Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
Thermal properties across the Chelungpu fault zone and evaluations of positive thermal anomaly on the slip zones: Are these residuals of heat from faulting?

Thermal properties of the fault zone materials are of fundamental importance for estimate of frictional heat generation during earthquake. The properties across the Chelungpu fault zone activated by 1999 Chi‐Chi earthquake, Taiwan, are measured using the drilled core penetrating the fault zone at around 1100 m depth. The fault zone contains four distinct fracture zones, each of which includes thin slip zones. Thermal conductivity (K) lies between 1.0 and 3.0 Wm−1K−1 and shows the lowest value at the slip zones. Thermal diffusivity (α) varies between 0.8 to 2.0 × 10−6 m2s−1, and is relatively low at the slip zones. Density (ρ) varies between 2200 to 2800 kgm−3 and shows the lowest values at a particular slip zone (1110 m depth). Specific heat (c) is calculated by using above data resulting in the values from 300 to 1000 Jkg−1K−1, and lowest values for slip zones. Using these data and spectral gamma ray logs, reported positive thermal anomalies at the slip zones are re‐examined whether they are regarded as residual heat from friction by faulting.
Contribution of hydroxylated atrazine degradation products to the total atrazine load in Midwestern streams

The contribution of hydroxylated atrazine degradation products (HADPs) to the total atrazine load (i.e., atrazine plus stable metabolites) in streams needs to be determined in order to fully assess the impact of atrazine contamination on stream ecosystems and human health. The objectives of this study were (1) to determine the contribution of HADPs to the total atrazine load in streams of nine midwestern states and (2) to discuss the mechanisms controlling the concentrations of HADPs in streams. Stream samples were collected from 95 streams in northern Missouri at preplant and postplant of 1994 and 1995, and an additional 46 streams were sampled in eight midwestern states at postplant of 1995. Samples were analyzed for atrazine, deethylatrazine (DEA), deisopropylatrazine (DIA), and three HADPs. Overall, HADP prevalence (i.e., frequency of detection) ranged from 87 to 100% for hydroxyatrazine (HA), 0 to 58% for deethylhydroxyatrazine (DEHA), and 0% for deisopropylhydroxyatrazine (DIHA) with method detectio.
Comparison of SIR‐C SAR wavenumber spectra with WAM model predictions

During April and October of 1994, the Space Radar Laboratory (SRL) flew on the space shuttle Endeavour at the relatively low altitude of 215 km. Using horizontal polarization, C-band signal from the spaceborne imaging radar (SIR-C), an onboard processor, designed and fabricated by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, formed synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images and computed over 100,000 corresponding image spectra. The low altitude, small look angle (23°–25°) and the use of horizontal polarization minimized both the loss of azimuth resolution caused by ocean surface motion and the relative contribution of the hydrodynamic component of the modulation transfer function. As a result, the SIR-C SAR was able to image azimuth-traveling waves with minimal distortion. After using linear inversions to convert image spectra to wave height-variance spectra, the distributions of wavenumber and propagation direction from the processor-derived spectra were consistent with wave model (WAM) predictions. Although the SAR wave height-variance spectra underestimated significant wave height (SWH) at the higher SWHs, this error is compensated for by a simple linear correction. We collected 57 pairs of crossover spectra where the ground track pairs were nearly orthogonal. The crossovers were separated by 6 hours. Crossover comparisons show that the retrieved spectral parameters are independent of wave propagation direction. At this altitude and configuration, the SAR range and azimuth responses are nearly equal. The real-time processing of spaceborne SAR data to produce accurate estimates of wavenumber, propagation direction, and SWH is clearly feasible with the orbital and instrument geometry of SIR-C.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TIME BASES OF SIMULATION MODELS AND THEIR STRUCTURE1

: The time base of a simulation model can be defined as a combination of two time intervals. One is the interval used for input and internal computations. The second is the interval used for the output and calibration of the model. The time base of a model is related on the one hand to the type of applications for which the simulated data are used, and on the other hand to the structure and complexity of the model. The latter may be represented by the number of parameters employed to specify the operation of the model. Using data typical to relatively small watersheds in a semiarid climate, the interaction between the complexity of a series of models and the time bases used by them was studied. This included the effects of the two factors, time base and complexity, on the values of the optimal parameters, prediction of mean annual flow, and general performance of the models. The main conclusion is that if the acceptable time base is longer, the model can be less complex needing fewer parameters. There is also an advantage in using a time base comprising a shorter input time interval and a longer output time interval.
Evidence of thermal and aerosol effects on the cloud‐to‐ground lightning density and polarity over large urban areas of Southeastern Brazil

The Brazilian lightning detection network detected about 310,000 cloud‐to‐ground flashes over three large metropolitan areas in Southeastern Brazil during three summer seasons (from 2000 to 2002). It was observed an enhancement of 60–100% in the flash density over the urban areas compared to their surroundings. Conversely, a decrease of 7–8% in the percentage of positive flashes was also observed. The spatial distribution of the flashes follows closely the shape of the São Paulo city heat island, thereby supporting the thermal hypothesis. The PM10 concentration showed a positive linear correlation with the number of cloud‐to‐ground flashes and a negative correlation with the percentage of positive flashes, supporting the aerosol hypothesis. These results indicate that both hypotheses should be considered to explain the CG lightning enhancements over the urban areas. However, only the aerosol hypothesis could better support the decrease of the percentage of positive flashes.
An Icelandic freshwater radiocarbon reservoir effect: Implications for lacustrine 14C chronologies

A freshwater radiocarbon (14C) reservoir effect (FRE) is a 14C age offset between the atmospheric and freshwater carbon reservoirs. FREs can be on the order of 10 000 14C yr in extreme examples and are a crucial consideration for 14C dating of palaeoenvironmental and archaeological samples. Correction for a FRE may be possible, provided the FRE and the proportion of FRE-affected carbon within a sample can be accurately quantified. However, although such correction is desirable for affected samples, it is essential that such correction is accurate in order to produce useful chronological information. Accuracy of FRE correction can be limited by spatial variation in FRE within a freshwater system, but despite this there is currently a paucity of information to identify and quantify such variability within affected systems. Here we present results of a study that investigates the effects of spatial FRE variation upon dating accuracy within the freshwater system of Lake Mývatn, northern Iceland. A substantial FRE (>10 000 14C yr) has previously been identified in archaeological and modern samples from the region, which shows the potential for considerable spatial variability. The study also assesses the use of δ13C and δ15N in age correction of affected samples. The results show that benthic detritus and organisms at primary trophic levels from locations within the lake are affected by a FRE of at least 3500 14C yr, with clear spatial variation resulting in 14C age differences of up to 7670 14C yr between samples. There is a broad correlation between stable isotope values and FRE within the data set. However, large associated uncertainties currently preclude highly accurate and precise stable isotope-based quantification of the proportion of FRE-affected carbon within archaeological and palaeoenvironmental samples from Mývatn and the surrounding region.
COHERENT ARBITRARINESS ” : STABLE DEMAND CURVES WITHOUT STABLE PREFERENCES *

*We thank Colin Camerer, Shane Frederick, John Lynch, Jim Bettman, and Birger Wernerfelt for helpful comments and suggestions. We are also grateful for financial support to Ariely and Prelec from the Sloan School of Management, to Loewenstein from the Integrated Study of the Human Dimensions of Global Change at Carnegie Mellon University (NSF grant # SBR9521914), and to Loewenstein and Prelec from the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (NSF grant # SBR-960123 to the Center; 1996-1997).
The 1997/98 Summer Rainfall Season in Southern Africa. Part II: Model Simulations and Coupled Model Forecasts

Abstract This is the second of a two-part investigation of rainfall in southern Africa during the strong El Nino of 1997/98. In Part I it was shown that widespread drought in southern Africa, typical of past El Nino events occurring between 1950 and 2000, generally failed to materialize during the 1997/98 El Nino, most notably during January–March (JFM) 1998. Here output from three atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs) forced with observed sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and seasonal forecasts from three coupled models are examined to see to what extent conditions in JFM 1998 could have potentially been anticipated. All three AGCMs generated widespread drought conditions across southern Africa, similar to those during past El Nino events, and did a generally poor job in generating the observed rainfall and atmospheric circulation anomaly patterns, particularly over the eastern and southern Indian Ocean. In contrast, two of the three coupled models showed a higher probability of wetter conditions .
Socio-economic factors associated with the adoption of conservation agriculture among women farmers in Balaka District, Malawi

xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background and Justification . 1 1.2 Problem Statement . 4 1.3 Purpose of the Study . 5 1.3. 1 Purpose . 5 1.3. 2 Research Questions . 5 1.4. Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations of the Study . 5 1.4. 1 Assumptions . 5 1.4. 2 Limitations . 6 1.5 Definition of Terms . 6 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 11 2.1 Conservation Agriculture . 12
A FACIOLOGIA DO GRUPO PASSA DOIS NO RIO GRANDE DO SUL

The study of geological sections in the outcropping area of the Passa Dois Group in Rio Grande do Sul, complemented with the study of cores from drillings for coal, showed the relations in the State, which are related bellow. 1) The Passa Dois Group is constituted by the Irati and Estrada Nova Formations; the Rio do Rasto Formations is lacking. 2) The thickness of the group is about 100 m. 3) The contact with the subjacent formation is characterized by the occurrence of limestone concretions immersed in a grey silty shale, very similar to the Palermo Formation. 4) The Irati Formation has two facies. One characterized by the occurrence of two beds of pyrobituminous shale associated with fossiliferous limestone lenses. These two beds are intercalated with a grey silty shale with concoidal fracture, and with yellowish limestone concretions immersed in it. This facies, when present, occupies the lower part of the formation and was called Tiaraju facies. The second facies, partially synchronous with the first one, is constituted by grey silty shales with limestone concretions and West of Pantano Grande, is cut by oblique veins of silica. Toward the east it is predominantly siltic, showing cross-lamination. This facies ends the Irati deposition in the State and was called Valente facies. 5) The Estrada Nova Formation also has two lithologic facies, one being pellitic; the other, sandy, which, when present, occupies the top. The pellitic facies was called Caveiras facies and is characterized by the development of pink and red colours alternating with grey. The sandy facies, also reddish, is characterized by lenticular bodies of very fine sandstone, by occurrences of limestone lenses with irregular shapes, and also by large limestone concretions. This facies was called Armada facies. 6) The upper limit of the group was set on the contact of the above mentioned lithologies with a pink medium sanstone, with planar and channal cross stratifications, and with intraformational conglomerates.
Comparison of radiative transfer models for limb‐viewing scattered sunlight measurements

[1] This study compares the limb scattered radiances calculated by six radiative transfer models for a variety of viewing conditions. Atmospheres that include molecular scattering, aerosol scattering, and ozone absorption are considered. All models treat single scattering accurately in full spherical geometry. Two ‘‘approximate spherical’’ models (CDI and LIMBTRAN) rely on the plane-parallel atmosphere approximation to calculate the diffuse radiance field; the remaining four ‘‘spherical’’ models (Siro, MCC++, GSLS, and CDIPI) treat multiple scattering in a spherical atmosphere. Only three of the models (Siro, MCC++, and GSLS) have vector treatment with polarization. A brief comparison of vector radiances with the limb scattered radiances measured by the SOLSE and LORE instruments demonstrates agreement usually within 15% and always within 30%. The inclusion of polarization appears to have little effect on the level of agreement among the models (which agree to within 2% for this sample case). A more general comparison among calculated scalar radiances follows, including four solar zenith angles (20� ,6 0� , 80� , and 90� ), three relative azimuth angles (20� ,9 0� , and 160� ), and two surface albedos (0 and 0.95). The single scattered radiances agree to within 1% for almost every case. Comparisons of the total radiance show larger differences, with 2–4% spread among the results of the spherical models. The approximate spherical models show a positive radiance difference relative to the other models that increases with tangent height, reaching as much as 8% at 60 km. The rule used to divide the model atmosphere into discrete layers is shown to affect the calculated radiance, causing a height-dependent difference of up to 1% for 1 km layer thickness. INDEX TERMS: 0305 Atmospheric Composition and Structure: Aerosols and particles (0345, 4801); 0360 Atmospheric Composition and Structure: Transmission and scattering of radiation; 0669 Electromagnetics: Scattering and diffraction; 3359 Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics: Radiative processes; KEYWORDS: radiative transfer, limb scattering, model comparison
Response to Kerr et al.

M. S. RASMUSSEN*{, V. SELVAM{, M. K. SØRENSEN§, F. DANIELSEN", M. F. OLWIG** and F. PARISH{{ {COWI A/S, Parallelvej 2, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark {M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, 3rd Cross Street, Taramani, Chennai 600113, India §Geographical Resource Analysis and Science A/S (GRAS), Department of Geography and Geology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark "NORDECO, Skindergade 23-III, DK-1159 Copenhagen, Denmark **Department of Geography and Geology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark {{Global Environment Centre, 2nd Floor, Wisma Hing, 78 Jalan SS2/72, 47300 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
Bimodality of the Kuroshio

Abstract A barotropic ocean model is used to study the bimodal behavior of the Kuroshio to the south of Japan. By considering the combined effects of the beta plane, the Kyushu coastal perturbation, the Izu Ridge and the SW-NE tilted coastline, the two frequently observed meander patterns have been numerically verified as the two quasi-steady solutions contained n the model, The small-meander state is identified as an upstream disturbance largely forced by the Izu Ridge; its width decreases as the strength of the current increases. The large meander state is forced by the presence of both the Kyushu wedge and the Izu Ridge topography. For small volume transports the large meander state behaves like the small meander state, in that the meander width decreases as the current speed increases; for large volume transports it behaves like a lee Rossby wave, in that the width of the meander increases as the current speed increases. The birth of the large meander state occurs as a consequence of the ocean spin-do.
Evaluation of hyperspectral indices for LAI estimation and discrimination of potato crop under different irrigation treatments

In this study, various hyperspectral indices were evaluated for estimation of leaf area index (LAI) and crop discrimination under different irrigation treatments. The study was conducted for potato crop using the spectral reflectance values measured by a hand‐held spectro‐radiometer. Three categories of hyperspectral indices, such as ratio/difference indices, multivariate indices and derivative based indices were computed. It was found that, among various band combinations for NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) and SAVI (soil adjusted vegetation index), the band combination of the 780∼680, produced highest correlation coefficient with LAI. Among all the forms of LAI and VI empirical relationships, the power and exponential equations had highest R 2 and F values. Analysis of variance showed that, hyperspectral indices were found to be more efficient than the LAI to detect the differences among crops under different irrigation treatments. The discriminant analysis produced a set of five most optimum bands to discriminate the crops under three irrigation treatments.
Fault Location and Slip Distribution of the 22 February 2011 Mw 6.2 Christchurch, New Zealand, Earthquake from Geodetic Data

The 22 February (local time) MW ∼6.2 Christchurch earthquake occurred within the aftershock region of the 4 September 2010 MW 7.1 Darfield (Canterbury) earthquake (Gledhill et al. 2011). Both the Darfield and Christchurch earthquakes occurred on previously unknown faults in a region of historically low seismicity, but within the zone of plate boundary deformation between the Pacific and Australian plates. The Darfield earthquake caused surface rupture up to 5 m (Quigley et al. 2010, forthcoming), but none has been observed associated with the Christchurch earthquake. Geodetic data indicate that strain has been slowly accumulating within the region (Wallace et al. 2007; Beavan et al. 2002), and the presence of active subsurface faults was known or suspected ( e.g. , Pettinga et al. 2001). Earthquakes of magnitude up to 7.2 in this region had been allowed for in the national seismic hazard model (Stirling et al. 2002), but the observed high apparent stresses (Fry and Gerstenberger 2011, page 833 of this issue) and high ground accelerations (Fry et al. 2011, page 846 of this issue) had not been anticipated, particularly those experienced in the Christchurch event. These and other factors (Fry and Gerstenberger 2011, page 833 of this issue; Fry et al. 2011, page 846 of this issue; Holden 2011, page 783 of this issue), plus the close proximity of the February earthquake to Christchurch city center, were responsible for the major damage caused by the earthquake ( e.g. , Kaiser et al. 2011). A large amount of geodetic ground-displacement data is available to constrain the source of the earthquake, in part because we reoccupied nearly 200 GPS sites that had been observed following the Darfield earthquake, and in part because a number of space agencies collected synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data over …
Degree of saturation of CaCO3 in the oceans

The degree of saturation of CaCO2 in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans has been calculated from measurements of the partial pressure of CO2 gas and of the total content of dissolved inorganic CO2. Lyman's apparent dissociation constants for carbonic and boric acid at 1 bar, MacIntyre's apparent solubility product of CaCO3 in sea water at 1 bar, and the Disteches' determinations of the pressure dependence of these parameters were used for the calculation. The results indicate that the crossover from supersaturation to undersaturation for CaCO3 occurs at a water depth between 500 and 3000 meters for calcite and at about 300 meters for aragonite in the Pacifiic, and between 4000 and 5000 meters for calcite and between 1000 and 2500 meters for aragonite in the North Atlantic Ocean. This difference between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans may be attributed to a difference in the amount of CO2 dissolved in these waters. Such a difference may, in turn, be caused by a difference in the residence times in these waters. The marked decrease of CaCO3 content in the ocean bottom sediments observed at water depths greater than 3500 meters in the Pacific and 4500 meters in the Atlantic appears to reflect a transition of the sea water from saturation to undersaturation with respect to calcite.
Erythemally weighted UV trends over northern latitudes derived from Nimbus 7 TOMS measurements

This study examines the distribution of long-term trends in ground level erythemally weighted ultraviolet (UV) exposures in the northern latitudes for the period 1979-1991 using measurements from the Nimbus 7 Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) instrument. A new erythemal UV data set (now available to the public via World Wide Web) was produced recently by NASA and has been tested by NASA at the Goddard Space Flight Center against a previous NASA erythemal UV product, which was used in a former study that included similar adjustments for aerosols and clouds but not aerosol absorption. Zonal mean erythemal UV data from both products show similar, ∼3-7% per decade, increases in the midlatitudes to high latitudes. The detection of regional patterns in trends in erythemal UV favors summer months when surface UV is strongest and noise factors such as clouds and aerosols are not as influential. Analysis of the zonal patterns in trends around summer months indicates that most of the regional increases (exceeding 6% per decade) in the Northern Hemisphere in the latitude range 30°N-40°N originate from the Pacific and Atlantic oceanic regions. Increases (also exceeding 6% per decade) in latitudes 40°-60°N appear to originate from the North American and Asian continents and also central Europe. Trends over the east Asian continent in high latitudes indicate increases exceeding 10% per decade for May-August. The important conclusion is that positive trends in the northern subtropical latitudes originate mostly over oceanic regions, whereas positive trends at higher latitudes originate mostly over landmasses. Some of the increases in erythemal UV over central Europe and the east Asian continent in summer months can be attributed to decadal decreases in cloudiness for the 1979-1991 time period.