Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in Poultry Pathogens Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in Poultry Pathogens: Challenges and Opportunities

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is widely considered a global public health threat, with the use of antimicrobials in poultry production considered one of the contributing factors. Antimicrobial agents are used for growth promotion, prevention, and treatment of poultry diseases. They are also used to prevent and treat human diseases. This unchecked dependence on antimicrobials results in their unregulated use and abuse in human and animal health, resulting in AMR. Previously, AMR was investigated using antimicrobial susceptibility testing using the disc diffusion method (for bacteria and fungi) and phenotypic fluorescence-based inhibition assay (for viruses). This was done after culturing the bacteria and fungi in growth media or propagating viruses in embryonic chicken eggs or specific cell lines. Recent studies utilizing metagenomics and next generation sequencing (NGS) platforms have also identified a large array of antimicrobial resistance genes that had not been discovered earlier. In this study, a systematic review of different studies focusing on AMR in some poultry pathogens was conducted using different databases, such as MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHL library sources for relevant studies. These sources were screened against the protocol eligibility criteria, where 103 studies met the inclusion criteria. We wish to review the current state of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria, fungi and viruses in poultry and also explore alternative approaches for preventing and treating diseases and promoting growth in food animals such as poultry. This is essential in enhancing efforts of harmonizing testing practices and facilitating free access to information and data on AMR with the aim of enhancing treatment measures, along with monitoring the advancement of AMR in poultry pathogens. isolates were resistant to at least one drug while 83% were resistant to at least three different classes of antimicrobial agents. Noting that E. coli isolates from poultry and livestock are commonly resistant to multiple antibiotics, the authors emphasized the need for public health and veterinary authorities to limit and rationalize antimicrobial use in China. Ibrahim et al . (2019) also isolated, identified, serogrouped and genotyped APEC from broilers, examined their antibiotic resistance profile, stated genetic attributes, and the related risk factors. This was conducted through isolating APEC from the visceral organs of those broilers that were considered sick with prevalence of 54%. The findings were that 68% of APEC isolates were reported to have almost five to eight antimicrobial resistant genes. The finding indicate two risk factors linked to the existence of MDR APEC in broiler chickens: farms situated close to other farms and the use of ground water for drinking. Ibrahim et al . (2019) further found that the intensity of antimicrobial resistance of APEC isolates and detection of resistance genes outlined the importance of monitoring the intensification of ARGs in the environment and specifically in chicken or poultry farming in Jordan. Homjan et al . (2018) equally conducted a study with the purpose of identifying the antimicrobial resistance of E. coli isolates from colibacillosis lesions, and the findings focused on the manifestation of MDR and AMR amongst APEC or E. coli isolates. This research sought to understand regular AMR monitoring and practical application of antimicrobial substances throughout the production of poultry. Roth et al . (2019) also reviewed in detail the global application of antibiotics in broiler production and the resulting antimicrobial resistance in E. coli. Other studies looking at the prevalence, virulence and antimicrobial resistance of