Spirituality and Subjective Well-Being Among Southern Adventist University Students

The purpose of this study was to examine gender, ethnic, class standing, and parental marital status differences in spirituality and wellbeing among college students and to determine if spirituality and wellbeing are correlated. A sample of 63 participants from Southern Adventist University were administered the Marlin Spirituality and Psychological Wellbeing Inventory (MSPWI) which measures levels of spirituality and perceived well-being. No statistically significant differences were found for gender, ethnicity, class standing, or parental marital status. Spirituality and wellbeing were shown to have a significant positive correlation, with higher levels of well-being being associated with higher levels of spirituality. Recent studies support the idea that parental involvement is more directly related to emotional well-being in adolescents than peer interactions (Hall-Lande, Eisenberg, Christenson, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2007). Research shows that adolescents from stable, supportive families suffer fewer depressive symptoms and have fewer suicidal inclinations when compared to those from unstable families (e.g., Sheeber, Davis, Leve, Hops, & Tildesley, 2007; Sun & Hui, 2007). Adolescents from stable families maintain healthier peer relationships, are more active, and are better adjusted to school when compared to those from unstable families (Bohnert, Martin, & Garber, 2007; Shochet, Smyth, & Homel, 2007). Spirituality also plays a role in adolescent wellbeing, with higher levels of spirituality being inversely related to psychological distress (Bryant & Asttin, 2008; Burris, Brechting, Salsman, & Carlson, 2009). It is important to further explore the impact of the family and spirituality on adolescent well-being as well as the influence of additional social relationships such as peers and teachers. The following literature review summarizes and describes the results of previous research in regards to the ways in which family relations, social interactions, and spirituality impact adolescent well-being. First, the roles of peer and teacher interactions on adolescent well-being are discussed, followed by a discussion of the impacts of the family system. Emotional and monetary support is examined in the context of its relation to adolescent well-being. An overview of spirituality as it relates to adolescents and college students is then given. In conclusion, a critique of the research literature is given and areas of controversy are discussed. Social Relationships Outside of the Family The term social relationships is defined in the research literature as social ties outside of the family system, such as relationships with peers and with teachers. It is widely known that interactions with peers and teachers are strongly related to adolescent wellbeing (Hall-Lande et al., 2007; Sun & Hui, 2007). Peer Interactions. As adolescents grow older they increasingly rely on peers for acceptance, activity involvement, a sense of identity, and emotional support (Corsano, Majorano, & Champretavy, 2006; Sun & Hui, 2007). If they do not feel accepted or do not have the support of peers adolescents may have increased risk for depression (Sabatelli & Anderson, 1991; Young, Berenson, Cohen, & Garcia, 2005). It is therefore important for adolescents to have high quality peer relationships. Hall-Lande et al. (2007) found that adolescents with close connections to peers had decreased risks of depression, poor self-esteem, and suicidal behavior. Activity involvement is also important: adolescents who experienced leisure participation and leisure satisfaction exhibited positive psychological health and had a more favorable attitude towards school (Staempfli, 2007). Student-Teacher Interactions. Acquiring an education occupies a large portion of the lives of adolescents and as such teachers have a strong influence on adolescent wellbeing. Student-teacher relations have been positively associated with student motivation, achievement, adaptive behavior and feelings of belonging (as cited in Hall-Lande et al., 2007; Shochet et al., 2007). While most of the students in the Sun and Hui (2007) study did not readily seek emotional support from teachers, it was shown that this support was valued, particularly when family relationships were not supportive. Impact of Family Relationships Parents moderate a large portion of the lives of adolescents, from influencing their choices of associates amongst peers to determining the school and neighborhood environments in which they place their children. Protective influences such as these are important in promoting psychological health. In Hall-Lande et al. (2007), adolescents who felt the protective influence of a close family connection where shown to be less prone to suicide. Sun and Hui (2007) also shows that close family relations are important to adolescent psychological health not only in Western cultures but in Chinese cultures as well. According to Young et al. (2005), poor, non-supportive relationships with parents increases the risk of depression, even if peer support is rated as being high. It is believed that this is due to an inability for peer relationships to buffer adolescents from mental health problems. This may be because teens rely on deviant peers or those with whom they share similar negative traits (Murphy, Shepard, Eisenberg, & Fabes, 2004; Young et al., 2005). For this reason, even though peer relationships become increasingly important during adolescents, parental support and guidance is still needed (Corsano, Majorano, & Champretavy, 2006). Bohnert (2007) showed that school connectedness and activity involvement are also strongly influenced by parents. Adolescents with high quality relationships within their family are more likely to explore their environment, perceive school more favorably, have higher selfesteem, and perform better in school. This is due to the family being a source of refuge in which a person is safe to grow, as well as a source of motivation to do well academically (Bohnert, Martin, & Garber, 2007; Shochet et al., 2007). Bohnert (2007) also showed that adolescents from families in which parental involvement was high were more involved in organized activities, which in turn allowed them to become more independent and develop a sense of self-worth. Emotional Support. In a study by Murphy, Shepard, Eisenberg, and Fabes, adolescents who were well regulated by parents were viewed to be more emotionally stable and socially competent (2004). Well regulated adolescents in healthy families exhibit higher levels of selfesteem and are also higher achievers both socially and academically (Capuzzi & Gross, 2004; Haggerty, Sherrod, Garmezy, & Rutter, 1996). On the other hand, adolescents from less involved and more unstable families were at greater risk of depressive disorders, were more susceptible to negative influences of peers, and reported higher levels of anxiety (Haggerty et al., 1996; Sabatelli & Anderson, 1991; Sheeber, Davis, Leve, Hops, & Tildesley, 2007). The emotional and psychological health of the parents as well as the quality of the marital relationship (if one exists) are also important factors influencing adolescent emotional well-being (Bonhert et al. 2007). According to a survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2004, nearly 32% of adolescents come from homes in which there is no marital relationship, largely because of divorce. Studies by Capuzzi and Gross (2004) as well as Haggerty et al. (1996) showed that adolescents from divorced families are known to have lower self-esteem and perceive less social support, which in turn leads to increased risk for depression as well as difficulties in forming social relationships. Parents experiencing emotional stresses or depression likewise weakened the self-esteem and perceived self-worth of their children, elevating the risk of adolescent depression (Bohnert et al. 2007). Monetary Support. Adolescents from families with higher monthly incomes are less likely to be suspended from school, repeat a grade, change schools less often, and are more likely to be in gifted classes (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). This could be due to the increased resources at their disposal: adolescents whose parents devote more resources to help them achieve the best education possible can attend superior schools, take part in a broader scope of activities such as music lessons, and are not as affected by financial pressures. Poverty conversely is stressful for both parents and adolescents and is linked to increased incidence of child abuse. Capuzzi and Gross (2004) explained that occupational stress is associated with psychological health in relation to family stresses, as both parents attempt to fulfill career roles as well as parental roles while dealing with the daily errands that result. Capuzzi and Gross (2004) report that single-parent families have even less capability to provide monetary support. Lack of adequate monetary support contributes to lower educational attainment, less access to community resources, fewer community ties, and less parental support. This in turn leads to disadvantages not only in economic circumstances but also in mental health (Capuzzi & Gross, 2004). Spirituality When examining adolescents of college age and younger spirituality has also had a factor in the psychological state of the individual. In a study conducted by Bryant and Astin (2008), spirituality was found to be a common topic thought of and discussed by adolescents. Bryant and Astin (2008) also found that spirituality can be both positively or negatively associated with psychological well-being, with the direction of the association being dependent on the conflict or satisfaction experienced by the individual. According to Burris et al. (2009), spirituality, though not predictive of psychological well-being, was positively associated with psychological distress. Religiosity, however, showed the opposite results, with increasing leve