Associations of Teacher Autonomy Support and Structure with Young Adolescents’ Motivation, Engagement, Belonging, and Achievement

Academic motivation, engagement, school belonging, and achievement are shaped by teacher behaviors (Patrick, Ryan, & Kaplan, 2007; Turner, Christensen, Kackar-Cam, Trucano, & Fulmer, 2014; Wang & Eccles, 2013) and are central to understanding youths' experiences in school. Teachers who provide autonomy support (e.g., promotion of choice, respect, and relevance) may help students to develop a sense of personal control in their learning (Stroet, Opdenakker, & Minnaert, 2013). Teachers who structure learning experiences (e.g., monitor learning, communicate expectations, and provide help) may allow students to gain information about how to be successful in the classroom (Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010; Skinner & Belmont, 1993). Together, teacher autonomy support and structure are useful in promoting a developmentally responsive environment and supporting young adolescents' learning and adjustment (Eccles & Roeser, 2011; National Middle School Association, 2010; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Research has examined associations of teacher support and structure with adolescents' school functioning (Stroet et al., 2013; Wang & Eccles, 2013). However, the combined influence of autonomy support (choice, respect, relevance) and structure (monitoring, expectations, help) on student adjustment is understudied (Jang et al., 2010; Sierens, Vansteenkiste, Goossens, Soenens, & Dochy, 2009; Vansteenkiste et al., 2012) and research has been conducted primarily at the high school level. It is important to investigate the potential implications for adolescent adjustment during the middle grades.The present study provided a unique contribution to the field via its focus on specific types of teacher support and structure on students' academic motivation, engagement, belonging, and achievement in middle school. Most research has examined general constructs rather than specific types of support and structure (Katz, Kaplan, & Guetta, 2010), and the interactive influences of teacher behaviors have been rarely studied (Wentzel, 2012). Previous studies have investigated the role of teacher support and structure for student motivation and engagement (Jang et al., 2010; Sierens et al., 2009; Vansteenkiste et al., 2012), yet other aspects of adjustment are under examined, including school belonging and achievement.A body of research exists that suggests boys and girls may experience autonomy support and structure differently. Girls are more likely to perceive and respond to teacher support whereas boys perceive and respond more to teacher criticism (den Brok, Fisher, Rickards, & Bull, 2006; Goodenow, 1993; Wentzel, Battle, Russell, & Looney, 2010). Further, girls are more likely to be motivated and engaged than boys (Vansteenkiste et al., 2012; Wang & Eccles, 2012). However, it is unclear as to whether gender moderates associations of teacher support with motivation and engagement. Hence, it is necessary to further examine teacher support and structure and their implications for adolescents in urban, diverse middle schools (Wallace & Chhuon, 2014) in order to help educators provide developmentally responsive learning environments and promote student success (Balfanz, Herzog, & Mac Iver, 2007; Jackson & Davis, 2000). The present study had two main aims: (a) to examine associations of student perceptions of teacher autonomy support and structure with academic motivation, engagement, belonging, and achievement in an urban, ethnically diverse middle school, and (b) to explore gender as a moderator of associations between teacher support and structure with student adjustment across the school year. Given that students often experience negative changes in teacher instruction and declines in motivation, engagement, and achievement during the middle school years, and that this differs by gender (Anderman, Maehr, & Midgley, 1999; Balfanz et al., 2007; Eccles & Roeser, 2011), research on the relationships among these constructs during early adolescence is critical (Jang et al. …