Parent Education Outcomes: Insights into Transformative Learning.

Although much has been written about parent education, knowledge about the outcomes of parent education programs is relatively limited. The bulk of the literature has examined outcomes of parent education programs using primarily a behavioral perspective (Powell, 1989) consistent with a positivistic view of the nature of knowledge (Bredo & Feinberg, 1982) and McNeil's concept of a technological curriculum orientation (1985). Parent education experts have begun to recognize the need to adopt broader perspectives in examining outcomes (Fine, 1989); however, thus far, little research considering alternative epistemological perspectives has been conducted. The purpose of the present study was to examine parent education outcomes by focusing on the nature of experience for participants using a phenomenological perspective (Husserl, 1962; Patton, 1990; Schutz, 1977). There is no single conceptual or theoretical framework that guides the development of parent education programs. In fact, there are several frameworks that vary widely in approach and are offered by different organizations, often with program staff at different levels of expertise. In the 1960s, two widely varying approaches became popular: the behavior modification approach and Ginott's model of caring and communication (Fine, 1980). In the 1970s, Gordon's Parent Effectiveness Training (PET) became popular (Gordon, 1975). At the same time, Dreikurs' Adlerian approach was developed. Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP) is a method that grew out of elements from both Gordon's PET approach and the Dreikurs' approach (Fine, 1980). One of the newest frameworks for parent education uses the family systems perspective (Getz & Gunn, 1988). Research indicates that no one particular program is more effective than another (Anchor & Thomason, 1977; Frazier & Matthews, 1975; Freeman, 1975; Goodson & Hess, 1975; Kessen, Fein, Clark-Stewart & Starr, 1975; Pinsker & Geoffrey, 1981; Schofield, 1979). Thus, participation in a program to improve parenting is more important than the actual type of program attended (Powell, 1986). Although several studies have examined outcomes of specific parent education programs, in general, the studies have had limited application because they have focused on only a few learning outcomes at a time and have used narrowly conceptualized measures. Research of this type has focused on child. related outcomes, such as intelligence and growth (Clewell, Brooks-Gunn, & Benasich, 1989); parent-related outcomes, such as parental effectiveness or changed attitudes toward the child (Clewell, Brooks-Gunn, & Benasich, 1989); family-related outcomes, such as changes in the family's economic and life circumstances (Powell, 1986); and/or marital outcomes, such as satisfaction with the marital relationship (Winans & Cooker, 1984). Past research may have excluded important outcomes by adopting principally positivistic perspectives aimed at identifying easily observable outcomes amenable to prediction and control, rather than using alternative epistemological perspectives such as the interpretive science approach, which emphasizes the nature and meaning of human experiences (Bredo & Feinberg, 1982). Fully capturing educational program out. comes was considered by Fine (1989) when he noted the problem of: researchers examining outcomes along predetermined lines consistent with the professed intention of the program. What is missed in such theme-bound investigations is a "spread of effects" phenomenon. Many good and possibly some undesirable happenings in areas of parent and family life may not be studied. (p. 17) Indeed, the adult education literature suggests that some of the most important learning may be that which has not been anticipated in program objectives (Apps, 1989). The present study sought to examine the nature of outcomes that accrue from a parent education program by examining holistically the structure and essence of the experience for the participants (Patton, 1990). …