SURFACING STUDENTS' PRIOR KNOWLEDGE IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SCIENCE CLASSROOMS: Exception or the Rule?

As young adolescents, middle school students undergo rapid developmental changes that have unique implications for their educational needs. This special population also requires crucial guidance to achieve their potential in a dynamic world where social pressures are ubiquitous and the need to "fit in" is a high priority. Historically, middle schools have focused on easing the transition from elementary to high school in addition to improving preparation for college and future careers (Juvonen, 2004). The Exemplary Middle School was a concept envisioned by Alexander and George (1981) to address the developmental needs of young teenagers: lack of motivation, poor attitudes about school, academic achievement in core subjects (language arts, math, science, social studies), and perceptions of their ability in these areas. The Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE) (2010) describes a vision to guide the development of middle level schools that promotes and supports the healthy development of young adolescents into self-sufficient young adults. Schools that are equitable and empowering, as well as offer academically challenging and developmentally appropriate curricula are essential features of successful middle schools.Middle school is a critical time for students to develop a strong understanding of and appreciation for science, yet science education in the middle grades (6-8) in the United States is in crisis. Results from the most recent National Assessment of Education Progress indicated that only 32% of eighth-grade students performed at or above the "proficient" level in science (National Center for Education Statistics, 2010). Similarly, recent results from the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study indicated that American eighth grade students scored below the international average and only above students from five other participating nations (Martin, Mullis, Foy, & Stanco, 2012). These results stand in contrast to the performance of American fourth grade students who scored close to the international average. Such results also indicate that eighth grade American students' attitudes toward science are less positive compared to their fourth grade counterparts (Martin et al., 2012). Students who do not have positive learning experiences in middle school become disengaged in STEM across the transitions to high school and college (Gallagher, 1994; Tai, Liu, Maltese, & Fan, 2006). Yet middle school science instruction is often dominated by lecture and bookwork, which contrasts with contemporary views of effective science teaching (Darby, 2005; Logan & Skamp, 2008; Marshall, Horton, Igo, & Switzer, 2009; Speering & Rennie, 1996). Research suggests that science achievement is higher for students who have participated in inquiry-based lessons in their science classrooms (Martin et al., 2012). In addition, the achievement of middle school students on measures such as the National Assessment of Education Progress has been shown to be greater with inquiry-based science curriculum (Schneider, Krajcik, Marx, & Holloway, 2002). Inquiry-based approaches to science instruction acknowledge students as active participants in the learning process as recommended by current K-12 science education reform documents (Duschl, Schweingruber, & Shouse, 2007; National Research Council, 2012). The current vision for K-12 science education is for students to build on their prior knowledge as they progressively deepen their understanding of the disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts, and scientific and engineering practices (National Research Council, 2012; NGSS Lead States, 2013). We believe that teachers play an essential role in helping students become aware of their own prior knowledge and build connections between their initial ideas and thinking, and the disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts, and scientific and engineering practices. Accordingly, we focus on middle school science teachers' actions in surfacing students' prior knowledge in this research, as this practice is an important component of effective science instruction (Banilower, Cohen, Pasley, & Weiss, 2010). …