Integrating variable electricity supply from wind and solar PV into power systems

6 Zusammenfassung . 9 1. Introduction . 12 1.1. Limiting climate change requires a global energy transformation . 12 1.2. Renewables have a large potential for climate mitigation . 14 1.3. Wind power and solar PV are likely to play a prominent role . 15 1.4. The challenge of integrating wind power and solar PV . 17 1.5. Thesis objective and outline . 25 2. Analyzing major challenges of wind and solar variability in power systems . 30 2.1. Introduction . 30 2.2. Method capturing major integration challenges . 33 2.3. Results . 39 2.4. Discussion and conclusion . 46 References . 47 3. System LCOE: What are the costs of variable renewables? 52 3.1. Introduction . 52 3.2. System LCOE and integration costs . 55 3.2.1. A mathematical definition of integration costs . 56 3.2.2. The economics of variability . 58 3.2.3. Implications for decomposing integration costs . 61 3.2.4. Determining integration costs with a benchmark technology . 67 3.3. Quantification of System LCOE and integration costs . 69 3.3.1. Model description and literature estimates . 70 3.3.2. Results for System LCOE and integration costs . 76 3.3.3. A closer look on profile costs . 79 3.3.4. Implications for integration options . 82 3.4. Summary and conclusion . 83 Acknowledgements . 85 References . 85 4. Integration costs revisited – An economic framework for wind and solar variability 90 4.1. Introduction . 91 4.2. Definition of integration costs . 93 4.3. Decomposition . 97 4.4. The technical fundamentals behind integration costs . 99 4.4.1. Balancing costs . 99 4.4.2. Grid-related costs . 100 4.4.3. Profile costs . 101 4.4.4. The utilization effect in the integration cost literature . 105 4.5. Quantifications from the literature . 106 4.5.1. Balancing costs . 106 4.5.2. Grid-related costs . 109 4.5.3. Profile costs . 110 4.6. Who bears integration costs? 111 4.7. Summary and conclusion . 113 Acknowledgements . 114 References . 114 Appendix . 121 5. Integration Costs and Marginal Value: Connecting two perspectives on the economics of variable renewables . 125 5.1. Introduction . 125 5.2. Integration costs and marginal value . 128 5.3. Time horizon and system adaption . 131 5.4. Conclusion . 136 References . 137 6. Representing power sector variability and the integration of variable renewables in long-term climate change mitigation scenarios: A novel modeling approach . 140 6.1. Introduction . 140 6.2. Method . 145 6.2.1. The RLDC approach . 145 6.2.2. Additional elements . 148 6.2.3. Power-to-gas storage . 150 6.3. Application of the RLDC approach in REMIND-D . 151 6.3.1. Model and data . 151 6.3.2. Results: impacts of modeling variability in REMIND-D . 151 6.4. Summary and conclusion . 156 References . 157 Appendix . 161 A.1. Residual load duration curves . 161 A.2. Equations of the RLDC approach . 162 7. Redistribution Effects of Energy and Climate Policy: The Electricity Market . 165 7.1. Introduction . 166 7.2. Literature Review . 167 7.3. Methodology . 170 7.3.1. Framework . 170 7.3.2. Analytical Model . 173 7.3.3. Numerical Model . 176 7.4. Wind Support . 178 7.4.1. Analytical Results . 178 7.4.2. Numerical Results . 180 7.4.3. Findings and Discussion . 184 7.5. CO2 Pricing . 184 7.5.1. Analytical Results . 185 7.5.2. Numerical Results . 191 7.5.3. Findings and Discussion . 194 7.6. Policy Mix . 194 7.7. Conclusion . 196 References .