Determinants of Disengagement of Adolescent Females in Physical Education: A Grounded Theory Analysis

54 Resume 55 Introduction 56 Methods 63 Results 67 Discussion 81 Conclusion 88 References 93 Table 99 Appendix –Interview Guide 100 Appendices 102 Appendix A. Parent/Legal Tutor Consent Form 103 Appendix B. Participant Assent Form 105 Disengagement of Females in Physical Education 4 Acknowledgements “Nothing we achieve in this world is achieved alone. It is always achieved with others teaching us along the way. ” Lee J. Colan. Completing this thesis would not have been possible without help, guidance, and encouragement from several individuals. I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Greg Reid. I do not know many professors who allow their student to hold a full time job and study at the same time but with your help we were able to find a balance between the two. I want to thank-you for letting me choose a topic that I feel passionate about. This was truly a rewarding learning experience and it would not have been possible without you. I am especially grateful to Paul for his endless support. He is the only person who saw up close the hours I put into completing my thesis. Thank you for encouraging me and making me laugh during times when I needed it the most. To my family, thank you for your love and support. Pursuing my Master’s Degree would not have possible without parents who are such wonderful role models and high achievers. I would like to thank the members of my committee, Dr. Catherine Sabiston and Dr. William Harvey who provided direction and valuable feedback in the initial steps of my thesis. I would like to thank Andree Castonguay who assisted me during the interview process. My thanks to Cathy McDonald who also assisted during the interview process and acted as a second investigator during the data analysis and provided guidance and Disengagement of Females in Physical Education 5 feedback in the writing of my thesis. I would like to extend my appreciation to the CEGEP and the physical education teachers who allowed me to come into their classes. Finally, to the participants who took the time to share their physical education experiences with me, your thoughts and feelings contributed to a greater awareness and understanding of this topic. Disengagement of Females in Physical Education 6 Review of Literature The purpose of this study was to investigate girls’ high school physical education experience. More specifically it was to establish the key determinants that influence the disengagement of physical education participation among female adolescents. The following literature review will be divided into four sections: physical activity, physical education, Harter’s competence motivation theory and grounded theory. The physical activity section will discuss the importance of physical activity, the growing concerns of physical inactivity, and physical activity rates among youth and more specifically female youth. The relationship between physical activity and physical education and the reasons for physical education participation and disengagement among female youth are the two main subcategories that will be addressed in the physical education section. The third section, Harter’s competence motivation theory, will begin with a brief overview of various motivational theories followed by a more specific description of competence motivation theory. Finally, the characteristics of grounded theory will be described. Competence motivation theory and grounded theory were the theoretical models guiding this study. The competence motivation theory shaped the interview guide while grounded theory influenced methodological procedures during data collection and data analysis. Physical Activity Physical Activity, Exercise, and Physical Fitness Definitions The terms physical activity, exercise and physical fitness are often used in the same context. In a paper titled ‘Physical Activity, Exercise and Physical Fitness: Definitions and Distinctions for Health’ it is clear these terms hold very different Disengagement of Females in Physical Education 7 meanings (Casperson, Powell, & Christensen, 1985). The definition of physical activity is “any force exerted by skeletal muscles that results in energy usage above the level used when the body’s systems are at rest” (Donatelle, Davis, Munroe, & Munroe, 2001, p.212). A common method of measuring physical activity is to determine total energy expenditure through physical activity performed during sleep, occupation and leisure (Casperson et al., 1985). Leisure time physical activity can be further divided into sports, conditioning exercises, household tasks (for example, yardwork and household chores) and other activities (Casperson et al., 1985). Finally, physical activities may be categorized according to intensity level: light, moderate, or heavy. Physical activity and exercise are often used interchangeably. One of the reasons is that exercise is a subcategory of physical activity (Casperson et al., 1985). However, exercise is physical activity that is “planned, structured, repetitive and purposeful” (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2001, p.871). Finally, physical activity occurs when an individual performs different movements while physical fitness are qualities that individuals already acquire or attain. Greenberg, Dintiman, Oakes, Kossuth, and Morrow (2004) define physical fitness as “the ability to meet life’s demands and still have enough energy to respond to unplanned events” (p.2). Physical fitness can be measured through two different components: health-related fitness and skill-related fitness (Caperson et al., 1985). Examples of health-related fitness components include cardio-respiratory function, body composition, flexibility, muscular strength, and muscular endurance while, agility, power, reaction time, coordination, balance, and speed are skill-related fitness components. Disengagement of Females in Physical Education 8 The main focus of the current study will be physical activity. However, the terms physical fitness and exercise will likely enter the conversation with participants. Benefits of Physical Activity Physical Activity and Disease Prevention Physical activity should be an integral part of one’s lifestyle to improve overall health and wellbeing (Greenberg et al., 2004). Being physically active can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and some cancers (World Health Organization, 2007). Both cardiovascular disease and cancer are the first two leading causes of death in North America (McCardle, Katch, & Katch, 2001). A review performed by Wannamethee and Shaper (2001) revealed a 4050% reduction in the risk of stroke and coronary heart disease (CHD) among individuals who are physically active. Studies examining cancer and physical activity are regarded as a fairly new field (Bauman, 2004). Much of the research reveals how regular physical activity can reduce the risk of numerous forms of cancer (Bauman, 2004). Thune and colleagues (1997) researched the impact of physical activity and the risk of breast cancer. Their longitudinal study consisted of 25, 624 women between the ages of 20 to 54 who were required to complete a health survey. Researchers were able to conclude that women who exercised at least four times a week were at a reduced risk for breast cancer. While, results such as these are promising it is important to perform epidemiological reviews to update the evidence and demonstrate that physical activity continues to bear positive effects on health (Bauman, 2004). In a more recent study, Frieddenreich and Orenstein (2009) tried to determine whether past research concerning the positive relationship between physical activity and the reduced risk of cancer was Disengagement of Females in Physical Education 9 valid. They concluded that a positive correlation between physical activity and reduced risk of breast, colon and prostate cancers was credible. However, it was felt that the beneficial effect of physical activity on other cancers (e.g. lung, testicular, ovarian, and thyroid cancers) needed further study. The researchers agreed that despite the fact that more evidence should be established there is no harm in adopting the guidelines on physical activity for cancer prevention, given that there are clear health benefits for physical activity with other chronic diseases (Frieddenreich & Orenstein, 2009). Physical Activity and Physiologic Function Physiological decline can be significantly altered through proper exercise and nutrition (Fleischmann et al., 1998; Kohno et al., 2000; as cited by McArdle et al., 2001). For instance, an individual who is physically active has a 25% higher aerobic capacity than a sedentary person within the same age group. Therefore “an active 50 year old person often maintains the functional level of a 20 year old” (McArdle et al., 2001, p.877). A more specific example of the positive relationship between physiologic function and physical activity is how regular physical activity can help strengthen bones and muscles (Center for Disease Control & Prevention, 2008). This can be especially important for older adults as this assists in the prevention of hip fractures and helps to manage arthritis pain (Center for Disease Control & Prevention, 2008). Another reason for maintaining strong bones is to help prevent osteoporosis. According to Osteoporosis Canada (2009) osteoporosis affects 2 million Canadians each year. With this disease individuals are more susceptible to hip fractures (Osteoporosis Canada, 2009). A research group studied osteoporotic fractures in 9704 women to determine if physical activity is related to lower incidence of hip, wrist and vertebral Disengagement of Females in Physical Education 10 fractures (Gregg, Cauley, Seeley, Ensrud, & Bauer, 1998). Findings revealed that participants who demonstrated higher levels of physical activity (leisure time, sport activity, household chores) and fewer hours of sitting were at a reduced risk for hip fracture. Physical Activity and Weight