Cognitive Orientations of Ultramarathoners 1 By :

The purpose of this study was to examine the sport-specific cognitions of 112 ultramarathoners competing in a 100-mile trail run. Subjects completed the Sport Orientation Questionnaire, the Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory, the Commitment to Running Scale, and a questionnaire designed by the investigators to assess goals, cognitive strategies, perceptions of "runner's high," and feelings that occur when subjects are unable to run. Ultramarathoners were more confident, more committed to running, slightly higher in competitiveness, lower on win orientation, and higher on goal orientation in comparison to other athletes. Ultramarathoners also rated importance of and commitment to time goals very high; importance of and commitment to place goals were rated low. No significant differences in cognitive orientations were found between finishers and nonfinishers or between males and females. Responses to open-ended questions revealed that most ultramarathoners reported predominately external thoughts during races, had feelings of psychological well-being and strength as a result of ultramarathoning, never or rarely experienced runner's high, and experienced negative psychological states when unable to run. Overall, these results demonstrate the unique sportspecific cognitive orientations of ultramarathoners. Article: The relationship between cognition and athletic performance has long been of interest to athletes and coaches. Several investigators (Gould, Weiss, & Weinberg, 1981; Highlen & Bennett, 1979; Mahoney & Avener, 1977; Meyers, Cooke, Cullen, & Liles, 1979) have examined the cognitive strategies and patterns typically employed by athletes. Although these studies were exploratory and considered only a limited number of variables, as noted by Heyman (1982), cautious conclusions and recommendations have added to an understanding of cognition and athletic performance and have increased the possibilities for intervention strategies. Successful gymnasts (Mahoney & Avener, 1977), wrestlers (Gould et al., 1981; Highlen & Bennett, 1979), and racquetball players (Meyers et al., 1979) have demonstrated greater self-confidence, less anxiety, and greater ability to focus attention than their less successful counterparts. In the present study, we were interested in investigating the cognitive orientations of a unique group of athletes, ultramarathoners (competitors in footraces beyond the conventional marathon distance of 26.2 miles). McCutcheon and Yoakum (1983) have attempted to find differences among ultramarathoners, runners, and nonrunners using the Self-Motivation Inventory (Dishman & Ickes, 1981) and Wrightman's (1974) Philosophies of Human Nature Scale. Finding no significant differences, these researchers suggested that employing other measures may be helpful in determining unique characteristics of ultramarathoners. Tharion, Strowman, and Rauch (1988) have examined the changes in preand postrun affect of ultramarathoners. Using the Profile of Mood States, they demonstrated no significant preto postrun differences in tension, depression, anger, confusion, and vigor between finishers and nonfinishers of an ultramarathon. Fatigue was found to differ and was attributed to the finishers' running further. Morgan and Pollock (1977) have been successful in differentiating elite marathoners from nonelite marathoners on the basis of cognitive strategies. Elite marathoners reported 1 Acknowledgment: Appreciation is extended to Jeff Shaw and Terry Garner for their assistance as raters in this study. using associative (attending to an individual's physical sensations) rather than dissociative strategies (attending to distracting thoughts or images) during races; nonelite marathoners reported using dissociative strategies. The purpose of this study was to examine the cognitive orientations of ultramarathoners competing in a 100mile trail run. We assessed the responses of ultramarathoners to construct of confidence, competitive orientation, and commitment to running. As already mentioned, sport-confidence has differentiated successful from unsuccessful athletes (Gould et al., 1981; Highlen & Bennett, 1979; Mahoney & Avener, 1977; Meyers et al., 1979). Gill and Deeter (1988) have demonstrated differences between participants of competitive activity and nonparticipants and between men and women in sport-achievement orientation. Males have a greater desire to enter and strive for success in sport competition and are more oriented toward win/loss outcomes than women. In comparison, women are more oriented toward personal goals. Finally, Carmack and Martens (1979) have revealed differences between faster and slower runners in their commitment to running. To further understand the cognitive orientations of ultramarathoners, we examined goals, psychological techniques used to enhance performance, "runner's high," and feelings that occur when one is unable to run. Furthermore, we examined whether any of the cognitive orientations could differentiate finishers from nonfinishers, differentiate men from women, or predict finishing times. We predicted that ultramarathoners would exhibit psychological characteristics similar to other athletes. Finishers would report higher self-confidence scores and have a higher commitment to running than nonfinishers. Female ultramarathoners would be oriented more toward personal goals and be lower on commitment to running; male ultramarathoners would be more oriented toward win/loss outcomes and be higher on commitment to running.