Effects of Ethnicity on the Onset of Parenthood in a Developing Country: Some Evidence from the Early 1990s

BACKGROUND Much has been written about the reproductive-related behavior of women in the subSaharan African region (Caldwell, 1982; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1987; Lesthaeghe et al., 1989; Dodoo, 1998; Addai, 1999). In general, findings from these studies suggest that African women tend to have more children than women in other parts of the developing world. Moreover, it has been reported that in this part of the world, women start their childbearing at an early age. Although more recent data suggest that African women may be having fewer children than in the past, and at the same time delaying their first births, in comparison to other world regions such as Latin America, birth rates are still high in the African region. For example, Cohen (1998) points out that despite recent changes in fertility, most Africans still have large families, for, few countries in the region has a total fertility rate below five children per woman. Researchers have offered a variety of reasons to explain childbearing and family formation patterns in the sub-Saharan African region. Despite the difficulty in measuring what constitutes culture, a popular interpretation in this discourse attributes family formation and childbearing patterns to "culture. " The cultural advocates have pointed out that Africans generally value large families and start childbearing at an early age because parents derive many resources from their children, a process Caldwell (1982) refers to as the "intergenerational flow of wealth. " Some studies also point to the lax sexual behavior and traditional expectations and practices among the various ethnic groups as providing the incentive for behavior pertaining to childbearing (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1987). Some researchers such as Ebin (1982) also point to the fear of infertility (whether caused by ill health or not) as providing the stimulus for a regime that is predominantly pro-marriage and family. On the issue of marriage, Caldwel.1 et al. (1991), Bledsoe (1990), Timaeus and, Reynar (1998), and Takyi (2001) all point to the cultural practice of polygyny as having something to do with marital instability in the region. More recently, Dodoo (1998) has investigated the effect of marriage type (defined as polygamy versus monogamy) on reproductive decisions, while Addai (1999a, 1999b, 1999c) has examined the impact of ethnicity on contraceptive use, and also health-related behavior in the region. Although the relationship between aspects of "culture" and reproductive processes in sub-Saharan Africa has received some attention in the research literature, few deal with ethnicity and family formation1 Moreover, the few studies that exist tend to be descriptive (see for example, Caldwell and Caldwell, 1987; Fortes, 1978), making it difficult to assess the relative effect of ethnicity and socioeconomic factors on family formation processes. In a region where ethnic identity continues to shape social processes, such an omission is unfortunate. This is particularly the case since a number of studies from some parts of the developing world suggest that ethnicity affects the timing of marriage and first births (Hirschman, 1985; Rindfuss and Hirschman, 1984; Rindfuss, Parnell and Hirschman, 1983: Hirschman and Rindfuss, 1982; 1980). Within the African region, findings that ethnicity has something to do with reproductive processes (see e.g., Addai, 1999a, 1999b, 1999c; Benefo, Tsui, and de Graft Johnson, 1994; Gaisie, 1968) raise the question of whether ethnic identity by itself can serve as a mechanism for explaining the early age at birth and marriage characterizing women in many parts of subSaharan Africa. In the case of Africa in general, and Ghana in particular, such a question is more relevant because ethnicity provides a powerful marker of identification and group solidarity. For example, in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, ethnicity serves as a basis for social organization. Moreover, Gaisie (1968) reports that in Ghana the various ethnic groups differ in their attitudes, beliefs and values about family processes, which could ultimately influence decisions about the onset of parenthood or timing of births,. …