Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
Provable Non-Frameability for 5G Lawful Interception

Mobile networks have grown in size and relevance, with novel applications in areas including transportation, finance, and health. The wide use of mobile networks generates rich data about users, raising interest in using such data for law enforcement and antiterrorism through Lawful Interception (LI). Countries worldwide have established legal frameworks to conduct LI, and technical standards have been created for its implementation and deployment, but without sufficient (and rigorous) security controls. While LI originated for benign purposes, we show in this paper that malicious entities could exploit it to frame users into suspicion of criminal activity. Further, we propose a solution for non-frameability, which we formally prove uphold desired properties even in scenarios where attackers completely infiltrate the operator networks. To perform the formal verification, we extend prior work with a more complete model of the fifth generation (5G) of mobile networks in the Tamarin prover.
Location-independent GNSS Relay Attacks: A Lazy Attacker's Guide to Bypassing Navigation Message Authentication

In this work, we demonstrate the possibility of spoofing a GNSS receiver to arbitrary locations without modifying the navigation messages. Due to increasing spoofing threats, Galileo and GPS are evaluating broadcast authentication techniques to validate the integrity of navigation messages. Prior work required an adversary to record the GNSS signals at the intended spoofed location and relay them to the victim receiver. Our attack demonstrates the ability of an adversary to receive signals close to the victim receiver and in real-time generate spoofing signals for an arbitrary location without modifying the navigation message contents. We exploit the essential common reception and transmission time method used to estimate pseudorange in GNSS receivers, thereby potentially rendering any cryptographic authentication useless. We build a proof-of-concept real-time spoofer capable of receiving authenticated GNSS signals and generating spoofing signals for any arbitrary location and motion without requiring any high-speed communication networks or modifying the message contents. Our evaluations show that it is possible to spoof a victim receiver to locations as far as 4000~km away from the actual location and with any dynamic motion path. This work further highlights the fundamental limitations in securing a broadcast signaling-based localization system even if all communications are cryptographically protected.
Disentangling the Role of Forest Structure and Functional Traits in the Thermal Balance of the Mediterranean–Temperate Ecotone

The thermal balance of forests is the result of complex land–atmosphere interactions. Different climate regimes and plant functional types can have contrasting energy budgets, but little is known about the influence of forest structure and functional traits. Here, we combined spaceborne measurements of surface temperature from ECOSTRESS with ground‐based meteorological data to estimate the thermal balance at the surface (∆Tcan−air) during four summers (2018–2021), at the Mediterranean–temperate ecotone in the NE Iberian Peninsula. We analyzed the spatiotemporal drivers of ∆Tcan−air by quantifying the effects of meteorology, forest structure (stand density, tree height) and ecophysiology (hydraulic traits), during normal days and hot spells. Canopy temperatures (Tcan) fluctuated according to changes in air temperature (Tair) but were on average 4.2 K warmer. During hot spells, ∆Tcan−air was smaller than during normal periods. We attribute this decrease to the advection of hot and dry air masses from the Saharan region resulting in a sudden increase in Tair relative to Tcan. Vapor pressure deficit (VPD) was negatively correlated with ∆Tcan−air, since the highest VPD values coincided with peaks in heat advection. Nonetheless, Tcan increased with VPD due to decreased transpiration (following stomatal closure), even though sufficient soil water availability enabled some degree of evaporative cooling. Our findings demonstrate that plot‐scale forest structural and hydraulic traits are key determinants for the forest thermal balance. The integration of functional traits and forest structure over relevant spatial scales would improve our ability to understand and model land–atmosphere feedbacks in forested regions.
Magnetic Recording Stability of Taenite‐Containing Meteorites

Sub‐μm taenite and tetrataenite grains observed in a number of (stony‐)iron meteorite groups are promising sources of paleomagnetic records in meteorites. While slowly‐cooled meteorites form tetrataenite—an extremely good recorder—, fast‐cooled meteorites may contain fine‐grained taenite, which was considered unsuitable for paleomagnetic studies. In this work, however, we show that nm‐sized taenite grains are stable over billion‐year timescales, indicating that taenite‐bearing meteorites are reliable sources of paleomagnetic information. We find a range of sizes for which taenite forms stable single‐domain structures, which coincides with the grain sizes observed in the cloudy zone of most fast cooled IVA meteorites. These meteorites, therefore, can provide reliable paleomagnetic information recorded as a stable crystallization remanent magnetization as taenite grains grown. Vortex states observed in larger (>50 nm) grain sizes are also highly stable, indicating that coarse‐grained taenite observed in meteoritic microstructures can also provide reliable records of paleomagnetic fields.
Leaky dams augment afforestation to mitigate catchment scale flooding

Despite calls for large‐scale afforestation to alleviate flooding, the effectiveness of such action remains unclear. Simulations with the SHETRAN hydrological model are therefore carried out for the 335‐km2 Irthing catchment and its 1‐10‐km2 headwater catchments in northwest England to determine: (a) whether forests can reduce flood peak discharges in a large catchment; (b) the proportion of the catchment that requires afforestation to be effective; and (c) the extent to which a combination of afforestation and natural flood management features (leaky dams) improves upon afforestation on its own. Four‐year simulations were run with a range of forest covers and extents of leaky dam installation, the latter modelled as a channel hydraulic resistance. Hydrograph, flood frequency and peak discharge magnitude responses to forest cover simulated (and observed) in the headwater catchments are replicated in simulations at the full scale. Afforestation on its own can reduce the frequency of given flood magnitudes but has a variable impact on individual peak discharge magnitudes. For the Irthing, a 76% forest cover reduces the mean discharge of 20 peaks in a partial duration flood series by 10% relative to the current 21% forest cover but reduces the largest peak by only 2.5%. Accompanying adverse effects include 17.5% reduction in long‐term runoff and loss of agricultural land. By contrast, leaky dams mitigate flood frequencies and peak discharges effectively, over a range of discharge magnitudes, with no reduction of annual runoff. The dam installation required for a 10% mean peak discharge reduction reduces the largest peak by 22%. The flow resistance increases by which the dams are simulated have still to be translated into specific dam designs. Nevertheless, and considering the figures indicatively, dam installation in 20% of the Irthing streams with Strahler orders of 1–3 achieves a 10% peak discharge reduction with only 35% forest cover and 7.5% runoff reduction. The study illustrates the potential for a dense network of leaky dams to augment the impact of afforestation on flood mitigation, especially at the largest discharges, while minimizing adverse impacts on water resources and food security.
Laser Raman Induced Degradation of Macromolecular Carbon in Coals and Meteorites

Macromolecular carbon (MMC) is a polymeric solid form of carbon formed from numerous natural and anthropogenic processes. MMC is found in geologic samples, such as coals, meteorites, and metamorphic rocks, and the microstructure of the MMC provides details of the thermal history of the sample. Raman spectroscopy allows for a simple, quick examination of the MMC structure and thermal history of the rock. However, accurate Raman analysis necessitates that the Raman incident laser does not photodamage the MMC being measured. Here we examine, in detail, the effect of 532 and 488 nm laser irradiation on the structure of MMC in coals and meteorites. We show that photodegradation does affect the primary “G” and “D” Raman band peak positions, widths, absolute intensities, and relative intensities and we quantify changes with progressive irradiation. These results provide insight into the MMC structural changes that occur with photodegradation. We find that significant photodegradation occurs even with low laser powers (<200 μW). A literature survey of Raman MMC measurements shows that almost all publications use incident laser irradiances that would result in significant photodegradation of MMC within the accumulation time of a single Raman spectrum.
North American Monsoon Impacts Southern California's Coastal Low Clouds

Low‐level stratiform clouds modulate California's coastal climate during the warm season. Previous work describing the seasonal and daily variability of coastal low cloudiness (CLC) suggests that in July, August, and September southern California's CLC is under the influence of an additional driver, which has less impact in northern California. In this work, we introduce the link in which free‐tropospheric moisture dictated by North American Monsoon (NAM) processes can impact southern California CLC. We use in situ and remote sensing observations, as well as reanalysis and single column model simulations to identify and investigate this previously missing component. We find that monsoonal moisture advected by southeasterly flow from the core NAM region into southern California reduces CLC by diminishing cloud‐top longwave cooling. To add to an already complex brew of known factors influencing coastal cloudiness, another one is hereby introduced and should be accounted for in future work.
A Cloud‐Free Approach to Modeling Daily Downwelling Longwave Irradiance at Global Scale

Parametric modeling of downwelling longwave irradiance under all‐sky conditions (LW↓) typically involves “correcting” a clear‐ (or non‐overcast) sky model estimate using solar‐irradiance‐based proxies of cloud cover in lieu of actual cloud cover given uncertainties and measurement challenges of the latter. While such approaches are deemed sound, their application in time and space is inherently limited. We report on a correction model free of solar irradiance‐derived cloud proxies that is applicable at the true daily (24 hr) and global scales. The new “cloud‐free” correction model demonstrates superior performance in a range of environments relative to existing cloud‐free modeling approaches and to corrections based on solar‐derived cloudiness proxies. Literature‐based performance benchmarking indicates a performance that is often comparable to—and in some cases superior to—performances yielded by conventional parametric modeling approaches employing locally or regionally calibrated parameters, as well as to performances of satellite‐based algorithms.
Polarimetric Decomposition and Machine Learning‐Based Classification of L‐ and S‐Band Airborne SAR (LS‐ASAR) Data

The polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data sets have been widely exploited for land use land cover (LULC) classification due to their sensitivity to the structural and dielectric properties of the imaging target. In this study, the potential of fully polarimetric L‐ and S‐band Airborne SAR (LS‐ASAR) data sets were explored for the machine‐learning‐based classification of Urban, Vegetation, Waterbody, and Open Ground. This work was done by utilizing dual‐frequency L‐ and S‐band airborne data of Santa Barbara, California, USA, acquired under the Airborne SAR (LS ASAR) campaign, a precursor airborne mission to the space‐borne NASA‐ISRO (NISAR) mission. The LS‐ASAR polarimetric information was utilized for LULC classification using the SVM classifier. The roll‐invariant Barnes, and eigenvalue/eigenvector‐based Cloude and H/A/Alpha decomposition were implemented to retrieve the scattering parameters. The backscatter response of classes was studied, and separability analysis was done to reduce the misclassification error between six class pairs‐ Vegetation—Urban, Vegetation—Waterbody, Vegetation—Open Ground, Urban—Waterbody, Urban—Open Ground, and Water—Open Ground. The decomposition models failed to achieve the desirable separability index for all six class pairs; consequently, the classification of Barnes, Cloude, H/A/Alpha decomposition showed misclassification between vegetation‐urban class, and waterbody‐open ground class for both L‐ and S‐band data sets. The effort was made toward improving the classification accuracy by integrating the roll‐invariant and eigenvalue‐eigenvector scattering parameters of the multifrequency L‐ and S‐band data set. This method presented the desirable separability index for all class‐pair; eventually highest classification accuracy was achieved i.e. 93.35% ( kc ${k}_{c}$ = 0.91) by significantly reducing the misclassification error between class pairs.
Changes in Seasonality of Saltwater Inflows Caused Exceptional Warming Trends in the Western Baltic Sea

During the last decades, the Baltic Sea has been among the fastest warming seas in the world. The warming is mainly driven by increasing air temperatures but deeper water layers can also be warmed by lateral advection of heat. By analyzing a 159 years long (1850–2008) hindcast simulation of the Baltic Sea, we link the exceptionally strong bottom water warming in the western Baltic Sea to a shift in the seasonality of saltwater inflows from the North Sea to the Baltic Sea. Over the model period, warm summer and early autumn inflows have increased while cold winter inflows have decreased. Sensitivity experiments reveal that these changes were partly driven by a shift in river runoff seasonality. The strong warming could lead to faster oxygen depletion in the affected layers and thus have ecological consequences.
Thermal Resolution of Unblocking Temperatures (TROUT): A Method for “Unmixing” Multi‐Component Magnetizations

Some rocks contain multiple remanence “components,” each of which preserves a record of a different magnetic field. The temperature ranges over which these remanence components unblock can overlap, making it difficult to determine their directions. We present a data analysis tool called Thermal Resolution Of Unblocking Temperatures (TROUT) that treats the process of thermal demagnetization as a function of temperature (or alternating field demagnetization as a function of coercivity). TROUT models the unblocking temperature/coercivity distributions of components in a demagnetization experiment, allowing these distributions to overlap. TROUT can be used to find the temperatures/coercivities over which paleomagnetic directions change and when two directional components overlap resulting in curved demagnetization trajectories. When applied to specimens given multi‐component Thermoremanent Magnetizations (TRMs) in the laboratory, the TROUT method estimates the temperature at which the partial TRMs were acquired to within one temperature step, even for specimens with significant overlap. TROUT has numerous applications: knowing the temperature at which the direction changes is useful for experiments in which the thermal history of a specimen is of interest (e.g., emplacement temperature of pyroclastic deposits, re‐heating of archaeological artifacts, reconstruction of cooling rates of igneous bodies). The ability to determine whether a single component or multiple components are demagnetizing at a given temperature is useful for choosing appropriate ranges of temperatures to use in paleodirection/intensity experiments. Finally, the width of the range of temperature overlap may be useful for inferring the composition, grain size and domain state of magnetic mineral assemblages.
Paleomagnetism From Central Iran Reveals Arabia‐Eurasia Collision Onset at the Eocene/Oligocene Boundary

We present two robust and well‐dated paleomagnetic poles from upper Eocene and Oligocene volcanics in the Urumieh‐Dokhtar magmatic arc, Central Iran. These two poles place Iran ∼3.7°–3° of latitude south of its present position between ca. 40 and 23 Ma. Our new paleomagnetic declination data indicate that the Central Iran block may have experienced a ∼11.6° clockwise rotation since the Late Eocene. We integrated our new data with the retrodeformed margins of the Zagros collision zone and contemporaneous Arabia positions to better constrain the age and configuration of the Arabia and Eurasia assembly process. In our model, the Arabia‐Eurasia collision occurred first in the western Main Zagros suture between ca. 35 and 30 Ma and then diachronously spread eastwards. Our paleogeographic reconstruction and initial continental collision timing supports the Arabia‐Eurasia collision as a first‐order driver of global cooling, Red Sea rifting, and Mediterranean extension.
On the Impact of Thermal Gradients Across Fluxgate Sensors on In Situ Magnetic Field Measurements

Fluxgate magnetometers are an important tool for measuring space plasmas. In situ magnetic field investigations often involve measuring small perturbations of a large background field, so robust instrument calibration is critical to accurately resolving geophysical signals. Fluxgate instruments aboard recent space science missions have observed calibration anomalies that have been attributed to thermal gradients across the sensor. Here we present data from a laboratory experimental investigation of effects of thermal gradients on fluxgate calibration and performance. A purpose‐built laboratory apparatus fixed two thermal reservoirs at either end of a racetrack fluxgate sensor. Varying the reservoir temperatures allowed us to vary the sensor temperature and impose thermal gradients as large as 50°C across a racetrack fluxgate sensor. We find that changes in instrumental sensitivity, offset, and noise can be explained purely by changes in the average temperature of the sensor without a dependence on the difference in temperature across the sensor. We suggest that invoking concept of a static thermal gradient inducing thermoelectric currents within the fluxgate core or sensor may not be appropriate to explain changes in instrumental sensitivity, offset, and noise that have been observed on orbit.
The Aggravation of Summertime Nocturnal Ozone Pollution in China and Its Potential Impact on the Trend of Nitrate Aerosols

Tropospheric ozone (O3) concentration continued to increase over past years, thereby becoming a growing environmental concern in China. Most studies have focused on the analysis of daily maximum 8‐hr O3 concentration, while there is still a dearth of investigations of nocturnal O3. Here, by analyzing the data of 1,313 sites from the China National Environmental Monitoring Center, we show a remarkable increase in the nocturnal O3 concentration during summertime of 2015–2019 in most regions of China, revealing an aggravation of nocturnal O3 pollution. Combining with a GeoDetector model and statistical analysis, we clarify that the aggravation of nocturnal O3 pollution is mainly caused by reduction in both ambient nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentration and wet scavenging in recent years. We further reveal that the increasing O3 may have enhanced the nocturnal particulate nitrate ( NO3− ${{\mathrm{N}\mathrm{O}}_{3}}^{-}$ ) formation through N2O5 heterogeneous hydrolysis, and thereby driving the variation and long‐term trend of nocturnal NO3− ${{\mathrm{N}\mathrm{O}}_{3}}^{-}$ .
Substorm Triggering by the Solar Wind

The coupling function monitors solar wind driving of geomagnetic activity. Magnetic indices, including the polar cap (PC) index, the auroral lower (AL) index, and the midlatitude positive bay index (MPB), provide measures of the magnetospheric response. Sharp changes in these are associated with the onset of a substorm and a maximum in coupling. Many reinterpret this association as evidence that northward turnings of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) trigger onset. We investigate this hypothesis using a list of over 100,000 negative bay onsets. When data are available, we calculate coupling and its time derivatives. From these, we construct ensembles of data segments centered on the onsets. `For all lists, a pulse occurs 20 min before onset and appears to trigger onset. By correlating the average derivative with every event in the ensemble, we conclude that a pulse of either sign precedes 40% of all onsets. More than half of the triggered onsets display a positive pulse, and slightly fewer show a negative pulse. Substorms following a positive pulse are stronger than those after a negative pulse. The pulse is usually hidden by noise, but ensemble averaging and correlation analysis can detect the pulse in the coupling data.
On the Remote Impacts of Mid‐Holocene Saharan Vegetation on South American Hydroclimate: A Modeling Intercomparison

Proxy reconstructions from the mid‐Holocene (MH: 6,000 years ago) indicate an intensification of the West African Monsoon and a weakening of the South American Monsoon, primarily resulting from orbitally‐driven insolation changes. However, model studies that account for MH orbital configurations and greenhouse gas concentrations can only partially reproduce these changes. Most model studies do not account for the remarkable vegetation changes that occurred during the MH, in particular over the Sahara, precluding realistic simulations of the period. Here, we study precipitation changes over northern Africa and South America using four fully coupled global climate models by accounting for the Saharan greening. Incorporating the Green Sahara amplifies orbitally‐driven changes over both regions, and leads to an improvement in proxy‐model agreement. Our work highlights the local and remote impacts of vegetation and the importance of considering vegetation changes in the Sahara when studying and modeling global climate.