The Adolescent Age Transition and the Impact of Physical Activity on Perceptions of Success, Self-Esteem and Well-Being

IntroductionPhysical fitness has been defined as the result of body movement that is generated by muscle action that increases energy expenditure (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2001). Physical activity is known to be an important factor in promoting health and physical efficiency (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010; Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010). Childhood and adolescence represent crucial moments of life, and lifestyles and healthy or unhealthy behaviours established at these ages may affect health conditions in adulthood (Ortega, Ruiz, Castillo & Sjostrom, 2008). It has been demonstrated that physical fitness determines lifestyle in terms of motor performance and individual's state of health, and this information has led to considerable research that has focused on varying these factors in adolescents (Catley & Tomkinson, 2013; Sandercock, Voss, Cohen, Taylor & Stasinopoulos, 2012; Sauka et al., 2011). The quantity and quality of studies relating to child and adolescent physical activity and sedentary behaviour have rapidly increased, but research directions have been often pursued in a reactive and uncoordinated manner. Adolescents today live in an environment in which opportunities for physical inactivity are increasingly common. They ride to school and colleges rather than walk or bike, many schools are reducing or eliminating physical education classes and time for recess, many parents are afraid to let their children play outside, and labour-saving devices abound. Screens (television, videos, computers, video games, mobile phones) are all around us, and "screen time" is an important component of daily life, which excessively hampers regular participation in games, sports and activity-based recreational programmes. One important social cognitive viewpoint is achievement goal analysis that is derived from independent and collaborative classroom-based research (Nicholls, 1980, 1984, 1989; Dweck & Elliott, 1983; Maehr, 1984; Dweck, 1986; Maehr & Braskamp, 1986; Ames, 1992; Ames & Archer, 1987). This framework is built on the assumption that the individual is an intentional, goal-directed person who operates in a rational manner and that the achievement of goals guides subsequent decision making and behaviour in achievement oriented environments. The goal of action in achievement goal theory is assumed to be a demonstration of competence; thus, the perception of ability is a central variable. It is argued, however, that there is more than one concept of ability (Nicholls, 1984), and these different concepts determine the individual's affective and cognitive responses to achievement efforts. From the studies, it is clearly evident that participation in games and sports could enhance students' levels of perceived success (Roberts & Balague, 1998), self-esteem (Ahmed, Mladenovic, Ho, Lee & Khan, 2014) and well-being (Ahmed, 2013). This study includes adolescent sports players that were divided into three age categories. Adolescence is regarded as a period of transition between childhood and adulthood. One hypothesis is that because of their active participation in games and sports, they would have consistent levels of success, self-esteem and well-being. However, our research aimed to determine if participation in games and sports has a positive impact on these variables. Because the age categories used in this study cover a crucial period during which adolescents undergo critical hormonal changes, we can examine how these hormonal changes impact the study variables at different ages. Concepts related to the adolescents' abilities and the ways they interpret their performance can be understood in terms of the studied perceptions and beliefs. These perceptions and beliefs form a personal theory of achievement for a given activity (Nicholls, 1989). The adopted personal theory of achievement includes one's beliefs about how to be successful in the activity. Therefore, people will differ regarding their concept of ability and how they use this concept (based on their personal theory) to determine what is necessary to be successful. …