Exploration of achievement motivational patterns during adolescence using a 12-factor model across grades and sex

This thesis argues that a multidimensional profile incorporating mastery goals, performance goals, social goals and extrinsic goals, as well as factors relating to self-perceptions, would provide a better understanding of achievement motivation in adolescents than a univariate or dichotomous framework. Additionally, this thesis also explores whether the use of lower-order dimensions provides information that offers a more detailed analysis of achievement goals over and above that found by the higher-order factors alone. A newly developed multidimensional measure, the SMOSA (Self Motivational Orientation Scale for Adolescents) of achievement motivation was used to examine changes of different motivational pursuits and perceptions of self across grades and sex in an adolescent population. The sample consisted of 2131 high school students in 3 cohorts (grades 7, 8, and 9) who were followed across a 3-year span. Firstly, the results revealed that the SMOSA had satisfactory goodness of fit to the data for the total sample as well as sound psychometric properties that provided equivalence between groups at both grade and sex. Secondly, results using multilevel modelling revealed that different patterns emerged, for both higher-order constructs and lower-order factors, among grades and between males and females. The current investigation is particularly vital, because prior research has failed to examine these lower-order factors to identify emerging patterns of development in achievement motivational pursuits between males and females across high schools. The strength of using multilevel modelling was that it allowed for the variability in the range of responses across grades and between males and females to be identified. This information provides a more detailed analysis than previous research, which relied on an evaluation of means to explain differences between samples. Therefore, educators will be Achievement motivation xxii provided with a comprehensive understanding of the patterns of change in achievement motivation during adolescence and such knowledge may equip them with a way of measuring students’ approaches to facilitative learning and the ability to explore students’ paths for optimal engagement. Achievement motivation 1 Chapter 1 Argument for the present research The structure of achievement motivation is complex and investigating this phenomenon along a unitary or even dichotomous framework would limit the nature of the findings. Achievement motivation is multidimensional in nature and, arguably, the most critical period to gain an understanding of the many facets involved in achievement motivation is during adolescence (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989). To identify whether disparate patterns emerge in the motivational pursuits of adolescents would provide educators with valuable information to develop a more focused strategy to engage and facilitate adolescent learning. This thesis argues that a multidimensional profile (similar to the one initially presented by Maehr in his Personal Investment model and later by McInerney in his Inventory of School Motivation) incorporating mastery goals, performance goals, social goals and extrinsic goals as well as factors relating to selfperceptions, would lead to a more comprehensive understanding of this complex phenomenon (Maehr & Braskamp, 1986). The goals adolescents pursue are important, however adolescents’ self perceptions are inextricably linked with these goals and together have been shown to be a driving force in student engagement, achievement motivation and performance outcomes (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles, & Wigfield, 2002; Marsh & Yeung, 1997). Using a multidimensional measure of motivational pursuits incorporating self-perceptions would therefore, enhance educators’ understanding of achievement motivation. Although a plethora of research into achievement motivation exists, there is limited research using a multidimensional measure. During high school, students Achievement motivation 2 may vary in how much effort they put into a task, and how they value the task itself. Similarly, students may also vary in their perceptions regarding the importance they place on pursuits in leadership, competition, social relations, and the receipt of praise or tangible rewards. Longitudinal mapping of the different motivational pursuits and self-perceptions of adolescents would allow identification of the most salient variables to emerge across grades and sexes. To date, research has recognised that several different theoretical perspectives have emerged trying to explain achievement motivation. One perspective, Achievement Goal Theory, initially focused on the dichotomy between mastery and performance goals. This theory argued that with an emphasis on the positive nature of mastery goals, and that with increased effort, success towards learning may be achieved (McInerney & McInerney, 1998; Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001). More recent debates have suggested that performance goals may also be facilitative, and that dividing performance goals into approach and avoidance domains may help clarify this point (Elliott, 1999; Harackiewicz, Barron, Pintrich, Elliott, & Thrash, 2002; Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). The division relates to performance-approach goals being more facilitative due to students’ increased efforts, whereas performanceavoidance goals are associated with either less effort (Covington, 2000), or alternatively perceptions of diminished capability (Harackiewicz & Elliott, 1993). The motivational process undertaken during adolescence, however, may in some way be overshadowed by the narrow perception that adolescents are not motivated unless they pursue a mastery goal. As Ryan and Deci (2000) suggest “People have not only different amounts, but also different kinds of motivation. That is, they vary not only in level of motivation (i.e., how much motivation), but also in the orientation of that motivation (i.e., what type of motivation)” (p. 54). There are Achievement motivation 3 many ways to achieve optimal engagement and, essentially, all goals are part of that process and individually, students may take different paths to reach optimal achievement. This thesis will argue that if we continue to emphasise improvements in mastery goals as the only path to facilitate learning, then we are limiting our understanding of the complexities involved in this phenomenon. Achievement motivational pursuits may vary as a factor of grade. During early adolescence some motivational pursuits may be more salient. For example, the social needs of young adolescents within the larger environment of high school may be more pertinent initially, but lessen as they progress through school. The effect of a larger school, with different teachers and changing classrooms for differing subjects, may create a less personal approach than students experienced in primary school (McInerney, Simpson, & Dowson, 2003). This new, less personal environment with a larger cohort of peers may impact on adolescents’ motivation, particularly regarding individual subject performances (Hau, 2004; Marsh & Hau, 2004a; 2004b). Assessing achievement motivational pursuits to ascertain if they vary by degree, or possibly direction, across grades is crucial if we are to understand and evaluate adolescents’ motivational pursuits. As educators, we need to engage students during high school and without an understanding of the patterns of development using a broader motivational goal structure; we may fail to provide optimal opportunities for the majority of students. Adolescence is a time when future directions and career pathways are determined (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989; Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles, & Wigfield, 2002). Therefore, failure to engage students during high school may result in limited opportunities for them both at school and in the future. Achievement motivation 4 This investigation examined the movement of different motivational pursuits across grade and sex. A pivotal element of consideration in this enquiry is the mapping of the profiles of males and females to clarify whether differences emerge among the individual motivational dimensions. The recent dilemma facing educators’ day-to-day dealings with the comparative decline of males to females in performance outcomes (Nelson, 2004; van Houtte, 2004), highlights the need to elucidate whether patterns of self perceptions and achievement motivational pursuits differ during this time and in what domains these differences manifest between males and females. We need to ascertain whether males and females vary across grades, or across particular dimensions of their motivational profiles. If differences in the patterns of achievement motivation do emerge, identifying at what grade this occurs, and whether there is a discernable difference between male and females, is critical. Essentially, several questions will be addressed in this thesis. Which dimensions vary in salience for males and females? Do males and females differ in their facilitative motivational pursuits and if so, at what grade does this occur? Alternatively, do males and females differ in the less facilitative motivational pursuits and, if so, at what grade does this occur? Or, do males and females vary in their self perceptions and, if so, at what grade does this occur? This appears a timely investigation considering the perceived disparities between males and females in their performance outcomes that have recently emerged in the literature (Nelson, 2004; van Houtte, 2004) This research developed a parsimonious and comprehensive model of motivational pursuits and self perceptions that incorporates both sex and grade and applies across adolescence. The present research adapted McInerney’s (GAGOS – Achievement motivation 5 General Achievement Goal Orientation Scale and ISMR – Inventory of School Motivation) and Ma