The Influence of Visibility on Mental Health amongst the Muslim Female Population in the United States

The purposes of this study were to examine the relationship between visibility, perceived religious discrimination, psychological association with Islam, and mental health amongst females in the Muslim American population. In the current Islamophobic atmosphere of the United States, anti-Muslim sentiment and behavior is rampant and rapidly rising. Muslim women who wear the hijab are particularly vulnerable to antiMuslim discrimination and prejudice because the hijab makes their religious identity visible. Self-report survey data was collected from 222 Muslim American women. A scale that took into account frequency and intensity of the Hijab measured visibility. Results showed that visibility was significantly and positively correlated with symptoms of depression and anxiety as. It was also found that perceived religious discrimination was responsible for complete mediation of the relationship between visibility and mental health. Lastly, psychological association with Islam was found to moderate the influence of visibility on mental health. The findings highlight the negative influence of perceived religious discrimination on mental health particularly when Islamic identity is made visible as in the case of hijabwearing Muslim women. This information can help schools and employers to create safe environments for their Muslim students or employees. Additionally, it can help practitioners understand and treat deteriorating mental health amongst their Muslim hijab-wearing clients. THE INFLUENCE OF VISIBILITY ON MENTAL HEALTH 6 The Influence of Visibility on Mental Health amongst the Muslim Female Population in the United States The post 9/11 era has seen a global rise in anti-Muslim sentiment but there has been an additional spike in Islamophobic hate crimes in the wake of Donald Trump’s entry into office as President of the United States of America (Patel & LevinsonWaldman, 2017). Some have attributed this to the Trump administration’s appearing to publicly accept and reinforce racist ideology targeting Muslims, subsequently giving birth to a newfound normalization of anti-Muslim violence and discrimination (Buncombe, 2017). This increasingly hostile climate has resulted in amplified feelings of vulnerability and marginalization amongst the Muslim American community. Previous research has shown that discrimination against marginalized or minority groups in the United States promotes their alienation, which places “a substantial strain on the mental health of targeted individuals” and is therefore correlated with the onset of mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety (Brondolo, Ng, Pierre, & Lane, 2016). In current times, as anti-Islamic sentiment proliferates throughout the nation, it has managed to become “a form of acceptable religious and racial prejudice” and therefore will have an impact on the psychological health of Muslim communities in the United States (Carter, 2008; Padela & Curlin, 2012). Muslim women who wear the “hijab”, commonly identified as the headscarf, are particularly susceptible to anti-Muslim sentiment and behavior (Gulamhussein & Eaton, 2015). The hijab makes their religious identity visible to the public eye, potentially making them targets of racially motivated violence and discrimination (Gulamhussein & Eaton, 2015). Thus, increased visibility should be positively correlated with increased depression and anxiety symptomatology. THE INFLUENCE OF VISIBILITY ON MENTAL HEALTH 7 Although racial discrimination has been shown to negatively impact mental health across minority groups, the magnitude of influence it may have on hijab-wearing women in the Muslim American community has been grossly understudied. The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of visibility, as measured by the practice of hijab accounting for degree, context, and frequency, on mental health (depression and anxiety). Additionally, the study aims to explore the role of perceived religious discrimination as a mediator in the relationship of visibility and mental health. Lastly, the study intends to explore the role of psychological association with Islam as a moderator in the relationship of visibility and mental health. The results of this study can serve to play a role in the future of mental health treatment for Muslim Americans, specifically female hijab-wearing Muslim women, who may struggle with the effects their visibility may have in their life. Additionally, the findings from this study can help school officials and employers create safe spaces for their Muslim students. It will aid in properly training and educating employees and students on the dangers of microaggressions. In general, study results can promote understanding and maintaining well-being in the community. On the basis of past research, the following hypotheses have been formed: Increased visibility will be positively correlated with symptoms of depression and anxiety. Thus, there will be a positive correlation between total scores on the Hijab scale and scores on the Beck Anxiety Inventory and The Center of Epidemiological Studies-Depression. Additionally, it is hypothesized that perceived religious discrimination will mediate the effects of visibility on symptoms of anxiety and depression. Lastly, it is hypothesized that THE INFLUENCE OF VISIBILITY ON MENTAL HEALTH 8 psychological association with Islam will moderate the effects of visibility on symptoms of anxiety and depression.