Comparing Parents of Children With Down Syndrome at Different Life Span Stages

Understanding changes in coping and satisfaction (life and relationship satisfaction) is important given the fluctuations in well-being for parents of children across the life span. In general, a U-shaped curve has been found for psychological well-being across life, as the stressors associated with midlife may lead to dips in well-being (Blanchflower & Oswald, 2008). For parents, a U -shaped trajectory of relationship satisfaction has also been found in the general population, as the early years of parenthood are associated with difficulty due to the adjustment to the transition of having a child, but this relationship satisfaction has been found to improve as the child grows older (e.g., Anderson, Russell, & Schumm, 1983; Keizer & Schenk, 2012; Steinberg & Silverberg, 1987). This improvement may be indicative of adaptive coping as well as the increasing independence of an aging child. In fact, although relationship satisfaction, as well as other indicators of overall well-being, may fluctuate across time (e.g., Whitton, Rhoades, & Whisman, 2014), it has generally been found to improve with "emptying the nest" (see Hansen, 2012), as children become more independent and launch into adulthood.The research on psychological well-being and life satisfaction for parents in the general population over time has been mixed and likely depends on numerous factors, such as age, period of development being compared, as well as other strains (see Nelson, Kushlev, & Lyubomirsky, 2014). Furthermore, life satisfaction has been found to fluctuate over the transition to parenthood alone, with an initial boost at the birth of a child and a subsequent decline to pre-pregnancy levels over the first few years (Dyrdal & Lucas, 2013; see also Luhmann, Hofmann, Eid, & Lucas, 2012). Thus, phases of well-being at different life span stages, particularly for parents of children with disabilities, warrants further attention.WELL-BEING AT DIFFERENT LIFE SPAN STAGES FOR PARENTS OF CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIESDown syndrome (DS) is one of the most common causes of intellectual disability (Canfield et al., 2006), affecting an estimated 5,400 infants every year (Sherman, Allen, Bean, & Freeman, 2007), with an estimated 98,000 children in the United States diagnosed with DS (McGrath, Stransky, Cooley, & Moeschler, 2011). A recent study of 10 large regions in the United States found that prevalence of DS at birth had increased from 9.0 to 11.8 per 10,000 live births from 1979 to 2003 (Shin et al., 2009). Until recently, the quality of life of parents of children with disabilities has been overlooked in research. Parenting a child with a disability can force a reexamination of belief systems for parents (King et al., 2006). Kausar, Jevne, and Sobsey (2003) found that hope enables a positive transformation that helps parents reframe their lives by undergoing positive personal growth from parenting a child with a disability.Although the overall impact of parenting a child with a disability can be stressful, the impact may be less severe than what is often assumed (Risdal & Singer, 2004). In reality, problems and stress have been shown to be lower in families of children with DS than families of children with other disabilities (e.g., Fidler, Hodapp, & Dykens, 2000; Smith, Romski, Sevcik, Adamson, & Barker, 2014). Although some literature indicates a negative impact on the couple relationship for parents of a child with a disability (Hartley et al., 2010; Risdal & Singer, 2004), the marital relationship has been identified as important to parental coping and well-being (Kersh, Hedvat, Hauser-Cram, & Warfield, 2006). Thus, whereas some parents of children with developmental disabilities, including DS, may show differences in stress and coping (Roach, Orsmond, & Barratt, 1999; Woodman, 2014), others have shown no significant differences in individual and relationship functioning when compared to families of children without a disability (Freedman, Kalb, Zablotsky, & Stuart, 2012; van Riper, Ryff, & Pridham, 1992), indicating these families may be more similar in their well-being. …