Effects of Music and Mediation on Mood and Stress Across Personality Traits

This study analyzed the effects of music and meditation on mood and stress, with personality as a moderator, in 93 undergraduate students (57 females) at Western University. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 31 years old. Students were recruited through an advertisement posted on campus and online. Participants either listened to classical music for 5 minutes, completed a 5 minute meditation, or did not complete a relaxation activity (control condition) and subsequently completed the PANAS questionnaire, the Perceived Stress Questionnaire, Satisfaction with Life Scale, a filler "introspective thought" task, the Big Five Inventory of Personality, and a Music and Meditation Experiences survey. It was hypothesized that both music and meditation would have positive effects on mood and stress and that individuals scoring high on conscientiousness would experience more benefits from meditation than those in the control group. The hypotheses were not supported. Those exposed to a meditation exercise scored significantly lower on positive affect than those in the control group or those who listened to music and no differences were found for stress or negative affect. Interaction effects were found for the big five personality traits. Most notably, individuals scoring high on conscientiousness experienced greater negative affect after either listening to music or meditating, compared with those who did not complete a relaxation exercise. Discerning the impact of music or meditation on mood is limited due to the brief exposure of the relaxation exercises. Long-term effects and the role of personality can be explored further through a longitudinal study. EFFECTS OF MUSIC AND MEDITATION 3 Effects of Music and Meditation on Mood and Stress Across Personality Traits Stress is an inevitable part of life and everyone experiences it to varying degrees. It can greatly impact one's mood and if the stress continues for an extensive period of time, negative moods may be become quite frequent. Common relaxation techniques used to reduce stress and improve mood include listening to music and meditation. For instance, people use music to regulate their emotions and improve their mood (Saarikallio, 2011), and listening to certain types of music has also been shown to reduce stress and anxiety (Labbé, Schmidt, Babin, & Pharr, 2007). More specifically, listening to classical music has been found to have a more positive effect on stress and relaxation compared with other music genres (Labbé et al., 2007). In addition to music, meditation has been found to improve emotional distress and mood (Van Gordon, Shonin, Sumich, Sundin, & Griffiths, 2014). Meditators also report higher well-being than nonmeditators (Keune & Forintos, 2010), and perceived stress is lower for meditators compared with non-meditators (Hosemans, 2014). Although the benefits of listening to music and meditation with respect to mood and stress have been documented, it is unclear which relaxation method is more beneficial for improving mood or reducing stress. Previous studies have not directly compared the effects of meditation with listening to music on mood and stress. Moreover, previous research has also not examined the benefits of listening to music versus meditating for individuals with different personality traits. The present study will determine which method has the greatest effect on mood and stress, across personality traits. Research studying the relationship between personality and emotional reactions to music indicates that positive and negative emotions as a result of music listening may be related to personality traits, including neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and EFFECTS OF MUSIC AND MEDITATION 4 conscientiousness (Liljeström, Juslin, & Västfjäll, 2013). Therefore, personality may act as a moderator between the effects of listening to music or meditating on mood and stress. By studying whether listening to music or meditating is more effective for different personality traits, individuals can potentially use this research to determine which method works better for them. This may have clinical implications for people who are typically stressed, those who commonly experience negative affect, or those who wish to enhance positive affect. Music, Mood, and Stress Music has the ability to improve mood through a variety of ways. Individuals report listening to music, playing an instrument, and singing as activities used for emotion regulation (Saarikallio, 2011). Emotion regulation in this context is the way in which individuals alter their emotional reactions by changing or manipulating them (Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004). Research indicates that individuals often listen to music in order to maintain a positive or happy mood, as well as for revival and relaxation. Some also listen to music for the purpose of releasing or venting anger and sadness through music that expresses those emotions (Saarikallio, 2011). In addition, adolescents who experience more happiness from music listening than sadness report higher emotional well-being than adolescents who experience more sadness from music listening than happiness (Miranda & Gaudreau, 2011). Furthermore, individuals may manipulate their emotions through music listening when they have self-determined reasons for listening to music. Self-determined reasons for listening to music may include choosing to listen to music for the purpose of enhancing one's mood, or relieving stress. Morinville, Miranda, and Gaudreau (2013) found that adolescents who listened to music for self-determined reasons experienced higher positive affect, lower negative affect, EFFECTS OF MUSIC AND MEDITATION 5 and higher life satisfaction. Therefore, the reasons a person listens to music are important in predicting outcomes of well being. In addition to improving mood and well-being, listening to music can have a positive effect on the stress response. A study conducted by Thoma et al. (2013) compared the effects of relaxing music (Latin choral singing), the sound of rippling water, and a control condition with no sound to see which would result in the greatest decrease in stress after exposure to a stressful task. After exposure to the stressor, concentrations of cortisol were surprisingly highest for those in the relaxing music condition and lowest for those in the sound of rippling water condition. This implies that listening to acoustic sounds (which do not necessarily have to be music, but even just the sound of rippling water), can reduce the impact of stress on the body. However, after exposure to the stressor, baseline levels of stress were reached faster by those who listened to relaxing music than those who did not listen to anything. Even though listening to relaxing music did not prevent the stress response from starting up, it did help to calm stress more effectively than listening to nothing. It is important to note that specific genres of music may be more beneficial for stress and relaxation than others. For instance, a study examining the effect of music genre on stress compared classical music, heavy metal, self-selected music, and no music (Labbé et al., 2007). Results revealed that those who listened to either classical music or self-selected music after exposure to a stressor experienced less anxiety and greater relaxation compared to participants who listened to heavy metal or no music. Meditation, Mood, and Stress Aside from listening to music, meditation also improves relaxation and reduces stress. These benefits of meditation may be explained through self-regulation theory. Self-regulation EFFECTS OF MUSIC AND MEDITATION 6 encompasses the processes that individuals use to direct their feelings, thoughts, and behaviours (Hoyle, 2006). It involves being in control over oneself and being able to stay calm and alert (Keune & Forintos, 2010). It also includes knowing what one's goals are and directing one's learning and self-improvement to reach those goals. When applied to meditation, self-regulation involves mindfulness. Mindfulness involves self-regulating one's attention and being present and aware in the current moment (Hosemans, 2014). The concept of mindfulness has also been incorporated into Self-Determination Theory. This theory's approach to motivation states that the individual is a personal motivator for self-improvement by focusing on circumstances that allow for individual growth processes (Keune & Fortinos, 2010). Since Self-Determination Theory involves motivating oneself for self-enhancement, an individual choosing to practice mindfulness meditation may be more successful in enhancing his or her overall well-being. In fact, it has been found that individuals scoring high on mindfulness also score high on psychological well-being and lower on anxiety (Keune & Forintos, 2010). Several studies look at meditation programs in which participants complete meditation training or meditate for a specified period of time over the course of several weeks or months (Van Gordon et al., 2014; Keune & Forintos, 2010). For example, one study demonstrates that participants who completed Meditation Awareness Training for 8 weeks showed significant improvements in pre-post scores of emotional distress, positive and negative affect, and mindfulness, compared with those who did not take part in the training (Van Gordon et al., 2014). In that study, Meditation Awareness Training was provided through a group program founded in Buddhist teachings. Training involved learning about meditative themes such as mindfulness, cultivating joy, generosity, ethical awareness, impermanence, emptiness, and letting go. Participants also completed guided meditation exercises or mindfulness exercises and EFFECTS OF MUSIC AND MEDITATION 7 were encouraged to practise these exercises in their everyday lives. Another study compared students who participated in meditation courses as part of their school curriculum with student