Gender and sterotyping in the United States and Spain

This study investigated sex-trait stereotypes across two nations, the United States and Spain. Past research by Williams & Best (1990) examined gender-stereotyping within the same countries with children, and a more recent study by Best & Williams (D. L. Best, personal communication, November 25, 1991) surveyed 100 students from each of 25 countries. Male characteristics were found to be more socially desirable than those identified as characteristic of women and were rated higher by both males and females. Although the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) has been widely used in the United States in measuring traits considered either masculine or feminine, few studies have examined gender-stereotyping between these countries using the BSRI. 751 male and female students from the United States and Spain enrolled in introductory psychology classes completed surveys. The surveys described a female (Joan, Juana) or a male (John, Juan), and students rated the individual on the 60 BSRI adjectives. For the feminine items, females were rated higher than males on many of the adjectives in the United States, but females were rated similar to males in Spain. On the masculine items, males were rated higher than females on only six items and this effect was consistent for both the United States and Spain. This suggested that in the United States females were perceived as having masculine traits but males were not perceived as having feminine traits. This was not true in Spain where it appeared there was greater androgyny. Future research might focus on why there is an increase in androgyny for females but not for males in the United States. INTRODUCTION Gender stereotyping and the attributing of sex-role characteristics to individuals plays a significant part in the way people are evaluated. Past research has indicated that there was a strong relationship between sex-role perceptions and an individual's socialization by parents and culture (Block, 1973). The present study examined sex-trait stereotypes in the United States and Spain. Early studies in Michigan (Miller & Swanson, 1958) and Norway (BrunGulbrandsen, 1958) found mothers pressuring daughters to conform to societal norms and pressuring sons to be "manly" (Hartley, 1959). Barry, Bacon, and Child (1957) found that in non-literate cultures, there was a widespread pattern of different socializations for girls than boys, i.e., girls were pressured to be nurturing, obedient, and responsible; boys were pressured to be self-reliant and to strive for achievement. Further studies in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, England, and the United States revealed a preference in males for "masculine adjectives" as self-descriptors; and females evidenced a preference for "female adjectives" as self-descriptors (Block, 1973). In order to further identify similarities and differences across countries, Williams and Best (1990) studied male and female European and American students using the 300 item Adjective Check List (ACL) (Gough & Heilbrun, 1965, 1980). A similar study had been completed in France, Germany, and Norway (Williams et al., 1979). In both studies, students were asked to rate the 300 adjectives on the basis of whether they were associated more frequently with women than with men, men than with women, or not differentially associated. The results indicated a strong cross-national similarity in the traits differentially ascribed to men and women. A variety of other methods have also been employed to determine sex stereotypes among university students in the United States and the Orient, Latin America, and Israel. Each of these studies have reported similar results (Williams & Best, 1990). MODERN PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES 53