Exploring the persistence of female genital cutting and intimate partner violence in sub-Saharan Africa

Female genital cutting (FGC) and intimate partner violence (IPV) both involve individuals causing harm to a close family member. Their global impact on health and well-being is considerable; 3 million girls are at risk of FGC every year and 30% of women experience IPV in their lifetime. The persistence of these paradoxical behaviours is of interest to both evolutionary scientists and policy makers. Despite intense research and programme activity, the motivations for both behaviours remain elusive, and implementing behavioural change has proved challenging. In this thesis I explore the persistence of FGC and IPV with three main objectives; 1) to gain further understanding of risk factors, 2) to test whether evolutionary theory can explain perpetrator motives, and 3) to draw out implications relevant to policy work. Throughout, I test commonly held assumptions concerning these behaviours. These objectives are investigated in four research chapters (two published and two written for submission) using secondary datasets from countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The results show that women who conform to the FGC norm within their community have higher evolutionary fitness, and that paternity concern may also influence FGC behaviour via marriage preferences. The policy implications include targeting communities in which FGC is the majority behaviour. IPV types are found to be associated with different perpe trator motives, and diverging evolutionary interests between husbands and wives (sexual conflict) increases the risk of men perpetrating physical but not sexual IPV. This suggests that IPV programmes should address IPV sub-types separately. Finally, I find no association between FGC status and IPV experience. This indicates that eradication programmes tailored to the specific risk factors involved in either IPV or FGC will be more effective. The results demonstrate some novel risk factors relating to FGC and IPV, and reveal how evolutionary and cultural forces may contribute towards their persistence. DEDICATION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis is dedicated to my children, Holly, Max and Gemma who have been my biggest cheerleaders during my research. Their belief in me and their sweet words of encouragement have spurred me on. Their birth also set me on the path to this research, albeit on a slightly circuitous route, as my wonderings as a new mother about how infant care was approached around the world returned me to my anthropological roots. Huge thanks go to my supervisor, Mhairi Gibson. I am extremely grateful for her time, encouragement and support over these past few years. Her knowledge and passion for the subject has been inspiring, and it has been a privilege to learn from her. I have enjoyed our discussions, and appreciate her encouragement to present and publish my research. Her insightful comments and guidance have been invaluable in honing my skills as an evolutionary anthropologist. I’d also like to thank the tower room gang, particularly Alarna Samarasinghe, Sam Passmore and Caitlin Greenwood for their companionship on this PhD journey. Many friends and family have given me support along the way. In particular I would like to thank my brother Martin for his inspiration, and my parents for always being there for me. A special mention goes to my dear friend Kirsten Knull for her enthusiasm for my research, and the biggest thank you is to my husband Gavin, for his unfailing support and encouragement. AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I declare that the work in this dissertation was carried out in accordance with the requirements of the University's Regulations and Code of Practice for Research Degree Programmes and that it has not been submitted for any other academic award. Except where indicated by specific reference in the text, the work is the candidate's own work. Work done in collaboration with, or with the assistance of, others, is indicated as such. Any views expressed in the dissertation are those of the author. SIGNED: . DATE:.