Motivation and transfer: The role of achievement goals in preparation for future learning

Motivation and Transfer: The Role of Achievement Goals in Preparation for Future Learning Daniel M. Belenky (dmb83@pitt.edu) Timothy J. Nokes (nokes@pitt.edu) Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh, 3939 O’Hara Street Pittsburgh, PA 15260 Abstract Motivation Knowledge transfer is critical for solving novel problems and performing new tasks. Recent work has shown that invention activities can promote flexible learning, leading to better transfer after instruction (Schwartz & Martin, 2004). The current project examines the role of achievement goals in promoting transfer. Results indicate that engaging in invention activities before being shown the correct method is beneficial for transfer, regardless of initial goal orientation (mastery versus performance), while a mastery orientation must be present for students to transfer from a direct instruction activity. Implications of these results for theories of learning and transfer are discussed. Keywords: transfer; preparation for future learning; motivation; achievement goals Introduction Motivation is a critical factor in human learning and behavior. One realm in which motivation is frequently discussed is in academic settings. Researchers have assessed different goals students bring with them into the classroom, and observed the impact initial motivations have on subsequent learning (e.g., Wolters, 2004). Having goals such as wanting to master concepts or to look good in relation to peers have been correlated with measures of learning. However, the measures of learning in such studies are almost always coarse-grained, such as Grade-Point Averages. Less is known about how motivation interacts with underlying cognitive processes to mediate these achievement gains. Separate research has investigated many cognitive processes involved in successful learning, such as self- explanation and analogical reasoning (Nokes & Ross, 2007). This work generally uses the ability to flexibly transfer knowledge from one situation to another as the dependent variable, a more sensitive measure of what has been learned than term grades. The typical paradigm used to assess this will compare two instructional interventions and measure performance, but the ways in which the interventions differentially interact with student motivation is almost never investigated. The study reported here aims to bridge the divide between research on motivation, which leaves successful learning as a black box, and laboratory studies of cognitive processing for transfer, which do not take motivational variables into account. Specifically, this work begins to explore how motivation can influence what knowledge flexibly transfers to new problems. What motivates people is, of course, highly idiosyncratic and multifaceted. Different frameworks have been proposed for explaining various aspects of motivated behavior, such as self-efficacy, value expectancy, intrinsic motivation, and achievement goals (for a review of these constructs, see Schunk, 2000). Because we are particularly interested in how motivation affects learning in academic contexts, we have chosen to focus on achievement goals, which have been studied extensively in academic settings. Achievement goals, broadly stated, are the reasons why a person engages in a task. Two general goals have been differentiated, mastery (or learning) and performance (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). Mastery goals are those that deal with one’s skill in and understanding of a topic, while performance goals deal with evaluation of ability. More recent work has included the distinction between approach and avoidance goals, within mastery and performance (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). Approach goals deal with seeking out positive outcomes, while avoidance goals deal with avoiding negative ones. A number of assessments have been created to measure these aspects of student motivation for engaging in academics. In addition to measuring these constructs, studies have also examined the effect of having a particular orientation on different measures of learning and achievement, both as a covariate (e.g., Wolters, 2004), and experimentally (e.g., Elliott & Dweck, 1988). Generally, mastery-approach goals have been found to lead to more positive learning outcomes, such as increased interest in the topic and a deeper understanding of the materials (Somuncuoglu & Yildirim, 1999). The evidence is more mixed for the effect of mastery-approach goals on measures of achievement, such as grades; some studies show no correlation (Elliot, McGregor & Gable, 1999), while others find a positive relationship (Grant & Dweck, 2003). Performance-approach goals have been found to correlate with grades, but less well to beneficial strategies and deep learning, and avoidance goals are generally found to be harmful for learning (i.e., Elliot, McGregor & Gable, 1999). Many studies have assessed motivation, and then correlated it with academic achievement. However, even among studies that have experimentally manipulated achievement goals, the dependent measure has generally been affective state, topic interest, strategy use, response to difficulties or simple measures of learning, but rarely of the transfer of knowledge (i.e., Elliott & Dweck, 1988).