Investigating Classroom and School Learning Environments: A Review of Recent Research and Developments in the Field.

he socio-psychological environment or classroom learnResearch in the Field ing environment as it is more recently referred to has been The empirical research on classroom learning environ extensively researched in the past two decades. This special ments has focused on a number of different areas. Many issue of the Journal of Classroom Interaction highlights studies have examined the predictive validity of learning some of the recent work of researchers in the field of classenvironment measures and found them to significantly pre room and school learning environments. Although work in diet students' academic achievement, even after controlling this area can be traced back over 50 years to the theoretical for the effects of other variables such as students' prior and conceptual work of Lewin (1935, 1936) and Murray achievement (see e.g., Fraser, 1986b; Haertel, Walberg, & (1938), it is only within the past two decades where this Haertel, 1981). Other studies in this field have investigated research has gained acceptance and credability as a major a number of issues including; (a) the effectiveness of alter educational research paradigm. native high schools (Fraser, Williamson, & Tobin, 1987), Examining classroom learning environments is important (b) differences between the learning environments of expert, because it emphasizes the student-mediating or student cognovice, and alternatively certified teachers (Fresko, Carmeli, nition paradigm (Knight & Waxman, 1991; Wittrock, 1986). & Ben-Chaim, 1989; Knight, Owens, & Waxman, 1990-91; This paradigm maintains that how students perceive and Tobin & Fraser, 1988), (c) the transition period for students react to their learning tasks and classroom instruction is between junior high and high school (Midgley, Eccles, & more important in terms of influencing student outcomes Feldlaufer, 1991; Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989), (d) than the observed quality of teaching behaviors (Winne & the effects of learning environment on students' motivation Marx, 1977, 1982). In other words, this paradigm assumes (Knight & Waxman, 1990; Matthews, 1991; Uguroglu & that better understanding and the improvement of teaching Walberg, 1986), (e) curriculum innovations (Welch & and learning can emerge by examining the ways that classWalberg, 1972) and comparisions between teachers' and room instruction and the learning environment are viewed classes' perceptions of actual and preferred learning environ or interpreted by the students themselves since students ultiments (Raviv, Raviv, & Reisel, 1990). mately respond to what they perceive is important (Doyle, Although this field has generally focused on the class 1977; Schultz, 1979). This paradigm also suggests that the room-level environment, recent research has begun to exam classroom environment experienced by the student may be ine the school-level environment (Docker, Fraser, & Fisher, quite different from the observed or intended instruction 1989). Furthermore, the classroom learning environment (Waxman, 1989; Wittrock, 1986). has also been considered an important educational produc Initially, studies in the 1960's and 1970's by Rudy Moos tivity factor and has been included as a variable in several (Moos, 1976, 1979; Moos & Moos, 1978; Trickett & Moos, studies to test models such as Walberg's Psychological 1974) and Herb Walberg (Walberg, 1968, 1969; Walberg & Model of Educational Productivity (Walberg, 1981, 1986; Anderson, 1968; Walberg, Sorenson, & Fischbach. 1972), Fraser, Walberg, Welch, & Hattie, 1987). and then in the 1980's by Barry Fraser and his colleagues Another important aspect of this research is that it has (see e.g. Fisher & Fraser, 1981, 1983a, 1983b; Fraser, 1982, been international and cross-cultural. There have been Fraser & Fisher, 1982, 1986) spurred enough continued many learning environment studies, for example, conducted interest in this area to the point where there are now several in Australia, Canada, Spain, Mexico, Germany, India, The books and monographs that have summarized some of the Netherlands, England, Israel, as well as in the United States, studies in this field (e.g. Fraser, 1986a; Fraser & Walberg, The International Association for the Evaluation of 1991; Fraser, Walberg, Welch, & Hattie, 1987; Moos, 1979; Educational Achievement Classroom Environment Study, Walberg, 1979). There are also several major reviews of for example, was conducted in eight countries: Australia, this research and conceptual reviews that provide an excelCanada, Hungary, Israel, Korea, Netherlands, Nigeria, and lent synthesis of the field (see e.g., Chavez, 1984; Ellett, Thailand (Anderson, Ryan, & Shapiro, 1989). 1986; Fraser, 1986b, 1989, 1991; Fraser & Walberg, 1981; Haertel & Walberg, 1988; Haertel, Walberg, & Haertel, Special Issue on Learning Environments 1981; Walberg, 1976; Walberg & Haertel, 1980). In addiIn this special invited issue, there are four articles that tion, there is a special interest group (SIG) of the American characterize research in the field. Three of the articles focus Educational Research Association (AERA) that specifically on the development, validity, and use of learning environ focuses on the study of learning environments. This AERAment instruments, while the third article illustrates a typical SIG has several sessions at the AERA annual meeting where research study in this area. peer-reviewed research studies in the area are presented. In The article by Fraser provides an excellent summary of addition, the Study of Learning Environments SIG presents the validity and use of several classroom environment an annual research award to the outstanding AERA paper instruments. He describes the commonly used instruments and the SIG has a monograph series that includes some of such as the Learning Environment Inventory, Individualized the best papers presented at the AERA annual meeting Classroom Environment Questionnaire, My Class Inventory, (Fraser, 1986c, 1987, 1988; Waxman & Ellett, 1990). Classroom Environment Scale and reports their validation, short forms of the instruments, and preferred forms of most