Treatment Analysis of a Captive Male Jaguar (Panthera onca)

Large carnivores in human care have been reported to engage in stereotypic behaviors. Such behavior is thought to be correlated with high stress levels, in part, due to captive environments limiting opportunities for functional consequences and environmental stimuli. Moreover, there are several arguments stating that stereotypic behaviors can be indicative of poor welfare, as they can often have severe negative emotional and physical effects on the animal. The first portion of this study included a five-phase treatment analysis which evaluated whether environmental manipulations decrease the frequency of stereotypic behaviors including pacing, over-grooming and tail-sucking exhibited by a single male jaguar housed at Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens. The aim of the present study was to evaluate possible environmental variables that were reported by staff as likely variables maintaining or promoting stereotypic behavior. Data collection occurred during a 10-week evaluation and followed an ABCAD reversal design. Both behavioral data and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels were analyzed. The second portion of this analysis included a multi-institutional survey to assess the prevalence of the stereotypic behaviors exhibited by zoo-housed jaguars in North American AZA-accredited institutions. Results from the behavioral assessment revealed a decrease in stereotypic behaviors with the implementation of treatment conditions. Hormone analyses revealed that stereotypic pacing is not presently correlated with higher stress levels for this animal. Finally, survey results revealed that a significant portion of the North American jaguar population engages in stereotypic behaviors. Further analyses are necessary to identify potential patterns or environmental predictors for the development of stereotypic behaviors. Treatment analysis of a captive male jaguar (Panthera onca ) 1 Treatment Analysis of a Captive Male Jaguar (Panthera onca) The jaguar (Panthera onca) is the third largest species of felid (Johnson & Ivy, 2016) and the largest cat species of the Americas (Nowell & Jackson, 1996). Historically, the jaguar was known to range from the southern United States to as far as the Argentinean Patagonia and throughout Central and South America (Eizirek et al., 2001). However, a 2002 survey indicated that jaguars can be found in only 46% of its original range (Sanderson et al., 2002). Jaguars are currently listed as “near threatened” by the International Union of Conservation of Nature Redlist of threatened species (Caso et al., 2008). In 1973, jaguars were listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 2017), meaning they are of the most endangered animals listed by this organization. As a species listed in Appendix I, jaguars have the highest level of regulation and protection from overexploitation (CITES, 2017). Wild jaguar populations have declined due to habitat fragmentation, deforestation, poaching, and human conflict. Frequent attacks on livestock has led to persecution by local ranchers and increased species vulnerability. Zoo-housed animals are often considered ambassadors for their wild counterparts. For this reason, the management and welfare of zoohoused jaguars is of increasing importance. Wild jaguars currently subsist in fragmented populations (Eizirek et al., 2001). While the jaguar typically associates with bodies of water, habitats range in both terrain and elevation. This species has been known to inhabit rainforests, thorn scrub woodland, dry forests, savannahs, and areas heavily covered by swamps (Caso et al., 2008; Nowell & Jackson, 1996). Although they typically reside in lowlands of below 1,000 meters, jaguars inhabit a range of elevations and can occupy expanses as high as 3,000 meters (Brown & Lopez Gonzalez, 2001; Caso et al., 2008.) Their broad range in habitat is perhaps why there have previously been eight distinguished Treatment analysis of a captive male jaguar (Panthera onca ) 2 subspecies of jaguar. Today, however, the jaguar is considered monotypic despite variations in body size, skull shape, and diets (Eizirek et al., 2001; Pocock, 1939). Due to these variations, information about wild groups or individuals cannot be recognized as absolute for the species, and there is still much to learn about the physical and behavioral needs of both wild and captive populations (Johnson & Ivy, 2016). Although the population was unstable until the 1930s, jaguars have been housed in zoological institutions since 1885 (Mechak, Johnson, & Goff, 2016). A 2016 analysis of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) captive jaguar population reported 109 animals (52 males, 57 females) currently managed in human care. This population is distributed among 49 AZA-accredited institutions (Johnson & Ivy, 2016). Jaguars are considered a premier cat species in terms of exhibition in zoological institutions (Johnson & Ivy, 2016). They are also considered a conservation icon in that efforts to educate the public about current threats to wild populations and their environment have also extended to conservation efforts for other species throughout the jaguar’s home range (Johnson & Ivy, 2016). As such, the jaguar is of particular importance as an ambassador species. Missions of Animal Care Facilities Whereas new animal welfare initiatives are on the rise in zoos and aquariums, much of what is known about animal welfare science stems from the agricultural industry (Melfi, 2009). Unsurprisingly, zoo animals differ from domesticated animals in terms of their psychological and physiological needs (Carlstead & Shepherdson, 2000). Unlike farm animals, animals housed in zoos and aquariums are bred in conjunction with the fundamental conservation mission held by many modern zoos: to maintain genetic diversity with the goal of reintroducing individuals into the wild. As such, zoo-housed animals are bred to behave similarly to their wild counterparts Treatment analysis of a captive male jaguar (Panthera onca ) 3 rather than adapting to captive conditions (Carlstead & Shepherdson, 2000). Inability to cope with captive environments can lead to unsuccessful breeding attempts and the exhibition of species-atypical behavior (DeCaluwe, Wielebnowski, Howard, Pelican, & Ottinger, 2013; Wingfield et al., 1998). In addition to a conservation-based mission, Maple (2016) discusses a recent shift in zoological missions: conservation first, animal welfare second. Maple further discusses the necessary shift toward the adoption of an empirical approach to zoological management. Essentially, zoological institutions with an empirical approach strive to make management and husbandry decisions based on systematic observations and concrete data rather than intuition of the animal care staff. Since the shift towards a conservation focus in zoological institutions in the past few decades (Anderson, 2003), efforts have been made to incorporate science into management practices and conservation initiatives (Hopper, 2017). Empirical Goals of Management and Conservation of Species in Zoos Behavioral observation and recording provides an empirical approach that allows for the quantification of behavioral events (Powell, Martindale, & Kulp, 1975). Though informal observations made by animal care staff are helpful in basic husbandry practices, formal behavioral observations are essential in assessing captive animal welfare (Jauhiainen & Korhonen, 2005). As zoological institutions shift towards an empirical approach, quantification of behavior will be a necessary characteristic of zoo management (Crockett & Ha, 2010). In addition to providing information about an individual animal’s current state of welfare, data can increase knowledge on the basic biology of the species in question and transfer to in situ conservation efforts (Crockett & Ha, 2010). According to Broom (2010), observation of behavior provides a means to interpret physiological measures and is of value in welfare assessments. For Treatment analysis of a captive male jaguar (Panthera onca ) 4 example, just as abnormal repetitive behaviors and stereotypies can be an indicator of poor welfare, many behaviors can be indicative of good welfare (e.g., play, engaging in positive reinforcement training) (Melfi & Hosey, 2011). However, welfare must be measured on an individual level in addition to focusing on groups or species. Maple (2014) asserts the necessity of elevating animal welfare standards to include defining what it means to thrive for each and every animal housed in human care. Maple further describes thriving in similar terms to Webster’s (2008) characterization of animal welfare, which he defines as “living a natural life, being fit and healthy, and being happy” (Maple, 2014; Webster, 2008). Behavioral observations will aid researchers in answering questions to help provide animals opportunities to reach a level of thriving and obtain the optimum level of wellness. A new empirical approach to zoo management has also given rise to the use of applied behavior analysis in zoos and aquariums. Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the science of “systematically applying interventions based upon the principles of learning theory to improve socially significant behaviors to a meaningful degree” (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968). Best known for its use in treating humans with developmental disabilities, ABA has recently been become more prevalent in the study of non-human animal behavior, specifically, animals housed in captive environments (Maple & Segura, 2014). In recent decades, zoos have seen significant growth in research opportunities, as such research offers chances to answer questions regarding breeding, management, biological, and behavioral questions of zoo-housed animals (Hosey, 1997; Macdonald & Hofer, 2011). Zoo animal research often focuses on the relationship between animals, their behavior, and their environment making AB