The Role of Gender Identity on the Effects of Stereotype Threat: An Examination of Girls’ Math Performance in a Single-sex Classroom

Despite all of the advancements women have made in the field of mathematics, the negative stereotype regarding women’s mathematical competence persists. Stereotype threat research demonstrates that the negative stereotype contributes to significant gender differences in attitudes, academic achievement, and educational and career attainment in math. The current longitudinal study focused on stereotype threat as an explanation for how a negative gender stereotype influences the mathematical performance of middle school girls in math in a singlesex setting. In particular, the study examines how the girls’ gender identification moderates the effects of stereotype threat. The results of the study indicate that stereotype threat does operate in a single-sex setting and that participants’ math performance varies significantly depending on their overall gender identification. Single-sex Classroom 3 The Role of Gender Identity on the Effects of Stereotype Threat: An Examination of Girls Math Performance in a Single-sex Middle School As early as 1st grade, many girls report that boys are better at math than girls (Ambady, Shih, Kim, & Pittinsky, 2001; Furnham, Reeves & Budhani, 2002; Jacobs, 1991; Klebanov & Brooks-Gunn, 1992; Lummis & Stevenson, 1990; Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady, 1999). Despite all of the advancements that women have made in the field of mathematics, the negative stereotype regarding women’s mathematical abilities and competence persists. This negative stereotype is reinforced as research reveals that there are significant gender differences in academic achievement, and degree and professional attainment in math. However, these gender differences may not only reinforce the negative stereotype, but the negative stereotype itself contributes to the actual gender differences in math. Accordingly, psychology research has examined the onset, development, and persistence of gender differences in the field of mathematics. A growing body of social psychological research focusing on a phenomenon known as “stereotype threat” provides the foundation for understanding the role of the negative stereotypes in the gender achievement gap in mathematics. Stereotype threat research demonstrates that the awareness of the negative stereotype threatens women and provokes women’s underperformance compared to men (Freeman, 2003; Huguet & Regner, 2007; Johns, Schmader, & Martens, 2005; Keller, 2002; Onwuegbuzie, 1995; Shih et. al., 1999; Schmader, 2002; Schmader & Johns, 2003; Smith & White, 2002; Smith, Sansone & White, 2007; Spencer, Steele & Quinn, 1999; (Steele, 1998). 1 “Stereotype threat” describes a situational phenomenon in which individuals are threatened by their awareness of a negative stereotype and how this awareness interferes with their two primary achievement motivation goals in the situations (Beilock, McConnell & Rydell, 2007). 2 Individuals’ achievement motivation goals in stereotype threat situations are to avoid Single-sex Classroom 4 fitting the negative stereotype and perpetuating the negative stereotype by performing incompetently (Osborne, 2001). The performance of the individual in stereotype threatening situations reflects not only the individual’s competence, but the social group to which the individual belongs. Furthermore, individuals’ motivation to perform well is essential in fulfilling the need for positive self evaluation and validation (Harkins, White, & Utman, 2000), and thus awareness of the stereotype proposes a threat. The present study investigates how awareness of a negative gender stereotype, the gender composition of the setting, and the social identification of girls influence girls’ performance on a math test. Academia and Single-sex Education Single-sex education has a long controversial history within the US. Traditionally singlesex education has been used to serve privileged groups such as men or upper class women within the US. As a result, movements toward the mainstreaming of co-ed public education within the US began in the 1970’s resulting in the significant decline of single-sex education (WolfWendel, 2008). Most single-sex education models are found in parochial, private or higher educational institutions. However, a growing contemporary school of thought has emerged reconsidering and even advocating for the use of a public single-sex model as a legitimate means to educating students (Wolf-Wendel, 2008). Research since the 1980’s, research has found numerous positive effects for girls and boys of color in single-sex education models, including positive self-image, diverse career choices, stable occupational achievement patterns, and positive attitudes toward academics (Hubbard & Datnow, 2005; Lee & Bryk, 1986; Mael, Alonso, Gibson, Rogers, & Smith, 2005; Sneed, 2007). In particular girls reported more positive attitudes, achievement, educational and career achievement in typically “male” domains such as math (Hubbard & Datnow, 2005; Mael, Alonso, Gibson, Rogers, & Smith, 2005; Sneed, 2007). Single-sex Classroom 5 In addition, recent stereotype threat research has found that individuals’ mathematical performance in stereotype threat situations is moderated by the gender of the setting; with women performing optimally in single-sex settings (Huguet & Regner, 2007; Inzlicht & BenZeev, 2000; Keller & Molix, 2007; Marx & Stapel, 2006; Neuville & Croizet, 2007). All of this research suggests that this setting offers unique qualities that are critical in understanding how stereotype threat operates and, as a result, the current study examines stereotype threat in a single-sex setting. There are several facets in gender composition research including the latest research examining the salience of gender identity in single-sex versus co-ed settings. Previous work indicates that gender identity is formed around differences between the sexes, differences that are explicitly visible and differences prescribed in roles, attitudes and behaviors of the sexes (Shaw, 1995). Thus, the gender composition of a setting, (i.e. a single-sex), lacks both the visible and prescribed gender differences, as there is no social comparison group (i.e., boys) (Brutsaert, 1999; Keller & Molix, 2007; Shaw, 1995). Consistent with this proposal are the results of studies finding that the salience of gender identity in a single-sex setting is minimal (Brutsaert, 1999; Deaux & Major, 1987; Keller & Molix, 2007) and typically girls in single-sex settings do not identify with their gender (Brutsaert, 1999). This research demonstrates that the pervasiveness of gender identity is moderated by the gender composition of a setting. Gender Identification and Stereotype Threat The literature proposes a critical relationship between the gender composition of a setting and gender identity while supplementing emerging stereotype threat research by incorporating an understanding of individuals’ gender identity and the effects of stereotype threat. The initial work of Steele (1998) theorized that an individual’s identification with their gender (social self) Single-sex Classroom 6 links them to the negative stereotype and, thus, threatens their performance. The literature of Marx and Stapel (2006) which compiles numerous studies including: Shih et. al., (1999) and Schmader (2002), provides support and evidence for the role of social identity in stereotype threat situations. This research is grounded in an understanding of Tajfel’s (1981) Social Identity Theory. Social Identity Theory posits there are two types of identities, personal and social; personal identities are derived from unique characteristics, behaviors and beliefs that comprise the individual, whereas social identities are formed through the identification with or membership in specific categorical social groups (i.e. gender) (Tajfel, 1981; Tajfel & Turner, 1986). Individuals strive to maintain both positive personal and social identities. Social Identity Theory was first applied to stereotype threat by Steele (1998): individuals identification with their social self (i.e. gender) links them to the negative stereotype, threatening their performance. Shih et al., (1999) study unintentionally found support for Steele’s (1998) proposal. Shih et al., (1999) examined participants who had two conflicting stereotypes (one positive and one negative) regarding their mathematical performance, i.e. Asian women. There is a positive stereotype regarding Asian’s mathematical competence indicating that they should perform optimally while on the contrary, there is a negative gender stereotype, that because they are women they should underperform. The study found that depending on the identification of participant, as either Asian or as a woman, her math performance significantly varied. The women who identified as Asian optimally performed, while the women who identified as women underperformed. Schmader (2002) intentionally examined how strongly gender identified women performed on mathematical tasks compared to weakly gender identified women finding that women who identified strongly with their gender underperformed significantly. Finally, Single-sex Classroom 7 Marx and Stapel (2006) synthesized the application of Social Identity Theory to stereotype threat situations contending that gender identification is critical to understanding the effects of stereotype threat. Individuals’ gender identification in stereotype threat situations is critical in two aspects: the gender identity is linked to the negative stereotype threatening the individual, and the negative stereotype conflicts with the individuals’ attempts to maintain positive social identities. Numerous subsequent studies have found that individuals are linked to the negative stereotype through their identification with the social identity that the negative stereotype regards (i.e. gender) in stereotype threat situations (Good et. al., 2003; Marx & Stapel, 2006; Marx et. al., 1999; Osborne, 2001; Schmader 2002; Steele,