The Game Lies in the Eye of the Beholder: The Influence of Expertise on Watching Soccer

The Game Lies in the Eye of the Beholder: The Influence of Expertise on Watching Soccer Michael Smuc (michael.smuc@donau-uni.ac.at) Eva Mayr (eva.mayr@donau-uni.ac.at) Florian Windhager (florian.windhager@donau-uni.ac.at) Research Center KnowComm, Danube University Krems, Dr.-Karl-Dorrek-Str. 30 3500 Krems, Austria Abstract The influence of expertise on viewing soccer matches is already an area of extensive research focusing on training. However, free viewing of soccer matches did receive less attention. In an explorative eye-tracking study we compared the viewing behavior of novices, amateur players, and professional players watching soccer scenes freely. Overall, novices seem to view a soccer match quite similar to professional players, whereas amateurs engage in more visual work. The viewing behavior differs when watching soccer freely or with a task in mind – a result worth a second glance. Keywords: Soccer, viewing behavior, eye tracking, expertise Introduction Watching soccer without the corresponding experience and domain knowledge is a real challenge. Without knowledge about standard situations and tactical behavior, an unskilled observer is restricted to following the ball’s trajectory mainly. On the other extreme, a good commentator is able to take in the whole scene at once and comment on the events and possible next moves. But what is it that enables an experienced soccer viewer to direct his or her attention more strategically and to take in more relevant information in comparison to an inexperienced one? To answer this question, we review existing research on eye-movements in sports and their relation to expertise. We present a study that compares the television viewing behavior of soccer laypersons, amateurs, and professional players. Eye-Movements in Watching Television In general, viewing television is a complex activity (Josephson & Holmes, 2006): A huge amount of information has to be processed at a speed, which cannot be controlled by the viewer. Kirkorian (2007) assumes that watching television is nearest to perceiving scenes (e.g., Henderson, 2007). Both convey complex visual stimuli, but instead of viewing only one scene, television includes a series of static frames. To examine visual information processing, eye tracking technology provides a means to observe a viewer’s point-of- gaze (e.g., Rayner, 1998). In the past, eye tracking focused mainly on scene perception and reading under laboratory conditions (Henderson, 2007; Rayner, 1998); only in the last years, applications in more everyday settings (e.g., Hayhoe & Ballard, 2005; Mayr, Knipfer, & Wessel, 2009) became possible with the emergence of more usable technology. Central eye-movement measures are fixations and saccades. Saccades are shifts from one point of gaze to another; fixations indicate visual attention to that information (Rayner, 1998). In scene perception, top-down and bottom-up influences control where one looks (Henderson, 2007). Bottom-up influences are stimulus- driven, whereas top-down influences are viewer-driven. Bottom-up influences are mainly based on the visual salience of the stimulus, i.e., color, saturation, and – which is especially important in television – movement (Mahapatra, Winkler, & Yen, 2008). Also, research on eye- movements during film watching shows that a high degree of the fixations is within the center of the screen (Goldstein, Woods, & Peli, 2007). An open question is whether this is due to a trend to fixate the center or due to movie making conventions placing the most relevant information in the center of the screen. Top-down influences on the other hand are a viewer’s knowledge about the stimulus, his or her domain knowledge, and his or her goals (Henderson, 2003). It was shown that expectations about camera angles, cuts and close-ups determine television viewing behavior (Kirkorian, 2007). These expectations are learned and, therefore, get stronger with viewing experience. Another top-down influence is the viewer’s domain knowledge. Chase and Simon (1973) showed that due to their higher knowledge on possible configurations experts in chess can easier create chunks of information. A similar mechanism can be assumed in soccer experts and was already shown to be influential (Ward & Williams, 2003). A third top-down influence is the existence of specific goals. Only little research exists on humans watching television freely, i.e. without any task or instruction (see Goldstein et al., 2007, for an exception). However, Spanne (2006) showed that similar to viewing natural scenes (DeAngelus & Pelz, 2009) viewing behavior of movies differs according to the task at hand and in free viewing. But until now no research on free viewing behavior in soccer exists. Rather, most research asked players to anticipate the next move, recall the players’ positions (e.g., Ward & Williams, 2003), or actively pass the ball (Helsen & Starkes, As watching soccer for leisure purposes is a free viewing condition, it has to be questioned whether existing research