Civic-Minded Graduate: A North Star

Boyer (1994) proposed a new model for higher education that has resulted in a reframing of the public purposes of higher education. He rejected the solution that small add-ons would accomplish his far-reaching vision for higher education; instead, he challenged institutions to make fundamental changes to the campus mission and infrastructure, nature of faculty work, student engagement in community-based learning, and relationships with community members. As a result, higher education institutions continue to rethink and redefine their public purposes (e.g., Bringle, Games, & Malloy, 1999; Boyer, 1994, 1996; Calleson, Jordan, & Seifer, 2005; Colby, Ehrlich, Beaumont, & Stephens, 2003; Edgerton, 1994; Harkavy & Puckett, 1994; O'Meara & Rice, 2005; Percy, Zimpher, & Brukardt, 2006; Rice, 1996). Coming to consensus on the public purposes of higher education and the purpose and vision for various aspects including civic engagement programs has important implications for both practice and research in higher education. One of the most pervasive responses to Boyer's vision has been the proliferation of service-learning courses across disciplines and institutional types (Campus Compact, 2010). One of the key elements that distinguishes service-learning from other types of experiential learning (e.g., conducting research) and community-based learning (e.g., internships, practica) is that service-learning intentionally identifies the civic growth of students fostered through structured reflection and meaningful experiences within community organizations (Ash & Clayton, 2009; Battistoni, 2002; Bringle & Hatcher, 1995, 2002, 2009). Thus, the emergence of service-learning as a pedagogical strategy has heightened attention to the civic domain as a set of intentional educational outcomes to be addressed in higher education (Astin & Sax, 1998; Battistoni, 2002; Zlotkowski, 1999). However, service-learning is not the only pedagogical approach to cultivate civic learning and dispositions, and faculty and staff can use a variety of strategies to reach these learning outcomes (Colby et al., 2003). For example, instruction on civics and citizenship, democratic practices within the classroom, current event and readership programs, student leadership programs and governance, political action and involvement, community activities and internships, and co-curricular voluntary service may each contribute in important ways to civic learning outcomes (Bringle & Steinberg, 2010; Bringle, Studer, Wilson, Clayton, & Steinberg, 2011; Jacoby, 2009; Levine, 2003). The educational and civic experiences that occur during the college years are valued, in part, to the extent that they contribute to a graduate's ability and sense of responsibility to become an active and engaged citizen. There is accumulating evidence that service-learning may be one of the most powerful and most effective methods for achieving civic learning outcomes (e.g., Astin & Sax, 1998, Eyler, Giles, Stetson, & Gray, 2001; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Service-learning is highlighted as a high impact practice for increasing student engagement, learning outcomes, retention, and college success (e.g., Association of American Colleges & Universities, 2007; Brownell & Swaner, 2010; Kuh, 2008). Furthermore, as higher education becomes more interested in emphasizing civic growth of students, service-learning may be the best pedagogy for enhancing civic outcomes associated with particular aspects of the curriculum (e.g., general education, study in a major, capstone experiences, graduate and professional education). Literature Review of Civic Learning Outcomes There are many dimensions that comprise the concept of civic learning outcomes (Hatcher, 2008; Keen, 2009). Battistoni (2002) organized the various aspects of civic learning into seven paradigms aligned with the disciplines and professions: (a) civic professionalism, (b) social responsibility, (c) social justice, (d) connected knowing: ethic of caring, (e) public leadership, (f) public intellectual, and (g) engaged/public scholarship. …