Learning Benefits of Self-Controlled Knowledge of Results in 10-Year-Old Children

Self-controlled knowledge of results (KR) refers to a type of KR in which the learner actively chooses when to receive information about the outcome of his or her performance. That is, the learner is required to make a decision about whether or not he or she wants to receive KR after a trial. This approach differs from that used in most KR studies, in which the experimenter controls the frequency and schedule of KR delivery. Studies on self-efficacy perception (Bandura, 1977, 1993), strategies of self-regulated learning (Chen & Singer, 1992; Zimmerman & Ponz, 1986), and academic learning (Winne, 1995) have shown that learners’ ability to use cognitive or behavioral strategies in a self-controlled practice context enhances their performance and learning. In the motor learning area, Janelle and collaborators (Janelle, Kim, & Singer, 1995; Janelle, Barba, Frehlich, Tennant, & Cauraugh, 1997) were the first to adopt this approach by examining the effectiveness of self-controlled KR schedules. Using a novel throwing task, Janelle et al. (1997) allowed one group of learners to decide when to receive feedback about movement form. The self-control group showed clear learning advantages compared to those in the yoked group, in which each participant was yoked to one in the self-control group with regard to when KR was or was not provided. Although the feedback schedule was identical for both groups, providing learners the opportunity to decide when they wanted to receive feedback was more beneficial than externally controlled (yoked) feedback. The self-control group also showed superior learning compared to other groups with experimentercontrolled feedback schedules (e.g., summary KR). Learning benefits have also been found for other types of self-controlled practice, such as using assistive devices (i.e., ski poles) in learning a ski simulator task (Wulf, Clauss, Shea, & Whitacre, 2001; Wulf & Toole, 1999) and observational practice for learning basketball free-throw shooting (Wulf, Raupach, & Pfeiffer, 2005). The self-control benefits for learning appear to be a robust phenomenon. However, previous studies have exclusively used adults as participants. Thus, it is unclear whether the effects of this variable generalize to different motor development levels. An interesting question is whether children would also benefit from self-controlled practice. A potentially limiting factor in generalizing this effect to children lies in their information-processing capabilities. A number of studies suggested there are differences between children and adults in their capability to process information (e.g., Badan, Hauert, & Mounoud, 2000; Chi, 1977; Connolly, 1970, 1977; Lambert & Bard, 2005). According to Connolly (1970), changes in motor development during childhood can be attributed to two classes of variables. The first refers to “hardware” changes that occur as a function of growth. This includes such physical changes as increased strength and height as well as central nervous system changes, all of which are considered structural. The second is related to “software” changes and pertains to improvements in the capacity to use the structures. These are considered cognitive, and they occur as a consequence of developing processing-information capabilities (Connolly, 1977; Thomas, 1980). Learning Benefits of Self-Controlled Knowledge of Results in 10-Year-Old Children