Occupational stress and ill health of correctional service workers

The primary objective of this research was to investigate the relationship between occupational stress and i l l health among employees of Correctional Services in the Vereeniging Management Area. The measuring instruments that were used were the COSI, the MBI-GS, the UWES and the GHQ. A cross-sectional survey design was conducted among 197 employees at the Vereeniging Management Area. A response of (n=134) completed questionnaires was obtained. The results demonstrated a practically significance relationship between stress and work engagement and also between stress and general health. It also demonstrated a practically significance relationship between stress, exhaustion and the cynicism subscales. The regression analysis indicated that stress has some predictive value over exhaustion, cynicism, somatic symptoms, anxiety and insomnia, social dysfunction, severe depression and engagement. OPSOMMING Die primere oogrnerk van hierdie navorsing was om die verhoudinge tussen beroepstres en swak gesondheid by werknemers van Korrektiewe Dienste in die Vereenigingse Bestuursarea te ondersoek. Die meetinstrumente wat gebruik is, is die COSI, die UWES en die GHQ. 'n Kruisdeursnee-ontwerp is gedoen oor 197 werknemers by die Vereenigingse Bestuursarea. 'n Respons van (n=134) voltooide vraelyste is ontvang. Die resultate toon 'n praktiese beduidendheid verhouding tussen stress en werkbetrokkenheid, en ook tussen stress en algemene gesondheid. Daar is ook gevind dat 'n praktiese beduidendheid bestaan tussen die stres-, uitputtingsen sinisme-subskale. Die regressieanalise het getoon dat stress 'nmate van voorspellende waarde het met betrekking tot uitputting, sinisme, somatiese simptome, angs en slaaploosheid, sosiale wanfunksionering, erge depressie en betrokkenheid. According to Grobler, Warnich, Carrell, Elbert and Hatfield (2002), occupational stress is considered to be a rising concern within many organisations in South Africa. Levi, Sauter and Shimomitsu (1999) state that i l l health and sickness absence due to psychosocial stress in the work environment constitute a serious and increasingly prevalent problem in contemporary work life. The possible causes of these problems include increased domestic and foreign competition, which has led to a substantial increase in the frequency of downsizing, lay-offs and merger activities, rapidly changing technology, tension among diverse groups of employees, and increased demands for higher quality products and service (Grobler et.al., 2002). According to Bergh (1997), South African prisons are facing a crisis; a situation where it is feared that professionals might leave their jobs because of increasing job demands and continuous stress. Another reason for concern over job stress is that stress-related workers' compensation claims have risen dramatically (Grobler et. al., 2002). The authors further state that this is especially the case with members of the South African Police Services, who tend to retire early because of stress. The abovementioned statement is supported by a study conducted by Anson, Johnson, and Anson (1997) that found little difference between police officers and Correctional officials, and showed that both groups experienced high levels of chronic stress, depersonalisation and, tedium as well as physical, mental or emotional exhaustion. Furthermore, they further point out that Correctional officials exhibited more instances of sickness, ulcers, hypertension and heart disease than the compared sample of police officers. Because of the daily challenges of managing inmates as well as the frustrations of inevitable mismanagement in attempting to accomplish multiple goals (Alighier, 2005), the researcher is of the opinion that Correctional officials are subject to severe stress and, as a consequence will tend to experience i l l health. Criminal justice research paints a picture of Correctional officials as being hardened, cynical, stressed, ritualistic and alienated (Tracy, 2003). These problems have been linked to Correctional officials' high levels of turnover, job dissatisfaction, psychological distress and a relatively short life expectancy of 59 years (Tracy, 2003). According to Irishhealth (2005), measured on a scale of one to ten, Correctional officials' occupation rated high on stress. Because of these reported problems it seems that the seriousness of the physical and psychological effects of stress on the Correctional official is becoming increasingly important to this type of organisation and also on an international level (Botha, 2003). The Conservation of Resources Theory (COR) (Hobfoll, 1989) and the Appraisal Theory (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) have provided a theoretical background for this study. According to the COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989) people strive to retain, protect and build resources, and any threats towards the person presents a potential or actual loss of their valued resources. Negative outcomes such as health complaints and burnout are likely to occur when valued resources are threatened or lost, are inadequate to meet demands, or do not reap the anticipated level of return (Taris, et al., 2001). Major work demands include role ambiguity, work-load and work pressure, whereas major resources include control, participation in decision-making and job autonomy (Lee & Ashforth, 1996). According to Botha (2003), factors such as job demands in Correctional Services environment can be associated with realities such as the demands of prisoners, crisis situations and personal responsibility, the unpleasant nature of administrative tasks and transformation and reorganisation within the environment. Lack of resources can be related to lack of organisational support, lack of opportunities for advancement, poor pay, lack of staff and lack of co-operation and motivation. Factors such as exposure to body fluids and faeces, inhalation of unpleasant odours and dealing with contagious diseases are some of the stressors inherent in the Correctional Services environment (Botha, 2003). The COR framework focuses on the effects of job demands and resources on burnout. It views job demands and resources as potential sources of stress. Hobfoll and Freedy (1993) state that when demands threaten resources stress is triggered and therefore prolonged exposure to such demands may result in strain in the form of emotional exhaustion (burnout). As a result people who are confronted with stress are expected to strive to minimise the net loss of resources. People will then use whatever resources they have to limit resource loss and the adverse effects thereof. This implies that people with less resources are vulnerable to resource loss and therefore to strain (Hobfoll, 1989). Karasek (1979) supports this statement by stating that jobs that combine high levels of demand with low levels of autonomy, control or decision latitude are the most stressful. Chaka, (1 998) describes the demands and stressors of Correctional officials as a high degree of responsibility for people, genuine threats to personal safety, rotating shifts and unpleasant physical surroundings. An observation study conducted by Tracy (2003) in a prison found that stress and burnout among Correctional officials was evidenced through manifestations of literalism, withdrawal and paranoia and that these behaviours were associated with contradictory tensions inherent in the Correctional officials' work. The researcher is of the opinion that the manifestation of these behaviours is a result of the demands and stressors that the Correctional officials experience. For instance, Correctional officials are expected to listen to, interact with and nurture inmates; however, they are also expected to be 'tough' and detached. Through physical training sessions and other activities, they are taught how to be physically and mentally tenacious. Therefore, officials must carefully walk a tightrope in balancing the tension of nurture versus discipline (Tracy, 2003). Lee and Ashforth (1996), argue that resources help to overcome the need for 'defensive coping'. That is, while the threat of resource loss may lead to the use of coping strategies, such as depersonalisation, the second important dimension of burnout, i.e. having a distant and cynical attitude towards the people one is working with professionally. Those who have many resources at their disposal have a lower need for such coping strategies than others. These authors further state that one would then expect job demands to be especially strongly related to exhaustion and less to depersonalisation, whereas job resources should be related to both and perhaps most strongly to depersonalisation. These ideas were tested by Lee and Ashforth (1996) and their results confirmed their expectation that exhaustion would be strongly associated with the demands correlates, whereas the correlations with job resources would be somewhat lower. Depersonalisation, was correlated with both resources and demands. In their analyses of various studies Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) found that job demands correlate most strongly with exhaustion. It will then be assumed that job demands such as, the demands of prisoners, crisis situations and personal responsibility, unpleasant nature of administrative tasks and so forth, will be strongly associated with exhaustion. These job demands together with lack of resources such as, poor pay, lack of opportunities for advancement, lack of staff and so forth, can be associated with cynicism in the Correctional Services. It is therefore the researcher's opinion that prolonged exposure of Correctional officials to these demands and lack of resources may result in strain in a form of burnout. In a study conducted by Rothmann, Malan and Rothmann (2001), burnout is regarded as a particular kind of prolonged stress. Rothmann, et al. (200 1) view burnout as a multidimensional chronic stress reaction that goes beyond the experience of mere exhaustion. These a