Minuri/sinhala-corpus-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000-60,000 word thesis component, which collectively is equivalent to that of a Ph
එක්සත් ජනපදය

Overview 

In the United States, the Ph
degree is the highest academic degree awarded by universities in most fields of study
degree is often misunderstood to be synonymous with the term doctorate
While the Ph
degree is the most common doctorate, the term doctorate can refer to any number of doctoral degrees in the United States
Department of Education and the National Science Foundation recognize numerous doctoral degrees as "equivalent", and do not discriminate between them
American students typically undergo a series of three phases in the course of their work toward the Ph
The first phase consists of coursework in the student's field of study and requires one to three years to complete
This often is followed by a preliminary, a comprehensive examination, or a series of cumulative examinations where the emphasis is on breadth rather than depth of knowledge
Some Ph
programs require the candidate to successfully complete requirements in pedagogy (taking courses on higher level teaching and teaching undergraduate courses) or applied science (e
, clinical practica and predoctoral clinical internship in Ph
programs in clinical or counseling psychology)
Another two to four years are usually required for the composition of a substantial and original contribution to human knowledge in the form of a written dissertation, which in the social sciences and humanities typically ranges from 50 to 450 pages in length
In many cases, depending on the discipline, a dissertation consists of (i) a comprehensive literature review, (ii) an outline of methodology, and (iii) several chapters of scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or literary analysis
Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, sometimes public, by his or her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline
As the Ph
degree is often a preliminary step toward a career as a professor, throughout the whole period of study and dissertation research the student may be required or at least offered the opportunity, depending on the university and degree, to teach undergraduate or sometimes graduate courses in relevant subjects
Admission 
There are 282 universities in the United States that award the Ph
degree, and those universities vary widely in their criteria for admission, as well as the rigor of their academic programs
Typically, Ph
programs require applicants to have a Bachelor's degree in a relevant field (and, in rare cases, a master's degree), reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation, relevant academic coursework, a cogent statement of interest in the field of study, and satisfactory performance on a graduate-level exam specified by the respective program (e
, GRE, GMAT)
Specific admissions criteria differ substantially according to university admissions policies and fields of study
some programs in well-regarded research universities (i
, Research 1 universities) may admit less than five percent of applicants and require an exceptional performance on the GRE along with near-perfect grades, strong support in letters of recommendation, substantial research experience, and academically sophisticated samples of their writing
Master's degree "in passing" 
As applicants to many Ph
programs are not required to have master's degrees, many programs award a Master of Arts or Master of Science degree "in passing" or "in course" based on the graduate work done in the course of achieving the Ph
Students who receive such master's degrees are usually required to complete a certain amount of coursework and a master's thesis
Depending on the specific program, masters-in-passing degrees can be either mandatory or optional
Not all Ph
students choose to complete the additional requirements necessary for the M
if such requirements are not mandated by their programs
Those students will simply obtain the Ph
degree at the end of their graduate study
Some programs also include a Master of Philosophy degree as part of the Ph
, in those universities that offer it, is usually awarded after the appropriate M
(as above) is awarded, and the degree candidate has completed all further requirements for the Ph
degree (which may include additional language requirements, course credits, teaching experiences, and comprehensive exams) aside from the writing and defense of the dissertation itself
This formalizes the "all but dissertation" (ABD) status used informally by some students, and represents that the student has achieved a higher level of scholarship than the M
would indicate - as such, the M
is sometimes a helpful credential for those applying for teaching or research posts while completing their dissertation work for the Ph
degree itself
Time 
Depending on the specific field of study, completion of a Ph
program usually takes four to eight years of study after the Bachelor's Degree
those students who begin a Ph
program with a master's degree may complete their Ph
degree a year or two sooner
As Ph
programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate education, there are significant individual differences in the time taken to complete the degree
Many U
universities have set a ten-year limit for students in Ph
programs, or refuse to consider graduate credit older than ten years as counting towards a Ph
Similarly, students may be required to re-take the comprehensive exam if they do not defend their dissertations within five years of taking it
Overall, 57% of students who begin a Ph
program in the US will complete their degree within ten years, approximately 30% will drop out or be dismissed, and the remaining 13% of students will continue on past ten years
Funding 
Doctoral students are usually discouraged from engaging in external employment during the course of their graduate training
As a result, Ph
students at U
universities typically receive a tuition waiver and some form of annual stipend
The source and amount of funding varies from field to field and university to university
graduate students work as teaching assistants or research assistants while they are doctoral students
Graduate schools increasingly encourage their students to seek outside funding
many are supported by fellowships they obtain for themselves or by their advisers' research grants from government agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health
Many Ivy League and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the degree program (if it is short) or for most of it
candidacy 
A Ph
Candidate (sometimes called Candidate of Philosophy) is a postgraduate student at the doctoral level who has successfully satisfied the requirements for doctoral studies, except for the final thesis or dissertation
As such, a Ph
Candidate is sometimes called an "ABD" (All But Dissertation)
Although a minor distinction in postgraduate study, achieving Ph
D Candidacy is not without benefit
For example, Ph
Candidate status may coincide with an increase in the student's monthly stipend and may make the student eligible for additional employment opportunities
Models of supervision 
At some universities, there may be training for those wishing to supervise Ph
There is now a lot of literature published for academics who wish to do this, such as Delamont, Atkinson and Parry (1997)
Indeed, Dinham and Scott (2001) have argued that the worldwide growth in research students has been matched by increase in a number of what they term "how-to" texts for both students and supervisors, citing examples such as Pugh and Phillips (1987)
These authors report empirical data on the benefits that Ph
students may gain if they publish their work, and note that Ph
students are more likely to do this with adequate encouragement from their supervisors
Wisker (2005) has noticed how research into this field has distinguished between two models of supervision
The technical-rationality model of supervision, emphasising technique
The negotiated order model, being less mechanistic and emphasising fluid and dynamic change in the Ph
These two models were first distinguished by Acker, Hill and Black (1994
cited in Wisker, 2005)
Considerable literature exists on the expectations that supervisors may have of their students (Phillips & Pugh, 1987) and the expectations that students may have of their supervisors (Phillips &  Pugh, 1987
Wilkinson, 2005) in the course of Ph
Similar expectations are implied by the Quality Assurance Agency's Code for Supervision (Quality Assurance Agency, 1999
cited in Wilkinson, 2005)
මේවාත් බලන්න 
International Ph
Equivalent Degrees
Belgium (Dutch-speaking)
Doctor
 Belgium (French-speaking)
Doctorat
 Brazil
Doutorado
 France
Doctorat
 Greece
Διδακτορικό
 Italy
dottorato di ricerca
 Latin America
Doctorado/Doctorate
 Mexico
Doctorado
 Poland
Doktor
 Portugal
Doutoramento
 Spain
Doctorado
 Turkey
Doktora

Other Degrees
Doctorate - A general term describing a set of degrees analogous to the Ph
Terminal degree - The highest degree awarded in a field, usually a Ph
Graduate student - A student pursuing education past the bachelor's degree, such as Masters Degree or a Ph
(also ABD) - Term, usually used unofficially, for a graduate student who has completed all Ph
coursework but has yet to defend his or her dissertation
Kandidat - Degree awarded by USSR and post-Soviet states
Licentiate - Degree awarded in various countries, including පෘතුගාලය, Belgium, the UK, Argentina, ජර්මනිය, Switzerland, ස්වීඩනය, Finland, ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව, නවසීලන්තය, Mexico and Poland
Sandwich PhD Programme

Ph
in popular culture
Piled Higher and Deeper - Life (or the lack thereof) in Academia, a comic strip by Jorge Cham

සටහන්

යොමුව 
 Delamont, S
, Atkinson, P
& Parry, O
Supervising the Ph
A guide to success
Open University Press
ISBN 0-335-19516-4
 Dinham, S
& Scott, C
The experience of the results of disseminating the results of doctoral research
Journal of Further and Higher Education, 25 (1) 45-55. ISSN
1469-9486
 MacGillivray, Alex
Potts, Gareth
Raymond, Polly
Secrets of Their Success (London
New Economics Foundation, 2002)
Phillips, E
& Pugh, D
How to get a PhD
managing the peaks and troughs of research / Estelle M
Phillips and D
Pugh
Open University Press ISBN 0-335-15537-5 
 Simpson, Renate
How the PhD came to Britain
A century of struggle for postgraduate education, Society for Research into Higher Education, Guildford (1983)
Wellington, J
Bathmaker, A
, Hunt, C
, McCullough, G
& Sikes, P
Succeeding with your doctorate
ISBN 1-4129-0116-2
 Wilkinson, D
(2005) The essential guide to postgraduate study
SAGE ISBN 1-4129-0062-X (hbk
)

බාහිර සබැදුම්External links 
 Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities
Summary Report 2005  (1.9MiB)
 LaTeX template for writing PhD thesis
 The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom
Notes on its History Contains information/links of more general relevance than mathematics
Philosophy, Doctor of
ඉතිහාසය 
අනෙකුත් රැකියා මෙන්ම ගුරු වෘත්තිය සදහාද නිසි අධ්‍යාපනය හා පුහුණුව ලද පුද්ගලයන් තෝරා ගැනීමට රජය මෙන්ම පෞද්ගලික අධ්‍යාපන ආයතන වගබලා ගනී
ඒ සුදුසුකම් අතර උපාධියක් හිමි ගුරුවරුන් සදහා විශේෂ ස්ථානයක් හිමිවේ
උපාධි පිරිනැමීමද සිදුවන්නේ උසස් අධ්‍යාපන ආයතන මගිනි
ශීෂ්‍යයෙකු විදුහලකට ඇතුලත් කර පසු පිළිවෙලින් නියමිත ශේණීන්ටඅදාල විභාග සමත්වීමෙන් පසු ඉහළම අධ්‍යාපන සුදුසුකම් ලැබූ සිසුන් උපාධි සදහා තෝරාගනු ලැබේ
මෙසේ උපාධි පිරිනැමීම අතීතයේ සිට සිදුවිය
අතීතයේ පැවති උසස් අධ්‍යාපන ආයතන ලෙස තක්ෂිලා නාලන්දා වික්‍රමශීලා ජගද්දලා වැනි ආයතන දැක්විය හැක
මෙම උසස් අධ්‍යාපන ආයතන තුල ඉතා සාර්ථක ලෙස ඉගෙනීම් කටයුතු සිදුකරඇති බව ඉතිහාසඥයන් පෙන්වා දෙයි
අතීතයේ රජ කුමාරවරුන් තක්ෂිලාව නම් විද්‍යස්ථානයකින් ශිල්ප හැදෑරූ බවත් ඔවුන්ට දක්ෂතා මත විවිධ නම්බු නාම පිරිනැමූ බවත් පන්සිය පනස් ජාතක පොත වැනි මූලාශ්‍රවල දැක්වේ
14 හා 15 වන සියවසයන්හිදී නාලන්නා වික්‍රමශීලා ජගද්දලා වැනි විශ්ව විද්‍යාල ඉන්දියාව තුල පැවති ඉතා ප්‍රකට විශ්ව විද්‍යාලවිය
මෙයිනුත් නාලන්දා විශ්ව විද්‍යාලය ප්‍රමුඛ විය
නාලන්දා විශ්ව විද්‍යාලය සතුව ඉතා විශාල හා උසින් වැඩි ගොඩනැගිලි පිහිටා ඇත
මෙම විශ්ව විද්‍යාල තුල වැඩි වශයෙන් මහායාන බුදු දහම හා වෙනත් බොහෝ විෂයන් අධ්‍යනය කර ඇත
මෙම විශ්ව විද්‍යාල පසුව ඉන්දියාවට පැමිනි මුස්ළිම් ආක්‍රමණිකයන් විසින් ගිනිතබා විනාශ කරනලදී
මෙම විශ්ව විද්‍යාල තුල පැවති වටිනා පුස්ථක මාස හයක් පුරාවට ගිනිගෙන දැවුන බව පැවසේ
The origins of the doctorate in particular dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the Madh'hab legal schools
To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and at least ten years for a post-graduate course
The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose" which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law
" After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of faqih (meaning "master of law"), mufti (meaning "professor of legal opinions") and mudarris (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as magister, professor and doctor) respectively
In the medieval European universities, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and the quadrivium (mathematics, geometry, astronomy and music), together known as the Liberal Arts, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their masters, would be admitted to the degree of bachelor of arts, from the Latin , a term previously usually used of a squire (i
, apprentice) to a knight
Further study, and in particular successful participation in and then moderating of disputations would earn one the Master of Arts degree, from the Latin magister, teacher, entitling one to teach these subjects
Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law, Medicine or Theology, and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degrees in these subjects
Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin  ("step")
Today the terms "master", "doctor" (from the Latin - meaning literally
"teacher") and "professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university they were equivalent terms, the use of them in the degree name being a matter of custom at a university
(Most universities conferred the Master of Arts but, for instance, the highest degree was variously termed Master of Theology/ Divinity or Doctor of Theology/ Divinity depending on the place)
The earliest doctoral degrees (theology - Divinitatis Doctor (D
), philosophy - Doctor of philosophy (D
) and medicine - Medicin Doctor (M
)) reflected the historical separation of all University study into these three fields
Over time the D
has gradually become less common and studies outside theology and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities - however this usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy)
The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century
it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව.  
The University of Paris used the term master for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh
The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied
Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "masters", but those in theology, medicine, and law were known as "doctor"
As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master's degree
This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph
), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th and 19th Century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M
The practice of using the term doctor for all advanced degrees developed within German universities and spread across the academic world
The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms
The baccalaurat (cf
"bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their secondary education and admits the student to university
When students graduate from university, they are awarded licence, much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies
In the past, degrees have also been directly issued by authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution
This practice has mostly died out
In Britain, Lambeth Degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury
In most countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution
Academic dress is like a uniform or insignia identifying the status of the individual wearing them
නිදර්ශන

Some examples of specific degrees follow each general term
For more information, see the article about the general term
Associate's degrees
AA (Associate in Arts), AS (Associate in Science), AAS (Associate in Applied Science), AGS (Associate in General Studies)

 Bachelor's degrees
AB or BA, BFA, LL
B, BSc or ScB or BS or SB, BASc, BPhil, BBus, BSBA, BPE, B
Math, BSW, BVSc, B
Eng, BBA, B
Tech

 Master's degrees
, MA, MFA, LL
M, MS or MSc, MCM, M
, MPIA, MPS, MAS, MMus, MSSc, MBA, MPA, MHA, M
Ed or EdM, M
Eng, M
J, M
Des, Drs (Netherlands)

 Extended Research Master's degrees
(Denmark)

 Licentiate degrees
LDS, JCL, LP

 Specialist degrees
, SSP, SClP

 Logistician's degree
CPL

 Engineer's degrees
, E
, Env
, Mech
, Nucl
, Sys
Professional Doctoral degrees
DMD or DDM, DDS, BM BS, DPT, ND, D
,  OD, DVM, V
D, M
, Au
, PharmD, J
,  D
, DProf (UK), Psy
Research Doctoral degrees
, EdD, EngD, DTech, DBA, DPA, DHA, Dr
-Ing(Germany), DPS, D
or Th
or S
or LL
, DPM, DSc or ScD, DSocSci, M
, DSW   

Abbreviations for degrees can place the level either before or after the faculty or discipline, depending on the institution
For example, DSc and ScD both stand for the (higher) doctorate in science
Various other abbreviations also vary between institutions, for instance BS and BSc both stand for 'Bachelor of Science'
There are various conventions for indicating degrees and diplomas after one's name
In some cultures it is usual to give only the highest degree
In others, it is usual to give the full sequence, in some cases giving abbreviations also for the discipline, the institution, and (where it applies) the level of honours
In another variation, a 'rule of subsumption' often shortens the list and may obscure the chronology evident from a full listing
Thus 'MSc BA' means that the degrees conferred were - in chronological order - BSc, BA, MSc
The subsumption rule reflects the principle that a person of a given high status does not separately belong to the lower status
For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities, there is a standard list of abbreviations, but in practice many variations are used
Most notable is the use of the Latin abbreviations 'Oxon
' and 'Cantab
' for the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, in spite of these having been superseded by (little used) English 'Oxf
' and 'Camb
' Other Latin abbreviations include St And
for the University of St Andrews, Exon
for the University of Exeter, Dunelm
for Durham University, Ebor
for the University of York and Cantuar
for the University of Kent (formerly the "University of Kent at Canterbury")
Confusion results from the widespread use of 'SA' for the University of South Australia (instead of S
) because 'SA' was officially assigned to the University of South Africa
For universities of different commonwealth countries sharing the same name, such as York University in Canada and the University of York in the UK, a convention has been adopted where a country abbreviation is included with the letters and university name
In this example, 'York (Can
)' and 'York (UK)' is commonly used to denote degrees conferred by their respective universities
The doubling of letters in LL
, LL
is because these degrees are in laws, not law
The doubled letter indicates the Latin plural (genitive case) legum as opposed to the singular (genitive case) legis
Abbreviations for the degrees in surgery Ch
and Ch
are from Latin chiruguriae and often indicate a university system patterned after Scottish models
The combination of M
with Ch
arose from a need to graduate the students at the time of year allocated to graduation rituals, but the legal inability to confer the M
before they had been properly approved by professional regulatory bodies
Thus the Ch
was conferred first, and the M
was conferred later, after registration, and without ceremony
In recent times the two have come to be conferred together and are widely (mis)understood to constitute a single degree
Some degrees are awarded jure dignitatis
That is, a person who has demonstrated the appropriate qualities to be given a particular office may be awarded the degree by virtue of the office held
It is another kind of earned—but not strictly academic—degree
ප්‍රදේශයන් අනුව උපාධි ක්‍රියාපිළිවෙල

උතුරු හා දකුණු ඇමරිකාව

බ්‍රසීලය

Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities normally graduate either with a Bacharel degree (equivalent to an American B
) or with a professional degree (roughly modeled on the old German Diplom)
Bacharel degrees are awarded in most fields of study in the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, or natural sciences and normally take four years to complete (some degrees, as in Law, require an extra fifth year to be obtained)
Professional degrees are awarded in state-regulated professions such as architecture, engineering, psychology, pharmacy, dental medicine, veterinary medicine, or human medicine and are named after the profession itself, i
one graduates with a degree of Engenheiro (engineer), Arquiteto (architect), or Mdico (physician/surgeon) for example
Professional degrees are generally regarded as being of higher social standing than a Bacharel degree and are considered more academically demanding
A typical course of study leading to a first professional degree in Brazil normally takes five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course which requires six years
In addition to the standard Bacharel and professional degrees, Brazilian universities also offer the Licenciatura degree, available for students who want to qualify as school teachers
Licenciatura courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities, and natural sciences
Although Licenciatura courses also last 4 years, they are nonetheless considered to be of lower standing than a Bacharelado course
A lower degree of Tecnólogo (Technologist) is also available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years only
Admission as an undergraduate student in most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as Vestibular
Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular
Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as transferncia interna), that is actually quite rare in Brazil
Undergraduate curricula tend to be more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major
Individuals who hold either a Bacharel degree, a professional diploma or Licenciatura are eligible for admission into graduate courses leading to advanced master's or doctor's degrees
Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil
Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams
others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation, and possibly oral interviews
In most cases however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan and one faculty member must agree to serve as his/her supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program
The exception are the Natural Sciences post-graduate programs, that accepts students with very broad and/or vague research prospects (sometimes the prospect is given in promptu during the interview), preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies
Master's degrees normally take two years to obtain and are classified into academic master's degrees or professional master's degrees
Requirements for an academic master's degree normally include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically between five and eight) and submitting a research thesis which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one external member who must be from another university or research institute
The emphasis of the thesis must be in its clarity and ease of understanding by future students, not in its originality
Professional master's degrees on the other hand normally involve taking a larger number of classes, and, in the case of engineering programs in particular, often completing a project as an intern in an engineering company and submitting a final project report
The most relevant difference to the international scenario is that, due to restrictive production goals set by government agencies, in most universities a Master degree is not only considered inferior to a Doctor degree but a pre-requisite for the admission in a Doctorate program
Master's titles in Brazil normally include an explicit reference to the field of study in which they were awarded, e
one graduates with a degree of Mestre em Engenharia (Master of Engineering), Mestre em Economia (Master of Economics), and so on
The generic title Mestre em Cincias (Master of Sciences) is used sometimes though, especially in the natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry, etc
The word profissional is normally added to the title to distinguish it from an academic master's degree, e
Mestre Profissional em Engenharia Aeronutica (Professional Master in Aeronautical Engineering)
Doctor's degrees on the other hand normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete and are of a higher standing than a master's degree
With very few exceptions (namely, people with outstanding accomplishments in research), a Master degree or equivalent is required for admission in a Doctorate Program
Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related
That contrasts with master's theses, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories
The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute
Conventions for naming doctoral degrees follow similar rules to those used for master's degree, i
an explicit reference to the field of study is normally included in the title itself, e
Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering), Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), etc
, although a generic title like Doutor em Cincias (Doctor of Sciences) may be occasionally used
Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of São Paulo still award the title of Livre-Docente (free docent), which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German Habilitation, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a Livre-Docncia examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors
කොළොම්බියාව

In Colombia, the system of degrees is a bit similar to the U
After completing their high school, or "", students (called "") can take one of two options
The first is called a "", which is similar to a Bachelor's Degree requiring from nine to eleven semesters of study according to the program chosen
The other option is called a "Tcnico"
this degree only three years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors, similar to the associate's degree given in the U
After this, students, now called "" or "", can opt for higher degrees
Formal education after the Bachelor's degree is the Master's degree with the title of "", and Doctorate's degree known as ""
The Master's degree has a normal duration of two years
More commonly students prefer to take an specialization's degree, "", after their bachelor's degree rather than the more formal Master and Doctorate paths
This program is very popular in the country, because it requires only one year to complete and because the student only acquires the technical knowledge, without the bulk of the theoretical subjects
A similar situation in Colombia, when compared to the U
system, is that the students may go directly to the "" without having to take the "Master" or ""
චිලී 

In Chile, the system in a nutshell is as follows
Quite similar to the case described for Colombia, students may opt to be ""(Professionals) or ""(Technicians)
After completion of high school, students may follow professional or technical studies at Universities or Technical schools
Only Universities and the Academies of the Armed Forces can give Academic Degrees
In general, traditional professions require an Academic Degree, but there are many professions that not require the degree because they were conceived as strictly "professional" not academic
The degrees are as follows
"" it is similar to the Bachelor, but to get it is necessary to complete at least eight semesters of study on the subjects which are part of the Mayor
This degree is enough to continue developing an academic career, however, to get a professional title -which is not academic, but allows you to get a professional practice, you have to continue one or two additional years of study
(For example to be an engineer it is necessary to study four years to get a Licentiate in Engineering Sciences, and two additional years to get a Professional Title and become an engineer
Sometimes it is possible to take additional subjects and get a "" degree besides the professional title
)

"" is the equivalent to the Master degree in English speaking countries
"" is the equivalent to the Doctorate or Phd
There is no separate classification for Professional Doctorates
In particular, the engineering profession may be complicated for the foreigner since there is two types of engineers
those who got an Academic Degree such as Civil Engineers or Armed Forced Politechnical Engineers, and those who are "" (Professional Engineers) which are considered technicians more focused to apply the engineering, and completed only four years of study
They are not able, by law, to authorise plans or drawings like engineers with a degree or architects
එක්සත් රාජධානිය
In the United States, since the late 1800s, the threefold degree system of bachelor, master and doctor has been in place, but follows a slightly different pattern of study from the European equivalents
In the United States, most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree (most often Bachelor of Arts, B
, or Bachelor of Science, B
), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of Arts, M
, or Master of Science, M
either of these programs might be as much as three years in length) and a further one or two years of coursework and research, culminating in comprehensive examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience, and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate (most often doctor of philosophy, Ph
or other types such as Ed
, Psy
, Th
) for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate
This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete
In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level, or even an additional degree at a level already completed
Therefore, there is no time-limit on the accumulation of academic degrees
Some schools—mostly junior colleges and community colleges, but some four-year schools as well—offer an associate's degree for two full years of study, often in pre-professional areas
This may stand alone, or sometimes be used as credit toward completion of the four-year bachelor's degree
In the United States, there is also another class of degrees called "First Professional degree
" These degree programs are designed for professional practice in various fields rather than academic scholarship
Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission (a notable exception being the PharmD program), and so represent at least about five total years of study and as many as seven or eight
Some fields such as fine art, architecture, or divinity have chosen to name their first professional degree after the bachelor's a "master's degree" (e
) because most of these degrees require at least the completion of a bachelor's degree while the professional degrees in වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව (the M
or D
) and law (the J
) are doctorates
There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a "doctorate" in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago
It is important to recognize that first-professional degrees in these fields are different from research-oriented degrees and comparisons to the Ph
are problematic
ආසියාව හා ඔසියානාව

ඔස්ට්‍රේලියාව 
In some countries, such as Australia, a diploma is a specific academic award in addition to that of Bachelor/Master's/Doctorate
Diplomas are usually signified by a stole rather than an academic hood, the latter being used only for those of graduate status
A person with a diploma is termed a diplomate
Australia has several different kinds of diplomas
Diplomas, Advanced Diplomas, Graduate Diplomas and Postgraduate Diplomas
The system is not without anomalies, due largely to the different traditions of individual institutions which the Australian Qualifications Framework aims to regularise
A Diploma is usually equivalent to the first year of a Bachelor's degree, although a few have been similar to Bachelor of Arts degrees and permit direct admission to graduate programs
An Australian Advanced Diploma is usually considered lower than a Bachelor degree, but may qualify its holder for advanced placement in a Bachelor program, direct admission to a Graduate Diploma course or (albeit rarely) direct admission to a Master's program
Graduate Diplomas are always higher than a Bachelor degree, and usually require one year of full-time study
They are often an additional course taken after a standard Bachelor degree to introduce a specialization in a particular field or a new discipline
For example, Australian school teachers often study for a bachelor's degree in Arts or Science, then in an additional year complete requirements for a Graduate Diploma of Education, which qualifies them as school teachers
Some Graduate Diplomas are simply the first two semesters of a three- or four-semester Master's program
(In the past, the Graduate Diploma of Education was called the Diploma of Education
)

Some universities have issued Postgraduate Diplomas, which are always in the same discipline as the undergraduate degree, and generally no different from a Bachelor with Honours degree, which requires one year after a regular Bachelor degree
ඉන්දියාව 
ඉන්දියාව බොහෝවිට උපාධි ප්‍රධානයේදී මහා බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය සම්ප්‍රධාය අනුගමනය කරයි
Arts -  Referring to the performing arts and literature the corresponding degree are Bachelor of Arts(BA) and its masters is called Master of Arts(MA)
Management degrees are also classified under Arts but is now a days considered a major new stream, Bachelor of Business Administration BBA and Masters Of Business Administration MBA
Science - Referring to the basic sciences and natural science(Biology, Physics, Chemistry etc) the corresponding degree are Bachelor of Science(BSc) and its masters is called Master of Science(MSc)
Engineering - The engineering degrees in India follow two common patterns
Bachelor of Engineering(BE) and Bachelor of Technology(B
Tech) both representing a bachelors degree in engineering
The main difference being BE is knowledge oriented(Theoretical Work) and B
Tech is skill oriented(Practical Work)
Similarly Master of Engineering(ME) and Master of Technology(M
Tech)
යුරෝපය 

In Europe, degrees are being harmonized through the Bologna process, which is based on the three-level hierarchy of degrees
Bachelor (Licence in France), Master and Doctor
This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system now in use in some countries
This system is also currently in use in Australia, Belgium, Canada, New Zealand, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Serbia and Croatia
ඔස්ට්‍රියාව

In Austria, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees
the traditional two-cycle system of Magister/Diplom followed by the Doctorate, and 
 the three-cycle system of Bachelor, Master and Doctorate as defined by the Bologna process
With a few exceptions, the two-cycle degree system will be phased out by 2010. Some of the established degree naming has, however, been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master's programmes
ඩෙන්මාර්කය

ප්‍රංශය 
In French universities, the academic degree system was quite complicated
the first degree was the baccalaurat (completed in fact after high school), then the two-year diplme d'tudes universitaires gnrales (DEUG General Academic Studies Degree) or premier cycle (undergraduate education), then the one-year licence, the one-year matrise (master's degree), the two forming the second cycle (graduate education), the 1-2 years Diplme d'tudes Approfondies, Special Studies Degree and the three-year doctorate, the two forming the troisième cycle (postgraduate education)
With the Bologna process, the system is now much simpler
baccalaurat (A-level degree), licence (= Bachelor), master (a new two-year degree merging matrise and DEA), and doctorate
This system is called "LMD" system in France, which means licence-master-doctorat
ජර්මනිය

Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four to six years either with a Magister Artium (abbreviated M
) degree in Social Sciences,  Humanities, Linguistics and the Arts or with a Diplom degree in Natural Sciences, Economics, Business Administration and Engineering
Those degrees were the first and at the same time highest non-PhD/Doctorate-title in many disciplines before its gradual replacement by other, Anglo-Saxon-inspired degrees
From the level of academic study a Magister or Diplom has to be considered equivalent to a master's degree and marks the end of four to six years of studying with the writing of a final thesis similar to a master's thesis
A special kind of examination is the Staatsexamen
It is not an academic degree but a government licensing examination that future doctors, teachers, lawyers (solicitors), judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys, and pharmacists have to pass in order to be eligible to work in their profession
Students usually study at university for 4-6 years before they take the first Staatsexamen
Afterwards teachers and jurists go on to work in their future jobs for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs
The first Staatsexamen is at a level which is equivalent to a M
Since 1999, the traditional degrees are gradually being replaced by Bachelor's (Bakkalaureus) and Master's (Master) degrees (see Bologna process)
The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable, and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to complete (German students typically take five years or more to earn a Magister or Diplom)
Some universities are still resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization
Universities must fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. In the future, the Diplom or Magister degree will no longer be awarded
Doctorates are issued under a variety of names, depending on the faculty
, Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science)
Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law)
Doktor der medizinischen Wissenschaft (Doctor of Medicine)
Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few
Multiple doctorates and honorary doctorates are often listed and even used in forms of address in German-speaking countries
A Diplom (from a Universitt), Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate
The doctoral promotion (e
to Dr
, Dr
and others) is equivalent to a Ph
degree and is therefore the highest academic degree to earn
The doctorate's degree Dr
for medical doctors has to be considered as different
Medical students predominantly write their doctoral theses straight after they have completed studies like other students in other disciplines have to write a Diplom, Magister or Master's thesis
Sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the Habilitation is an academic qualification in Germany and Austria, that allows further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate
It is earned by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationsschrift) or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications in an advanced topic
The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities
The "habil
", as it is abbreviated to represent that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a Privatdozent (e
"PD Dr
habil
") (Lecturer) in an academic professorship (now called W2 and W3)
Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential, for academic posts in the more traditional fields
අයර්ලන්තය 
In Ireland a National Diploma is below the standard of the honours bachelor degree, whilst the Higher Diploma is taken after the bachelor degree
The new NQAI National Framework of Qualifications, adopted in 2003, replaced the National Dipoma with the Ordinary Bachelors degree
The framework also clarifies that although the Higher Diploma is taken after the bachelor degree the learning outcomes are at the same level as for the Honours Bachelors Degree
More technically, a diploma is a document attesting that its bearer has satisfied certain study requirements, as opposed to a degree being a status level in the academic community
For this reason, diplomas are 'awarded to' the recipient while degrees are 'conferred upon' the graduand who then becomes a graduate, or the graduand is "admitted to" a degree
Similarly a person 'has' a diploma, but a graduate 'is in' a status
It is also for this reason that study for diplomas can be at undergraduate or advanced level
ඉතාලිය 
In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the high school degree, called diploma di maturit which is obtained at 19 years, after 5 years of study in a particular high school, focused on a certain subject (e
liceo classico focus on classical subjects and includes ancient Greek and Latin, liceo scientifico focus on scientific subjects but includes Latin and literature, liceo linguistico for languages, istituto tecnico for technics)
After the diploma one can enter university choosing any faculty (e
physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture)
there is no requirement to complete a specific high school in order to access a particular faculty but most of the university program test to select students
Almost all faculties nowadays offers two academic degrees
A first degree (called laurea triennale) is obtained after 3 years of study and a short thesis on one subject
The second degree (called laurea Specialistica/Magistrale - LS/LM) can be obtained proceeding with usually two additional years of study and specializing in a particular branch of the chosen subject (e
particle physics, nuclear engineering, etc
The laurea magistrale is obtained after the discussion of a thesis (which usually involves some academic research or an internship in a private company)
Only few students continue their university career (after passing a public selection) to 3 further years of Dottorato di ricerca (equivalent to a Ph
D) mainly devoted to research (with some compulsory courses), the degree is also obtained after the discussion of a thesis on the results of the research done
Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea triennale and the laurea magistrale one can attend a so-called Master, (first-level Master after the laurea triennale
second-level Master after the laurea magistrale) offered by universities and private organisations with a variety of subjects, lengths and prices (one year of Master in Italy can cost more than the fees paid for the entire preceding university education), usually including a final internship in a company
නෙදර්ලන්තය 

In the Netherlands, the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982. In this year the "twee fase structuur" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, Minister Wim Deetman
With this two phase structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies and structure them to an identical timetable
Additional effect was that students would be persuaded stringently to produce results within a preset timeframe, or otherwise discontinue their studies
The two phase structure is still in effect today and is in line with the Bologna process
In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, he/ she has to complete the appropriate pre-university secondary education "Voorbereidend Wetenschappelijk Onderwijs" (VWO (Gymnasium - Atheneum) - 6 years)
There are other routes possible, but only if the end level of the applicant is comparable to the VWO levels access to university education is granted
For some studies specific end levels or disciplines are required, e
graduating without physics, biology, and chemistry will make it impossible to follow an academic medicine study
For some studies in the Netherlands a governmental determined limited access is in place
This is a limitation of the number of applicants to a specific study, thus trying to control the eventual number of graduates
The most renowned studies for their numerus clausus are the medicine and dentistry
Every year a combination of good pre-university secondary education grades, luck, and some additional conditions determine who can start such a numerus clausus study and who can not
A study location and/ or university to graduate from are appointed and are not subject to free choice
In practice, it is only possible on very exclusive grounds (e
family history connected to a certain university) and seldom granted
For example, all the members of the Dutch royal family studied at Leiden University due to the historic ties between the Dutch Royal family and this university
Almost all Dutch universities are government supported universities, with only very few privately owned universities in existence (i
one in business, and all others in theology)