Family processes as mediators of depressive symptomatology among rural adolescents

Depressed mood and/or depressive symptomatology are fairly common among adolescents, with 4 to 5% reporting major clinical depression, and 30 to 40% reporting depressive symptoms or depressed mood (Kandel & Davies, 1982; Rutter, Izard, & Whitmore, 1970/1981; Sullivan & Engin, 1986). These figures may greatly underestimate the actual incidence because depression among children and adolescents is thought to be highly under-reported (Stark, 1990). Despite a high number of suspected cases of depression, relatively little research attention has been given to the phenomenon of adolescent depression (Kandel & Davies, 1982; Sullivan & Engin, 1986; Weissman & Klerman, 1991). Sectors of American rural society are being greatly impacted by factors commonly implicated as predisposing and/or exacerbating elements in depression. In the rural midwest, many farm and nonfarm families whose livelihoods depend on agriculture are experiencing a level of economic deprivation not seen since the Great Depression of the 1930s (Jolly, 1986). In addition to the demise of small- and moderate-sized farms, the restructuring of the farm sector has been accompanied by declines in other traditional industries, such as mining, forestry, and labor intensive manufacturing. The combination of these changes has led to a general rural economic crisis in recent years (Lobao, 1990). The Wall Street Journal ("Quiet Crisis," 1988) reported that the nation, in fact, is experiencing a collapse of its rural economy. While many rural families have suffered severe and direct economic hardships, many others are living with dramatic changes in their accustomed lifestyles and an uncertain economic future (Heffernan & Heffernan, 1986; Lobao, 1990; Wilhelm & Ridley, 1988). The quality of rural life today seems to be further adversely affected by inadequate health care systems, underfunded schools, and weak human service programs (Heffernan & Heffernan, 1986; Hughes, 1988). Bergland (1988) suggests that these financial hardships experienced by rural communities have had a negative effect on the quality of family and community life in rural America. Economic hardships and associated stressors are known to be associated with a variety of physical and psychological health problems in children, adolescents, and adults (Angell, 1965; Baldwin & Revenson, 1986; Elder, 1974). Yet, the consequences of these rural lifestyle changes for children and families have been largely unstudied (Heffernan & Heffernan, 1986; Lempers, Clark-Lempers, & Simons, 1989; Lobao, 1990). Rural youth experience unique familial dynamics that may increase their susceptibility to a variety of stress-related outcomes, including depression. Research findings suggest that rural parents may emphasize the intellectual and emotional development of their children to the neglect of social development, thus reducing their ability to cope with life changes or stressor events (Coleman, Ganong, Clark, & Madsen, 1989; French & Berlin, 1979). Rural adolescents, as compared to their urban counterparts, are generally more independent and isolated. As a result, rural youth often report high levels of loneliness (Woodward & Frank, 1988) and exhibit a more internal orientation in locus of control than do urban youth (Van Hook, 1990; Witt, 1989). These factors have been related to adolescent depression in other populations (Rutter, Izard, & Read, 1986). In addition, some research has also indicated that rural youth, as compared to their urban counterparts, display lower futuristic aspirations and significantly lower self-esteems, which also may make them more prone to depression (Zimbelman, 1987). The purpose of this study was to describe family processes that mediate depressive symptomatology among a sample of rural youth residing in unstable economic areas. THE FAMILY AS A MEDIATOR OF DEPRESSION Numerous theoretical explanations have been proposed to facilitate an understanding of the etiology of depression among adolescents. …