Utilizing Computerized Cognitive Training to Improve Working Memory and Encoding: Piloting a School-Based Intervention.

A growing body of literature supports the use of computerized cognitive training in enhancing a variety of abilities related to improved cognitive performance. In fact, there are numerous publically available computer- and internet-based applications that are purported to support general cognitive function (e.g., Lumosity). The purpose of this project is to examine the effectiveness of a clinically-based computerized cognitive training program to enhance students' working memory and encoding capabilities. Working Memory Working memory (WM) is an individual's capacity for the short-term storage and manipulation of information (Holmes, et al., 2010). This ability is necessary for tasks such as learning, language comprehension, and reasoning (Baddeley, 1992). Working memoiy varies on the individual level and is associated with differences in controlled attention, fluid intelligence, and general cognitive functioning (Engle, Kane & Tuholski, 1999). Low WM capacity is associated with poor attention and the inability to override attentional capture from distracting information (Fukuda & Vogel, 2009). In a school setting, academic performance is significantly linked to both WM and attention (see Rabiner, Murray, Skinner & Malone, 2010). Recently, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology has made it possible to observe the brain changes that take place as a result of WM training (Oleson, Westerberg, & Klingberg, 2004). These changes support the belief that WM can be trained (i.e., WM ability is not fixed). Moreover, the areas of the brain activated during WM training, the prefrontal and parietal cortices, show increased activity that can persist for months following training. These are also the brain areas known to be implicated in attention and learning disorders (Olesen, Macoveanu, Tegner & Klingberg, 2006; Westerberg, Hivikoski, Forssber, & Klingberg, 2004; Westerberg & Klingberg, 2007). Thus, there is a reasonable expectation that training may positively impact academic performance for students with learning difficulties. Computerized Cognitive Interventions Because working memory (and thus attention) is not fixed, a rapidly evolving aspect of research has focused on remediating WM weaknesses. Specifically, recent studies have examined the connections between an underlying deficit in WM and other executive functions and the resulting behaviors (see Westerberg et al., 2004; Gibson, Gondoli, Flies, Dobrzenski, & Insworth, 2010). One approach for addressing WM deficits is computer-assisted cognitive training. In computer-assisted cognitive training (CACT), a computer is used to present exercises; successful completion of these exercises requires maintaining attention in order to respond accurately based on defined rules that require the use of WM capabilities (Rabiner, Murray, Skinner, & Malone, 2010). Generally, programs of this sort are adaptive. That is, the difficulty of the exercises presented is adjusted based on the response of the user. Thus, if the user completes an exercise correctly the next exercise presented will be more difficult; conversely, if the exercise is completed incorrectly the next exercise will be less difficult. Two recent notable studies of CACT are those of Shalev, Tsai, and Mevorach (2007) and Rabiner et al. (2010). The study conducted by Shalev et al. (2007) tested an independently-developed software program with the goal of determining to what extent Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms could be ameliorated through training of attentional networks. Results following the study suggested that CACT could positively affect both attention and academic achievement of students with ADHD. The study by Rabiner et al. (2010), while having a different goal (namely, to compare the effects of CACT and Computer Assisted Instruction on children evidencing symptoms of inattention), also suggested that computerized interventions could benefit students struggling with attention symptoms. …