Exploring the Vocabulary Teaching Strategies Used in Children’s Educational Television

The present study explored the extent to which vocabulary instructional strategies are used in the children’s educational television show Word Girl, and whether or not the occurrences of vocabulary instructional strategies changed over the time the show was aired. Instructional strategies included repetition of target words, labeling, defining/mislabeling, and onscreen print. A total of eighteen episodes between 2007 and 2015 were analyzed. The early time period included episodes aired from 2007-2009, the middle time period included episodes aired from 2010-2012, and the late time period included episodes aired from 2013-2015. Results revealed within episode variability for all vocabulary instructional strategies, with the exception of onscreen print, that was not used in any of the episodes. A decrease in the mean number of vocabulary instructional strategies over time was observed. VOCABULARY IN EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION 3 Exploring the Vocabulary Teaching Strategies Used in Children’s Educational Television Understanding and using new words is a complex process; however, most children undergo substantial vocabulary development in the first three years of life. Vocabulary development occurs both receptively and expressively. Receptive vocabulary words are understood by the child. One way children can demonstrate receptive vocabulary is by pointing to pictures representing objects or actions. Expressive vocabulary words are produced or defined. A way children demonstrate expressive vocabulary is by naming pictures or objects that are presented to them or occur in the environment. In most cases, children understand words prior to using them (Locke, 1993). It is expected that most typically developing children produce first words around the first birthday. These words tend to be short, single syllable words, and tend to be nouns such as mama, dada, and ball. Children’s vocabulary continues to increase steadily until, at approximately 18 months when many children experience a more dramatic increase in vocabulary (Benedict, 1979). Derbie (2014) examined word learning in a child between the ages of 20-37 months, and found the greatest peak of word learning between 33 and 37 months of age when the child learned 85 words in the span of four months. This increase in vocabulary continues throughout the first five years of life, until children learn an average of one new word every two hours they are awake (Tomasello, 2003). Although most children learn vocabulary in similar ways, there may be variation in the length of time it takes to reach expected milestones. Typically, between the third and fourth birthday, children begin to use pronouns and question words. Another milestone is achieved when a child has acquired approximately 500 words. Of those words approximately ten percent are adjectives, twenty-five percent are verbs, and approximately fifty percent of the words are VOCABULARY IN EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION 4 nouns (Gleason & Ratner, 1993). One explanation for variation in vocabulary learning is the wide range of experiences with and exposure to vocabulary in the environment in which the child grows up. Word learning occurs through both explicit and implicit exposure (Beck, 2002; Gillam, Olszewski, Fargo, & Gillam, 2014; Reiser, Tessmer, & Phelps, 1984). Explicit word learning occurs through instruction and is direct and purposeful. For instance, when an adult says the word ball, points to a ball, and then tells the child what a ball is used for, learning is explicit. Implicit word learning is indirect and includes overhearing vocabulary from sources in the environment such as adults, other children, and media. Research has examined the effects of exposure (implicit and explicit) on vocabulary outcomes in children (Gillam, 2014; Gipe, 1978). This work has offered insight into both word learning processes employed by children, and the instructional strategies that are effective in teaching new words to young children. Research shows that children who are exposed to higher quality vocabulary instruction show greater gains in expressive and receptive vocabulary. Vocabulary instruction that includes using the target vocabulary in context, providing extensive definitions, and using previously known words to associate with the target words has been shown to be effective (Beck, Perfetti, & McKeown 1982; Gipe, 1978; McKeown, Beck, & Omanson, 1985). The next sections will provide further explanation of these studies and the effectiveness of specific vocabulary instruction strategies. Gillam and colleagues (2014) examined explicit vocabulary instruction in children ages 6;6 to 7;4 (N = 43). Eight target words were introduced and defined in the classroom in relevant contexts and reviewed repeatedly, and taught explicitly each week. Children were pre-tested on target vocabulary words before instruction. Instruction was given to the experimental group for a total of 30 minutes, three times a week, for six weeks. Instruction included introduction to the VOCABULARY IN EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION 5 words and providing definitions. Following instruction participants defined target vocabulary. Students in the control group were not instructed on vocabulary. Results showed that participants in the experimental group scored higher than controls on vocabulary measures. Gipe (1978) compared four methods of teaching vocabulary to determine the vocabulary growth as a result of each method. Participants were 113 third graders and 108 fifth graders in eight classrooms. Vocabulary instruction included association, category, context, and dictionary methods. The association method paired the target word with a similar word or short definition. In the category method group participants were asked to compile a list of words fitting a general category with the target word. The context method used the target words in meaningful sentences. For the dictionary method, participants looked up the word and definition in a dictionary. Students were pre-tested, exposed to one method, and tested on the 24 words after the method was utilized. The context method resulted in higher vocabulary scores for participants at both grade levels. Participants in both grades received higher vocabulary scores when the association method was applied when compared with the dictionary and category methods. In a similar study conducted by McKeown and colleagues (1985) results supported this finding that making associations with target vocabulary helps children learn vocabulary. The participants were fourth graders in four classrooms. Two classes received rich instruction which allowed children to explore the associations between the target word and other already known words. The remaining two classes received extended/rich instruction which promoted use of the word outside of class. Traditional instruction consisted of making associations between the word and its definition. All children were pre-tested and post-tested on target vocabulary using a multiple choice test of the 24 target words. Children in the rich instruction condition received the highest scores on the vocabulary test. VOCABULARY IN EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION 6 Beck and colleagues (1982) tested the effectiveness of using previously known words when providing definitions. Participants included 66 fourth graders in two classrooms. All participants were pre-tested on target vocabulary using the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. Participants in the control group were instructed in twelve 5-day cycles. In each 5-day cycle students were introduced to a set of eight to ten target words which were practiced in multiple ways. The instructional activities included defining, classifying, using known words, and making associations between the target words and other known words. All participants were tested using measures of a semantic decision task, a sentence verification task, and a story recall task about the target words. Participants who received vocabulary instruction showed higher vocabulary scores when compared with the control group. Overall, receiving instruction increased vocabulary scores with all measures including a semantic decision task, a sentence verification task, and a story recall task about the target words. More recently the influence of media, specifically television, on word learning has become an area of research interest. This is likely due to the fact that media has become a growing influence in the lives of children. Linebarger and colleagues have conducted several studies examining relationships between educational television and child language and literacy outcomes (Linebarger & Walker, 2005), and strategies used in educational television to enhance children’s literacy skills (Beck et al., 1982; McKeown, et al., 1985). Linebarger and Walker (2005) examined the relationship between minutes of television watched and children’s vocabulary and expressive language. Data provided by parents of 51 children age 0;6 to 0;36 months about their children’s television viewing patterns were examined. The relationship between the quantity of television viewing minutes and vocabulary and expressive language scores depended on the television show tested. A positive relationship was found between VOCABULARY IN EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION 7 viewing minutes and vocabulary and expressive language scores for the shows Dora the Explorer (Gifford, 2000), Dragon Tales (Coane, 1999), and Clifford the Big Red Dog (Over, 2000). There was a negative relationship between viewing minutes and vocabulary and expressive language scores for the show Teletubbies (Wood, 1997). There was also a negative relationship between viewing minutes of Barney and Friends (Leach, 1992) and receptive vocabulary scores, but a positive relationship between viewing minutes and expressive vocabulary scores. Children who watched more Barney and Friends had lower receptive vocabulary scores, but higher expressive language scores. The development of literacy skills h