Cultural heritage, ethics, and the military

century, ‘an extraordinary multitude of bodies, from the learned to the professional, the activist to the leisure-loving, had thus emerged’ (143). Part II addresses international meeting points, specifically international exhibitions and congresses. ‘At the world’s fair,’ Swenson observes, ‘the keepers of the past were provided with a prominent international arena through the grandest celebration of modern industrial progress’ (147). Swenson argues that exhibitions provided public spaces for people to present their versions of heritage. She focuses on exhibitions of historic monuments and restoration projects. Historic monument exhibitions could serve as weapons in a peaceful battle among nations at exhibitions. On the whole, they were more about winning political elites to support the cause of preservation rather than pleasing the great mass of the people. Critically, even as heritage makers asserted claims of national superiority, they also celebrated international understanding. Internationally attended meetings on monument care took place during the exhibitions and organisers ‘phrased their purpose according to the international aims expressed in the regulatory framework’ (193). The pre-World War I congresses, Swenson asserts, were significantly more international than their mid-twentieth century successors and their most lasting legacy was the ‘discursive link established between the protection of heritage and international understanding’ (236). Part III analyses the transnational campaigns of heritage makers and societies to change the fate of monuments in foreign countries. While some interventions were unilateral, many others relied on international collaborations involving heritage makers from a variety of countries. In her exploration of the complex legislative dimension of heritage, Swenson cautions readers that ‘none of the attempts to introduce legislation can be seen as purely from above. While opposition remained fierce and decisions about preservation remained contentious throughout the period, public opinion became in favour of legislation’ (286). Calls from the public to protect monuments often preceded government initiatives by decades and sometimes public demand exceeded government willingness to legislate. Therefore, there were both statist and civil components in the rise of heritage. Swenson contends ‘the idea that such a thing as a “national heritage” existed and that the state had to protect it was largely accepted on the eve of the First World War’ (327). The Rise of Heritage is a thought-provoking book. Swenson’s ability to work with sources in three languages – English, French, and German – is impressive. In addition, her point that ‘the rise of heritage cannot be understood without its transnational dimension’ (4) is most assuredly correct and very persuasive. However, at times it seems like the book might have benefitted from a slightly wider scope. Swenson mentions, occasionally, events in the United States. However, many of the debates she discusses occurred as well in the United States and including them might have enriched the argument. To be fair, however, this is already a very broad study and adding another country might not have been realistic. All that said, this book will appeal to anyone interested in European history, heritage, preservation, and international history.