Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
Learning Dynamics and Generalization in Reinforcement Learning

Solving a reinforcement learning (RL) problem poses two competing challenges: fitting a potentially discontinuous value function, and generalizing well to new observations. In this paper, we analyze the learning dynamics of temporal difference algorithms to gain novel insight into the tension between these two objectives. We show theoretically that temporal difference learning encourages agents to fit non-smooth components of the value function early in training, and at the same time induces the second-order effect of discouraging generalization. We corroborate these findings in deep RL agents trained on a range of environments, finding that neural networks trained using temporal difference algorithms on dense reward tasks exhibit weaker generalization between states than randomly initialized networks and networks trained with policy gradient methods. Finally, we investigate how post-training policy distillation may avoid this pitfall, and show that this approach improves generalization to novel environments in the ProcGen suite and improves robustness to input perturbations.
Stratospheric Temperature Climate Data Record from Merged SSU and AMSU-A Observations

Observations from the Stratospheric Sounding Unit (SSU) on board historical NOAA polar-orbiting satelliteshaveplayedavitalroleininvestigationsoflong-termtrendsandvariabilityinthemiddle-andupper-stratospheric temperatures during 1979–2006. The successor to SSU is the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-A (AMSU-A) starting from 1998 until the present. Unfortunately, the two observations came from different sets of atmospheric layers, and the SSU weighting functions varied with time and location, posing a challenge to merge them with sufﬁcient accuracy for development of an extended SSU climate data record. This study proposes a variational approach for the merging problem, matching in both temperatures and weighting functions. The approach yields zero means with a small standard deviation and a negligible drift over time in the temperature differences between SSU and its extension to AMSU-A. These features made the approach appealing for reliable detection of long-term climate trends. The approach also matches weighting functions with high accuracy for SSU channels 1 and 2 and reasonable accuracy for channel 3. The total decreases in global mean temperatures found from the merged dataset were from 1.8K in the middle stratosphere to 2.4K in the upper stratosphere during 1979–2015. These temperature drops were associated with two segments of piecewise linear cooling trends, with those during the ﬁrst period (1979–97) being much larger than those of the second period (1998–2015). These differences in temperature trends corresponded well to changes of the atmospheric ozone amount from depletion to recovery during the respective time periods, showing the inﬂuence of human decisions on climate change.
Present in Human Plasma and Breast Milk Capable of Modulating TLR2 Signaling Are Soluble Forms of Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)2

Dysregulation of the initial, innate immune response to bacterial infection may lead to septic shock and death. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a crucial role in this innate immune response, and yet the regulatory mechanisms controlling microbial-induced TLR triggering are still to be fully understood. We have therefore sought speciﬁc regulatory mechanisms that may modulate TLR signaling. In this study, we tested for the possible existence of a functionally active soluble form of TLR2. We demonstrated the existence of natural soluble forms of TLR2 (sTLR2), which we show to be capable of modulating cell activation. We found that blood monocytes released sTLR2 constitutively and that the kinetics of sTLR2 release increased upon cell activation. Analysis of cells expressing the human TLR2 cDNA or its c- myc -tagged version indicated that sTLR2 resulted from the posttranslational modiﬁcation of the TLR2 protein in an intracellular compartment. Moreover, an intracellular pool of sTLR2 is maintained. sTLR2 was found naturally expressed in breast milk and plasma. Milk sTLR2 levels mirrored those of the TLR coreceptor soluble CD14. Depletion of sTLR2 from serum resulted in an increased cellular response to bacterial lipopeptide. Notably, serum sTLR2 was lower in tuberculosis patients. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments and computational molecular docking studies showed an interaction between sTLR2 and soluble CD14 in plasma and milk. These ﬁndings suggest the existence of a novel and speciﬁc innate immune mechanism regulating microbial-induced TLR triggering, and may lead to new therapeutics for the prevention and/or treatment of severe infectious diseases. The Journal of Immunology, 2003, 171: 6680–6689. was performed by immunoﬂuorescence, followed by FACS analysis, as (24). In this study, monocytic cells preincubated for 10 min with 20% normal rabbit before wash- ing and staining. Intracellular detection of TLR2 was conducted following and with (BDH, der Walls) terms (30). The non- bonded interactions were computed by using optimized potentials for liquid simulation force-ﬁeld parameters (31). Molecular docking experiments were also performed to study the interaction of the synthetic lipopeptide Pam 3 Cys with the supramolecular structure predicted by the CD14 LRR- TLR2 LRR interaction studies.
BYU ScholarsArchive BYU ScholarsArchive Stabilizing Controlled Systems in the Presence of Time-Delays Stabilizing Controlled Systems in the Presence of Time-Delays

A dynamical system’s state evolves over time, and when the system stays near a particular state this state is known as a stable state of the system. Through control methods, dynamical systems can be manipulated such that virtually any state can be made stable. Although most real systems evolve continuously in time the application of digital control methods to these systems is inherently discrete. States are sampled (with sensors) and fed back into the system in discrete-time to determine the input needed to control the continuous system. Additionally, dynamical systems often experience time delays. Some examples of time delays are delays due to transmission distances, processing software, sampling information, and many more. Such delays are often a cause of poor performance and, at times, instability in these systems. Recently a criterion referred to as intrinsic stability has been developed that ensures that a dynamic system cannot be destabilized by delays. The goal of this thesis is to broaden the definition of intrinsic stability to closed-loop systems, which are systems in which the control depends on the state of the system, and to determine control parameters that optimize this resilience to time delays. Here, we give criteria describing when a closed-loop system is intrinsically stable. This allows us to give examples in which systems controlled using Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) control can be made intrinsically stable.
Cryosphere Cause Water Yield Regime Shifts in the Upper Brahmaputra River basin

I suggest you to remove useless adverbs such as “however, nevertheless, etc.”. Try to shorten the abstract a little bit, e.g., discarding not essential sentences or summarizing some concepts Line 15. Change “melt” with “loss”. Cryospheric changes can increase the amount of available water, e.g. in rock glaciers Line 18. sentence,
Managerial Power and CEO Pay 1

: We study how the CEO’s power over the board of directors a ﬀ ects pay levels and the structure of optimal compensation contracts and derive unexpected results. First, a more powerful CEO generally receives more pay and a contract with a higher pay-performance sensitivity (PPS) if ﬁ rm performance is low. In contrast, if ﬁ rm performance is high, more CEO power translates into less pay and a lower PPS. Second, considering a special case of our general model, we show that more powerful CEOs receive higher salaries, more stocks but a nonincreasing number of options. Third, we ﬁ nd that the presence of a powerful CEO generally leaves the optimal use of relative performance evaluation una ﬀ ected. However, we identify conditions under which the sensitivity of CEO pay to peer performance can be increasing in the CEO’s power over the board. Overall, our results suggest that frequently used indicators of poor (or sound) compensation practices should be interpreted with care.
Moving from "she just sits there" to "she's opened my eyes": Evolution of writing tutor roles in conferences with L1 and L2 student-athletes

This study took place in a university athletics tutoring facility which provides writing support to “underprepared” freshman student-athletes. Many students who are classified as underprepared students (often ethnic or linguistic minorities, international students, or firstgeneration college students) would not have the chance to attend a four-year university without their athletic ability and scholarships, making athletics writing support programs unique compared to campus-wide tutoring services. Athletics writing tutors are also subject to stricter National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) restrictions, making writing conferences in this setting a site of conflicting expectations and struggle. Since access to specialized tutoring services is an important factor in underprepared students’ college success, it is necessary to better understand the nature of these writing tutorials. In particular, it is essential to investigate whether and to what degree writing tutors who work with underprepared student-athletes are knowledgeable about the backgrounds, identities, and needs of this population, and how they navigate the NCAA restrictions on writing conferences. This case study charts the evolution of writing tutoring practices over a two-year span in one Division 1 state university’s athletic tutoring center. Through identifying needs and struggles of both underprepared students and writing tutors, I developed and implemented training modules that provided tutors with training in student-athlete identities, language varieties, and tutoring strategies for the process of American English academic writing. Posttraining observations of writing conferences show qualitative differences in the ways that writing tutors approach students and their writing. In this paper, key data from observations, STACEY – EVOLUTION OF WRITING TUTOR ROLES 24 interviews, questionnaires, and training materials are utilized to explain how this evolution of tutoring practices took place.
Nitrophobic ectomycorrhizal fungi are associated with enhanced hydrophobicity of soil organic matter in a Norway spruce forest

Abstract. In boreal forests an important part of the photo assimilates are allocated belowground to support symbiosis of ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF). The production of EMF extramatrical mycelium can contribute to carbon (C) sequestration in soils, but the extent of this contribution depends on the composition of the EMF community. Some species can decrease soil C stocks by degrading soil organic matter (SOM), and certain species may enhance soil C stocks by producing hydrophobic mycelia which can reduce the rate of SOM decomposition. To test how EMF communities contribute to the development of hydrophobicity in SOM, we incubated sand-filled fungal-ingrowth mesh bags amended with maize compost for one, two or three growing seasons in non-fertilized and fertilized plots in a young Norway spruce (Picea abies) forest. We measured hydrophobicity as determined by the contact angle and the C/N ratios in the mesh bags contents along with the amount of new C entering the mesh bags from outside (determined by C3 input to C4 substrate), and related that to the fungal community composition. The proportion of EMF species increased over time to become the dominant fungal guild after three growing seasons. Fertilization significantly reduced fungal growth and altered EMF communities. In the control plots the most abundant EMF species was Piloderma olivaceum, which was absent in the fertilized plots. The hydrophobicity of the mesh bag contents reached the highest values after three growing seasons only in the unfertilized controls plots and was positively related to the abundance of P. olivaceum, the C/N ratios of the mesh bag contents and the amount of new C in the mesh bags. These results suggest that some EMF species are associated with higher hydrophobicity of SOM and that EMF community shifts induced by fertilization may result in reduced hydrophobicity of soil organic matter, which in turn may reduce C sequestration rates.
R ISK -N EUTRAL M OMENTUM AND M ARKET F EAR

This study models a link between ex-ante autocorrelation in expected returns and risk-neutral momentum, enabling a straightforward interpretation of market sentiment. Correspondingly, concepts of fractal Brownian motion are applied to option implied volatility term structures. Based on an empirical investigation of daily SP500 and Euro Stoxx 50 data (2006–2018), we ﬁnd that the expected return momentum varies over time, as fear spreads much faster than investor conﬁdence can be regained. Thus, we conclude that risk-neutral momentum is a novel perspective for further research in the ﬁelds of risk management, asset allocation, and behavioral ﬁnance.
Phase I and Pharmacokinetic Studies of High-Dose Uridine Intended for Rescue from 5-Fluorouracil Toxicity1

The clinical effects and pharmacokinetics of high-dose undine were determined in seven patients with advanced-stage cancer and in one healthy volunteer. Uridine was also examined for its effect on 5-fluorouracil toxicity in two patients. Uridine was administered as a 1-hr i.v. infusion at doses of 1 to 12 g/sq m. Plasma and urine samples were analyzed for undine and uracil using high-pressure liquid chromatography. In 23 courses of uridine alone, the only toxicity observed was transient shivering after one of two courses at 12 g/sq m. This side effect was also seen after administration of uridine (10 g/sq m) during combina tion with 5-fluorouracil. The pretreatment plasma uridine concen tration was elevated from low micromolar to millimolar levels with uridine administration at doses up to 12 g/sq m. Maximal areas under the concentration-time curve were about 5 mmol/ liter/hr. Both peak plasma level and area under the curve for uridine increased linearly with dose. Uridine plasma decay curves were biphasic with a terminal half-life of 118 min. Half-life, volume of distribution (634 ml/kg), and total clearance (4.98 ml/kg/min) appeared to be independent of dose. Plasma uracil concentration increased gradually after administration of uridine to plateau levels. Maximal plasma uracil concentrations were about one-tenth that of peak uridine concentrations. The plasma uracil level declined with a half-life of about 40 min after uridine levels decreased to 300 Â¿IM.Total urinary excretion of uridine was 24% of the dose, while the amount of uracil recovered in urine was 3.4%. In two patients, uridine rescue was attempted during 5-fluorouracil dose escalation. Uridine at 5 to 6 g/sq m given on 1 or on 2 days after 5-fluorouracil did not prevent myelosuppres-sion and gastrointestinal toxicity associated with increasing plasma concentrations of 5-fluorouracil. These data show that uridine administered as a 1-hr infusion at doses which provide peak plasma uridine concentrations in the millimolar range is well tolerated. Rapid elimination of uridine primarily due to catabolism results in modest exposure to substantially elevated plasma uridine concentrations. Preliminary findings suggest that pro longed treatment with uridine may be required to test its potential to rescue patients from 5-fluorouracil toxicity. history; physical examination; com plete blood counts; serum creatinine; and serum liver function tests (bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, â€¢y-glutamyltransferase, aspÃ¡rtele ami-notransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and lactic acid dehydrogenase). Toxicity was graded according to WHO criteria (18). reverse-phase excellent resolution of FUra FUra appreciable
Global assessment of subnational drought impact based on the Geocoded Disasters dataset and land reanalysis

Abstract. Despite the importance of a link between hydrometeorological drought hazards and their socioeconomic impact, the link at a subnational level has yet to be evaluated due to the lack of precise subnational information on disaster locations. Using the newly developed Geocoded Disasters (GDIS) dataset, we examined whether the subnational socioeconomic drought impact information in GDIS could be represented by hydrometeorological hazards quantified from soil moisture in ERA5-Land during 1964–2018. We found that the socioeconomic drought impacts shown in GDIS were generally represented by drought hazards quantified from ERA5-Land soil moisture. Our comparison between GDIS and ERA5-Land could benefit the quantification of vulnerability to drought, and we found that sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia were vulnerable to drought, while North America and Europe were less vulnerable to drought. Both GDIS and ERA5-Land indicated that the Horn of Africa, northern China, and western India were drought-prone areas. Since it is difficult for national-level analyses to accurately identify the locations of drought-prone areas, especially in large countries such as China and India, our analysis clarifies the importance of the use of subnational disaster information.
PLUGIn-CS: A simple algorithm for compressive sensing with generative prior

We consider the problem of recovering an unknown latent code vector under a known generative model from compressive measurements. For a d -layer deep generative network G : R n 0 → R n d with ReLU activation functions and compressive measurement matrix Φ ∈ R m × n d , let the observation be Φ G ( x ) + (cid:15) where (cid:15) is noise. We introduce a simple novel algorithm, Partially Linearized Update for Generative Inversion in Compressive Sensing (PLUGIn-CS), to estimate x (and thus G ( x ) ). We prove that, when sensing matrix and weights are Gaussian, if layer widths n i (cid:38) 5 i n 0 and number of measurements m (cid:38) 2 d n 0 (both up to log factors), then the algorithm converges geometrically to a (small) neighbourhood of x with high probability. Note the inequality on layer widths allows n i > n i +1 when i ≥ 1 and thus allows the network to have some contractive layers. After a sufﬁcient number of iterations, the estimation errors for both x and G ( x ) are at most in the order of (cid:112) 4 d n 0 /m (cid:107) (cid:15) (cid:107) . Numerical experiments on synthetic data and real data are provided to validate our theoretical results and to illustrate that the algorithm can effectively recover images from compressive measurements.
Learning Functions on Multiple Sets using Multi-Set Transformers

We propose a general deep architecture for learning functions on multiple permutation-invariant sets. We also show how to generalize this architecture to sets of elements of any dimension by dimension equivariance. We demonstrate that our architecture is a universal approximator of these functions, and show superior results to existing methods on a variety of tasks including counting tasks, alignment tasks, distinguishability tasks and statistical distance measurements. This last task is quite important in Machine Learning. Although our approach is quite general, we demonstrate that it can generate approximate estimates of KL divergence and mutual information that are more accurate than previous techniques that are speciﬁcally designed to approximate those statistical distances. vastly
Dynamics of aerosol, humidity, and clouds in air masses travelling over Fennoscandian boreal forests

Abstract. Boreal forests cover vast areas of land in the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, which are under amplified climate warming. The interactions between the forests and the atmosphere are known to generate a complex set of feedback processes. One feedback process, potentially producing a cooling effect, is associated with an increased reflectance of clouds due to aerosol–cloud interactions. Here, we investigate the effect that the boreal forest environment can have on cloud-related properties during the growing season. The site investigated was the SMEAR II station in Hyytiälä, Finland. Air mass back trajectories were the basis of the analysis and were used to estimate the time each air mass had spent over land prior to its arrival at the station. This enabled tracking the changes occurring in originally marine air masses as they travelled across the forested land. Only air masses arriving from the northwestern sector were investigated, as these areas have a relatively uniform forest cover and relatively little anthropogenic interference. We connected the air mass analysis with comprehensive in situ and remote-sensing data sets covering up to 11 growing seasons. We found that the properties of air masses with short land transport times, thereby less influenced by the forest, differed from those exposed to the forest environment for a longer period. The fraction of air masses with cloud condensation nuclei concentrations (at 0.2 % supersaturation) above the median value of 180 cm−3 of the analysed air masses increased from approximately 10 % to 80 % after 55 h of exposure to boreal forest, while the fraction of air masses with specific humidity above the median value of 5 g kg−1 increased from roughly 25 % to 65 %. Signs of possible resulting changes in the cloud layer were also observed from satellite measurements. Lastly, precipitation frequency increased from the average of approximately 7 % to about 12 % after a threshold of 50 h of land transport. Most of the variables showed an increase with an increasing land transport time until approximately 50–55 h, after which a balance with little further variation seemed to have been reached. This appears to be the approximate timescale in which the forest–cloud interactions take effect and the air masses adjust to the local forest environment.
Function of MDSCs Regulation of the Immunosuppressive Growth: FKBP51 Contributes to the Suppressor Cells (MDSCs) during Tumor Functional Changes in Myeloid-Derived

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are increased by tumor-derived factors and suppress anti-tumor immunity. MDSCs obtained at a late time point after tumor injection had stronger suppressive activity than MDSCs obtained at an early time point, as measured by T cell proliferation assays. To ﬁnd factors in MDSCs that change during tumor growth, we analyzed gene expression proﬁles from MDSCs at different time points after tumor injection. We found that immune response-related genes were downregulated but protumor function-related genes were upregulated in both monocytic MDSCs (Mo-MDSCs) and poly-morphonuclear granulocytic MDSCs (PMN-MDSCs) at the late time point. Among differentially expressed genes, FK506 binding protein 51 (FKBP51), which is a member of the immunophilin protein family and plays a role in immunoregulation, was increased in the Mo-MDSCs and PMN-MDSCs isolated from the late time points. Experiments using small interfering RNA and a chemical inhibitor of FKBP51 revealed that FKBP51 contributes to the regulation of the suppressive function of MDSCs by increasing inducible NO synthase, arginase-1, and reactive oxygen species levels and enhancing NF- k B activity. Collectively, our data suggest that FKBP51 is a novel molecule that can be targeted to regulate the immunosuppressive function of MDSCs. The Journal of Immunology , 2012, 188: 000–000.