FREEZE-THAW BAYESIAN OPTIMIZATION BY KEVIN SWERSKY , JASPER SNOEK

In machine learning, the term “training” is used to describe the procedure of fitting a model to data. In many popular models, this fitting procedure is framed as an optimization problem, in which a loss is minimized as a function of the parameters. In all but the simplest machine learning models, this minimization must be performed with an iterative algorithm such as stochastic gradient descent or the nonlinear conjugate gradient method. Another aspect of training involves fitting model “hyperparameters. ” These are parameters that in some way govern the model space or fitting procedure; in both cases they are typically difficult to minimize directly in terms of the training loss and are usually evaluated in terms of generalization performance via held-out data. Hyperparameters are often regularization penalties such as `p norms on model parameters, but can also capture model capacity as in the number of hidden units in a neural network. These hyperparameters help determine the appropriate bias-variance tradeoff for a given model family and data set. On the other hand, hyperparameters of the fitting procedure govern algorithmic aspects of training, such as the learning rate schedule of stochastic gradient descent, or the width of a Monte Carlo proposal distribution. The goal of fitting both kinds of hyperparameters is to identify a model and an optimization procedure in which successful minimization of training loss is likely to result in good generalization performance. When a heldout validation set is used to evaluate the quality of hyperparameters, the overall optimization proceeds as a double loop, where the outer loop sets the hyperparameters and the inner loop applies an iterative training procedure to fit the model to data. Often this outer hyperparameter optimization is performed by hand, which—even if rigorously systematized— can be a difficult and laborious process. Simple alternatives include the application of heuristics and intuition, grid search, which scales poorly with dimension, or random search [1], which is computationally expensive due to the need to train many models. In light of this, Bayesian optimization [2] has recently been proposed as an effective method for systematically and intelligently setting the hyperparameters of machine learning models [3, 4]. Using a principled characterization of model uncertainty, Bayesian optimization attempts to find the best hyperparameter settings with as few model evaluations as possible. One issue with previously proposed approaches to Bayesian optimization for machine learning is that a model must be fully trained before the quality of its hyperparameters can be assessed. Human experts, however, appear to be able to rapidly assess whether or not a model is likely to eventually be useful, even when the inner-loop training is only partially completed. When such an assessment can be made accurately, it is possible to explore the hyperparameter space more effectively by aborting model fits that are likely to be low quality. The goal of this paper is to take advantage of the partial information provided by iterative training procedures, within the Bayesian optimization framework for hyperparameter search. We propose a new technique that makes it possible to estimate when to pause the training of one model in favor of starting a new one with different hyperparameters, or resuming a partially-completed training procedure from an old model. We refer to our approach as freeze-thaw Bayesian optimization, as the algorithm maintains a set of “frozen” (partially completed but not being actively trained) models and uses an information-theoretic criterion to determine which ones to “thaw” and continue training.