The Effects of writing about positive reminiscence on happiness with adolescents

Much research has been done with adults in the field ofpositive psychology (e.g., Biswas-Diener, Diener, & Tamir, 2004; Lykken & Tellegen, 1996; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005), reminiscence (e.g., Cappeliez & O'Rourke, 2006; Parker, 1995; Unruh, 1989), and journal writing (e.g., Classen, Koopman, & Spiegel, 1993; Gerler, Hogan, & O'Rourke, 1990; Pennebaker, 1997). Previous findings reveal that reminiscing about positive memories enhances one's happiness, well-being, life satisfaction, and self-continuity. The current study sought to expand this to adolescence. A group of 19 male and female ninth graders from a northeastern, suburban high school were assigned to a positive reminiscence or a daily hassles journal writing group. Analyses revealed significant effects on participants' positive affect; journal writing in general and specifically writing only about positive memories both significantly increased participants' ratings of perceived positive affect. However, no other significant effects were found on happiness or life satisfaction when writing about positive memories or daily hassles were compared. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed. Positive Reminiscence 4 CHAPTER ONE Certain activities can be practiced that may help an individual invoke past memories and allow one to re-experience the associated feelings in the present (Parker, 1995). The most simplistic form of this type of activity is termed reminiscence. At the other end of the continuum is life review, a more complex function that includes attempting to create a sense of order around one's life (Unruh, 1989). As an individual organizes past events, congruency between one's personal past and present self emerges. Also on the reminiscence continuum are personal narratives: stories created by individuals in the hopes of providing an explanation for one's behaviors (Baumeister & Newman, 1994). The sequencing of one's story may be provisional. This temporary characteristic allows an individual the power to change or reinterpret past events for different situations. For example, an individual's personal narrative may be altered from the one used to feel a sense of identity to another used to feel self-confident or to problem solve. Individuals construct new narratives and restructure old ones as they progress through life. The act of reminiscing to promote positive self feelings has been tied to physical health and significantly linked with one's well-being (Cappeliez & O'Rourke, 2006). Memories that increase one's self-understanding and self-awareness are those that provide meaning and selfcontinuity, thus helping to increase an individual's positive self feelings. Researchers have found evidence supporting certain personality characteristics that promote the positive effects of reminiscence, such as those persons who tend to be open and cognizant (Fry, 1991). In addition, one's overall attitude towards life in general has been linked with an individual's frequency of reminiscence (Cappeliez & O'Rourke, 2002). Positive Reminiscence 5 In light of this abundance of research On the effects of reminiscence related activities, very little of it has been conducted examining the effects with adolescents. Some researchers still question the ability of an adolescent mind to use reminiscence to form a logical life story (Habermas & Bluck, 2000). In contrast, others assert that the adolescent time period is exactly when one's life story emerges (Habermas & Bluck). These researchers believe that various cognitive abilities are developing throughout adolescence that are, in fact, sufficient to make possible autobiographical reasoning. Moreover, supporting researchers have deliberately made it a point to acknowledge the main focus of adolescence: identity exploration (Gerler, Hogan, & O'Rourke, 1990). As youths are bombarded with choices and new situations, they often feel overwhelmed with confusion and pressure to make personally consistent decisions. An adolescent who is more self-aware is better able to develop his self-understanding and self-direction. The current study seeks to add to the literature surrounding adolescents' abilities to reminisce by evaluating an intervention that promotes identity exploration through the process of reviewing one's past events. In another area of the field of psychology, there is growing excitement as empirically based practices utilizing reminiscence for increasing happiness are being explored in adults (Seligman, 2004). Intentional activities appear to account for up to 40% of one's happiness (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005). Specifically, reminiscence strategies are shown to increaseadults' happiness levels and well-being (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Meehan, Durlak, & Bryant, 1993). In light of these new findings, researchers have yet to fully explore the effects of intentional activities on adolescents' happiness levels. Therapeutic journals are one tool many researchers have identified as providing individuals with a limitless atmosphere for personal reflection and growth (Gerler et al., 1990; Positive Reminiscence 6 Kelly & Mosher-Ashley, 2002; Unruh, 1989). Journals provide an individual with the means to externalize his fears and anxieties, and thus reduce his stress levels (Smyth, Stone, & Kaell, 1999). Some research about journal writing has been done with the adolescent age group as a means to reduce stress (Pennebaker, 1997; Srnyth et al., 1999), but the field has yet to examine adolescent journal writing as a means to increase happiness. The purpose of the present study is to add to the literature of reminiscence in adolescence. As journaling about positive memories appears to increase adults' perceived levels of happiness and increase feelings ofwell-being, the same is hypothesized for adolescents. Therefore, the first hypothesis of the current study is that journal writing in general will have a positive effect on adolescents' happiness, life satisfaction, and affect. The second hypothesis is that recording past memories that specifically reflect positive emotions in personal journals will raise adolescents' frequencies of reported happiness, overall life satisfaction, and affect. There are a few definitions that must be discussed to aid in the understanding of the current research. Many authors have described reminiscence and hence, there are many different descriptions of it. Here, a more simplistic view of reminiscence offered by Parker (1995) was used. She described reminiscence as the voluntary recall of a past event. The current study utilized the Subjective Happiness Scale developed by Lyubomirsky & Lepper (1999) to measure participants' levels of happiness. Lyubomirsky and Lepper envisioned their scale to delve deeper into the psychological phenomenon ofhappiness; to go further than a summarized rating ofwhether the majority of a person's recent events were pleasurable or unpleasant. In other words, a person who has experienced many of the positive characteristics of a happy American life, such as ". good health, a good marriage, raising children, having a satisfying career. might not psychologicallyfeel happy (Lyubomirsky & Lepper). Life satisfaction, as measured Positive Reminiscence 7 here by Huebner's (1994) Multidimensional Students' Life Satisfaction Scale, is the subjective and qualitative appraisal ofone's life as a whole. Determining satisfaction of any sort requires complex, cognitive evaluation. Positive and negative affect, however, are the more simple emotive reactions; the frequencies with which one experiences emotions such as joy or sadness. Finally, journal writing here was described as a solitary process that takes place silently. Participants recorded personal thoughts in their own private journals that no one had access to. Positive Reminiscence 8 CHAPTER TWO The Effects ofWriting about Positive Reminiscence on Happiness with Adolescents The majority of research studying the effects of reminiscence has been carried out to the almost full exclusion of adolescents. This section will discuss and synthesize the current research conducted with adults, highlighting the benefits brought on by reminiscence and life review activities. Common definitions of reminiscence and its related activities will be clarified, while relevant theories of autobiographical reasoning, happiness, adolescent development, and journaling will be discussed. Additionally, the question ofwhether or not adolescents are capable of reminiscing in order to reap similar health benefits as adults will be discussed. Reminiscence has many definitions and impressions among researchers in the field. Parker (1995) summarized reminiscence as a voluntary act in which one's events from the past are mentally recalled. Reminiscing may be done with the intention ofmerely reliving the memory, known as informative reminiscence, or for the more effortful purpose of restructuring the event and making sense of its emotions, termed life review. These various forms of reminiscing require different levels of cognitive effort. Other theorists have attempted to specifically define reminiscence as separate from the life review process. Following a social psychological view of reminiscence, Unruh (1989) described the act of reminiscing as a second order reinterpretation of detailed memories that have lost their everyday stability and continuity. These partial reconstructions are embedded in situations conjured up by present happenings. Simple memories transcend into reminiscence where they are tied together to construct situations surrounding people as dynamic elements. Under this social psychological theory, life review is seen as the next step, a third order