Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
Why some faces won ’ t be remembered : brain potentials illuminate successful versus unsuccessful encoding for same-race and other-race faces

Other research suggests that the other-race effect may stem from different types of categorization elicited by SR versus OR faces due to their respective status as ingroup and outgroup members (Levin, 1996, 2000; Hugenberg and Sacco, 2008) or majority and minority groups (Chiao et al., 2006). Outgroup members are generally perceived to have more in common with each other and to possess fewer unique personality attributes relative to ingroup members, a phenomenon known as the outgroup homogeneity effect (Park and Rothbart, 1982; Judd and Park, 1988; Mullen and Hu, 1989; Ostrom and Sedikides, 1992). As a result, perceivers are more likely to make a variety of distinctive social attributions for ingroup individuals, an elaborative encoding strategy INTRODUCTION The ability to recognize the faces of others is an important skill in human society. However, this skill does not benefit all faces equally. The other-race effect refers to the robust phenomenon wherein recognition memory is less accurate for other-race faces than for same-race faces (henceforth referred to as OR faces and SR faces, respectively). There has been much debate over what causes poorer memory for OR faces. Several perceptual and social factors that may contribute to the other-race effect have been identified in prior investigations. One potential factor is perceptual expertise. According to perceptual expertise accounts of the other-race effect, a perceiver’s greater experience with SR relative to OR faces can lead to difficulty encoding the physical dimensions along which OR faces tend to differ from one another (Valentine, 1991; Chiroro and Valentine, 1995; Furl et al., 2002; Walker and Hewstone, 2006). This asymmetric expertise results in encoding for OR faces that places an insufficient emphasis on individuating physiognomic information, or facial attributes that distinguish a given face from others faces of the same social group. Training in perceptual individuation (i.e., learning to identify and encode such person-specific attributes of a face) has been shown to alleviate the other-race effect, lending credence to this account (Tanaka and Pierce, 2009). Why some faces won’t be remembered: brain potentials illuminate successful versus unsuccessful encoding for same-race and other-race faces
Rehabilitation of executive functioning in patients with frontal lobe brain damage with goal management training

IntroductIon Deficits in frontal and executive function are among the commonest causes of disability following brain injury. This disability affects planning, strategy application, self-regulation, inhibition, goal-directed behavior, initiation, and insight (Tranel et al., 1994; Stuss and Levine, 2002). Although primarily associated with frontal lobe damage, these deficits can occur following a host of other conditions affecting interconnected brain function through axonal or white matter changes, such as traumatic brain injury (Levine et al., 1998), multiple sclerosis (McDonald and Ron, 1999), ischemic white matter disease (Swartz et al., 2008), aging (Raz, 2000), the dementias (Neary et al., 1998), and psychiatric conditions (Cohen and Servan-Schreiber, 1992; Mayberg, 1997). In spite of the societal costs associated with this disability, there are no widely accepted standardized interventions targeting these capacities. In a recent review of the literature, we identified 55 studies on rehabilitation of executive or frontal lobe function (Levine et al., 2008). Only 16% of these met criteria for class I evidence sufficient to guide treatment (see also Cicerone et al., 2000, 2005; Rohling et al., 2009). Research in this area is limited by heterogeneity of patient samples, lack of control groups, lack of theoretically based intervention protocols, and limited outcome assessment (see also Levine and Downey-Lamb, 2002). Goal management training (GMT; Robertson, 1996; Levine et al., 2000b, 2007) is based on theory of sustained or vigilant attention (Robertson and Garavan, 2000). Ongoing activation of the right frontal-thalamic-parietal sustained attention system is required to actively, endogenously maintain higher order goal states in working memory. When the sustained attention system is compromised, habits, or environmental conditions may oppose and displace higher order goals, resulting in cue-dependent or distracted behavior that is a hallmark of patients with attentional and executive deficits. For example, if one has to deviate from a habitual route to post a letter, the goal of posting the letter must be actively maintained in working memory en route in order to prevent habit (i.e., taking the usual route) from displacing the goal. Rehabilitation of executive functioning in patients with frontal lobe brain damage with goal management training
Human Neuroscience

are independent, then the SE rate at a given SSD corresponds to the fraction of go RT distribution cut off by SSD + SSRT (the dark shaded region in Figure 2A). Conversely, given the SE rate for a particular SSD, SSRT can be estimated by subtracting SSD from the appropriate percentile of go RTs. Subject-specific SSRT is typically estimated by averaging the SSRT estimates from different SSDs, or simply taken as the SSRT best explaining the SSD giving rise to 50% error rate on stop strials. Consistent with the interpretation that SSRT measures some aspect of inhibitory ability, SSRT has been measured as longer in populations with presumed inhibitory deficits, such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (Alderson et al., 2007), substance abuse (Nigg et al., 2006), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (Menzies et al., 2007). Although the race model yields an elegantly simple description of classical behavioral data, it does not address how different cognitive processes contribute to stopping behavior, thereby precluding the possibility of predicting how experimental manipulations of different cognitive factors, such as reward and context, should affect stopping behavior. Relatedly, it cannot readily differentiate the underlying cognitive deficits seen in the various clinical populations. We present a rational decision-making framework for inhibi-tory control in the stop signal task. In our framework, sensory processing and action choice are optimized relative to a quantitative , global behavioral objective function that takes into account the costs associated with go errors, stop errors, and response delay. Classical behavioral results in the stop signal task are shown to be natural consequences of rational decision-making in the task. Moreover, the model can quantitatively predict changes in stopping behavior as a consequence of manipulations in task demands such as reward contingencies (Leotti and Wager, 2009). We show that a drift-diffusion model implementation of the race model
Human Neuroscience

approach toward defining a truly objective diagnostic criterion. In fact, a recent review has asked if changes in brain rhythms may be used as an objective diagnostic tool, but concluded " not yet " (Galderisi et al., 2009) due partly to the variety in methods used in the studies. Indeed, this is the general conclusion with respect to the search for biomarkers whether based on chemical analysis of plasma (Domenici et al. for other major categories of psychiatric disorders in addition to schizophrenia. The emergence of an interest in brain rhythms has paralleled the development of computational tools for the analysis of oscillatory dynamics using time–frequency analysis (Rudin, 1962) and an understanding of the generation of oscillations by single neurons (Llinas, 1988). The present work tests the hypothesis that a decisive factor in schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders is the generation of abnormal recurrent neuronal activation that is evidenced by abnormal thalamocortical rhythm epiphenomena, i.e., a thalamocortical dysrhythmia (TCD). This assertion is based on an understanding of the intrinsic oscillatory properties of thalamic neurons (Included in this study are groups of patients with obsessive– compulsive disorder (OCD) and major depressive disorder (DD) that were sent to our center for magnetoencephalography (MEG) scans of spontaneous brain activity. They are included here to extend our study to other psychiatric disorders. This is a pilot study in which we investigated whether this approach would warrant an in depth study.
Human Neuroscience

The EEG marker of VSTM load comprises a negative potential, sustained through the delay period, that correlates with K, and peaks at posterior electrodes contralateral to the attended hemifield (Vogel and Machizawa, 2004; McCollough et al., 2007). It has therefore been termed contralateral delay activity (CDA) 1. A recent mag-netoencephalography (MEG) study (Robitaille et al., 2010) places its generators in the superior intraparietal sulcus (IPS). In contrast, fMRI studies of VSTM typically present central stimuli, reporting bilateral activation focused in posterior parietal cortex (Linden et al. Surprisingly, this response has recently been shown to remain bilateral even when the memoranda are lateralized (Robitaille et al., 2010). One possibility for this discrepancy is that fMRI can only resolve hemodynamic changes that integrate neural activity over a few seconds, in contrast to the millisecond resolution of EEG/MEG. However, existing studies of the CDA typically sacrifice this temporal precision by calculating statistics after collapsing across the whole delay period (Vogel and Machizawa, 2004; Robitaille et al., 2010). Although the usefulness of such aggregate measures is shown by their correlation with individual differences in behavior (Vogel and Machizawa, 2004) the manner in which
Ocean Gyre Circulation Changes Associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation

Abstract Observational evidence is presented for interannual to interdecadal variability in the intensity of the North Atlantic gyre circulation related to the atmospheric North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) patterns. A two-point baroclinic pressure difference between the subtropical and subpolar gyre centers—an oceanic analogue to the much-used sea level pressure (SLP)-based atmospheric NAO indices—is constructed from time series of potential energy anomaly (PEA) derived from hydrographic measurements in the Labrador Basin and at Station S near Bermuda. Representing the upper 2000-db eastward baroclinic mass transport between the two centers, the transport index indicates a Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Current that gradually weakened during the low NAO period of the 1960s and then intensified in the subsequent 25 years of persistently high NAO to a record peak in the 1990s. The peak-to-peak amplitude difference was 15–20 megatons per second (MT s−1) with a 43-yr mean of about 60 MT s−1 a change of 25%–33%.
Human Neuroscience

contribute to the encoding of dynamic, personally-relevant emotional episodes that take place within a social context. A promising neuroimaging analysis technique that can be applied to address this problem is independent component analysis (ICA), which is a multivariate statistical approach that decomposes brain signals from temporally-extended event sequences into component parts. ICA is a data driven method that identifi es and segregates distinct brain regions or networks based on their characteristic time course activity This method has proven to be useful for revealing functionally related brain regions during natural viewing of extended event sequences (e.g., watching movies), which, given their perceptual richness and complexity, are likely to engage a broad set of regions and connections (Jääskeläinen et al., 2008; Malinen et al., 2007; Calhoun et al., 2009). ICA differs from other multivariate analysis methods such as partial least squares (PLS, McIntosh et al., 1996) by decomposing signal into statistically independent rather than maximally variant sources. Additionally, ICA requires no a priori model of the data, which is particularly advantageous given the complexity of the stimuli at hand. The present study applied this analytic approach to investigate the component neural systems that contribute to the formation of emotional memories that emerge in the context of a sporting event. As opposed to other temporally-extended event sequences such as movies, team sporting events contain individual plays, rendering it is easier to parse into shorter narrative structures with unique
Human Neuroscience

A detailed implementation was provided by Holroyd and Coles (2002), who considered ACC from the point of view of temporal difference (TD) learning, an algorithm belonging to the reinforcement learning (RL) field (Sutton and Barto, 1998). RL is a framework from machine learning, and provides a formal explanation for classical results from learning theory. Holroyd and Coles (2002) argued that the basal ganglia estimate values using TD learning, and send a prediction error signal to ACC for the latter to act as a " control filter " and choose an appropriate motor controller for the task at hand. Another view is that ACC estimates the probability that an error occurs for specific events (error-likelihood theory). Brown and Braver (2005) proposed that when stimuli or actions are associated with errors, a Hebbian learning process connects the neurons encoding the stimuli to the ACC. Hence, if a stimulus or action is often (i.e., with high likelihood) accompanied by an error, it will activate ACC. Another influential view is that ACC computes response conflict (Botvinick et al., 2001). Often, a stimulus affords two or more actions, in which case two or more responses will be activated simultaneously. This co-activation is translated into a high energy level, or response conflict, which is computed by ACC. For example, a pizza sign on the left and a dim sum sign on the right might activate both left-and right-going tendencies in the hungry traveler. Finally, a recent perspective holds that ACC computes volatility, or the extent to which the probabilities linking situations and outcomes in the environment are variable across time (Behrens et al., 2007). For example, repeatedly playing tennis against the same opponent, who has a variable tennis skill level from day to day, makes our probability of winning the match variable from day to day, leading to volatile outcomes of the match.
Human Neuroscience

cortex (fusiform gyrus; early visual areas extending into extrastri-ate visual areas) and anterior cortex (inferior frontal gyrus) (see Henson, 2003; Schacter et al., 2007, for reviews). These joint observations pose a basic puzzle for systems and cognitive neuroscience: How is it that widespread reductions in neural activity can support improvements in behavioral perform-ance? One possibility is that processing speed is facilitated so that the neural response to a repeated object occurs earlier relative to when it was fi rst seen. Single-cell recording studies in monkeys, however, have demonstrated that the onset of fi ring-rate responses to repeated/familiar stimuli in prefrontal (e. not temporally shifted to earlier time points. Rather, activity is reduced throughout the duration of the fi ring-rate response after initial onset. Another possibility is that experience leads to " sharper " , more selective fi ring rate responses, conveying more information about stimulus identity at lower average rates, thereby increasing for review). However, repetitions over time scales that are relevant for most priming studies in humans, such as within a single day's recording session, have tended to show the largest fi ring rate decreases in cells that respond best to a given stimulus , consistent with a proportional scaling-down of fi ring rates (Li et al.
Pulvinar and Affective Significance: Responses Track Moment-to-Moment Stimulus Visibility

Research on emotion has considered the pulvinar to be an important component of a subcortical pathway conveying visual information to the amygdala in a largely “automatic” fashion. An older literature has focused on understanding the role of the pulvinar in visual attention. To address the inconsistency between these independent literatures, in the present study, we investigated how pulvinar responses are involved in the processing of affectively significant stimuli and how they are influenced by stimulus visibility during attentionally demanding conditions. Subjects performed an attentional blink task during fMRI scanning involving affectively significant (CS+) and neutral stimuli (CS−). Pulvinar responses were not influenced by affective significance (CS+ vs. CS−) per se. Instead, evoked responses were only modulated by affective significance during hit trials, but not during miss trials. Importantly, moment-to-moment fluctuations in response magnitude closely tracked trial-by-trial detection performance, and thereby visibility. This relationship was only reliably detected during the affective condition. Our results do not support a passive role of the pulvinar in affective processing, as invoked in the context of the subcortical-pathway hypothesis. Instead, the pulvinar appears to be involved in mechanisms that are closely linked to attention and awareness. As part of thalamocortical loops with diverse cortical territories, we argue that the medial pulvinar is well positioned to influence information processing in the brain according to a stimulus's biological significance. In particular, when weak and/or brief visual stimuli have affective significance, cortico-pulvino-cortical circuits may act to coordinate and amplify signals in a manner that enhances their behavioral impact.
Cardiorespiratory fitness and attentional control in the aging brain

training is associated with greater neural recruitment of regions involved in executive function including the prefrontal and the parietal cortices (Colcombe et al., 2004); and increased functional connectivity between many regions of the default-mode network (Voss et al., 2010). Extending this work, we are now interested in examining the additional changes in neural recruitment that may accompany higher levels of fitness, thereby positively influencing cognitive performance. In this study, our goal was to examine whether higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with a differential recruitment of the anterior and posterior processing regions during performance on a modified version of the Stroop task. The Stroop task is particularly interesting because of its involvement of both the prefrontal regions in exerting top-down control and the subsequent recruitment of the posterior processing regions in order to perform the task (Bench et al., 1993; Bush et al., 1998; Brown et al., 1999; Banich et al., 2000, 2001; Milham et al., 2001; Erickson et al., 2009a). To examine associations with posterior processing regions, we localized ventral visual areas that were sensitive to color processing and word processing in older adults and examined whether activation in these stimuli-sensitive regions in older adults during the Stroop task was associated with increasing levels of cardiorespiratory fitness, in a top-down modulation fashion. INTRODUCTION Healthy lifestyle factors are increasingly being recognized to play a critical role in the maintenance of cognitive and brain functioning through the adult lifespan (Hertzog et al., 2009). The recognition of a positive association between fitness and several aspects of cognitive functioning in healthy older adults (Colcombe et al., 2003, 2006; Erickson et al., 2009b; Voss et al., 2010), individuals with neurodegenerative disorders (Prakash et al., 2007, 2010a); children (Chaddock et al., 2010); and many other populations has led to an escalation in the focus of exercise-cognition as a topic of research in the last decade. We, in our laboratory, have systematically been examining the influence of aerobic exercise on cognitive functioning of older adults (Kramer et al., 1999; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003; Colcombe et al., 2004, 2006; Erickson et al., 2009b) and have provided evidence for a significant improvement in the cognitive abilities of healthy older adults who have participated in a 6-month aerobic exercise training intervention, compared to a non-aerobic control group. We have evidence of an increase in fitness being associated with increased volumes in the frontal and temporal cortices (Colcombe et al., 2003, 2006), and more recent, specific evidence of increased volume in the hippocampi of older adults (Erickson et al., 2009b). We have also provided evidence that increased fitness levels and participation in aerobic exercise Cardiorespiratory fitness and attentional control in the aging brain
Shifting the spotlight of attention : evidence for discrete computations in cognition

or humans) are asked to search a visual field for a particular target stimulus (see Figure 1A). How quickly the subject is able to do this depends on the relationship between the target and distracting visual elements. When distractors all differ from the target in a single dimension (Figure 1A, top row) the target will stand out, or " pop-out, " from distracting stimuli, capturing attention automatically and leading to a very fast search time. What constitutes a pop-out dimension has been the subject of debate (for review, see Wolfe and Horowitz, 2004), but is generally viewed as the basic components of stimuli, such as color, orientation, shape, etc. Under these conditions not only can the subjects find the target quickly but the time to find the target is not strongly influenced by the number of distractors in the search array. In contrast, when the distractors differ from the target in more than one dimension, and do so independently from one another (Figure 1A, bottom row), the target no longer automatically grabs the subjects attention based on its inherent qualities, but rather internal signals (such as knowledge of the sought-after targets' attributes) must guide the search. This results in an overall slower search speed and, generally, the time to find the target is a function of the number of total items in the search array. In addition to the psychophysical work done in humans, behavioral differences between pop-out and search tasks have also been found in non-human primates (Iba and Sawaguchi, 2003; Buschman and Miller, 2007). This dichotomy between fast and slow search reflects the mechanisms underlying the control attention: attention can either be captured by a stimulus based on its inherent physical properties or it can be directed toward a particular goal by an internal mechanism. This mirrors a major distinction in cognition, namely the distinction between automatic and controlled processing. The balance between them is important for cognition – external stimuli have intrinsic value based on their stimulus properties that can capture attention and behavior (i.e., fast things moving toward us should be salient). However, goal-directed behavior requires the ability to