Miracle-dz/UniFAR-FTUs huggingface dataset:
The Good, the Bad, and the Irrelevant: Neural Mechanisms of Learning Real and Hypothetical Rewards and Effort

Natural environments are complex, and a single choice can lead to multiple outcomes. Agents should learn which outcomes are due to their choices and therefore relevant for future decisions and which are stochastic in ways common to all choices and therefore irrelevant for future decisions between options. We designed an experiment in which human participants learned the varying reward and effort magnitudes of two options and repeatedly chose between them. The reward associated with a choice was randomly real or hypothetical (i.e., participants only sometimes received the reward magnitude associated with the chosen option). The real/hypothetical nature of the reward on any one trial was, however, irrelevant for learning the longer-term values of the choices, and participants ought to have only focused on the informational content of the outcome and disregarded whether it was a real or hypothetical reward. However, we found that participants showed an irrational choice bias, preferring choices that had previously led, by chance, to a real reward in the last trial. Amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal activity was related to the way in which participants' choices were biased by real reward receipt. By contrast, activity in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, frontal operculum/anterior insula, and especially lateral anterior prefrontal cortex was related to the degree to which participants resisted this bias and chose effectively in a manner guided by aspects of outcomes that had real and more sustained relationships with particular choices, suppressing irrelevant reward information for more optimal learning and decision making. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In complex natural environments, a single choice can lead to multiple outcomes. Human agents should only learn from outcomes that are due to their choices, not from outcomes without such a relationship. We designed an experiment to measure learning about reward and effort magnitudes in an environment in which other features of the outcome were random and had no relationship with choice. We found that, although people could learn about reward magnitudes, they nevertheless were irrationally biased toward repeating certain choices as a function of the presence or absence of random reward features. Activity in different brain regions in the prefrontal cortex either reflected the bias or reflected resistance to the bias.
Prognostic value of cholangiography in primary sclerosing cholangitis.

OBJECTIVE To examine whether bile duct changes observed on the first diagnostic cholangiograms in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) can predict survival without liver transplantation and survival without symptoms of PSC. DESIGN Retrospective study. Findings from the first diagnostic cholangiograms were correlated with the time until the appearance of PSC symptoms and death. SETTING Primary and tertiary clinical care hospital. PATIENTS Ninety-four patients with a diagnosis of PSC based on cholangiography. OUTCOME MEASURES Time to death or liver transplantation and the first appearance of jaundice, upper abdominal pain, pruritus or fever. RESULTS Death or liver transplantation, as well as the occurrence of jaundice, were predicted by the grade of intrahepatic duct obstruction; whereas fever, pruritus and abdominal pain were predicted by the grade of extrahepatic duct obstruction. CONCLUSIONS High-grade intrahepatic strictures indicate early jaundice and short survival in patients with PSC. High-grade extrahepatic strictures indicate early pruritus, abdominal pain and fever of presumably PSC origin. The grade of intrahepatic strictures should be incorporated into survival models of PSC.
Combinatorial Validation Testing of Java Card Byte Code Verifiers

We present a technique to fully automate validation of a byte code verifier (BCV) implementation by testing. The technique is based on the use of a finite state machine model of the JVM specifications to systematically explore the set of legal JVM states from which one or more illegal states are immediately reachable. All possible sequences of instructions bringing to illegal states reachable from each legal state are combinatorially enumerated to generate a suite of tests, consisting of valid Java programs. For tests to stress the BCV type inference algorithm, each test program has been purposely designed with a large number of intertwined execution flows. The illegal state in the instruction sequence is hidden inside one of those paths.
Effects of Reading Group Assignment on Reading Development in First and Second Grade

Placement in a reading group determines: (a) the materials a child sees during reading instruction, (b) the pace at which a child proceeds through reading materials, and (c) the peers a child interacts with during reading instruction. The current study examined these effects of reading group placement upon the individual's growth in reading during first and second grade. The study also examined how children were initially placed in reading groups. A secondary analysis of data collected by Juel, Griffith, and Gough (1986) and Juel (1988) was performed. Initial first-grade placements were found to be primarily based on standardized reading readiness tests. Children rarely changed groups. The correlations between place in basal series at the end of first grade and place in series at both the beginning and end of second grade were . 77. Children with low incoming readiness test scores developed better decoding skills when placed in a basal series with fewer unique words. Initial aptitude, growth during first grade in decoding skills, and a high success rate in learning basal words influenced first grade reading achievement considerably more than sheer basal coverage or certain peer group characteristics. Only after basic reading skill was acquired did group placement begin to adversely affect reading development—if it constrained exposure to text in second grade.
Mutually Enhancing Community Detection and Sentiment Analysis on Twitter Networks

The burgeoning use of Web 2.0-powered social media in recent years has inspired numerous studies on the content and composition of online social networks (OSNs). Many methods of harvesting useful information from social networks’ immense amounts of user-generated data have been successfully applied to such real-world topics as politics and marketing, to name just a few. This study presents a novel twist on two popular techniques for studying OSNs: community detection and sentiment analysis. Using sentiment classification to enhance community detection and community partitions to permit more in-depth analysis of sentiment data, these two techniques are brought together to analyze four networks from the Twitter OSN. The Twitter networks used for this study are extracted from four accounts related to Microsoft Corporation, and together encompass more than 60,000 users and 2 million tweets collected over a period of 32 days. By combining community detection and sentiment analysis, modularity values were increased for the community partitions detected in three of the four networks studied. Furthermore, data collected during the community detection process enabled more granular, community-level sentiment analysis on a specific topic referenced by users in the dataset.
The Effects of Sex Role Socialization on Mathematics Participation and Achievement.

ABSTRACT The primary focus of this paper is on understanding factors related to sex differences in mathematics achievement with particular attention to course-taking. The perception of the usefulness of mathematics,fdr future educational and career plans and the suppert or lack cf support from significant others appear to be the major factors associated with women's decisions to elect or not elect advanced courses in mathematics. These factors are in turn influenced by. the stereotype of mathematics as a male domain. Other fadtors associated with course-taking aid achievement are attitudes towards maaematics, feelings of self-confidence, and values. Certain educational policies and practices tend to reinforce sex-iole stereotypes while some practices may promote greater course-taking and achievement. The organization of the research reported in the body of this paper is as follows: (1) Perceptions of the Career Relevance of Mathematics; (2) Influence's of Significant Others; (3) Thesyerception of Mathematics as a Male Domain; (4) Attitudesi Self-onfidence and Values; and (5)_Educational Policies and Practices. The research studies were rather consistent in support of the premise that sex differences in mathematics 'achievement result, at least in part, from social influences. (Anthor/JLL)
Multivariate Bernoulli distribution

In this paper, we consider the multivariate Bernoulli distribution as a model to estimate the structure of graphs with binary nodes. This distribution is discussed in the framework of the exponential family, and its statistical properties regarding independence of the nodes are demonstrated. Importantly the model can estimate not only the main effects and pairwise interactions among the nodes but also is capable of modeling higher order interactions, allowing for the existence of complex clique effects. We compare the multivariate Bernoulli model with existing graphical inference models - the Ising model and the multivariate Gaussian model, where only the pairwise interactions are considered. On the other hand, the multivariate Bernoulli distribution has an interesting property in that independence and uncorrelatedness of the component random variables are equivalent. Both the marginal and conditional distributions of a subset of variables in the multivariate Bernoulli distribution still follow the multivariate Bernoulli distribution. Furthermore, the multivariate Bernoulli logistic model is developed under generalized linear model theory by utilizing the canonical link function in order to include covariate information on the nodes, edges and cliques. We also consider variable selection techniques such as LASSO in the logistic model to impose sparsity structure on the graph. Finally, we discuss extending the smoothing spline ANOVA approach to the multivariate Bernoulli logistic model to enable estimation of non-linear effects of the predictor variables.
Automated Volumetric Breast Density Measurements in the Era of the BI-RADS Fifth Edition: A Comparison With Visual Assessment.

OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study is to evaluate automated volumetric measurements in comparison with visual assessment of mammographic breast density by use of the fifth edition of BI-RADS. MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 1185 full-field digital mammography examinations with standard views were retrospectively analyzed. All images were visually assessed by two blinded radiologists according to breast density category in the fifth edition of the BI-RADS lexicon. Automated volumetric breast density assessment was performed using two different software programs, Quantra and Volpara. A weighted kappa value was calculated to assess the degree of agreement among the visual and volumetric assessments of the density category. The volumes of fibroglandular tissue or total breast and the percentage breast density provided by the two software programs were compared. RESULTS Compared with a visual assessment, the agreement of density category ranged from moderate to substantial in Quantra (κ = 0.54-0.61) and fair to moderate in Volpara (κ = 0.32-0.43). The distribution of density category was statistically significantly different among visual and volumetric measurements (p < 0.0001). Quantra assigned category A and B (43.5%) more frequently than did the radiologists (25.6%) or Volpara (16.0%). Volpara assigned category D (42.1%) more frequently than did the radiologists (19.5%) or Quantra (15.4%). Between the two software programs, the means of all volumetric data were statistically significantly different (p < 0.0001), but were well correlated (γ = 0.79-0.99; p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION More mammographic examinations were classified as nondense breast tissue using the Quantra software and as dense breast tissue using the Volpara software, as compared with visual assessments according to the BI-RADS fifth edition.
Factors predisposing to small lacunar versus large non-lacunar cerebral infarcts: is left ventricular mass involved?

Abstract Objectives: To find some specific determinants of lacunar strokes (LS), this study compared LS and non-LS patients using the size and location of cerebral lesions as discriminant between the two groups. Methods: The main cardiovascular risk factors and some echocardiographic parameters were assessed in 225 ischemic stroke patients aged 75·1±11·4 (SD) years, including 101 patients with symptoms and lesions of lacunar type (deep hypodensities with diameter ≤ 1·5 cm) and 124 patients with non-lacunar lesions. Results: LS patients tended to be younger and had a higher prevalence of smokers than non-LS patients. In a subgroup undergoing echocardiogram, those with LS had a higher left ventricular mass index (LVMI) than non-LS patients (141·6±44·9 vs. 115·1±31·8 g/m2, P = 0·005). The prevalence of hypertension, diabetes, and carotid stenoses > 50% was similar in the two groups. In multivariable analysis the ever-smoker status (OR = 1·9, P = 0·02), atrial fibrillation (inverse association, OR = 0·5, P = 0·03), LVMI ≧ 130 g/m2 (OR = 6·6, P = 0·001), and age ≤ 72 years (OR = 5·9, P = 0·003) remained independently associated with LS. Conclusions: The patients with lacunar cerebral lesions had a greater left ventricular mass than those with non-lacunar lesions, while blood pressure values did not differ. Lacunar lesions were also associated with smoking and a younger age.
Latent autoimmune thyroiditis in untreated patients with HCV chronic hepatitis: a case-control study.

In order to establish a relationship between Hepatitis C virus (HCV) chronic infection and autoimmune thyroiditis, 97 untreated patients with biopsy-proven HCV chronic hepatitis and 97 controls were studied. An ultrasound examination of the thyroid and an assay of serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), thyroid hormones and anti-thyroid antibodies were performed in all cases. The overall prevalence of thyroid abnormalities was higher in patients than in controls (17 vs. 4%, P<0.01) and the prevalence of anti-thyroid antibodies was significantly different between the two groups (P<0. 02). HCV patients with (n=13) compared to HCV patients without anti-thyroid antibodies (n=84) were older, predominantly female, and more frequently had increased serum TSH levels or a hypoechogenic pattern of the thyroid gland, while Knodell's score and prevalence of cirrhosis were similar. Latent autoimmune thyroiditis is more frequent in untreated HCV patients than in controls. This finding raises questions about the mechanism of autoimmunity induced by HCV and provides an explanation for the high rate of overt autoimmune thyroiditis during interferon treatment in these patients.
The experience of being ill as narrated by hospitalized children aged 7-10 years with short-term illness

Children’s illness has been investigated through the eyes of parents and nurses but the child’s own perspective has been largely ignored. The aim of this study is to illuminate the 7-10-year-olds’ experiences of being ill. Three girls and four boys were interviewed and narrated their experience about short-term illness. The data obtained was subjected to a thematic qualitative content analysis. The analysis suggests that the children combined reality and imagination and contrasts seemed to coexist such as being scared/confident, sad/cosy and hurt/having fun. They felt caught and tried to escape. The experience of illness as narrated by children can lead to a richer understanding and influence the way we care for paediatric patients.
Direct comparison by limiting dilution analysis of long-term culture-initiating cells in human bone marrow, umbilical cord blood, and blood stem cells.

Limiting-dilution analysis of long-term culture-initiating cells (LTCIC) is a quantitative method of estimating hematopoietic stem cell activity in clinical samples. We compared the numbers of LTCIC in bone marrow (BM), umbilical cord blood, and blood progenitor cells (obtained from patients with solid tumors at leukapheresis after mobilization with induction chemotherapy and filgrastim administration), using a two-stage long-term culture system and a limiting-dilution technique, scoring cobblestone areas of greater than 15 hematopoietic cells weekly for up to 8 weeks. Samples were obtained from 30 normal BMs, 20 human umbilical cords, and 32 leukapheresis products. Direct comparison of LTCIC in the three sources showed that the median proportions of cells generating hematopoietic foci from unfractionated mononuclear cells at 5 and 8 weeks, respectively, were 1:13,314 and 1:33,949 for BM, 1:12,506 and 1:34,546 for umbilical cord blood, and 1:10,302 and 1:12,891 for leukapheresis product. The estimated proportions of LTCIC from unfractionated mononuclear cells and CD34+ cells were similar in experiments with leukapheresis product. Leukapheresis product was superior to umbilical cord blood and cord blood to BM at 5 and 8 weeks of culture (P = .01). In two-stage long-term cultures, more colonies per flask and CD34+ cells were found in assays of leukapheresis product than in BM or umbilical cord blood cultures (P = .0005). Results obtained by this simplified limiting-dilution analysis correlated well with standard long-term cultures and can be used as a measure of the stem cell population. These data suggest that the incidence of putative stem cells in leukapheresis product and umbilical cord blood are at least comparable with that of BM.
Sex difference of hyperinsulinemia in the C57BL/6J-Daruma (obese) mouse

The C57BL/6J-Daruma mouse is an animal model of obesity derived from the original genetically obese ICR-Daruma mouse by transfer of the phenotype into the C57BL/6J background by backcrossing into the C57BL/6J strain. Although, like the original ICR-Daruma mouse model, both male and female C57BL/6J-Daruma mice develop obesity, the latter strain shows sex differences in several phenotypes. A sex difference in plasma insulin levels was especially notable in C57BL/6J-Daruma mice; only males showed hyperinsulinemia. Orchiectomy suppressed this hyperinsulinemia completely, whereas testosterone supplementation restored it. Glucose administration increased the plasma glucose level in both male and female Daruma mice to a greater extent than in wild-type control mice. Orchiectomy, but not ovariectomy, decreased the plasma glucose level to that seen in wild-type controls. On the other hand, this effect of orchiectomy was abrogated by testosterone supplementation. The expression of mRNAs for several genes related to insulin resistance was significantly changed in white adipose tissue and liver of C57BL/6J-Daruma mice, especially males, as early as 4 weeks of age. The present results suggest that testosterone may be involved in the hyperinsulinemia shown by male C57BL/6J-Daruma mice and that this strain may be an appropriate animal model for examining the relationship between obesity and sex hormones.
COGNITIVE SCIENCE: Definition, Status, and Questions

conceptual structures. Finer grain sizes are appropriate if the task to be modeled is an elementary one. Just & Carpenter's ( 1985) production model of the rotation of mental images is a good example of this approach. The productions in Just's & Carpenter's program contained primitive actions such as focusing attention on parts of a visual image and making slight movements of the fixated image "in the mind's eye. " There are three parts to a production-executing machine: a pattern recogni­ tion system that compares the pattern parts of productions to structures in working memory, a set of primitive actions that can be associated with a pattern, and a conflict resolution rule that determines which production is to be executed when two or more productions match the working-memory structure. Production system modeling puts the burden of problem solving upon the pattern recognition system. It is fairly easy to assemble a list of symbol manipulating actions that are sufficient to solve a problem if they are done at the appropriate time. The difficulty is in stating the rules that determine when an action will be taken. Production-executing machines mix serial and parallel operations. The machines are parallel in the sense that all production patterns are sensed simultaneously, so that the number of production rules in long-term memory does not slow down the conceptual machines' operation. 6 The machines operate in series in the sense that any communication from production to production that takes place via changes in the working-memory structures must be a serial operation. Production Systems as Models of Psychological Processes Several different production system architectures have been proposed as psychological models (Anderson 1983; Holland et a1 1 986; Hunt & Lansman 1986). They differ largely in the assumptions they make about (a) the number of working-memory subsystems that can operate in parallel and (b) the notations used to code information within each subsystem. The syntactical structures of the systems' mentalese vary from Anderson's use of proposition­ al calculus notation to Hunt & Lansman's use of feature lists and the use of image-like codes by Holland et al and Kosslyn (1980). Since the 6If a production system is simulated on a conventional (serial) computer the number of productions in the system does affect the program's speed. This is of no conceptual significance.
Meiotic Chromosome Pairing Is Promoted by Telomere-Led Chromosome Movements Independent of Bouquet Formation

Chromosome pairing in meiotic prophase is a prerequisite for the high fidelity of chromosome segregation that haploidizes the genome prior to gamete formation. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as in most multicellular eukaryotes, homologous pairing at the cytological level reflects the contemporaneous search for homology at the molecular level, where DNA double-strand broken ends find and interact with templates for repair on homologous chromosomes. Synapsis (synaptonemal complex formation) stabilizes pairing and supports DNA repair. The bouquet stage, where telomeres have formed a transient single cluster early in meiotic prophase, and telomere-promoted rapid meiotic prophase chromosome movements (RPMs) are prominent temporal correlates of pairing and synapsis. The bouquet has long been thought to contribute to the kinetics of pairing, but the individual roles of bouquet and RPMs are difficult to assess because of common dependencies. For example, in budding yeast RPMs and bouquet both require the broadly conserved SUN protein Mps3 as well as Ndj1 and Csm4, which link telomeres to the cytoskeleton through the intact nuclear envelope. We find that mutants in these genes provide a graded series of RPM activity: wild-type>mps3-dCC>mps3-dAR>ndj1Δ>mps3-dNT = csm4Δ. Pairing rates are directly correlated with RPM activity even though only wild-type forms a bouquet, suggesting that RPMs promote homologous pairing directly while the bouquet plays at most a minor role in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A new collision trap assay demonstrates that RPMs generate homologous and heterologous chromosome collisions in or before the earliest stages of prophase, suggesting that RPMs contribute to pairing by stirring the nuclear contents to aid the recombination-mediated homology search.