The Psychology of Prejudice

1. Introduction to the Study of Stereotyping and Prejudice. A. Defining Stereotype. 1. Lippman's "Stereotype". 2. Stereotyping: From bad to neutral. 3. The social-cognitive definition. 4. Cultural and individual stereotypes. 5. Is a stereotype an attitude? 6. Positive vs. negative stereotypes. B. Defining prejudice. 1. Prejudice as negative affect. 2. Prejudice as an attitude. 3. Prejudice as a "social emotion". C. The Link Between Stereotyping and Prejudice. D. Early Perspectives in Stereotyping Research. 1. Measurement. 2. Individual differences in stereotyping. 3. Group-level explanations. E. The Social Cognition Revolution. 1. Cognitive consistency theories. 2. Attribution theory. F. The Social Cognition View of Stereotyping and Prejudice. 1. Categorization. 2. The cognitive miser. 3. The motivated tactician. - G. Why the Emphasis on African-American / White Intergroup Relations? H. Summary. 2. Origin and Maintenance of Stereotypes and Prejudice. A. The formation of stereotypes. 1. Categorization. 2. Why we categorize. 3. Types of categorization. 4. In-groups and out-groups. 5. Social learning. a. Childhood intergroup contact. b. Value transmission in families. c. Influence of stereotypes on cognition in children. d. Stereotypes and prejudice in the media. 6. Implicit theories. 7. The efficiency of stereotypes. B. How and why stereotypes are maintained. 1. Selective attention to stereotype-relevant information. 2. Subcategorization. 3. Illusory correlations. 4. Motivation. C. Origins of prejudice. 1. Social identity theory. 2. Optimal distinctiveness theory. 3. Scapegoat theory. 4. Relative deprivation. 5. Realistic conflict theory. D. Summary. 3. Feeling and Thinking in the Activation and Application of Stereotypes. A. Mood. 1. Types of intergroup affect. a. Chronic racial affect. b. Episodic racial affect. c. Incidental affect. 2. Influence of positive affect. 3. Effects of negative affect. 4. Motivational vs. cognitive capacity deficits. B. Cognition. 1. Implicit cognition. 2. Subliminal messages. 3. Implicit memory. 4. Implicit stereotyping. 5. Implicit Association Test. 6. Stereotype suppression. a. Thought suppression. b. Suppressing stereotypes. C. Issues for Future Research. D. Summary. 4. The Prejudiced Personality: Are some people more likely. to feel prejudice? A. Psychodynamic perspectives. 1. Authoritarianism. 2. Character-conditioned prejudice. 3. Problems with the psychodynamic approach. B. Right-wing authoritarianism. C. Religion. 1. Committed vs. consensual religiousity. 2. Extrinsic vs. intrinsic religious orientation. 3. Religion as quest. D. Need for cognition. E. Need for structure. F. Need for cognitive closure. G. Social dominance orientation. H. Summary. 5. Old-fashioned vs. Modern Prejudice. A. Where have all the bigots gone? 1. From Katz & Braly (1933) to civil rights, and beyond. 2. Are low-prejudiced people really low-prejudiced? B. Modern Racism. C. Symbolic Racism. D. Aversive Racism. E. Summary of Contemporary Theories of Prejudice. F. Measuring Stereotyping and Prejudice. 1. The Self-Report Questionnaire. 2. The Bogus-Pipeline. 3. Measures of Stereotypes. 4. Measuring Stereotyping. 5. Measuring Prejudice. 6. Priming and Reaction times - the true measure? G. Summary: Is There Such A Thing As Modern Prejudice? 6. Experiencing Prejudice. A. Social Stigma. B. Group Identification. C. Stereotype Threat. D. Self-Esteem. 1. Denial of discrimination. 2. Self-fulfilling prophecy. E. Intergroup Interactions. 1. Dynamic nature of interactions. 2. Expectations. 3. Intergroup anxiety. 4. Metastereotypes. F. Attributional Ambiguity. 1. The paradoxical effects of affirmative action. 2. Perceived controllability of the stigma. G. Summary. 7. Ageism. A. Why Ageism? (and what about other "-ism's"? ). B. Does Ageism Really Exist? C. Age Stereotypes: Content and Use. D. Positive Attitudes and Positive Stereotypes. E. Effects of Pseudopositive Attitudes. 1. Patronizing language. 2. Patronizing behavior. 3. Effects of pseudopositive attitudes on the elderly. F. Ageism in the Helping Professions. G. Origins of Ageism. 1. Age grading of society. 2. From sage to burden. 3. Modernization. 4. Idealism. H. Maintenance of Ageism. 1. Functional perspective. 2. Conflict. 3. Self-threat, self-esteem, and terror management. I. Juvenile Ageism. J. Beliefs and Expectations About Old Age. 1. Beliefs and expectations of the young about aging. 2. Expectations of the elderly about aging. K. Age Discrimination. L. Prominence of Age as a Variable in Social Perception. M. Contact with the Elderly. 1. Negative expectations about intergenerational contact. 2. Negative schemas about the elderly. N. Cross-Cultural Differences in Ageism. 1. Eastern vs. western views. O. Issues for Future Research. 1. Measurement. 2. You're really as old (or young) as you feel. 3. Stereotype knowledge or stereotype belief? 4. Evaluating prejudiced attitudes. P. Summary. 8. Sexism. A. Gender stereotypes. B. Measurement of gender stereotypes. C. Origin of gender stereotypes. 1. Religion. 2. Social learning. 3. Cultural institutions. 4. Evolution vs. social roles. 5. Power. D. Accuracy of gender stereotypes. E. Sexist language. F. Sexist humor. 1. Sexist jokes perpetuate gender stereotypes. 2. Perceptions of sexist humor. 3. Is sexist humor harmless fun? 4. Automatic and controlled reactions to sexist humor. G. Types of sexism. 1. Old-fashioned vs. modern sexism. 2. Neosexism. 3. Benevolent vs. hostile sexism. H. Effects of sexism on women. I. Gender discrimination. 1. Distancing behavior. 2. Job opportunities. 3. The glass ceiling. J. Summary. 9. Reducing Prejudice. A. The Contact Hypothesis. 1. Allport's contact hypothesis. 2. Tests of the contact hypothesis. 3. Pettigrew's reformulated contact theory. B. Sherif's (1961) Robber's Cave study: The Superordinate Goal. C. The "Confrontation Technique" of Rokeach. D. The Jigsaw Classroom. E. Education, Empathy, and Role-Playing. F. Summary. G. Current Approaches to Prejudice Reduction. 1. Functional approach. 2. Normative influence. 3. Self-regulation. H. Summary. 10. Trends and Unanswered Questions in Prejudice Research. A. Prejudice against other groups. 1. Overweight persons. 2. Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. 3. Physically-challenged. B. Understanding the dynamic nature of intergroup relations. C. Motivation and prejudice. D. The neurobiology of prejudice. E. Implicit and automatic stereotyping. F. To individuate, or stereotype? That IS the question. G. Summary.