Video Modeling and Video Feedback Interventions for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

V ideo-based interventions (VBIs) provide individuals the opportunity to alter their behavior by observing others’ or their own behavior modeled on video (Bandura, 1969; Delano, 2007; Rayner, Denholm, & Sigafoos, 2009). VBIs can be implemented by practitioners using a variety of current technologies, such as computers, portable DVD players, personal digital assistants, smart phones, and tablet computers. In addition to their flexible modes of presentation, VBIs follow a positive (rather than punitive) instructional approach by allowing for frequent, consistent, and perfected demonstrations of desired behaviors (Ayres, Maguire, & McClimon, 2009; Charlop-Christy, Le, & Freeman, 2000) in addition to the rare opportunity for individuals to view their behaviors as others see them. VBIs are well suited to working with a population of reluctant or resistant learners because of what they are and what they are not. They are videos: Videos and their modes of presentation (e.g., computers, iPads) are associated with recreation. This pairing of a recreational stimulus may provide some behavioral momentum for participation in the intervention. They are not worksheets or lectures: They lack learning history or punitive association, which may make them more acceptable. It would be unlikely that students feel negatively about tablet computer or video use, whereas certain task demands at school may be associated with failure or frustration (e.g., worksheets or group settings). Further, individuals most in need of behavioral intervention may prefer a VBI over extended interaction with educators and/or staff (Charlop-Christy et al., 2000), particularly individuals with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) who avoid social interaction or find it aversive. Two examples of VBIs include video modeling (VM) and video feedback (VF). VM consists of a participant watching a model on video perform a target behavior and then performing the modeled behavior him or herself (CharlopChristy et al., 2000). When a peer or adult is used as model, this is referred to as video modeling with other as model (VMO). When the participant watches a video using him or herself as the model, this is referred to as video self-modeling (VSM). Videos can be recorded from the viewpoint of an outside observer (third person) or from the vantage point of the participant (i.e., only the hands of the participant are shown performing a task); the latter is called point-of-view video modeling (POV). Minimal equipment or technological skill is needed for implementing VBI. Videos for modeling interventions can be produced by using a peer, adult, or the participant (if he or she is capable of demonstrating the desired behavior with or without prompting; the prompts are then edited out of the recording). A priori decisions need to be made about problem behavior, and a model must be secured. The implementer will either need to write a script for the selected model to perform (VMO or POV) or catch the participant engaged in the behavior targeted for improvement (VSM). Unless the video is recorded in one take, the video footage will need to be edited to develop a final product that displays a ‘‘perfect’’ model. VF may be more efficient and flexible than VM, two characteristics particularly appealing in an applied setting. VF procedures simply require the implementer to select a behavior targeted for improvement and record video of the participant in a setting in which the behavior is likely to occur. Subsequently, the participant and implementer review the video footage to evaluate the occurrence or nonoccurrence of targeted behaviors (Booth & Fairbank, 1983). This provides a unique opportunity for self-evaluation and behavioral accountability without interrupting ongoing tasks or social interactions. Video may be reviewed the same day it is recorded or at a later date at the convenience of the implementer or depending on the receptivity of the student. Procedural variations between VM and VF are mostly small but may indicate advantages of one procedure over another, possibly related to the characteristics of the target individual.