Examining the validity of motivational profiles across indigenous and non-indigenous students

In multicultural societies such as Australia, examining the potential similarities and differences of students’ motivational profiles crossculturally is an important topic for research. For the most part, goal theory research has been conducted using Caucasian samples and the potential differences between cultural groups have remained relatively unexplored until recently (Urdan & Giancarlo, 2000). The purpose of the current research was to explore cross-cultural similarities and differences in the motivational profiles of Indigenous Papua New Guinean (PNG) and Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian students. A total of 1792 secondary students, across the three cultures, completed self-report motivational measures. Invariance testing demonstrated that the Inventory of School Motivation (ISM McInerney, Yeung & McInerney, 2001) measure was invariant across cultural groups. The current findings highlight the strength of the ISM and the importance of assessing invariance testing over diverse cultural groups. Student motivation, or drive to learn, has been shown to predict important educational outcomes including psychological well-being and academic achievement, making it an essential aspect of educational research (Barker, Dowson, & McInerney, 2006). The factors that influence and enhance students’ drive to learn and achieve have long intrigued educational researchers and has formed the focal point for literally hundreds of studies. However, before devising effective means to promote student motivation, there is a desperate need to measure motivation reliably with valid instrumentation (cf. Byrne, 2003). Achievement Goal Theory Achievement goal theory has emerged as one of the most prominent theories of student motivation (Meece, Anderman, & Anderman, 2006). The theory proposes that students’ motivation and achievement behaviours can be best understood by considering the students’ purposes for academic engagement based on their subjective learning experiences (Ali, 2006; Ames, 1992; Covington, 2000; Grant & Dwek, 2003; Middleton & Midgley, 1997; Wigfield, 1997). Goal theory distinguishes between two different types of motivation goal orientations: MAG08762 Cross-cultural Motivation 2 (a) “mastery goal orientation”, where the focus is on developing one’s competence for personal satisfaction, and (b) “performance goal orientation”, where the emphasis is on demonstrating one’s competence in an effort to look good in front of others (Linnenbrink, 2005). An abundance of evidence has consistently shown that the adoption of mastery goals relate positively to adaptive patterns of cognition, affect, and behaviour in educational settings, whereas performance goals are most commonly negatively associated with these learning strategies. For example, studies have shown that mastery goals are positively associated with: persistence on difficult tasks (Elliot & Dweck, 1988); higher levels of task involvement (Harackiewicz et al, 2000); higher levels of effort and persistence (Grant & Dweck, 2003); the use of learning strategies that enhance conceptual understanding and recall of information, and positive perceptions of academic ability and self-efficacy (Ames, 1992). These positive links have been demonstrated across grade and subject areas. In contrast, a study by Meece and colleagues (2006) investigated the effects of performance goals in the classroom and found that performance goals were positively correlated with self-reported cheating and disruptive classroom behaviours. In a similar study, Grant and Dweck, (2003), found that students who endorsed performance goals were more likely to feel helpless, had a larger loss of self-worth, and made more attributions of low ability after failure. Performance goals have also been positively associated with the use of superficial or short-term learning strategies such as rote learning and inefficient time management, which fail to promote recall of information and conceptual understanding of class materials (Ames & Archer, 1988; Covington, 2000; Nolan, 1988). In addition to mastery and performance goals, there is a growing body of literature highlighting the importance of social goals in relation to student learning and achievement. For example, Weiner (1990) argues that “school motivation cannot be divorced from the social fabric in which it is embedded” (p. 621) therefore we must consider factors outside the self in order to gain a deeper understanding of what motivates students to strive for achievement. It is possible that social goals interact with both mastery and performance goals in school settings and subsequently influence educational outcomes. In support of this view, a study conducted by Anderman and Anderman (1999) demonstrated that social goals were related to adaptive patterns of learning such as personal improvement, personal effort and recognizing the importance of learning, however, other social goals were associated with gaining status within the peer group and acceptance. Both forms of social goals appear to reflect characteristics similar to those found in both mastery and performance goals respectively (Hinkley, 2001). Therefore, it is predicted that social and achievement goals will be strongly related. Group Validity in Student Motivation Culture. Examining the potential similarities and differences of students’ motivational profiles cross-culturally is an important topic for research. For the most part, goal theory research has been conducted using Caucasian samples and the potential differences between cultural groups have remained relatively unexplored until recently (Urdan & Giancarlo, 2000). In Australia (and other Western societies), it is acknowledged that society is multicultural, however, most of the research in educational psychology fails to address the significance of race, ethnicity, and class, and how these variables impact on our understanding of students’ motivational states (Pintrich, 1994). In terms of achievement goal theory, McInerney (1992) argues that the literature on students’ achievement goals needs to be expanded to include a larger variety of cultural groups. Existing research on cultural variations in regard to students’ goals has resulted in mixed findings. Some researchers posit that achievement goals, particularly performance MAG08762 Cross-cultural Motivation 3 goals, have different meanings and effects for different cultures (Berry, 1984; 2000; Triandis, 2004; Urdan & Mestas, 2006), while others argue that there are minimal group differences (McInerney, Roche, McInerney, & Marsh, 1997). Most often these researchers tend to make contrasts between individualistic and collectivist groups. Triandis (2004) argues that collective groups emphasize values consistent with social goals such as security, obedience, duty, and in-group harmony, whilst individualistic societies tend endorse values consistent with performance and mastery goals such as individual pleasure, winning, freedom, autonomy, and achievement. It is believed that through socialisation, these values translate into the goals that direct an individual’s behaviour (Ali, 2006). However, very little is known about the salience of different goals held by students from different cultural backgrounds that are schooled in Western countries. The proposed investigation aims to validate a motivational measure of student goals beyond Western cultures to include both an Australian and Papua New Guinean (PNG) Indigenous sample, thereby extending the literature on cross-cultural motivation, learning and achievement. The Present Investigation Given the somewhat limited and inconsistent findings on the relation between goals and group differences, the current study incorporates cultural differences into its design using state of the art statistical methods to determine the cross-cultural validity of a model of student motivation. The importance of this approach is highlighted by Barker (2006) who posited that the best way to address issues of group difference is to first ensure that instruments used to measure motivation are well validated, reliable, and tested for invariance before judgments of group differences are made. In agreement with this suggestion, the present investigation will conduct invariance testing across all groups in order to accurately assess any group variation of meaning for the measurement constructs. The overarching aim of the proposed investigation is to extend the literature on cross-cultural motivation, learning and achievement, beyond Western and minority Indigenous samples, by including a majority Indigenous sample from the developing country of Papua New Guinea (PNG). The study will determine whether or not the patterns of relations between motivational concepts are consistent across both Western and non-Western cultures.