Racial democracy in the Americas 1 “ Racial Democracy ” in the Americas : A Latin and US Comparison

The “racial democracy” (Iberian Exceptionalism) thesis claims that racial prejudice in Latin America is not only lower than that found in the United States, but is essentially absent altogether. We explored the plausibility of this thesis by the use of both explicit and implicit prejudice measures among Blacks and Whites from the United States and three Caribbean nations (the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Cuba). In general, the results showed significant racial prejudice against Blacks and in favor of Whites in all four nations. AfricanAmericans were the only respondents not to show significant implicit prejudice either in favor of or against Blacks. In addition, North Americans (i.e., respondents from the United States) displayed both lower implicit and explicit racial prejudice than respondents in each of the three Latino nations. Overall, the results clearly contradicted the thesis of racial democracy and suggest that Latin America may not be nearly as egalitarian as some have argued. Racial democracy in the Americas 3 “Racial Democracy” in the Americas: A Latin and North American Comparison The thesis known as “Racial democracy theory” (also referred to as Iberian exceptionalism) argues that, relative to the United States, the nations of Latin America are largely free of the ferocious racial prejudice that has characterized race relations in the US for most of the 19 and 20 centuries (see Degler, 1986; Freyre 1951; Hoetink, 1967; Pierson, 1942; Tannenbaum, 1947). Racial democracy theorists base these conclusions upon the fact that, compared to North America, the nations of Latin America experienced a marked absence of post-manumission institutionalized racism (e.g., segregation & Jim Crow laws), a general absence of race-based group violence (e.g., lynching, race-base hate crimes), or racial protest, and a strikingly high rate of miscegenation. It is argued that, the extent to which racial inequality is still discernible in Latin American societies, this inequality is almost exclusively due to the residual effects of past racially contingent resource allocation and not to the effects of ongoing racial prejudice. Racial democracy theorists attribute Latin American’s racial egalitarianism to three major factors. First, unlike the European colonists of North America, the Iberian conquerors of Latin America had the experience of living under the political and social hegemony of the Moors, a dark-skinned people, for nearly 800 years. Having experienced these dark-skinned conquerors as their political and cultural “superiors,” the Iberian colonists could not then regard the darkskinned African and Indian slaves as sub-human with the same degree of celerity as the North American colonists found possible. Second, contrary to the Calvinist and Puritan doctrines of North American Protestantism, Catholicism regarded Native Americans, and even African Slaves, as people with souls and equally beloved of God; thus, the Catholic conquerors were less Racial democracy in the Americas 4 aversive to intermixing with them. Finally, in contrast to the colonists of North America, the early Latin American colonists did not venture into the New World with intact families. As a result, the Iberian colonists established sexual and emotional relationships with the Indian and African slave women rather quickly, creating a more positive attitude toward those of African descent and resulting in the high rates of miscegenation we see today in Latin America (Degler, 1986; Freye, 1946, 1951). As a result, they argue that broad based social movements like the Civil Rights movement in the US were not necessary because of the more egalitarian nature of race relations in Latin America. However, the thesis of racial democracy in Latin America has come under increasing attack by critical race theorists. Given the fact that Whites enjoy discernible advantages over Blacks in areas such as health, education, income, profession, status and political power in many of the Latino countries—including Brazil, Mexico, Columbia, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Panama, Costa Rica, Peru, Bolivia and the Dominican Republic (see Minority Rights Group, 1995; Wade, 1997)—the critical race theorists argue that the only exceptional thing about Latino race relations is the success with which Latin American nations have promulgated the myth rather than the reality of racial equality (Hanchard, 1994; Nobles, 2000; Marx, 1998). Critics argue that proponents of the racial democracy thesis make the mistake of viewing race relations in Latin America through the prism of the racial dynamics found in the United States. As a result, racial democracy theorists have been insensitive to the distinct forms of racial exclusion that is practiced in Latin America. For example, Latin American countries have a history of ‘whitening’ privileges and laws that give jobs, land, tax breaks and other benefits to European and Asian immigrants in an effort to decrease the relative portion of Blacks in Latin societies (Moya-Pons, 2000; Marx, 1998; Nobles, 2000; Wade, 1997). Rather than trying to eliminate Racial democracy in the Americas 5 people of African descent through informal violence (e.g., pogroms), high rates of imprisonment or execution, Latin America nations have opted to attenuate African influence via the process of dilution (Nobles, 2000). Critics argue that the goal of both North and Latin America is still ultimately the same: White hegemony. Thus, “racial democracy” is seen as nothing but a myth functioning to maintain the very thing it denies—racial oppression (Twine, 1998). Among other ways, this is accomplished by installing identification with and allegiance to the nation as a whole rather than to specific racial groups, thereby impeding the development of group-based social mobilization needed to confront real social grievances (Hanchard, 1994; Marx, 1999). Further, they argue that in the post-Civil rights era in the US with the advent of more race conscious policies and a recognition of formal disadvantage comparisons of race relations in Latin America with the US do not always favor Latin America (Hanchard 1994; Marx 1999;Degler 1986). They argue that the lack of social movements based upon race and the denial of racial inequality has created a discursive space where overt racism flourishes but is denied due to the myth of racial democracy. In contrast, the US while still struggling to overcome the legacy of racial inclusion has had to consciously address the lack of incorporation of blacks in all areas of political, social, and economic life. Nonetheless, critical race theorists have generally neglected to support their arguments by actually comparing the racial attitudes of Latin and North Americans empirically. It is quite possible that the economic and social disparities between Blacks and Whites are merely the persistent legacy of slavery, and have nothing at all to do with ongoing racial prejudice. Moreover, even if racial prejudice continues to exist in Latin America, it is still possible that a weaker version of the racial democracy thesis is still valid. This is to say that, while still existent, Racial democracy in the Americas 6 racial prejudice might nonetheless be significantly weaker in Latin America than in North America. One way of resolving this controversy would be to compare the racial prejudice of North and South American populations by use of standard survey instruments and explicit racial attitude measures. Although the use of explicit self-report racial attitude measures has been the standard means of assessing racial attitudes for the past fifty years, this technique may not be the most appropriate method of assessing racial prejudice. As is well known, explicit measures of prejudice suffer from the major problem of social desirability and self-presentation bias (e.g., Carver, Glass, & Katz, 1978). When faced with explicit, highly sensitive and potentially inflammatory racial issues, respondents often feel under considerable pressure to provide more politically acceptable responses than might be warranted (see, e.g., Crosby, Bromley & Saxe, 1980; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, &Williams, 1995; see also Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997; Dovidio & Fazio, 1992). As a result, the use of explicit measures have lead American race relations researchers to conclude that racial prejudice has been in a continuous decline over the past 40 years, while less obtrusive techniques (such as experiments and priming studies) indicate no such decline (Crosby, Bromley, & Saxe, 1980; Wittenbrink et al., 1997). The social desirability problem may be particularly troublesome within a Latin American context, where the promulgation of “racial democracy” as a dominant ideology has been widespread, even among the laity (Hanchard, 1994; Marx, 1998). On the other hand, the lack of a consistent movement challenging racist discourse and practice may render Latin America behind the US in terms of consciousness about racist discourse and practices. Therefore, there are fewer explicitly antiracist discourses, consciously positive images of blacks, and less social pressure to conform attitudes and discourse to socially desirable practice. On the other hand, there have been fewer Racial democracy in the Americas 7 formal barriers to racial equality. However, the gap between actual prejudice and what can be measured remains a methodological problem. One increasingly popular solution to this social desirability issue in racial attitude research is to use implicit rather than explicit measures of prejudice. Implicit measures of prejudice are designed to measure racial attitudes in subtle ways that limit the effects of normative pressures to display non-prejudiced responses. This is accomplished by tapping into the more automatic, over-learned and non-conscious aspect of group evaluations (Blair, 2001; Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz 1998; Greenwald et al., 1998