies have performed microphysical retrievals using radars of different frequencies, platforms, and methodologies. However, little is known about the consistency of retrievals derived from different radar platforms (i.e., airborne or spaceborne vs. ground‐based) and their methodologies. This study is the first to directly compare snow mass‐weighted mean diameter (Dm) retrievals from both nadir‐pointing airborne multi‐frequency radars and ground‐based polarimetric range‐height indicator radar scans along the same airborne flight track with a resolution of O(10m) $\mathcal{O}(10\,\mathrm{m})$ . Dm retrievals between each method produced mean absolute errors of 0.49, 0.74, and 0.93 mm where the largest differences were between the ground and aircraft retrievals. A triple‐frequency analysis suggests the possibility that snow aggregates were generally composed of needles. These results can be used as a benchmark for comparing retrieval methodologies and highlight the continued uncertainty regarding the optimal approach for ice microphysical retrievals.
Can Algorithm Knowledge Stop Women from Being Targeted by Algorithm Bias? The New Digital Divide on Weibo

ABSTRACT Algorithm knowledge of users plays a crucial role in avoiding them from algorithm bias in recommendation systems. Gender of users has been found to correlate with algorithm bias, but also leaving behind a question of whether this relationship can be described by algorithm knowledge. By using Weibo as an example system, we clarify the aforementioned question from a digital divide theory perspective. We combine a traditional method (questionnaire) with a deep learning computational method to explain algorithm bias in two sequential studies. Our findings suggest that algorithm knowledge solely works for men while fails to protect women. Who users follow helps determine what information they are exposed to on Weibo, and this renders female users’ algorithm knowledge useless. This work provides a valuable perspective on algorithm bias: we view algorithm bias as a new digital divide and contribute to the understanding of gender differences by applying the digital divide perspective. Methodologically, we contribute by integrating traditional and computational methods to explain algorithm bias from a folk theory perspective.