“We know the taste of sugar because of cardamom production”: Links among Commercial Cardamom Farming, Women’s Involvement in Production and the Feminization of Poverty

Introduction Scientific studies demonstrate that the commercialization of agriculture is the key to economic development and poverty reduction in developing countries (Kristen et al 2012; Wiggins et al 2011). Enhancing peoples' participation in commodity based agricultural markets helps to reduce food insecurity and poverty (Omiti et al 2007). Cash crops produced for export contribute to livelihood improvement (Diao et al 2012). Hence, subsistence farming practices need to be transmuted to commercialization and export, following Africa's successful trend (Simmons 2003). This is because commercial products comparatively provide higher income to the poor (Cadot et al 2009), and help the rural poor to step out of poverty (World Bank 2008). Studies from China and South Africa reveal commercialization has led to increased income and household food consumption (see Baylis et al 2012; Hendriks and Msaki 2009). Commercialization, in this context means, the "ratio of percentage value marketed output to total farm production" (Bouis and Haddad 1990). Agricultural commercialization leads to employment opportunities, mainly creating economic spaces for women, with improved livelihoods, increased participation and enhanced social standing in communities (Alam 2012; Kabeer 2012; WDR 2008). Ester Boserup highlighted women's visibility in the productive agriculture sector during the 1970s particularly bringing women's role and economic activities into the limelight (Boserup 1970). She highlighted the notion of women in development (WID) to show that women are key players in the agriculture sector; however, at the time of her writing their active participation had gone unnoticed by development "experts" to the detriment of development programs and projects. Empirical evidence shows small-scale women farmers in Guatemala, Kenya and other African countries have benefited economically through export led production (see Hamilton et al. 2002; Omosa 2002). Moreover, parts of Africa and Latin America have proved successful in establishing women as active participants of high value crops and commodity production (FAO 2012). In addition, women have been able to distinguish themselves in the agriculture sector as major contributors and producers of cash crops. However, with the significant need to address the issues of both men and women, inclusive of their social and economic status and roles, the Gender and Development (GAD) perspective emerged in the 1980s. Despite better jobs and improved economic circumstances through a transition from subsistence to commercial farming, women's disadvantages in regards to roles, wages, land ownership, and employment conditions seem to persist across the globe (Razavi 2012; Li 2011; WB, FAO and IFAD 2009). Evidence from African territories shows men benefit more than women when it comes to production and marketing of both traditional and non-traditional crops (Fisher and Qaim 2012; Nijuk 2011; WB et al 2009). This could be supported by fact that rural women are deprived of education and training, which undermines their bargaining position or their ability to stand for their interest (Ajani and Igbokwe 2014; FAO 2011). On the positive side, a study of cocoa production in Ghana shows women were able to attain assets, mostly land, if they helped their husband in cocoa production (Quisumbing 2004). The debate on the 'feminization of poverty,' a term coined by Pearce in 1978, addresses the issue of the differences in poverty levels between men and women, particularly addressing the developed world, including the United States. Evidence particularly from western countries shows that women are poorer than men (Medeiros and Costa 2008; Bradshaw et al 2003; Casper et al 1994). Medeiros and Costa (2008:4) refer to two main phenomena under which the feminization of poverty occurs. One, is the difference in poverty levels between men and women and another, is the difference in poverty levels between male-headed households and female-headed households. …