Cultural Perspectives on Classroom Assessment: A Path Toward the “Japanese Assessment for Learning Network"

There is no doubt that education in the 21st-century is a dynamic and stimulating area. Students and teachers are now engaging in dialogues of unprecedented complexity in response to changing times, needs, and social groupings, and no nation is exempt from this process. The 21st century global economy is knowledge-based, as it is driven by information and skills that contribute to an accelerated pace of technical and scientific advancements, as well as rapid obsolescence. Educational practice itself is therefore in a state of great transition as many nations are modifying their teaching and learning activities in an effort to promote performance. One such measure, termed formative assessment, is a classroom assessment practice that is becoming the heart of the educational framework. This practice promotes continuous learning and assessment dialogue between students and their teachers, along with their peers in a learning community. article explores how classroom assessments are embedded into the instructional process around the world and details Japanese perspectives on classroom learning and assessment in an international context. In doing so, the impact of the development of the Japanese Assessment for Learning Network (JAfLN) is discussed. The JAfLN would become a non-profit organization that connects Japanese people who are interested in the use of assessment for learning and the development of related policies and research in education. In preparation for writing this article, the first author, Masahiro Arimoto, participated in the International Symposium on Classroom Assessment and Assessment for Learning (AfL) held on April 8–12, 2014, in Fredericton, New Brunswick in Canada. This international symposium Cultural Perspectives on Classroom Assessment: A Path Toward the “Japanese Assessment for Learning Network” Masahiro ARIMOTO (Professor, Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University) Ian CLARK (Professor, Nagoya University of Commerce and Business) Saye YAMAMOTO (Graduate Student, Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University) Masamitsu SHINKAWA (Graduate Student, Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University) 年報04有本氏ほか-初[43-64]. indd 41 2015/02/26 10:35:52 ― ― 42 Cultural Perspectives on Classroom Assessment inspired the writing of this article as a development of the existing literature, and in an effort to explore perspectives on classroom teaching and learning in Japan as well as in other nations (Arimoto, 1995; Arimoto & Ishimori, 2013). Characterized as a powerful series of conversations and dialogues, the symposium was an open forum where academics and practitioners gathered to share their work, ideas, projects, and best practices on formative classroom assessment described by Brookhart (2007) as a process that “gives teachers information for instructional decisions and gives pupils information for improvement” (p. 43). Discussion took place under three broad umbrellas—policy, professional learning, and research. The participants were teams of experts from six areas across the globe: Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, and continental Europe. This year independent delegates were invited from Singapore. One of the conclusions drawn was that assessment is a matter of culture, as indicated by the following remark: “I would have liked to learn more about Japanese cultural aspects that, as I sense, could be conducive for successful implementation of AfL”. Another noteworthy comment about the relationship between culture and formative assessment is as follows: “I think you are right that certain aspects of Japanese culture, such as a belief in kaizen would be especially supportive of the development of formative assessments. Indeed, many aspects of formative assessment are already incorporated into Japanese lesson study, although they are often not well developed”. Kaizen refers to the Japanese concept of continuous improvement through profound introspection, and it is one of many values deeply rooted in Japanese culture—and therefore affects teaching and learning in Japan. In July of 2008, experts from the Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) met to discuss key competencies of formative assessment. According to Janet Looney, now Director of the European Institute of Education and Social Policy (EIESP), the seminar was the first of its kind to be held in Asia. Issues relating to the implementation of formative assessment were further developed at the OECD’s 2012 seminar in Japan. It was there that Canadian researcher and former advisor to the Canadian prime minister on educational matters, Michael Fullan, advised Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) “not to rely on increasing accountability by relying on check and improve cycles unless they are embedded in the day-to-day work. ” At a follow-up seminar held by the OECD in Sendai, Japan, Andreas Schleicher, the Director for Education and Skills and Special Advisor on Education Policy to the Secretary-General of the OECD, highlighted the importance of 21st century learning skills required for the acquisition of lifelong learning competencies. This article emphasizes cultural context and examines the theory and practice of classroom assessments designed to support the acquisition of lifelong learning skills in Japanese and 年報04有本氏ほか-初[43-64]. indd 42 2015/02/26 10:35:52 ― ― 43 Annual Bulletin, Graduate School of Education, Tohoku University Volume 1 Western cultures. Understanding the importance of culture in Japanese schools requires the reader to understand that Japan is a process-oriented society. As a nation, Japan is a reflective society, self-aware but within the means of their cultural identity, as “they are alert to the end to maintain their own cultural values and practices at the core of any new system adopted. They regard culture as an integral, dynamic part of their society and economy” (Fereshteh, 1992, p. 23). Cultural Perspectives on Classroom Assessment Many of the instructional practices that have advanced as intrinsically motivating and, therefore, facilitate higher-order thinking and learning are inherent in socio-constructivist learning environments (Walker, 2010). One such practice is known as formative assessment, which is an assessment process that serves teachers and students so that sound instructional decisions are made and next steps for effective learning may be planned and implemented collectively. It also provides scaffolded assistance in taking the next steps toward improving students’ work. The notion of scaffolding, first presented in the foundational socioconstructivist work of Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) is an assisted type of learning “best understood as involving mutual adjustment and appropriation of ideas” (Goos, Galbraith, & Renshaw, 2002, p. 195). The practice of scaffolding supports a socially interactive and cognitively flexible approach to thinking, learning, and problem-solving that resides at the center of 21st century education (Black & William, 2006; Clark, 2012). It is, therefore, important to understand how school staff interacts with learners and parents, in order to gather and use evidence of learning to deliver consistent and effective classroom assessments that support lifelong learning capacities (Clark, 2012; 2014). In Japan, the Central Council for Education (1996) also emphasizes the role of parents, stressing that if “competences for positive living” are to be cultivated, it is important for schools, parents, and the community to work together as partners (as cited in Shinkawa & Arimoto, 2012, p. 62). In their book Preparing Teachers for a Changing World, American researchers Bransford, Derry, Berliner, Hammerness, and Beckett (2005) explain the qualities of effective classroom assessors, with the goal of teachers becoming adaptive experts. Adaptive experts access written information sources, solve problems collaboratively, experiment with their environments, and create new ideas to see if improvements in their own professional practice further learning. For students to become effective learners, they need to observe and interact with school staff who compose relationships characterized by flexible and innovative applications of knowledge (Eisner, 2005). Working alongside adults in this type of learning environment prepares students to be confident learners who are capable of making good decisions inside, outside, and beyond school (Black & William, 2009; Bransford et al., 2005; Scottish Government, 2011; Vogt & Rogalla, 2009). 年報04有本氏ほか-初[43-64]. indd 43 2015/02/26 10:35:52 ― ― 44 Cultural Perspectives on Classroom Assessment The connection between curricula that drives formative assessment practices and the acquisition of lifelong learning capacities has been established by the OECD (OECD, 2005; the Japanese translation of this book was supervised by the lead author of this paper in 2008) among others (e.g., Black & William, 2009; Clark, 2012; Stiggins, 2007). In the formative assessment classroom, students are building their understanding of new concepts, not only with their teachers but with each other, in order to assess the quality of their own and their peers’ work against well-defined criteria. When students are actively engaged in such activities, they are developing invaluable skills for lifelong learning (OECD, 2005). The purpose of this interactive assessment is to create visible evidence of learning and provide immediate yet reliable feedback to school staff, learners, and parents about the standards that have been achieved and the next steps for improvement. The methods employed to reveal student understanding, making it visible as assessment evidence, reside in the theories of learning collectively known as the sociocultural theory arising from the foundational work of Russian developmental psychologist L. S. Vygotsky (1896–1934). However, in Japan, the prescriptive rules of soci