Burnout and playing position: a study of Brazilian soccer players.

IntroductionCurrently, there is great concern to provide adequate working conditions not only for the sake of productivity but also for the health, quality of life, and future of workers. Thus, occupational stress, which may have negative effects on health, well-being, and job performance, is a recent topic of study (Maslach & Leiter, 2008; Sarafino, 2008; Taylor, 2009). Maslach and Jackson (1981, p. 99) defined burnout as "a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs frequently among individuals who do human service work". When people feel burnt out, they believe that they have exhausted their psychological resources and developed cynical and negative attitudes toward others and a negative view of themselves. Therefore, "workers feel unhappy about themselves and dissatisfied with their accomplishments on the job" (Maslach & Jackson, 1981, p. 99). Furthermore, burnout appears to be correlated ". with various self-reported indices of personal distress, including physical exhaustion, insomnia, increased use of alcohol and drugs, and marital and family problems" (Maslach & Jackson, 1981, p. 100). Burnout characteristics in athletes are similar to those experienced by professionals who work in direct and frequent contact with other people and involve the perception that personal resources are insufficient or inadequate to cope with stress. As a result, people develop negative attitudes, behaviors, and feelings that lead to practical and emotional problems in the workplace. Many authors consider the several reports of elite athletes who abandon their sport at the peak of their careers to be examples of the effects of the excessive stress in sports (Arce, Francisco, Andrade, Arce & Raedeke, 2010; Hill & Appleton, 2011; Ivarsson, 2008; Raedeke, 1997; Lemyre, Roberts & Stray-Gundersen, 2007; Lemyre, Hall & Roberts, 2008). Burnout in sports is primarily considered to be a response to chronic stress characterized by performance decreases, sport devaluation, and physical and emotional exhaustion. Media reports of the "negative sport experiences of a series of high-profile athletes" (Cresswell & Eklund, 2006a, p. 219) have stimulated research interest in this subject. In turn, these researchers have proposed that the negative experiences of these athletes are similar to the burnout in other professions (Cresswell & Eklund, 2006a; 2006b). Professional exhaustion in athletes has three key aspects: 1) emotional and physical exhaustion due to the excessive demands imposed by training sessions and competition; 2) a reduced sense of self-realization accompanied by the perception that objectives are unattainable; and 3) devaluation and a lack of interest in the sport (Raedeke, 1997; Lemyre, Hall & Roberts, 2008; Gustafsson, Hassmen, Kentta & Johansson, 2008). With regard to the three burnout subscales (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and dissatisfaction with one's performance), depersonalization appears to be least applicable to athletes due to the contextual differences between sports and the service industry. Given that depersonalization assesses devaluation and indifference toward one's career, it may measure the development of negative attitudes towards sports involvement in athletes (Raedeke, 1997). Although the relationship between athletes and coaches is important, it does not seem to be the determining factor for burnout. Therefore, sports burnout must be defined in terms of the key element of their jobs: performance (Raedeke, 1997). Professional exhaustion in athletes may be due to training and competition demands as well as associated with the perception of poor performance regarding skills and achievements (Hill & Appleton, 2011; Kimberley, Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, Ryan, Jos, Bosch & Thogersen-Ntoumani, 2011; Raedeke, 1997). However, social support seems to be an important factor in protecting athletes from burnout (Cresswell, 2009). …