Intersecting Segments of the Participatory Puzzle

An engaged and active citizenry is integral to the American democracy. Normally when political participation is discussed, a heavy emphasis is placed on voting in national elections. While this is an important element of politics, it is but one ingredient. It is important to view participation also at the community level, for localities comprise the fabric of America. The late philosopher and educator, John Dewey, believed that democracy not only began at home, but that its home was in the neighborly community (Putnam, 2000). This exemplifies the American political system in that there exist numerous forms of participation that have long shaped political life and contrast with other democracies. Furthermore, Americans have a rich tradition as joiners, as Tocqueville's classic observations attest (Putnam, 2000). Among these differing forms are volunteering, campaigning, sharing opinions with others, contacting representatives, and being politically active within the community. Not only is it important to understand the different modes of participation, but also who participates as well as the instruments involved in shaping participation. There are numerous influences upon participation such as the media, conflict, problem perceptions, political socialization, a focus on national politics and figureheads, and the rules ofpolitical engagement. Participation holds various meanings for different groups; some utilize this to their advantage while others are washed over by the wave of scarce resources. Political participation largely remains a puzzle. Amidst the abstract models and theories, we do not fully understand why some people participate while others do not. To some extent, these models each hold one piece of truth among gaps of mystery. Although there has been a consistent ebb and flow of participation throughout American history, we are facing the lowest Participatory Puzzle 3 and longest trend of participation today. As a result of decreased participation, it is charged that our democracy is faltering. Although this has been a consistent worry during various periods of American history, today's predicament is somewhat different; historically, the system of inputs and rewards was not set up for all Americans to participate (Parenti, 2002). Current education levels have never been higher and institutional barriers never been lower. As we strive to understand and explain political participation, we must synonymously ponder the meaning of democracy. There may exist valid arguments that our democracy is facing a perilous time (Elshtain, 1995). Americans are finding less in common with each other today as we become either overwhelmingly disenfranchised from politics or increasingly polarized. Participation lends our political system legitimacy, offering form and substance to the meaning of the rules we abide by. Ultimately we must ask ourselves whether or not this makes a difference. Participatory Puzzle 4 Introduction Our institutions provide a common ground for a multitude of voices with different agendas, conflicts, and needs. In the world of politics in which 'who gets what' is the driving force, participation within the system helps to determine the winners and the losers. Participation in politics is an intricate web of players, modes, context and precipitating events. In order to organize the chaos and glorious mess of democracy in action, there are numerous concepts and models that exist. It is important to note that depending on the model used in analysis, citizen participation in politics will appear to exist in differing amounts. Although there are agreed upon standards used in analysis, inconsistencies remain. Ultimately we must attempt to analyze all of the cogs within the political machine in order to better understand the magical workings of a system many of us take for granted. The Modes of Political Participation To give a synopsis of political participation, it is inclusive of all activities undertaken by private citizens that attempt to influence governmental activities (Nie & Verba, 1987). In short, it is essentially the democratic ideal as an input of the systems model. "Participation is viewed as necessary to maintain open access to the system" (Conway, 2000, p. 2). Citizen action is deeply intertwined with the modes of participation, demographic characteristics and perceptions of the world around them. There are numerous ways in which the citizen can work to influence government, and each action contains different meanings even between individuals. Citizen actions can be supportive or seek change within the political system (Conway, 2000). This is exemplified with the process of voting or marching in the streets. Actions can also be passive or active; conventional or unconventional (Conway, 2000). Passive political participation includes Participatory Puzzle 5 retaining an interest about politics and current issues, watching presidential debates on television, or seeking to influence one's peers (Conway, 2000). Active participation involves being actively engaged with the political process, whether canvassing for a political party or calling a legislator. It could also range upward to actually running for office or becoming a part of a campaign in a staff position. Conventional modes of participation include all behaviors that are socially and institutionally acceptable. Although often absent from traditional political discussions, unconventional participation has a long history of American politics with protest behavior and other social deviations. This would include traditional Civil Rights protests and anti-war demonstrations, up through violence of various forms. Participation can be narrowly focused around one issue or broadly focused around either a common good or platform. And finally, it can be symbolic with voting, deviant with terrorist extremism, an act of repression towards other modes of participation, or even a simple monetary contribution (Conway, 2000). These categories often coalesce and intersect with each other. It is difficult to measure passive participation and what it means to different individuals. The political participation modes normally studied are considered conventional and active, though they may also be symbolic, narrowly focused or take very little effort. The modes most often studied are status quo oriented, and exist as vehicles for the explicit purpose of participation. Ultimately, they reflect legitimacy upon the system, whether or not the participants believe in the system, by playing by the rules of the game. These modes include voting, involvement in campaign activities, contacting a representative and attending political and organizational meetings (Conway, 2000; Nie & Verba, 1987; Patterson; 2002; Putnam, 2000). There are no shortages of ways that a citizen may participate in the political process and Participatory Puzzle 6 there exist thousands of civil servants today (Dukakis & Simon, 2000). Often citizens became involved because of a local issue that garnered their attention and motivated them into action; some eventually ran in elections as a result (Dukakis & Simon, 2000). Other citizen activists volunteer, whether for campaigns, candidates, specific issues or in organizations (Dukakis & Simon, 2000). It is important to note that belonging to a non-political association often increases the chances of members becoming involved in the political process (Dukakis & Simon, 2000; Putnam, 2000). "The United States has more voluntary organizations than any other country of the world, and more are being created every day" (Dukakis & Simon, 2000, p. 60). Whether participation has been categorized as explicitly political or not, all forms of involvement within the community create a reciprocal effect (Dukakis & Simon, 2000; Putnam, 2000). Volunteering and belonging to the associationallife become fulfilling experiences, eventually propelling its volunteers into higher involvement (Dukakis & Simon, 2000). Voting constitutes the majority of political participation, and is considered one of the more important political participatory acts because it is highly influential on government (Conway, 2000; Nie & Verba, 1987; Patterson, 2002). Voting links citizens and government, "enablingleaders to act in the people's names, providing stability.and leaders receive more support when the citizenry chose them" (Asher, 1988, p. 34). It is instant feedback for government to respond to, and an integral part of an active democracy (Putnam, 2000). Voting includes an act of support or disapproval for the system, the candidates or the issues (Conway, 2000). Voting can likewise be an act of simple partisan affiliation or a moral obligation. One can easily express satisfaction or dissatisfaction through voting. Although voting is viewed as active participation, it does not require much thought or effort. The largest segment of those that Participatory Puzzle 7 participate, however, are relegated to the sphere of voting, and although those that participate in other forms also vote, the majority of those that vote rarely do more (Nie & Verba, 1987). Although not a maxim, a proper assumption is that people who vote are more involved in their communities and politics (Putnam, 2000). Although they remain low, voting rates during national election cycles are higher than other election periods; roughly 50% of registered voters vote in national elections (Patterson, 2002). Primary and off year election cycles are less than half of that. During the 1996 primary election, participation was at a low 13% of registered voters (patterson, 2002). This is a drop from earlier participation rates; in the 1960's, primary election turnout averaged 50% while the national election of 1960 received a participation rate of 63% (Patterson, 2002). The electorate is shrinking and voting is in decline (Asher, 1988; Conway, 2000; Nie & Verba, 1987; Patterson, 2002; Putnam, 2000). During the close 200