Inferences on Criminality Based on Appearance

In this research study, we tested whether people can tell if someone is a criminal based on a photograph of the person’s face. The importance of the subject lies in the fact that many people are unfairly judged as criminals based on stereotypes such as race. In this study, we wished to eliminate race and see if any purely facial characteristics are stereotypically defined as criminal or if a person’s initial judgment is an accurate predictor of someone’s character. Extensive research has been dedicated to finding if people have facial features that portray some characteristic about them; this study will focus on criminality. Through the use of a face modulating program, neutral faced photographs were shown to participants with a question that asked if the person in the photograph is a criminal or not. The data gathered will be beneficial in either identifying facial features that are associated with criminals or that show the interesting phenomena of gut instinct. Inferences on Criminality Based on Appearance Past research has been conducted pointing to people’s ability to make accurate inferences about personality based on appearance. The research conducted has focused on both a person’s overall appearance and more specifically on which facial features affect one’s perceptions of the person’s personality. Though much research has focused on our ability to detect personality in general, little research has focused on a person’s ability to make inferences about criminality based on appearance. The focus of our study was to determine if people can detect whether or not a person is a criminal based on appearances. The aforementioned research alludes to the detection of criminality being possible through our abilities to make personality inferences based on overall appearance and, more specifically, which facial features affect our perceptions of personality traits. Perceptions matter, so understanding the human predisposition for making judgments based on outward characteristics is important if such biases are to be taken into account in areas such as hiring processes. BUTLER JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH, VOLUME 4 88 Detecting Personality Humans appear to have the striking ability to detect each other’s personalities simply by looking at one another. Petrican, Todorov, and Grady (2014) tested how strangers and spouses perceived certain personality traits, such as those from the Big Five Inventory, from the participants’ photographs. Researchers found that there was a high correlation between the characteristics detected by a stranger’s first impression and the features identified by the same person's spouse. They had the photographed participants provide a self-evaluation and those scores corresponded with both the strangers’ and the spouse’s responses. We tend to make inferences on what type of person someone is based on facial appearance. We tend to treat this person a certain way based off of this first impression. Wolffhechel et al. (2014) attempted to generate a more complete picture of the relationship between a person’s facial features and how the person’s personality is perceived through evaluation of a photograph. The researchers found that more attractive people were rated to have better personalities, women were rated to be more trustworthy, and men were rated to be more rationally stable (Wolffhechel et al., 2014). Others have evaluated how accurate first impressions are (Naumann, Vazire, Rentfrow, & Gosling, 2009). Researchers showed participants photographs of a person and asked them to rate the individual’s character traits. When judged by the participants, characteristics such as extraversion, emotional stability, openness, and self-esteem were able to accurately be detected from the neutral position, and judgments were more accurate when the photographs were in a posed position. Specific Facial Features Relating to Personality Traits Research has demonstrated that specific facial characteristics as well as gender stereotypes play a part in perceptions of a person’s personality attributes. Hack (2014) wanted to know whether gender played a part in a person’s perceived warmth. He had participants rate faces of smiling and non-smiling males and females. He found that smiling faces on average were considered warmer than nonsmiling faces. He also found that female smiling faces were perceived as warmer than male smiling faces. Certain facial features affect people’s perceptions of a person’s personality characteristics more than others. Paunonen, Ewan, Earthy, Lefave, and Goldberg (1999) set out to find which facial features affected these perceptions. After using facial manipulation software, they had participants rate the untouched and BUTLER JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH, VOLUME 4 89 computer-edited versions of faces for different personality characteristics. The results showed that people with larger eyes give off more friendly impressions related to nurturing, honesty, likability, empathy, agreeableness, popularity, and extraversion. Smaller eyes gave impressions of masculinity, dominance, and strength. Similarly, Todorov, Baron, and Oosterhov (2008) explored how facial features may be linked to perception of one’s trustworthiness. Using facial manipulation software, they edited eyebrows, cheekbones, chins, and noses, and had participants judge the trustworthiness of the edited and unedited faces. They found that low inner eyebrows, shallow cheekbones, and thin chins were perceived traits of an untrustworthy face. Later, Flowe (2012) looked at whether a 2D face evaluation model could account for why some faces are more criminal-looking than others. Participants rated different aspects of a person pictured, such as emotional state, personality traits, and criminality. The facial expressions of the people pictured varied. Results demonstrated that angry faces were rated as appearing most criminal, then neutral, followed by happy faces. Neutral faces were also perceived as being less trustworthy if the neutral face appeared angry. The males and females who were rated high in criminal appearance were also perceived as being less trustworthy and more dominant. In conjunction with the aforementioned study, this suggests that people with low inner eyebrows, shallow cheekbones, thin chins, and small eyes give stronger impressions of anger, criminality, and untrustworthiness. Physical Characteristics Associated with Criminals We have discussed the accuracy of people’s ability to determine others’ personality traits, but often certain physical characteristics that are not facial features determine someone’s impression of another person. For example, does facial hair play a significant role in influencing impression formation? Reed and Blunk (1990) focused on determining if facial hair affected others’ perceptions of one’s credibility, competency, and other personal attributes. They found that facial hair positively contributed to impressions of social/physical attractiveness, personality, competence, and composure (Reed & Blunk, 1990). They also found that females rated males with facial hair more positively than other males did. Again and again we see that people tend to form their impressions of a person’s character based on race, attractiveness, age, and sex, all of which can truly impact our first impressions of the people we meet. Adams et al. (2012) believed that ultimately no one sees a face as neutral, but because of certain characteristics such as race, age, and sex, a face takes on an emotional tone. In fact, characteristics BUTLER JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH, VOLUME 4 90 such as age, race, and sex were associated with a specific emotion that the respondents perceived from a photograph (Adams et al., 2012). Looking more closely at race, Kleider, Cavrak, and Kniycky (2012) delved into the stereotypes associated with criminality, particularly toward black males, by having participants act as casting directors. The results demonstrated that the pictures of black males with more stereotypically black features were significantly more likely to be cast as a drug dealer than pictures of white males. Detecting Criminality Due to the bias that exists from labeling and stereotypes, some researchers have attempted to examine whether people can accurately predict someone’s criminality based on a photograph when various confounding factors are eliminated. Focusing on criminals that were white males to eliminate racial and gender bias, Thornton (1939) had participants take a test to determine what crime the person photographed had committed from a list of four. The photographs portrayed the faces of males and showed no clothing, but the researcher commented that objects such as accessories or facial hair could have influenced the results. The findings showed that there was a significant degree of correct responses as opposed to incorrect responses. Similarly, but with some key changes, Valla, Ceci, and Williams (2011) asked participants if a person in a photograph was a criminal and if they were or were not violent. To accomplish this, the experimenters obtained photographs of criminals and non-criminals and then asked the participants to rate how likely the person shown was to be a criminal and whether the person was violent or nonviolent. In contrast to Thornton (1939), the results did not support the hypothesis that participants could tell the difference between a violent or nonviolent criminal, but participants could tell the difference between a criminal and non-criminal. This study also considered the question of whether women could spot a rapist, and the answer was no. Previous research has shown that the more detailed the questions of the experiment, the less likely that people will answer them correctly. Some of the studies had a significant degree of accuracy but others did not, which may be attributable to factors like glasses or facial hair on the person in the picture and the compl