Complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) development in L2 writing: the effects of proficiency level, learning environment, text type, and time among Saudi EFL learners

8 Dedication . 10 Acknowledgements . 11 List of Tables . 12 List of Figures . 14 Chapter One . 15 Introduction . 15 1.0 Research Background and Rationale: English in a Saudi Educational Context. 15 1.2 Statement of the Problem . 20 1.3 Research Questions . 23 1.4 Research Objectives . 23 1.5 The Significance of the Research . 24 Chapter Two . 26 Literature Review Part I: Writing Acquisition, Definitions, Teaching Environments, and Approaches . 26 2.0 Introduction . 26 2.1 Writing Skill Acquisition Studies . 26 2.2 Definitions of Writing Skills . 28 2.3 Teaching Environments and Approaches to Writing Skills . 32 2.3.1 Traditional learning context (TLC). 34 2.3.1.1 Product approach(es). 35 2.3.1.2 Process approach(es). 37 2.3.1.3 Genre approach(es). 40 2.3.1.4 Process genre approach(es). 42 2.3.2 Writing Skills and Technology . 44 2.3.2.1 Blended learning context (BLC). 46 EFFECTS OF PROFICIENCY, ENVIRONMENT, TASK, AND TIME ON CAF 2 2.3.2.1.1 Definitions and types of BLC. 47 2.3.2.1.2 BLC’s benefits, drawbacks, and challenges. 48 2.3.2.1.3 BLC in Saudi Arabia. 51 2.3.2.2 Online learning context (OLC). 52 2.3.2.2.1 Definitions and types of OLC. 53 2.3.2.2.2 OLC’s benefits, drawbacks, and challenges. 55 2.3.2.2.3 OLC in the Arab countries and in Saudi Arabia. 59 2.4 Summary . 62 Chapter Two . 63 Literature Review Part II: Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency . 63 2.5 The Origin of Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency (CAF) . 63 2.6 CAF Research Challenges. 70 2.7 The Challenges in Defining and Measuring CAF Constructs. 70 2.7. 1 Complexity. 72 2.7. 1.1 Syntactic complexity. 73 2.7. 1.1.1 Definitions. 73 2.7. 1.1.2 Measurements. 78 2.7. 1.2 Lexical complexity. 84 2.7. 1.2.1 Definitions. 84 2.7. 1.2.2 Measurements. 87 2.7. 1.2.2.1 Lexical density. 88 2.7. 1.2.2.2 Lexical sophistication. 89 2.7. 1.2.2.3 Lexical Variation. 91 2.7. 2 Accuracy. 95 2.7. 2.1 Definitions. 95 2.7. 2.2 Measurements. 97 2.7. 3 Fluency. 101 EFFECTS OF PROFICIENCY, ENVIRONMENT, TASK, AND TIME ON CAF 3 2.7. 3.1 Definitions. 101 2.7. 3.2 Measurements. 104 2.8 The Challenge in Determining CAF’s Linguistic and Psycholinguistic Correspondences, Factors, and Correlations. 108 2.8. 1 Skehan’s limited attentional capacity model. 111 2.8. 2 Robinson’s triadic componential framework. 113 2.8. 3 CAF studies on writing tasks and task complexity factor. 118 2.9 Summary . 127 Chapter Three . 128 Methodology . 128 3.0 Introduction . 128 3.1 Statement of the Problem . 128 3.2 Research Design . 128 3.3 Setting . 130 3.4 Participants . 130 3.5 EFL Courses . 131 3.6 Teaching Methodology, Teaching/Learning Contexts, and Participants . 132 3.6. 1 Traditional learning context groups for level one and six students (TLC1/TLC6). 133 3.6. 2 Blended learning context group for level one and six students (BLC1/BLC6). 133 3.6. 3 Online learning context groups for level one and six students (OLC1/OLC6). 134 3.7 Materials and Procedures for Data Collection . 136 3.7. 1 Materials: writing paragraphs/essays. 136 3.7. 2 Procedures. 137 3.8 Ethical Considerations . 139 3.9 Data Analysis . 139 3.9. 1 Complexity. 141 3.9. 1.1 Syntactic complexity analysis. 141 EFFECTS OF PROFICIENCY, ENVIRONMENT, TASK, AND TIME ON CAF 4 3.9. 1.2 Lexical complexity analysis. 143 3.9. 2 Accuracy analysis. 146 3.9. 3 Fluency analysis.