Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
Human casualties and polar bears killed in Svalbard, 1993–1997

Introduction Polar bear {Ursus maritimus) hunting in Norwegian territory has been banned since 1973 (Anonymous 1973). Since July of that year, polar bears have only been shot in self-defence, as precautionary measures, or as acts of mercy. All such cases are considered as police matters and are investigated, or authorized, by the Governor of Svalbard (Sysselmannen pa Svalbard). Gjertz and Persen (1987) reviewed the recorded information on incidents where polar bears had been killed or had injured people in Svalbard from 1973 to 1987, and Gjertz and others (1993) updated this information for the following five-year period. A total of 75 such cases were registered for the 20-year period 1973-1993. The purpose of the present study is to update the available information on polar bears killed in Svalbard for the next five-year period, 1993-1997, including incidents where bears were killed due to conflicts with humans and also those where bears were killed as acts of mercy.
The strength and dilatancy of sand

The effects of stress path and loading direction in the triaxial test on strength and dilatancy of sand are investigated. It is shown that the unique relationship observed between peak friction angle and dilation rate at peak in conventional triaxial tests is followed regardless of stress path, confining stress at failure, relative density, and the mode of loading (compression or extension). Key words : sand, peak friction angle, dilatancy, stress path, triaxial test.
Pervasive granitoid magma transfer through the lower–middle crust during non‐coaxial compressional deformation

Granitic magmas migrated through Early Proterozoic middle–lower crust at Mt Hay, central Australia, via a diverse network of narrow structurally controlled channelways, during a period of progressive W–SW-directed thrusting (D1a–D1d). They utilized existing folds, boudins and shear zones, or created new channels by magmatic fracture either parallel to layering or, rarely, in irregular arrays. The magmas rose obliquely, parallel to the plunging (50–60°) regional elongation direction, which was defined by coaxial folds, boudin necks and a strong mineral-elongation lineation. Megacrystic charnockitic magmas migrated through metre-scale conduits during D1a–D1b, but leucosomes were generally restricted to smaller (centimetre-scale) structures that existed throughout the entire deformation history. Thus, D1a/D1b leucosomes were potential feeders of in situ partial melts to the adjacent larger conduits of charnockite magma, thereby providing a pervasive interconnected network that allowed efficient migration of all magma types during the early stages of thrusting. The upper–middle crust of the Anmatjira–Reynolds Range area contains abundant megacrystic granitoid sheets that are of similar age and geochemistry to those at Mt Hay. They are considered to have formed as syntectonic intrusions emplaced during W–SW-directed thrusting, as at Mt Hay, suggesting that granitic magmas formed near the base of the continental crust passed through the mid-lower crustal level (25–30 km) exposed at Mt Hay and accumulated, in batholithic proportions, at shallower crustal levels (12–20 km) such as the Anmatjira–Reynolds Range area. The observations imply that granitoid magmas in the deep crust are capable of pervasive migration through the crust during major compressive, noncoaxial shear deformation. Localization of magmas by sequentially developed, narrow, compressive structures suggests that dilatancy followed successive foliation-forming events, a situation that can occur during steady-state deformation if the effective confining pressures are low, which would be a result of high and possibly variable rates of magma influx. The inferred rapid melt segregation and migration during deformation suggest that large chambers do not form until magma reaches neutral buoyancy in the middle to upper continental crust.
Record of fluid flow history through fractured conglomerates, Lower Old Red Sandstone of central Scotland

Synopsis Extensively fractured quartzite clasts in Lower Old Red Sandstone conglomerates adjacent to the Highland Boundary Fault Zone in central Scotland contain multiple populations of healed microfractures delimited by fluid inclusion planes. Microthermometric analysis indicates that the healing of microfractures oriented perpendicular to the trend of the Highland Boundary Fault Zone, which probably formed during Acadian overthrusting towards the SE along the fault zone in Middle Devonian times, involved moderate temperature (Th 102 to 238°C), low to moderate salinity (3 to 17 wt% NaCl eq.) aqueous fluids. The clasts also contain a second set of fluid inclusion planes oriented parallel to the Highland Boundary Fault Zone, which formed during extension associated with the intrusion of late Carboniferous quartz dolerite dykes. The healing of this set of microfractures involved low temperature (Th 58 to 155°C), low to moderate salinity (1 to 12 wt% NaCl eq.) aqueous fluids.
Hydrological changes in southern Africa over the last 200 Ka as recorded in lake sediments from the Tswaing impact crater

Sediments from Lake Tswaing (25°24′30″ S, 28°04′59″ E) document hydrological changes in southern Africa over the last 200 Ka. Using high-resolution XRF- scanning, basic geochemistry (TIC, TOC, TN), organic petrology and rock-eval pyrolysis, we identify intervals of decreased carbonate precipitation, increased detrital input, decreased salinity and decreased autochthonous (algal and bacterial) organic matter content that represent periods of less stable water column stratification and increased rainfall. Between 200 and 80 Ka BP, these intervals appear to be contemporaneous with local summer insolation maxima, indicating a strong influence of precessional variability (~23 Ka) on African subtropical climate. This influence weakens during the last glacial period (~80 to 10 Ka BP), when humid intervals at 73 to 68 Ka, 54 to 50 Ka, 37 to 35 Ka and 15 to 10 Ka BP are largely out of phase with insolation changes, and presumably reflect southward displacement of the ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone) and/or changes in ocean circulation.
Simultaneous inversion for lateral velocity variations and hypocenters in the Yellowstone Region using earthquake and refraction data

A three-dimensional upper crustal P wave velocity structure of the Yellowstone region was determined by simultaneous inversion using Pg refracted arrival times and earthquake-generated direct P wave arrival times. The velocity structure was modeled by a two-layer block configuration with the velocity of the surface layer fixed. The inversion was performed on a 14.4-km-thick second layer (5×6 blocks) using an optimal block size of 21.2×18.3 km and incorporated the method of separation of parameters. Results show volumes of higher velocities, approximately 6.3 km/s, north of the Yellowstone caldera that correlate with gravity anomaly highs and are interpreted to be associated with near-surface crystalline basement. The upper crust beneath the caldera showed an average velocity of 5.8 km/s with prominent low-velocity zones of 4.9 and 5.2 km/s in the northeast and southwest portions of the caldera, respectively. The 4.9-km/s low-velocity layer in the northeast corner of the caldera coincides with a localized-20-mGal Bouguer gravity low and the largest area of hydrothermal activity in Yellowstone National Park. Relocating earthquakes with the new velocity model showed a systematic migration of epicenters radially toward the caldera by an average of 1.2 km relative to locations using a homogeneous velocity model.
4: The Dalradian rocks of Jura

Introduction General description of guide The Middle Dalradian rocks of Jura (Fig. 1) are of particular interest because, as a result of their mild deformation and metamorphism (lowest greenschist facies), a large proportion clearly exhibit original sedimentary structures. Although deformational structures and minor intrusions will be referred to, the main purpose of the excursions is to demonstrate the sedimentological features of a sequence of various marine facies. For the sake of simplicity the rocks will often be referred to as muds and sands although they are now mainly slates, phyllites and very hard quartzites. Exposure is good throughout the area, especially in the wave-cut benches of raised beaches from which many of the localities are described. Travel details Jura can only be reached by the car ferry from Port Askaig on Islay to Feolin Ferry. This connects with Western Ferries’ service which runs several times a day from Kennacraig (Fig. 1).
Transport and sedimentation of pollutants in a river reach: A chemical mass balance approach.

The River Hoje in the south of Sweden is a typical receiving water for urban and rural runoff. Mass balance calculations over a 17-month period indicate that pollutants are retained in the sediments of the investigated 5-km-long reach of the stream (90 tons of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD7), 850 tons of chloride, 2.1 tons of copper, 3.2 tons of zinc, and 1.0 ton of lead). Other pollutants such as suspended solids and phosphorus appear to be both retained and washed-out, depending on loading rates and local stream conditions. The retained pollutants represent a substantial part of the total mass transport through the stream (14–47%). Almost half of the transported zinc is retained within the stream sediment. Subsequently, the deposited pollutants represent a potential pollution source. Analyses of sediment samples verify that the upper sediments contain high concentrations of heavy metals.
SHIPPING AND SEISMIC EXPLORATION CONTRIBUTORS TO NOISE IN THE NORTHERN NORWEGIAN SEA: TRENDS AND RECENT MEASUREMENTS

A major contribution to low-frequency ambient noise in the shallow ocean is the noise due to shipping activity. This paper presents a study of temporal and spatial distribution of maritime activities including shipping, fishing and seismic exploration activity in the northern Norwegian Sea. The initial study covers data from the period 2006-2009. The overall motivation is to develop a prediction models for low-frequency ambient noise levels. The study has examined ship traffic and coastal fishery activity based on data from the Automatic Identification System. Regional and seasonal variations in shipping and fishing activity and their correlations have been analyzed. The number of seismic exploration vessels is relatively small compared to fishing and other vessels, thus seismic exploration is treated as individual events, not by density. An example of measured noise from a seismic exploration vessel is presented. The present study illustrates that with ships separated into two categories, fishing vessels.
Fission-track evidence for Cenozoic uplift of the Nelson batholith, southeastern British Columbia

Apatite and zircon fission-track data from the Nelson batholith in southeastern British Columbia reveal that a significant amount of uplift has occurred since Paleocene time, including an episode of rapid uplift during Eocene time. Age versus elevation curves for apatite and zircon, combined with a calculated present depth to the 105 °C apatite-annealing isotherm, suggest that some 6 km of apparent uplift has occurred in the vicinity of the Nelson batholith since Paleocene time. A period of rapid cooling and uplift occurred from 59 to 45 Ma, when the bounding faults of the adjacent Valhalla gneiss dome, the Valkyr shear zone, and the Slocan Lake fault zone were active. The rapid uplift is interpreted as being related to Eocene extension and the rise of the adjacent Valhalla gneiss dome during Eocene time.
Responses of net ecosystem exchanges of carbon dioxide to changes in cloudiness: Results from two North American deciduous forests

We analyzed half-hourly tower-based flux measurements of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from a boreal aspen forest and a temperate mixed deciduous forest in Canada to examine the influences of clouds on forest carbon uptake. We showed that the presence of clouds consistently and significantly increased the net ecosystem exchanges (NEE) of CO 2 of both forests from the level under clear skies. The enhancement varied with cloudiness, solar elevation angles, and differed between the two forests. For the aspen forest the enhancement at the peak ranged from about 30% for the 20°-25° interval of solar elevation angles to about 55% for the 55°-60° interval. For the mixed forest the enhancement at the peak ranged from more than 60% for the 30°-35° interval of solar elevation angles to about 30% for the 65°-70° interval. Averaged over solar elevation angles >20°, the aspen and mixed forests had the maximal NEE at the irradiance equivalent to 78 and 71% of the clear-sky radiation, respectively. The general patterns of current sky conditions at both sites permit further increases in cloudiness to enhance their carbon uptake. We found that both forests can tolerate exceedingly large reductions of solar radiation (53% for the aspen forest and 46% for the mixed forest) caused by increases in cloudiness without lowering their capacities of carbon uptake. We suggest that the enhancement of carbon uptake under cloudy conditions results from the interactions of multiple environmental factors associated with the presence of clouds.
Formation and suppression of AlF3 during HF digestion of rock samples in Teflon bomb for precise trace element analyses by ICP-MS and ID-TIMS

An aluminum fluoride, AlF3, forms during HF digestion of felsic rock samples, for trace element and isotope geochemistry, which use a Teflon bomb at high temperature and pressure. The AlF3 incorporates trace elements (Rb, Sr, Y, Cs, Ba, REE, Pb, Th, and U), and can not be decomposed by conventional methods such as evaporation with HClO4. The production of this AlF3 results in lower yields and poor accuracy in analyses of these trace elements by ICP-MS. The formation of AlF3 is controlled by the chemical composition of the rock samples, in particular, AlF3 does not form during decomposition of mafic samples with relatively high (Mg+Ca)/Al ratios. We have developed a new method to suppress the AlF3 formation, in which excess Mg is added to the sample prior to acid digestion in the bomb. This new method makes it possible to accurately determine the trace element compositions of higher-Al rock samples with lower concentrations of Mg and Ca (e.g. rhyolite and granite). In the trace element analyses by TIMS with isotope dilution techniques (ID-TIMS), AlF3 formation hinders the achievement of isotope equilibrium, resulting in erroneous results. However, the Mg-addition method removed this problem by suppression of AlF3 formation.
Global patterns of terrestrial biological nitrogen (N2) fixation in natural ecosystems

Human activities have clearly caused dramatic alterations of the terrestrial nitrogen cycle, and analyses of the extent and effects of such changes are now common in the scientific literature. However, any attempt to evaluate N cycling processes within ecosystems, as well as anthropogenic influences on the N cycle, requires an understanding of the magnitude of inputs via biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Although there have been many studies addressing the microbiology, physiology, and magnitude of N fixation at local scales, there are very few estimates of BNF over large scales. We utilized >100 preexisting published estimates of BNF to generate biome‐ and global‐level estimates of biological N fixation. We also used net primary productivity (NPP) and evapotranspiration (ET) estimates from the Century terrestrial ecosystem model to examine global relationships between these variables and BNF as well as to compare observed and Century‐modeled BNF. Our data‐based estimates showed a strong positive relationship between ecosystem ET and BNF, and our analyses suggest that while the model's simple relationships for BNF predict broad scale patterns, they do not capture much of the variability or magnitude of published rates. Patterns of BNF were also similar to patterns of ecosystem NPP. Our “best estimate” of potential nitrogen fixation by natural ecosystems is ∼195 Tg N yr−1, with a range of 100–290 Tg N yr−1. Although these estimates do not account for the decrease in natural N fixation due to cultivation, this would not dramatically alter our estimate, as the greatest reductions in area have occurred in systems characterized by relatively low rates of N fixation (e.g., grasslands). Although our estimate of BNF in natural ecosystems is similar to previously published estimates of terrestrial BNF, we believe that this study provides a more documented, constrained estimate of this important flux.
Optical auroral conjugacy: Viking UV Imager—South Pole Station ground data

High time resolution satellite UV images of the northern auroral oval are compared with South Pole station keogram camera and all-sky camera observations to determine the displacement of the South Pole conjugate point from its location calculated using the international geomagnetic reference field magnetic field model. The results presented extend the study of optical conjugacy to high magnetic latitudes in a solstice period, and to sunlit auroral events. Three high-latitude events were analyzed: a poleward expansion, an arc poleward of the midnight oval, and a substantial movement in the afternoon auroral oval. They were determined to occur on closed field lines. A range of displacement for the South Pole conjugate point of 5.3° in latitude and 1.9 hours in MLT was measured.
Diffraction imaging using shot and opening-angle gathers: A prestack time migration approach

We have developed a migration scheme that can image weak diffractions in time. This significantly contributes to conventional interpretation in detecting small-scale faults and heterogeneities. The proposed scheme images diffractions using the shot and opening-angle gathers generated by prestack time migration (PSTM). Here, the shot and opening-angle gather represents a 2D migrated gather in terms of shot locations and opening angles between the incident- and scattered-rays. We muted the Fresnel zones related to reflections, corrected phases of diffractions, and enhanced diffractions in the migrated gathers. As a result, the proposed diffraction PSTM can image diffractions with and without phase-reversal. Moreover, the weak diffractions tangent to reflections can be clearly imaged. Diffraction PSTM can update migration velocities according to behaviors of reflection and diffraction events in the migrated gathers by scanning, thus overcoming a crucial problem in diffraction imaging. The reflector dips used in diffraction PSTM are obtained by picking the angles related to reflections in the shot and opening-angle gathers for a partial migration. Synthetic and field data tests demonstrate the validity of diffraction PSTM.
Geomorphic controls on aluminium in acid soils of the Axe Creek catchment, Victoria

This study investigates the influence of terrain, including steepness and position in slope, on soil pH, extractable aluminium (Al), and organic carbon (OC) in the Axe Creek catchment, Victoria. Both soil pH and Al were determined by use of 1 : 5 soil : 0·01 M CaCl2 extracts, with Al measured colorimetrically using a modified pyrocatechol violet method. Although all soils were acidic, the Al concentration was highest on the hilltops (>10 mg/kg) and lowest at base-of-slope sites (<1 mg/kg). The concentration of Al was generally inversely related to soil pH. However, on average, a lower Al concentration was found in the top 10 cm than in the interval from 10 to 30 cm, even though the soil pH remained relatively constant throughout the top 30 cm. The lower Al concentration in the surface layer corresponded to a substantially higher level of OC near the surface, suggesting the formation of Al-organic matter complexes.
Using rat-gnawed seeds to independently date the arrival of Pacific rats and humans in New Zealand

The Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) was transported throughout the south Pacific with voyaging humans. Thus, the earliest dated evidence of Pacific rat can be used to infer first human contact. Until recently, it was considered that rats arrived in New Zealand with humans in the thirteenth century AD. However, controversial radiocarbon dates on Pacific rat bones now suggest that rats reached the remote islands of New Zealand with people c. AD 50-150. These dates are anomalous because they imply human contact with New Zealand more than 1000 years before any archaeological evidence for human presence, and precede settlement of tropical eastern Polynesia, the ancestral homeland of Maori, the first New Zealanders. The early rat bone dates are controversial for other technical reasons, which have been debated in the literature. Here, distinctive rat-gnawed seed cases preserved in sediments are used as a proxy to independently date the arrival of the Pacific rat and humans in New Zealand. This method effectively bypasses the problems that have plagued rat bone dating and provides a reliable age for rat and human arrival. The oldest dates on rat-gnawed seed cases from widely separated sites are consistent with the Pacific rat arriving at the same time as the initial human settlement of New Zealand in the thirteenth century AD, and not before. The gnawed seed dates lend no support to the argument for an earlier introduction of rats. This dating approach offers a novel way of clarifying island colonization histories throughout Oceania.
Changes in channel size at river confluences with coarse bed material

A field survey of thirty stream junctions from a small watershed, together with data collected by Miller (1958), allowed us to investigate morphometric adjustments occurring at confluences. The model proposed by Roy and Woldenberg (1986) was slightly modified and used as a tool for morphometric analysis. Two parameters are necessary in order to evaluate the rate of change in channel size at a confluence: the area ratio (channel capacity above the confluence: channel capacity below the confluence) and the discharge ratio (discharge of the minor tributary: discharge of the major tributary). Our data show that total channel capacity tends to decline below most confluences. A reduction in cross-sectional area implies an increase in average flow velocity. This interpretation is consistent with Lyell's observations and with results from recent flume experiments (Best and Reid, 1984).
Effect of sowing and harvesting dates on dry matter production of autumn-sown Tama ryegrass, ryecorn, and oats

Abstract ‘Amuri’ oats were sown on 3 occasions in the autumn of 1974 and ‘Grasslands Tama’ ryegrass, ‘Rahu’ ryecorn, and ‘Mapua’ oats were sown once in 1975 and on 4 sowing dates in both 1976 and 1977. Crops were sampled throughout their growth up to between flowering and the milky-ripe stage of grain development. At harvests in August and September all crops tended to produce more dry matter from late February and mid March sowings than from early and late April sowings. At October and November harvests, however, yield differences between sowings decreased, especially with Tama and ryecorn, and in December there were no differences between any of the sowings, except for oats which were highest yielding when March sown. The relationship of crop yields to each other varied greatly in different years. However, oats were generally the highest yielding from February or March sowings and Tama the lowest yielding crop with April sowings. Oats appeared to be the most satisfactory greenfeed for use in the spring .