Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for caring and Justice.

Empathy and Moral Development represents the life’s work of Professor Hoffman, integrating over 30 years of research with information and ideas gleaned from the psychological and social development theories of the last century. Starting with biblical concepts of sin and guilt and drawing on the germinal theories of historical figures such as Rousseau, Freud and Piaget, the author also discusses Kohlberg’s theory and modifications by later followers. The first chapter begins with a brief overview of the previous and current theories and the historical sources for the book, giving clear definitions and outlining the theory to follow. Each of the seven sections of the book expands on important key concepts introduced earlier. There are frequent references to and review of the previously discussed material. The first section of the book explains the “innocent bystander” model that has been used for decades to explore human moral development. Concepts from animal arousal and behavior models are linked with human infant research on early affective and cognitive development. The research quoted is illustrative and extensive. The section ends with a discussion of the differences between empathy, guilt, sympathy and injustice. Parts Two and Three introduce the concept of guilt and how parental discipline interacts with a child’s cognitive skills to guide moral development. This first half of the book could have been expanded further through the use of more examples and further exploration of how genetics and innate brain processes contribute to the development of empathy. Hoffman also seemed to emphasize the psychosocial aspects over the behavioral cognitive and genetic aspects, but it is a good review of the field to date. The second half of the book is very interesting. The examples given are more current, complete and involved. The author shines as he discusses his integration of existing theory and research into a comprehensive model. He sketches a brief picture of different types of guilt, and a theoretical hierarchy. He expands on his assertion that both parental discipline and peer interaction are necessary for the development of guilt and morality. His collected statistics on parental discipline and its effects on children’s moral development are impressive. He explains why empathy can operate in some situations and can be overwhelmed in others, even when the individuals involved are highly empathic (i.e. therapist burnout). Numerous examples are given of how guilt and empathy are motivators for human action, especially prosocial and “altruistic” actions. In light of the events of September 11, 2001, Hoffman’s concepts explain much of the individual and social group actions which followed. Section Four of the book asks the question “Is Empathy Enough” to explain moral action. Types of bias which may affect empathy and moral action are examined. Empathy’s self-destructive and self-limiting qualities are explored and integrated in Darwinian fashion. Hoffman states that a morality based on empathy alone would not be fair in large mixed or larger human groups and would lead to bias and conflict. To live together peaceably, Hoffman insists that empathy must be embedded in moral principles, the subject of the fifth part of the book. Hoffman shows how empathy (affect) becomes linked or bonded to moral principles (of cognitive and social origin) as the person develops. The synthesis is used powerfully to explain the perpetuation of social attributes of caring and justice in western society. Useful definitions of key concepts in justice research are included. Parts six and seven of the book are the slimmest and cover culture, wherein issues of the universal applicability of the key concepts are examined, and intervention, which hopefully can someday be expanded into its own volume. A few directions in designing empathic training for use in young offenders and other children at risk are given, but not in the kind of depth currently desperately needed in the field. The book is well organized in its scant 300 pages and set up as a graduate course. It is an easy book from which to learn. It would make an ideal text and makes for a brilliant discussion overall, as it presents the author’s theory that will, no doubt, form the basis for future research and intervention in this area.