Evidence for Their Impact on Health and Longevity

This paper examines the effects of meditation, mindfulness, taijiquan, and qigong. I review the most recent and rigorous scientific research to document the impact of these practices on outcomes commonly sought by Daoist practitioners: health and longevity. I discuss the apparent pathways through which these practices achieve their effects, and conclude with recommendations for practice to enhance the likelihood that the potential benefits of these practices are successfully achieved. Daoists throughout history have practiced self-cultivation in pursuit of health and longevity. A plethora of practices have been used to enable this pursuit, but foremost among them is meditation, for example, zuowang—sitting and forgetting. Daoists have frequently practiced physical movements such as taijiquan and qigong that also cultivate the state of mindfulness produced by meditation. Daoist organizations may use taijiquan and qigong to recruit and train new members and to serve their local communities, for example, Daoist Association USA (www.daousa.org), U. S. Taoist Association (http://ustaoistassoc.com/), Taoist Tai Chi Society (www.taoist.org), and the British Taoist Association (www.taoists.co.uk). These practices provide a gateway for many to discover Daoist ideas, for example, ziran, wuwei and the energetic integration of body and mind, while improving their health and well being. Interested students 208 / Journal of Daoist Studies 11 (2018) may go on to explore Daoist texts and learn Daoist forms of meditation and other practices. In time, they may join Daoist organizations and enter a lineage, or they may begin a lifelong practice as a non-religious Daoist. Of course, merely practicing meditation, taijiquan or qigong does not make one a Daoist, and many Daoists may not practice taijiquan or qigong. Countless meditation practices exist. Despite differences in appearance and method, they share similar purposes, functions and effects. The differences they present are chiefly a result of the cultural and historical context in which they were created and practiced. At root they are similar, and they take one to the same destination (Kohn 2008). Practices of Self-Cultivation Meditation is the foundation of self-cultivation. Mindfulness is a state of mind produced by meditation as well as an approach to meditation that produces this state of mind. Meditation is typically practiced while one sits and remains physically still, but it may also be practiced while standing, walking, lying down, or while engaged in daily tasks. Taijiquan and qigong are moving forms of meditation; attention is trained, as in sitting meditation, while one pursues self-cultivation alone or with a partner. Taijiquan incorporates Daoist principles that are adapted to daily life, for example, the management of contradiction and conflict. Although many teachers emphasize the martial and health applications of taijiquan, it can be a powerful means for self-cultivation when practiced with this aim in mind. Meditation, taijiquan and qigong employ three forms of mental training. In focused attention, one directs the attention to some target and sustains this focus, for example, a physiological process such as breathing, a sensation in the body such as tightness or balance, an object or sound, or a physical activity such as pulling weeds. Intentional awareness is a special application of focused attention where the mind employs an intention to guide attention and awareness, for example, visualization of internal energy states or substituting positive emotions for negative emotions. The attention is directed to create desired outcomes and hence is more instrumental than focused attention. Davis, “Meditation, Taijiquan, and Qigong” / 209 In open awareness, the mind attends to sensations and thoughts as they emerge and disappear without employing the intellect. Open awareness focuses attention on experience in the present moment without analysis and judgment. This approach defines the state of mindfulness as well as the meditation method used to produce it; many refer to this practice as mindfulness meditation. Researchers have most often studied this approach to meditation. Some practices employ multiple forms of mental training. For example, focused attention may be combined with intentional awareness when directed to different parts of the body and its processes as in many internal alchemy practices. In the solo practice of taijiquan, focused attention may be used to isolate and remove tension in specific areas of the body or to align one’s posture with a principle such as separation of yin and yang. Open awareness may be used to sense the mind and body while they move. Intentional awareness may be used to refine a specific principle such as controlling one’s steps and shifting the body’s weight while moving. In push hands (tuishou), taijiquan practice with a partner, one must integrate and rapidly move between focused attention, open awareness, and intentional awareness. As discussed below, there is some evidence that the mental focus one uses may achieve different effects and may operate through different mechanisms, for example, focused attention seems to engage different areas of the brain than open awareness forms of meditation. Taijiquan and qigong, which combine all three forms of awareness with body movement, may stimulate broader neural integration than sitting meditation, but research has not documented this outcome. We discuss this more below. Students may be exposed first to a more popular practice, such as taijiquan, and later become acquainted with various meditation practices. With the right teacher, students may learn about self-cultivation and the Daoist roots of taijiquan and some qigong practices, and then go on to explore the Daoist literature. Self-development through these experiences is seldom linear and, instead, more closely resembles movement through a labyrinth. When walking the labyrinth, one moves through a series of intricate and winding paths from a position outside the circle, finally to arrive at circle’s center, the source of its spiritual power. 210 / Journal of Daoist Studies 11 (2018) Michael Rinaldini illustrates this winding path of self-cultivation toward his own center (2008). He first encountered Daoist principles through acupuncture and qigong treatment to address health concerns, which led to study of qigong and Daoism, which led several years later to being ordained as a Daoist priest in the Longmen tradition. Now he trains Daoist priests in the United States. Daoist meditation (zuowang) is the core of the practice he teaches, accompanied by instruction in qigong and Daoist texts. Taijiquan is the physical embodiment of Daoist principles and their manifestation in daily life. Moreover, like some types of qigong, it provides a powerful entry point to the mind for those who have difficulty accessing it through long periods of motionless sitting required of many meditation traditions. When practiced properly under the guidance of a knowledgeable teacher, meditation, taijiquan and qigong converge on the same point; they each lead to the center of the labyrinth. Many, perhaps most, of those who meditate or practice taijiquan and qigong are unaware of the Daoist influence on the arts they practice, and they have no desire to learn about Daoism. Some may even chafe at attempts to emphasize the Daoist connection. I’ve had several students who were devout members of religious faiths who preferred not to learn about the Daoist principles embedded in meditation, taijiquan and qigong although they practiced these diligently. Ultimately it doesn’t matter. One achieves the results from these practices that one seeks—health and longevity, peace and tranquility, positive relationships, spiritual growth, or all of the above. One achieves these effects whether or not one understands the cultural origins of the practice or its mechanism of action so long as the teaching they receive is authentic and they practice with patience and persistence. This is because these practices operate simultaneously on the mind and body; they achieve their effects through mental and physical systems shared by all humans around the world. In the next section, I summarize the evidence demonstrating the impact of these practices on health and longevity. In the final section, I explain how these practices achieve their effects and the implication of this for practice. Davis, “Meditation, Taijiquan, and Qigong” / 211 Impact on Mind and Health Thousands of research studies have examined the impact of meditation, taijiquan, qigong and the mental states that they produce on many indicators of mental and physical health and longevity. Additionally, researchers have begun to explore the underlying mechanisms that may explain their influence. One’s personal experience with these practices is often sufficient to document their effectiveness—one’s balance improves, chronic illnesses are relieved or healed, positive emotions replace negative emotions. Like with any new health practice, research evidence is an important external source of validation that may encourage the practice of meditation, taijiquan and qigong among those who are unfamiliar with them or skeptical about their claims. I have received numerous referrals from physicians who have been persuaded by research evidence that these practices are beneficial rather than by their personal experience with them. Research examining these practices has also been criticized. Researchers often fail to consider the cultural context of these practices when they study them and may strip out essential components when they test them. Researchers may not include highly experienced practitioners in the design and implementation of their studies. Small sample sizes and idiosyncratic implementations of a practice make it difficult to detect effects if they exist. Little attention is paid to differences in taijiquan and