Children raised in fatherless families from infancy: a follow‐up of children of lesbian and single heterosexual mothers at early adolescence

Background: An increasing number of lesbian women and single heterosexual women are bringing up children with no male involvement. This study follows up to adolescence a sample of children raised in fatherless families from birth or early infancy. Methods: Twenty-five lesbian mother families and 38 families headed by a single heterosexual mother were compared with 38 two-parent heterosexual families. The quality of parenting by the mother, and the social and emotional development of the child, were assessed using standardised interview and questionnaire measures administered to mothers, children and teachers. Results: Children in fatherless families experienced more interaction with their mother, and perceived her as more available and dependable than their peers from father-present homes. However, there were no group differences in maternal warmth towards the children. Mothers raising their child without a father reported more severe disputes with their child than did mothers in father-present families. The children’s social and emotional development was not negatively affected by the absence of a father, although boys in father-absent families showed more feminine but no less masculine characteristics of gender role behaviour. No major differences in parenting or child development were identified between families headed by lesbian and single heterosexual mothers. Conclusions: The presence or absence of a father in the home from the outset does appear to have some influence on adolescents‘ relationships with their mothers. However, being without a resident father from infancy does not seem to have negative consequences for children. In addition, there is no evidence that the sexual orientation of the mother influences parent‐child interaction or the socioemotional development of the child. Keywords: Adolescence, lesbian mothers, single parents, parent‐ child interaction, socioemotional development. It is estimated that in the UK today, 22% of children are being raised in a family without a father present (Office of National Statistics, 2002). Early research on the psychological well-being of children from fatherless families concentrated on situations where the father had left following separation or divorce, exposing the child to discordant parental relationships as well as to the loss of a once-present parent. These studies found children of single mothers to be at increased risk for cognitive, social and emotional problems (for reviews see Biller, 1974; Herzog & Sudia, 1973). However, single parenthood following separation or divorce may involve consequences other than just father absence, specifically those of financial hardship, low socio-economic status and lack of social support. Indeed, in an analysis of four representative samples of US single mother families, it was found that the single most important factor contributing to the difficulties experienced by children of lone parents in later life was the lower family income associated with single parenthood (McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994). Studies that controlled for these social and economic factors demonstrated that father absence in itself does not negatively impact on the child’s intellectual ability or socioemotional adjustment (Broman, Nichols, & Kennedy,