MarcusBennevall/EtymologyTaggerDataset huggingface dataset:
brat
Early Modern English (c. 1500) slang term meaning "beggar's child". Possibly from Scots bratchet (“bitch, hound”), in which case it would be a doublet of brachet. Another possibility is that it was originally a dialectal word, from northern and western England and the Midlands, for a "makeshift or ragged garment," from Old English bratt (“cloak”), which is from a Celtic source (Old Irish brat (“cloak, cloth”)).
In the sense "characteristic of a confident and assertive woman", coined by English singer and songwriter Charli XCX in her 2024 album Brat, though occasional earlier uses of the word with a "reclaimed" or ironic, positive connotation existed, including in LGBTQ slang for people of certain femme or feminine-leaning personalities.
Clipping of bratwurst, from German Bratwurst.
churn
Noun from Middle English chyrne, cherne, kyrne ( > Scots kirn), from Old English ċyrn, ċyrin, ċirin (“churn”), from Proto-Germanic *kirnijǭ (“churn”); verb from Middle English chyrnen from Old English ċernan, from Proto-Germanic *kirnijaną (“to churn, stir”), of unknown origin. Cognate with West Frisian tsjerne, Dutch karn, Walloon serene, German Karn, Kirne, Norwegian Bokmål kjerne, Danish kærne, Swedish kärna, Icelandic kirna.
penalty
From Middle French pénalité, from pénal, from Latin poenālis, from poena, borrowing of Ancient Greek ποινή (poinḗ), from Proto-Hellenic *kʷoinā́, from Proto-Indo-European *kʷoynéh₂, comprising *kʷey- + *-néh₂.
precedence
From Middle French précédence (“the state of preceding, anteriority”). Morphologically precede + -ence.
information
Etymology tree
Proto-Indo-European *h₁én
Proto-Italic *en
Proto-Italic *en-
Late Latin in-
Ancient Greek μορφή (morphḗ)der.?
Late Latin fōrma
Late Latin fōrmō
Late Latin īnfōrmō
Proto-Indo-European *-tis
Proto-Indo-European *-Hō
Proto-Indo-European *-tiHō
Proto-Italic *-tiō
Late Latin -tiō
Late Latin īnfōrmātiōder.
Middle English enformacioun
English information
From Middle English enformacioun, informacioun, borrowed from Anglo-Norman informacioun, enformation, Old French information, from Latin īnfōrmātiō (“formation, conception; education”), from the participle stem of īnformāre (“to inform”). Equivalent to inform + -ation.
wadmal
From Middle English wadmal, wadmol, from Old Norse váðmál (“woolen stuff”), from váð (“cloth”) + mál (“measure”). Cognate to Danish vadmel, Swedish vadmal, Norwegian Nynorsk vadmål and Icelandic vaðmál. Compare wad (“a small mass”) and woodmeil.
cardinal
Etymology tree
Latin cardō
Proto-Indo-European *h₂el-der.?
Proto-Italic *-ālis
Latin -ālis
Latin cardinālisder.
Middle French cardinalbor.
English cardinal
From Middle French cardinal, from Latin cardinālis (“pertaining to a hinge, hence applied to that on which something turns or depends, important, principal, chief”), from cardin-, cardō (“hinge”) + -ālis, adjectival suffix.
From Canadian French Cardinal, from French cardinal, from Latin cardinālis.
daystar
From Middle English daysterre, from Old English dæġsteorra, equivalent to day + star. Cognate with Scots daystern (“morningstar; daystar”).
stepmother
From Middle English stepmoder, from Old English stēopmōdor, from Proto-Germanic *steupamōdēr (“stepmother”), corresponding to step- + mother. Cognate with Saterland Frisian Stäifmuur (“stepmother”), Dutch stiefmoeder (“stepmother”), German Low German Steevmoder (“stepmother”), German Stiefmutter (“stepmother”), Danish stedmor (“stepmother”), Swedish styvmor (“stepmother”), Icelandic stjúpmóðir (“stepmother”). Compare also West Frisian styfmem (“stepmother”).
Genoa
Borrowed from Latin Genua (with influence from Italian Genova), as the city was known by the ancient Ligurians. Probably from the Ancient Ligurian word for “knee”, from Proto-Indo-European *ǵénw-eh₂ (“knee”), a thematic derivative of Proto-Indo-European *ǵónu; in this sense “angle”, from its geographical position, thus akin to Geneva.
size
Attested since the 14th century, originally meant a “law or regulation that determines the amount to be paid”, from Middle English syse, sise (“regulation, control, limit”), from Old French cise, sise, aphetism of assise (“assize”), from the verb asseoir (“to sit down”), from Latin assidēre, composed of ad- (“to, towards, at”) + sedeō (“sit; settle down”), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *sed-. Displaced native Old English miċelnes (literally “bigness”).
From Middle English syse, of unclear origin; related to Old Italian sisa (“a glue used by painters”), perhaps ultimately related to size / syse (“amount”), or perhaps shortened from assisa, from assiso (“to make to sit, to seat, to place”)
directory
From Middle English directorie, dyrectorye, from Medieval Latin dīrēctōrium. By surface analysis, direct + -ory. Doublet of directorium. The political sense is a semantic loan from French directoire.
From Middle English directorye, from Latin dīrēctōrius. By surface analysis, direct + -ory.
group
Etymology tree
Proto-Indo-European *grewbʰ-der.
Proto-Germanic *kruppazder.
Frankish *kruppbor.
Vulgar Latin *cruppus
Italian gruppobor.
French groupebor.
▲
Italian gruppobor.
English group
From French groupe (“cluster, group”), from Italian gruppo, groppo (“a knot, heap, group, bag (of money)”).
In the "group theory" sense, calqued from French groupe, a term coined by the young French mathematician Évariste Galois in 1830.
Cognate with German Kropf (“crop, craw, bunch”); Old English cropp, croppa (“cluster, bunch, sprout, flower, berry, ear of corn, crop”) (whence English crop); Dutch krop (“craw”), Icelandic kroppr (“hump, bunch”). Doublet of crop and croup.
wallah
Either from Hindi -वाला (-vālā, “pertaining to”) or from Hindi वाला (vālā, “person in charge”).
From Arabic وَٱللّٰه (wal-lāh, literally “by God”).
sequence
From Middle English sequence, from Old French sequence (“a sequence of cards, answering verses”), from Late Latin sequentia (“a following”), from Latin sequēns (“following”), from sequī (“to follow”); see sequent.
accentuation
From Late Latin accentuatio. Compare French accentuation. Equivalent to accentuate + -ion.
cwm
Unadapted borrowing from Welsh cwm (“valley”). Doublet of combe.
From Welsh cwm.
cornet
From Middle English cornet, from Old French cornet, a diminutive of a popular reflex of Latin cornū (“horn”).
From Middle French cornette, diminutive of corne, from Latin cornua (“horns”).
pellet
Inherited from Middle English pelote, pelet, from Old French pelote (“small ball”), from Vulgar Latin *pilotta, diminutive of Latin pila (“ball”). Doublet of pelota.
nocturnal
From Middle French nocturnal, from Latin nocturnālis (“nocturnal”), from Latin nocturnus (“nocturnal”), from Latin nox (“night”), from Proto-Indo-European *nókʷts (“night”). Cognates include Ancient Greek νύξ (núx), Sanskrit नक्ति (nákti), Old English niht (English night) and Proto-Slavic *noťь.
diurnal
From Latin diurnālis, from diēs (“day”). Doublet of journal.
quickly
From Middle English quykly, quikliche, quicliche, cwikliche, cwickliche, from Old English cwiculīċe. By surface analysis, quick + -ly.
feces
From Latin faecēs, nominative plural of faex (“residue, dregs”), further origin unknown; possibly borrowed from a substrate language.
excrement
Borrowed from Latin excrēmentum, from excernō (“to excrete”).
Borrowed from Latin excrēmentum, from excrēscō (“to grow out”).
manure
From Middle English maynouren, manuren (“to supervise, toil”), borrowed from Anglo-Norman meinourer and Old French manovrer (whence also English maneuver, or in French manœuvrer) from Vulgar Latin *manuoperare (“work by hand”), from Latin manū (“by hand”) + operārī (“to work”).
additive
From Late Latin additivus, from the participial stem of Latin addere (“to add”).
eclectic
From French éclectique, from Ancient Greek ἐκλεκτικός (eklektikós, “selective”), from ἐκλέγω (eklégō, “to pick, choose”), from ἐκ (ek, “out, from”) + λέγω (légō, “to choose, count”).
Cognate to elect.
game
Etymology tree
Proto-Germanic *gamaną
Proto-West Germanic *gaman
Old English gamen
Middle English game
English game
From Middle English game, gamen, gammen, from Old English gamen (“sport, joy, mirth, pastime, game, amusement, pleasure”), from Proto-West Germanic *gaman, from Proto-Germanic *gamaną (“amusement, pleasure, game", literally "participation, communion, people together”), from *ga- (collective prefix) + *mann- (“man”); or alternatively from *ga- + a root from Proto-Indo-European *men- (“to think, have in mind”).
Cognate with Yola gaame, gaaume, gaume (“game”), Old Frisian game, gome (“joy, amusement, entertainment”), Dutch gemelijk (“cantankerous, crabbed”), Middle High German gamen (“joy, amusement, fun, pleasure”), Danish gammen (“merriment”), Icelandic, Norwegian Nynorsk gaman (“joy, fun”), Swedish gamman (“mirth, rejoicing, merriment”). Related to gammon, gamble.
stealth
From Middle English stelthe, from Old English stǣlþ, from Proto-Germanic *stēliþō, to Proto-Germanic *stelaną (“to steal, to sneak”) + *-iþō, equivalent to steal + -th (abstract nominal suffix). Compare Old English stalu (“theft, stealth”), Old High German stāla (“theft”), German Diebstahl (“theft”).
fighter
From Middle English fightere, feghtere, from Old English feohtere. Equivalent to fight + -er.
original
From Middle English original, from Old French original, from Late Latin orīginālis (“primitive, original”), from Latin orīgō (“beginning, source, origin”); see origin.
precedent
From Middle French, from Old French, from Latin praecēdēns, present participle of praecēdere (“to precede”); See precede.
intuitive
Borrowed from Middle French intuitif, from Medieval Latin intuitivus, from Latin intueri.
kernel
From Middle English kernel, kirnel, kürnel, from Old English cyrnel, from Proto-West Germanic *kurnil, diminutive of Proto-Germanic *kurną (“seed, grain, corn”), equivalent to corn + -le. Cognate with Yiddish קערנדל (kerndl), Middle Dutch kernel, cornel, Middle High German kornel. Related also to Old Norse kjarni (“kernel”).
garden
From Middle English gardyn, garden, from Anglo-Norman gardin, from Frankish *gardin-, oblique stem of *gardō (“enclosure, yard”), from Proto-Germanic *gardô (“enclosure, garden, house”), whence also inherited English yard. (compare Old French jart alongside jardin, Medieval Latin gardīnus). Doublet of jardin. Displaced Old English wyrttūn.
Cognates
Cognate with West Frisian gard, Low German Goorn, Dutch gaard, gaarde, German Garten, Icelandic garður, French jardin, Spanish jardín, Italian giardino, Sicilian jardinu. Via PIE cognate with Bulgarian градина (gradina), Czech zahrada, Polish ogród, Russian огоро́д (ogoród).
Compare typologically Latin hortus (a possible cognate via PIE); Ancient Greek περίβολος (períbolos), Proto-Iranian *paridayjah (whence Ancient Greek παράδεισος (parádeisos)).
collect
From Middle English collecten, a borrowing from Old French collecter, from Medieval Latin collectare (“to collect money”), from Latin collecta (“a collection of money, in Late Latin a meeting, assemblage, in Medieval Latin a tax, also an assembly for prayer, a prayer”), feminine of collectus, past participle of colligere, conligere (“to gather together, collect, consider, conclude, infer”), from com- (“together”) + legere (“to gather”), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *leǵ- (“to gather, collect”).
From Middle English collecte, from Ecclesiastical Latin collēcta (“assembly; collect”), originally designating the gathering at the beginning of a liturgical celebration.
classic
From French classique, from Latin classic(us) (“relating to the classes of Roman citizenry, especially the highest”), from classis. By surface analysis, class + -ic. Piecewise doublet of classy.
fast
Etymology tree
Proto-Germanic *fastuz
Proto-West Germanic *fast
Old English fæst
Middle English fast
English fast
From Middle English fast, fest, from Old English fæst (“firm, secure”), from Proto-West Germanic *fast, from Proto-Germanic *fastuz; see it for cognates and further etymology.
The development of “rapid” from an original sense of “secure” apparently happened first in the adverb and then transferred to the adjective; compare hard in expressions like “to run hard”. The original sense of “secure, firm” is now slightly archaic, but retained in the related fasten (“make secure”). Also compare close meaning change from Latin rapiō (“to snatch”) to Latin rapidus (“rapid, quick”), from Irish sciob (“to snatch”) to Irish sciobtha (“quick”).
From Middle English fast, faste, from Old English fæste, from fæst + -e (adverb-forming suffix).
From Middle English fasten, from Old English fæstan (“to fast”), from Proto-West Germanic *fastēn, from
Proto-Germanic *fastāną (“to fast”), from the same root as Proto-Germanic *fastijaną (“to fasten”), derived from *fastuz, and thereby related to Etymology 1.
The religious sense is presumably introduced in the Gothic church, from Gothic 𐍆𐌰𐍃𐍄𐌰𐌽 (fastan, “hold fast (viz. to the rule of abstinence)”). This semantic development is unique to Gothic, the term glosses Greek νηστεύω (nēsteúō), Latin ieiuno which do not have similar connotations of "holding fast".
The feminine noun Old High German fasta likely existed in the 8th century (shift to neuter Old High German fasten from the 9th century, whence modern German Fasten).
The Old English noun originally had the sense "fortress, enclosure" and takes the religious sense only in late Old English, perhaps influenced by Old Norse fasta.
The use for reduced nutrition intake for medical reasons or for weight reduction develops by the mid-1970s, back-formed from the use of the verbal noun fasting in this sense (1960s).
From Middle English faste, fasten, from Old English fæsten (“fast, fasting”), from Proto-West Germanic *fastuni, from Proto-Germanic *fastu(b)nją (“fast, fasting”). Cognate with Old Frisian festene, feste (Modern West Frisian fêsten, fêste), Middle Dutch vastene (Modern Dutch vasten), Middle Low German vastene (Modern German Low German Fasten), German Faste, Fasten (“fast, fasting”), Gothic 𐍆𐌰𐍃𐍄𐌿𐌱𐌽𐌹 (fastubni, “fasting”). Possibly merged with Old Norse fasta (“fast, fasting”), whence also Danish faste (“fast, fasting”), Swedish fasta (“fast, fasting”).
derive
From Middle English deriven, from Old French deriver, from Latin dērīvō (“to lead, turn, or draw off (a liquid), draw off, derive”), from dē (“away”) + rīvus (“a stream”); see rival. Unrelated to arrive.
astray
From Middle English astraien or by apheresis straien, from Old French estraier (“to stray”), from late Medieval Latin extravagari (“to wander beyond”), from Latin extra (“beyond”) + vagārī (“to wander, stray”).
persevere
From Middle English perseveren, from Old French perseverer, from Latin persevērāre (“to continue steadfastly, persist, persevere”), from perseverus (“very strict or earnest”), from per (“through, by the means of”) + severus (“strict, earnest”). Doublet of perseverate.
nitrogen
Borrowed from French nitrogène (coined by French chemist and physician Jean-Antoine Chaptal in 1790). By surface analysis, nitro- + -gen. See also niter.
aeroplane
Etymology tree
Proto-Indo-European *h₂ews-
Proto-Indo-European *h₂ewsér
Proto-Hellenic *auhḗr
Ancient Greek ᾱ̓ήρ (āḗr)
Ancient Greek πλανάω (planáō)
Ancient Greek πλάνος (plános)
Ancient Greek ᾱ̓ερόπλᾰνος (āeróplănos)der.
French aéroplanebor.
English aeroplane
Borrowed from French aéroplane, from Ancient Greek ἀερόπλανος (aeróplanos, “wandering in air”), from ἀήρ (aḗr, “air”) + πλάνος (plános, “wandering”). First used by Joseph Pline in an 1855 patent.https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Aircraft_Design/NeHoahlhCGMC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Joseph+Pline+glider&pg=PA3&printsec=frontcover;https://books.google.at/books?id=fSQUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA768&dq=Joseph+Pline+brevet+1855&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjgk5Cz_a_wAhXZhf0HHdjNAJwQ6AEwAnoECAIQAg#v=onepage&q=Joseph%20Pline%20brevet%201855&f=false
oxygen
Etymology tree
Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱ-der.?
Ancient Greek ὀξύς (oxús)
Proto-Indo-European *ǵenh₁-
Proto-Indo-European *-os
Proto-Indo-European *ǵénh₁os
Proto-Hellenic *génos
Ancient Greek γένος (génos)
French oxygènebor.
English oxygen
Borrowed from French oxygène (originally in the form principe oxygène, a variant of principe oxigine ‘acidifying principle’, suggested by Lavoisier), from Ancient Greek ὀξύς (oxús, “sharp”) + γένος (génos, “birth”), referring to oxygen's supposed role in the formation of acids. By surface analysis, oxy- + -gen.
silicon
Coined by Scottish chemist Thomas Thomson as a modification of the earlier name silicium, from the stem of Latin silex (“flint, silica”) + -on from carbon.
granary
Borrowed from Latin grānārium (16th century). Equivalent to grain + -ary. Doublet of garner.
ephebe
Via Latin ephēbus, from Ancient Greek ἔφηβος (éphēbos, “adolescent”), from ἐπί (epí, “early”) + ἥβη (hḗbē, “manhood”), late 19th c.
paper
From Middle English paper, from Anglo-Norman paper, from Old Catalan paper, borrowed from Latin papȳrus (and given the Catalan suffix -er), from Ancient Greek πάπυρος (pápuros).
file
From Old French fil (“thread”), from Latin fīlum (“thread”). Doublet of filum.
From French file, from filer (“to spin out, arrange one behind another”), from Latin fīlāre, from filum (“thread”).
From Middle English file, fyle, from Old English fēl, fēol (“file”), from earlier fīil, from Proto-Germanic *finhlō, *finhilō (“file, rasp”), from Proto-Indo-European *peyḱ- (“to adorn, form”). Cognate with West Frisian file (“file”), Dutch vijl (“file”), German Feile (“file”), Danish, Norwegian Bokmål, Norwegian Nynorsk, and Swedish fil (“file”), Icelandic þjöl (“rasp, file”).
From Middle English filen (“to defile”), from Old English fȳlan (“to defile, make foul”), from Proto-West Germanic *fūlijan (“to make foul”). More at defile.
view
From Middle English vewe, from Anglo-Norman vewe, from Old French veue f (French vue f), feminine past participle of veoir (“to see”) (French voir). Cognate with Italian vedere, as well as Portuguese and Spanish ver. Doublet of veduta and vista.
image
From Middle English ymage, borrowed from Old French image, from Latin imāgō (“a copy, likeness, image”), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂eym-; the same PIE root is the source of imitari (“to copy, imitate”); see imitate. Doublet of imago.
help
From Middle English help, from Old English help (“help, aid, assistance, relief”), from Proto-Germanic *helpō (“help”), *hilpiz, *hulpiz, from Proto-Indo-European *ḱelb-, *ḱelp- (“to help”).
Cognate with Saterland Frisian Hälpe (“help”), West Frisian help (“help”), Cimbrian hölfe (“help”), Dutch hulp (“help”), German Hilfe (“help, aid, assistance”), Luxembourgish Hëllef (“help”), Mòcheno hilf (“help”), Vilamovian hyłf (“help”), Yiddish הילף (hilf, “help”), Danish hjælp (“help”), Faroese, Icelandic hjálp (“help”), Norwegian Bokmål hjelp (“help”), Norwegian Nynorsk hjelp, hjølp (“help”), Swedish hjälp (“help”).
From Middle English helpen, from Old English helpan (“to help, aid, assist, benefit, relieve, cure”), from Proto-West Germanic *helpan, Proto-Germanic *helpaną (“to help”), from Proto-Indo-European *ḱelb-, *ḱelp- (“to help”).
Cognate with North Frisian halep, heelpe, help (“to help”), Saterland Frisian hälpe (“to help”), West Frisian helpe (“to help”), Cimbrian hölfan (“to help”), Dutch helpen (“to help”), German helfen (“to help”), Low German helpen, hölpen, hülpen (“to help”), Luxembourgish hëllefen (“to help”), Yiddish העלפֿן (helfn, “to help”), Danish hjælpe (“to help”), Faroese, Icelandic hjálpa (“to help”), Norwegian Bokmål hjelpe (“to help”), Norwegian Nynorsk hjelpa, hjelpe (“to help”), Swedish hjälpa (“to help”), Gothic 𐌷𐌹𐌻𐍀𐌰𐌽 (hilpan, “to help”), Lithuanian šelpti (“to help, support”).
link
From Middle English linke, lenke, from a merger of Old English hlenċe, hlenċa (“ring; chainlink”) and Old Norse *hlenkr, hlekkr (“ring; chain”); both from Proto-Germanic *hlankiz (“ring; bond; fettle; fetter”), from Proto-Germanic *hlankaz (“bendsome, flexible”), from Proto-Indo-European *kleng-, *klenk- (“to bend; twist; wind”). Used in English since the 14th century. Related to lank.
Cognates
Cognate with Low German Lenk (“link”), Danish lænke (“chain; link”), Elfdalian lekk (“link”), Icelandic hlekkur (“link”), Norwegian Bokmål lenke (“chain; link”), Norwegian Nynorsk lenke, lenkje (“chain; link”), Swedish länk (“chain; link”).
Plausibly a modification of Medieval Latin linchinus (“candle”), an alteration of Latin lynchinus, itself from Ancient Greek λύχνος (lúkhnos, “lamp”).
fulcrum
Borrowed from Latin fulcrum (“bedpost, foot of a couch”), from fulciō (“prop up, support”).
Andrew
Etymology tree
Ancient Greek Ἀνδρέᾱς (Andréās)der.
English Andrew
From Ancient Greek Ἀνδρέας (Andréas), cognate with ἀνδρεῖος (andreîos, “manly”), both from ἀνήρ (anḗr, “man”). Doublet of André, Andreas, Andrei, and Andrey.
silica
From New Latin silica, from Latin silex (“hard stone, flint”), on model of alumina, soda.
physics
1580s; from physic (see also -ics), from Middle English phisik, from Old French fisike (“natural science, art of healing”), from Latin physica (“study of nature”), from Ancient Greek φυσική (phusikḗ), feminine singular of φυσικός (phusikós, “natural; physical”), from Ancient Greek φύσις (phúsis, “origin; nature, property”), from Ancient Greek φύω (phúō, “produce; bear; grow”), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *bʰuH- (“to appear, become, rise up”).
occupation
From Middle English occupacioun, borrowed from Middle French occupacion, occupation, from Latin occupātiō, occupātiōnis, from occupō (“occupy, seize”), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *kap- (“to seize, grab”). By surface analysis, occupy + -ation.
labour
From Middle English labor, labour, labur, from Old French labor (modern labeur) and its etymon, Latin labor.
From Middle English labouren, from Old French laborer, from Latin laborare (“(intransitive) to labor, strive, exert oneself, suffer, be in distress, (transitive) to work out, elaborate”), from labor (“labor, toil, work, exertion”); perhaps remotely akin to robur (“strength”). Displaced native English swink (“toil, labor”).
breast
Etymology tree
Proto-Germanic *breustą
Proto-West Germanic *breust
Old English brēost
Middle English brest
English breast
From Middle English brest, from Old English brēost, from Proto-West Germanic *breust, from Proto-Germanic *breustą, from Proto-Indo-European *bʰrews- (“to swell”). Compare West Frisian boarst, Danish bryst, Swedish bröst; cf. also Dutch borst, German Brust.
udder
From Middle English udder, uddyr (also as uther, iddyr), from Old English ūder (“udder; breast”), from Proto-Germanic *ūdarą, from Proto-Indo-European *h₁ówHdʰr̥ (“udder”).
Cognate with Saterland Frisian Jadder (“udder”), Dutch uier (“udder”), German Euter (“udder”), Swedish juver (“udder”), Icelandic júgur (“udder”), Vedic Sanskrit ऊधर् (ū́dhar), Ancient Greek οὖθαρ (oûthar), Latin ūber.
osmosis
From endosmose and exosmose, both coined by French physician Henri Dutrochet in 1826; from (respectively) Ancient Greek ἔνδον (éndon, “within”) and Ancient Greek ἔξω (éxō, “outer, external”), plus Ancient Greek ὠσμός (ōsmós, “push, impulsion”), from ὠθέω (ōthéō).
window
From Middle English wyndowe, wyndown, from Old Norse vindauga (“window”, literally “wind-eye; wind-hole”), equivalent to wind + eye. Cognate with Scots windae and windock, Faroese vindeyga, Norwegian Bokmål vindu, Norwegian Nynorsk vindauge, Danish vindue, archaic Swedish vindöga, Elfdalian windog. Displaced native Old English ēagþȳrel (literally “eye hole”) (the rare direct descendant is eyethurl (“window, pupil, etc.”)). The “windows” among early Germanic peoples were just unglazed holes (eyes) in the wall or roof that permitted wind to pass through .
hardware
From Middle English hardware; equivalent to hard + -ware; attested since the mid-15th century.
bullet
From Middle English bullet (“an official tag or badge of registration or identification”), from Old French bullete, diminutive of boule (“ball”). Later influenced by Middle French boulette and French boulet.
passage
Borrowed into Middle English from Old French passage, from passer (“to pass”).
From French passager, from Italian passeggiare.
refresh
From Middle English refreshen, refreschen, refrisschen, from Old French refrescher (“to refresh”) (modern French rafraîchir), equivalent to re- + fresh.