Will Research on Leisure Constraints Still Be Relevant in the Twenty-first Century?

KEYWORDS: Leisure constraints The origins of research on leisure constraints can be traced back for at least a century, but it is only in the last two to three decades that social scientists in North America have conducted systematic research that has explicitly investigated the constraints which people encounter in fulfilling their leisure goals. The quantity of empirical research on constraints to leisure increased enormously in the 1980s, followed by efforts to consolidate what had been learned, by assessing the theoretical contributions and practical implications of this body of knowledge (Goodale & Witt, 1989; Jackson, 1988, 1991; Jackson & Scott, 1999; McGuire & O'Leary, 1992; Searle & Jackson, 1985) and developing theoretical propositions and conceptual models about the impact of constraints in people's lives (Crawford, Jackson, & Godbey, 1991; Henderson & Bialeschki, 1993; Jackson, Crawford, & Godbey, 1993). Recently, criticisms of this sub-field of leisure studies have been raised and serious concerns expressed about the validity and value of the "constraints paradigm" (e.g., Samdahl & Jekubovich, 1997). Thus, this collection of essays about leisure studies, and more generally, the approach of the new millennium, provide an opportune moment to ask, "Will research on leisure constraints still be relevant in the twenty-first century? " I will address the following questions: ( 1 ) What insights into leisure behavior has constraints research provided, and what are its benefits to scholars and practitioners? (2) What do we know about the operation of leisure constraints in people's lives? (3) What are the limitations and criticisms of constraints research, and what can be done to address them? (4) Should research on leisure constraints continue in the future, or has it "had its day"? Leisure Constraints Research: Objectives and Benefits Leisure constraints research aims to investigate "factors that are assumed by researchers and/or perceived or experienced by individuals to limit the formation of leisure preferences and/or to inhibit or prohibit participation and enjoyment in leisure" (modified from Jackson, 1991, 1997). On this basis, research can and should provide two direct sets of benefits, to research and to practice, and an indirect one in the form of education. As far as benefits to scholars are concerned, there are essentially three. First, the topic is of value and interest per se. In this regard, understanding individuals' leisure choices and behavior requires investigation of all the factors, both positive (e.g., motivations, anticipated benefits) and negative (barriers) that influence those choices. Moreover, if leisure is conceptualized as "perceived freedom," yet-as constraints research has consistently shownmost people are constrained at least to some extent in their leisure, then understanding constraints and their impacts should help scholars to sharpen their thinking about leisure. Also, investigation of constraints can help to explain why observed relationships among values and attitudes, leisure pref erences, and overt leisure behavior are frequently tenuous. Too, constraints research provides a way to bridge the traditionally dichotomized agency and structure frameworks of analysis and explanation (see Rojek, 1989), because external (e.g., social, political) forces can be conceived of and investigated as antecedent constraints for the individual, thus internalizing externalities and permitting them to be investigated using conventional social psychological research methods. Second, constraints research has assisted in generating new insights into aspects of leisure previously thought to be well understood, such as leisure participation, motivations, satisfaction, and conflict. Third, the field has provided a useful device for communication among researchers with diverse topical interests and methodological orientations. On the applied side, two questions raised by the organizers of the aborted 1999 conference, Rethinking Leisure in American Life, illustrate the potential practical value of leisure constraints research: "What can be done about the increasingly apparent problems of the organization of daily life, including the timing and tempo of school, work, free time and travel? …