911 Dispatchers: Their Role as Evidence Collectors

4 Introduction . 5 Memory Conformity . 6 Source-Monitoring & Leading Questions . 9 Delayed Recall . 11 Memory Conformity and the Law . 12 Current Study . 14 Methods . 14 Participants . 14 Materials . 15 Procedure . 17 Results . 18 Work Experience . 18 Role of a Dispatcher . 18 Eyewitness Knowledge . 20 Training, Practice, and Policy . 23 Obtaining a Perpetrator’s Description: Training and Practice . 25 Discussion . 29 References . 35 Appendix A . 40 Appendix B . 41 Appendix C . 47 DISPATCHERS AS EVIDENCE COLLECTORS 3 Appendix D. 49 Appendix E . 51 DISPATCHERS AS EVIDENCE COLLECTORS 4 Abstract 911 dispatchers are often the first point of contact after an individual is in an accident, needs emergency assistance, or witnesses a crime. In an emergency involving a crime, a dispatcher can play an important role in assisting the investigative process and collecting evidence, such as an eyewitness’ description of the suspect. While trained in how to gather situational and locational information from a caller so that relevant first responders can be notified, dispatchers may not be911 dispatchers are often the first point of contact after an individual is in an accident, needs emergency assistance, or witnesses a crime. In an emergency involving a crime, a dispatcher can play an important role in assisting the investigative process and collecting evidence, such as an eyewitness’ description of the suspect. While trained in how to gather situational and locational information from a caller so that relevant first responders can be notified, dispatchers may not be trained on how the specific language they use with a caller can impact the caller’s memory for the event. Thus, if dispatchers are not being trained on how to interview witnesses, it is possible that dispatchers may engage in the use of techniques and practices, such as asking leading questions, which may potentially result in the alteration or contamination of an eyewitness’ memory. To date, published research has not examined dispatchers’ training and knowledge of the potential influences they could have on an eyewitness’ memory and recollections of an event. The current study aimed to fill in this knowledge gap through a survey methodology of 911 dispatchers in three jurisdictions in the United States. The results demonstrated that while a majority of the respondents had received over 26 hours of job training, and are required to complete additional training throughout their career, they had insufficient knowledge of the factors that influence eyewitness accuracy. A majority of the participants recognized their role as an evidence collector, however, they did not recognize the potential harm that “leading” language can have on memory, as well as the susceptibility of an eyewitness’ memory to contamination. Future directions are discussed. DISPATCHERS AS EVIDENCE COLLECTORS 5 911 Dispatchers: Their Role as Evidence Collectors There are approximately 240 million calls made annually to 911 in the United States (91-1 Statistics, 2015). With this volume of calls, it is crucial that 911 dispatchers are trained to handle virtually any scenario and provide the appropriate services in a timely manner. Beyond this, dispatchers also need to understand that their communications and use of language are important when gathering information from callers. A call to 911 is often the first opportunity to gather information about a crime, resulting in dispatchers performing the role of evidence collector. Their role as evidence collectors shares some similarities with that of a detective at a scene of a crime; dispatchers are responsible for gathering information about the perpetrator(s) and about the event itself. However, depending on the state and agency where a dispatcher works, the job requirements and training will differ and this could result in significant variance in the type and amount of information the dispatcher is trained to ask a caller (911 Dispatcher, 2016). In many criminal investigations, a witness’ memory can be essential in helping identify a suspect and uncovering the facts of a crime. Therefore, it is crucial that dispatchers are trained to ask appropriate and specific questions of callers so that a witness’ memory report can be as accurate as possible. Training would likely increase the probability that, the information being dispatched to (responding) officers is as accurate as possible and that the memory of the witness is preserved soon after the crime (via audio recording). These issues raise the question of how well dispatchers are trained to gather this information from eyewitnesses to a crime? 1 The terms 911 dispatcher and 911 operator are often used interchangeably. In some jurisdictions in the United States, however, callers do not call 911 but rather a 7-digit local phone number. For clarity, the term dispatcher will be used in this thesis to refer to the individual who answers an emergency call. DISPATCHERS AS EVIDENCE COLLECTORS 6 Information about dispatchers’ job duties and job description is readily available (911 Dispatcher, 2016), but there is limited information regarding their training in regards to questioning and communication techniques with witnesses. This is important because research has shown that the wording (Harris, 1973; Loftus, 1975; Loftus & Palmer, 1974), structure, and style of questions (Leding, 2012; Lindsay, 1990; Sharman & Powell, 2012) can all potentially influence memory. In addition, memory becomes more susceptible to errors over time and thus it is essential to gather information about a witness’ memory of a crime as quickly as possible. This puts dispatchers in a unique position in the criminal justice system in that they are the most likely person to speak with witnesses immediately after a crime. Thus, there is a need for dispatchers to understand the ways in which time can affect memory and recognize that the first callers relating to an incident may have the best memories for the event (e.g., they were closest the scene or the most closely involved). As time passes and more calls come in, the information provided by callers may be secondhand or influenced by discussions with other witnesses at the scene. The current study therefore examined dispatcher’s training in their role as evidence collectors, their knowledge of factors that can influence eyewitness accuracy, and their understanding of how their choice of words can impact a person’s memory.