Influences On Career Self-Efficacy: Examining Attachment

INFLUENCES ON CAREER SELF-EFFICACY: EXAMINING ATTACHMENT STYLES AND OPTIMISM IN A MODERATOR MODEL By Anya Elizabeth Moon A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Science at Virginia Commonwealth University. Virginia Commonwealth University, 2005. Major Director: Victoria A. Shivy, Ph.D., Department of Psychology This study examined ,the influences of attachment style and level of optimism on career self-efficacy. It was hypothesized that level of optimism moderates the relationship between attachment style and career self-efficacy. Participants were 173 college students who completed the Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR; K.A. Brennan, C.L. Clark, & P.R. Shaver, 1998), the Life Orientation Test Revised (LOT-R; M. Sheier, C. Carver, & M. Bridges, 1994), and the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Short Form (CDMSE-SF; N. Betz, K. Klein, & K. Taylor, 1996). The moderator model was not supported, but hierarchical regression revealed a positive relationship between optimism and career self-efficacy. Analyses also revealed a negative correlation between avoidant attachment style and career self-efficacy. Introduction Self-efficacy, optimism and attachment long have existed as separate constructs in psychology, and each has been identified as a predictor of goal-directed human behavior. As originally proposed by Bandura (1 977), self-efficacious individuals set high goals for themselves and then persist in the behaviors necessary to achieve these goals. Career self-efficacy, or efficacy in the career domain, has been used to predict individuals' confidence in their abilities to complete particular career-related tasks, such as writing a resume or conducting a job search (Hackett & Betz, 1981). Dispositional optimism has been linked to multiple areas in which a positive outlook on one's circumstances may be advantageous. Optimistic individuals, for example, demonstrate faster recovery time from coronary bypass surgery (Scheier & Carver, 1987). Finally, a secure attachment style is instrumental in promoting exploration of the self and one's world (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1987) due to the protective, responsive relationship with the primary caregiver. Attachment styles have been studied in a variety of populations and situations, including adults' work behaviors (Hazen & Shaver, 1990) and college student distress (Lopez, Mitchell, & Gormley, 2002). This study proposes that these constructs interact in a moderator model, in which optimism moderates the relationship between attachment styles and career self-efficacy. Bandura (1977) first proposed the construct of self-efficacy, his term for the belief individuals have in their ability to complete goals and tasks based on previous experience. Hackett and Betz (1981) then adapted the construct to the career development domain, and introduced the idea of career self-efficacy, or the confidence individuals have in their ability to complete specific tasks related to occupation. These tasks could include exploring career options, registering for college courses, or performing duties specific to a certain occupation. With the introduction of the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy scale (CDMSE; Taylor & Betz, 1983) and the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy-Short Form (CDMSE-SF; Betz, Klein & Taylor, 1996), career self-efficacy could be quantified, allowing for more in-depth study of the domain. The creation of these two instruments facilitated the conduct of countless studies examining the impact of career self-efficacy (Betz & Luzzo, 1996). A large part of research on career self-efficacy concerns factors that influence its development, which may include an individual's level of optimism. Scheier, Weintraub, and Carver (1 986) identified optimism and pessimism as personality traits that influence coping. Dispositional optimism was identified as a mediator for general expectancies, or outcomes that are general in nature or are determined by multiple elements. Scheier and Carver (1993) then introduced the idea of dispositional optimism, which is the expectation of general positive outcomes in life. In their expectancy-value model of motivation, Carver and Scheier (1 998) identified optimists as those individuals who expect good outcomes, pursue goals with confidence, and persist even if the goal seems daunting. Conversely, they found that pessimists were more likely to expect negative outcomes when pursuing a goal and approached challenges with hesitation and doubt. Carver and Scheier (1998) drew a parallel between self-efficacy and dispositional optimism. Highly self-efficacious individuals believe that their personal efforts largely will determine outcomes. Similarly, optimists continue to expect good outcomes because they view their own efforts to remain involved in the pursuit of a goal as determining its positive outcome. In other words, optimists do expect positive outcomes, but they recognize the need to stay involved with tasks through their completion. However, this connection between optimism and self-efficacy has been presented only conceptually. There is a need for empirical validation, as well as exploration into the nature of this relationship. As we shall see, another possible variable that plays a role in this relationship is attachment style. Bowlby (1 96911 982) introduced the concept of attachment within the field of lifespan development. According to Bowlby, individuals seek to maintain close relationships across the life span that mirror early relationships with primary caregivers. These relationships with early caregivers then shape an individual's stance toward others and, ultimately, aspects of their cognitive and affective development. Feelings of security or threat in the early relationship with the primary caregiver influence the child's ability to cope with life stressors, resulting in either a resilient style or a vulnerable style of coping. Ainsworth et al. (1978) hypothesized three attachment styles known as secure, anxious-ambivalent and avoidant, via the "Strange Situation" test for infants and caregivers. Brennan, Clark and Shaver (1998) subsequently used the two dimensions identified by Ainsworth et al. (1978), to examine adult attachment styles. Adult attachment styles define the attachment styles that adults use in romantic, or other close relationships. The emotional response to attachment is measured along the anxiety continuum, and the behavioral response is measured along the avoidance continuum. After this brief introduction to career self-efficacy, optimism and attachment, it may be helpful to outline the proposed relationship among them. Individuals high in career self-efficacy will continue to identify and pursue challenging career goals because of their past successes. Likewise, optimists continue to pursue goals with confidence because they expect general positive outcomes. The hypothesis then follows that optimistic individuals will have higher career self-efficacy due to the fact that they expect good outcomes. However, what role does attachment style play in the relationship between optimism and career self-efficacy? As conceptualized by Bowlby (1 96911 982), the feelings of security or threat generated by the relationship with the primary caregiver impact children's ability to cope with life stressors. As children grow and develop they face many stressors, including career obstacles. The methods chosen to deal with these stressors partially may be determined by individuals' levels of optimism and their attachment styles. If individuals expect good outcomes and also feel secure in their relationships with their primary caregivers, they may be more willing to engage in challenges. This study seeks to determine the contribution of dispositional optimism and attachment styles in the formation of career self-efficacy. Review of Literature The following section will provide a more thorough review of the literature surrounding each of the three constructs presented in the introduction. The first section will provide a synthesis of self-efficacy and career self-efficacy. The second section will present a review of the pertinent studies concerning dispositional optimism. Finally, the third section will present the literature focusing on the relationship between attachment styles and work. Serf-eflcacy Twenty-five years ago, Bandura and Adams (1977) stated, "Perceived selfefficacy affects people's choice of activities and behavioral settings, how much effort they expend and how long they will persist in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences" (pp. 287-288). Given the potential application of this construct, researchers have expanded greatly upon Bandura's primary work. These researchers especially have been interested in domain-specific areas of self-efficacy, such as academic self-efficacy (Chemers, Hu, & Garcia, 2001) social self-efficacy (Solberg & Villarreal, 1997), and career self-efficacy (Hackett & Betz, 1981). A formalized view of career self-efficacy comes from the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) by Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1994). This theory introduced a new facet of career self-efficacy, outlining the interactions of several influences in a person's life. As identified by Bandura (1 986), there are four sources that influence an individual's self-efficacy: personal performance accomplishments, vicarious learning, social persuasion, and physiology states and reactions. As related to career self-efficacy, a person's individual career accomplishments will influence hislher Euture career decisions. Similarly, watching someone else complete a career task successfully may prompt an individual to perform the same task in a similar fashion. Lent et al. (1994) developed the SCCT with the notion that three variables, the environment, the person and hisher behavior, all interact with each other in a reciprocal fashion. For example, an environmental facto