Running head: PATIENCE IN TEACHING AND LEARNING SUCCESS 1 The Relationship between Patience in Teaching and Student Learning Success in Brazilian and Malaysian Children

Teachers who demonstrate patience, or the ability to wait calmly when faced with frustration, adversity, or suffering, is important for a child’s academic success. Patience in children is also a positive skill that can benefit a child’s academic and social growth and has a positive impact on peer relationships. However, there is little research on patience within similaraged peer relationships when teaching. The aim of this study is to further investigate this relationship between patience in teaching and student learning in children in Western and nonWestern populations. This study examined if higher patience among a peer teacher leads to a greater level of success in student learning. In addition, this study investigated if there are patience differences between males and females, Western sand non-Western societies, and the relationship status of the peers. In this study, male and female children ages 5-12 years old from Natal, Brazil and Mah Meri, Malaysia were paired with a younger student for a task in which the older peer had eight minutes to teach a novel knot to a younger peer, the younger peer had to be able to tie the knot on their own afterwards. Using an ethogram to track positive and negative patience behaviors in teachers, such as verbal encouragement (+), non-verbal encouragement (+), question asking (+), distraction (-), and frustration (-), we found that more patience in teachers does lead to more students being able to complete the task and at a quicker time. We also found that children from Brazil did significantly demonstrate more patience than children from Malaysia. Neither sex or relationship between the peers significantly impacted patience. These results suggest that cross-cultural differences between patience do exist and peer teachers who demonstrate higher levels of patience to their students can have a positive impact on that child’s learning and success. PATIENCE IN TEACHING AND LEARNING SUCCESS 4 Patience is an important personality trait that leads to both intrapersonal and interpersonal skills (Comer and Sekerka 2014). Patience is particularly important in the context of teaching because previous research has shown that teachers who show patience and support to their students can have a positive impact on their students’ success (Sherman, Rasmussen, & Baydala, 2008). Having a patient teacher is something that students have recognized to be important for them, primary school children valued patience in a teacher above all other personality traits (O’Hagan and Robertson, 1984). Previous literature has found that peer relationships are also important for students to have in school. Peer relationships provide friendship, help with problem-solving, emotional support, entertainment, and aid in identity formation (Wentzel, 2017). However, the effect of patience in children when teaching and whether it leads to student success is not as well researched. The knot task used in this experiment was based on a previous study by Caldwell, Renner, and Atkinson (2018) examining teaching knots in adults, and was modified for children. In the review below, I consider the definitions and measurements of patience and teaching further as well as the importance of patience in teaching in humans. I will also address the roles and stereotypes of both males and females across the world and in respect to Malaysia and Brazil. According to the World Population Review (2020) Brazil is considered a Western country, but Malaysia is not because of the traditions, social norms, religious beliefs, technology, and political system present in each country. Therefore, I will examine the cultural differences between both Malaysia and Brazil, to understand how the significance of culture on teaching and how Western vs. non-Western societies differ in teaching patience. Finally, I will discuss the importance of peer relationships and the benefits of teaching patience to children. PATIENCE IN TEACHING AND LEARNING SUCCESS 5 The current study proposes to examine: (1) the relationship between patience in peer teachers and the success of students completing a task, (2) the difference in patience in female and male peers and if this varies in Brazil (Western culture) and Malaysia (Non-Western), (3) how patience differs in Brazil and Malaysia cultures, (4) and the effect of the relationship of peers on teacher patience levels. Data for this study was collected from Natal, Brazil and from a population in Malaysia known as Mah Meri. Definition of Patience A child who can handle frustration and is more patient is more likely to be successful in school, socially, and later in employment as well (Moss and Moses, 2018). Schnitker, and Westbrook, (2014) define patience as a positive skill with the ability to wait calmly when faced with frustration, adversity, or suffering. In addition, patience is important because patient individuals are less likely to appear angry when faced with delays and other unpleasant situations, such as waiting in line, being stuck in traffic and getting frustrated with a friend (Comer and Sekerka 2014). Learning how to cope and relax in these situations can improve one’s well-being. While patience is certainly seen as a positive trait that can lead to positive consequences, research is lacking on the effects of receiving patience from another individual Kunz (2002) described patience as total subordination of one’s personal interests in order to put others first and alleviate suffering from another individual. Likewise, Kupfer (2007) referred to a patient person as one who not only understands the shortcomings of others, but also that one’s own personal desires are not more or less important than the needs of others. In a previous study by Schnitker (2012) on measuring patience defined interpersonal patience as the ability to help someone who is having trouble learning something new without getting frustrated PATIENCE IN TEACHING AND LEARNING SUCCESS 6 or annoyed. These definitions were used to help generate the patient behaviors observed in the current study. Patience in children has typically been measured by using the delay of gratification paradigms, which is the process of resisting an immediate reward in preference for a later reward that is often better (Lundquist et al., 2019). In such studies, measuring patience is fairly simple because participants only have two options, they either wait for the larger reward, or they don’t. However, there are often moments that require patience even when there is not a direct reward present, for instance, waiting in traffic or dealing with relationship issues that demand patience without typically a direct reward. However, measuring patience in other circumstances is not as well researched. Definition of Teaching Caro and Hauser (1992) state that teaching occurs when a role model alters their actions in the presence of a pupil. They state that for teaching to occur the pupil must learn this information more quickly than they would have on their own and the act shouldn’t be for the teacher’s benefit. The figure 8 knot was chosen for this study because research has shown that this knot does require teaching in order for children to learn it. Eshcha & Fragaszy (2015) take a different approach to explain teaching by describing specific forms of it. One of those forms, teaching by stimulus or local enhancement, was used in the current study. Teaching by enhancement is when an adult directs a child’s attention to a stimulus or location, potentially leading to the development of a new skill after the pupil learns on their own. For example, providing a human with a box and watching them try to open it. The current study has the teacher direct the child’s attention to a shoelace in hope of the student developing a knot tying skill for their benefit. PATIENCE IN TEACHING AND LEARNING SUCCESS 7 A previous study of teaching a simple task to a student, by Caldwell, Renner, and Atkinson (2018) found that human teaching is unique from other animals because of its responsiveness in the student. In addition, the same study found that such benefits may be most apparent for more advanced learned skills, rather than simple skills one can learn on one’s own, because these skills require more learning and guidance from a teacher. Because of the flexibility that is present in humans, humans are enabled to transmit novel traits and have the ability to respond to the teaching of more difficult skills compared to non-human animals. Some types of teaching behaviors are universal, such as pointing, and some vary in populations such as giving direct instructions and demonstrations (Clegg, Wen, Hartman, Alcott, Keltner, & Legare (in press). This study aims to examine specific patient teaching behaviors between populations. Importance of Patience in Teaching The attitudes and actions demonstrated by teachers can make a positive difference on the lives of their students (Goureau, 2005). There are some scenarios that require greater patience when teaching. One of these scenarios is working with individuals who have learning disabilities. While teacher patience could benefit any child, some students may require more patience and reassurance from their teachers. Due to the academic difficulties present in children with Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder, high levels of patience are required of their teachers (Sherman, Rasmussen, and Baydala, 2008). Teacher patience can also effect student’s self-confidence. Daniels and Werner (2002) found that the teachers who respond more negatively to a vignette study about disruptive behavior in children is related to students predicting that subjects in the vignette have lower self-esteem. In contrast, research has reported the positive effect of encouragement on student’s performance, even when an instructor demonstrated only a single line of verbal encouragement during a task (Guéguen, 2015). This PATIENCE IN TEACHING AND LEARNING SUCCESS 8 resea