Elliot, D. L. (2018) Intercultural encounters: Intertwined complexities and opportunities in international students’ experience. In: Korhonen, V. and Alenius, P. (eds.) Internationalisation and Transnationalisation in Higher Education. Series: Studies in vocational and continuing education (17)

International students who study overseas for a finite period (regarded as learners in ‘mainstream’ international education) constitute the largest group of students engaged in international education. This chapter discusses the opportunities and challenges inherent in the educational sojourn experience of these learners. The discussion, underpinned by a theoretical framework based upon a developmental theory promulgated by Urie Bronfenbrenner, offers a psychological perspective on the distinctive processes entailed in an educational sojourn. Likewise, Jin Li’s mindvirtue orientation dichotomy illuminates the likely consequential effects of moving from one academic culture to another. A focus on the less explored perspective of academic acculturation offers invaluable insight into the factors that are arguably central to the quality of students’ educational experience that are often closely connected to their engagement or disengagement. Supported by the strategic priority given by universities to the internationalisation agenda, a greater appreciation of intertwined complexities and opportunities that underpin the claimed transformative international experience raises questions about the roles played by the institutions, staff and students themselves in maximising what international education can offer, not only to educational sojourners but equally, in realising ‘internationalisation at home’. Introduction Knight (2013) postulates that internationalisation is behind the transformation of the higher education landscape around the world. As an illustration, the combination of the traditional route whereby student sojourners decide to pursue their education abroad, more numerous programme articulation agreements, e.g. dual or joint degree programmes involving two or more universities, the presence of foreign university campuses in Malaysia, Singapore and China for example, and other forms of student and staff mobility schemes are an attestation to what appears to be a flourishing development in university internationalisation. Despite research on internationalisation starting in the 1950s (Ward, Bochner & Furnham, 2001), it can be argued that this area requires greater attention than ever, primarily because although “internationalizing the curriculum” has become embedded in a number of universities’ strategic agendas globally (Leask, 2015), there remains an observable dearth of information about the specific nature of internationalised or intercultural curricula (e.g. Dunne, 2011; see also further discussion and critique by Simonsen, Hammershoy & Miller in Chapter 6). In this respect, since student experience is arguably central to this notion of educational mobility in higher education, an appreciation of the factors that underlie student understanding of learning, and subsequently the quality of their learning experience in the host country is arguably crucial (Montgomery, 2010; van Egmond, Kuhnen & Li, 2013). Of international education’s many recognised attractions, the educational sojourn is typically regarded as a gateway enabling intercultural encounters and enhancing cross-cultural awareness, among other things (e.g. see Schweisfurth & Gu, 2009; Zhou, JindalSnape, Topping & John, 2008). Nevertheless, what might be regarded as an ideal venture is not without its challenges (also discussed in Simonsen et al.’s Chapter 6 and Fukada’s Chapter 9). These distinct challenges are substantiated by a large number of empirical studies in the area of intercultural experiences, academic socialisation, and transitional experiences, often investigating requisite adjustments and academic learning support that cater for the needs of the international student community (e.g. Gu, Schweisfurth & Day, 2010; Menzies & Baron, 2014; Ulriksen, 2009). Such challenges are, at times, exacerbated by a sense of loneliness, confusion, frustration and even depression resulting in radically different intercultural encounters from those expected (Sawir et al., 2007; Yeh & Inose, 2003). It can, therefore, be argued that in order for sojourners truly to experience high quality and rich intercultural encounters that are also meant to increase cross-cultural appreciation, having a mere awareness of what an educational sojourn can offer is insufficient. Instead, it necessitates a continuous contemplation and investigation of several uncharted psychological areas inherent in this distinct educational sojourn. Consequently, an appreciation of educational sojourn also involves recognising its dynamic links with the personal, societal, cultural and academic components informing the entire academic acculturation process (see Elliot, Reid & Baumfield, 2016c; Li, 2005; van Egmond, Kuhnen & Li, 2013). Prior to further discussion, we will turn to an academic acculturation model through a psychological lens. A new perspective on academic acculturation In our proposed model of academic acculturation, which was based on Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological systems framework, we elucidated how the different systems (i.e. micro-, meso-, exo-, macroand chronosystem) from the learners’ original ecology (i.e. home country) offer a layered perspective that is reciprocal and complementary in explaining factors contributory to an individual’s overall growth and development, including learning development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; 1994; 2005). It is explained in this developmental psychology framework that the ecology takes into account direct and indirect (or peripheral) sources of influence from the individual’s immediate interactions (e.g. with family, school and close friends situated within the microand mesosytem) to influences acquired from being part of smaller (i.e. exosystem) and larger (i.e. macrosystem) communities. The macrosystem’s influences are extended to national influences (e.g. laws of the land, religious beliefs, cultural norms), which in turn also permeate the rest of the inner systems (micro-, meso-, exosystem) and subsequently lead to the development of one’s sense of identity – complete with the values and behavioural manifestations associated with that identity (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; 1994; 2005). It is important to stress that the systemic nature of the bio-ecological framework implies that each system exists interdependently of the others. Much of learning and development occur through learners’ direct and indirect interactions from the smallest (i.e. family) to the largest communities (i.e. country) via these bidirectional interlaced, nested systems. Bronfenbrenner’s proposition seems to mirror part of Vygotskian ideologies on the acquisition process underlying the formation of societal beliefs, values, behavior patterns, habits and accumulated societal knowledge through child-rearing and education, while acknowledging learners’ role in “actively shap[ing] the very forces that are active in shaping them” (Daniels, 2016, p. 1; Vygotksky, 1978). Li (2005) adds that part of understanding the role of culture in moulding learners’ learning beliefs and behaviours, entails recognising that these cultural influences begin early, and tend to be deeply impressed on learners’ conceptualisation of learning, and all the expectations associated with such conceptualisation. It can be strongly argued that for educational sojourners, understanding academic acculturation necessitates a sound appreciation of the two learning contexts, i.e. distinctions between the home and host country. Taking into account van Egmond, Kuhnen and Li’s (2013) conjecture, that the “meaning of learning” is situated within the “overarching cultural meanings” (p. 215) suggests that a deeper conceptualisation of academic acculturation compels consideration of the dynamics within the original (home) ecological system, the temporal (host) ecological system and interactions between the two ecological systems (Elliot et al., 2016b, 2016c). The original multilevel ecological system, which up to the point of the learners’ departure to study and live in a foreign context has always been accepted as the norm, continues to exert a powerful influence on the sojourning learners, even after joining another multilevel ecological system. This then leads to the co-existence of two ecological systems from which the individual’s interactions inform as well as being largely informed by these ecological systems. (For further exposition of this proposed academic acculturation model, see also – (Elliot et al., 2016c). To such intricate interactions, we now turn. Simultaneous existence of two multilevel ecological systems A strong argument can therefore be proposed, i.e. that it is the simultaneous interplay of two ecological systems that underpins the intertwined complexities and opportunities arising from the learners’ experience of intercultural encounters via the educational sojourn. In the learning realm, it can also be suggested that the greater the discrepancy between the two ecological systems, including the dominant learning orientations (see Li, 2005), the greater and more complex the challenges this might pose to educational sojourners. Despite ecological systems’ existence being confined to the person’s subliminal consciousness, it may nevertheless instigate psychological challenges, confusion, but also fun and serendipity. Although learners might be physically away from the original ecological system that was previously accepted as the norm, it does not come as a surprise that its pull remains strong even in the new context. This, however, can at times trigger conflict, particularly when learners are expected to conform to a different learning orientation, together with new expectations and new assessment standards. Living under the influence of two ecological systems can then be likened to living, engaging and interacting with different ideas, practices and players from two different worlds. This condition can perhaps help explain many sojourning learners’ deep longing to recreate their o