One fish fits all? The Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect and individual differences in learning

The big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) postulates that students who attend academically selective schools have lower academic self-concepts than equally able students in averageand low-ability schools. Researchers (e.g., Marsh, 1991) have suggested that by identifying individual differences between students that moderate the negative effects of the BFLPE, policies may be identified that maximize the benefits of attending academically selective schools. However, to date there has been limited success in this endeavour. Utilising the 2003 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) database (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2005a, 2005b) the present study identified potential moderators of the BFLPE that encompassed individual differences in the way in which students approach learning. Although many of the constructs investigated had a moderating effect on the BFLPE, these interaction effects were small and as the sample was particularly large, it was concluded that the BFLPE generalised well across these individual student characteristics. Paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in Education, Brisbane, November 2008. Correspondence concerning this paper should be sent to Marjorie Seaton, Centre for Educational Research, Bankstown Campus, University of Western Sydney, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South DC, NSW 1797, Australia or via email to m.seaton@uws.edu. au SEA08750 One Fish Fits All? 2 Every December newspapers in New South Wales publish the results of the Higher School Certificate, placing special emphasis on which schools obtain the best results. Invariably, many academically selective high schools will be at the top of this list, but others will not be, leading some to question why. If selective high schools take only the best and brightest, then why do some students not achieve to their potential? Marsh and colleagues would argue that the big-fish-little-pond effect could be a contributing factor. The BFLPE theoretical model posits that students who attend academically selective schools will have lower academic self-concepts, defined as one’s knowledge and perceptions about one’s academic ability (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003), than equally able students in non-selective schools. More specifically, the BFLPE model rests on two predictions. Firstly, it predicts that individual ability is positively related to academic self-concept (“I’m bright, so I feel good about my academic abilities”). Secondly, it predicts that the average ability of the class or school is negatively related to academic self-concept (“My classmates are really bright, so I don’t feel that I’m very bright”). It is this negative effect that characterises the BFLPE. Notwithstanding the fact that the development of a positive self-concept is regarded as an extremely important educational objective (e.g., OECD, 2003), BFLPE research has consistently found that this is an objective that has not always been achieved when students are segregated on the basis of their academic ability (e.g., Davis, 1966; Marsh & Hau, 2003; Marsh, Koller, & Baumert, 2001). For example, Craven, Marsh, and Print (2000) examined the academic self-concepts of students in special Gifted and Talented primary classes, compared to those of gifted students who attended streamed or mixed ability classes. The students in the special Gifted and Talented classes showed a greater decline over time in their academic self-concepts than the gifted students in the streamed or mixed ability groups. Interestingly, these authors also assessed student motivation and achievement. Results indicated that for three of six motivational orientations the Gifted and Talented students’ scores were significantly more negative than those of the other two groups, and that there was no difference between the groups on achievement test scores. Unfortunately, these effects also appear to be long lasting. Marsh, Trautwein, Ludtke, Baumert, and Koller (2007) demonstrated that the BFLPE still persisted four years after students had graduated from high school. SEA08750 One Fish Fits All? 3 It is a cause for concern that students in high ability schools should have lower academic self-concepts as low academic self-concept has been associated with a number of undesirable educational outcomes, such as poorer occupational or educational aspirations, lower grade-point-averages, and the selection of less demanding courses (Marsh, 1991; Marsh & Yeung, 1997b). Furthermore, evidence from research conducted on the Reciprocal Effects Model (e.g., Guay, Marsh, & Boivin, 2003; Marsh & Yeung, 1997a) suggests that academic self-concept and academic achievement are causally related, with higher academic self-concepts being associated with higher academic achievement and vice versa. If, as research has shown, high-ability students attending high-ability classes and schools have lower academic self-concepts then it follows that they may not be reaching their full academic potential. To overcome the BFLPE and so allow these students to achieve their best, it is necessary to firstly identify whether there are any factors that can attenuate the BFLPE. Once identified, these factors could be used to assist in developing educational policies aimed at maximising the benefits, and limiting the negative effects, of attending academically selective environments (e.g., Marsh, 1991). Although previous research has begun this search for constructs that may moderate the BFLPE, success has been limited (e.g., Marsh & Hau, 2003; Marsh, 1984, 1987, 1991). The present investigation was designed to fill this gap in the literature by examining individual difference in learning constructs as potential moderators of the BFLPE. Although not previously examined as BFLPE moderators, individual difference in learning constructs are important in their own right in other educational domains, and so may provide some insight into reducing the negative effects of the BFLPE. Individual Differences in Learning There are many differences between students in the way they learn. For example, whereas some students handle academic tasks easily, others have difficulty. Individual differences in learning are evident in the way in which “students address and handle learning tasks in school and the extent to which they are able to achieve their learning goals by applying strategies, motivating themselves, and by controlling and regulating their own learning processes” (Marsh, Hau, Artelt, Baumert, & Peschar, 2006, p. 313). SEA08750 One Fish Fits All? 4 Self-Regulated Learning Strategies Most teachers and policy makers agree that to learn effectively students need to be self-regulated learners (Boekaerts, 1997). Self-regulated learners are “metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviourally active participants in their own learning” (Zimmerman, 1990, p. 4). Zimmerman theorised that students who are selfregulated learners use these metacognitive (e.g., setting goals), motivational (e.g., intrinsic task interest), and behavioural processes (e.g., structuring environments to provide better learning opportunities) to optimise their learning potential. Selfregulated students use strategies that promote effective learning, are motivated to learn, have a belief in their own self-efficacy, and are not troubled by competitive environments (Marsh et al., 2006). Zimmerman distinguished between self-regulation processes (e.g., intrinsic task interest) and self-regulated learning strategies whose intent is to maximise these processes. Learning strategies include rehearsing and memorising, goal setting and planning, and organising and transforming (for full details of these strategies, see Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990). Students who are self-regulated learners may deal more positively with the school environment than those students who are not. Students who use self-regulated learning strategies may be more confident in their learning as they take a proactive approach to it. The result may be that students who use self-regulated learning strategies are buffered against the negative effects of the BFLPE compared to students who do not use such strategies. Anxiety Anxiety has been associated with reductions in grade point averages (Chapell et al., 2005), and has been shown to be negatively related to numeracy scores on standardised tests (Martin, 2003). Zeidner and Schleyer (1998) examined the effect of test anxiety on academic performance for gifted students. Two components of test anxiety were assessed: worry and emotionality. Their sample comprised gifted students in two types of educational programs, these being regular mixed-ability classes or special homogeneous classes. Results indicated that test anxiety moderated the effects of the type of educational program on academic performance. Compared to the gifted students in regular classes, test anxiety had a more aversive impact on the academic performance of students in the special homogeneous classes. Moreover, SEA08750 One Fish Fits All? 5 research by Meece, Wigfield, and Eccles (1990) found that the correlations between mathematics ability perception (a construct similar to mathematics self-concept) and mathematics anxiety were consistently negative, ranging from -. 11 to -. 41. On the basis of previous research in related domains, it seems reasonable to suggest that if students are highly anxious about their academic performance then they may not achieve to their potential. As they are not performing to their best, anxious students may also feel more negative about their abilities. Students may be anxious before they attend high-ability schools, or attending a high-ability school may cause them to become anxious. Whatever the causal relation, more pronounced BFLPEs may be associated with higher anxiety levels. Research examining the relation between mathematics ability perception and mathematics anxiety has also displayed a negative relation and so would support this viewpoi