Physiological And Psychological Responses To 911 Emergency Tapes

The news has become a central part of daily culture in the United States and provides up to date information regarding a vast array of topic s from weather to war. A specific aspect of the news, emergency 911 tapes, and their influence on viewers’ physiological and psychological health was investigated. Research regarding the relationship between physiological arousal and exposure to brief traumat ic stimuli, as well as research addressing the development of pathological psychiat ric symptoms are discussed in the literature review. This study examined the relatio nship between exposure to 911 emergency tapes, physiological arousal, and symptom s of psychopathology while considering the influence of trait personality char acteristics and state mood. Results identified significant differences in physiological response to the 911 emergency condition compared to news reports. No significant differences were identified between mood state and arousal except in the instance of re spiration rate and negative mood; those with higher scores on negative mood displayed highe r levels of respiration. Personality factors and empathy were examined for their predict ive value on level of arousal, and yielded insignificant results. Finally, baseline le vel of PTSD was not significantly correlated with arousal in the 911 condition, excep t in terms of respiration rate. Future research is required to better understand the arous l as a result of exposure to such media, and the associated psychological and physiological he th implications. Chapter I Statement of the Problem The average American who lives to be 65 spends appr oximately nine years watching television (Nielsen Media Research Company , 2010). According to the United States Department of Labor (2010) television watchi ng was the most common form of leisure activity, with the average American viewing approximately 2.8 hours every day. The average number of violent acts observed by the age of 18 is approximately 200,000, with 53.8% being related to crime, war, or disaster (Nielsen Media Research Company, 2010). When questioned about the influence of viewi ng violent acts, 79% of Americans believe exposure leads to later acts of violence (N i lsen, 2010). The American Psychiatric Association, American Medical Associati on, American Heart Association, and numerous other professional organizations have recently taken action due to concerns over the negative impact television has on mental a nd physical health. These organizations have become the official sponsors of National TV Turnoff Week (Boyse, 2010) in an effort to reduce associated health risk s of viewing violence on television. Thousands of studies have investigated the negative impact of the media considering exposure to violent or aggressive acts, and have co ll ctively concluded that exposure, particularly in childhood, not only leads to later violent behavior, but also reduces helping behavior (Huesmann, Moie-Titus, Podolski, & Eron, 2003; Johnson, Cohen, Smalies, Kasen, & Brooks, 2002; Bushman & Anderson, 2009). Although there has been research investigating the effects of trauma or violence in different forms of media, (i.e., video games or mov ies) there has been little research addressing the impact of exposure to genuine human violence or traumatic experience through the news. This is an area that deserves fu rther attention given the level of exposure on a daily basis and across one’s lifespan . Additionally, this area is deserving of attention when considering repeated exposure to tra umatic stimuli may have a detrimental impact on both physiological and psycho logical health. If findings are validated, and a relationship is established betwee n exposure to such media and measure of psychological mood and physical arousal, the new s may be driven to remove this aspect of their reports, which intrinsically offers no novel information to the reported story. Finally, investigation of personality factor s and mood states may help to identify if certain people are at higher risk to experience mor e elevated distress symptoms as observed by an increase in physical arousal. Chapter II Review of Literature Physiology of Stress and Trauma Fight or Flight. The manner in which the human body reacts on a phys iological level commonly referred to as stress was extensively examined and documented by Walter Cannon. Cannon is best known for his researc h surrounding the fight or fight response (Cannon, 1915) common to all humans when confronte d with a threat, such as exposure to threatening stimuli. Cannon identified the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activates in a predictable manner in the face of a threat to prepare the individual for fighting and holding their ground, or fleeing from the situation. Biological functions that show expression of this response include heart rate , blood pressure, perspiration, respiration, temperature, and vision. As humans we biologically react the same way when in danger: the respiratory system increases activit y, blood pressure and body temperature decreases, our pupils dilate, and our amount of swe at increases. In order to measure how the human body reacts to su ch fight or flight situations, (i.e., traumatic stimuli) historically biofeedback machinery has been utilized to track physiological differences related to SNS function. For instance, changes in galvanic skin response (GSR), electroencephalography (EEG), and e lectromyography (EMG) have been monitored to measure the impact of emotional s ubliminal messages in media advertisements (Ohme, Reykowska, Wiener, & Choroman sk , 2009). Forty-five nonpsychiatric female participants between the age of 25 -35 were shown two experimental advertisements along with ten control advertisement s that were free from an emotionally provocative image. Significant differences were obs erved in EEG and EMG responses across the two conditions with more brain activatio n in the emotional lobes and higher facial activity in the subliminal condition. Indepe ndent t-tests also identified a significantly higher response according to GSR in t he more emotional advertisement. Overall, analysis revealed a clear correlation betw e n changes in GSR and emotionally evoking stimuli that is consistent with the fight o r flight reaction, even when the stimuli was processed out of conscious awareness. The stress specific response to a threat has additi onally been documented according to changes in skin temperature and heart rate (Baker & Taylor, 1954). Fiftytwo psychology students from Purdue University were subjected to two emotionprovoking situations, one including an electrical s park and a second condition induced muscular tension though a hand dynamometer. During each condition, students were subjected to 25 seconds of stimulation followed by a 30 second rest period. Skin temperature and pulse were recorded along a ten sec o d interval and compared to a twominute baseline administered prior to exposure. Sta tistical analysis identified a significant difference between skin temperature and skin conduc tivity at baseline compared to the stressful stimuli situations. Physiological measure w re consistent with a stressful response (i.e., increased heart rate, lower tempera tur , increased level of skin conductivity) in the shock condition compared to th e baseline. Researchers defended their data analysis, stating it is consistent with the fu nctioning of vasoconstriction of blood vessels when faced with a threatening stimulus. Thi s principle dictates when experiencing a threat an individual experiences the flight or fi ght reaction, the body has a conditioned response marked by increased heart rate and increas ed skin conductance which is measurable utilizing biofeedback technology, and in essence what Cannon identified years prior. General Adaptation Syndrome. Selye (1956) utilized Cannon’s findings as a springboard for his general adaptation syndrome in which not only the sympathetic nervous system is activated in response to threat, but identified that hormones are released through the activation of the hypothalamic -pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in a consistent fashion. Most importantly for this inves tigation, Seyle’s work identified in the face of a repeated stressor the HPA system does not return to homeostasis and maintains an elevated state of functioning. This state of con sta t hyper arousal has been shown to impact an individual’s immune system in a detriment al manner. One’s perception of threat activates this system that has harmful physi ological effects (i.e., increased inflammation, inability to produce antibodies). Thi s connection between the psychological states of being and bodily functions are referred to today as psychoneuroimmunology. Research investigating the effects of trauma on imm une system functioning in a sample of women with PTSD identified that recurrent a d chronic stressors wear on the body’s allostatic load (the body’s attempt to maint i stability) in a significantly different manner when compared to acute stressors (Kendall-Ta ckett, 2009). Repeated exposure to traumatic stimuli results in continuous arousal of the HPA axis, which never is provided the opportunity to return to baseline, resulting in the release of glucocorticoids. High levels of these hormones have been shown to activat e the immune system and impact a wide array of multiple system functioning, playing a role in the exacerbation of common chronic health conditions such as obesity, HIV, dep ression, and dementia (Raber, 1998). The constant action of the system in Kendall’s stud y may be related to B criteria of PTSD (4 ed., text rev.; DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric As sociation, 2000) and provide insight into the relationship between viewing the w orld as threatening and overall physical health problems. Similar research investig atin the relationship between exposure to trauma, immune system response, and chr oni health conditions have correlated el