Citizenship education in Pakistani schools: Problems and possibilities

A critical aspect of education that is often overlooked or inadequately addressed is the preparation of school students for citizenship. This paper assesses the current state of citizenship education in Pakistani schools. It draws on the findings of two research studies: an analysis of the social studies curriculum and textbooks and a review of teaching and learning practices in schools. The findings indicate that the curriculum and textbooks do not distinguish between Islamic education and citizenship education and promotes exclusionary and passive citizenship. They also shows that while Pakistani students acquire knowledge and learn some important values in schools, they do not learn the skills (problemsolving, decision-making) and values (civic mindedness, critical consciousness) required for effective participation in democratic life. The paper finally suggests what a teacher education program should include if teachers are to prepare students for informed, responsible and participatory citizenship. Introduction One of the most important goals of education is the preparation of young people for their role as citizens. The problem, however, is that many countries including Pakistan do not give citizenship education the importance it deserves, nor use approaches appropriate to the development of informed and participatory citizenship. (Dean, 2000; Kerr, McCarthy and Smith 2002; Torney-Purta and Amadeo 1999) In 2002, the Aga Khan University, Institute for Educational Development (AKUIED) became a partner in a Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) funded Citizenship Rights and Responsibilities Pakistan (CRRP) project. The Project aimed to improve citizenship education in Pakistani schools through the development of supplementary curriculum materials; the development of a cadre of teachers to educate for citizenship; and the formulation of a national citizenship education program in Pakistan. Prior to the project the CRRP team at AKU-IED assessed the current state of citizenship education in schools. Two research studies: an analysis of the social studies curriculum and textbooks used in Pakistani schools and a review of teaching and learning practices in citizenship education were conducted. This paper shares the findings of these studies and suggests how citizenship education can be promoted through teacher education. 36 Bernadette L. Dean http://www.citized. info ©2005 citizED BACKGROUND Since its independence in 1947 Pakistan has had a distinct political transition every ten years. With each political transition a new education policy was developed. Each aimed to prepare ‘good citizens’ but instead, reproduced the government’s ideology and its conception of citizenship and citizenship education (Althusser 1972). The Pakistan Education Conference 1947 Pakistan was born in the aftermath of World War II, after a long struggle for freedom from colonial rule. After independence, Pakistan faced multifarious problems: communal conflict, language riots, and administering two dispersed territories. While dealing with the immediate problems, the government also addressed the long-term objectives of national development. One being the reorientation of the colonial education system “on the lines suited to the genius of our people, consonant with our history and culture and having regard for the modern conditions and vast developments that have taken place over the world” (Ministry of Interior (Education Division) 1947, p.5). The educational system was entrusted the task of building a “modern democratic state” and educating citizens in “body, mind and character” to live a good life themselves and improve the lives of others. To accomplish this task, it would be “animated and guided” by the Islamic principles of “universal brotherhood of man [sic], social democracy and social justice” and the “democratic virtues of tolerance, self-help, self-sacrifice. ” Fazlur Rehman, then Education Minister explained that the aims of education in a democratic society must be holistic. He suggested that the sociopolitical element entail “training for citizenship. ” He stated, The possession of a vote by a person ignorant of the privileges and responsibilities of citizenship. is responsible for endless corruption and political instability. Our education must . [teach] the fundamental maxim of democracy, that the price of liberty is eternal vigilance and it must aim at cultivating the civil virtues of discipline, integrity, and unselfish public service. (Ministry of Interior (Education Division) 1947, p.8) He noted that education must serve to make all members of the body politic citizens of Pakistan, “no matter what political, religious or provincial label one may possess” (Ministry of Interior (Education Division) 1947, p.8). Thus, the educational conference envisioned an educational system that would prepare citizens with the knowledge and dispositions needed to create a democratic society. The Sharif Commission Report In December 1958, the Martial Law Government of Ayub Khan appointed a Commission to develop a national education system. The commission identified two limitations in society which education should address: the lack of national unity as evidenced by passivity and non-cooperation in public affairs and the failure to make “technological progress. ” (Ministry of Education, 1959, p.11) Citizenship Education In Pakistani Schools 37 http://www.citized. info ©2005 citizED To facilitate technological progress the policy suggested a differential education system. Education for leaders would focus on knowledge acquisition and character development; whereas that for a large skilled labour force would be vocational education. Thus, each stage became a terminal stage with educational institutions and opportunities decreasing at each higher stage. Rather than universal education, it emphasized quality education at the tertiary level in the belief that the economic benefits accruing would ‘trickle down’ to the poor. This did not happen and Pakistan has become one of the most illiterate and disparate nations in the world today. To develop national unity a uniform school curriculum was developed and the government prescribed textbooks for classes 1-12. Religious education became compulsory at elementary school. History, geography and civics were merged to become social studies with citizenship education as its aim. The social studies was designed to teach students about the problems facing Pakistan, their rights and responsibilities and to act as useful and loyal citizens. (Ministry of Education, 1959) The New Education Policy 1972-1980 The education system radically changed direction after the Bhutto government was overthrown in a military coup in 1977. The Martial Law Government of General Zia-ul-Haq announced a new National Education policy in 1979. The policy aims were the Islamisation of society, and citizenship education the development of citizens as true practicing Muslims. Fearing that the provinces of West Pakistan would follow East Pakistan, the aim of the education policy became to build “national cohesion by promoting social and cultural harmony”. To achieve this aim the government decided to reduce societal inequality and encourage people’s participation in the decision-making process. It took the radical step of nationalizing “all privately-managed schools and colleges” and encouraged “active participation” of citizens in the universalization of elementary education (Ministry of Education, 1972, pp. 6, 35). In addition, it set up a National Curriculum Bureau to revise the curriculum. It introduced Pakistan studies in classes 9 and 10 to develop patriotism and build national unity. These steps were important for citizenship as it called for people’s participation in ensuring the rights of others and working together to build the nation. National Education Policy and Implementation Program 1979 The education system radically changed direction with the 1979 policy of the Martial Law Government of General Zia-ul-Haq. The policy aims were the Islamisation of society, and citizenship education the development of citizens as true practicing Muslims. The “highest priority” was given to the revision of curricula so that “Islamic ideology permeates the thinking of the younger generation,” and society is refashioned according to Islamic tenets (Ministry of Education, 1979, p.2). Separate “institutions” and “curricula” were prepared for female education related to the distinctive role assigned women in Islamic society (ibid. p.3). Islamiat and Pakistan Studies were made compulsory at the undergraduate level. For the first time, there was a chapter entitled, “Education of the Citizen. ” The purpose of which was to “impart the teachings of Islam,” to the uneducated masses to prepare them for “a clean, purposeful and productive life. ” (Ministry of Education, 1979, p.30) Nowhere in the policy, are the Islamic values or the character and conduct of a true Muslim, explained. Because 96% of the people of Pakistan are Muslim the 38 Bernadette L. Dean http://www.citized. info ©2005 citizED assumption is that the ideology is part of the people’s consciousness (Apple, 1990). But as Kazi (1991) points out it is important to make these values explicit, given the contradictory definitions of Islam among various sociocultural groups in Pakistan. Furthermore, the aims of education resemble the aims of Islamic education “reflecting in this respect a very narrow view held by a minority among Muslims that all education be that of Islamiat” (Nayyar and Salim 2004, p.ii). The policy defines citizenship in exclusionary terms. It excludes non-Muslim Pakistanis from being Pakistani citizens, and women from equal citizenship by educating them for a different role. The National Education Policy 1998-2010 The aims of the National Education Policy (NEP) 1998-2010 are similar to the 1979 policy, that is, to create “a sound Islamic society” through educati