Title 26—Internal Revenue--Volume 1
PART 1—INCOME TAXES
§ 1.171-1   Bond premium.
(a) Overview —(1) In general. This section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-5 provide rules for the determination and amortization of bond premium by a holder. In general, a holder amortizes bond premium by offsetting the interest allocable to an accrual period with the premium allocable to that period. Bond premium is allocable to an accrual period based on a constant yield. The use of a constant yield to amortize bond premium is intended to generally conform the treatment of bond premium to the treatment of original issue discount under sections 1271 through 1275. Unless otherwise provided, the terms used in this section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-5 have the same meaning as those terms in sections 1271 through 1275 and the corresponding regulations. Moreover, unless otherwise provided, the provisions of this section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-5 apply in a manner consistent with those of sections 1271 through 1275 and the corresponding regulations. In addition, the anti-abuse rule in § 1.1275-2(g) applies for purposes of this section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-5.
(2) Cross-references. For rules dealing with the adjustments to a holder's basis to reflect the amortization of bond premium, see § 1.1016-5(b). For rules dealing with the treatment of bond issuance premium by an issuer, see § 1.163-13.
(b) Scope —(1) In general. Except as provided in paragraph (b)(2) of this section and § 1.171-5, this section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-4 apply to any bond that, upon its acquisition by the holder, is held with bond premium. For purposes of this section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-5, the term bond has the same meaning as the term debt instrument in § 1.1275-1(d).
(2) Exceptions. This section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-5 do not apply to—
(i) A bond described in section 1272(a)(6)(C) (regular interests in a REMIC, qualified mortgages held by a REMIC, and certain other debt instruments, or pools of debt instruments, with payments subject to acceleration);
(ii) A bond to which § 1.1275-4 applies (relating to certain debt instruments that provide for contingent payments);
(iii) A bond held by a holder that has made a § 1.1272-3 election with respect to the bond;
(iv) A bond that is stock in trade of the holder, a bond of a kind that would properly be included in the inventory of the holder if on hand at the close of the taxable year, or a bond held primarily for sale to customers in the ordinary course of the holder's trade or business; or
(v) A bond issued before September 28, 1985, unless the bond bears interest and was issued by a corporation or by a government or political subdivision thereof.
(c) General rule —(1) Tax-exempt obligations. A holder must amortize bond premium on a bond that is a tax-exempt obligation. See § 1.171-2(c) Example 4.
(2) Taxable bonds. A holder may elect to amortize bond premium on a taxable bond. Except as provided in paragraph (c)(3) of this section, a taxable bond is any bond other than a tax-exempt obligation. See § 1.171-4 for rules relating to the election to amortize bond premium on a taxable bond.
(3) Bonds the interest on which is partially excludable. For purposes of this section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-5, a bond the interest on which is partially excludable from gross income is treated as two instruments, a tax-exempt obligation and a taxable bond. The holder's basis in the bond and each payment on the bond are allocated between the two instruments based on a reasonable method.
(d) Determination of bond premium —(1) In general. A holder acquires a bond at a premium if the holder's basis in the bond immediately after its acquisition by the holder exceeds the sum of all amounts payable on the bond after the acquisition date (other than payments of qualified stated interest). This excess is bond premium, which is amortizable under § 1.171-2.
(2) Additional rules for amounts payable on certain bonds. Additional rules apply to determine the amounts payable on a variable rate debt instrument, an inflation-indexed debt instrument, a bond that provides for certain alternative payment schedules, and a bond that provides for remote or incidental contingencies. See § 1.171-3.
(e) Basis. A holder determines its basis in a bond under this paragraph (e). This determination of basis applies only for purposes of this section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-5. Because of the application of this paragraph (e), the holder's basis in the bond for purposes of these sections may differ from the holder's basis for determining gain or loss on the sale or exchange of the bond.
(1) Determination of basis —(i) In general. In general, the holder's basis in the bond is the holder's basis for determining loss on the sale or exchange of the bond.
(ii) Bonds acquired in certain exchanges. If the holder acquired the bond in exchange for other property (other than in a reorganization defined in section 368) and the holder's basis in the bond is determined in whole or in part by reference to the holder's basis in the other property, the holder's basis in the bond may not exceed its fair market value immediately after the exchange. See paragraph (f) Example 1 of this section. If the bond is acquired in a reorganization, see section 171(b)(4)(B).
(iii) Convertible bonds —(A) General rule. If the bond is a convertible bond, the holder's basis in the bond is reduced by an amount equal to the value of the conversion option. The value of the conversion option may be determined under any reasonable method. For example, the holder may determine the value of the conversion option by comparing the market price of the convertible bond to the market prices of similar bonds that do not have conversion options. See paragraph (f) Example 2 of this section.
(B) Convertible bonds acquired in certain exchanges. If the bond is a convertible bond acquired in a transaction described in paragraph (e)(1)(ii) of this section, the holder's basis in the bond may not exceed its fair market value immediately after the exchange reduced by the value of the conversion option.
(C) Definition of convertible bond. A convertible bond is a bond that provides the holder with an option to convert the bond into stock of the issuer, stock or debt of a related party (within the meaning of section 267(b) or 707(b)(1)), or into cash or other property in an amount equal to the approximate value of such stock or debt. For bonds issued on or after February 5, 2013, the term stock in the preceding sentence means an equity interest in any entity that is classified, for Federal tax purposes, as either a partnership or a corporation.
(2) Basis in bonds held by certain transferees. Notwithstanding paragraph (e)(1) of this section, if the bond is transferred basis property (as defined in section 7701(a)(43)) and the transferor had acquired the bond at a premium, the holder's basis in the bond is—
(i) The holder's basis for determining loss on the sale or exchange of the bond; reduced by
(ii) Any amounts that the transferor could not have amortized under this paragraph (e) or under § 1.171-4(c), except to the extent that the holder's basis already reflects a reduction attributable to such nonamortizable amounts.
(f) Examples. The following examples illustrate the rules of this section:
(ii) Determination of basis. Under section 732(b), PR's basis in the bond is equal to PR's basis in the partnership interest. Therefore, PR's basis for determining loss on the sale or exchange of the bond is $100,000. However, because the distribution is treated as an exchange for purposes of section 171(b)(4), PR's basis in the bond is $40,000 for purposes of this section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-5. See paragraph (e)(1)(ii) of this section.
(ii) Determination of basis. A's basis for determining loss on the sale or exchange of the bond is $1,100. As of the purchase date, discounting the remaining payments on the bond at the yield at which B's similar nonconvertible bonds trade (6.75 percent, compounded semiannually) results in a present value of $980. Thus, the value of the conversion option is $120. Under paragraph (e)(1)(iii)(A) of this section, A's basis is $980 ($1,100−$120) for purposes of this section and §§ 1.171-2 through 1.171-5. The sum of all amounts payable on the bond other than qualified stated interest is $1,000. Because A's basis (as determined under paragraph (e)(1)(iii)(A) of this section) does not exceed $1,000, A does not acquire the bond at a premium.
§ 1.171-2   Amortization of bond premium.
(a) Offsetting qualified stated interest with premium —(1) In general. A holder amortizes bond premium by offsetting the qualified stated interest allocable to an accrual period with the bond premium allocable to the accrual period. This offset occurs when the holder takes the qualified stated interest into account under the holder's regular method of accounting.
(2) Qualified stated interest allocable to an accrual period. See § 1.446-2(b) to determine the accrual period to which qualified stated interest is allocable and to determine the accrual of qualified stated interest within an accrual period.
(3) Bond premium allocable to an accrual period. The bond premium allocable to an accrual period is determined under this paragraph (a)(3). Within an accrual period, the bond premium allocable to the period accrues ratably.
(i) Step one: Determine the holder's yield. The holder's yield is the discount rate that, when used in computing the present value of all remaining payments to be made on the bond (including payments of qualified stated interest), produces an amount equal to the holder's basis in the bond as determined under § 1.171-1(e). For this purpose, the remaining payments include only payments to be made after the date the holder acquires the bond. The yield is calculated as of the date the holder acquires the bond, must be constant over the term of the bond, and must be calculated to at least two decimal places when expressed as a percentage.
(ii) Step two: Determine the accrual periods. A holder determines the accrual periods for the bond under the rules of § 1.1272-1(b)(1)(ii).
(iii) Step three: Determine the bond premium allocable to the accrual period. The bond premium allocable to an accrual period is the excess of the qualified stated interest allocable to the accrual period over the product of the holder's adjusted acquisition price (as defined in paragraph (b) of this section) at the beginning of the accrual period and the holder's yield. In performing this calculation, the yield must be stated appropriately taking into account the length of the particular accrual period. Principles similar to those in § 1.1272-1(b)(4) apply in determining the bond premium allocable to an accrual period.
(4) Bond premium in excess of qualified stated interest —(i) Taxable bonds —(A) Bond premium deduction. In the case of a taxable bond, if the bond premium allocable to an accrual period exceeds the qualified stated interest allocable to the accrual period, the excess is treated by the holder as a bond premium deduction under section 171(a)(1) for the accrual period. However, the amount treated as a bond premium deduction is limited to the amount by which the holder's total interest inclusions on the bond in prior accrual periods exceed the total amount treated by the holder as a bond premium deduction on the bond in prior accrual periods. A deduction determined under this paragraph (a)(4)(i)(A) is not subject to section 67 (the 2-percent floor on miscellaneous itemized deductions). See Example 1 of § 1.171-3(e).
(B) Carryforward. If the bond premium allocable to an accrual period exceeds the sum of the qualified stated interest allocable to the accrual period and the amount treated as a deduction for the accrual period under paragraph (a)(4)(i)(A) of this section, the excess is carried forward to the next accrual period and is treated as bond premium allocable to that period.
(C) Carryforward in holder's final accrual period —( 1 ) Bond premium deduction. If there is a bond premium carryforward determined under paragraph (a)(4)(i)(B) of this section as of the end of the holder's accrual period in which the bond is sold, retired, or otherwise disposed of, the holder treats the amount of the carryforward as a bond premium deduction under section 171(a)(1) for the holder's taxable year in which the sale, retirement, or other disposition occurs. For purposes of § 1.1016-5(b), the holder's basis in the bond is reduced by the amount of bond premium allowed as a deduction under this paragraph (a)(4)(i)(C)( 1 ).
( 2 ) Effective/applicability date. Notwithstanding § 1.171-5(a)(1), paragraph (a)(4)(i)(C)( 1 ) of this section applies to a bond acquired on or after January 4, 2013. A taxpayer, however, may rely on paragraph (a)(4)(i)(C)( 1 ) of this section for a bond acquired before that date.
(ii) Tax-exempt obligations. In the case of a tax-exempt obligation, if the bond premium allocable to an accrual period exceeds the qualified stated interest allocable to the accrual period, the excess is a nondeductible loss. If a regulated investment company (RIC) within the meaning of section 851 has excess bond premium for an accrual period that would be a nondeductible loss under the prior sentence, the RIC must use this excess bond premium to reduce its tax-exempt interest income on other tax-exempt obligations held during the accrual period.
(5) Additional rules for certain bonds. Additional rules apply to determine the amortization of bond premium on a variable rate debt instrument, an inflation-indexed debt instrument, a bond that provides for certain alternative payment schedules, and a bond that provides for remote or incidental contingencies. See § 1.171-3.
(b) Adjusted acquisition price. The adjusted acquisition price of a bond at the beginning of the first accrual period is the holder's basis as determined under § 1.171-1(e). Thereafter, the adjusted acquisition price is the holder's basis in the bond decreased by—
(1) The amount of bond premium previously allocable under paragraph (a)(3) of this section; and
(2) The amount of any payment previously made on the bond other than a payment of qualified stated interest.
(c) Examples. The following examples illustrate the rules of this section. Each example assumes the holder uses the calendar year as its taxable year and has elected to amortize bond premium, effective for all relevant taxable years. In addition, each example assumes a 30-day month and 360-day year. Although, for purposes of simplicity, the yield as stated is rounded to two decimal places, the computations do not reflect this rounding convention. The examples are as follows:
(ii) Amount of bond premium. The interest payments on the bond are qualified stated interest. Therefore, the sum of all amounts payable on the bond (other than the interest payments) is $100,000. Under § 1.171-1, the amount of bond premium is $10,000 ($110,000−$100,000).
(iii) Bond premium allocable to the first accrual period. Based on the remaining payment schedule of the bond and A's basis in the bond, A's yield is 8.07 percent, compounded annually. The bond premium allocable to the accrual period ending on February 1, 2000, is the excess of the qualified stated interest allocable to the period ($10,000) over the product of the adjusted acquisition price at the beginning of the period ($110,000) and A's yield (8.07 percent, compounded annually). Therefore, the bond premium allocable to the accrual period is $1,118.17 ($10,000−$8,881.83).
(iv) Premium used to offset interest. Although A receives an interest payment of $10,000 on February 1, 2000, A only includes in income $8,881.83, the qualified stated interest allocable to the period ($10,000) offset with bond premium allocable to the period ($1,118.17). Under § 1.1016-5(b), A's basis in the bond is reduced by $1,118.17 on February 1, 2000.
(ii) Bond premium allocable to the first accrual period. Based on the remaining payment schedule of the bond and A's basis in the bond, A's yield is 7.92 percent, compounded semiannually. The bond premium allocable to the accrual period ending on August 1, 1999, is the excess of the qualified stated interest allocable to the period ($5,000) over the product of the adjusted acquisition price at the beginning of the period ($110,000) and A's yield, stated appropriately taking into account the length of the accrual period (7.92 percent/2). Therefore, the bond premium allocable to the accrual period is $645.29 ($5,000−$4,354.71). Although the accrual period ends on August 1, 1999, the qualified stated interest of $5,000 is not taken into income until February 1, 2000, the date it is received. Likewise, the bond premium of $645.29 is not taken into account until February 1, 2000. The adjusted acquisition price of the bond on August 1, 1999, is $109,354.71 (the adjusted acquisition price at the beginning of the period ($110,000) less the bond premium allocable to the period ($645.29)).
(iii) Bond premium allocable to the second accrual period. Because the interval between payments of qualified stated interest contains more than one accrual period, the adjusted acquisition price at the beginning of the second accrual period must be adjusted for the accrued but unpaid qualified stated interest. See paragraph (a)(3)(iii) of this section and § 1.1272-1(b)(4)(i)(B). Therefore, the adjusted acquisition price on August 1, 1999, is $114,354.71 ($109,354.71 + $5,000). The bond premium allocable to the accrual period ending on February 1, 2000, is the excess of the qualified stated interest allocable to the period ($5,000) over the product of the adjusted acquisition price at the beginning of the period ($114,354.71) and A's yield, stated appropriately taking into account the length of the accrual period (7.92 percent/2). Therefore, the bond premium allocable to the accrual period is $472.88 ($5,000−$4,527.12).
(iv) Premium used to offset interest. Although A receives an interest payment of $10,000 on February 1, 2000, A only includes in income $8,881.83, the qualified stated interest of $10,000 ($5,000 allocable to the accrual period ending on August 1, 1999, and $5,000 allocable to the accrual period ending on February 1, 2000) offset with bond premium of $1,118.17 ($645.29 allocable to the accrual period ending on August 1, 1999, and $472.88 allocable to the accrual period ending on February 1, 2000). As indicated in Example 1 of this paragraph (c), this same amount would be taken into income at the same time had A used annual accrual periods.
(ii) Amounts allocable to the first taxable year. The qualified stated interest allocable to the first taxable year is $9,166.67 ($10,000 × 11/12 ). The bond premium allocable to the first taxable year is $1,024.99 ($1,118.17 × 11/12 ).
(iii) Premium used to offset interest. For 1999, A includes in income $8,141.68, the qualified stated interest allocable to the period ($9,166.67) offset with bond premium allocable to the period ($1,024.99). Under § 1.1016-5(b), A's basis in the bond is reduced by $1,024.99 in 1999.
(iv) Amounts allocable to the next taxable year. The remaining amounts of qualified stated interest and bond premium allocable to the accrual period ending on February 1, 2000, are taken into account for the taxable year ending on December 31, 2000.
(ii) Amount of bond premium. The interest payments on the obligation are qualified stated interest. Therefore, the sum of all amounts payable on the obligation (other than the interest payments) is $100,000. Under § 1.171-1, the amount of bond premium is $20,000 ($120,000—$100,000).
(iii) Bond premium allocable to the first accrual period. Based on the remaining payment schedule of the obligation and C's basis in the obligation, C's yield is 5.48 percent, compounded annually. The bond premium allocable to the accrual period ending on January 15, 2000, is the excess of the qualified stated interest allocable to the period ($9,000) over the product of the adjusted acquisition price at the beginning of the period ($120,000) and C's yield (5.48 percent, compounded annually). Therefore, the bond premium allocable to the accrual period is $2,420.55 ($9,000−$6,579.45).
(iv) Premium used to offset interest. Although C receives an interest payment of $9,000 on January 15, 2000, C only receives tax-exempt interest income of $6,579.45, the qualified stated interest allocable to the period ($9,000) offset with bond premium allocable to the period ($2,420.55). Under § 1.1016-5(b), C's basis in the obligation is reduced by $2,420.55 on January 15, 2000.
§ 1.171-3   Special rules for certain bonds.
(a) Variable rate debt instruments. A holder determines bond premium on a variable rate debt instrument by reference to the stated redemption price at maturity of the equivalent fixed rate debt instrument constructed for the variable rate debt instrument. The holder also allocates any bond premium among the accrual periods by reference to the equivalent fixed rate debt instrument. The holder constructs the equivalent fixed rate debt instrument, as of the date the holder acquires the variable rate debt instrument, by using the principles of § 1.1275-5(e). See paragraph (e) Example 1 of this section.
(b) Inflation-indexed debt instruments. A holder determines bond premium on an inflation-indexed debt instrument by assuming that there will be no inflation or deflation over the remaining term of the instrument. The holder also allocates any bond premium among the accrual periods by assuming that there will be no inflation or deflation over the remaining term of the instrument. The bond premium allocable to an accrual period offsets qualified stated interest allocable to the period. Notwithstanding § 1.171-2(a)(4), if the bond premium allocable to an accrual period exceeds the qualified stated interest allocable to the period, the excess is treated as a deflation adjustment under § 1.1275-7(f)(1)(i). However, the rules in § 1.171-2(a)(4)(i)(C) apply to any remaining deflation adjustment attributable to bond premium as of the end of the holder's accrual period in which the bond is sold, retired, or otherwise disposed of. See § 1.1275-7 for other rules relating to inflation-indexed debt instruments.
(c) Yield and remaining payment schedule of certain bonds subject to contingencies —(1) Applicability. This paragraph (c) provides rules that apply in determining the yield and remaining payment schedule of certain bonds that provide for an alternative payment schedule (or schedules) applicable upon the occurrence of a contingency (or contingencies). This paragraph (c) applies, however, only if the timing and amounts of the payments that comprise each payment schedule are known as of the date the holder acquires the bond (the acquisition date) and the bond is subject to paragraph (c)(2), (3), or (4) of this section. A bond does not provide for an alternative payment schedule merely because there is a possibility of impairment of a payment (or payments) by insolvency, default, or similar circumstances. See § 1.1275-4 for the treatment of a bond that provides for a contingency that is not described in this paragraph (c).
(2) Remaining payment schedule that is significantly more likely than not to occur. If, based on all the facts and circumstances as of the acquisition date, a single remaining payment schedule for a bond is significantly more likely than not to occur, this remaining payment schedule is used to determine and amortize bond premium under §§ 1.171-1 and 1.171-2.
(3) Mandatory sinking fund provision. Notwithstanding paragraph (c)(2) of this section, if a bond is subject to a mandatory sinking fund provision described in § 1.1272-1(c)(3), the provision is ignored for purposes of determining and amortizing bond premium under §§ 1.171-1 and 1.171-2.
(4) Treatment of certain options —(i) Applicability. Notwithstanding paragraphs (c)(2) and (3) of this section, the rules of this paragraph (c)(4) determine the remaining payment schedule of a bond that provides the holder or issuer with an unconditional option or options, exercisable on one or more dates during the remaining term of the bond, to alter the bond's remaining payment schedule.
(ii) Operating rules. A holder determines the remaining payment schedule of a bond by assuming that each option will (or will not) be exercised under the following rules:
(A) Issuer options. In general, the issuer is deemed to exercise or not exercise an option or combination of options in the manner that minimizes the holder's yield on the obligation. However, the issuer of a taxable bond is deemed to exercise or not exercise a call option or combination of call options in the manner that maximizes the holder's yield on the bond.
(B) Holder options. A holder is deemed to exercise or not exercise an option or combination of options in the manner that maximizes the holder's yield on the bond.
(C) Multiple options. If both the issuer and the holder have options, the rules of paragraphs (c)(4)(ii)(A) and (B) of this section are applied to the options in the order that they may be exercised. Thus, the deemed exercise of one option may eliminate other options that are later in time.
(5) Subsequent adjustments —(i) In general. Except as provided in paragraph (c)(5)(ii) of this section, if a contingency described in this paragraph (c) (including the exercise of an option described in paragraph (c)(4) of this section) actually occurs or does not occur, contrary to the assumption made pursuant to paragraph (c) of this section (a change in circumstances), then solely for purposes of section 171, the bond is treated as retired and reacquired by the holder on the date of the change in circumstances for an amount equal to the adjusted acquisition price of the bond as of that date. If, however, the change in circumstances results in a substantially contemporaneous pro-rata prepayment as defined in § 1.1275-2(f)(2), the pro-rata prepayment is treated as a payment in retirement of a portion of the bond. See paragraph (e) Example 2 of this section.
(ii) Bond premium deduction on the issuer's call of a taxable bond. If a change in circumstances results from an issuer's call of a taxable bond or a partial call that is a pro-rata prepayment, the holder may deduct as bond premium an amount equal to the excess, if any, of the holder's adjusted acquisition price of the bond over the greater of—
(A) The amount received on redemption; and
(B) The amounts that would have been payable under the bond (other than payments of qualified stated interest) if no change in circumstances had occurred.
(d) Remote and incidental contingencies. For purposes of determining and amortizing bond premium, if a bond provides for a contingency that is remote or incidental (within the meaning of § 1.1275-2(h)), the holder takes the contingency into account under the rules for remote and incidental contingencies in § 1.1275-2(h).
(e) Examples. The following examples illustrate the rules of this section. Each example assumes the holder uses the calendar year as its taxable year and has elected to amortize bond premium, effective for all relevant taxable years. In addition, each example assumes a 30-day month and 360-day year. Although, for purposes of simplicity, the yield as stated is rounded to two decimal places, the computations do not reflect this rounding convention. The examples are as follows:
(ii) Amount of bond premium. Because the bond is a variable rate debt instrument, E determines and amortizes its bond premium by reference to the equivalent fixed rate debt instrument constructed for the bond as of March 1, 1999. Because the bond provides for interest at a single objective rate that is reasonably expected to yield 12 percent, compounded annually, the equivalent fixed rate debt instrument for the bond is an eight-year bond with a principal amount of $100,000, payable at maturity. It provides for annual payments of interest of $12,000. E's basis in the equivalent fixed rate debt instrument is $110,000. The sum of all amounts payable on the equivalent fixed rate debt instrument (other than payments of qualified stated interest) is $100,000. Under § 1.171-1, the amount of bond premium is $10,000 ($110,000 −$100,000).
(iii) Bond premium allocable to each accrual period. E allocates bond premium to the remaining accrual periods by reference to the payment schedule on the equivalent fixed rate debt instrument. Based on the payment schedule of the equivalent fixed rate debt instrument and E's basis in the bond, E's yield is 10.12 percent, compounded annually. The bond premium allocable to the accrual period ending on March 1, 2000, is the excess of the qualified stated interest allocable to the period for the equivalent fixed rate debt instrument ($12,000) over the product of the adjusted acquisition price at the beginning of the period ($110,000) and E's yield (10.12 percent, compounded annually). Therefore, the bond premium allocable to the accrual period is $870.71 ($12,000−$11,129.29). The bond premium allocable to all the accrual periods is listed in the following schedule:
(ii) Determination of yield and the remaining payment schedule. M's yield determined without regard to the call option is 8.07 percent, compounded annually. M's yield determined by assuming N exercises its call option is 6.89 percent, compounded annually. Under paragraph (c)(4)(ii)(A) of this section, it is assumed N will not exercise the call option because exercising the option would minimize M's yield. Thus, for purposes of determining and amortizing bond premium, the bond is assumed to be a seven-year bond with a single principal payment at maturity of $100,000.
(iii) Amount of bond premium. The interest payments on the bond are qualified stated interest. Therefore, the sum of all amounts payable on the bond (other than the interest payments) is $100,000. Under § 1.171-1, the amount of bond premium is $10,000 ($110,000−$100,000).
(iv) Bond premium allocable to the first two accrual periods. For the accrual period ending on April 1, 2000, M includes in income $8,881.83, the qualified stated interest allocable to the period ($10,000) offset with bond premium allocable to the period ($1,118.17). The adjusted acquisition price on April 1, 2000, is $108,881.83 ($110,000−$1,118.17). For the accrual period ending on April 1, 2001, M includes in income $8,791.54, the qualified stated interest allocable to the period ($10,000) offset with bond premium allocable to the period ($1,208.46). The adjusted acquisition price on April 1, 2001, is $107,673.37 ($108,881.83−$1,208.46).
(v) Partial call. Assume N calls one-half of M's bond for $52,500 on April 1, 2001. Because it was assumed the call would not be exercised, the call is a change in circumstances. However, the partial call is also a pro-rata prepayment within the meaning of § 1.1275-2(f)(2). As a result, the call is treated as a retirement of one-half of the bond. Under paragraph (c)(5)(ii) of this section, M may deduct $1,336.68, the excess of its adjusted acquisition price in the retired portion of the bond ($107,673.37/2, or $53,836.68) over the amount received on redemption ($52,500). M's adjusted basis in the portion of the bond that remains outstanding is $53,836.68 ($107,673.37−$53,836.68).
§ 1.171-4   Election to amortize bond premium on taxable bonds.
(a) Time and manner of making the election —(1) In general. A holder makes the election to amortize bond premium by offsetting interest income with bond premium in the holder's timely filed federal income tax return for the first taxable year to which the holder desires the election to apply. The holder should attach to the return a statement that the holder is making the election under this section.
(2) Coordination with OID election. If a holder makes an election under § 1.1272-3 for a bond with bond premium, the holder is deemed to have made the election under this section.
(b) Scope of election. The election under this section applies to all taxable bonds held during or after the taxable year for which the election is made.
(c) Election to amortize made in a subsequent taxable year —(1) In general. If a holder elects to amortize bond premium and holds a taxable bond acquired before the taxable year for which the election is made, the holder may not amortize amounts that would have been amortized in prior taxable years had an election been in effect for those prior years.
(2) Example. The following example illustrates the rule of this paragraph (c):
(ii) Amount to amortize. C's basis for determining loss on the sale or exchange of the bond is $130,000. Thus, under § 1.171-1, the amount of bond premium is $30,000. Under § 1.171-2, if a bond premium election were in effect for the prior taxable years, C would have amortized $3,257.44 of bond premium on May 1, 2000, and $3,551.68 of bond premium on May 1, 2001, based on annual accrual periods ending on May 1. Thus, for 2002 and future years to which the election applies, C may amortize only $23,190.88 ($30,000−$3,257.44−$3,551.68).
(d) Revocation of election. The election under this section may not be revoked unless approved by the Commissioner. Because a revocation of the election is a change in accounting method, a taxpayer must follow the rules under § 1.446-1(e)(3)(i) to request the Commissioner's consent to revoke the election. A revocation of the election applies to all taxable bonds held during or after the taxable year for which the revocation is effective. The holder may not amortize any remaining bond premium on bonds held at the beginning of the taxable year for which the revocation is effective. Therefore, no adjustment under section 481 is allowed upon the revocation of the election because no items of income or deduction are omitted or duplicated.
§ 1.171-5   Effective date and transition rules.
(a) Effective date —(1) In general. Sections 1.171-1 through 1.171-4 apply to bonds acquired on or after March 2, 1998. However, if a holder makes the election under § 1.171-4 for the taxable year containing March 2, 1998, or any subsequent taxable year, §§ 1.171-1 through 1.171-4 apply to bonds held on or after the first day of the taxable year in which the election is made.
(2) Transition rule for use of constant yield. Notwithstanding paragraph (a)(1) of this section, § 1.171-2(a)(3) (providing that the bond premium allocable to an accrual period is determined with reference to a constant yield) does not apply to a bond issued before September 28, 1985.
(b) Coordination with existing election. A holder is deemed to have made the election under § 1.171-4 for the taxable year containing March 2, 1998, if the holder elected to amortize bond premium under section 171 and that election is effective on March 2, 1998. If the holder is deemed to have made the election under § 1.171-4 for the taxable year containing March 2, 1998, §§ 1.171-1 through 1.171-4 apply to bonds acquired on or after the first day of that taxable year. See § 1.171-4(d) for rules relating to a revocation of an election under section 171.
(c) Accounting method changes —(1) Consent to change. A holder required to change its method of accounting for bond premium to comply with §§ 1.171-1 through 1.171-3 must secure the consent of the Commissioner in accordance with the requirements of § 1.446-1(e). Paragraph (c)(2) of this section provides the Commissioner's automatic consent for certain changes. A holder making the election under § 1.171-4 does not need the Commissioner's consent to make the election.
(2) Automatic consent. The Commissioner grants consent for a holder to change its method of accounting for bond premium with respect to taxable bonds to which §§ 1.171-1 through 1.171-3 apply. Because this change is made on a cut-off basis, no items of income or deduction are omitted or duplicated and, therefore, no adjustment under section 481 is allowed. The consent granted by this paragraph (c)(2) applies provided—
(i) The holder elected to amortize bond premium under section 171 for a taxable year prior to the taxable year containing March 2, 1998, and that election has not been revoked;
(ii) The change is made for the first taxable year for which the holder must account for a bond under §§ 1.171-1 through 1.171-3; and
(iii) The holder attaches to its return for the taxable year containing the change a statement that it has changed its method of accounting under this section.
§ 1.172-1   Net operating loss deduction.
(a) Allowance of deduction. Section 172(a) allows as a deduction in computing taxable income for any taxable year subject to the Code the aggregate of the net operating loss carryovers and net operating loss carrybacks to such taxable year. This deduction is referred to as the net operating loss deduction. The net operating loss is the basis for the computation of the net operating loss carryovers and net operating loss carrybacks and ultimately for the net operating loss deduction itself. The net operating loss deduction shall not be disallowed for any taxable year merely because the taxpayer has no income from a trade or business for the taxable year.
(b) Steps in computation of net operating loss deduction. The three steps to be taken in the ascertainment of the net operating loss deduction for any taxable year subject to the Code are as follows:
(1) Compute the net operating loss for any preceding or succeeding taxable year from which a net operating loss may be carried over or carried back to such taxable year.
(2) Compute the net operating loss carryovers to such taxable year from such preceding taxable years and the net operating loss carrybacks to such taxable year from such succeeding taxable years.
(3) Add such net operating loss carryovers and carrybacks in order to determine the net operating loss deduction for such taxable year.
(c) Statement with tax return. Every taxpayer claiming a net operating loss deduction for any taxable year shall file with his return for such year a concise statement setting forth the amount of the net operating loss deduction claimed and all material and pertinent facts relative thereto, including a detailed schedule showing the computation of the net operating loss deduction.
(d) Ascertainment of deduction dependent upon net operating loss carryback. If the taxpayer is entitled in computing his net operating loss deduction to a carryback which he is not able to ascertain at the time his return is due, he shall compute the net operating loss deduction on his return without regard to such net operating loss carryback. When the taxpayer ascertains the net operating loss carryback, he may within the applicable period of limitations file a claim for credit or refund of the overpayment, if any, resulting from the failure to compute the net operating loss deduction for the taxable year with the inclusion of such carryback; or he may file an application under the provisions of section 6411 for a tentative carryback adjustment.
(e) Law applicable to computations. (1) In determining the amount of any net operating loss carryback or carryover to any taxable year, the necessary computations involving any other taxable year shall be made under the law applicable to such other taxable year.
(2) The net operating loss for any taxable year shall be determined under the law applicable to that year without regard to the year to which it is to be carried and in which, in effect, it is to be deducted as part of the net operating loss deduction.
(3) The amount of the net operating loss deduction which shall be allowed for any taxable year shall be determined under the law applicable to that year.
(f) Electing small business corporations. In determining the amount of the net operating loss deduction of any corporation, there shall be disregarded the net operating loss of such corporation for any taxable year for which such corporation was an electing small business corporation under subchapter S (section 1371 and following), chapter 1 of the Code. In applying section 172(b)(1) and (2) to a net operating loss sustained in a taxable year in which the corporation was not an electing small business corporation, a taxable year in which the corporation was an electing small business corporation is counted as a taxable year to which such net operating loss is carried back or over. However, the taxable income for such year as determined under section 172(b)(2) is treated as if it were zero for purposes of computing the balance of the loss available to the corporation as a carryback or carryover to other taxable years in which the corporation is not an electing small business corporation. See section 1374 and the regulations thereunder for allowance of a deduction to shareholders for a net operating loss sustained by an electing small business corporation.
(g) Husband and wife. The net operating loss deduction of a husband and wife shall be determined in accordance with this section, but subject also to the provisions of § 1.172-7.
§ 1.172-2   Net operating loss in case of a corporation.
(a) Modification of deductions. A net operating loss is sustained by a corporation in any taxable year if and to the extent that, for such year, there is an excess of deductions allowed by chapter 1 of the Code over gross income computed thereunder. In determining the excess of deductions over gross income for such purpose—
(1) Items not deductible. No deduction shall be allowed under—
(i) Section 172 for the net operating loss deduction, and
(ii) Section 922 in respect of Western Hemisphere trade corporations;
(2) Dividends received. The 85-percent limitation provided by section 246(b) shall not apply to the deductions otherwise allowed under—
(i) Section 243(a) in respect of dividends received from domestic corporations.
(ii) Section 244 in respect of dividends received on preferred stock of public utilities, and
(iii) Section 245 in respect of dividends received from foreign corporations; and
(3) Dividends paid. The deduction granted by section 247 in respect of dividends paid on the preferred stock of public utilities shall be computed without regard to subsection (a)(1)(B) of Section 247.
(b) Example. The following example illustrates the application of paragraph (a):
(c) Qualified real estate investment trusts. For taxable years ending after October 4, 1976, the net operating loss of a qualified real estate investment trust (as defined in § 1.172-10(b)) is computed by taking into account the adjustments described in section 857(b)(2) (other than the deduction for dividends paid, as defined in section 561), as well as the modifications required by paragraph (a)(1) of this section. Thus, for example, the special deductions for dividends received, etc., provided in part VIII of subchapter B (other than section 248), as well as the net operating loss deduction under section 172, are not allowed in computing the net operating loss of a qualified real estate investment trust.
§ 1.172-3   Net operating loss in case of a taxpayer other than a corporation.
(a) Modification of deductions. A net operating loss is sustained by a taxpayer other than a corporation in any taxable year if and to the extent that, for such year there is an excess of deductions allowed by chapter 1 of the Internal Revenue Code over gross income computed thereunder. In determining the excess of deductions over gross income for such purpose:
(1) Items not deductible. No deduction shall be allowed under:
(i) Section 151 for the personal exemptions or under any other section which grants a deduction in lieu of the deductions allowed by section 151,
(ii) Section 172 for the net operating loss deduction, and
(iii) Section 1202 in respect of the net long-term capital gain.
(2) Capital losses. (i) The amount deductible on account of business capital losses shall not exceed the sum of the amount includible on account of business capital gains and that portion of nonbusiness capital gains which is computed in accordance with paragraph (c) of this section.
(ii) The amount deductible on account of nonbusiness capital losses shall not exceed the amount includible on account of nonbusiness capital gains.
(3) Nonbusiness deductions —(i) Ordinary deductions. Ordinary nonbusiness deductions shall be taken into account without regard to the amount of business deductions and shall be allowed in full to the extent, but not in excess, of that amount which is the sum of the ordinary nonbusiness gross income and the excess of nonbusiness capital gains over nonbusiness capital losses. See paragraph (c) of this section. For purposes of section 172, nonbusiness deductions and income are those deductions and that income which are not attributable to, or derived from, a taxpayer's trade or business. Wages and salary constitute income attributable to the taxpayer's trade or business for such purposes.
(ii) Sale of business property. Any gain or loss on the sale or other disposition of property which is used in the taxpayer's trade or business and which is of a character that is subject to the allowance for depreciation provided in section 167, or of real property used in the taxpayer's trade or business, shall be considered, for purposes of section 172(d)(4), as attributable to, or derived from, the taxpayer's trade or business. Such gains and losses are to be taken into account fully in computing a net operating loss without regard to the limitation on nonbusiness deductions. Thus, a farmer who sells at a loss land used in the business of farming may, in computing a net operating loss, include in full the deduction otherwise allowable with respect to such loss, without regard to the amount of his nonbusiness income and without regard to whether he is engaged in the trade or business of selling farms. Similarly, an individual who sells at a loss machinery which is used in his trade or business and which is of a character that is subject to the allowance for depreciation may, in computing the net operating loss, include in full the deduction otherwise allowable with respect to such loss.
(iii) Casualty losses. Any deduction allowable under section 165(c)(3) for losses of property not connected with a trade or business shall not be considered, for purposes of section 172(d)(4), to be a nonbusiness deduction but shall be treated as a deduction attributable to the taxpayer's trade or business.
(iv) Self-employed retirement plans. Any deduction allowed under section 404, relating to contributions of an employer to an employees' trust or annuity plan, or under section 405(c), relating to contributions to a bond purchase plan, to the extent attributable to contributions made on behalf of an individual while he is an employee within the meaning of section 401(c)(1), shall not be treated, for purposes of section 172(d)(4), as attributable to, or derived from, the taxpayer's trade or business, but shall be treated as a nonbusiness deduction.
(v) Limitation. The provisions of this subparagraph shall not be construed to permit the deduction of items disallowed by subparagraph (1) of this paragraph.
(b) Treatment of capital loss carryovers. Because of the distinction between business and nonbusiness capital gains and losses, a taxpayer who has a capital loss carryover from a preceding taxable year, includible by virtue of section 1212 among the capital losses for the taxable year in issue, is required to determine how much of such capital loss carryover is a business capital loss and how much is a nonbusiness capital loss. In order to make this determination, the taxpayer shall first ascertain what proportion of the net capital loss for such preceding taxable year was attributable to an excess of business capital losses over business capital gains for such year, and what proportion was attributable to an excess of nonbusiness capital losses over nonbusiness capital gains. The same proportion of the capital loss carryover from such preceding taxable year shall be treated as a business capital loss and a nonbusiness capital loss, respectively. In order to determine the composition (business—nonbusiness) of a net capital loss for a taxable year, for purposes of this paragraph, if such net capital loss is computed under paragraph (b) of § 1.1212-1 and takes into account a capital loss carryover from a preceding taxable year, the composition (business—nonbusiness) of the net capital loss for such preceding taxable year must also be determined. For purposes of this paragraph, the term capital loss carryover means the sum of the short-term and long-term capital loss carryovers from such year. This paragraph may be illustrated by the following examples:
(ii) A's net capital loss for the taxable year 1954 is $400, computed as follows:
(c) Determination of portion of nonbusiness capital gains available for the deduction of business capital losses. In the computation of a net operating loss a taxpayer other than a corporation must use his nonbusiness capital gains for the deduction of his nonbusiness capital losses. Any amount not necessary for this purpose shall then be used for the deduction of any excess of ordinary nonbusiness deductions over ordinary nonbusiness gross income. The remainder, computed by applying the excess ordinary nonbusiness deductions against the excess nonbusiness capital gains, shall be treated as nonbusiness capital gains and used for the purpose of determining the deductibility of business capital losses under paragraph (a)(2)(i) of this section. This principle may be illustrated by the following example:
(d) Joint net operating loss of husband and wife. In the case of a husband and wife, the joint net operating loss for any taxable year for which a joint return is filed is to be computed on the basis of the combined income and deductions of both spouses, and the modifications prescribed in paragraph (a) of this section are to be computed as if the combined income and deductions of both spouses were the income and deductions of one individual.
(e) Illustration of computation of net operating loss of a taxpayer other than a corporation —(1) Facts. For the calendar year 1954 A, an individual, has gross income of $483,000 and allowable deductions of $540,000. The latter amount does not include the net operating loss deduction or any deduction on account of the sale or exchange of capital assets. Included in gross income are business capital gains of $50,000 and ordinary nonbusiness income of $10,000. Included among the deductions are ordinary nonbusiness deductions of $12,000 and a deduction of $600 for his personal exemption. A has a business capital loss of $60,000 in 1954. A has no other items of income or deductions to which section 172(d) applies.
(2) Computation. On the basis of these facts, A has a net operating loss for 1954 of $104,400, computed as follows:
§ 1.172-4   Net operating loss carrybacks and net operating loss carryovers.
(a) General provisions —(1) Years to which loss may be carried —(i) In general. In order to compute the net operating loss deduction the taxpayer must first determine the part of any net operating losses for any preceding or succeeding taxable years which are carrybacks or carryovers to the taxable year in issue.
(ii) General rule for carrybacks and carryovers. Except as provided in section 172 (b)(1)(C), (D), (E), (F), (G), (H), (I), and (J), paragraphs (a)(1)(iii), (iv), (v), and (vi) of this section, and § 1.172-10(a), a net operating loss shall be carried back to the 3 preceding taxable years and carried over to the 15 succeeding taxable years (5 succeeding taxable years for a loss sustained in a taxable year ending before January 1, 1976).
(iii) Loss of a regulated transportation corporation. Except as provided in subdivision (iv) of this subparagraph and § 1.172-10(a), a net operating loss sustained by a taxpayer which is a regulated transportation corporation (as defined in section 172(g)(1)) in a taxable year ending before January 1, 1976, shall, subject to the provisions of section 172(g) and § 1.172-8, be carried back to the taxable years specified in paragraph (a)(1)(ii) of this section and shall be carried over to the 7 succeeding taxable years.
(iv) Loss attributable to foreign expropriation. If the provisions of section 172(b)(3)(A) and § 1.172-9 are satisfied, the portion of a net operating loss attributable to a foreign expropriation loss (as defined in section 172(h)) shall not be a net operating loss carryback to any taxable year preceding the taxable year of such loss and shall be a net operating loss carryover to each of the 10 taxable years following the taxable year of such loss.
(v) Loss of a financial institution. A net operating loss sustained in a taxable year beginning after December 31, 1975, by a taxpayer to which section 585, 586, or 593 applies shall be carried back (except as provided in § 1.172-10(a)) to the 10 preceding taxable years and shall be carried over to the 5 succeeding taxable years.
(vi) Loss of a Bank for Cooperatives. A net operating loss sustained by a taxpayer which is a Bank for Cooperatives (organized and chartered pursuant to section 2 of the Farm Credit Act of 1933 (12 U.S.C. 1134)) shall be carried back (except as provided in § 1.172-10(a)) to the 10 preceding taxable years and shall be carried over to the 5 succeeding taxable years.
(2) Periods of less than 12 months. A fractional part of a year which is a taxable year under sections 441(b) and 7701(a)(23) is a preceding or a succeeding taxable year for the purpose of determining under section 172 the first, second, etc., preceding or succeeding taxable year.
(3) Amount of loss to be carried. The amount which is carried back or carried over to any taxable year is the net operating loss to the extent it was not absorbed in the computation of the taxable (or net) income for other taxable years, preceding such taxable year, to which it may be carried back or carried over. For the purpose of determining the taxable (or net) income for any such preceding taxable year, the various net operating loss carryovers and carrybacks to such taxable year are considered to be applied in reduction of the taxable (or net) income in the order of the taxable years from which such losses are carried over or carried back, beginning with the loss for the earliest taxable year.
(4) Husband and wife. The net operating loss carryovers and carrybacks of a husband and wife shall be determined in accordance with this section, but subject also to the provisions of § 1.172-7.
(5) Corporate acquisitions. For the computation of the net operating loss carryovers in the case of certain acquisitions of the assets of a corporation by another corporation, see section 381 and the regulations thereunder.
(6) Special limitations. For special limitations on the net operating loss carryovers in certain cases of change in both the ownership and the trade or business of a corporation and in certain cases of corporate reorganization lacking specified continuity of ownership, see section 382 and the regulations thereunder.
(7) Electing small business corporations. For special rule applicable to corporations which were electing small business corporations under Subchapter S (section 1361 and following), chapter 1 of the Code, during one or more of the taxable years described in section 172 (b)(1), see paragraph (f) of § 1.172-1.
(b) Portion of net operating loss which is a carryback or a carryover to the taxable year in issue. (1) A net operating loss shall first be carried to the earliest of the several taxable years for which such loss is allowable as a carryback or a carryover, and shall then be carried to the next earliest of such several taxable years, etc. Except as provided in § 1.172-9, the entire net operating loss shall be carried back to such earliest year.
(2) The portion of the loss which shall be carried to any of such several taxable years subsequent to the earliest taxable year is the excess of such net operating loss over the sum of the taxable incomes (computed as provided in § 1.172-5) for all of such several taxable years preceding such subsequent taxable year.
(3) If a portion of the net operating loss for a taxable year is attributable to a foreign expropriation loss (as defined in section 172(h)) and if an election under paragraph (c) of § 1.172-9 is made with respect to such portion of the net operating loss, then see § 1.172-9 for the separate treatment of such portion of the net operating loss.
(c) Illustration. The principles of this section are illustrated in § 1.172-6.
§ 1.172-5   Taxable income which is subtracted from net operating loss to determine carryback or carryover.
(a) Taxable year subject to the Internal Revenue Code of 1954. The taxable income for any taxable year subject to the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 which is subtracted from the net operating loss for any other taxable year to determine the portion of such net operating loss which is a carryback or a carryover to a particular taxable year is computed with the modifications prescribed in this paragraph. These modifications shall be made independently of, and without reference to, the modifications required by §§ 1.172-2(a) and 1.172-3(a) for purposes of computing the net operating loss itself.
(1) Modifications applicable to unincorporated taxpayers only. In the case of a taxpayer other than a corporation, in computing taxable income and adjusted gross income:
(i) No deduction shall be allowed under section 151 for the personal exemptions (or under any other section which grants a deduction in lieu of the deductions allowed by section 151) and under section 1202 in respect of the net long-term capital gain.
(ii) The amount deductible on account of losses from sales or exchanges of capital assets shall not exceed the amount includible on account of gains from sales or exchanges of capital assets.
(2) Modifications applicable to all taxpayers. In the case either of a corporation or of a taxpayer other than a corporation:
(i) Net operating loss deduction. The net operating loss deduction for such taxable year shall be computed by taking into account only such net operating losses otherwise allowable as carrybacks or carryovers to such taxable year as were sustained in taxable years preceding the taxable year in which the taxpayer sustained the net operating loss from which the taxable income is to be deducted. Thus, for such purposes, the net operating loss for the loss year or any taxable year thereafter shall not be taken into account.
(ii) Recomputation of percentage limitations. Unless otherwise specifically provided in this subchapter, any deduction which is limited in amount to a percentage of the taxpayer's taxable income or adjusted gross income shall be recomputed upon the basis of the taxable income or adjusted gross income, as the case may be, determined with the modifications prescribed in this paragraph. Thus, in the case of an individual the deduction for medical expenses would be recomputed after making all the modifications prescribed in this paragraph, whereas the deduction for charitable contributions would be determined without regard to any net operating loss carryback but with regard to any other modifications so prescribed. See, however, the regulations under paragraph (g) of § 1.170-2 (relating to charitable contributions carryover of individuals) and paragraph (c) of § 1.170-3 (relating to charitable contributions carryover of corporations) for special rules regarding charitable contributions in excess of the percentage limitations which may be treated as paid in succeeding taxable years.
(iii) Minimum limitation. The taxable income, as modified under this paragraph, shall in no case be considered less than zero.
(3) Electing small business corporations. For special rule applicable to corporations which were electing small business corporations under Subchapter S (section 1361 and following), Chapter 1 of the Code, during one or more of the taxable years described in section 172(b)(1), see paragraph (f) of § 1.172-1.
(4) Qualified real estate investment trust. Where a net operating loss is carried over to a qualified taxable year (as defined in § 1.172-10(b)) ending after October 4, 1976, the real estate investment trust taxable income (as defined in section 857(b)(2)) shall be used as the “taxable income” for that taxable year to determine, under section 172(b)(2), the balance of the net operating loss available as a carryover to a subsequent taxable year. The real estate investment trust taxable income, however, is computed by applying the rules applicable to corporations in paragraph (a)(2) of this section. Thus, in computing real estate investment trust taxable income for purposes of section 172(b)(2), the net operating loss deduction for the taxable year shall be computed in accordance with paragraph (a)(2)(i) of this section. The principles of this subparagraph may be illustrated by the following examples:
(ii) X designated $50,000 of the $120,000 of dividends paid as capital gains dividends (as defined in section 857(b)(3)(C) and § 1.857-6(e)). Thus, $70,000 is an ordinary dividend. Since both ordinary dividends and capital gains dividends are taken into account in computing the deduction for dividends paid under section 857(b)(2)(B), the result will be the same as in Example 1; that is, the portion of the 1977 net operating loss available as a carryover to 1979 and subsequent years is $70,000.
(b) [Reserved]
§ 1.172-6   Illustration of net operating loss carrybacks and carryovers.
The application of § 1.172-4 may be illustrated by the following example:
(a) Facts. The books of the taxpayer, whose return is made on the basis of the calendar year, reveal the following facts:
(b) Loss sustained in 1956. The portions of the $75,000 net operating loss for 1956 which shall be used as carrybacks to 1954 and 1955 and as carryovers to 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, and 1961 are computed as follows:
(1) Carryback to 1954. The carryback to this year is $75,000, that is, the amount of the net operating loss.
(2) Carryback to 1955. The carryback to this year is $60,000, computed as follows:
(3) Carryover to 1957. The carryover to this year is $30,000, computed as follows:
(4) Carryover to 1958. The carryover to this year is $10,000, computed as follows:
(5) Carryover to 1959. The carryover to this year is $10,000, computed as follows:
(6) Carryover to 1960. The carryover to this year is $0, computed as follows:
(7) Carryover to 1961. The carryover to this year is $0, computed as follows:
(c) Loss sustained in 1958. The portions of the $150,000 net operating loss for 1958 which shall be used as carrybacks to 1955, 1956, and 1957 and as carryovers to 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, and 1963 are computed as follows:
(1) Carryback to 1955. The carryback to this year is $150,000, that is, the amount of the net operating loss.
(2) Carryback to 1956. The carryback to this year is $150,000, computed as follows:
(3) Carryback to 1957. The carryback to this year is $150,000, computed as follows:
(4) Carryover to 1959. The carryover to this year is $150,000, computed as follows:
(5) Carryover to 1960. The carryover to this year is $130,000, computed as follows:
(6) Carryover to 1961. The carryover to this year is $95,000, computed as follows:
(7) Carryover to 1962. The carryover to this year is $20,000, computed as follows:
(8) Carryover to 1963. The carryover to this year is $3,000, computed as follows:
(d) Determination of net operating loss deduction for each year. The carryovers and carrybacks computed under paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section are used as a basis for the computation of the net operating loss deduction in the following manner:
§ 1.172-7   Joint return by husband and wife.
(a) In general. This section prescribes additional rules for computing the net operating loss carrybacks and carryovers of a husband and wife making a joint return for one or more of the taxable years involved in the computation of the net operating loss deduction.
(b) From separate to joint return. If a husband and wife, making a joint return for any taxable year, did not make a joint return for any of the taxable years involved in the computation of a net operating loss carryover or a net operating loss carryback to the taxable year for which the joint return is made, such separate net operating loss carryover or separate net operating loss carryback is a joint net operating loss carryover or joint net operating loss carryback to such taxable year.
(c) Continuous use of joint return. If a husband and wife making a joint return for a taxable year made a joint return for each of the taxable years involved in the computation of a net operating loss carryover or net operating loss carryback to such taxable year, the joint net operating loss carryover or joint net operating loss carryback to such taxable year is computed in the same manner as the net operating loss carryover or net operating loss carryback of an individual under § 1.172-4 but upon the basis of the joint net operating losses and the combined taxable income of both spouses.
(d) From joint to separate return. If a husband and wife making separate returns for a taxable year made a joint return for any, or all, of the taxable years involved in the computation of a net operating loss carryover or net operating loss carryback to such taxable year, the separate net operating loss carryover or separate net operating loss carryback of each spouse to the taxable year is computed in the manner set forth in § 1.172-4 but with the following modifications:
(1) Net operating loss. The net operating loss of each spouse for a taxable year for which a joint return was made shall be deemed to be that portion of the joint net operating loss (computed in accordance with paragraph (d) of § 1.172-3) which is attributable to the gross income and deductions of such spouse, gross income and deductions being taken into account to the same extent that they are taken into account in computing the joint net operating loss.
(2) Taxable income to be subtracted —(i) Net operating loss of other spouse. The taxable income of a particular spouse for any taxable year which is subtracted from the net operating loss of such spouse for another taxable year in order to determine the amount of such loss which may be carried back or carried over to still another taxable year is deemed to be, in a case in which such taxable income was reported in a joint return, the sum of the following:
( a ) That portion of the combined taxable income of both spouses for such year for which the joint return was made which is attributable to the gross income and deductions of the particular spouse, gross income and deductions being taken into account to the same extent that they are taken into account in computing such combined taxable income, and
( b ) That portion of such combined taxable income which is attributable to the other spouse; but, if such other spouse sustained a net operating loss in a taxable year beginning on the same date as the taxable year in which the particular spouse sustained the net operating loss from which the taxable income is subtracted, then such portion shall first be reduced by such net operating loss of such other spouse.
(ii) Modifications. For purposes of this subparagraph, the combined taxable income shall be computed as though the combined income and deductions of both spouses were those of one individual. The provisions of § 1.172-5 shall apply in computing the combined taxable income for such purposes except that the net operating loss deduction shall be determined without taking into account any separate net operating loss of either spouse, or any joint net operating loss of both spouses, which was sustained in a taxable year beginning on or after the date of the beginning of the taxable year in which the particular spouse sustained the net operating loss from which the taxable income is subtracted.
(e) Recurrent use of joint return. If a husband and wife making a joint return for any taxable year made a joint return for one or more, but not all, of the taxable years involved in the computation of a net operating loss carryover or net operating loss carryback to such taxable year, such net operating loss carryover or net operating loss carryback to the taxable year is computed in the manner set forth in paragraph (d) of this section. Such net operating loss carryover or net operating loss carryback is considered a joint net operating loss carryover or joint net operating loss carryback to such taxable year.
(f) Joint carryovers and carrybacks. The joint net operating loss carryovers and the joint net operating loss carrybacks to any taxable year for which a joint return is made are all the net operating loss carryovers and net operating loss carrybacks of both spouses to such taxable year. For example, a husband and wife file a joint return for the calendar year 1956, having a joint taxable income for such year. The wife filed a separate return for the calendar years 1954 and 1955, in which years she sustained net operating losses. The husband filed separate returns for his fiscal year ending June 30, 1955, and, having received permission to change his accounting period to a calendar year basis, for the 6-month period ending December 31, 1955. The husband sustained net operating losses in both such taxable years. Since the husband and wife did not file a joint return for any taxable year involved in the computation of the net operating loss carryovers to 1956 from 1954 and 1955, the joint net operating loss carryovers to 1956 are the separate net operating loss carryovers of the wife from the calendar years 1954 and 1955 and the separate net operating loss carryovers of the husband from the fiscal year ending June 30, 1955, and from the short taxable year ending December 31, 1955. If the husband and wife also file joint returns for the calendar years 1957, 1958, and 1959, having joint taxable income in 1957 and 1958 and a joint net operating loss in 1959, the joint net operating loss carrybacks to 1956, 1957, and 1958 from 1959 are computed on the basis of the joint net operating loss for 1959, since separate returns were not made for any taxable year involved in the computation of such carrybacks.
(g) Illustration of principles. In the following examples, which illustrate the application of this section, it is assumed that there are no items of adjustment under section 172(b)(2)(A) and that the taxable income or loss in each case is the taxable income or loss determined without any net operating loss deduction. The taxpayers in each example, H, a husband, and W, his wife, report their income on the calendar-year basis.
(iii) The combined taxable income of $9,500 for 1956 is reduced to $1,000 by the net operating loss deduction for such year of $8,500. This net operating loss deduction is computed without taking into account any net operating loss of either H or W sustained in a taxable year beginning on or after January 1, 1957, the date of the beginning of the taxable year in which H sustained the net operating loss from which the taxable income is subtracted. This $8,500 is composed of H's carryovers of $5,000 from 1954 and $2,500 from 1955, and of W's carryover of $1,000 from 1954 (the excess of W's $3,000 loss for 1954 over her $2,000 income for 1955). None of the $1,000 combined taxable income for 1956 (computed with the net operating loss deduction described above) is attributable to H since it is caused by W's income (computed after deducting her separate carryover) offsetting H's loss (computed by deducting from his income his separate carryovers). No part of the $1,000 combined taxable income for 1956 which is attributable to W is used to reduce H's net operating loss for 1957 since such taxable income attributable to W must first be reduced by W's $1,500 net operating loss for 1957, her taxable year beginning on the same date as the taxable year of H in which he sustained the net operating loss from which the taxable income is subtracted.
(iv) The net operating loss carryover of W from 1957 to 1958 is $500, her $1,500 loss reduced by the sum of her $0 taxable income for 1955 (computed by taking into account her $3,000 carryover from 1954) and her $1,000 taxable income for 1956, that is, the portion of the combined taxable income for 1956 which is attributable to her.
(ii) The net operating loss carryover of H from 1957 to 1958 is $3,200, that is, his $4,000 net operating loss for 1957 reduced by the sum of his $0 taxable income for 1955 (a year in which he sustained a loss) and his $800 taxable income for 1956. Such $800 is computed as follows:
(iii) The combined taxable income for 1956, computed with the net operating loss deduction in the manner described in Example 2, remains $1,000, no part of which is attributable to H. To the $0 taxable income attributable to H for 1956 there is added $800, the excess of the $1,000 taxable income for such year attributable to W over her $200 net operating loss sustained in 1957, a taxable year beginning on the same date as the taxable year of H in which he sustained the $4,000 net operating loss from which the taxable income is subtracted.
(iv) W has no net operating loss carryover from 1957 to 1958 since her net operating loss of $200 for 1957 does not exceed the $1,000 taxable income for 1956 attributable to her.
(ii) The net operating loss carryover of H from 1957 to 1958 is $3,000, that is, his net operating loss of $4,000 for 1957 reduced by the sum of his $0 taxable income for 1955 (a year in which he sustained a loss) and his $1,000 taxable income for 1956. Such $1,000 is computed as follows:
(iii) The combined taxable income for 1956, computed with the net operating loss deduction in the manner described in Example 2, remains $1,000, no part of which is attributable to H. To the $0 taxable income attributable to H for 1956 there is added the $1,000 taxable income attributable to W for such year. The taxable income attributable to W is not reduced by any amount since she does not have a net operating loss for her taxable year beginning on January 1, 1957, the date of the beginning of the taxable year of H in which he sustained the $4,000 net operating loss from which his taxable income is subtracted.
(iv) The net operating loss carryover of W from the fiscal year beginning February 1, 1958, to her next fiscal year is $200, that is, her net operating loss of $200 for the fiscal year beginning February 1, 1958, reduced by the sum of her $0 taxable income for 1956, her $0 taxable income for the taxable year January 1, 1957, to January 31, 1957 (a year in which she had neither income nor loss), and her $0 taxable income for the fiscal year February 1, 1957, to January 31, 1958 (also a year in which she had neither income nor loss). The $0 taxable income for 1956 is computed as follows:
(v) The combined taxable income of $9,500 for 1956 is reduced to $0 amount by the net operating loss deduction for such year of $12,500. This net operating loss deduction is computed by taking into account the net operating loss of H for 1957 since it was sustained in a taxable year beginning before February 1, 1958, the date of the beginning of the taxable year of W in which she sustained the $200 net operating loss from which her taxable income is subtracted. This $12,500 is composed of H's carryovers of $5,000 from 1954 and $2,500 from 1955 and of his carryback of $4,000 from 1957, plus W's carryover of $1,000 from 1954 (the excess of W's $3,000 loss for 1954 over her $2,000 income for 1955). Since there is no combined taxable income for 1956, there is no taxable income attributable to W for such year.
§ 1.172-8   Net operating loss carryovers for regulated transportation corporations.
(a) In general. A net operating loss sustained in a taxable year ending before January 1, 1976, shall be a carryover to the 7 succeeding taxable years if the taxpayer is a regulated transportation corporation (as defined in paragraph (b) of this section) for the loss year and for the 6th and 7th succeeding taxable years. If, however, the taxpayer is a regulated transportation corporation for the loss year and for the 6th succeeding taxable year, but not for the 7th succeeding taxable year, then the loss shall be a carryover to the 6 succeeding taxable years. If the taxpayer is not a regulated transportation corporation for the 6th succeeding taxable year then this section shall not apply. A net operating loss sustained in a taxable year ending after December 31, 1975, shall be a carryover to the 15 succeeding taxable years.
(b) Regulated transportation corporations. A corporation is a regulated transportation corporation for a taxable year if it is included within one or more of the following categories:
(1) Eighty percent or more of the corporation's gross income (computed without regard to dividends and capital gains and losses) for such taxable year is income from transportation sources described in paragraph (c) of this section.
(2) The corporation is a railroad corporation, subject to Part I of the Interstate Commerce Act, which is either a lessor railroad corporation described in section 7701(a)(33)(G) or a common parent railroad corporation described in section 7701(a)(33)(H).
(3) The corporation is a member of a regulated transportation system for the taxable year. For purposes of this section, a member of a regulated transportation system for a taxable year means a member of an affiliated group of corporations making a consolidated return for such year, if 80 percent or more of the sum of the gross incomes of the members of the affiliated group for such year (computed without regard to dividends, capital gains and losses, or eliminations for intercompany transactions) is derived from transportation sources described in paragraph (c) of this section. For purposes of this subparagraph, income derived by a corporation described in subparagraph (2) of this paragraph from leases described in section 7701(a)(33)(G) shall be considered as income from transportation sources described in paragraph (c) of this section.
(c) Transportation sources. For purposes of this section, income from “transportation sources” means income received directly in consideration for transportation services, and income from the furnishing or sale of essential facilities, products, and other services which are directly necessary and incidental to the furnishing of transportation services. For purposes of the preceding sentence, the term transportation services means:
(1) Transportation by railroad as a common carrier subject to the jurisdiction of the Interstate Commerce Commission;
(2)(i) Transportation, which is not included in subparagraph (1) of this paragraph:
( a ) On an intrastate, suburban, municipal, or interurban electric railroad,
( b ) On an intrastate, municipal, or suburban trackless trolley system,
( c ) On a municipal or suburban bus system, or
( d ) By motor vehicle not otherwise included in this subparagraph, if the rates for the furnishing or sale of such transportation are established or approved by a regulatory body described in section 7701(a)(33)(A);
(ii) In the case of a corporation which establishes to the satisfaction of the district director that:
( a ) Its revenue from regulated rates from transportation services described in subdivision (i) of this subparagraph and its revenue derived from unregulated rates are derived from its operation of a single interconnected and coordinated system or from the operation of more than one such system, and
( b ) The unregulated rates have been and are substantially as favorable to users and consumers as are the regulated rates, transportation, which is not included in subparagraph (1) of this paragraph, from which such revenue from unregulated rates is derived.
(3) Transportation by air as a common carrier subject to the jurisdiction of the Civil Aeronautics Board; and
(4) Transportation by water by common carrier subject to the jurisdiction of either the Interstate Commerce Commission under Part III of the Interstate Commerce Act (54 Stat. 929), or the Federal Maritime Board under the Intercoastal Shipping Act, 1933 (52 Stat. 965).
(d) Corporate acquisitions. This section shall apply to a carryover of a net operating loss sustained by a regulated transportation corporation (as defined in paragraph (b) of this section) to which an acquiring corporation succeeds under section 381(a) only if the acquiring corporation is a regulated transportation corporation (as defined in paragraph (b) of this section):
(1) For the sixth succeeding taxable year in the case of a carryover to the sixth succeeding taxable year, and
(2) For the sixth and seventh succeeding taxable years in the case of a carryover to the seventh succeeding taxable year.
§ 1.172-9   Election with respect to portion of net operating loss attributable to foreign expropriation loss.
(a) In general. If a taxpayer has a net operating loss for a taxable year ending after December 31, 1958, and if the foreign expropriation loss for such year (as defined in paragraph (b)(1) of this section) equals or exceeds 50 percent of the net operating loss for such year, then the taxpayer may elect (at the time and in the manner provided in paragraph (c) (1) or (2) of this section, whichever is applicable) to have the provisions of this section apply. If the taxpayer so elects, the portion of the net operating loss for such taxable year attributable (under paragraph (b)(2) of this section) to such foreign expropriation loss shall not be a net operating loss carryback to any taxable year preceding the taxable year of such loss and shall be a net operating loss carryover to each of the ten taxable years following the taxable year of such loss. In such case, the portion, if any, of the net operating loss not attributable to a foreign expropriation loss shall be carried back or carried over as provided in paragraph (a)(1)(ii) of § 1.172-4.
(b) Determination of “foreign expropriation loss” —(1) Definition of “foreign expropriation loss”. The term foreign expropriation loss means, for any taxable year, the sum of the losses allowable as deductions under section 165 (other than losses from, or which under section 165(g) or 1231(a) are treated or considered as losses from, sales or exchanges of capital assets and other than losses described in section 165(i)(1)) sustained by reason of the expropriation, intervention, seizure, or similar taking of property by the government or any foreign country, any political subdivision thereof, or any agency or instrumentality of the foregoing. For purposes of the preceding sentence, a debt which becomes worthless in whole or in part, shall, to the extent of any deduction allowed under section 166(a), be treated as a loss allowable as a deduction under section 165.
(2) Portion of the net operating loss attributable to a foreign expropriation loss. (i) Except as provided in subdivision (ii) of this subparagraph, the portion of the net operating loss for any taxable year attributable to a foreign expropriation loss is the amount of the foreign expropriation loss for such taxable year (determined under subparagraph (1) of this paragraph).
(ii) The portion of the net operating loss for a taxable year attributable to a foreign expropriation loss shall not exceed the amount of the net operating loss, computed under section 172(c), for such year.
(3) Examples. The application of this paragraph may be illustrated by the following examples:
(c) Time and manner of making election —(1) Taxable years ending after December 31, 1963. In the case of a taxpayer who has a foreign expropriation loss for a taxable year ending after December 31, 1963, the election referred to in paragraph (a) of this section shall be made by attaching to the taxpayer's income tax return (filed within the time prescribed by law, including extensions of time) for the taxable year of such foreign expropriation loss a statement containing the information required by subparagraph (3) of this paragraph. Such election shall be irrevocable after the due date (including extensions of time) of such return.
(2) Information required. The statement referred to in subparagraph (1) of this paragraph shall contain the following information:
(i) The name, address, and taxpayer account number of the taxpayer;
(ii) A statement that the taxpayer elects under section 172(b)(3)(A)(ii) or (iii), whichever is applicable, to have section 172(b)(1)(D) of the Code apply;
(iii) The amount of the net operating loss for the taxable year; and
(iv) The amount of the foreign expropriation loss for the taxable year, including a schedule showing the computation of such foreign expropriation loss.
(d) Amount of foreign expropriation loss which is a carryover to the taxable year in issue —(1) General. If a portion of a net operating loss for the taxable year is attributable to a foreign expropriation loss and if an election under paragraph (a) of this section has been made with respect to such portion of the net operating loss, then such portion shall be considered to be a separate net operating loss for such year, and, for the purpose of determining the amount of such separate loss which may be carried over to other taxable years, such portion shall be applied after the other portion (if any) of such net operating loss. Such separate loss shall be carried to the earliest of the several taxable years to which such separate loss is allowable as a carryover under the provisions of paragraph (a)(1)(iv) of § 1.172-4, and the amount of such separate loss which shall be carried over to any taxable year subsequent to such earliest year is an amount (not exceeding such separate loss) equal to the excess of:
(i) The sum of ( a ) such separate loss and ( b ) the other portion (if any) of the net operating loss (i.e., that portion not attributable to a foreign expropriation loss) to the extent such other portion is a carryover to such earliest taxable year, over
(ii) The sum of the aggregate of the taxable incomes (computed as provided in § 1.172-5) for all of such several taxable years preceding such subsequent taxable year.
(2) Cross reference. The portion of a net operating loss which is not attributable to a foreign expropriation loss shall be carried back or carried over, in accordance with the rules provided in paragraph (b)(1) of § 1.172-4, as if such portion were the only net operating loss for such year.
(3) Examples. The application of this paragraph may be illustrated by the following examples:
(e) Taxable income which is subtracted from net operating loss to determine carryback or carryover. In computing taxable income for a taxable year (hereinafter called a “prior taxable year”) for the purpose of determining the portion of a net operating loss for another taxable year which shall be carried to each of the several taxable years subsequent to the earliest taxable year to which such loss may be carried, the net operating loss deduction for any such prior taxable year shall be determined without regard to that portion, if any, of a net operating loss for a taxable year attributable to a foreign expropriation loss, if such portion may not, under the provisions of section 172(b)(1)(D) and paragraph (a)(1)(iv) of § 1.172-4, be carried back to such prior taxable year. Thus, if the taxpayer has a foreign expropriation loss for 1962 and elects the 10-year carryover with respect to the portion of his net operating loss for 1962 attributable to the foreign expropriation loss, then in computing taxable income for the year 1960 for the purpose of determining the portion of a net operating loss for 1963 which is carried to years subsequent to 1960, the net operating loss deduction for 1960 is determined without regard to the portion of the net operating loss for 1962 attributable to the foreign expropriation loss, since under the provisions of section 172(b)(1)(D) and paragraph (a)(1)(iv) of § 1.172-4 such portion of the net operating loss for 1962 may not be carried back to 1960.
§ 1.172-10   Net operating losses of real estate investment trusts.
(a) Taxable years to which a loss may be carried. (1) A net operating loss sustained by a qualified real estate investment trust (as defined in paragraph (b)(1) of this section) in a qualified taxable year (as defined in paragraph (b)(2) of this section) ending after October 4, 1976, shall not be carried back to a preceding taxable year.
(2) A net operating loss sustained by a qualified real estate investment trust in a qualified taxable year ending before October 5, 1976, shall be carried back to the 3 preceding taxable years. However, see § 1.857-2(a)(5), which does not allow the net operating loss deduction in computing real estate investment trust taxable income for taxable years ending before October 5, 1976.
(3) A net operating loss sustained by a qualified real estate investment trust in a qualified taxable year ending after December 31, 1972, shall be carried over to the 15 succeeding taxable years. However, see § 1.857-2(a)(5).
(4) A net operating loss sustained by a qualified real estate investment trust in a qualified taxable year ending before January 1, 1973, shall be carried over to 8 succeeding taxable years. However, see § 1.857-2(a)(5).
(5) A net operating loss sustained in a taxable year for which the taxpayer is not a qualified real estate investment trust generally may be carried back to the 3 preceding taxable years; however, a net operating loss sustained in a taxable year ending after December 31, 1975, shall not be carried back to any qualified taxable year. However, see § 1.857-2(a)(5), with respect to a net operating loss sustained in a taxable year ending before January 1, 1976.
(6) A net operating loss sustained in a taxable year ending after December 31, 1975, for which the taxpayer is not a qualified real estate investment trust generally may be carried over to the 15 succeeding taxable years.
(7)(i) A net operating loss sustained in a taxable year ending before January 1, 1986, for which the taxpayer is not a qualified real estate investment trust generally may be a net operating loss carryover to each of the 5 succeeding taxable years. However, where the loss was a net operating loss carryback to one or more qualified taxable years, the net operating loss, in accordance with paragraph (a)(7)(ii) of this section shall be—
(A) Carried over to the 15 succeeding taxable years if the loss could be a net operating loss carryover to a taxable year ending in 1981, or
(B) Carried over to the 5, 6, 7, or 8 succeeding taxable years if paragraph (a)(7)(i)(A) of this section does not apply.
(ii) For purposes of determining whether a net operating loss could be a carryover to a taxable year ending in 1981 under paragraph (a)(7)(i)(A) of this section or, where paragraph (a)(7)(i)(A) of this section does not apply, to determine the actual carryover period under paragraph (a)(7)(i)(B) of this section, the net operating loss shall have a carryover period of 5 years, and such period shall be increased (to a number not greater than 8) by the number of qualified taxable years to which such loss was a net operating loss carryback; however, where the taxpayer acted so as to cause itself to cease to be a qualified real estate investment trust and the principal purpose for such action was to secure the benefit of the allowance of a net operating loss carryover under section 172(b)(1)(B), the net operating loss carryover period shall be limited to 5 years. However, see § 1.857-2(a)(5).
(8) A qualified taxable year is a taxable year preceding or following the taxable year of the net operating loss, for purposes of section 172(b)(1), even though the loss may not be carried to, or allowed as a deduction in, such qualified taxable year. Thus, a qualified taxable year ending before October 5, 1976 (for which no net operating loss deduction is allowable) is nevertheless a preceding or following taxable year for purposes of section 172(b)(1). Moreover, a qualified taxable year ending after October 4, 1976 (to which a net operating loss cannot be carried back because of section 172(b)(1)(E)) is nevertheless a preceding taxable year for purposes of section 172(b)(1). For purposes of determining, under section 172(b)(2), the balance of the loss available as a carryback or carryover to other taxable years, however, the net operating loss is not reduced on account of such qualified taxable year being a preceding or following taxable year.
(b) Definitions. For purposes of this section and §§ 1.172-2 and 1.172-5:
(1) The term qualified real estate investment trust means, with respect to any taxable year, a real estate investment trust within the meaning of part II of subchapter M which is taxable for such year under that part as a real estate investment trust, and
(2) The term qualified taxable year means a taxable year for which the taxpayer is a qualified real estate investment trust.
(c) Examples. The provisions of this section may be illustrated by the following examples:
(ii) Applicable carryback and carryover periods. The net operating loss must be carried back to the 3 preceding taxable years. Under § 1.857-2 (a)(5) the net operating loss deduction shall not be allowed in computing real estate investment trust taxable income for the years ending December 31, 1972, and December 31, 1973. Where a net operating loss is sustained in a taxable year ending before January 1, 1976, for which the taxpayer is not a qualified real estate investment trust and the loss is a net operating loss carryback to one or more qualified taxable years, the carryover period is determined under § 1.172-10 (a)(7); the carryover period is determined by first applying the rule provided in paragraph (a)(7)(ii) of this section to obtain the carryover period for purposes of determining whether the net operating loss could have been a net operating loss carryover to a taxable year ending in 1981. Under these facts, paragraph (a)(7)(ii) of this section provides for a 7-year carryover period (5 years increased by the 2 qualified taxable years to which the loss was a net operating loss carryback); therefore, since the carryover period provided for by paragraph (a)(7)(ii) of this section would allow the net operating loss to be a net operating loss carryover to a taxable year ending in 1981, under paragraph (a)(7)(ii)(A) of this section the applicable carryover period is 15 years (provided that X did not act so as to cause itself to cease to qualify as a real estate investment trust for the principal purpose of securing the benefit of a net operating loss carryover under section 172 (b)(1)(B)).
(ii) Applicable carryback and carryover periods. The net operating loss must be carried back to the 3 preceding taxable years. Section 1.857-2 (a)(5) provides that the net operating loss deduction shall not be allowed in computing real estate investment trust taxable income for the year ending December 31, 1972. Under these facts the carryover period is determined under § 1.172-10 (a)(7). Paragraph (a)(7)(ii) of this section provides for a 6 year carryover period (5 years increased by the 1 qualified taxable year to which the loss was a net operating loss carryback); therefore, since a 6 year carryover period would not allow the net operating loss to be a net operating loss carryover to a taxable year ending in 1981, paragraph (a)(7)(i)(A) of this section does not apply. Where the rule stated in paragraph (a)(7)(i)(A) of this section does not apply, paragraph (a)(7)(i)(B) of this section provides that the applicable carryover period is the carryover period determined under paragraph (a)(7)(ii) of this section, which, in this case, is 6 years (provided that the principal purpose for X acting so as to cause itself to cease to qualify as a real estate investment trust was not to secure the benefit of the allowance of a net operating loss carryover under section 172 (b)(1)(B)).
(d) Cross references. See §§ 1.172-2(c) and 1.172-5(a)(5) for the computation of the net operating loss of a qualified real estate investment trust for a taxable year ending after October 4, 1976, and the amount of a net operating loss which is absorbed when carried over to a qualified taxable year ending after October 4, 1976. See § 1.857-2(a)(5), which provides that for a taxable year ending before October 5, 1976, the net operating loss deduction is not allowed in computing the real estate investment trust taxable income of a qualified real estate investment trust.
§ 1.172-13   Product liability losses.
(a) Entitlement to 10-year carryback —(1) In general. Unless an election is made pursuant to paragraph (c) of this section, in the case of a taxpayer which has a product liability loss (as defined in section 172(j) and paragraph (b)(1) of this section) for a taxable year beginning after September 30, 1979 (hereinafter “loss year”), the product liability loss shall be a net operating loss carryback to each of the 10 taxable years preceding the loss year.
(2) Years to which loss may be carried. A product liability loss shall first be carried to the earliest of the taxable years to which such loss is allowable as a carryback and shall then be carried to the next earliest of such taxable years, etc.
(3) Example. The application of this paragraph may be illustrated as follows:
(b) Definitions —(1) Product liability loss. The term product liability loss means, for any taxable year, the lesser of—
(i) The net operating loss for the current taxable year (not including the portion of such net operating loss attributable to foreign expropriation losses, as defined in § 1.172-11), or
(ii) The total of the amounts allowable as deductions under sections 162 and 165 directly attributable to—
(A) Product liability (as defined in paragraph (b)(2) of this section), and
(B) Expenses (including settlement payments) incurred in connection with the investigation or settlement of or opposition to claims against the taxpayer on account of alleged product liability.
(2) Product liability. (i) The term product liability means the liability of a taxpayer for damages resulting from physical injury or emotional harm to individuals, or damage to or loss of the use of property, on account of any defect in any product which is manufactured, leased, or sold by the taxpayer. The preceding sentence applies only to the extent that the injury, harm, or damage occurs after the taxpayer has completed or terminated operations with respect to the product, including, but not limited to the manufacture, installation, delivery, or testing of the product, and has relinquished possession of such product.
(ii) The term product liability does not include liabilities arising under warranty theories relating to repair or replacement of the property that are essentially contract liabilities. For example, the costs incurred by a taxpayer in repairing or replacing defective products under the terms of a warranty, express or implied, are not product liability losses. On the other hand, the taxpayer's liability for damage done to other property or for harm done to persons that is attributable to a defective product may be product liability losses regardless of whether the claim sounds in tort or contract. Further, liability incurred as a result of services performed by a taxpayer is not product liability. For purposes of the preceding sentence, where both a product and services are integral parts of a transaction, product liability does not arise until all operations with respect to the product are completed and the taxpayer has relinquished possession of it. On the other hand, any liability that arises after completion of the initial delivery, installation, servicing, testing, etc., is considered “product liability” even if such liability arises during the subsequent servicing of the product pursuant to a service agreement or otherwise.
(iii) Liability for injury, harm, or damage due to a defective product as described in this subparagraph shall be “product liability” notwithstanding that the liability is not considered product liability under the law of the State in which such liability arose.
(iv) Amounts paid for insurance against product liability risks are not paid on account of product liability.
(v) Notwithstanding subparagraph (iv), an amount is paid on account of product liability (even if such amount is paid to an insurance company) if the amount satisifies the provisions of paragraph (b)(2) (i) through (iii) of this section and the amount—
(A) Is paid on account of specific claims against the taxpayer (or on account of expenses incurred in connection with the investigation or settlement of or opposition to such claims), subsequent to the events giving rise to the claims and pursuant to a contract entered into before those events,
(B) Is not refundable, and
(C) Is not applicable to other claims, other expenses or to subsequent coverage.
(3) Examples. Paragraph (b)(2) of this section is illustrated by the following examples:
(c) Election —(1) In general. The 10-year carryback provision of this section applies, except as provided in this paragraph, to any taxpayer who, for a taxable year beginning after September 30, 1979, incurs a product liability loss. Any taxpayer entitled to a 10-year carryback under paragraph (a) of this section in any loss year may elect (at the time and in the manner provided in paragraph (c)(2) of this section) to have the carryback period with respect to the product liability loss determined without regard to the carryback rules provided by paragraph (a) of this section. If the taxpayer so elects, the product liability loss shall not be carried back to the 10th through the 4th taxable years preceding the loss year. In such case, the product liability loss shall be carried back or carried over as provided by section 172(b) (except subparagraph (1)(I) thereof) and the regulations thereunder.
(2) Time and manner of making election. An election by any taxpayer entitled to the 10-year carryback for the product liability loss to have the carryback with respect to such loss determined without regard to the 10-year carryback provision of paragraph (a) of this section must be made by attaching to the taxpayer's tax return (filed within the time prescribed by law, including extensions of time) for the taxable year in which such product liability loss is sustained, a statement containing the information required by paragraph (c)(3) of this section. Such election, once made for any taxable year, shall be irrevocable after the due date (including extensions of time) of the taxpayer's tax return for that taxable year.
(3) Information required. In the case of a statement filed after April 25, 1983, the statement referred to in paragraph (c)(2) of this section shall contain the following information:
(i) The name, address, and taxpayer identifying number of the taxpayer; and
(ii) A statement that the taxpayer elects under section 172(j)(3) not to have section 172(b)(1)(I) apply.
(4) Relationship with section 172(b)(3)(C) election. If a taxpayer sustains during the taxable year both a net operating loss not attributable to product liability and a product liability loss (as defined in section 172(j)(1) and paragraph (b)(1) of this section), an election pursuant to section 172(b)(3)(C) (relating to election to relinquish the entire carryback period) does not preclude the product liability loss from being carried back 10 years under section 172(b)(1)(I) and paragraph (a)(1) of this section.
§ 1.173-1   Circulation expenditures.
(a) Allowance of deduction. Section 173 provides for the deduction from gross income of all expenditures to establish, maintain, or increase the circulation of a newspaper, magazine, or other periodical, subject to the following limitations:
(1) No deduction shall be allowed for expenditures for the purchase of land or depreciable property or for the acquisition of circulation through the purchase of any part of the business of another publisher of a newspaper, magazine, or other periodical;
(2) The deduction shall be allowed only to the publisher making the circulation expenditures; and
(3) The deduction shall be allowed only for the taxable year in which such expenditures are paid or incurred.
(b) Deferred expenditures. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (a)(3) of this section, expenditures paid or incurred in a taxable year subject to the Internal Revenue Code of 1939 which are deferrable pursuant to I.T. 3369 (C.B. 1940-1, 46), as modified by Rev. Rul. 57-87 (C.B. 1957-1, 507) may be deducted in the taxable year subject to the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 to which so deferred.
(c) Election to capitalize. (1) A taxpayer entitled to the deduction for circulation expenditures provided in section 173 and paragraph (a) of this section may, in lieu of taking such deduction, elect to capitalize the portion of such circulation expenditures which is properly chargeable to capital account. As a general rule, expenditures normally made from year to year in an effort to maintain circulation are not properly chargeable to capital account; conversely, expenditures made in an effort to establish or to increase circulation are properly chargeable to capital account. For example, if a newspaper normally employs five persons to obtain renewals of subscriptions by telephone, the expenditures in connection therewith would not be properly chargeable to capital account. However, if such newspaper, in a special effort to increase its circulation, hires for a limited period 20 additional employees to obtain new subscriptions by means of telephone calls to the general public, the expenditures in connection therewith would be properly chargeable to capital account. If an election is made by a taxpayer to treat any portion of his circulation expenditures as chargeable to capital account, the election must apply to all such expenditures which are properly so chargeable. In such case, no deduction shall be allowed under section 173 for any such expenditures. In particular cases, the extent to which any deductions attributable to the amortization of capital expenditures are allowed may be determined under sections 162, 263, and 461.
(2) A taxpayer may make the election referred to in subparagraph (1) of this paragraph by attaching a statement to his return for the first taxable year to which the election is applicable. Once an election is made, the taxpayer must continue in subsequent taxable years to charge to capital account all circulation expenditures properly so chargeable, unless the Commissioner, on application made to him in writing by the taxpayer, permits a revocation of such election for any subsequent taxable year or years. Permission to revoke such election may be granted subject to such conditions as the Commissioner deems necessary.
(3) Elections filed under section 23(bb) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1939 shall be given the same effect as if they were filed under section 173. (See section 7807(b)(2).)
§ 1.174-1   Research and experimental expenditures; in general.
Section 174 provides two methods for treating research or experimental expenditures paid or incurred by the taxpayer in connection with his trade or business. These expenditures may be treated as expenses not chargeable to capital account and deducted in the year in which they are paid or incurred (see § 1.174-3), or they may be deferred and amortized (see § 1.174-4). Research or experimental expenditures which are neither treated as expenses nor deferred and amortized under section 174 must be charged to capital account. The expenditures to which section 174 applies may relate either to a general research program or to a particular project. See § 1.174-2 for the definition of research and experimental expenditures. The term paid or incurred, as used in section 174 and in §§ 1.174-1 to 1.174-4, inclusive, is to be construed according to the method of accounting used by the taxpayer in computing taxable income. See section 7701(a)(25).
§ 1.174-2   Definition of research and experimental expenditures.
(a) In general. (1) Research or experimental expenditures defined. The term research or experimental expenditures, as used in section 174, means expenditures incurred in connection with the taxpayer's trade or business which represent research and development costs in the experimental or laboratory sense. The term generally includes all such costs incident to the development or improvement of a product. The term includes the costs of obtaining a patent, such as attorneys' fees expended in making and perfecting a patent application. Expenditures represent research and development costs in the experimental or laboratory sense if they are for activities intended to discover information that would eliminate uncertainty concerning the development or improvement of a product. Uncertainty exists if the information available to the taxpayer does not establish the capability or method for developing or improving the product or the appropriate design of the product. Whether expenditures qualify as research or experimental expenditures depends on the nature of the activity to which the expenditures relate, not the nature of the product or improvement being developed or the level of technological advancement the product or improvement represents. The ultimate success, failure, sale, or use of the product is not relevant to a determination of eligibility under section 174. Costs may be eligible under section 174 if paid or incurred after production begins but before uncertainty concerning the development or improvement of the product is eliminated.
(2) Production costs. Except as provided in paragraph (a)(5) of this section (the rule concerning the application of section 174 to components of a product), costs paid or incurred in the production of a product after the elimination of uncertainty concerning the development or improvement of the product are not eligible under section 174.
(3) Product defined. For purposes of this section, the term product includes any pilot model, process, formula, invention, technique, patent, or similar property, and includes products to be used by the taxpayer in its trade or business as well as products to be held for sale, lease, or license.
(4) Pilot model defined. For purposes of this section, the term pilot model means any representation or model of a product that is produced to evaluate and resolve uncertainty concerning the product during the development or improvement of the product. The term includes a fully-functional representation or model of the product or, to the extent paragraph (a)(5) of this section applies, a component of the product.
(5) Application of section 174 to components of a product. If the requirements of paragraph (a)(1) of this section are not met at the level of a product (as defined in paragraph (a)(3) of this section), then whether expenditures represent research and development costs is determined at the level of the component or subcomponent of the product. The presence of uncertainty concerning the development or improvement of certain components of a product does not necessarily indicate the presence of uncertainty concerning the development or improvement of other components of the product or the product as a whole. The rule in this paragraph (a)(5) is not itself applied as a reason to exclude research or experimental expenditures from section 174 eligibility.
(6) Research or experimental expenditures—exclusions. The term research or experimental expenditures does not include expenditures for—
(i) The ordinary testing or inspection of materials or products for quality control (quality control testing);
(ii) Efficiency surveys;
(iii) Management studies;
(iv) Consumer surveys;
(v) Advertising or promotions;
(vi) The acquisition of another's patent, model, production or process; or
(vii) Research in connection with literary, historical, or similar projects.
(7) Quality control testing. For purposes of paragraph (a)(6)(i) of this section, testing or inspection to determine whether particular units of materials or products conform to specified parameters is quality control testing. However, quality control testing does not include testing to determine if the design of the product is appropriate.
(8) Expenditures for literary, historical, or similar research—cross reference. See section 263A and the regulations thereunder for cost capitalization rules which apply to expenditures paid or incurred for research in connection with literary, historical, or similar projects involving the production of property, including the production of films, sound recordings, video tapes, books, or similar properties.
(9) Research or experimental expenditures limited to reasonable amounts. Section 174 applies to a research or experimental expenditure only to the extent that the amount of the expenditure is reasonable under the circumstances. In general, the amount of an expenditure for research or experimental activities is reasonable if the amount would ordinarily be paid for like activities by like enterprises under like circumstances. Amounts supposedly paid for research that are not reasonable under the circumstances may be characterized as disguised dividends, gifts, loans, or similar payments. The reasonableness requirement of this paragraph (a)(9) does not apply to the reasonableness of the type or nature of the activities themselves.
(10) Amounts paid to others for research or experimentation. The provisions of this section apply not only to costs paid or incurred by the taxpayer for research or experimentation undertaken directly by him but also to expenditures paid or incurred for research or experimentation carried on in his behalf by another person or organization (such as a research institute, foundation, engineering company, or similar contractor). However, any expenditures for research or experimentation carried on in the taxpayer's behalf by another person are not expenditures to which section 174 relates, to the extent that they represent expenditures for the acquisition or improvement of land or depreciable property, used in connection with the research or experimentation, to which the taxpayer acquires rights of ownership.
(11) Examples. The following examples illustrate the application of this paragraph (a).
(b) Certain expenditures with respect to land and other property. (1) Land and other property. Expenditures by the taxpayer for the acquisition or improvement of land, or for the acquisition or improvement of property which is subject to an allowance for depreciation under section 167 or depletion under section 611, are not deductible under section 174, irrespective of the fact that the property or improvements may be used by the taxpayer in connection with research or experimentation. However, allow- ances for depreciation or depletion of property are considered as research or experimental expenditures, for purposes of section 174, to the extent that the property to which the allowances relate is used in connection with research or experimentation. If any part of the cost of acquisition or improvement of depreciable property is attributable to research or experimentation (whether made by the taxpayer or another), see subparagraphs (2), (3), and (4) of this paragraph.
(2) Expenditure resulting in depreciable property. Expenditures for research or experimentation which result, as an end product of the research or experimentation, in depreciable property to be used in the taxpayer's trade or business may, subject to the limitations of subparagraph (4) of this paragraph, be allowable as a current expense deduction under section 174(a). Such expenditures cannot be amortized under section 174(b) except to the extent provided in paragraph (a)(4) of § 1.174-4.
(3) Amounts paid to others for research or experimentation resulting in depreciable property. If expenditures for research or experimentation are incurred in connection with the construction or manufacture of depreciable property by another, they are deductible under section 174(a) only if made upon the taxpayer's order and at his risk. No deduction will be allowed (i) if the taxpayer purchases another's product under a performance guarantee (whether express, implied, or imposed by local law) unless the guarantee is limited, to engineering specifications or otherwise, in such a way that economic utility is not taken into account; or (ii) for any part of the purchase price of a product in regular production. For example, if a taxpayer orders a specially-built automatic milling machine under a guarantee that the machine will be capable of producing a given number of units per hour, no portion of the expenditure is deductible since none of it is made at the taxpayer's risk. Similarly, no deductible expense is incurred if a taxpayer enters into a contract for the construction of a new type of chemical processing plant under a turn-key contract guaranteeing a given annual production and a given consumption of raw material and fuel per unit. On the other hand, if the contract contained no guarantee of quality of production and of quantity of units in relation to consumption of raw material and fuel, and if real doubt existed as to the capabilities of the process, expenses for research or experimentation under the contract are at the taxpayer's risk and are deductible under section 174(a). However, see subparagraph (4) of this paragraph.
(4) Deductions limited to amounts expended for research or experimentation. The deductions referred to in paragraphs (b)(2) and (3) of this section for expenditures in connection with the acquisition or production of depreciable property to be used in the taxpayer's trade or business are limited to amounts expended for research or experimentation within the meaning of section 174 and paragraph (a) of this section.
(5) Examples. The following examples illustrate the application of paragraph (b) of this section.
(c) Exploration expenditures. The provisions of section 174 are not applicable to any expenditures paid or incurred for the purpose of ascertaining the existence, location, extent, or quality of any deposit of ore, oil, gas or other mineral. See sections 617 and 263.
(d) Effective/applicability date. The eighth and ninth sentences of § 1.174-2(a)(1); § 1.174-2(a)(2); § 1.174-2(a)(4); § 1.174-2(a)(5); § 1.174-2(a)(11) Example 3 through Example 10; § 1.174-2(b)(4); and § 1.174-2(b)(5) apply to taxable years ending on or after July 21, 2014. Taxpayers may apply the provisions enumerated in the preceding sentence to taxable years for which the limitations for assessment of tax has not expired.
§ 1.174-3   Treatment as expenses.
(a) In general. Research or experimental expenditures paid or incurred by a taxpayer during the taxable year in connection with his trade or business are deductible as expenses, and are not chargeable to capital account, if the taxpayer adopts the method provided in section 174(a). See paragraph (b) of this section. If adopted, the method shall apply to all research and experimental expenditures paid or incurred in the taxable year of adoption and all subsequent taxable years, unless a different method is authorized by the Commissioner under section 174(a)(3) with respect to part or all of the expenditures. See paragraph (b)(3) of this section. Thus, if a change to the deferred expense method under section 174(b) is authorized by the Commissioner with respect to research or experimental expenditures attributable to a particular project or projects, the taxpayer, for the taxable year of the change and for subsequent taxable years, must apply the deferred expense method to all such expenditures paid or incurred during any of those taxable years in connection with the particular project or projects, even though all other research and experimental expenditures are required to be deducted as current expenses under this section. In no event will the taxpayer be permitted to adopt the method described in this section as to part of the expenditures relative to a particular project and adopt for the same taxable year a different method of treating the balance of the expenditures relating to the same project.
(b) Adoption and change of method —(1) Adoption without consent. The method described in this section may be adopted for any taxable year beginning after December 31, 1953, and ending after August 16, 1954. The consent of the Commissioner is not required if the taxpayer adopts the method for the first such taxable year in which he pays or incurs research or experimental expenditures. The taxpayer may do so by claiming in his income tax return for such year a deduction for his research or experimental expenditures. If the taxpayer fails to adopt the method for the first taxable year in which he incurs such expenditures, he cannot do so in subsequent taxable years unless he obtains the consent of the Commissioner under section 174(a)(2)(B) and subparagraph (2) of this paragraph. See, however, subparagraph (4) of this paragraph, relating to extensions of time.
(2) Adoption with consent. A taxpayer may, with the consent of the Commissioner, adopt at any time the method provided in section 174(a). The method adopted in this manner shall be applicable only to expenditures paid or incurred during the taxable year for which the request is made and in subsequent taxable years. A request to adopt this method shall be in writing and shall be addressed to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, Attention: T:R, Washington, DC, 20224. The request shall set forth the name and address of the taxpayer, the first taxable year for which the adoption of the method is requested, and a description of the project or projects with respect to which research or experimental expenditures are to be, or have already been, paid or incurred. The request shall be signed by the taxpayer (or his duly authorized representative) and shall be filed not later than the last day of the first taxable year for which the adoption of the method is requested. See, however, subparagraph (4) of this paragraph, relating to extensions of time.
(3) Change of method. An application for permission to change to a different method of treating research or experimental expenditures shall be in writing and shall be addressed to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, Attention: T:R, Washington, DC, 20224. The application shall include the name and address of the taxpayer, shall be signed by the taxpayer (or his duly authorized representative), and shall be filed not later than the last day of the first taxable year for which the change in method is to apply. See, however, subparagraph (4) of this paragraph, relating to extensions of time. The application shall:
(i) State the first year to which the requested change is to be applicable;
(ii) State whether the change is to apply to all research or experimental expenditures paid or incurred by the taxpayer, or only to expenditures attributable to a particular project or projects;
(iii) Include such information as will identify the project or projects to which the change is applicable;
(iv) Indicate the number of months (not less than 60) selected for amortization of the expenditures, if any, which are to be treated as deferred expenses under section 174(b);
(v) State that, upon approval of the application, the taxpayer will make an accounting segregation on his books and records of the research or experimental expenditures to which the change in method is to apply; and
(vi) State the reasons for the change.
(4) Special rules. If the last day prescribed by law for filing a return for any taxable year (including extensions thereof) to which section 174(a) is applicable falls before January 2, 1958, consent is hereby given for the taxpayer to adopt the expense method or to change from the expense method to a different method. In the case of a change from the expense method to a different method, the taxpayer, on or before January 2, 1958, must submit to the district director for the internal revenue district in which the return was filed the information required by subparagraph (3) of this paragraph. For any taxable year for which the expense method or a different method is adopted pursuant to this subparagraph, an amended return reflecting such method shall be filed on or before January 2, 1958, if such return is necessary.
§ 1.174-4   Treatment as deferred expenses.
(a) In general. (1) If a taxpayer has not adopted the method provided in section 174(a) of treating research or experimental expenditures paid or incurred by him in connection with his trade or business as currently deductible expenses, he may, for any taxable year beginning after December 31, 1953, elect to treat such expenditures as deferred expenses under section 174(b), subject to the limitations of subparagraph (2) of this paragraph. If a taxpayer has adopted the method of treating such expenditures as expenses under section 174(a), he may not elect to defer and amortize any such expenditures unless permission to do so is granted under section 174(a)(3). See paragraph (b) of this section.
(2) The election to treat research or experimental expenditures as deferred expenses under section 174(b) applies only to those expenditures which are chargeable to capital account but which are not chargeable to property of a character subject to an allowance for depreciation or depletion under section 167 or 611, respectively. Thus, the election under section 174(b) applies only if the property resulting from the research or experimental expenditures has no determinable useful life. If the property resulting from the expenditures has a determinable useful life, section 174(b) is not applicable, and the capitalized expenditures must be amortized or depreciated over the determinable useful life. Amounts treated as deferred expenses are properly chargeable to capital account for purposes of section 1016(a)(1), relating to adjustments to basis of property. See section 1016(a)(14). See section 174(c) and paragraph (b)(1) of § 1.174-2 for treatment of expenditures for the acquisition or improvement of land or of depreciable or depletable property to be used in connection with the research or experimentation.
(3) Expenditures which are treated as deferred expenses under section 174(b) are allowable as a deduction ratably over a period of not less than 60 consecutive months beginning with the month in which the taxpayer first realizes benefits from the expenditures. The length of the period shall be selected by the taxpayer at the time he makes the election to defer the expenditures. If a taxpayer has two or more separate projects, he may select a different amortization period for each project. In the absence of a showing to the contrary, the taxpayer will be deemed to have begun to realize benefits from the deferred expenditures in the month in which the taxpayer first puts the process, formula, invention, or similar property to which the expenditures relate to an income-producing use. See section 1016(a)(14) for adjustments to basis of property for amounts allowed as deductions under section 174(b) and this section. See section 165 and the regulations thereunder for rules relating to the treatment of losses resulting from abandonment.
(4) If expenditures which the taxpayer has elected to defer and deduct ratably over a period of time in accordance with section 174(b) result in the development of depreciable property, deductions for the unrecovered expenditures, beginning with the time the asset becomes depreciable in character, shall be determined under section 167 (relating to depreciation) and the regulations thereunder. For example, for the taxable year 1954, A, who reports his income on the basis of a calendar year, elects to defer and deduct ratably over a period of 60 months research and experimental expenditures made in connection with a particular project. In 1956, the total of the deferred expenditures amounts to $60,000. At that time, A has developed a process which he seeks to patent. On July 1, 1956, A first realized benefits from the marketing of products resulting from this process. Therefore, the expenditures deferred are deductible ratably over the 60-month period beginning with July 1, 1956 (when A first realized benefits from the project). In his return for the year 1956. A deducted $6,000; in 1957, A deducted $12,000 ($1,000 per month). On July 1, 1958, a patent protecting his process is obtained by A. In his return for 1958, A is entitled to a deduction of $6,000, representing the amortizable portion of the deferred expenses attributable to the period prior to July 1, 1958. The balance of the unrecovered expenditures ($60,000 minus $24,000, or $36,000) is to be recovered as a depreciation deduction over the life of the patent commencing with July 1, 1958. Thus, one-half of the annual depreciation deduction based upon the useful life of the patent is also deductible for 1958 (from July 1 to December 31).
(5) The election shall be applicable to all research and experimental expenditures paid or incurred by the taxpayer or, if so limited by the taxpayer's election, to all such expenditures with respect to the particular project, subject to the limitations of subparagraph (2) of this paragraph. The election shall apply for the taxable year for which the election is made and for all subsequent taxable years, unless a change to a different treatment is authorized by the Commissioner under section 174(b)(2). See paragraph (b)(2) of this section. Likewise, the taxpayer shall adhere to the amortization period selected at the time of the election unless a different period of amortization with respect to a part or all of the expenditures is similarly authorized. However, no change in method will be permitted with respect to expenditures paid or incurred before the taxable year to which the change is to apply. In no event will the taxpayer be permitted to treat part of the expenditures with respect to a particular project as deferred expenses under section 174(b) and to adopt a different method of treating the balance of the expenditures relating to the same project for the same taxable year. The election under this section shall not apply to any expenditures paid or incurred before the taxable year for which the taxpayer makes the election.
(b) Election and change of method —(1) Election. The election under section 174(b) shall be made not later than the time (including extensions) prescribed by law for filing the return for the taxable year for which the method is to be adopted. The election shall be made by attaching a statement to the taxpayer's return for the first taxable year to which the election is applicable. The statement shall be signed by the taxpayer (or his duly authorized representative), and shall:
(i) Set forth the name and address of the taxpayer;
(ii) Designate the first taxable year to which the election is to apply;
(iii) State whether the election is intended to apply to all expenditures within the permissible scope of the election, or only to a particular project or projects, and, if the latter, include such information as will identify the project or projects as to which the election is to apply;
(iv) Set forth the amount of all research or experimental expenditures paid or incurred during the taxable year for which the election is made;
(v) Indicate the number of months (not less than 60) selected for amortization of the deferred expenses for each project; and
(vi) State that the taxpayer will make an accounting segregation in his books and records of the expenditures to which the election relates.
(2) Change to a different method or period. Application for permission to change to a different method of treating research or experimental expenditures or to a different period of amortization for deferred expenses shall be in writing and shall be addressed to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, Attention: T:R, Washington, DC, 20224. The application shall include the name and address of the taxpayer, shall be signed by the taxpayer (or his duly authorized representative), and shall be filed not later than the end of the first taxable year in which the different method or different amortization period is to be used (unless subparagraph (3) of this paragraph, relating to extensions of time, is applicable). The application shall set forth the following information with regard to the research or experimental expenditures which are being treated under section 174(b) as deferred expenses:
(i) Total amount of research or experimental expenditures attributable to each project;
(ii) Amortization period applicable to each project; and
(iii) Unamortized expenditures attributable to each project at the beginning of the taxable year in which the application is filed.
(3) Special rules. If the last day prescribed by law for filing a return for any taxable year for which the deferred method provided in section 174(b) has been adopted falls before January 2, 1958, consent is hereby given for the taxpayer to change from such method and adopt a different method of treating research or experimental expenditures, provided that on or before January 2, 1958, he submits to the district director for the district in which the return was filed the information required by subparagraph (2) of this paragraph, relating to a change to a different method or period. For any taxable year for which the different method is adopted pursuant to this subparagraph, an amended return reflecting such method shall be filed on or before January 2, 1958.
(c) Example. The application of this section is illustrated by the following example:
§ 1.175-1   Soil and water conservation expenditures; in general.
Under section 175, a farmer may deduct his soil or water conservation expenditures which do not give rise to a deduction for depreciation and which are not otherwise deductible. The amount of the deduction is limited annually to 25 percent of the taxpayer's gross income from farming. Any excess may be carried over and deducted in succeeding taxable years. As a general rule, once a farmer has adopted this method of treating soil and water conservation expenditures, he must deduct all such expenditures (subject to the 25-percent limitation) for the current and subsequent taxable years. If a farmer does not adopt this method, such expenditures increase the basis of the property to which they relate.
§ 1.175-2   Definition of soil and water conservation expenditures.
(a) Expenditures treated as a deduction. (1) The method described in section 175 applies to expenditures paid or incurred for the purpose of soil or water conservation in respect of land used in farming, or for the prevention of erosion of land used in farming, but only if such expenditures are made in the furtherance of the business of farming. More specifically, a farmer may deduct expenditures made for these purposes which are for (i) the treatment or moving of earth, (ii) the construction, control, and protection of diversion channels, drainage ditches, irrigation ditches, earthen dams, watercourses, outlets, and ponds, (iii) the eradication of brush, and (iv) the planting of windbreaks. Expenditures for the treatment or moving of earth include but are not limited to expenditures for leveling, conditioning, grading, terracing, contour furrowing, and restoration of soil fertility. For rules relating to the allocation of expenditures that benefit both land used in farming and other land of the taxpayer, see § 1.175-7.
(2) The following are examples of soil and water conservation: (i) Constructing terraces, or the like, to detain or control the flow of water, to check soil erosion on sloping land, to intercept runoff, and to divert excess water to protected outlets; (ii) constructing water detention or sediment retention dams to prevent or fill gullies, to retard or reduce run-off of water, or to collect stock water; and (iii) constructing earthen floodways, levies, or dikes, to prevent flood damage to farmland.
(b) Expenditures not subject to section 175 treatment. (1) The method described in section 175 applies only to expenditures for nondepreciable items. Accordingly, a taxpayer may not deduct expenditures for the purchase, construction, installation, or improvement of structures, appliances, or facilities subject to the allowance for depreciation. Thus, the method does not apply to depreciable nonearthen items such as those made of masonry or concrete (see section 167). For example, expenditures in respect of depreciable property include those for materials, supplies, wages, fuel, hauling, and dirt moving for making structures such as tanks, reservoirs, pipes, conduits, canals, dams, wells, or pumps composed of masonry, concrete, tile, metal, or wood. However, the method applies to expenditures for earthen items which are not subject to a depreciation allowance. For example, expenditures for earthen terraces and dams which are nondepreciable are deductible under section 175. For taxable years beginning after December 31, 1959, in the case of expenditures paid or incurred by farmers for fertilizer, lime, etc., for purposes other than soil or water conservation, see section 180 and the regulations thereunder.
(2) The method does not apply to expenses deductible apart from section 175. Adoption of the method is not necessary in order to deduct such expenses in full without limitation. Thus, the method does not apply to interest (deductible under section 163), nor to taxes (deductible under section 164). It does not apply to expenses for the repair of completed soil or water conservation structures, such as costs of annual removal of sediment from a drainage ditch. It does not apply to expenditures paid or incurred primarily to produce an agricultural crop even though they incidentally conserve soil. Thus, the cost of fertilizing (the effectiveness of which does not last beyond one year) used to produce hay is deductible without adoption of the method prescribed in section 175. For taxable years beginning after December 31, 1959, in the case of expenditures paid or incurred by farmers for fertilizer, lime, etc., for purposes other than soil or water conservation, see section 180 and the regulations thereunder. However, the method would apply to expenses incurred to produce vegetation primarily to conserve soil or water or to prevent erosion. Thus, for example, the method would apply to such expenditures as the cost of dirt moving, lime, fertilizer, seed and planting stock used in gulley stabilization, or in stabilizing severely eroded areas, in order to obtain a soil binding stand of vegetation on raw or infertile land.
(c) Assessments. The method applies also to that part of assessments levied by a soil or water conservation or drainage district to reimburse it for its expenditures which, if actually paid or incurred during the taxable year by the taxpayer directly, would be deductible under section 175. Depending upon the farmer's method of accounting, the time when the farmer pays or incurs the assessment, and not the time when the expenditures are paid or incurred by the district, controls the time the deduction must be taken. The provisions of this paragraph may be illustrated by the following example:
§ 1.175-3   Definition of “the business of farming.”
The method described in section 175 is available only to a taxpayer engaged in “the business of farming”. A taxpayer is engaged in the business of farming if he cultivates, operates, or manages a farm for gain or profit, either as owner or tenant. For the purpose of section 175, a taxpayer who receives a rental (either in cash or in kind) which is based upon farm production is engaged in the business of farming. However, a taxpayer who receives a fixed rental (without reference to production) is engaged in the business of farming only if he participates to a material extent in the operation or management of the farm. A taxpayer engaged in forestry or the growing of timber is not thereby engaged in the business of farming. A person cultivating or operating a farm for recreation or pleasure rather than a profit is not engaged in the business of farming. For the purpose of this section, the term farm is used in its ordinary, accepted sense and includes stock, dairy, poultry, fish, fruit, and truck farms, and also plantations, ranches, ranges, and orchards. A fish farm is an area where fish are grown or raised, as opposed to merely caught or harvested; that is, an area where they are artificially fed, protected, cared for, etc. A taxpayer is engaged in “the business of farming” if he is a member of a partnership engaged in the business of farming. See paragraphs (a)(8)(i) and (c)(1)(iv) of § 1.702-1.
§ 1.175-4   Definition of “land used in farming.”
(a) Requirements. For purposes of section 175, the term land used in farming means land which is used in the business of farming and which meets both of the following requirements:
(1) The land must be used for the production of crops, fruits, or other agricultural products, including fish, or for the sustenance of livestock. The term livestock includes cattle, hogs, horses, mules, donkeys, sheep, goats, captive fur-bearing animals, chickens, turkeys, pigeons, and other poultry. Land used for the sustenance of livestock includes land used for grazing such livestock.
(2) The land must be or have been so used either by the taxpayer or his tenant at some time before or at the same time as, the taxpayer makes the expenditures for soil or water conservation or for the prevention of the erosion of land. The taxpayer will be considered to have used the land in farming before making such expenditure if he or his tenant has employed the land in a farming use in the past. If the expenditures are made by the taxpayer in respect of land newly acquired from one who immediately prior to the acquisition was using it in farming, the taxpayer will be considered to be using the land in farming at the time that such expenditures are made, if the use which is made by the taxpayer of the land from the time of its acquisition by him is substantially a continuation of its use in farming, whether for the same farming use as that of the taxpayer's predecessor or for one of the other uses specified in paragraph (a)(1) of this section.
(b) Examples. The provisions of paragraph (a) of this section may be illustrated by the following examples:
(c) Cross reference. For rules relating to the allocation of expenditures that benefit both land used in farming and other land of the taxpayer, see § 1.175-7.
§ 1.175-5   Percentage limitation and carryover.
(a) The limitation —(1) General rule. The amount of soil and water conservation expenditures which the taxpayer may deduct under section 175 in any one taxable year is limited to 25 percent of his “gross income from farming”.
(2) Definition of “gross income from farming.” For the purpose of section 175, the term gross income from farming means the gross income of the taxpayer, derived in “the business of farming” as defined in § 1.175-3, from the production of crops, fruits, or other agricultural products, including fish, or from livestock (including livestock held for draft, breeding, or dairy purposes). It includes such income from land used in farming other than that upon which expenditures are made for soil or water conservation or for the prevention of erosion of land. It does not include gains from sales of assets such as farm machinery or gains from the disposition of land. A taxpayer shall compute his “gross income from farming” in accordance with his accounting method used in determining gross income. (See the regulations under section 61 relating to accounting methods used by farmers in determining gross income.) The provisions of this subparagraph may be illustrated by the following example:
(3) Deduction qualifies for net operating loss deduction. Any amount allowed as a deduction under section 175, either for the year in which the expenditure is paid or incurred or for the year to which it is carried, is taken into account in computing a net operating loss for such taxable year. If a deduction for soil or water conservation expenditures has been taken into account in computing a net operating loss carryback or carryover, it shall not be considered a soil or water conservation expenditure for the year to which the loss is carried, and therefore, is not subject to the 25-percent limitation for that year. The provisions of this subparagraph may be illustrated by the following example:
(b) Carryover of expenditures in excess of deduction. The deduction for soil and water conservation expenditures in any one taxable year is limited to 25 percent of the taxpayer's gross income from farming. The taxpayer may carry over the excess of such expenditures over 25 percent of his gross income from farming into his next taxable year, and, if not deductible in that year, into the next year, and so on without limit as to time. In determining the deductible amount of such expenditures for any taxable year, the actual expenditures of that year shall be added to any such expenditures carried over from prior years, before applying the 25-percent limitation. Any such expenditures in excess of the deductible amount may be carried over during the taxpayer's entire existence. For this purpose in a farm partnership, since the 25-percent limitation is applied to each partner, not the partnership, the carryover may be carried forward during the life of the partner. The provisions of this paragraph may be illustrated by the following example:
§ 1.175-6   Adoption or change of method.
(a) Adoption with consent. A taxpayer may, without consent, adopt the method of treating expenditures for soil or water conservation as expenses for the first taxable year:
(1) Which begins after December 31, 1953, and ends after August 16, 1954, and
(2) For which soil or water conservation expenditures described in section 175(a) are paid or incurred.
(b) Adoption with consent. A taxpayer may adopt the method of treating soil and water conservation expenditures as provided by section 175 for any taxable year to which the section is applicable if consent is obtained from the district director for the internal revenue district in which the taxpayer's return is required to be filed.
(c) Change of method. A taxpayer who has adopted the method of treating expenditures for soil or water conservation, as provided by section 175, may change from this method and capitalize such expenditures made after the effective date of the change, if he obtains the consent of the district director for the internal revenue district in which his return is required to be filed.
(d) Request for consent to adopt or change method. Where the consent of the district director is required under paragraph (b) or (c) of this section, the request for his consent shall be in writing, signed by the taxpayer or his authorized representative, and shall be filed not later than the date prescribed by law for filing the income tax return for the first taxable year to which the adoption of, or change of, method is to apply, or not later than August 20, 1957, following their adoption, whichever is later. The request shall:
(1) Set forth the name and address of the taxpayer;
(2) Designate the first taxable year to which the method or change of method is to apply;
(3) State whether the method or change of method is intended to apply to all expenditures within the permissible scope of section 175, or only to a particular project or farm and, if the latter, include such information as will identify the project or farm as to which the method or change of method is to apply;
(4) Set forth the amount of all soil and water conservation expenditures paid or incurred during the first taxable year for which the method or change of method is to apply; and
(5) State that the taxpayer will make an accounting segregation in his books and records of the expenditures to which the election relates.
(e) Scope of method. Except with the consent of the district director as provided in paragraph (b) or (c) of this section, the taxpayer's method of treating soil and water conservation expenditures described in section 175 shall apply to all such expenditures for the taxable year of adoption and all subsequent taxable years. Although a taxpayer may have elected to deduct soil and water conservation expenditures, he may request an authorization to capitalize his soil and water conservation expenditures attributable to a special project or single farm. Similarly, a taxpayer who has not elected to deduct such expenditures may request an authorization to deduct his soil and water conservation expenditures attributable to a special project or single farm. The authorization with respect to the special project or single farm will not affect the method adopted with respect to the taxpayer's regularly incurred soil and water conservation expenditures. No adoption of, or change of, the method under section 175 will be permitted as to expenditures actually paid or incurred before the taxable year to which the method or change of method is to apply. Thus, if a taxpayer adopts such method for 1956, he cannot deduct any part of such expenditures which he capitalized, or should have capitalized, in 1955. Likewise, if a taxpayer who has adopted such method has an unused carryover of such expenditures in excess of the 25-percent limitation, and is granted consent to capitalize soil and water conservation expenditures beginning in 1956, he cannot capitalize any part of the unused carryover. The excess expenditures carried over continue to be deductible to the extent of 25 percent of the taxpayer's gross income from farming. No adjustment to the basis of land shall be made under section 1016 for expenditures to which the method under section 175 applies. For example, A has an unused carryover of soil and water conservation expenditures amounting to $5,000 as of December 31, 1956. On January 1, 1957, A sells his farm and goes out of the business of farming. The unused carryover of $5,000 cannot be added to the basis of the farm for purposes of determining gain or loss on its sale. In 1959, A purchases another farm and resumes the business of farming. In such year, A may deduct the amount of the unused carryover to the extent of 25 percent of his gross income from farming and may carry over any excess to subsequent years.
§ 1.175-7   Allocation of expenditures in certain circumstances.
(a) General rule. If at the time the taxpayer paid or incurred expenditures for the purpose of soil or water conservation, or for the prevention of erosion of land, it was reasonable to believe that such expenditures would directly and substantially benefit land of the taxpayer which does not qualify as “land used in farming,” as defined in § 1.175-4, as well as land of the taxpayer which does so qualify, then, for purposes of section 175, only a part of the taxpayer's total expenditures is in respect of “land used in farming.”
(b) Method of allocation. The part of expenditures allocable to “land used in farming” generally equals the amount which bears the same proportion to the total amount of such expenditures as the area of land of the taxpayer used in farming which it was reasonable to believe would be directly and substantially benefited as a result of the expenditures bears to the total area of land of the taxpayer which it was reasonable to believe would be so benefited. If it is established by clear and convincing evidence that, in the light of all the facts and circumstances, another method of allocation is more reasonable than the method provided in the preceding sentence, the taxpayer may allocate the expenditures under that other method. For purposes of this section, the term land of the taxpayer means land with respect to which the taxpayer has title, leasehold, or some other substantial interest.
(c) Examples. The provisions of this section may be illustrated by the following examples:
§ 1.178-1   Depreciation or amortization of improvements on leased property and cost of acquiring a lease.
(a) In general. Section 178 provides rules for determining the amount of the deduction allowable for any taxable year to a lessee for depreciation or amortization of improvements made on leased property and as amortization of the cost of acquiring a lease. For purposes of section 178 the term depreciation means the deduction allowable for exhaustion, wear and tear, or obsolescence under provisions of the Code such as section 167 or 611 and the regulations thereunder and the term amortization means the deduction allowable for amortization of buildings or other improvements made on leased property or for amortization of the cost of acquiring a lease under provisions of the Code such as section 162 or 212 and the regulations thereunder. The provisions of section 178 are applicable with respect to costs of acquiring a lease incurred, and improvements begun, after July 28, 1958, other than improvements which, on July 28, 1958, and at all times thereafter, the lessee was under a binding legal obligation to make.
(b) Determination of amount of deduction. (1) In determining the amount of the deduction allowable to a lessee (other than a lessee who is related to the lessor within the meaning of § 1.178-2) for any taxable year for depreciation or amortization of improvements made on leased property, or for amortization in respect of the cost of acquiring a lease, the term of the lease shall, except as provided in subparagraph (2) of this paragraph, be treated as including all periods for which the lease may be renewed, extended, or continued pursuant to an option or options exercisable by the lessee (whether or not specifically provided for in the lease) if:
(i) In the case of any building erected, or other improvements made, by the lessee on the leased property, the portion of the term of the lease (excluding all periods for which the lease may subsequently be renewed, extended, or continued pursuant to an option or options exercisable by the lessee) remaining upon the completion of such building or other improvements is less than 60 percent of the estimated useful life of such building or other improvements; or
(ii) In the case of any cost of acquiring the lease, less than 75 percent of such cost is attributable to the portion of the term of the lease (excluding all periods for which the lease may be renewed, extended, or continued pursuant to an option or options exercisable by the lessee) remaining on the date of its acquisition.
(2) The rules provided in subparagraph (1) of this paragraph shall not apply if the lessee establishes that, as of the close of the taxable year, it is more probable that the lease will not be renewed, extended, or continued than that the lease will be renewed, extended, or continued. In such case, the cost of improvements made on leased property or the cost of acquiring a lease shall be amortized over the remaining term of the lease without regard to any options exercisable by the lessee to renew, extend, or continue the lease. The probability test referred to in the first sentence of this subparagraph shall be applicable to each option period to which the lease may be renewed, extended, or continued. The establishment by a lessee as of the close of the taxable year that it is more probable that the lease will not be renewed, extended, or continued will ordinarily be effective as of the close of such taxable year and any subsequent taxable year, and the deduction for amortization will be based on the term of the lease without regard to any periods for which the lease may be renewed, extended, or continued pursuant to an option or options exercisable by the lessee. However, in appropriate cases, if the facts as of the close of any subsequent taxable year indicate that it is more probable that the lease will be renewed, extended, or continued, the deduction for amortization (or depreciation) shall, beginning with the first day of such subsequent taxable year, be determined by including in the remaining term of the lease all periods for which it is more probable that the lease will be renewed, extended, or continued.
(3) If at any time the remaining term of the lease determined in accordance with section 178 and this section is equal to or of longer duration than the then estimated useful life of the improvements made on the leased property by the lessee, the cost of such improvements shall be depreciated over the estimated useful life of such improvements under the provisions of section 167 and the regulations thereunder.
(4) For purposes of section 178(a)(1) and this section, the date on which the building erected or other improvements made are completed is the date on which the building or improvements are usable, whether or not used.
(5)(i) For purposes of section 178(a)(2) and this section, the portion of the cost of acquiring a lease which is attributable to the term of the lease remaining on the date of its acquisition without regard to options exercisable by the lessee to renew, extend, or continue the lease shall be determined on the basis of the facts and circumstances of each case. In some cases, it may be appropriate to determine such portion of the cost of acquiring a lease by applying the principles used to measure the present value of an annuity. Where that method is used, such portion shall be determined by multiplying the cost of the lease by a fraction, the numerator comprised of a factor representing the present value of an annually recurring savings of $1 per year for the period of the remaining term of the lease (without regard to options to renew, extend, or continue the lease) at an appropriate rate of interest (determined on the basis of all the facts and circumstances in each case), and the denominator comprised of a factor representing the present value of $1 per year for the period of the remaining term of the lease including the options to renew, extend, or continue the lease at an appropriate rate of interest.
(ii) The provisions of this subparagraph may be illustrated by the following example:
(6) The provisions of this paragraph may be illustrated by the following examples:
(c) Application of section 178(a) where lessee gives notice to lessor of intention to exercise option. (1) If the lessee has given notice to the lessor of his intention to renew, extend, or continue a lease, the lessee shall, for purposes of applying the provisions of section 178(a) and paragraph (b)(1) of this section, take into account such renewal or extension in determining the portion of the term of the lease remaining upon the completion of the improvements or on the date of the acquisition of the lease.
(2) The application of the provisions of this paragraph may be illustrated by the following examples:
(d) Application of section 178 where lessee is related to lessor. (1)(i) If the lessee and lessor are related persons within the meaning of section 178(b)(2) and § 1.178-2 at any time during the taxable year, the lease shall be treated as including a period of not less duration than the remaining estimated useful life of improvements made by the lessee on leased property for purposes of determining the amount of deduction allowable to the lessee for such taxable year for depreciation or amortization in respect of any building erected or other improvements made on leased property. If the lessee and lessor cease to be related persons during any taxable year, then for the immediately following and subsequent taxable years during which they continue to be unrelated, the amount allowable to the lessee as a deduction shall be determined without reference to section 178(b) and in accordance with section 178(a) or section 178(c), whichever is applicable.
(ii) Although the related lessee and lessor rule of section 178(b) and § 1.178-2 does not apply in determining the period over which the cost of acquiring a lease may be amortized, the relationship between a lessee and lessor will be a significant factor in applying section 178 (a) and (c) in cases in which the lease may be renewed, extended, or continued pursuant to an option or options exercisable by the lessee.
(2) The application of the provisions of this paragraph may be illustrated by the following examples:
§ 1.179-0   Table of contents for section 179 expensing rules.
This section lists captioned paragraphs contained in §§ 1.179-1 through 1.179-6.
(a) In general.
(b) Cost subject to expense.
(c) Proration not required.
(1) In general.
(2) Example.
(d) Partial business use.
(1) In general.
(2) Example.
(3) Additional rules that may apply.
(e) Change in use; recapture.
(1) In general.
(2) Predominant use.
(3) Basis; application with section 1245.
(4) Carryover of disallowed deduction.
(5) Example.
(f) Basis.
(1) In general.
(2) Special rules for partnerships and S corporations.
(3) Special rules with respect to trusts and estates which are partners or S corporation shareholders.
(g) Disallowance of the section 38 credit.
(h) Partnerships and S corporations.
(1) In general.
(2) Example.
(i) Leasing of section 179 property.
(1) In general.
(2) Noncorporate lessor.
(j) Application of sections 263 and 263A.
(k) Cross references.
(a) In general.
(b) Dollar limitation.
(1) In general.
(2) Excess section 179 property.
(3) Application to partnerships.
(i) In general.
(ii) Example.
(iii) Partner's share of section 179 expenses.
(iv) Taxable year.
(v) Example.
(4) S corporations.
(5) Joint returns.
(i) In general.
(ii) Joint returns filed after separate returns.
(iii) Example.
(6) Married individuals filing separately.
(i) In general.
(ii) Example.
(7) Component members of a controlled group.
(i) In general.
(ii) Statement to be filed.
(iii) Revocation.
(c) Taxable income limitation.
(1) In general.
(2) Application to partnerships and partners.
(i) In general.
(ii) Taxable year.
(iii) Example.
(iv) Taxable income of a partnership.
(v) Partner's share of partnership taxable income.
(3) S corporations and S corporation shareholders.
(i) In general.
(ii) Taxable income of an S corporation.
(iii) Shareholder's share of S corporation taxable income.
(4) Taxable income of a corporation other than an S corporation.
(5) Ordering rule for certain circular problems.
(i) In general.
(ii) Example.
(6) Active conduct by the taxpayer of a trade or business.
(i) Trade or business.
(ii) Active conduct.
(iii) Example.
(iv) Employees.
(7) Joint returns.
(i) In general.
(ii) Joint returns filed after separate returns.
(8) Married individuals filing separately.
(d) Examples.
(a) In general.
(b) Deduction of carryover of disallowed deduction.
(1) In general.
(2) Cross references.
(c) Unused section 179 expense allowance.
(d) Example.
(e) Recordkeeping requirement and ordering rule.
(f) Dispositions and other transfers of section 179 property.
(1) In general.
(2) Recapture under section 179(d)(10).
(g) Special rules for partnerships and S corporations.
(1) In general.
(2) Basis adjustment.
(3) Dispositions and other transfers of section 179 property by a partnership or an S corporation.
(4) Example.
(h) Special rules for partners and S corporation shareholders.
(1) In general.
(2) Dispositions and other transfers of a partner's interest in a partnership or a shareholder's interest in an S corporation.
(3) Examples.
(a) Section 179 property.
(b) Section 38 property.
(c) Purchase.
(d) Cost.
(e) Placed in service.
(f) Controlled group of corporations and component member of controlled group.
(a) Election.
(b) Revocation.
(c) Section 179 property placed in service by the taxpayer in a taxable year beginning after 2002 and before 2008.
(d) Election or revocation must not be made in any other manner.
(a) In general.
(b) Section 179 property placed in service by the taxpayer in a taxable year beginning after 2002 and before 2008.
(c) Application of § 1.179-5(d).
§ 1.179-1   Election to expense certain depreciable assets.
(a) In general. Section 179(a) allows a taxpayer to elect to expense the cost (as defined in § 1.179-4(d)), or a portion of the cost, of section 179 property (as defined in § 1.179-4(a)) for the taxable year in which the property is placed in service (as defined in § 1.179-4(e)). The election is not available for trusts, estates, and certain noncorporate lessors. See paragraph (i)(2) of this section for rules concerning noncorporate lessors. However, section 179(b) provides certain limitations on the amount that a taxpayer may elect to expense in any one taxable year. See §§ 1.179-2 and 1.179-3 for rules relating to the dollar and taxable income limitations and the carryover of disallowed deduction rules. For rules describing the time and manner of making an election under section 179, see § 1.179-5. For the effective date, see § 1.179-6.
(b) Cost subject to expense. The expense deduction under section 179 is allowed for the entire cost or a portion of the cost of one or more items of section 179 property. This expense deduction is subject to the limitations of section 179(b) and § 1.179-2. The taxpayer may select the properties that are subject to the election as well as the portion of each property's cost to expense.
(c) Proration not required —(1) In general. The expense deduction under section 179 is determined without any proration based on—
(i) The period of time the section 179 property has been in service during the taxable year; or
(ii) The length of the taxable year in which the property is placed in service.
(2) Example. The following example illustrates the provisions of paragraph (c)(1) of this section.
(d) Partial business use —(1) In general. If a taxpayer uses section 179 property for trade or business as well as other purposes, the portion of the cost of the property attributable to the trade or business use is eligible for expensing under section 179 provided that more than 50 percent of the property's use in the taxable year is for trade or business purposes. The limitations of section179(b) and § 1.179-2 are applied to the portion of the cost attributable to the trade or business use.
(2) Example. The following example illustrates the provisions of paragraph (d)(1) of this section.
(3) Additional rules that may apply. If a section 179 election is made for “listed property” within the meaning of section 280F(d)(4) and there is personal use of the property, section 280F(d)(1), which provides rules that coordinate section 179 with the section 280F limitation on the amount of depreciation, may apply. If section 179 property is no longer predominantly used in the taxpayer's trade or business, paragraphs (e) (1) through (4) of this section, relating to recapture of the section 179 deduction, may apply.
(e) Change in use; recapture —(1) In general. If a taxpayer's section 179 property is not used predominantly in a trade or business of the taxpayer at any time before the end of the property's recovery period, the taxpayer must recapture in the taxable year in which the section 179 property is not used predominantly in a trade or business any benefit derived from expensing such property. The benefit derived from expensing the property is equal to the excess of the amount expensed under this section over the total amount that would have been allowable for prior taxable years and the taxable year of recapture as a deduction under section 168 (had section 179 not been elected) for the portion of the cost of the property to which the expensing relates (regardless of whether such excess reduced the taxpayer's tax liability). For purposes of the preceding sentence (i) the “amount expensed under this section” shall not include any amount that was not allowed as a deduction to a taxpayer because the taxpayer's aggregate amount of allowable section 179 expenses exceeded the section 179(b) dollar limitation, and (ii) in the case of an individual who does not elect to itemize deductions under section 63(g) in the taxable year of recapture, the amount allowable as a deduction under section 168 in the taxable year of recapture shall be determined by treating property used in the production of income other than rents or royalties as being property used for personal purposes. The amount to be recaptured shall be treated as ordinary income for the taxable year in which the property is no longer used predominantly in a trade or business of the taxpayer. For taxable years following the year of recapture, the taxpayer's deductions under section 1688(a) shall be determined as if no section 179 election with respect to the property had been made. However, see section 280F(d)(1) relating to the coordination of section 179 with the limitation on the amount of depreciation for luxury automobiles and where certain property is used for personal purposes. If the recapture rules of both section 280F(b)(2) and this paragraph (e)(1) apply to an item of section 179 property, the amount of recapture for such property shall be determined only under the rules of section 280F(b)(2).
(2) Predominant use. Property will be treated as not used predominantly in a trade or business of the taxpayer if 50 percent or more of the use of such property during any taxable year within the recapture period is for a use other than in a trade or business of the taxpayer. If during any taxable year of the recapture period the taxpayer disposes of the property (other than in a disposition to which section 1245(a) applies) or ceases to use the property in a trade or business in a manner that had the taxpayer claimed a credit under section 38 for such property such disposition or cessation in use would cause recapture under section 47, the property will be treated as not used in a trade or business of the taxpayer. However, for purposes of applying the recapture rules of section 47 pursuant to the preceding sentence, converting the use of the property from use in trade or business to use in the production of income will be treated as a conversion to personal use.
(3) Basis; application with section 1245. The basis of property with respect to which there is recapture under paragraph (e)(1) of this section shall be increased immediately before the event resulting in such recapture by the amount recaptured. If section 1245(a) applies to a disposition of property, there is no recapture under paragraph (e)(1) of this section.
(4) Carryover of disallowed deduction. See § 1.179-3 for rules on applying the recapture provisions of this paragraph (e) when a taxpayer has a carryover of disallowed deduction.
(5) Example. The following example illustrates the provisions of paragraphs (e)(1) through (e)(4) of this section.
(f) Basis —(1) In general. A taxpayer who elects to expense under section 179 must reduce the depreciable basis of the section 179 property by the amount of the section 179 expense deduction.
(2) Special rules for partnerships and S corporations. Generally, the basis of a partnership or S corporation's section 179 property must be reduced to reflect the amount of section 179 expense elected by the partnership or S corporation. This reduction must be made in the basis of partnership or S corporation property even if the limitations of section 179(b) and § 1.179-2 prevent a partner in a partnership or a shareholder in an S corporation from deducting all or a portion of the amount of the section 179 expense allocated by the partnership or S corporation. See § 1.179-3 for rules on applying the basis provisions of this paragraph (f) when a person has a carryover of disallowed deduction.
(3) Special rules with respect to trusts and estates which are partners or S corporation shareholders. Since the section 179 election is not available for trusts or estates, a partner or S corporation shareholder that is a trust or estate may not deduct its allocable share of the section 179 expense elected by the partnership or S corporation. The partnership or S corporation's basis in section 179 property shall not be reduced to reflect any portion of the section 179 expense that is allocable to the trust or estate. Accordingly, the partnership or S corporation may claim a depreciation deduction under section 168 or a section 38 credit (if available) with respect to any depreciable basis resulting from the trust or estate's inability to claim its allocable portion of the section 179 expense.
(g) Disallowance of the section 38 credit. If a taxpayer elects to expense under section 179, no section 38 credit is allowable for the portion of the cost expensed. In addition, no section 38 credit shall be allowed under section 48(d) to a lessee of property for the portion of the cost of the property that the lessor expensed under section 179.
(h) Partnerships and S corporations —(1) In general. In the case of property purchased and placed in service by a partnership or an S corporation, the determination of whether the property is section 179 property is made at the partnership or S corporation level. The election to expense the cost of section 179 property is made by the partnership or the S corporation. See sections 703(b), 1363(c), 6221, 6231(a)(3), 6241, and 6245.
(2) Example. The following example illustrates the provisions of paragraph (h)(1) of this section.
(i) Leasing of section 179 property —(1) In general. A lessor of section 179 property who is treated as the owner of the property for Federal tax purposes will be entitled to the section 179 expense deduction if the requirements of section 179 and the regulations thereunder are met. These requirements will not be met if the lessor merely holds the property for the production of income. For certain leases entered into prior to January 1, 1984, the safe harbor provisions of section 168(f)(8) apply in determining whether an agreement is treated as a lease for Federal tax purposes.
(2) Noncorporate lessor. In determining the class of taxpayers (other than an estate or trust) for which section 179 is applicable, section 179(d)(5) provides that if a taxpayer is a noncorporate lessor ( i.e., a person who is not a corporation and is a lessor), the taxpayer shall not be entitled to claim a section 179 expense for section 179 property purchased and leased by the taxpayer unless the taxpayer has satisfied all of the requirements of section 179(d)(5) (A) or (B).
(j) Application of sections 263 and 263A. Under section 263(a)(1)(G), expenditures for which a deduction is allowed under section 179 and this section are excluded from capitalization under section 263(a). Under this paragraph (j), amounts allowed as a deduction under section 179 and this section are excluded from the application of the uniform capitalization rules of section 263A.
(k) Cross references. See section 453(i) and the regulations thereunder with respect to installment sales of section 179 property. See section 1033(g)(3) and the regulations thereunder relating to condemnation of outdoor advertising displays. See section 1245(a) and the regulations thereunder with respect to recapture rules for section 179 property.
§ 1.179-2   Limitations on amount subject to section 179 election.
(a) In general. Sections 179(b) (1) and (2) limit the aggregate cost of section 179 property that a taxpayer may elect to expense under section 179 for any one taxable year (dollar limitation). See paragraph (b) of this section. Section 179(b)(3)(A) limits the aggregate cost of section 179 property that a taxpayer may deduct in any taxable year (taxable income limitation). See paragraph (c) of this section. Any cost that is elected to be expensed but that is not currently deductible because of the taxable income limitation may be carried forward to the next taxable year (carryover of disallowed deduction). See § 1.179-3 for rules relating to carryovers of disallowed deductions. See also sections 280F(a), (b), and (d)(1) relating to the coordination of section 179 with the limitations on the amount of depreciation for luxury automobiles and other listed property. The dollar and taxable income limitations apply to each taxpayer and not to each trade or business in which the taxpayer has an interest.
(b) Dollar limitation —(1) In general. The aggregate cost of section 179 property that a taxpayer may elect to expense under section 179 for any taxable year beginning in 2003 and thereafter is $25,000 ($100,000 in the case of taxable years beginning after 2002 and before 2008 under section 179(b)(1), indexed annually for inflation under section 179(b)(5) for taxable years beginning after 2003 and before 2008), reduced (but not below zero) by the amount of any excess section 179 property (described in paragraph (b)(2) of this section) placed in service during the taxable year.
(2) Excess section 179 property. The amount of any excess section 179 property for a taxable year equals the excess (if any) of—
(i) The cost of section 179 property placed in service by the taxpayer in the taxable year; over
(ii) $200,000 ($400,000 in the case of taxable years beginning after 2002 and before 2008 under section 179(b)(2), indexed annually for inflation under section 179(b)(5) for taxable years beginning after 2003 and before 2008).
(3) Application to partnerships —(i) In general. The dollar limitation of this paragraph (b) applies to the partnership as well as to each partner. In applying the dollar limitation to a taxpayer that is a partner in one or more partnerships, the partner's share of section 179 expenses allocated to the partner from each partnership is aggregated with any nonpartnership section 179 expenses of the taxpayer for the taxable year. However, in determining the excess section 179 property placed in service by a partner in a taxable year, the cost of section 179 property placed in service by the partnership is not attributed to any partner.
(ii) Example. The following example illustrates the provisions of paragraph (b)(3)(i) of this section.
(iii) Partner's share of section 179 expenses. Section 704 and the regulations thereunder govern the determination of a partner's share of a partnership's section 179 expenses for any taxable year. However, no allocation among partners of the section 179 expenses may be modified after the due date of the partnership return (without regard to extensions of time) for the taxable year for which the election under section 179 is made.
(iv) Taxable year. If the taxable years of a partner and the partnership do not coincide, then for purposes of section 179, the amount of the partnership's section 179 expenses attributable to a partner for a taxable year is determined under section 706 and the regulations thereunder (generally the partner's distributive share of partnership section 179 expenses for the partnership year that ends with or within the partner's taxable year).
(v) Example. The following example illustrates the provisions of paragraph (b)(3)(iv) of this section.
(4) S Corporations. Rules similar to those contained in paragraph (b)(3) of this section apply in the case of S corporations (as defined in section 1361(a)) and their shareholders. Each shareholder's share of the section 179 expenses of an S corporation is determined under section 1366.
(5) Joint returns —(i) In General. A husband and wife who file a joint income tax return under section 6013(a) are treated as one taxpayer in determining the amount of the dollar limitation under paragraph (b)(1) of this section, regardless of which spouse purchased the property or placed it in service.
(ii) Joint returns filed after separate returns. In the case of a husband and wife who elect under section 6013(b) to file a joint income tax return for a taxable year after the time prescribed by law for filing the return for such taxable year has expired, the dollar limitation under paragraph (b)(1) of this section is the lesser of—
(A) The dollar limitation (as determined under paragraph (b)(5)(i) of this section); or
(B) The aggregate cost of section 179 property elected to be expensed by the husband and wife on their separate returns.
(iii) Example. The following example illustrates the provisions of paragraph (b)(5)(ii) of this section.
(6) Married individuals filing separately —(i) In general. In the case of an individual who is married but files a separate income tax return for a taxable year, the dollar limitation of this paragraph (b) for such taxable year is the amount that would be determined under paragraph (b)(5)(i) of this section if the individual filed a joint income tax return under section 6013(a) multiplied by either the percentage elected by the individual under this paragraph (b)(6) or 50 percent. The election in the preceding sentence is made in accordance with the requirements of section 179(c) and § 1.179-5. However, the amount determined under paragraph (b)(5)(i) of this section must be multiplied by 50 percent if either the individual or the individual's spouse does not elect a percentage under this paragraph (b)(6) or the sum of the percentages elected by the individual and the individual's spouse does not equal 100 percent. For purposes of this paragraph (b)(6), marital status is determined under section 7703 and the regulations thereunder.
(ii) Example. The following example illustrates the provisions of paragraph (b)(6)(i) of this section.
(7) Component members of a controlled group —(i) In general. Component members of a controlled group (as defined in § 1.179-4(f)) on December 31 are treated as one taxpayer in applying the dollar limitation of sections 179(b) (1) and (2) and this paragraph (b). The expense deduction may be taken by any one component member or allocated (for the taxable year of each member that includes that December 31) among the several members in any manner. Any allocation of the expense deduction must be pursuant to an allocation by the common parent corporation if a consolidated return is filed for all component members of the group, or in accordance with an agreement entered into by the members of the group if separate returns are filed. If a consolidated return is filed by some component members of the group and separate returns are filed by other component members, the common parent of the group filing the consolidated return must enter into an agreement with those members that do not join in filing the consolidated return allocating the amount between the group filing the consolidated return and the other component members of the controlled group that do not join in filing the consolidated return. The amount of the expense allocated to any component member, however, may not exceed the cost of section 179 property actually purchased and placed in service by the member in the taxable year. If the component members have different taxable years, the term taxable year in sections 179(b) (1) and (2) means the taxable year of the member whose taxable year begins on the earliest date.
(ii) Statement to be filed. If a consolidated return is filed, the common parent corporation must file a separate statement attached to the income tax return on which the election is made to claim an expense deduction under section 179. See § 1.179-5. If separate returns are filed by some or all component members of the group, each component member not included in a consolidated return must file a separate statement attached to the income tax return on which an election is made to claim a deduction under section 179. The statement must include the name, address, employer identification number, and the taxable year of each component member of the controlled group, a copy of the allocation agreement signed by persons duly authorized to act on behalf of the component members, and a description of the manner in which the deduction under section 179 has been divided among the component members.
(iii) Revocation. If a consolidated return is filed for all component members of the group, an allocation among such members of the expense deduction under section 179 may not be revoked after the due date of the return (including extensions of time) of the common parent corporation for the taxable year for which an election to take an expense deduction is made. If some or all of the component members of the controlled group file separate returns for taxable years including a particular December 31 for which an election to take the expense deduction is made, the allocation as to all members of the group may not be revoked after the due date of the return (including extensions of time) of the component member of the controlled group whose taxable year that includes such December 31 ends on the latest date.
(c) Taxable income limitation —(1) In general. The aggregate cost of section 179 property elected to be expensed under section 179 that may be deducted for any taxable year may not exceed the aggregate amount of taxable income of the taxpayer for such taxable year that is derived from the active conduct by the taxpayer of any trade or business during the taxable year. For purposes of section 179(b)(3) and this paragraph (c), the aggregate amount of taxable income derived from the active conduct by an individual, a partnership, or an S corporation of any trade or business is computed by aggregating the net income (or loss) from all of the trades or businesses actively conducted by the individual, partnership, or S corporation during the taxable year. Items of income that are derived from the active conduct of a trade or business include section 1231 gains (or losses) from the trade or business and interest from working capital of the trade or business. Taxable income derived from the active conduct of a trade or business is computed without regard to the deduction allowable under section 179, any section 164(f) deduction, any net operating loss carryback or carryforward, and deductions suspended under any section of the Code. See paragraph (c)(6) of this section for rules on determining whether a taxpayer is engaged in the active conduct of a trade or business for this purpose.
(2) Application to partnerships and partners —(i) In general. The taxable income limitation of this paragraph (c) applies to the partnership as well as to each partner. Thus, the partnership may not allocate to its partners as a section 179 expense deduction for any taxable year more than the partnership's taxable income limitation for that taxable year, and a partner may not deduct as a section 179 expense deduction for any taxable year more than the partner's taxable income limitation for that taxable year.
(ii) Taxable year. If the taxable year of a partner and the partnership do not coincide, then for purposes of section 179, the amount of the partnership's taxable income attributable to a partner for a taxable year is determined under section 706 and the regulations thereunder (generally the partner's distributive share of partnership taxable income for the partnership year that ends with or within the partner's taxable year).
(iii) Example. The following example illustrates the provisions of paragraph (c)(2)(ii) of this section.
(iv) Taxable income of a partnership. The taxable income (or loss) derived from the active conduct by a partnership of any trade or business is computed by aggregating the net income (or loss) from all of the trades or businesses actively conducted by the partnership during the taxable year. The net income (or loss) from a trade or business actively conducted by the partnership is determined by taking into account the aggregate amount of the partnership's items described in section 702(a) (other than credits, tax-exempt income, and guaranteed payments under section 707(c)) derived from that trade or business. For purposes of determining the aggregate amount of partnership items, deductions and losses are treated as negative income. Any limitation on the amount of a partnership item described in section 702(a) which may be taken into account for purposes of computing the taxable income of a partner shall be disregarded in computing the taxable income of the partnership.
(v) Partner's share of partnership taxable income. A taxpayer who is a partner in a partnership and is engaged in the active conduct of at least one of the partnership's trades or businesses includes as taxable income derived from the active conduct of a trade or business the amount of the taxpayer's allocable share of taxable income derived from the active conduct by the partnership of any trade or business (as determined under paragraph (c)(2)(iv) of this section).
(3) S corporations and S corporation shareholders —(i) In general. Rules similar to those contained in paragraphs (c)(2) (i) and (ii) of this section apply in the case of S corporations (as defined in section 1361(a)) and their shareholders. Each shareholder's share of the taxable income of an S corporation is determined under section 1366.
(ii) Taxable income of an S corporation. The taxable income (or loss) derived from the active conduct by an S corporation of any trade or business is computed by aggregating the net income (or loss) from all of the trades or businesses actively conducted by the S corporation during the taxable year. The net income (or loss) from a trade or business actively conducted by an S corporation is determined by taking into account the aggregate amount of the S corporation's items described in section 1366(a) (other than credits, tax-exempt income, and deductions for compensation paid to an S corporation's shareholder-employees) derived from that trade or business. For purposes of determining the aggregate amount of S corporation items, deductions and losses are treated as negative income. Any limitation on the amount of an S corporation item described in section 1366(a) which may be taken into account for purposes of computing the taxable income of a shareholder shall be disregarded in computing the taxable income of the S corporation.
(iii) Shareholder's share of S corporation taxable income. Rules similar to those contained in paragraph (c)(2)(v) and (c)(6)(ii) of this section apply to a taxpayer who is a shareholder in an S corporation and is engaged in the active conduct of the S corporation's trades or businesses.
(4) Taxable income of a corporation other than an S corporation. The aggregate amount of taxable income derived from the active conduct by a corporation other than an S corporation of any trade or business is the amount of the corporation's taxable income before deducting its net operating loss deduction and special deductions (as reported on the corporation's income tax return), adjusted to reflect those items of income or deduction included in that amount that were not derived by the corporation from a trade or business actively conducted by the corporation during the taxable year.
(5) Ordering rule for certain circular problems —(i) In general. A taxpayer who elects to expense the cost of section 179 property (the deduction of which is subject to the taxable income limitation) also may have to apply another Internal Revenue Code section that has a limitation based on the taxpayer's taxable income. Except as provided in paragraph (c)(1) of this section, this section provides rules for applying the taxable income limitation under section 179 in such a case. First, taxable income is computed for the other section of the Internal Revenue Code. In computing the taxable income of the taxpayer for the other section of the Internal Revenue Code, the taxpayer's section 179 deduction is computed by assuming that the taxpayer's taxable income is determined without regard to the deduction under the other Internal Revenue Code section. Next, after reducing taxable income by the amount of the section 179 deduction so computed, a hypothetical amount of deduction is determined for the other section of the Internal Revenue Code. The taxable income limitation of the taxpayer under section 179(b)(3) and this paragraph (c) then is computed by including that hypothetical amount in determining taxable income.
(ii) Example. The following example illustrates the ordering rule described in paragraph (c)(5)(i) of this section.
(6) Active conduct by the taxpayer of a trade or business —(i) Trade or business. For purposes of this section and § 1.179-4(a), the term trade or business has the same meaning as in section 162 and the regulations thereunder. Thus, property held merely for the production of income or used in an activity not engaged in for profit (as described in section 183) does not qualify as section 179 property and taxable income derived from property held for the production of income or from an activity not engaged in for profit is not taken into account in determining the taxable income limitation.
(ii) Active conduct. For purposes of this section, the determination of whether a trade or business is actively conducted by the taxpayer is to be made from all the facts and circumstances and is to be applied in light of the purpose of the active conduct requirement of section 179(b)(3)(A). In the context of section 179, the purpose of the active conduct requirement is to prevent a passive investor in a trade or business from deducting section 179 expenses against taxable income derived from that trade or business. Consistent with this purpose, a taxpayer generally is considered to actively conduct a trade or business if the taxpayer meaningfully participates in the management or operations of the trade or business. Generally, a partner is considered to actively conduct a trade or business of the partnership if the partner meaningfully participates in the management or operations of the trade or business. A mere passive investor in a trade or business does not actively conduct the trade or business.
(iii) Example. The following example illustrates the provisions of paragraph (c)(6)(ii) of this section.
(iv) Employees. For purposes of this section, employees are considered to be engaged in the active conduct of the trade or business of their employment. Thus, wages, salaries, tips, and other compensation (not reduced by unreimbursed employee business expenses) derived by a taxpayer as an employee are included in the aggregate amount of taxable income of the taxpayer under paragraph (c)(1) of this section.
(7) Joint returns —(i) In general. The taxable income limitation of this paragraph (c) is applied to a husband and wife who file a joint income tax return under section 6013(a) by aggregating the taxable income of each spouse (as determined under paragraph (c)(1) of this section).
(ii) Joint returns filed after separate returns. In the case of a husband and wife who elect under section 6013(b) to file a joint income tax return for a taxable year after the time prescribed by law for filing the return for such taxable year, the taxable income limitation of this paragraph (c) for the taxable year for which the joint return is filed is determined under paragraph (c)(7)(i) of this section.
(8) Married individuals filing separately. In the case of an individual who is married but files a separate tax return for a taxable year, the taxable income limitation for that individual is determined under paragraph (c)(1) of this section by treating the husband and wife as separate taxpayers.
(d) Examples. The following examples illustrate the provisions of paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section.
(ii) Under the dollar limitation of paragraph (b) of this section, PRS may elect to expense $10,000 of the cost of section 179 property purchased in 1991. Assume PRS elects under section 179(c) and § 1.179-5 to expense $10,000 of the cost of section 179 property purchased in 1991.
(iii) Under the taxable income limitation of paragraph (c) of this section, PRS may allocate to its partners as a deduction only $8,000 of the cost of section 179 property in 1991. Under section 179(b)(3)(B) and § 1.179-3(a), PRS may carry forward the remaining $2,000 it elected to expense, which would have been deductible under section 179(a) for 1991 absent the taxable income limitation.
(ii) In addition to being a partner in PRS, A conducts a business as a sole proprietor. During 1991, A purchases and places in service $201,000 of section 179 property in connection with the sole proprietorship. A's 1991 taxable income derived from the active conduct of this business is $6,000.
(iii) Under the dollar limitation, A may elect to expense only $9,000 of the cost of section 179 property purchased in 1991, the $10,000 limit reduced by $1,000 (the amount by which the cost of section 179 property placed in service during 1991 ($201,000) exceeds $200,000). Under paragraph (b)(3)(i) of this section, the $7,000 of section 179 expenses allocated from PRS is subject to the $9,000 limit. Assume that A elects to expense $2,000 of the cost of section 179 property purchased by A's sole proprietorship in 1991. Thus, A has elected to expense under section 179 an amount equal to the dollar limitation for 1991 ($2,000 elected to be expensed by A's sole proprietorship plus $7,000, the amount of PRS's section 179 expenses allocated to A in 1991).
(iv) Under the taxable income limitation, A may only deduct $8,000 of the cost of section 179 property elected to be expensed in 1991, the aggregate taxable income derived from the active conduct of A's trades or businesses in 1991 ($2,000 from PRS and $6,000 from A's sole proprietorship). The entire $2,000 of taxable income allocated from PRS is included by A as taxable income derived from the active conduct by A of a trade or business because it was derived from the active conduct of a trade or business by PRS and A was engaged in the active conduct of a trade or business of PRS during 1991. Under section 179(b)(3)(B) and § 1.179-3(a), A may carry forward the remaining $1,000 A elected to expense, which would have been deductible under section 179(a) for 1991 absent the taxable income limitation.