Social Network Analysis and Systems Change

The paper provides a methodological discussion of how the sociometric method of network analysis can provide a robust analytic technique for understanding complex human systems. Framed within Churchman’s notion of “sweeping in” approaches from various disciplines, applications of social network analysis are discussed in terms of their usefulness in systems planning and redesign. The authors argue that this method provides a means for understanding systems from their own points of view. In other words, the method provides the actors within a system a rigorous construct by which they can define their interrelationships. Once the system is mapped, positions of influence and strength can be determined as points for initiating intervention and diffusing innovation. This provides both an effective and efficient avenue for systems change. The discussion begins with an overview of how systems methodology evolves, drawing in rigorous scientific methods (Churchman’s “sweep-in” process). The parallel development of sociometry as a means for understanding complex social systems is then presented. The intellectual goals of the sociometry are tied to the pragmatic goals of systems science. The notion of “authenticity” is then discussed in terms of the role of who defines the system. The role of the participative methods in creating understanding and ownership is explored. Network analysis is presented as a systems approach that brings structure to the analytic phase of systems redesign. In Ackoff’s terminology, it provides another way to “formulate the mess. ” A detailed overview of the mechanics of network analysis is then provided. The tools for information gathering and the computerbased analytic tools required are discussed at length. Actual socio-grams of complex systems developed by the authors are used as examples. The paper concludes with a discussion of application. This includes how the method can be used within a single organization and within communities of organizations. It also addresses how the tool can be used to foster organizational learning, factors contributing to efficient intervention, and means for charting systems development over time. Introduction For the purposes of this paper, the authors would like to pose this definition of network: it is a system characterized by complex interconnections between its parts. The study of networks is viewed as the study of complex systems that emphasizes the complex relationships that bind the elements together. It addresses the nature of the relationships within a system, not the nature of the elements. Network concepts and methods have been widely applied in every "hard" scientific domain, from basic research in physics, biology and chemistry, to the applied spectrum of engineering disciplines and medicine. The mathematics of network analysis has been widely used to model and simulate physical, biological and mechanical complexity. This framework has also been widely used to study social interactions in behavioral fields including anthropology, sociology, history, social psychology, political science, human geography, and communications. Network analysis is currently the focus of increasing study and application throughout the field of management. It is this approach, network analysis as it can be applied to social systems, that is the focus of this paper. While network concepts and methods have been widely used to describe social systems, they have not been as widely utilized as practical tools for systems change. It is the authors' intention to demonstrate that network analysis can be a powerful tool in the context of participative planning and design efforts. In the hard sciences, network tools moved from the laboratory to medical and engineering applications. Likewise, the use of network methods in the social sciences can shift toward application. We begin with a discussion of the systems context for embracing social network analysis as a method. Here the notion of "sweeping in," a pragmatic approach to the development of methodology, plays a central role. This is followed by an overview of the evolution of social network analysis. The detail here is important, because it provides insights into how sociometrics can provide an analysis of a complex system from its members' point of view. The third portion of the discussion argues that participation always considered a key element in successful systems planning and design is usually omitted from the initial analytic phase of the process. And, finally, the case is made that social network analysis provides a method to develop highly significant participation to the analytic portion of planning, thereby strengthening the overall process. "Sweeping In": The Logic of Methods in Systems Thinking Defined simply, "methodology" is the logic of methods. Those of us working in the social sciences seem to spend a significant amount of time assuring the precision of our methods, but give little thought to why we use a particular approach or combination of approaches to a specific problem or issue. The methods we apply to the study of social systems should, or course, be rigorous. However, they should also be coherent and provide a sound basis for judging the appropriate aspects of the particular system we want to learn about. In other words, our choice of methods provides the intellectual context in which we understand a given system. The "sweep-in" process in systems thinking is key to the development of our current, and often contentious, multi-faceted systems methodology. The roots of significant streams of systems thought can be traced to William James, the nineteenth century American pragmatic philosopher. He maintained that the choices a scientist makes in carrying out his research have a permanent effect on the results of his inquiry (James, 1890). The methods we chose and our view of those methods influence how we understand a social system. Each method we bring to a problem and colored by our own perspective, provides but one possible way of seeing or approaching the truth. Multiple methods and points of view are needed to approach the "truth. " As Churchman points out (1968) the more relevant knowledge we bring to an issue or situation, the more we "sweep in, " the richer and deeper our understanding of that situation, and the closer we approach the truth. Social network analysis represents an approach that is being "swept in" to the family of systems research methods. If provides another rigorous set of methods by which we can understand complex social interrelationships. Historically the methods were developed in parallel with systems theory. Simultaneous development of compatible approaches is common. Scientists and scholars work in isolation and on similar problems. The first step in the "sweep-in" process is to break down these barriers by understanding what exactly social network analysis is and how it evolved. Social Network Analysis: Evolution and Intent Network analysis derives its theoretical roots from anthropology, sociology and social psychology. Jacob Moreno (1934) is credited with laying the foundation of what is now generally conceived as network analysis. His development of the sociometric method of group analysis provided the first empirical measure of group-level communication and subgroup formation. The results of this analysis are presented in a sociogram (Figure 1), which supplies an illustration of the patterns of communication that exist in a social system.