The Effects of Attention Cueing on Visualizers' Multimedia Learning

Introduction Without proper guidance, learners' attention might become distracted when learning an unfamiliar subject in a multimedia environment. The presence of visual cues is assumed to direct learners' attention to the most essential elements, help organize that information into a coherent structure, and optimize conceptual understanding (Mayer, 2009). According to the signaling principle, attention cueing is predicted to reduce learners' extraneous load (Mayer & Moreno, 2010) and promote learning. In addition, dual coding theory (Paivio, 1986) assumes that the human cognitive system has two independent but interconnected verbal and non-verbal mental systems. Active mental representation activates relevant nodes in the network, and the spreading activation triggers a wide range of associated verbal and imagery representations in the network. Past experiences and individual differences determine the quantity and quality of activation (Clark & Paivio, 1991). Learners' cognitive preference (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003; Plass, Chun, Mayer, & Leutner, 1998) and prior knowledge (Imhof et al., 2013) are predicted to moderate learning efficiency. Visualizers have been found to benefit from multimedia (e.g., Chen, Hsieh, & Kinshuk, 2008; Plass et al., 1998) due to their strong visuospatial capabilities in constructing mental models. This study expands upon previous research conducted on the effects of attention cueing in multimedia learning with the aim of addressing the questions of whether or not attention cueing can reduce learners' cognitive load and the ways in which different types of cognitive styles and attention cueing affect learning efficiency. Literature review Cognitive load theory The information processing that occurs in working memory involves: (1) selection of relevant words, (2) selection of relevant images, (3) organization of selected words, (4) organization of selected images, and (5) integration of visual and auditory information with prior knowledge (Mayer, 2009). During information processing, three types of cognitive load may affect learning efficiency: extraneous, intrinsic, and germane. Extraneous cognitive load is caused by poor instructional design (Moreno & Mayer, 2010) but may be minimized by providing attention cueing (Mayer, 2009). Due to limited working memory capacity, the presence of attention cueing is predicted to direct learners' attention to the target, thus minimizing the visual search process, releasing more cognitive resources with which learners can engage in schema construction and activation, and facilitate the germane load (de Koning, Tabbers, Rikers, & Paas, 2009), which is beneficial for learning. Signaling principle In terms of cognitive processing, attention cueing is classified into selection, organization, and integration cues corresponding with the cognitive abilities of selecting, organizing, and integrating information in the working memory. Selection cues guide learners' attention to the most essential elements in the representations (Crooks, Cheon, Inan, Ari, & Flores, 2012; de Koning et al., 2008, 2009). Organization cues assist learners in organizing the elements of the representations to better facilitate text processing and improve retention (Crooks et al., 2012; de Koning et al., 2008, 2009), such as number signals showing steps in causal chains to build up internal connections among causal elements (Harp & Mayer, 1998). Integration cues aid the learners in integrating the elements between and within the representations into a coherent whole (de Koning et al., 2009). In terms of perceptual processing, unique colors or moving objects seem to be effective in capturing learners' attention. Two features that influence perceptibility of visual representations include visual contrast (i.e., an element with distinctive features stands out from the background) and dynamic contrast (i. …