Memory, Narrative, and Identity Shifts in Modern Ireland

3 Part One: Defining and Contextualizing Collective Memory Consolidation.4 1.1: Introduction to Individual Memory Consolidation.5 1.2: Introduction to Collective Memory.9 1.3: Importance of the Individual.15 1.4: Collective Memory Consolidation.21 Part Two: Historical Background of Irish Collective Memory Consolidation.25 2.1: Catholicism, Social Dominance, and Sexuality.25 2.2: The Celtic Revival, Irish Nationalism, and The Troubles.31 2.3: Economic Change: Globalization and the Celtic Tiger.39 Part Three: Irish Collective Memory Today.40 3.1: Methods and General Notes.40 3.2: Catholicism.41 3.3: Effects of the Celtic Tiger.49 3.4: Elements of Nationalism.53 3.5: Easter Rising Commemorations.54 3.6: Immigration and Multiculturalism.58 3.7: Regional Identities and the Myth of the West.62 3.8: The Troubles.69 Conclusions and Directions for Further Research.73 Appendix.75 Works Cited.77 MEMORY, NARRATIVE, AND IDENTITY SHIFTS IN CONTEMPORARY IRELAND 3 ABSTRACT Collective memory is defined as any shared memory held by two or more members of a given social group. This type of memory has been studied intensely since Maurice Halbwachs’ introduction of the idea at the beginning of the 20 century. Until recently, cognitive scientists have not participated in the conversation on collective memory; however, one group of researchers recently introduced a model that compares individual and collective memory consolidation as analogous processes on different levels (Anastasio et al, 2012). This paper uses Anastasio’s model to explore the processCollective memory is defined as any shared memory held by two or more members of a given social group. This type of memory has been studied intensely since Maurice Halbwachs’ introduction of the idea at the beginning of the 20 century. Until recently, cognitive scientists have not participated in the conversation on collective memory; however, one group of researchers recently introduced a model that compares individual and collective memory consolidation as analogous processes on different levels (Anastasio et al, 2012). This paper uses Anastasio’s model to explore the process of collective memory consolidation in contemporary Ireland (especially 1950-present), a nation that has experienced an enormous amount of cultural change in the past several decades. Over a period of two months (May-July 2015), 46 interviews were collected in various locations throughout Ireland. Focusing on important elements such as The Troubles, Catholic sexual abuse scandals, and the Celtic Tiger period of the Irish economy, qualitative data analysis shows strong evidence for the capacity of consolidated collective memory to be updated, fractured, and changed based on significant events, much like long-term individual memory. Due to the small scale of this study, the results should not be seen as exhaustive, but the beginning of a conversation on collective memory change in Ireland. MEMORY, NARRATIVE, AND IDENTITY SHIFTS IN CONTEMPORARY IRELAND 4 PART ONE: Defining and Contextualizing Collective Memory Consolidation Introduction to Individual Memory Consolidation Humans’ fascination with the capacity to retain information is by no means a recent development; even the existence of language and art display our desire to record our experiences in a concrete fashion. Further, 17 and 18 century philosophers such John Locke mused about factors that affected “degree or strength of associations” between events (Tulving & Bower, 2000, p. 3). Psychologists were also intrigued by memory and learning, along with how to measure these processes. Hermann Ebbinghaus performed an early study on forgetting. Ebbinghaus taught himself lists of nonsense words and attempted to recite them after varying delays. He then graphed his retentions with respect to time in an effort to quantitatively model forgetting, finding that retention falls sharply within the first few hours following rehearsal, but then levels off afterwards (Ebbinghaus, 1885). Of course, this study includes various limitations; for instance, Ebbinghaus himself was the only subject in the study, meaning that the results probably were not statistically significant. However, Ebbinghaus’ research did set the stage for later study into human memory. Since these early forays, research methods have become far more sophisticated due to vast technological progress as well as the proliferation of empirical studies on learning and memory. These factors have led to a more robust understanding of the complex processes underlying memory consolidation—also called “encoding”—and storage. Several researchers have proposed models attempting to explain the mechanisms of memory in a more concrete manner. One of the first, most popular, and most MEMORY, NARRATIVE, AND IDENTITY SHIFTS IN CONTEMPORARY IRELAND 5 influential models is the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory. Sometimes referred to as the modal model of memory or the dual-store model of memory processing, this model became one of the first to propose a comprehensive system describing encoding and storage of stimuli into long-term memories (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). The figure below depicts the model. Figure 1: A diagram of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory consolidation (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) As can be seen, the model postulates that stimuli from the environment are held briefly in sensory registers before proceeding through to more permanent memory stores; notably, it indicates that sensory inputs must first progress through a short-term memory store for rehearsal and manipulation before being permanently encoded in long-term memory. Consolidated memories can then be retrieved and temporarily moved back into the shortterm store for normal usage and interpretation. Though its significance cannot be denied, some have expressed skepticism regarding the model’s simplistic approach to modeling short-term memory. Baddeley and Hitch constructed a model of memory that attempted to remedy this flaw by proposing a MEMORY, NARRATIVE, AND IDENTITY SHIFTS IN CONTEMPORARY IRELAND 6 more complex, integrative configuration of short-term memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). Figure 2: A visual representation of the Baddeley-Hitch model of working memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). In this model, short-term memory is broken down into several different theoretical systems. The “visuospatial sketchpad” is used to represent and process new visual/spatial data; in essence, this system allows humans to hold information “in their mind’s eye” for a short period of time before this information is allowed to enter into the long-term memory store. The phonological loop performs the same function for incoming verbal information. An intriguing aspect of the model is Baddeley’s idea of a “central executive,” which organizes the input of information and modulates the entire working memory system. Neuroimaging studies involving active maintenance of visual processing indicate that the areas of the prefrontal cortex are likely implicated in the process of working memory (Braver et. al, 1997). This makes sense when considering Baddeley’s MEMORY, NARRATIVE, AND IDENTITY SHIFTS IN CONTEMPORARY IRELAND 7 theory, as the prefrontal cortex, specifically the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, seems to be primarily implicated in neural processes involving higher-order functions such goal setting, motivation, planning, and attentional control (Miller et. al, 2001; Johnson et al, 2007; Amemori et al, 2015). Thus, this structure is integral in the operation of the central executive. Baddeley’s model includes features that differentiate it from the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, namely the presence of a controlling entity that mediates short-term memory. Further, it incorporates specific sensory buffers, allowing for a more complex, integrative understanding of the processes. Interestingly enough, Baddeley’s initial model did not include an episodic buffer; this aspect was added much later as a space for organizing incoming information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad into sequential events (Baddeley, 2002). These factors will aid in understanding collective memory consolidation later in this paper. Recent research has also revealed trends in the process of encoding, one of the most compelling being that memory seems to be a state-dependent process. For example, in a study examining the effects of alcohol on remembering, researchers found that “greater retention was found for those subjects whose drug states were the same in memory consolidation and retrieval” (Lowe, 1982). Additionally, another study asked participants to learn two lists of words, one on land and one underwater. The results showed that lists learned underwater were better retrieved underwater, just as lists learned on land were better retrieved on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975). However, research also indicates that human memory is not perfect—far from it, in fact.