The Transpersonal Self : 2 . Comparing Seven Psychological Theories

This is the second of two papers in which I examine the meaning and significance of concepts of the transpersonal self. An earlier paper focussed on the historical development and experiential foundations of religious and metaphysical ideas about the soul. The present paper focuses on a critical comparison of ideas about the transpersonal self as understood within seven major psychological theories those of Abraham Maslow, C.G. Jung, Roberto Assagioli, Stan Grof, Ken Wilber, Michael Washburn and Peggy Wright. From an examination of these various approaches, I identify nineteen distinct meanings of the transpersonal self. I suggest that it is not possible at this stage in the development of transpersonal psychology to select any one theory or conception as being the most adequate. On the contrary, it is important to learn from each of these interesting and very different perspectives. This is the second of two papers in which I discuss the meaning and significance of the concept of the transpersonal self. In the first paper (Daniels, 2002) I considered the historical development and experiential foundations of religious and metaphysical ideas about the soul. The present paper examines the ways in which various psychological theories have addressed the question of the transpersonal self. I shall question how comprehensive and useful these theories are, and what can we learn from the differences among them. In this, I shall focus my discussion on seven of the major theoretical approaches in transpersonal psychology. These are: Transpersonal Psychology Review, Vol. 6, No. 2, 4-21. (2002) [Preprint Version] 1. The Metamotivational Theory of Abraham Maslow 2. The Analytical Psychology of C.G. Jung 3. Roberto Assagioli's Psychosynthesis 4. The Holotropic Model of Stan Grof 5. The Structural Model of Ken Wilber 6. The Analytic Model of Michael Washburn 7. The Feminist Theory of Peggy Wright Before discussing each of these theories in turn, it perhaps useful to point out that they all share certain common assumptions about the nature of the transpersonal and transpersonal identity. These assumptions are: • Transpersonal identity involves a developmental achievement. • This achievement entails going beyond the experience of both egoic and existential (authentic) identity. • Transpersonal identity is associated with the realisation of modes of functioning and experience that have distinctly "spiritual" qualities. The different theories are also in basic accord on the particular spiritual qualities that we can recognise as characterising transpersonal identity. Frances Vaughan (1985, p. 28) identifies these as: compassionate, loving, wise, receptive, allowing, unlimited, intuitive, spontaneous, creative, inspired, peaceful, awake, open, and connected. Where the theories fail to agree is in their conceptual understanding of the transpersonal self, and in their developmental psychology or explanations of how transpersonal identity may be achieved. The Metamotivational Theory of Abraham Maslow Maslow is generally acknowledged as one of the founders of both humanistic and transpersonal psychology. In the late 1960s, together with his colleagues Stan Grof, Anthony Sutich and others, he proposed the term transpersonal psychology to distinguish what they saw as the "fourth force" that was then emerging from the "third force" of humanistic psychology. Transpersonal Psychology Review, Vol. 6, No. 2, 4-21. (2002) [Preprint Version] Maslow's own interest in the transpersonal derives from his investigations into the experiential and motivational characteristics of exceptional, "self-actualising" people. In particular, Maslow became interested in the nature and consequences of mystical-type "peak experiences", or moments of highest happiness and fulfilment, that were reported by many (but not all) self-actualisers. According to Maslow, peak experiences involved a special mode of transcendent cognition (Cognition of Being, or B-Cognition) that exhibits qualities of, for example, exclusive attention, holistic perception, self-forgetfulness, and receptivity. Maslow also noted that In B-Cognition, the world was perceived in terms of universal values (B-Values) such as truth, goodness, beauty, unity, aliveness, perfection, justice, order and meaningfulness. As a result of these experiences, the person's values and goals were often transformed they were now metamotived by the universal B-Values rather than by self-interest. Moreover, so passionate was the commitment to the B-Values that these became defining qualities of the self. In this way the person identifies the "highest self with the highest values of the world" (Maslow, 1973, p. 327) and thereby begins to lose the distinction between self and non-self. In arguing that the B-Values were genuinely universal, rather than simply cultural, this implied to Maslow that they must be a biological potentiality and therefore part of what he termed our organismic "inner core" or "Real Self". The value-life (spiritual, religious, philosophical, axiological, etc.) is an aspect of human biology and is on the same continuum with the 'lower' animal life (rather than being in separated, dichotomized or mutually exclusive realms). It is probably therefore species-wide, supracultural even though it must be actualized by culture in order to exist . The spiritual life is then part of the human essence. It is a defining characteristic of human nature . It is part of the Real Self . The spiritual life (the contemplative, 'religious', philosophical or value life) is within the jurisdiction of human thought and is attainable in principle by man's own efforts.