Gain-Framed Messaging to Promote Adult Sport: An Exploration of the Effects of Efficacy-Enhancing Messages on Psychological and Behavioural Outcomes

ii Acknowledgements. iii CHAPTER 1: Introduction. 1 Literature Review. 3 CHAPTER 2: Method. 17 PRESENTATION OF MANUSCRIPT. 23 MANUSCRIPT: Messaging to promote adult sport: Exploring the Effects of Efficacy-Enhancing Information on Psychological and Behavioural Outcomes . 24 Abstract. 25 Introduction. 26 Method. 33 Analyses & Results. 38 Discussion. 48 References. 57 Footnotes. 63 Tables and figures. 64 Supplementary appendices. 68 CHAPTER 3: Supplementary analyses. 70 Analyses & Results. 70 Discussion. 77 CHAPTER 4: General discussion. 79 REFERENCES. 92 STATEMENT OF CONTRIBUTIONS. 101 APPENDICES. 102 MESSAGING TO PROMOTE ADULT SPORT 1 The Canadian population is currently aging rapidly and adults aged 35 and above have the highest rates of physical inactivity (Statistics Canada, 2013). It has been well-documented that participation in physical activity (PA) is associated with significant health benefits, both physical and psychological in nature. In contrast, physical inactivity is associated with a wide range of physical and psychological impairments, such as heightened blood pressure (e.g., Nelson et al., 2007) and lower quality of life (e.g., Naylor, Gordon, & James, 2012). Since these impairments can become exaggerated with age, solutions are needed to reverse this trend and increase PA participation among adults to increase individual health and well-being (Statistics Canada, 2013). As such, the well-being and health of adults stands to benefit from interventions aimed to increase adult PA participation across a host of PA venues and modalities. Sport is one possible adult PA venue. Sport Canada defines sport as, “an activity that involves two or more participants engaged for the purpose of competition [. ], that involves formal rules and procedures, requires tactics and strategies, specialized neuromuscular skills, and a high degree of difficulty and effort” (Canadian Heritage, 2012, p. 13). Thus, sport represents a form of PA that is distinct from exercise, which does not necessarily involve two or more participants in a structured environment or organized competition. Sport may not be a viable/attractive venue for all adults, however, it is increasingly being considered as one avenue that may provide opportunities for more adult participants to become regularly physically active, and may offer benefits associated with health, fitness, and social connection (Baker, Fraser-Thomas, Dionigi, & Horton, 2010; Vallerand & Young, 2014). Remaining consistently physically active is crucial to reap the associated benefits; thus, it is important to understand characteristics that best predict commitment to PA. For example, Vallerand and Young (2014) investigated potential motives that were associated with greater commitment to structured PA programming. These authors found that enjoyment of PA was a significant predictor of commitment in both sport and exercise contexts. Thus, it is important to promote a variety of ways that adults can become (and remain) physically active, as individuals may perceive various forms of PA in MESSAGING TO PROMOTE ADULT SPORT 2 different ways. For instance, one adult might best enjoy being active on his/her own, such as going for runs and bike rides (exercise activities). However, another adult may prefer to be active with other individuals and enjoy competitive activities, such as playing hockey or soccer (sport activities). As such, promoting various forms of PA (e.g., sport) is important to accommodate the wide range of motives and preferences for PA, and to provide equal opportunities for adults to be physically active. Statistics Canada reported that in 2010, 64 percent of sport participants reported that they considered themselves to be in excellent/very good health as compared to only 47 percent of nonparticipants. Furthermore, sport participants reported significantly higher rates of sound mental health and life satisfaction than non-participants (Canadian Heritage, 2012). Adult sport, oftentimes called Masters sport, provides the opportunity for adults (typically 35 years and above) to engage in sport throughout the life span. Furthermore, participation in Masters sport has been shown to appeal to a wide range of motives, such as the opportunity to reap health and fitness benefits, test personal skills, and for peer companionship (e.g., Young & Medic, 2011). The wide range of benefits associated with Masters sport participation is reflected in the exceptional growth in the population of participants (Coaching Association of Canada, n.d.). However, similar to overall PA rates, cross-sectional sport participation rates in Canada still show substantial decline with age. Approximately 54 percent of Canadians aged 15 to 19 regularly participate in sport, with consecutive declines at subsequent age periods, such that only 17 percent of Canadians aged 55 and above participate in sport (Canadian Heritage, 2012). In light of this, employing strategies to promote adult sport may attract additional participants and increase PA rates among adults, especially during middle adulthood (40-60 years old) because engaging in sport during this time might increase the likelihood of continuing involvement in older adulthood (Gray & Harrington, 2011). As such, this study investigated the effects of two different adult sport promotional messaging approaches for encouraging a targeted sample of middle-aged adults to engage in adult sport. MESSAGING TO PROMOTE ADULT SPORT 3 Literature Review Message Framing Message framing is a technique that can be used to present a persuasive message in different ways to encourage the uptake of a targeted behaviour (Rothman & Updegraff, 2010). Of the two main types of framing, gain-framed messages (GFM) represent an emphasis on the benefits or anticipated favourable circumstances that might be associated with performing an activity, whereas loss-framed messages (LFM) emphasize costs related to not performing an activity. In the PA domain, an example of a GFM is, “If you participate in regular PA, you can improve strength and flexibility. ” Alternatively, a sample LFM is, “If you do not regularly participate in PA, you will likely lack strength and be inflexible. ” It has been posited that GFM are more persuasive when promoting an activity that is perceived as relatively safe without the risk of unpleasant outcomes (e.g., health-affirming activities, such as engaging in dental hygiene practices). Conversely, LFM are more advantageous when promoting an activity that may pose the risk of an unpleasant outcome (e.g., illness-detection activities, such as a health screening procedure to detect a disease). According to Rothman and Salovey (1997), PA is considered a low-risk behaviour and, therefore, GFM should be more persuasive than LFM. Recent meta-analyses have indeed concluded that a gain-framed approach is more effective than a loss-framed approach when promoting PA (Gallagher & Updegraff, 2012; O’Keefe & Jensen, 2007). There is growing body of evidence illustrating the capability of GFM for eliciting changes in both proximal (psychological) and distal (behavioural) outcomes in targeted contexts of PA. Stimulating changes in proximal outcome variables is valuable because proximal outcomes typically act as mediators or correlates of whether individuals eventually become more regularly physically active (Brawley & Latimer, 2007). Research in PA domains, almost exclusively on exercise or fitness activities, has consistently shown evidence for positive effects on commonly measured proximal outcomes, including intentions to be active (e.g., van’t Riet, Ruiter, Werrij, & de Vries, 2010), attitudes toward PA (e.g., Berenbaum & Latimer-Cheung, 2014), and perceived behavioural control (PBC; e.g., MESSAGING TO PROMOTE ADULT SPORT 4 Graham, Prapavessis, & Cameron, 2006) to regularly participate. In a sample of middle-aged adults, van’t Riet et al. (