Learning by Analogies: Implications for Performance and Attentional Processes Under Pressure

Purpose. According to the self-focus theory of choking under pressure, conscious control of automated processes leads to a disruption of movement execution and deterioration in performance. In this study we examined whether analogy learning is a method to prevent choking under pressure. Basic procedures. Novice golfers learned the full swing over a period of six weeks either in a traditional way with technical instructions or with analogy instructions. their performances were assessed in an indoor golf simulator. Attentional processes were measured using a dual task paradigm. Different kinds of learning instructions are linked to measures of skill-focused attention under low and high pressure conditions. Main findings. Performance scores in the dual task show that pressure leads to an increase in skill-focused attention of the techni cal learning group, compared to a decrease in skill-focused attention of the analogy learning group. Conclusions. Attentional processes under pressure are related to the method (analogy vs. technical instructions) implemented in the learning phase. key words: motor learning, implicit learning, attentional processes L. Schücker et al., Learning the full swing in golf by analogies 192 Self-focus explanations for choking in sensorimotor skills Explicit monitoring theories have received support from studies directly manipulating the focus of attention as well as from training studies which provide indirect support for a self-focus explanation of choking. Results in various sensorimotor skill domains show that directing attention to the execution of well learned motor tasks leads to deterioration in performance. For example, Beilock et al. [9] studied this effect in golf putting and dribbling with a soccer ball. In both sports, they found that an internal focus of attention led to performance decrements for experienced players on behavioral measures (higher number of strokes per holes in golf and slower completion of a dribbling course in soccer). Similar effects were found in baseball [10], in soccer [11] and in field hockey [12]. These studies typically manipulate attention focus by the use of dual task paradigms. The secondary task either directs attention to external stimuli (subjects, for example, have to perform an auditory monitoring task) or to skill execution (subjects, for example, monitor the side of the foot that most recently contacted the ball in a dribbling task) [9]. For skilled performers, attention to the step-by-step con trol of proceduralized skills leads to poorer performance, whereas a focus on external stimuli does not harm performance. Beilock et al. [13] used a different kind of manipulation to investigate attentional focus effects. Novice and expert golfers were instructed to either emphasise accuracy or speed while executing a series of putts. Experts putted more accurately under speed instructions, whereas novices were more accurate under accuracy instructions. Speed instructions intended to reduce the time to explicitly monitored movement execution. Hence, the automated skill of an expert be nefits from instructions that limit attention to perform ance execution. According to Masters and colleagues [14, 15] an inward focusing of attention leads to conscious processing of explicit knowledge with the result of an isolated concentration on specific components of the movement. As a consequence, the overall sequence of the movement is disturbed and not executed smoothly. Masters [14] terms this explanation the “reinvestment hypothesis”. Beilock and Carr [1] talk about dete rio ration in performance through explicit monitoring or execution focus theories. Attention on the step-by-step control of an automated movement leads to its breakdown. Wulf and colleagues [e.g. 16 – 18] have conducted a series of studies on the attentional focus effect. Their explanation is the “constraint action hypothesis” which is less cognitive in nature than Master’s [14] rein vestment hypothesis. The constraint action hypothesis assumes that the conscious control of a movement leads to a constraint of the motor system by interfering with auto matic “processes that would ‘normally’ regulate” move ment coordination [17, p. 6]. Support for this expla na tion comes from studies using electromyo graphic (EMG) outcome measures [e.g. 16, 19]. Although these explanations (rein vestment, explicit monitoring or constraint action) propose different specific pro cesses, they all have in common that an inward focus on movement execution disrupts automated processes, which leads to dete rio ration in performance. The question is whether the previously described atten tional focus effect applies to skilled perform ance when executed under high amounts of pressure. Training studies provide indirect evidence for an inward shift of attention on movement execution in pressure si tua tions. Beilock and Carr [1, Experiment 4] examined whether practice in dealing with self-focused attention or training in a dual task environment would reduce choking under pressure. Participants practiced the golf putt under three different learning conditions and were then exposed to a pressure situation. The conditions were single task, dual task (auditory monitoring) or self-con sciousness (participants were videotaped in order to direct attention to themselves and their performance). Beilock and Carr found that performance decrements in a pressure situation were eliminated by self-con sciou sness training [1]. They concluded that training under internal focus conditions helps performers to adapt to the type of attentional focus that occurs under pressure. Lewis and Linder [8] had used this study design before and also found that learning a skill in a self-conscious ness environment prevents performers from choking. Important insight into the underlying attentional processes of choking comes from a study conducted by Gray [20]. He directly investigated the effects of performance pressure in a baseball batting task. College baseball players batted under two different dual task conditions (judging tone frequency or direction of bat movement on tone presentation). When placed under pressure the level of skill-focused attention was significantly higher, indicated by better performance in the skill-focused dual task: Participants judged the direction of bat movement significantly more correctly in the pressure condition compared to a control group who performed the dual task without pressure. There was no difference in the tone judgement task. The increase in skill-focused attention was associated with degradation in batting performance as well as changes in batting kinematics. This finding provides the first direct evidence L. Schücker et al., Learning the full swing in golf by analogies 193 that choking under pressure is caused by an inward shift of attentional focus as proposed by Baumeister [2]. Jackson and Willson [21] proposed a method to prevent the reinvestment of explicit rules under pressu re. This method holds thinking of a global cue rather than thinking about detailed technical rules. Experienced gol fers had to put under conditions of low and high state anxiety. A set of different attentional strategies was given, including a swing thought condition. Parti cipants’ putting performance was assessed. Choking un der pressure was significantly reduced when participants verbalised a single global cue word (swing thought). In a recent study it was also shown that a swing thought con dition reduced choking under pressure [4]. Implicit learning to prevent choking under pressure Masters [14] relates an inward shift of attention to conscious processing of explicit knowledge of how the skill works. More specifically he talks about reinvestment of conscious knowledge under high amounts of stress. Explicit knowledge about movement execution includes technical know-how and rules about the movement processes. Beilock and Carr [1, Experiment 1] were able to demonstrate an effect of level of expertise on the amount and content of generic and episodic know ledge of golf putting. Reduced episodic memories of specific putts in golf among experts indicate that performance is controlled by automated procedural knowledge. According to explicit monitoring theories of choking, this proceduralization makes performance vu lner able to deterioration of performance under pressure. An approach to prevent choking is the attempt to avoid the build-up of a conscious representation about the movement process during the learning phase. Two types of learning theories that operate without explicit knowledge have been reported in the literature: implicit learning and the related analogy learning. In the former type of learning a skill is acquired without knowledge of explicit rules, but rather learned along the way without necessarily intending to do so. In Masters’ [14] expe riment subjects learned a golf putting skill either explicitly or implicitly and their performances were assessed under stress in a post-test condition. The hypothesis that performers with a small amount of explicit knowledge were less prone to choking was supported by the results. However, by implicit learning the learning progress will take a long way as no rules or other aids to acquire the skill are given. An alternative is provided by analogy learning. Analogy learning in sport operates with biomechanical metaphors or metaphors of motion instead of explicit rules and technical know-how. Masters [22] states the following: “The aim is to get the pupil to perform the to-be-learned skill using one general analogical rule which acts as a biomechanical metaphor encompassing many of the technical rules necessary for successful execution of the skill. The learner follows this simple analogy and inadvertently employs these camouflaged rules” [22, p. 538]. Liao and Masters [23] examined the hypothesis that analogy learning is implicit in nature and will therefore show similar charac