Minuri/sinhala-corpus-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
එහිදී මහින්ද රාජපක්ෂ මහාත පරාජය කර ඡන්ද හැට දෙලක්ෂයකට ආසන්න මනාප සංඛ්‍යාවක් රැගෙන මෛත්‍රීපාල මහතාගේ ජනාධිපතිත්වයෙන් යුත් එක්සත් ජනතා නිදහස් සන්ධානය සහ එකසත් ජාතික පක්ෂය එකතුවූ ආණ්ඩුවක් පිහිටුවන ලදී
ඒ 2015 වසරේ ජනවාරි 8 වැනිදායි
ජනාධිපති සිරිසේන මහතා විසින් අගමැති ලෙස රනිල් වික්‍ර‍මසිංහ මහතා පත්කරන ලදී
මූලාශ්‍ර

අතිරේක සබැඳි

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ දේශපාලනය
දේශපාලන පක්ෂ ලැයිස්තුව
AF යනු, ISO 3166-1 හී කේත කර ඇති සමස්ත  රටවල ප්‍රධාන උප-කොට්ඨාශයන්හී (නිද
, පළාත් හෝ ජනපද) නම් සඳහා කේත අර්ථ දක්වන්නාවූ සහ ප්‍රමිතිකරණය සඳහා වූ අන්තර්ජාතික සංවිධානය (ISO) විසින් ප්‍රකාශිත ISO 3166 ප්‍රමිතියෙහි කොටසක් වන ISO 3166-2 හි  ඇෆ්නිස්තානය  සඳහා නිවේශිතය වේ
Currently for Afghanistan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 34 provinces
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen
The first part is AF, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Afghanistan
The second part is three letters
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA)
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998
See also
 Subdivisions of Afghanistan
 FIPS region codes of Afghanistan

External links
 Provinces of Afghanistan, Statoids
com

2
AF
ISO 3166-2
Afghanistan-related lists
දිඹුලාගල හාමුදුරුවෝ නමින් ජනාදරය‍ට පත් බෞද්ධ භික්ෂුවකි
1995-05-26 දින LTTE සංවිධාන‍ය විසින් ඝාතන‍ය කෙරිනි
ගිහිකල නම
හේවා දුලිගේ චාර්ලිස්
 පියා
හේවා දුලිගේ දියෝනිස්
 මව
නයිනහාමි
 ගුරු භික්‍ෂුව
උඩුපිහිල්ලෝගොඩ පඤ්ඤාලංකාර

මූලාශ්‍ර

ශ්‍රී ලාංකික භික්ෂූහූ
දෙඊවිකො ත්‍රස්තවාදීන් විසින් මරාදැමූනු සිවිල් පුද්ගලයෝ
චරිත කතා
මෙම ලිපියෙන් විස්තර කෙරෙන්නේ විදුලි ඉංජිනේරු විද්‍යාවේ ඉතිහාසය වෙයි
එක් කර ඇති මාතෘකා අතර විදුලි ඉංජිනේරු විද්‍යා වෘත්තියෙහි සාමාන්‍ය ප්‍රවර්ධනය හා එහි සංගණ්‍ය පුද්ගලයයන්ද වෙති
පුරාතන ප්‍රවර්ධන

19වන සියවසෙහි ප්‍රවර්ධන

ඉංජිනේරු විද්‍යාව
විද්‍යා‍වේ ඉතිහාසය
Fair use is a doctrine in the law of the United States that permits limited use of copyrighted material without having to first acquire permission from the copyright holder
Fair use is one of the limitations to copyright intended to balance the interests of copyright holders with the public interest in the wider distribution and use of creative works by allowing as a defense to copyright infringement claims certain limited uses that might otherwise be considered infringement
Like "fair dealing" rights that exist in most countries with a British legal history, the fair use right is a general exception that applies to all different kinds of uses with all types of works and turns on a flexible proportionality test that examines the purpose of the use, the amount used, and the impact on the market of the original work
The doctrine of "fair use" originated in the Anglo-American common law during the 18th and 19th centuries as a way of preventing copyright law from being too rigidly applied and "stifling the very creativity which [copyright] law is designed to foster
" Though originally a common law doctrine, it was enshrined in statutory law when the U
Congress passed the Copyright Act of 1976. The U
Supreme Court has issued several major decisions clarifying and reaffirming the fair use doctrine since the 1980s, most recently in the 1994 decision Campbell v
Acuff-Rose Music, Inc
History 
The 1710 Statute of Anne, an act of the Parliament of Great Britain, created copyright law to replace a system of private ordering enforced by the Stationers' Company
The Statute of Anne did not provide for legal unauthorized use of material protected by copyright
In Gyles v Wilcox, the Court of Chancery established the doctrine of "fair abridgement", which permitted unauthorized abridgement of copyrighted works under certain circumstances
Over time, this doctrine evolved into the modern concepts of fair use and fair dealing
Fair use was a common-law doctrine in the U
until it was incorporated into the Copyright Act of 1976,
The term "fair use" originated in the United States
Although related, the limitations and exceptions to copyright for teaching and library archiving in the U
are located in a different section of the statute
A similar-sounding principle, fair dealing, exists in some other common law jurisdictions but in fact it is more similar in principle to the enumerated exceptions found under civil law systems
Civil law jurisdictions have other limitations and exceptions to copyright
In response to perceived over-expansion of copyrights, several electronic civil liberties and free expression organizations began in the 1990s to add fair use cases to their dockets and concerns
These include the Electronic Frontier Foundation ("EFF"), the American Civil Liberties Union, the National Coalition Against Censorship, the American Library Association, numerous clinical programs at law schools, and others
The "Chilling Effects" archive was established in 2002 as a coalition of several law school clinics and the EFF to document the use of cease and desist letters
In 2006 Stanford University began an initiative called "The Fair Use Project" (FUP) to help artists, particularly filmmakers, fight lawsuits brought against them by large corporations
fair use factors 
Examples of fair use in United States copyright law include commentary, search engines, criticism, parody, news reporting, research, and scholarship
Fair use provides for the legal, unlicensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's work under a four-factor test
Supreme Court has traditionally characterized fair use as an affirmative defense, but in Lenz v
Universal Music Corp
(2015) (the "dancing baby" case), the U
Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit concluded that fair use was not merely a defense to an infringement claim, but was an expressly authorized right, and an exception to the exclusive rights granted to the author of a creative work by copyright law
"Fair use is therefore distinct from affirmative defenses where a use infringes a copyright, but there is no liability due to a valid excuse, e
, misuse of a copyright
"

The four factors of analysis for fair use set forth above derive from the opinion of Joseph Story in Folsom v
Marsh, in which the defendant had copied 353 pages from the plaintiff's 12-volume biography of George Washington in order to produce a separate two-volume work of his own
The court rejected the defendant's fair use defense with the following explanation
The statutory fair use factors quoted above come from the Copyright Act of 1976, which is codified at
They were intended by Congress to restate, but not replace, the prior judge-made law
As Judge Pierre N
Leval has written, the statute does not "define or explain [fair use's] contours or objectives
" While it "leav[es] open the possibility that other factors may bear on the question, the statute identifies none
" That is, courts are entitled to consider other factors in addition to the four statutory factors
1. Purpose and character of the use 
The first factor is "the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes
" To justify the use as fair, one must demonstrate how it either advances knowledge or the progress of the arts through the addition of something new
In the 1841 copyright case Folsom v
Marsh, Justice Joseph Story wrote
A key consideration in later fair use cases is the extent to which the use is transformative
In the 1994 decision Campbell v
Acuff-Rose Music Inc, the U
Supreme Court held that when the purpose of the use is transformative, this makes the first factor more likely to favor fair use
Before the Campbell decision, federal Judge Pierre Leval argued that transformativeness is central to the fair use analysis in his 1990 article, Toward a Fair Use Standard
Blanch v
Koons is another example of a fair use case that focused on transformativeness
In 2006, Jeff Koons used a photograph taken by commercial photographer Andrea Blanch in a collage painting
Koons appropriated a central portion of an advertisement she had been commissioned to shoot for a magazine
Koons prevailed in part because his use was found transformative under the first fair use factor
The Campbell case also addressed the subfactor mentioned in the quotation above, "whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes
" In an earlier case, Sony Corp
of America v
Universal City Studios, Inc
, the Supreme Court had stated that "every commercial use of copyrighted material is presumptively
" In Campbell, the court clarified that this is not a "hard evidentiary presumption" and that even the tendency that commercial purpose will "weigh against a finding of fair use
will vary with the context
" The Campbell court held that hip-hop group 2 Live Crew's parody of the song "Oh, Pretty Woman" was fair use, even though the parody was sold for profit
Thus, having a commercial purpose does not preclude a use from being found fair, even though it makes it less likely
Likewise, the noncommercial purpose of a use makes it more likely to be found a fair use, but it does not make it a fair use automatically
For instance, in L
Times v
Free Republic, the court found that the noncommercial use of Los Angeles Times content by the Free Republic website was not fair use, since it allowed the public to obtain material at no cost that they would otherwise pay for
Richard Story similarly ruled in Code Revision Commission and State of Georgia v
Org, Inc
that despite the fact that it is a non-profit and didn't sell the work, the service profited from its unauthorized publication of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated because of "the attention, recognition, and contributions" it received in association with the work
Another factor is whether the use fulfills any of the preamble purposes, also mentioned in the legislation above, as these have been interpreted as "illustrative" of transformative use
It is arguable, given the dominance of a rhetoric of the "transformative" in recent fair use determinations, that the first factor and transformativeness in general have become the most important parts of fair use
2. Nature of the copyrighted work 

Although the Supreme Court has ruled that the availability of copyright protection should not depend on the artistic quality or merit of a work, fair use analyses consider certain aspects of the work to be relevant, such as whether it is fictional or non-fictional
To prevent the private ownership of work that rightfully belongs in the public domain, facts and ideas are not protected by copyright—only their particular expression or fixation merits such protection
On the other hand, the social usefulness of freely available information can weigh against the appropriateness of copyright for certain fixations
The Zapruder film of the assassination of President Kennedy, for example, was purchased and copyrighted by Time magazine
Yet its copyright was not upheld, in the name of the public interest, when Time tried to enjoin the reproduction of stills from the film in a history book on the subject in Time Inc v
Bernard Geis Associates
In the decisions of the Second Circuit in Salinger v
Random House and in New Era Publications Int'l v
Henry Holt & Co, the aspect of whether the copied work has been previously published was considered crucial, assuming the right of the original author to control the circumstances of the publication of his work or preference not to publish at all
However, Judge Pierre N
Leval views this importation of certain aspects of France's droit moral d'artiste (moral rights of the artist) into American copyright law as "bizarre and contradictory" because it sometimes grants greater protection to works that were created for private purposes that have little to do with the public goals of copyright law, than to those works that copyright was initially conceived to protect
This is not to claim that unpublished works, or, more specifically, works not intended for publication, do not deserve legal protection, but that any such protection should come from laws about privacy, rather than laws about copyright
The statutory fair use provision was amended in response to these concerns by adding a final sentence
"The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors
"

3. Amount and substantiality 

The third factor assesses the amount and substantiality of the copyrighted work that has been used
In general, the less that is used in relation to the whole, the more likely the use will be considered fair
Using most or all of a work does not bar a finding of fair use
It simply makes the third factor less favorable to the defendant
For instance, in Sony Corp
copying entire television programs for private viewing was upheld as fair use, at least when the copying is done for the purposes of time-shifting
In Kelly v
Arriba Soft Corporation, the Ninth Circuit held that copying an entire photo to use as a thumbnail in online search results did not even weigh against fair use, "if the secondary user only copies as much as is necessary for his or her intended use"
However, even the use of a small percentage of a work can make the third factor unfavorable to the defendant, because the "substantiality" of the portion used is considered in addition to the amount used
For instance, in Harper & Row v
Nation Enterprises, the U
Supreme Court held that a news article's quotation of fewer than 400 words from President Ford's 200,000-word memoir was sufficient to make the third fair use factor weigh against the defendants, because the portion taken was the "heart of the work"
This use was ultimately found not to be fair
4. Effect upon work's value 
The fourth factor measures the effect that the allegedly infringing use has had on the copyright owner's ability to exploit his original work
The court not only investigates whether the defendant's specific use of the work has significantly harmed the copyright owner's market, but also whether such uses in general, if widespread, would harm the potential market of the original
The burden of proof here rests on the copyright owner, who must demonstrate the impact of the infringement on commercial use of the work
For example, in Sony Corp v
Universal City Studios, the copyright owner, Universal, failed to provide any empirical evidence that the use of Betamax had either reduced their viewership or negatively impacted their business
In Harper & Row, the case regarding President Ford's memoirs, the Supreme Court labeled the fourth factor "the single most important element of fair use" and it has enjoyed some level of primacy in fair use analyses ever since
Yet the Supreme Court's more recent announcement in Campbell v
Acuff-Rose Music Inc that "all [four factors] are to be explored, and the results weighed together, in light of the purposes of copyright" has helped modulate this emphasis in interpretation
In evaluating the fourth factor, courts often consider two kinds of harm to the potential market for the original work
First, courts consider whether the use in question acts as a direct market substitute for the original work
In Campbell, the Supreme Court stated that "when a commercial use amounts to mere duplication of the entirety of the original, it clearly supersedes the object of the original and serves as a market replacement for it, making it likely that cognizable market harm to the original will occur"
In one instance, a court ruled that this factor weighed against a defendant who had made unauthorized movie trailers for video retailers, since his trailers acted as direct substitutes for the copyright owner's official trailers
Second, courts also consider whether potential market harm might exist beyond that of direct substitution, such as in the potential existence of a licensing market
This consideration has weighed against commercial copy shops that make copies of articles in course-packs for college students, when a market already existed for the licensing of course-pack copies
<ref name=PrincetonUP></ref>

Courts recognize that certain kinds of market harm do not negate fair use, such as when a parody or negative review impairs the market of the original work
Copyright considerations may not shield a work against adverse criticism
Additional factors 
As explained by Judge Leval, courts are permitted to include additional factors in their analysis
One such factor is acknowledgement of the copyrighted source
Giving the name of the photographer or author may help, but it does not automatically make a use fair
While plagiarism and copyright infringement are related matters, they are not identical
Plagiarism (using someone's words, ideas, images, etc
without acknowledgment) is a matter of professional ethics, while copyright is a matter of law, and protects exact expression, not ideas
One can plagiarize even a work that is not protected by copyright, for example by passing off a line from Shakespeare as one's own
Conversely, attribution prevents accusations of plagiarism, but it does not prevent infringement of copyright
For example, reprinting a copyrighted book without permission, while citing the original author, would be copyright infringement but not plagiarism
fair use procedure and practice 
The U
Supreme Court described fair use as an affirmative defense in Campbell v
This means that in litigation on copyright infringement, the defendant bears the burden of raising and proving that the use was fair and not an infringement
Thus, fair use need not even be raised as a defense unless the plaintiff first shows (or the defendant concedes) a "prima facie" case of copyright infringement
If the work was not copyrightable, the term had expired, or the defendant's work borrowed only a small amount, for instance, then the plaintiff cannot make out a prima facie case of infringement, and the defendant need not even raise the fair use defense
In addition, fair use is only one of many limitations, exceptions, and defenses to copyright infringement
Thus, a prima facie case can be defeated without relying on fair use
For instance, the Audio Home Recording Act establishes that it is legal, using certain technologies, to make copies of audio recordings for non-commercial personal use
Some copyright owners claim infringement even in circumstances where the fair use defense would likely succeed, in hopes that the user will refrain from the use rather than spending resources in their defense
Strategic lawsuit against public participation (SLAPP) cases that allege copyright infringement, patent infringement, defamation, or libel may come into conflict with the defendant's right to freedom of speech, and that possibility has prompted some jurisdictions to pass anti-SLAPP legislation that raises the plaintiff's burdens and risk
Although fair use ostensibly permits certain uses without liability, many content creators and publishers try to avoid a potential court battle by seeking a legally unnecessary license from copyright owners for any use of non-public domain material, even in situations where a fair use defense would likely succeed
The simple reason is that the license terms negotiated with the copyright owner may be much less expensive than defending against a copyright suit, or having the mere possibility of a lawsuit threaten the publication of a work in which a publisher has invested significant resources
Fair use rights take precedence over the author's interest
Thus the copyright holder cannot use a non-binding disclaimer, or notification, to revoke the right of fair use on works
However, binding agreements such as contracts or licence agreements may take precedence over fair use rights
The practical effect of the fair use doctrine is that a number of conventional uses of copyrighted works are not considered infringing
For instance, quoting from a copyrighted work in order to criticize or comment upon it or teach students about it, is considered a fair use
Certain well-established uses cause few problems
A teacher who prints a few copies of a poem to illustrate a technique will have no problem on all four of the above factors (except possibly on amount and substantiality), but some cases are not so clear
All the factors are considered and balanced in each case
a book reviewer who quotes a paragraph as an example of the author's style will probably fall under fair use even though they may sell their review commercially
but a non-profit educational website that reproduces whole articles from technical magazines will probably be found to infringe if the publisher can demonstrate that the website affects the market for the magazine, even though the website itself is non-commercial
Fair use is decided on a case by case basis, on the entirety of circumstances
The same act done by different means or for a different purpose can gain or lose fair use status
Even repeating an identical act at a different time can make a difference due to changing social, technological, or other surrounding circumstances
Fair use in particular areas 
 Computer code 
The Oracle America, Inc
Google, Inc
case revolves around the use of application programming interfaces (APIs) used to define functionality of the Java programming language, created by Sun Microsystems and now owned by Oracle Corporation
Google used the APIs' definition and their structure, sequence and organization (SSO) in creating the Android operating system to support the mobile device market
Oracle had sued Google in 2010 over both patent and copyright violations, but after two cycles, the case matter was narrowed down to whether Google's use of the definition and SSO of Oracle's Java APIs (determined to be copyrightable) was within fair use
The Federal Circuit Court of Appeals has ruled against Google, stating that while Google could defend its use in the nature of the copyrighted work, its use was not transformative, and more significantly, it commercially harmed Oracle as they were also seeking entry to the mobile market
The case, should this ruling hold, could have a significant impact on developing products for interoperability using APIs, such as with many open source projects
Documentary films 
In April 2006, the filmmakers of the Loose Change series were served with a lawsuit by Jules and Gdon Naudet over the film's use of their footage, specifically footage of the firefighters discussing the collapse of the World Trade Center
With the help of an intellectual property lawyer, the creators of Loose Change successfully argued that a majority of the footage used was for historical purposes and was significantly transformed in the context of the film
They agreed to remove a few shots that were used as B-roll and served no purpose to the greater discussion
The case was settled and a potential multimillion-dollar lawsuit was avoided
This Film Is Not Yet Rated also relied on fair use to feature several clips from copyrighted Hollywood productions
The director had originally planned to license these clips from their studio owners but discovered that studio licensing agreements would have prohibited him from using this material to criticize the entertainment industry
This prompted him to invoke the fair use doctrine, which permits limited use of copyrighted material to provide analysis and criticism of published works
File sharing 
In 2009, fair use appeared as a defense in lawsuits against filesharing
Charles Nesson argued that file-sharing qualifies as fair use in his defense of alleged filesharer Joel Tenenbaum
Kiwi Camara, defending alleged filesharer Jammie Thomas, announced a similar defense
However, the Court in the case at bar rejected the idea that file-sharing is fair use
Internet publication 
A U
court case from 2003, Kelly v
Arriba Soft Corp
, provides and develops the relationship between thumbnails, inline linking and fair use
In the lower District Court case on a motion for summary judgment, Arriba Soft's use of thumbnail pictures and inline linking from Kelly's website in Arriba Soft's image search engine was found not to be fair use
That decision was appealed and contested by Internet rights activists such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation, who argued that it was fair use
On appeal, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found in favor of the defendant, Arriba Soft
In reaching its decision, the court utilized the statutory four-factor analysis
First, it found the purpose of creating the thumbnail images as previews to be sufficiently transformative, noting that they were not meant to be viewed at high resolution as the original artwork was
Second, the photographs had already been published, diminishing the significance of their nature as creative works
Third, although normally making a "full" replication of a copyrighted work may appear to violate copyright, here it was found to be reasonable and necessary in light of the intended use
Lastly, the court found that the market for the original photographs would not be substantially diminished by the creation of the thumbnails
To the contrary, the thumbnail searches could increase the exposure of the originals
In looking at all these factors as a whole, the court found that the thumbnails were fair use and remanded the case to the lower court for trial after issuing a revised opinion on July 7, 2003. The remaining issues were resolved with a default judgment after Arriba Soft had experienced significant financial problems and failed to reach a negotiated settlement
In August 2008, Judge Jeremy Fogel of the Northern District of California ruled in Lenz v
that copyright holders cannot order a deletion of an online file without determining whether that posting reflected "fair use" of the copyrighted material
The case involved Stephanie Lenz, a writer and editor from Gallitzin, Pennsylvania, who made a home video of her thirteen-month-old son dancing to Prince's song Let's Go Crazy and posted the video on YouTube
Four months later, Universal Music, the owner of the copyright to the song, ordered YouTube to remove the video under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act
Lenz notified YouTube immediately that her video was within the scope of fair use, and she demanded that it be restored
YouTube complied after six weeks, rather than the two weeks required by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act
Lenz then sued Universal Music in California for her legal costs, claiming the music company had acted in bad faith by ordering removal of a video that represented fair use of the song
On appeal, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that a copyright owner must affirmatively consider whether the complained of conduct constituted fair use before sending a takedown notice under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, rather than waiting for the alleged infringer to assert fair use
801 F
3d 1126 (9th Cir
"Even if, as Universal urges, fair use is classified as an 'affirmative defense,' we hold—for the purposes of the DMCA—fair use is uniquely situated in copyright law so as to be treated differently than traditional affirmative defenses
We conclude that because 17 U
107 created a type of non-infringing use, fair use is "authorized by the law" and a copyright holder must consider the existence of fair use before sending a takedown notification under  512(c)
"

In June 2011, Judge Philip Pro of the District of Nevada ruled in Righthaven v
Hoehn that the posting of an entire editorial article from the Las Vegas Review Journal in a comment as part of an online discussion was unarguably fair use
Judge Pro noted that "Noncommercial, nonprofit use is presumptively fair
Hoehn posted the Work as part of an online discussion
This purpose is consistent with comment, for which 17 U
107 provides fair use protection
It is undisputed that Hoehn posted the entire work in his comment on the Website
wholesale copying does not preclude a finding of fair use
there is no genuine issue of material fact that Hoehn's use of the Work was fair and summary judgment is appropriate
" On appeal, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that Righthaven did not even have the standing needed to sue Hoehn for copyright infringement in the first place
Professional communities 
In addition to considering the four fair use factors, courts deciding fair use cases also look to the standards and practices of the professional community where the case comes from
Among the communities are documentarians, librarians, makers of Open Courseware, visual art educators, and communications professors
Such codes of best practices have permitted communities of practice to make more informed risk assessments in employing fair use in their daily practice
For instance, broadcasters, cablecasters, and distributors typically require filmmakers to obtain errors and omissions insurance before the distributor will take on the film
Such insurance protects against errors and omissions made during the copyright clearance of material in the film
Before the Documentary Filmmakers' Statement of Best Practices in Fair Use was created in 2005, it was nearly impossible to obtain errors and omissions insurance for copyright clearance work that relied in part on fair use
This meant documentarians had either to obtain a license for the material or to cut it from their films
In many cases, it was impossible to license the material because the filmmaker sought to use it in a critical way
Soon after the best practices statement was released, all errors and omissions insurers in the U
shifted to begin offering routine fair use coverage
Music sampling 

Before 1991, sampling in certain genres of music was accepted practice and the copyright considerations were viewed as largely irrelevant
The strict decision against rapper Biz Markie's appropriation of a Gilbert O'Sullivan song in the case Grand Upright Music, Ltd
Records Inc
changed practices and opinions overnight
Samples now had to be licensed, as long as they rose "to a level of legally cognizable appropriation
" This left the door open for the de minimis doctrine, for short or unrecognizable samples
such uses would not rise to the level of copyright infringement, because under the de minimis doctrine, "the law does not care about trifles
" However, 3 years later, the Sixth Circuit effectively eliminated the de minimis doctrine in the Bridgeport Music, Inc
Dimension Films case, holding that artists must "get a license or do not sample"
The Court later clarified that its opinion did not apply to fair use, but between Grand Upright and Bridgeport, practice had effectively shifted to eliminate unlicensed sampling
Parody 
Producers or creators of parodies of a copyrighted work have been sued for infringement by the targets of their ridicule, even though such use may be protected as fair use
These fair use cases distinguish between parodies, which use a work in order to poke fun at or comment on the work itself and satire, or comment on something else
Courts have been more willing to grant fair use protections to parodies than to satires, but the ultimate outcome in either circumstance will turn on the application of the four fair use factors
For example, when Tom Forsythe appropriated Barbie dolls for his photography project "Food Chain Barbie" (depicting several copies of the doll naked and disheveled and about to be baked in an oven, blended in a food mixer, and the like), Mattel lost its copyright infringement lawsuit against him because his work effectively parodies Barbie and the values she represents
In Rogers v
Koons, Jeff Koons tried to justify his appropriation of Art Rogers' photograph "Puppies" in his sculpture "String of Puppies" with the same parody defense
Koons lost because his work was not presented as a parody of Rogers' photograph in particular, but as a satire of society at large
This was insufficient to render the use fair
In Campbell v
Acuff-Rose Music Inc the U
Supreme Court recognized parody as a potential fair use, even when done for profit
Roy Orbison's publisher, Acuff-Rose Music, had sued 2 Live Crew in 1989 for their use of Orbison's "Oh, Pretty Woman" in a mocking rap version with altered lyrics
The Supreme Court viewed 2 Live Crew's version as a ridiculing commentary on the earlier work, and ruled that when the parody was itself the product rather than mere advertising, commercial nature did not bar the defense
The Campbell court also distinguished parodies from satire, which they described as a broader social critique not intrinsically tied to ridicule of a specific work and so not deserving of the same use exceptions as parody because the satirist's ideas are capable of expression without the use of the other particular work
A number of appellate decisions have recognized that a parody may be a protected fair use, including the Second (Leibovitz v
Paramount Pictures Corp
the Ninth (Mattel v
Walking Mountain Productions)
and the Eleventh Circuits (Suntrust Bank v
Houghton Mifflin Co
In the 2001 Suntrust Bank case, Suntrust Bank and the Margaret Mitchell estate unsuccessfully brought suit to halt the publication of The Wind Done Gone, which reused many of the characters and situations from Gone with the Wind but told the events from the point of view of the enslaved people rather than the slaveholders
The Eleventh Circuit, applying Campbell, found that The Wind Done Gone was fair use and vacated the district court's injunction against its publication
Cases in which a satirical use was found to be fair include Blanch v
Koons and Williams v
Columbia Broadcasting Systems
Text and data mining 
The transformative nature of computer based analytical processes such as text mining, web mining and data mining has led many to form the view that such uses would be protected under fair use
This view was substantiated by the rulings of Judge Denny Chin in Authors Guild, Inc
, a case involving mass digitisation of millions of books from research library collections
As part of the ruling that found the book digitisation project was fair use, the judge stated "Google Books is also transformative in the sense that it has transformed book text into data for purposes of substantive research, including data mining and text mining in new areas"
Text and data mining was subject to further review in Authors Guild v
HathiTrust, a case derived from the same digitization project mentioned above
Judge Harold Baer, in finding that the defendant's uses were transformative, stated that 'the search capabilities of the [HathiTrust Digital Library] have already given rise to new methods of academic inquiry such as text mining
"

 Reverse engineering 

There is a substantial body of fair use law regarding reverse engineering of computer software, hardware, network protocols, encryption and access control systems
Social media 
In May 2015, artist Richard Prince released an exhibit of photographs at the Gagosian Gallery in New York, entitled "New Portraits"
His exhibit consisted of screenshots of Instagram users' pictures, which were largely unaltered, with Prince's commentary added beneath
Although no Instagram users authorized Prince to use their pictures, Prince argued that the addition of his own commentary the pictures constituted fair use, such that he did not need permission to use the pictures or to pay royalties for his use
One of the pieces sold for $90,000. With regard to the works presented by Painter, the gallery where the pictures were showcased posted notices that "All images are subject to copyright
" Several lawsuits were filed against Painter over the New Portraits exhibit
Influence internationally 
While U
fair use law has been influential in some countries, some countries have fair use criteria drastically different from those in the U
, and some countries do not have a fair use framework at all
Some countries have the concept of fair dealing instead of fair use, while others use different systems of limitations and exceptions to copyright
Many countries have some reference to an exemption for educational use, though the extent of this exemption varies widely
Sources differ on whether fair use is fully recognized by countries other than the United States
American University's infojustice
org published a compilation of portions of over 40 nations' laws that explicitly mention fair use or fair dealing, and asserts that some of the fair dealing laws, such as Canada's, have evolved (such as through judicial precedents) to be quite close to those of the United States
This compilation includes fair use provisions from Bangladesh, Israel, South Korea, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Uganda, and the United States
However, Paul Geller's 2009 International Copyright Law and Practice says that while some other countries recognize similar exceptions to copyright, only the United States and Israel fully recognize the concept of fair use
The International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA), a lobby group of U
copyright industry bodies, has objected to international adoption of U
-style fair use exceptions, alleging that such laws have a dependency on common law and long-term legal precedent that may not exist outside the United States
Israel 
In November 2007, the Israeli Knesset passed a new copyright law that included a U
-style fair use exception
The law, which took effect in May 2008, permits the fair use of copyrighted works for purposes such as private study, research, criticism, review, news reporting, quotation, or instruction or testing by an educational institution
The law sets up four factors, similar to the U
fair use factors (see above), for determining whether a use is fair
On September 2, 2009, the Tel Aviv District court ruled in The Football Association Premier League Ltd
Ploni that fair use is a user right
The court also ruled that streaming of live soccer games on the Internet is fair use
In doing so, the court analyzed the four fair use factors adopted in 2007 and cited U
case law, including Kelly v
and Perfect 10, Inc
com, Inc
Malaysia 
An amendment in 2012 to the section 13(2)(a) of the Copyright Act 1987 created an exception called 'fair dealing' which is not restricted in its purpose
The four factors for fair use as specified in US law are included
Poland 
Fair use exists in Polish law and is covered by the Polish copyright law articles 23 to 35.

Compared to the United States, Polish fair use distinguishes between private and public use
In Poland, when the use is public, its use risks fines
The defendant must also prove that his use was private when accused that it was not, or that other mitigating circumstances apply
Finally, Polish law treats all cases in which private material was made public as a potential copyright infringement, where fair use can apply, but has to be proven by reasonable circumstances
Singapore 
Section 35 of the Singaporean Copyright Act 1987 has been amended in 2004 to allow a 'fair dealing' exception for any purpose
The four fair use factors similar to US law are included in the new section 35.

 South Korea 
The Korean Copyright Act was amended to include a fair use provision, Article 35-3, in 2012. The law outlines a four-factor test similar to that used under U
Fair dealing 

Fair dealing allows specific exceptions to copyright protections
The open-ended concept of fair use is generally not observed in jurisdictions where fair dealing is in place, although this does vary
Fair dealing is established in legislation in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Singapore, India, South Africa and the United Kingdom, among others
Australia 

While Australian copyright exceptions are based on the Fair Dealing system, since 1998 a series of Australian government inquiries have examined, and in most cases recommended, the introduction of a "flexible and open" Fair Use system into Australian copyright law
From 1998 to 2017 there have been eight Australian government inquiries which have considered the question of whether fair use should be adopted in Australia
Six reviews have recommended Australia adopt a "Fair Use" model of copyright exceptions
two enquiries specifically into the Copyright Act (1998, 2014)
and four broader reviews (both 2004, 2013, 2016)
One review (2000) recommended against the introduction of fair use and another (2005) issued no final report
Two of the recommendations were specifically in response to the stricter copyright rules introduced as part of the Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA), while the most recent two, by the Australian Law Reform Commission (ALRC) and the Productivity Commission (PC) were with reference to strengthening Australia's "digital economy"
Canada 

The Copyright Act of Canada establishes fair dealing in Canada, which allows specific exceptions to copyright protection
In 1985, the Sub-Committee on the Revision of Copyright rejected replacing fair dealing with an open-ended system, and in 1986 the Canadian government agreed that "the present fair dealing provisions should not be replaced by the substantially wider 'fair use' concept"
Since then, the Canadian fair dealing exception has broadened
It is now similar in effect to U
fair use, even though the frameworks are different
CCH Canadian Ltd v
Law Society of Upper Canada [2004] 1 S
339, is a landmark Supreme Court of Canada case that establishes the bounds of fair dealing in Canadian copyright law
The Law Society of Upper Canada was sued for copyright infringement for providing photocopy services to researchers
The Court unanimously held that the Law Society's practice fell within the bounds of fair dealing
United Kingdom 

Within the United Kingdom, fair dealing is a legal doctrine that provides an exception to the nation's copyright law in cases where the copyright infringement is for the purposes of non-commercial research or study, criticism or review, or for the reporting of current events
Policy arguments about fair use 
A balanced copyright law provides an economic benefit to many high-tech businesses such as search engines and software developers
Fair use is also crucial to non-technology industries such as insurance, legal services, and newspaper publishers
On September 12, 2007, the Computer and Communications Industry Association (CCIA), a group representing companies including Google Inc
, Microsoft Inc
, Oracle Corporation, Sun Microsystems, Yahoo
and other high-tech companies, released a study that found that fair use exceptions to US copyright laws were responsible for more than $4.5 trillion in annual revenue for the United States economy representing one-sixth of the total US GDP
The study was conducted using a methodology developed by the World Intellectual Property Organization
The study found that fair use dependent industries are directly responsible for more than eighteen percent of US economic growth and nearly eleven million American jobs
"As the United States economy becomes increasingly knowledge-based, the concept of fair use can no longer be discussed and legislated in the abstract
It is the very foundation of the digital age and a cornerstone of our economy," said Ed Black, President and CEO of CCIA
"Much of the unprecedented economic growth of the past ten years can actually be credited to the doctrine of fair use, as the Internet itself depends on the ability to use content in a limited and unlicensed manner
"

 Fair Use Week 
Fair Use Week is an international event that celebrates fair use and fair dealing
Fair Use Week was first proposed on a Fair Use Allies listserv, which was an outgrowth of the Library Code of Best Practices Capstone Event, celebrating the development and promulgation of ARL's Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for Academic and Research Libraries''
While the idea was not taken up nationally,  Copyright Advisor at Harvard University, launched the first ever Fair Use Week at Harvard University in February 2014, with a full week of activities celebrating fair use
The first Fair Use Week included blog posts from national and international fair use experts, live fair use panels, fair use workshops, and a Fair Use Stories Tumblr blog, where people from the world of art, music, film, and academia shared stories about the importance of fair use to their community
The first Fair Use Week was so successful that in 2015 ARL teamed up with Courtney and helped organize the Second Annual Fair Use Week, with participation from many more institutions
ARL also launched an official Fair Use Week website, which was transferred from Pia Hunter, who attended the Library Code of Best Practices Capstone Event and had originally purchased the domain name fairuseweek
See also

References

Further reading 
 
 
 United States
House of Representatives (2014)
The Scope of Fair Use
Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Intellectual Property, and the Internet of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, Second Session, January 28, 2014.

External links 

 U
Copyright Office Fair Use Index, a searchable database of notable fair use cases in U
federal courts
 The Fair Use/Fair Dealing Handbook, a compilation of national statutes that explicitly refer to fair use or fair dealing
 CHEER, a repository of copyright educational resources for higher education

 
Copyright law
Digital rights
Equitable defenses
Legal doctrines and principles
United States copyright law
United States intellectual property law
මහනුවර ආදර්ශ පාසැල (Kandy Model School), මෙම පාසල පිහිටා ඇත්තේ ශ්‍රි ලංකවේ,මධයම පලාතේ,මහනුවර දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේය
බාහිර සබැඳි 
 www
lk 

මහනුවර දිස්ත්‍රික්කය
දෙහි කල් තබා ගැනීමේ ක්‍රමයක් ලෙස ලුණු දැමීම සිදුකරයි
මෙලෙස ලුණු දමා සකස්කර ගත් දෙහි ලුණු දෙහි ලෙස හඳුන්වනු ලබයි
ලුණුදෙහි සකස්කර ගැනීම
දෙහි ගෙඩි වෙන් නොවන සේ හතරට පලා ලුණු කැට සමඟ මිශ්‍ර කර දින කිහිපයක් අව්වේ වියලා ගනු ලැබේ
රස වැඩිකර ගැනීම සදහා මේ අවස්ථාවේදීම කොච්චි එකතු කරගත හැක
හොදින් වියලා ගත් දෙහි, කට වැසිය හැකි පිරිසිදු භාජනයකට දමන්න
මිරිකා ගත් දෙහි යුෂ අව්වේ කකාරවා වියලා ගත් දෙහි සහිත භජනයට වියලි දෙහි වැසීයන පරිදි එක් කරන්න
භාජනයේ කට හොදින් වසන්න
මෙසේ සාදා ගත් ලුණුදෙහි බොහෝ කාලයක් කල්තබා ගත හැක
ලුණුදෙහි ප්‍රයෝජනයට ගැනීම
දෙහි හිඟ කාල වලදී මෙම ලුණුදෙහි අහාර සකස්කර ගැනීමේදී භාවිතයට ගත හැක
ආහාර කල්තබා ගැනීම
මාෂ්මෙලෝ යනු රසකැවිලි වර්ගයක් වන අතර, නවීන ආකාරයෙන් මේවා තනනුයේ, සාමාන්‍ය වශයෙන් සීනි,  තිරිඟු පැණි, ජලය, උණු ජලයේ දිය කොට මුදු කරන ලද ජෙලටින්, ඩෙක්ස්ට්‍රෝස්, වැනිලා රසකාරක, සහ සමහරවිට වර්ණකාරක යන දේවල් ගෙන, ස්පොන්ජීය උකු ස්වභාවයක් දක්වා ගසා ගැනීමෙනි
සමහරක් මාෂ්මෙලෝ වට්ටෝරු සඳහා බිත්තර සුදු මද අවශ්‍ය වෙයි
මෙම රසකැවිල්ල වනාහී ඇල්තයියා ඔෆිෂිනාලිස් නමැති මාෂ්මෙලෝ ශාකයෙන් තැනුණු වෛද්‍යමය රසකැවිල්ලෙහි නූතන අනුවාදය වෙයි
ආශ්‍රිත

රසකැවිලි
සම්බන්ධතාවක් නැති මිනිසුන් සමහර විට සමාන තාක්ෂණයන් හා සමාජ සංවිධාන තමාගේ සේ පිළිගන්නා නිසා ඇමරිකාවේ සංස්කෘතික පුරුදු බො‍හෝ විට පෙනෙන ආකාරයට භුගෝලීය කලාප වලට බෙදා ඇත
එම ප්‍රදේශයේ මිනිසුන් අතර ඇති සහජීවනය හා බෙදී ගිය සංවර්ධනයත් මඟින් සංකීර්ණ කෘෂිකාර්මික, සමාජීය ක්‍රම  හා සමජාතිය සංස්කෘතියක් සාදයි
තවත් උදාහරණයක් ලෙස උතුරු ඇමරිකාවේ සමතලා ප්‍රදේශ ගත  හැක
එහි 19 වැනි ශතවර්ෂය වනතුරු මුලිකවම මීහරක් දඩයමේ දී සමහර මිනිසුන් නොමැඩින් දඩයම්කරුවන්ගේ ගති ලක්ෂණ බෙදා ගෙන ඇත
ඇමරිකාවේ දුසිම් ගණන් විශාල හා සිය ගණන් කුඩා සංස්කෘතික ප්‍රදේශ  හඳුනා ගත හැක
සටහන් කිරීමේ පද්ධති 

පූර්ව කොළොම්බියා ඇමරිකානු සංස්කෘතියේ ලඟාවීම් හා නව නිර්මාණ මුලික ලිවීමේ නිදහස හා සංවර්ධනය මනිනු ලබයි
පළමු  සියවසේ සිට මිසො ඇමරිකාව ආවේණික ලිවීමේ පද්ධති ගණනාවක් නිපදවිය
කැස්කජාල් බ්ලොක් මඟින් ලියන ලද පැතිරුණු පළමු සිතුවිලි පාඨය ගැන පැරණිතම දන්නා උදාහරණය විය හැක්කේ කුමක් ද
900 දී එකම සම්බන්ධතාව අඩංගු මැටි භාණ්ඩ හා ඔල්මෙක් අකුරු, පද, හැඩ ආදිය සංකේතවත් කරන චිත්‍ර සොයා ගෙන ඇත
ඒ කාලය තුළ සැන් ලොරෙන්සෝ වල ඔල්ටෙක් රැකියා වෘත්තිය ක්ෂය වෙන්න පටන් ගත්තේය
මායා සටහන් කිරීමේ පද්ධතිය, පිනොටික් ලාංඡන හා ලොගෝග්‍රෑම්ස් වල එකතුවකි
එය බොහෝ විට ලොගෝග්රුෆික් හෝ ලොගොසිලබික් සටහන් කිරීමේ පද්ධති ලෙස වෙන් කර ඇත
එහි සිලබික් සලකුණු විශේෂ තැනක් ගනි
එය තමයි එකම පූර්ව කොලොම්බියානුවල අලුත් ලෝකය දන්නා සම්පූර්ණ සමාජයේ කතා කිරීමේ භාෂාවන් නියෝජනය කරපු ලිවීමේ පද්ධතිය
එම ක්‍රමයේ වෙනස් සංකේත දහසකට වඩා ඇත
එහෙත් සුළු ගණනක් එකම සංකේතයේ ‍හා තේරුමේ විවිධත්වයන් ය
සමහර සංකේත 200 ක් පිනෙටික් හෝ සිලබික් අර්ථ නිරූපනය කරයි
ස්පාර්ටාහි  හැරුණු විට සමස්ථ ග්‍රීසියේම අධ්‍යාපනය, පෞද්ගලික අංශය මඟින් මෙහෙයවන ලදි
පිරිමි දරුවන් පමණක් ලිවීම, කියවීම හා සාහිත්‍ය ඉගෙන ගත්හ
ඔවුන් ගායනය හා වාදනයද ඉගෙන ගත් අතර හමුදා සේවය සඳහා ද පුහුණු කරන ලදි
ඔවුන්  රැකියාවක් සඳහා ඉගෙන නොගත් අතර හොඳ පුරවැසියන් වීමට උගත්හ
ගැහැණු දරුවන් ද ලියවීම, කියවීම උගත් අතර ඔවුන් ප්‍රධාන ලෙස ගෘහාශ්‍රිත කටයුතු සඳහා උගත්හ
නමුත් කුඩා අවධියෙන් පසු ඉදිරියට අධ්‍යාපනය නොලැබුහ
පිරිමි දරුවන් අවුරුදු 7 දී පාසල් වෙත හෝ හමුදා බැරැක්ක වෙත යොමු කෙරුණි
වර්‍ග තුනක අධ්‍යාපනයක් එකල පැවතිණි
එනම් ගණිත ශාස්ත්‍රි, සංගීත, නැටුම් හා ක්‍රීඩා වශයෙනි
ධනවත් පවුල්වල දරුවන් නිවෙසේ සේවකයතු යටතේ පෞද්ගලික පාසල් වෙත යොමු කෙරුණි
පාසල් ගුරුවරුන්ගේ නිවෙස් තුළ එම පෞද්ගලික  පාසල් පැවති අතර  එහිදී ඔවුන්ට ලිවීම, කියවීම, ගණිතය, ගායනය, වාදනය ක්‍රිඩාව පුහුණු කෙරුණි
දරුවන්ගේ වයස අවුරුදු 12 වන විට මල්ලවපොර, දිවීම, යගුලිය විසිකිරීම, හෙල්ලය විසිකිරීම ආදියට යොමු කෙරුණි