The Psychic Rewards of Teaching: Examining Global, National and Local Influences on Teacher Motivation

What are the main influences on the day-to-day motivation of classroom teachers? The particular focus in this research is the micro-events that teachers experience and which enhance or undermine their motivation. We conceptualise such events in terms of their proximity/distance. We suggest that experiences with a proximal origin (classroom and school) may be more relevant to motivation than events that a more remote origin (national and global events) partly because of the frequency with which they impinge on proximal events happen. To measure the importance of these microevents for teachers’ motivation, we propose that events are a function of their affective intensity and frequency of occurrence. We also propose that events that have a positive affective tone are more significant for motivation than events that have a negative emotional tone. Our initial efforts to map the construct of teachers’ motivation are based on a multi-faceted approach. Rather on the basis of current research and thinking, as well as on judgements of what people usually consider motivation to be, we propose four indices that may gauge the underlying construct. These are: commitment to teaching (wanting to continue in the profession and in this particular school), teacher-efficacy (the most widely studied concept in this area), organizational citizenship (readiness to go beyond what is strictly required in contracts), and willingness to engage in new learning and professional development. What Makes Teachers Tick? Understanding the Motivation of Classroom Teachers The extant literature gives some indication of reasons why people enter teaching as well as the important factors on teacher retention but very little information on the influences that sustain teachers’ motivation on a daily basis. There is considerable evidence that teachers enter teaching for reasons to do with the intrinsic nature of the work including ‘making a difference’, ‘doing work they will enjoy’, and ‘enhancing lives of children’ (Farkas et al, 2000; Shipp, 1999; Spear et al,, 2000). With regard to teacher retention, the review by Guarino et al. (2006) summarizes evidence on the importance of pay on teacher retention, citing a small number of studies indicating that earnings were negatively associated with attrition. There is also evidence that high rates of behaviour problems, low influence on their work and poor leadership are important influences in quitting teaching (Stockhard & Lehman, 2004). Other studies have shown that not having a sense of success with students as well as the absence of support structures are important factors in quitting (Moore-Johnson & Birkeland, 2003). However, while we have some understanding of the major factors influencing decision to enter teaching and leave or stay, we have know little about what sustains teachers between these choice points. Even teachers who were initially committed to teaching experience so many challenges and changes (inside and outside school) that they constantly need to ask themselves whether ‘teaching is worth it to them’ (Hamerness, 2006, p.431). While recognizing that many have entered teaching because ‘to make a difference.to change the world or. improve the human condition’ (Cochran-Smith (2003, p. 374), over the long haul teachers need other sustaining factors including ‘school conditions where they are successful and supported, opportunities to work with other educators in professional communities, differentiated leadership, and advancement prospects and good pay for what they do’ (Cochran-Smith, 2004, p.5). To attempt to provide an answer to these questions, we put forward two conceptual frameworks; the first concerned with understanding teachers’ motivation and the second focusing on the way that experiences and events impinge enhance or undermine motivation. These models are tested in a nation-wide sample of teachers in the first five years of their career in a country with a high retention rate of teachers. Focus on Positive Motivational Processes The dominant approach to the study of motivation in educational settings has centred on negative motivational states. Several studies have examined teacher ‘burnout’ (e.g. Byrne, 1994; Goddard et al., 2006), ‘stress’ (Carlyle & Woods, 2003; Kyriacou, 1987), ‘distress’ (Hodge et al., 1994) and ‘occupational stress, burnout and health’ (Gugliemi & Tatrow, 1998). It might be argued that in addressing these negative emotional and motivational states, an understanding of ‘positive’ states is brought about by looking at the mirror image of what causes negative experiences. However, strong lines of evidence indicate that this is not the case. The recent evidence from neuroscience indicates that positive and negative motivational states are controlled by different parts of the parts of the brain (Davidson et al, 2000). In addition, the psychological evidence is that the course of action of positive and negative events that impact on motivation, have different trajectories (Taylor, 1991). Finally, the literature on the social psychology of emotions strongly suggest that positive and negative affect are independent systems (Goldstein & Strube, 1994). Thus, rather than thinking of positive and negative motivational states as the end of a continuum, it may be more appropriate to think of them as independent systems. In line with this, a recent study of teachers’ job satisfaction using diary methods, found that measures of positive and negative affective experiences were largely uncorrelated with each other (Morgan, Kitching, & O’Leary, submitted for publication). Interestingly, the more recent work on job burnout has stressed the importance of engagement ‘the positive antithesis of burnout’ (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001, p. 397) A Multi-faceted, Dynamic Conceptualisation of Teachers’ Motivation In talking about motivation, we are focusing not only on the commitment to remain in teaching but also on energy, drive, enthusiasm, a sense of direction, a drive and a sense of purpose. We take the view that teachers’ motivation should be thought of as an umbrella-like concept to include several related features. This includes features like drive, energy and commitment, as well as factors suggested in the literature to promote teaching as sustained professional activity, one with a sense of mission and purpose which is mindful of the social context in which teachers operate. With this in mind we propose five components of teachers’ motivation. These are drawn from disparate areas (including psychology, sociology and classroom research). They are substantially research-based and synchronise well with motivational influences relevant to teachers. Teacher-efficacy has at least two important motivational outcomes (Bandura, 1997). Firstly, it influences the kind of challenges and environments teachers are prepared to face in their work. If teachers believe that teaching difficult subject matter or working with colleagues will overwhelm them (low self-efficacy) they will avoid these situations in favour of less challenging and ultimately less beneficial learning contexts. Secondly, strong self-efficacy beliefs influence effort and persistence. Teachers with high self-efficacy quickly recover following setbacks in their teaching efforts and this resilience is crucial in helping students to maintain their persistence and self-belief. The second motivational component focuses on the extent to which teachers are prepared to go outside what they are strictly required to do in the interests of their students and colleagues. The sociological concept of ‘organisational citizenship’ is particularly relevant to this element, referring as it does to the extent to which a teacher is prepared to be involved in activities that are beyond their strict contract requirements (Organ, 1988). This is an important motivational component since it refers to the extent to which a teacher is prepared to spend time and effort to help students in ways that are ‘beyond the call of duty’. Two components are commonly thought to be almost synonymous with teacher motivation. The first of these is commitment to remain in teaching. This commitment, we suggest, refers both to the occupation and to the institution in which the individual is working (Cooper-Hakim & Viswesvaran, 2005). Secondly, we propose that the desire to continue to learn, to sustain professional development and openness to new ideas is a crucial component of motivation, since it underpins the readiness to encounter an ever-changing learning environment (Van Eekelin, Vermunt, & Boshuizen, 2006). There are four distinguishing features of the motivational model proposed here. Firstly, its roots are truly multi-disciplinary involving educational psychology, organizational sociology and classroom research. Secondly the multiple measures that are proposed reflect the multi-dimensional nature of teachers’ motivation. Rather than thinking of motivation as a single entity variable to be measured by one measure, we are underlining the multi-faceted nature of motivation. Thirdly we bring together components of behaviour, emotion and cognition under a single construct, thus recognising the interaction of these components of motivation in teachers’ lives. Finally, as noted above the approach taken is a dynamic and positive one; rather focusing exclusively on the negative and undermining effects of stress and burnout, we underline in addition, the significance of commitment, positive emotion and the malleable nature of motivation. Motivational Events in Teachers’ Lives: Affectivity and Zones of Influence From even the briefest consideration of motivational factors on teachers’ lives we realize that the number and variety of influences is very substantial. How can we make sense of a list that includes pay, class size, vacations, helping to make a difference, student behaviour, children’s learning, peer support, attitude of management, accountabil