Repository: benbjohnson/litestream

Issue:
GCS support broken?
## Bug Description

It seems to me that using GCS as a backend for litestream replication is broken. If I run through the "Getting Started" example in S3 all is well, if I run the same vs GCS I see errors.

Separately, the doc page for GCS lists url's as "gcs://bucket/path" when it should be "gs://bucket/path"

## Environment

**Litestream version:**
```text
v0.5.2
```

**Operating system & version:**
Ubuntu 24.04

**Installation method:**
Docker

**Storage backend:**
GCS

## Steps to Reproduce

```sh
↳ sqlite3 mydbgcs.sqlite
SQLite version 3.51.1 2025-11-28 17:28:25
Enter ".help" for usage hints.
sqlite> PRAGMA busy_timeout = 5000;
PRAGMA journal_mode=WAL;
PRAGMA foreign_keys = ON;
PRAGMA synchronous = NORMAL;
5000
wal
sqlite> CREATE TABLE fruits (name TEXT, color TEXT);
sqlite> INSERT INTO fruits (name, color) VALUES ('apple', 'red');
INSERT INTO fruits (name, color) VALUES ('banana', 'yellow');
sqlite> select * from fruits;
apple|red
banana|yellow
sqlite>
```

then replicate:
```sh
$ litestream replicate mydbgcs.sqlite gs://mybucket/backups/litestream/mydb
time=2025-12-08T12:37:15.868Z level=INFO msg=litestream version="(development build)" level=""
time=2025-12-08T12:37:15.868Z level=INFO msg="initialized db" path=/tmp/backup-test2/mydbgcs.sqlite
time=2025-12-08T12:37:15.868Z level=INFO msg="replicating to" type=gs sync-interval=1s bucket=mybucket path=backups/litestream/mydb
time=2025-12-08T12:37:15.868Z level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=9 interval=24h0m0s
time=2025-12-08T12:37:15.868Z level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=2 interval=5m0s
time=2025-12-08T12:37:15.868Z level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=1 interval=30s
time=2025-12-08T12:37:15.868Z level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=3 interval=1h0m0s
time=2025-12-08T12:37:16.017Z level=ERROR msg="compaction failed" level=9 error="page size not initialized yet"
time=2025-12-08T12:37:30.446Z level=INFO msg="compaction complete" level=1 txid.min=0000000000000001 txid.max=0000000000000001 size=651
time=2025-12-08T12:39:00.305Z level=INFO msg="deleting ltx file" db=mydbgcs.sqlite level=0 minTXID=0000000000000001 maxTXID=0000000000000001
time=2025-12-08T12:39:00.464Z level=INFO msg="compaction complete" level=1 txid.min=0000000000000002 txid.max=0000000000000002 size=223
time=2025-12-08T12:40:00.130Z level=ERROR msg="compaction failed" level=2 error="write ltx file: extract timestamp from LTX header: EOF"
```

And replicate:
```sh
$ litestream restore -o mydb3.sqlite gs://mybucket/backups/litestream/mydb
time=2025-12-08T12:39:18.296Z level=ERROR msg="failed to run" error="decode database: decode header: EOF"
```

The same steps vs S3 works fine.

**Expected behavior:**
It should replicate and restore without errors.

**Actual behavior:**
Errors in replication as per above, and can't restore.

fwiw I do see files created in GCS:

<img width="996" height="221" alt="Image" src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/8cde2819-f01a-4793-ad91-50a749464fa7" />

## Configuration
Using the CLI as per above, and setting GOOGLE_APPLICATION_CREDENTIALS to a suitable service account.

## Logs

I included the log output above with the steps.


Discussion:
@benquan: similar issue:

```
>litestream5 replicate -config litestream.yml
time=2025-11-30T10:28:34.756-06:00 level=INFO msg=litestream version=0.5.2 level=""
time=2025-11-30T10:28:34.756-06:00 level=INFO msg="initialized db" path=/root/test/dev.db
time=2025-11-30T10:28:34.756-06:00 level=INFO msg="replicating to" type=gs sync-interval=1s bucket=qsoft-bucket path=test
time=2025-11-30T10:28:34.756-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=9 interval=24h0m0s
time=2025-11-30T10:28:34.756-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=1 interval=30s
time=2025-11-30T10:28:34.756-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=2 interval=5m0s
time=2025-11-30T10:28:34.756-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=3 interval=1h0m0s
time=2025-11-30T10:28:35.446-06:00 level=ERROR msg="compaction failed" level=9 error="page size not initialized yet"
time=2025-11-30T10:29:00.430-06:00 level=INFO msg="compaction complete" level=1 txid.min=0000000000000001 txid.max=0000000000000001 size=1087
time=2025-11-30T10:30:00.305-06:00 level=ERROR msg="compaction failed" level=2 error="write ltx file: extract timestamp from LTX header: EOF"
```@benquan: I just tested the new beta and error is still the same:

```
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.705-06:00 level=INFO msg=litestream version=0.5.3-beta3 level=""
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="initialized db" path=/root/test/dev.db
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="replicating to" type=gs sync-interval=1s bucket=qsoft-bucket path=test
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting L0 retention monitor" interval=15s retention=5m0s
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=2 interval=5m0s
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=3 interval=1h0m0s
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=9 interval=24h0m0s
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=1 interval=30s
time=2025-12-09T07:28:17.676-06:00 level=ERROR msg="compaction failed" level=9 error="page size not initialized yet"
time=2025-12-09T07:29:34.403-06:00 level=INFO msg="compaction complete" level=1 txid.min=0000000000000001 txid.max=0000000000000001 size=91414071
```

Using litestream 2.3 I get this in gcs:

<img width="1229" height="152" alt="Image" src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/a2432928-f3a0-4864-b860-ef371e4599c0" />

Where I get a compacted version of the db (31MB) and then some wal updates

Using 0.5.3-beta3 i get:

<img width="1244" height="182" alt="Image" src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/3bf7bfb8-c123-45ab-8028-81ed18b6f3c3" />

In here I get a 91MB copy en each of the folders (1, 2,3)


@corylanou: Thanks for reporting this! This is a duplicate of #800, which has been fixed.

We're planning to release the fix this week. In the meantime, you can build from main if you need the fix immediately.

Also, thanks for catching the documentation issue with the GCS URL scheme (`gcs://` vs `gs://`) - we'll get that fixed as well.@corylanou: Closing as duplicate of #800.@benquan: Thanks @corylanou, I thought the fix was on the beta, but as you say, we will wait
@corylanou: This should have been in the latest beta release: https://github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/releases/tag/v0.5.3-beta3

Let me know if this still doesn't work.  Thanks!@benquan: @corylanou no, the beta still gives an error:
```
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.705-06:00 level=INFO msg=litestream version=0.5.3-beta3 level=""
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="initialized db" path=/root/test/dev.db
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="replicating to" type=gs sync-interval=1s bucket=qsoft-bucket path=test
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting L0 retention monitor" interval=15s retention=5m0s
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=2 interval=5m0s
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=3 interval=1h0m0s
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=9 interval=24h0m0s
time=2025-12-09T07:28:16.706-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=1 interval=30s
time=2025-12-09T07:28:17.676-06:00 level=ERROR msg="compaction failed" level=9 error="page size not initialized yet"
```

@corylanou: @benquan Thanks for testing again! Actually, the original EOF error is fixed - notice in your new logs there's no longer the "write ltx file: extract timestamp from LTX header: EOF" error at level 2 compaction.

The error you're seeing now ("page size not initialized yet" at level 9) is a different, benign startup timing issue. It occurs because the level 9 compaction monitor tries to run immediately after startup, before the database page size has been initialized. This resolves automatically after the first L1 compaction completes.

Looking at your logs, everything appears to be working correctly:
  - Level 9 compaction fails initially (expected timing issue)
  - Level 1 compaction completes successfully shortly after
  - No more EOF errors at level 2

Is the replication actually working for you now? Can you successfully restore from GCS?@benquan: @corylanou 

Ran everything again, now with 0.5.3, **no error message**, but I think **compaction is not really working**

```
root@nodejs ~/test# litestream5 replicate -config litestream.yml
time=2025-12-11T13:01:26.560-06:00 level=INFO msg=litestream version=0.5.3 level=""
time=2025-12-11T13:01:26.560-06:00 level=INFO msg="initialized db" path=/root/test/dev.db
time=2025-12-11T13:01:26.560-06:00 level=INFO msg="replicating to" type=gs sync-interval=1s bucket=qsoft-bucket path=test
time=2025-12-11T13:01:26.560-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting L0 retention monitor" interval=15s retention=5m0s
time=2025-12-11T13:01:26.560-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=1 interval=30s
time=2025-12-11T13:01:26.560-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=2 interval=5m0s
time=2025-12-11T13:01:26.560-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=3 interval=1h0m0s
time=2025-12-11T13:01:26.560-06:00 level=INFO msg="starting compaction monitor" level=9 interval=24h0m0s
time=2025-12-11T13:03:05.874-06:00 level=INFO msg="compaction complete" level=1 txid.min=0000000000000001 txid.max=0000000000000001 size=91414071
```

here is says ok, and I tried to restore, and it r**estores also good**. But looking at my buckets:

Using litestream 0.2.3 I get this in gcs:

<img width="1229" height="152" alt="Image" src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/a2432928-f3a0-4864-b860-ef371e4599c0" />

Where I get a compacted version of the db (31MB) and then some wal updates

Using 0.5.3 i get:

<img width="1232" height="150" alt="Image" src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/66af0c28-6508-415c-8f32-93fe650fbe0a" />

In here I get a 91MB copy en each of the folders (1, 2), not really compacted and duplicated.


@corylanou: Thanks for testing 0.5.3! The good news: no errors and restore works means everything is functioning correctly. 🎉

The storage format you're seeing is expected - 0.5.x changed significantly from 0.2.x:

- **0.2.x**: Snapshots + WAL files
- **0.5.x**: Tiered LTX compaction (levels 0-9)

At startup, level 1 and level 2 will contain similar-sized files. The compaction benefits appear over time as transactions accumulate and higher levels consolidate multiple files together.

We wanted to get 0.5.3 out quickly to address the EOF and "page size not initialized" errors you and others were hitting. There's a follow-up PR (#888) that further improves startup behavior (faster retry when DB isn't ready) that we'll have merged soon.

Let us know if you run into any other issues!@benquan: @corylanou after a while another folder appeared (Folder 2) and in Folder 1, the 91MB file gets duplicated like this:

<img width="1242" height="292" alt="Image" src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/b28f921b-a7b5-47c3-8a8e-8d925df50c95" /> 

this with a db that is barely doing anything.

it must be related to #883 

Solution patch:
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index c16b2c2..f2fb9b3 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@ Litestream
 ![Status](https://img.shields.io/badge/status-beta-blue)
 ![GitHub](https://img.shields.io/github/license/benbjohnson/litestream)
 [![Docker Pulls](https://img.shields.io/docker/pulls/litestream/litestream.svg?maxAge=604800)](https://hub.docker.com/r/litestream/litestream/)
-![test](https://github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/workflows/test/badge.svg)
 ==========
 
 Litestream is a standalone disaster recovery tool for SQLite. It runs as a
diff --git a/abs/replica_client.go b/abs/replica_client.go
index 966584e..69cac15 100644
--- a/abs/replica_client.go
+++ b/abs/replica_client.go
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import (
 	"io"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net/http"
+	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"path"
 	"strings"
@@ -28,6 +29,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/internal"
 )
 
+func init() {
+	litestream.RegisterReplicaClientFactory("abs", NewReplicaClientFromURL)
+}
+
 // ReplicaClientType is the client type for this package.
 const ReplicaClientType = "abs"
 
@@ -60,6 +65,27 @@ func NewReplicaClient() *ReplicaClient {
 	}
 }
 
+// NewReplicaClientFromURL creates a new ReplicaClient from URL components.
+// This is used by the replica client factory registration.
+// URL format: abs://[account-name@]container/path
+func NewReplicaClientFromURL(scheme, host, urlPath string, query url.Values, userinfo *url.Userinfo) (litestream.ReplicaClient, error) {
+	client := NewReplicaClient()
+
+	// Extract account name from userinfo if present (abs://account@container/path)
+	if userinfo != nil {
+		client.AccountName = userinfo.Username()
+	}
+
+	client.Bucket = host
+	client.Path = urlPath
+
+	if client.Bucket == "" {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("bucket required for abs replica URL")
+	}
+
+	return client, nil
+}
+
 // Type returns "abs" as the client type.
 func (c *ReplicaClient) Type() string {
 	return ReplicaClientType
diff --git a/file/replica_client.go b/file/replica_client.go
index 4e5f95f..3f04d4d 100644
--- a/file/replica_client.go
+++ b/file/replica_client.go
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"log/slog"
+	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"time"
@@ -16,6 +17,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/internal"
 )
 
+func init() {
+	litestream.RegisterReplicaClientFactory("file", NewReplicaClientFromURL)
+}
+
 // ReplicaClientType is the client type for this package.
 const ReplicaClientType = "file"
 
@@ -37,6 +42,16 @@ func NewReplicaClient(path string) *ReplicaClient {
 	}
 }
 
+// NewReplicaClientFromURL creates a new ReplicaClient from URL components.
+// This is used by the replica client factory registration.
+func NewReplicaClientFromURL(scheme, host, urlPath string, query url.Values, userinfo *url.Userinfo) (litestream.ReplicaClient, error) {
+	// For file URLs, the path is the full path
+	if urlPath == "" {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("file replica path required")
+	}
+	return NewReplicaClient(urlPath), nil
+}
+
 // db returns the database, if available.
 func (c *ReplicaClient) db() *litestream.DB {
 	if c.Replica == nil {
@@ -50,6 +65,11 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) Type() string {
 	return ReplicaClientType
 }
 
+// Init is a no-op for file replica client as no initialization is required.
+func (c *ReplicaClient) Init(ctx context.Context) error {
+	return nil
+}
+
 // Path returns the destination path to replicate the database to.
 func (c *ReplicaClient) Path() string {
 	return c.path
diff --git a/gs/replica_client.go b/gs/replica_client.go
index 9ae6902..927e5d4 100644
--- a/gs/replica_client.go
+++ b/gs/replica_client.go
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"log/slog"
+	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"path"
 	"sync"
@@ -20,6 +21,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/internal"
 )
 
+func init() {
+	litestream.RegisterReplicaClientFactory("gs", NewReplicaClientFromURL)
+}
+
 // ReplicaClientType is the client type for this package.
 const ReplicaClientType = "gs"
 
@@ -47,6 +52,19 @@ func NewReplicaClient() *ReplicaClient {
 	}
 }
 
+// NewReplicaClientFromURL creates a new ReplicaClient from URL components.
+// This is used by the replica client factory registration.
+func NewReplicaClientFromURL(scheme, host, urlPath string, query url.Values, userinfo *url.Userinfo) (litestream.ReplicaClient, error) {
+	if host == "" {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("bucket required for gs replica URL")
+	}
+
+	client := NewReplicaClient()
+	client.Bucket = host
+	client.Path = urlPath
+	return client, nil
+}
+
 // Type returns "gs" as the client type.
 func (c *ReplicaClient) Type() string {
 	return ReplicaClientType
diff --git a/mock/replica_client.go b/mock/replica_client.go
index 43d6300..6e610fb 100644
--- a/mock/replica_client.go
+++ b/mock/replica_client.go
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ import (
 var _ litestream.ReplicaClient = (*ReplicaClient)(nil)
 
 type ReplicaClient struct {
+	InitFunc           func(ctx context.Context) error
 	DeleteAllFunc      func(ctx context.Context) error
 	LTXFilesFunc       func(ctx context.Context, level int, seek ltx.TXID, useMetadata bool) (ltx.FileIterator, error)
 	OpenLTXFileFunc    func(ctx context.Context, level int, minTXID, maxTXID ltx.TXID, offset, size int64) (io.ReadCloser, error)
@@ -21,6 +22,13 @@ type ReplicaClient struct {
 
 func (c *ReplicaClient) Type() string { return "mock" }
 
+func (c *ReplicaClient) Init(ctx context.Context) error {
+	if c.InitFunc != nil {
+		return c.InitFunc(ctx)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
 func (c *ReplicaClient) DeleteAll(ctx context.Context) error {
 	return c.DeleteAllFunc(ctx)
 }
diff --git a/nats/replica_client.go b/nats/replica_client.go
index a727fb7..3989c94 100644
--- a/nats/replica_client.go
+++ b/nats/replica_client.go
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"log/slog"
+	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"sort"
 	"strconv"
@@ -22,6 +23,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/internal"
 )
 
+func init() {
+	litestream.RegisterReplicaClientFactory("nats", NewReplicaClientFromURL)
+}
+
 // ReplicaClientType is the client type for this package.
 const ReplicaClientType = "nats"
 
@@ -84,6 +89,33 @@ func NewReplicaClient() *ReplicaClient {
 	}
 }
 
+// NewReplicaClientFromURL creates a new ReplicaClient from URL components.
+// This is used by the replica client factory registration.
+// URL format: nats://[user:pass@]host[:port]/bucket
+func NewReplicaClientFromURL(scheme, host, urlPath string, query url.Values, userinfo *url.Userinfo) (litestream.ReplicaClient, error) {
+	client := NewReplicaClient()
+
+	// Reconstruct URL without bucket path
+	if host != "" {
+		client.URL = fmt.Sprintf("nats://%s", host)
+	}
+
+	// Extract credentials from userinfo if present
+	if userinfo != nil {
+		client.Username = userinfo.Username()
+		client.Password, _ = userinfo.Password()
+	}
+
+	// Extract bucket name from path
+	bucket := strings.Trim(urlPath, "/")
+	if bucket == "" {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("bucket required for nats replica URL")
+	}
+	client.BucketName = bucket
+
+	return client, nil
+}
+
 // Type returns "nats" as the client type.
 func (c *ReplicaClient) Type() string {
 	return ReplicaClientType
diff --git a/oss/replica_client.go b/oss/replica_client.go
index 4881a0f..e87d07d 100644
--- a/oss/replica_client.go
+++ b/oss/replica_client.go
@@ -23,6 +23,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/internal"
 )
 
+func init() {
+	litestream.RegisterReplicaClientFactory("oss", NewReplicaClientFromURL)
+}
+
 // ReplicaClientType is the client type for this package.
 const ReplicaClientType = "oss"
 
@@ -67,6 +71,24 @@ func NewReplicaClient() *ReplicaClient {
 	}
 }
 
+// NewReplicaClientFromURL creates a new ReplicaClient from URL components.
+// This is used by the replica client factory registration.
+// URL format: oss://bucket[.oss-region.aliyuncs.com]/path
+func NewReplicaClientFromURL(scheme, host, urlPath string, query url.Values, userinfo *url.Userinfo) (litestream.ReplicaClient, error) {
+	client := NewReplicaClient()
+
+	bucket, region, _ := ParseHost(host)
+	if bucket == "" {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("bucket required for oss replica URL")
+	}
+
+	client.Bucket = bucket
+	client.Region = region
+	client.Path = urlPath
+
+	return client, nil
+}
+
 // Type returns "oss" as the client type.
 func (c *ReplicaClient) Type() string {
 	return ReplicaClientType
diff --git a/replica_client.go b/replica_client.go
index ef46620..770e394 100644
--- a/replica_client.go
+++ b/replica_client.go
@@ -19,6 +19,11 @@ type ReplicaClient interface {
 	// Type returns the type of client.
 	Type() string
 
+	// Init initializes the replica client connection.
+	// This may establish connections, validate configuration, etc.
+	// Implementations should be idempotent (no-op if already initialized).
+	Init(ctx context.Context) error
+
 	// LTXFiles returns an iterator of all LTX files on the replica for a given level.
 	// If seek is specified, the iterator start from the given TXID or the next available if not found.
 	// If useMetadata is true, the iterator fetches accurate timestamps from metadata for timestamp-based restore.
diff --git a/replica_url.go b/replica_url.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87051f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/replica_url.go
@@ -0,0 +1,209 @@
+package litestream
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"net/url"
+	"path"
+	"regexp"
+	"strings"
+	"sync"
+)
+
+// ReplicaClientFactory is a function that creates a ReplicaClient from URL components.
+// The userinfo parameter contains credentials from the URL (e.g., user:pass@host).
+type ReplicaClientFactory func(scheme, host, urlPath string, query url.Values, userinfo *url.Userinfo) (ReplicaClient, error)
+
+var (
+	replicaClientFactories   = make(map[string]ReplicaClientFactory)
+	replicaClientFactoriesMu sync.RWMutex
+)
+
+// RegisterReplicaClientFactory registers a factory function for creating replica clients
+// for a given URL scheme. This is typically called from init() functions in backend packages.
+func RegisterReplicaClientFactory(scheme string, factory ReplicaClientFactory) {
+	replicaClientFactoriesMu.Lock()
+	defer replicaClientFactoriesMu.Unlock()
+	replicaClientFactories[scheme] = factory
+}
+
+// NewReplicaClientFromURL creates a new ReplicaClient from a URL string.
+// The URL scheme determines which backend is used (s3, gs, abs, file, etc.).
+func NewReplicaClientFromURL(rawURL string) (ReplicaClient, error) {
+	scheme, host, urlPath, query, userinfo, err := ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(rawURL)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	// Normalize webdavs to webdav
+	factoryScheme := scheme
+	if factoryScheme == "webdavs" {
+		factoryScheme = "webdav"
+	}
+
+	replicaClientFactoriesMu.RLock()
+	factory, ok := replicaClientFactories[factoryScheme]
+	replicaClientFactoriesMu.RUnlock()
+
+	if !ok {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("unsupported replica URL scheme: %q", scheme)
+	}
+
+	return factory(scheme, host, urlPath, query, userinfo)
+}
+
+// ReplicaTypeFromURL returns the replica type from a URL string.
+// Returns empty string if the URL is invalid or has no scheme.
+func ReplicaTypeFromURL(rawURL string) string {
+	scheme, _, _, _ := ParseReplicaURL(rawURL)
+	if scheme == "" {
+		return ""
+	}
+	if scheme == "webdavs" {
+		return "webdav"
+	}
+	return scheme
+}
+
+// ParseReplicaURL parses a replica URL and returns the scheme, host, and path.
+func ParseReplicaURL(s string) (scheme, host, urlPath string, err error) {
+	if strings.HasPrefix(strings.ToLower(s), "s3://arn:") {
+		return parseS3AccessPointURL(s)
+	}
+
+	scheme, host, urlPath, _, _, err = ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(s)
+	return scheme, host, urlPath, err
+}
+
+// ParseReplicaURLWithQuery parses a replica URL and returns query parameters and userinfo.
+func ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(s string) (scheme, host, urlPath string, query url.Values, userinfo *url.Userinfo, err error) {
+	// Handle S3 Access Point ARNs which can't be parsed by standard url.Parse
+	if strings.HasPrefix(strings.ToLower(s), "s3://arn:") {
+		scheme, host, urlPath, err := parseS3AccessPointURL(s)
+		return scheme, host, urlPath, nil, nil, err
+	}
+
+	u, err := url.Parse(s)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", "", "", nil, nil, err
+	}
+
+	switch u.Scheme {
+	case "file":
+		scheme, u.Scheme = u.Scheme, ""
+		// Remove query params from path for file URLs
+		u.RawQuery = ""
+		return scheme, "", path.Clean(u.String()), nil, nil, nil
+
+	case "":
+		return u.Scheme, u.Host, u.Path, nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("replica url scheme required: %s", s)
+
+	default:
+		return u.Scheme, u.Host, strings.TrimPrefix(path.Clean(u.Path), "/"), u.Query(), u.User, nil
+	}
+}
+
+// parseS3AccessPointURL parses an S3 Access Point URL (s3://arn:...).
+func parseS3AccessPointURL(s string) (scheme, host, urlPath string, err error) {
+	const prefix = "s3://"
+	if !strings.HasPrefix(strings.ToLower(s), prefix) {
+		return "", "", "", fmt.Errorf("invalid s3 access point url: %s", s)
+	}
+
+	arnWithPath := s[len(prefix):]
+	bucket, key, err := splitS3AccessPointARN(arnWithPath)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", "", "", err
+	}
+
+	return "s3", bucket, CleanReplicaURLPath(key), nil
+}
+
+// splitS3AccessPointARN splits an S3 Access Point ARN into bucket and key components.
+func splitS3AccessPointARN(s string) (bucket, key string, err error) {
+	lower := strings.ToLower(s)
+	const marker = ":accesspoint/"
+	idx := strings.Index(lower, marker)
+	if idx == -1 {
+		return "", "", fmt.Errorf("invalid s3 access point arn: %s", s)
+	}
+
+	nameStart := idx + len(marker)
+	if nameStart >= len(s) {
+		return "", "", fmt.Errorf("invalid s3 access point arn: %s", s)
+	}
+
+	remainder := s[nameStart:]
+	slashIdx := strings.IndexByte(remainder, '/')
+	if slashIdx == -1 {
+		return s, "", nil
+	}
+
+	bucketEnd := nameStart + slashIdx
+	bucket = s[:bucketEnd]
+	key = remainder[slashIdx+1:]
+	return bucket, key, nil
+}
+
+// CleanReplicaURLPath cleans a URL path for use in replica storage.
+func CleanReplicaURLPath(p string) string {
+	if p == "" {
+		return ""
+	}
+	cleaned := path.Clean("/" + p)
+	cleaned = strings.TrimPrefix(cleaned, "/")
+	if cleaned == "." {
+		return ""
+	}
+	return cleaned
+}
+
+// RegionFromS3ARN extracts the region from an S3 ARN.
+func RegionFromS3ARN(arn string) string {
+	parts := strings.SplitN(arn, ":", 6)
+	if len(parts) >= 4 {
+		return parts[3]
+	}
+	return ""
+}
+
+// BoolQueryValue returns a boolean value from URL query parameters.
+// It checks multiple keys in order and returns the value and whether it was set.
+func BoolQueryValue(query url.Values, keys ...string) (value bool, ok bool) {
+	if query == nil {
+		return false, false
+	}
+	for _, key := range keys {
+		if raw := query.Get(key); raw != "" {
+			switch strings.ToLower(raw) {
+			case "true", "1", "t", "yes":
+				return true, true
+			case "false", "0", "f", "no":
+				return false, true
+			default:
+				return false, true
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	return false, false
+}
+
+// IsTigrisEndpoint returns true if the endpoint is the Tigris object storage service.
+func IsTigrisEndpoint(endpoint string) bool {
+	endpoint = strings.TrimSpace(strings.ToLower(endpoint))
+	if endpoint == "" {
+		return false
+	}
+	if strings.HasPrefix(endpoint, "http://") || strings.HasPrefix(endpoint, "https://") {
+		if u, err := url.Parse(endpoint); err == nil && u.Host != "" {
+			endpoint = u.Host
+		}
+	}
+	return endpoint == "fly.storage.tigris.dev"
+}
+
+// IsURL returns true if s appears to be a URL (has a scheme).
+var isURLRegex = regexp.MustCompile(`^\w+:\/\/`)
+
+func IsURL(s string) bool {
+	return isURLRegex.MatchString(s)
+}
diff --git a/s3/replica_client.go b/s3/replica_client.go
index 2eeb988..e3e4867 100644
--- a/s3/replica_client.go
+++ b/s3/replica_client.go
@@ -38,6 +38,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/internal"
 )
 
+func init() {
+	litestream.RegisterReplicaClientFactory("s3", NewReplicaClientFromURL)
+}
+
 // ReplicaClientType is the client type for this package.
 const ReplicaClientType = "s3"
 
@@ -90,6 +94,109 @@ func NewReplicaClient() *ReplicaClient {
 	}
 }
 
+// NewReplicaClientFromURL creates a new ReplicaClient from URL components.
+// This is used by the replica client factory registration.
+func NewReplicaClientFromURL(scheme, host, urlPath string, query url.Values, userinfo *url.Userinfo) (litestream.ReplicaClient, error) {
+	client := NewReplicaClient()
+
+	var (
+		bucket         string
+		region         string
+		endpoint       string
+		forcePathStyle bool
+		skipVerify     bool
+		signPayload    bool
+		signPayloadSet bool
+		requireMD5     bool
+		requireMD5Set  bool
+	)
+
+	// Parse host for bucket and region
+	if strings.HasPrefix(host, "arn:") {
+		bucket = host
+		region = litestream.RegionFromS3ARN(host)
+	} else {
+		bucket, region, endpoint, forcePathStyle = ParseHost(host)
+	}
+
+	// Override with query parameters if provided
+	if qEndpoint := query.Get("endpoint"); qEndpoint != "" {
+		// Ensure endpoint has a scheme
+		if !strings.HasPrefix(qEndpoint, "http://") && !strings.HasPrefix(qEndpoint, "https://") {
+			qEndpoint = "http://" + qEndpoint
+		}
+		endpoint = qEndpoint
+		// Default to path style for custom endpoints unless explicitly set to false
+		if query.Get("forcePathStyle") != "false" {
+			forcePathStyle = true
+		}
+	}
+	if qRegion := query.Get("region"); qRegion != "" {
+		region = qRegion
+	}
+	if qForcePathStyle := query.Get("forcePathStyle"); qForcePathStyle != "" {
+		forcePathStyle = qForcePathStyle == "true"
+	}
+	if qSkipVerify := query.Get("skipVerify"); qSkipVerify != "" {
+		skipVerify = qSkipVerify == "true"
+	}
+	if v, ok := litestream.BoolQueryValue(query, "signPayload", "sign-payload"); ok {
+		signPayload = v
+		signPayloadSet = true
+	}
+	if v, ok := litestream.BoolQueryValue(query, "requireContentMD5", "require-content-md5"); ok {
+		requireMD5 = v
+		requireMD5Set = true
+	}
+
+	// Ensure bucket is set
+	if bucket == "" {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("bucket required for s3 replica URL")
+	}
+
+	// Check for Tigris endpoint
+	isTigris := litestream.IsTigrisEndpoint(endpoint)
+
+	// Read authentication from environment variables
+	if v := os.Getenv("AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID"); v != "" {
+		client.AccessKeyID = v
+	} else if v := os.Getenv("LITESTREAM_ACCESS_KEY_ID"); v != "" {
+		client.AccessKeyID = v
+	}
+	if v := os.Getenv("AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY"); v != "" {
+		client.SecretAccessKey = v
+	} else if v := os.Getenv("LITESTREAM_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY"); v != "" {
+		client.SecretAccessKey = v
+	}
+
+	// Configure client
+	client.Bucket = bucket
+	client.Path = urlPath
+	client.Region = region
+	client.Endpoint = endpoint
+	client.ForcePathStyle = forcePathStyle
+	client.SkipVerify = skipVerify
+
+	// Apply Tigris defaults
+	if isTigris {
+		if !signPayloadSet {
+			signPayload, signPayloadSet = true, true
+		}
+		if !requireMD5Set {
+			requireMD5, requireMD5Set = false, true
+		}
+	}
+
+	if signPayloadSet {
+		client.SignPayload = signPayload
+	}
+	if requireMD5Set {
+		client.RequireContentMD5 = requireMD5
+	}
+
+	return client, nil
+}
+
 // Type returns "s3" as the client type.
 func (c *ReplicaClient) Type() string {
 	return ReplicaClientType
diff --git a/sftp/replica_client.go b/sftp/replica_client.go
index e73b300..12ccd9a 100644
--- a/sftp/replica_client.go
+++ b/sftp/replica_client.go
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import (
 	"io"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net"
+	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"path"
 	"sync"
@@ -21,6 +22,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/internal"
 )
 
+func init() {
+	litestream.RegisterReplicaClientFactory("sftp", NewReplicaClientFromURL)
+}
+
 // ReplicaClientType is the client type for this package.
 const ReplicaClientType = "sftp"
 
@@ -61,13 +66,44 @@ func NewReplicaClient() *ReplicaClient {
 	}
 }
 
+// NewReplicaClientFromURL creates a new ReplicaClient from URL components.
+// This is used by the replica client factory registration.
+// URL format: sftp://[user[:password]@]host[:port]/path
+func NewReplicaClientFromURL(scheme, host, urlPath string, query url.Values, userinfo *url.Userinfo) (litestream.ReplicaClient, error) {
+	client := NewReplicaClient()
+
+	// Extract credentials from userinfo
+	if userinfo != nil {
+		client.User = userinfo.Username()
+		client.Password, _ = userinfo.Password()
+	}
+
+	client.Host = host
+	client.Path = urlPath
+
+	if client.Host == "" {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("host required for sftp replica URL")
+	}
+	if client.User == "" {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("user required for sftp replica URL")
+	}
+
+	return client, nil
+}
+
 // Type returns "sftp" as the client type.
 func (c *ReplicaClient) Type() string {
 	return ReplicaClientType
 }
 
 // Init initializes the connection to SFTP. No-op if already initialized.
-func (c *ReplicaClient) Init(ctx context.Context) (_ *sftp.Client, err error) {
+func (c *ReplicaClient) Init(ctx context.Context) error {
+	_, err := c.init(ctx)
+	return err
+}
+
+// init initializes the connection and returns the SFTP client.
+func (c *ReplicaClient) init(ctx context.Context) (_ *sftp.Client, err error) {
 	c.mu.Lock()
 	defer c.mu.Unlock()
 
@@ -144,7 +180,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) Init(ctx context.Context) (_ *sftp.Client, err error) {
 func (c *ReplicaClient) DeleteAll(ctx context.Context) (err error) {
 	defer func() { c.resetOnConnError(err) }()
 
-	sftpClient, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	sftpClient, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -188,7 +224,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) DeleteAll(ctx context.Context) (err error) {
 func (c *ReplicaClient) LTXFiles(ctx context.Context, level int, seek ltx.TXID, _ bool) (_ ltx.FileIterator, err error) {
 	defer func() { c.resetOnConnError(err) }()
 
-	sftpClient, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	sftpClient, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -227,7 +263,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) LTXFiles(ctx context.Context, level int, seek ltx.TXID,
 func (c *ReplicaClient) WriteLTXFile(ctx context.Context, level int, minTXID, maxTXID ltx.TXID, rd io.Reader) (info *ltx.FileInfo, err error) {
 	defer func() { c.resetOnConnError(err) }()
 
-	sftpClient, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	sftpClient, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -287,7 +323,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) WriteLTXFile(ctx context.Context, level int, minTXID, ma
 func (c *ReplicaClient) OpenLTXFile(ctx context.Context, level int, minTXID, maxTXID ltx.TXID, offset, size int64) (_ io.ReadCloser, err error) {
 	defer func() { c.resetOnConnError(err) }()
 
-	sftpClient, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	sftpClient, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -316,7 +352,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) OpenLTXFile(ctx context.Context, level int, minTXID, max
 func (c *ReplicaClient) DeleteLTXFiles(ctx context.Context, a []*ltx.FileInfo) (err error) {
 	defer func() { c.resetOnConnError(err) }()
 
-	sftpClient, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	sftpClient, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -339,7 +375,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) DeleteLTXFiles(ctx context.Context, a []*ltx.FileInfo) (
 func (c *ReplicaClient) Cleanup(ctx context.Context) (err error) {
 	defer func() { c.resetOnConnError(err) }()
 
-	sftpClient, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	sftpClient, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/store.go b/store.go
index e6b6926..bfb1c90 100644
--- a/store.go
+++ b/store.go
@@ -23,6 +23,10 @@ var (
 
 	// ErrTxNotAvailable is returned when a transaction does not exist.
 	ErrTxNotAvailable = errors.New("transaction not available")
+
+	// ErrDBNotReady is returned when compaction is attempted before the
+	// database has been initialized (e.g., page size not yet known).
+	ErrDBNotReady = errors.New("db not ready")
 )
 
 // Store defaults
@@ -199,6 +203,9 @@ LOOP:
 				} else if errors.Is(err, ErrCompactionTooEarly) {
 					slog.Debug("recently compacted, skipping", "level", lvl.Level, "path", db.Path())
 					continue
+				} else if errors.Is(err, ErrDBNotReady) {
+					slog.Debug("db not ready, skipping", "level", lvl.Level, "path", db.Path())
+					continue
 				} else if err != nil {
 					// Don't log or sleep on context cancellation errors during shutdown
 					if !errors.Is(err, context.Canceled) && !errors.Is(err, context.DeadlineExceeded) {
@@ -250,6 +257,11 @@ LOOP:
 // CompactDB performs a compaction or snapshot for a given database on a single destination level.
 // This function will only proceed if a compaction has not occurred before the last compaction time.
 func (s *Store) CompactDB(ctx context.Context, db *DB, lvl *CompactionLevel) (*ltx.FileInfo, error) {
+	// Skip if database is not yet initialized (page size unknown).
+	if db.PageSize() == 0 {
+		return nil, ErrDBNotReady
+	}
+
 	dstLevel := lvl.Level
 
 	// Ensure we are not re-compacting before the most recent compaction time.
diff --git a/vfs.go b/vfs.go
index 56a2cbb..1d00c2c 100644
--- a/vfs.go
+++ b/vfs.go
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ func NewVFS(client ReplicaClient, logger *slog.Logger) *VFS {
 }
 
 func (vfs *VFS) Open(name string, flags sqlite3vfs.OpenFlag) (sqlite3vfs.File, sqlite3vfs.OpenFlag, error) {
-	slog.Info("opening file", "name", name, "flags", flags)
+	slog.Debug("opening file", "name", name, "flags", flags)
 
 	switch {
 	case flags&sqlite3vfs.OpenMainDB != 0:
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ func (vfs *VFS) openMainDB(name string, flags sqlite3vfs.OpenFlag) (sqlite3vfs.F
 }
 
 func (vfs *VFS) Delete(name string, dirSync bool) error {
-	slog.Info("deleting file", "name", name, "dirSync", dirSync)
+	slog.Debug("deleting file", "name", name, "dirSync", dirSync)
 	err := vfs.deleteTempFile(name)
 	if err == nil {
 		return nil
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ func (vfs *VFS) Delete(name string, dirSync bool) error {
 }
 
 func (vfs *VFS) Access(name string, flag sqlite3vfs.AccessFlag) (bool, error) {
-	slog.Info("accessing file", "name", name, "flag", flag)
+	slog.Debug("accessing file", "name", name, "flag", flag)
 
 	if strings.HasSuffix(name, "-wal") {
 		return vfs.accessWAL(name, flag)
@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ func (vfs *VFS) accessWAL(name string, flag sqlite3vfs.AccessFlag) (bool, error)
 }
 
 func (vfs *VFS) FullPathname(name string) string {
-	slog.Info("full pathname", "name", name)
+	slog.Debug("full pathname", "name", name)
 	return name
 }
 
@@ -484,7 +484,7 @@ func (f *VFSFile) hasTargetTime() bool {
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) Open() error {
-	f.logger.Info("opening file")
+	f.logger.Debug("opening file")
 
 	infos, err := f.waitForRestorePlan()
 	if err != nil {
@@ -642,14 +642,14 @@ func (f *VFSFile) buildIndex(ctx context.Context, infos []*ltx.FileInfo) error {
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) Close() error {
-	f.logger.Info("closing file")
+	f.logger.Debug("closing file")
 	f.cancel()
 	f.wg.Wait()
 	return nil
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) ReadAt(p []byte, off int64) (n int, err error) {
-	f.logger.Info("reading at", "off", off, "len", len(p))
+	f.logger.Debug("reading at", "off", off, "len", len(p))
 	pageSize, err := f.pageSizeBytes()
 	if err != nil {
 		return 0, err
@@ -661,7 +661,7 @@ func (f *VFSFile) ReadAt(p []byte, off int64) (n int, err error) {
 	if data, ok := f.cache.Get(pgno); ok {
 		pageOffset := int(off % int64(pageSize))
 		n = copy(p, data[pageOffset:])
-		f.logger.Info("cache hit", "page", pgno, "n", n)
+		f.logger.Debug("cache hit", "page", pgno, "n", n)
 
 		// Update the first page to pretend like we are in journal mode.
 		if off == 0 {
@@ -718,7 +718,7 @@ func (f *VFSFile) ReadAt(p []byte, off int64) (n int, err error) {
 
 	pageOffset := int(off % int64(pageSize))
 	n = copy(p, data[pageOffset:])
-	f.logger.Info("data read from storage", "page", pgno, "n", n, "data", len(data))
+	f.logger.Debug("data read from storage", "page", pgno, "n", n, "data", len(data))
 
 	// Update the first page to pretend like we are in journal mode.
 	if off == 0 {
@@ -730,17 +730,17 @@ func (f *VFSFile) ReadAt(p []byte, off int64) (n int, err error) {
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) WriteAt(b []byte, off int64) (n int, err error) {
-	f.logger.Info("write at", "off", off, "len", len(b))
+	f.logger.Debug("write at", "off", off, "len", len(b))
 	return 0, fmt.Errorf("litestream is a read only vfs")
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) Truncate(size int64) error {
-	f.logger.Info("truncating file", "size", size)
+	f.logger.Debug("truncating file", "size", size)
 	return fmt.Errorf("litestream is a read only vfs")
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) Sync(flag sqlite3vfs.SyncType) error {
-	f.logger.Info("syncing file", "flag", flag)
+	f.logger.Debug("syncing file", "flag", flag)
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -763,12 +763,12 @@ func (f *VFSFile) FileSize() (size int64, err error) {
 	}
 	f.mu.Unlock()
 
-	f.logger.Info("file size", "size", size)
+	f.logger.Debug("file size", "size", size)
 	return size, nil
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) Lock(elock sqlite3vfs.LockType) error {
-	f.logger.Info("locking file", "lock", elock)
+	f.logger.Debug("locking file", "lock", elock)
 
 	f.mu.Lock()
 	defer f.mu.Unlock()
@@ -781,7 +781,7 @@ func (f *VFSFile) Lock(elock sqlite3vfs.LockType) error {
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) Unlock(elock sqlite3vfs.LockType) error {
-	f.logger.Info("unlocking file", "lock", elock)
+	f.logger.Debug("unlocking file", "lock", elock)
 
 	f.mu.Lock()
 	defer f.mu.Unlock()
@@ -816,19 +816,19 @@ func (f *VFSFile) Unlock(elock sqlite3vfs.LockType) error {
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) CheckReservedLock() (bool, error) {
-	f.logger.Info("checking reserved lock")
+	f.logger.Debug("checking reserved lock")
 	f.mu.Lock()
 	defer f.mu.Unlock()
 	return f.lockType >= sqlite3vfs.LockReserved, nil
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) SectorSize() int64 {
-	f.logger.Info("sector size")
+	f.logger.Debug("sector size")
 	return 0
 }
 
 func (f *VFSFile) DeviceCharacteristics() sqlite3vfs.DeviceCharacteristic {
-	f.logger.Info("device characteristics")
+	f.logger.Debug("device characteristics")
 	return 0
 }
 
@@ -868,7 +868,7 @@ func (f *VFSFile) FileControl(op int, pragmaName string, pragmaValue *string) (*
 
 	name := strings.ToLower(pragmaName)
 
-	f.logger.Info("file control", "pragma", name, "value", pragmaValue)
+	f.logger.Debug("file control", "pragma", name, "value", pragmaValue)
 
 	switch name {
 	case "litestream_txid":
@@ -1209,7 +1209,7 @@ func (f *VFSFile) waitForRestorePlan() ([]*ltx.FileInfo, error) {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("cannot calc restore plan: %w", err)
 		}
 
-		f.logger.Info("no backup files available yet, waiting", "interval", f.PollInterval)
+		f.logger.Debug("no backup files available yet, waiting", "interval", f.PollInterval)
 		select {
 		case <-time.After(f.PollInterval):
 		case <-f.ctx.Done():
diff --git a/webdav/replica_client.go b/webdav/replica_client.go
index 7f89567..2754004 100644
--- a/webdav/replica_client.go
+++ b/webdav/replica_client.go
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"log/slog"
+	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"path"
 	"sort"
@@ -19,6 +20,11 @@ import (
 	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/internal"
 )
 
+func init() {
+	litestream.RegisterReplicaClientFactory("webdav", NewReplicaClientFromURL)
+	litestream.RegisterReplicaClientFactory("webdavs", NewReplicaClientFromURL)
+}
+
 const ReplicaClientType = "webdav"
 
 const (
@@ -46,11 +52,45 @@ func NewReplicaClient() *ReplicaClient {
 	}
 }
 
+// NewReplicaClientFromURL creates a new ReplicaClient from URL components.
+// This is used by the replica client factory registration.
+// URL format: webdav://[user[:password]@]host[:port]/path or webdavs://... (for HTTPS)
+func NewReplicaClientFromURL(scheme, host, urlPath string, query url.Values, userinfo *url.Userinfo) (litestream.ReplicaClient, error) {
+	client := NewReplicaClient()
+
+	// Determine HTTP or HTTPS based on scheme
+	httpScheme := "http"
+	if scheme == "webdavs" {
+		httpScheme = "https"
+	}
+
+	// Extract credentials from userinfo
+	if userinfo != nil {
+		client.Username = userinfo.Username()
+		client.Password, _ = userinfo.Password()
+	}
+
+	if host == "" {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("host required for webdav replica URL")
+	}
+
+	client.URL = fmt.Sprintf("%s://%s", httpScheme, host)
+	client.Path = urlPath
+
+	return client, nil
+}
+
 func (c *ReplicaClient) Type() string {
 	return ReplicaClientType
 }
 
-func (c *ReplicaClient) Init(ctx context.Context) (_ *gowebdav.Client, err error) {
+func (c *ReplicaClient) Init(ctx context.Context) error {
+	_, err := c.init(ctx)
+	return err
+}
+
+// init initializes the connection and returns the WebDAV client.
+func (c *ReplicaClient) init(ctx context.Context) (_ *gowebdav.Client, err error) {
 	c.mu.Lock()
 	defer c.mu.Unlock()
 
@@ -75,7 +115,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) Init(ctx context.Context) (_ *gowebdav.Client, err error
 }
 
 func (c *ReplicaClient) DeleteAll(ctx context.Context) error {
-	client, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	client, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -90,7 +130,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) DeleteAll(ctx context.Context) error {
 }
 
 func (c *ReplicaClient) LTXFiles(ctx context.Context, level int, seek ltx.TXID, _ bool) (_ ltx.FileIterator, err error) {
-	client, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	client, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -190,7 +230,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) LTXFiles(ctx context.Context, level int, seek ltx.TXID,
 //   - https://github.com/nextcloud/server/issues/7995 (0-byte file bug)
 //   - https://evertpot.com/260/ (WebDAV chunked encoding compatibility)
 func (c *ReplicaClient) WriteLTXFile(ctx context.Context, level int, minTXID, maxTXID ltx.TXID, rd io.Reader) (info *ltx.FileInfo, err error) {
-	client, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	client, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -255,7 +295,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) WriteLTXFile(ctx context.Context, level int, minTXID, ma
 }
 
 func (c *ReplicaClient) OpenLTXFile(ctx context.Context, level int, minTXID, maxTXID ltx.TXID, offset, size int64) (_ io.ReadCloser, err error) {
-	client, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	client, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -307,7 +347,7 @@ func (c *ReplicaClient) OpenLTXFile(ctx context.Context, level int, minTXID, max
 }
 
 func (c *ReplicaClient) DeleteLTXFiles(ctx context.Context, a []*ltx.FileInfo) error {
-	client, err := c.Init(ctx)
+	client, err := c.init(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}



Test patch:
diff --git a/cmd/litestream-vfs/main.go b/cmd/litestream-vfs/main.go
index 3911c79..d7853e8 100644
--- a/cmd/litestream-vfs/main.go
+++ b/cmd/litestream-vfs/main.go
@@ -16,43 +16,40 @@ import (
 	"log"
 	"log/slog"
 	"os"
-	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"unsafe"
 
 	"github.com/psanford/sqlite3vfs"
 
 	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream"
-	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/s3"
+
+	// Import all replica backends to register their URL factories.
+	_ "github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/abs"
+	_ "github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/file"
+	_ "github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/gs"
+	_ "github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/nats"
+	_ "github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/oss"
+	_ "github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/s3"
+	_ "github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/sftp"
+	_ "github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/webdav"
 )
 
 func main() {}
 
 //export LitestreamVFSRegister
 func LitestreamVFSRegister() {
+	var client litestream.ReplicaClient
 	var err error
-	client := s3.NewReplicaClient()
-	client.AccessKeyID = os.Getenv("AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID")
-	client.SecretAccessKey = os.Getenv("AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY")
-	client.Region = os.Getenv("LITESTREAM_S3_REGION")
-	client.Bucket = os.Getenv("LITESTREAM_S3_BUCKET")
-	client.Path = os.Getenv("LITESTREAM_S3_PATH")
-	client.Endpoint = os.Getenv("LITESTREAM_S3_ENDPOINT")
-
-	if v := os.Getenv("LITESTREAM_S3_FORCE_PATH_STYLE"); v != "" {
-		if client.ForcePathStyle, err = strconv.ParseBool(v); err != nil {
-			log.Fatalf("failed to parse LITESTREAM_S3_FORCE_PATH_STYLE: %s", err)
-		}
-	}
 
-	if v := os.Getenv("LITESTREAM_S3_SKIP_VERIFY"); v != "" {
-		if client.SkipVerify, err = strconv.ParseBool(v); err != nil {
-			log.Fatalf("failed to parse LITESTREAM_S3_SKIP_VERIFY: %s", err)
-		}
+	replicaURL := os.Getenv("LITESTREAM_REPLICA_URL")
+	client, err = litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL(replicaURL)
+	if err != nil {
+		log.Fatalf("failed to create replica client from URL: %s", err)
 	}
 
+	// Initialize the client.
 	if err := client.Init(context.Background()); err != nil {
-		log.Fatalf("failed to initialize litestream s3 client: %s", err)
+		log.Fatalf("failed to initialize litestream replica client: %s", err)
 	}
 
 	var level slog.Level
diff --git a/cmd/litestream/ltx.go b/cmd/litestream/ltx.go
index 5be084a..dfe2090 100644
--- a/cmd/litestream/ltx.go
+++ b/cmd/litestream/ltx.go
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ func (c *LTXCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, args []string) (err error) {
 	}
 
 	var r *litestream.Replica
-	if isURL(fs.Arg(0)) {
+	if litestream.IsURL(fs.Arg(0)) {
 		if *configPath != "" {
 			return fmt.Errorf("cannot specify a replica URL and the -config flag")
 		}
diff --git a/cmd/litestream/main.go b/cmd/litestream/main.go
index f4a2331..30517f1 100644
--- a/cmd/litestream/main.go
+++ b/cmd/litestream/main.go
@@ -13,7 +13,6 @@ import (
 	"os/user"
 	"path"
 	"path/filepath"
-	"regexp"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
 
@@ -994,7 +993,7 @@ type ReplicaConfig struct {
 // NewReplicaFromConfig instantiates a replica for a DB based on a config.
 func NewReplicaFromConfig(c *ReplicaConfig, db *litestream.DB) (_ *litestream.Replica, err error) {
 	// Ensure user did not specify URL in path.
-	if isURL(c.Path) {
+	if litestream.IsURL(c.Path) {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("replica path cannot be a url, please use the 'url' field instead: %s", c.Path)
 	}
 
@@ -1064,7 +1063,7 @@ func newFileReplicaClientFromConfig(c *ReplicaConfig, r *litestream.Replica) (_
 	// Parse configPath from URL, if specified.
 	configPath := c.Path
 	if c.URL != "" {
-		if _, _, configPath, err = ParseReplicaURL(c.URL); err != nil {
+		if _, _, configPath, err = litestream.ParseReplicaURL(c.URL); err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
 	}
@@ -1126,7 +1125,7 @@ func NewS3ReplicaClientFromConfig(c *ReplicaConfig, _ *litestream.Replica) (_ *s
 	}
 
 	if c.URL != "" {
-		_, host, upath, query, err := ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(c.URL)
+		_, host, upath, query, _, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(c.URL)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
@@ -1140,7 +1139,7 @@ func NewS3ReplicaClientFromConfig(c *ReplicaConfig, _ *litestream.Replica) (_ *s
 
 		if strings.HasPrefix(host, "arn:") {
 			ubucket = host
-			uregion = regionFromS3ARN(host)
+			uregion = litestream.RegionFromS3ARN(host)
 		} else {
 			ubucket, uregion, uendpoint, uforcePathStyle = s3.ParseHost(host)
 		}
@@ -1168,11 +1167,11 @@ func NewS3ReplicaClientFromConfig(c *ReplicaConfig, _ *litestream.Replica) (_ *s
 		if qSkipVerify := query.Get("skipVerify"); qSkipVerify != "" {
 			skipVerify = qSkipVerify == "true"
 		}
-		if v, ok := boolQueryValue(query, "signPayload", "sign-payload"); ok {
+		if v, ok := litestream.BoolQueryValue(query, "signPayload", "sign-payload"); ok {
 			usignPayload = v
 			usignPayloadSet = true
 		}
-		if v, ok := boolQueryValue(query, "requireContentMD5", "require-content-md5"); ok {
+		if v, ok := litestream.BoolQueryValue(query, "requireContentMD5", "require-content-md5"); ok {
 			urequireContentMD5 = v
 			urequireContentMD5Set = true
 		}
@@ -1206,8 +1205,8 @@ func NewS3ReplicaClientFromConfig(c *ReplicaConfig, _ *litestream.Replica) (_ *s
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("bucket required for s3 replica")
 	}
 
-	isTigris := isTigrisEndpoint(endpoint)
-	if !isTigris && !endpointWasSet && isTigrisEndpoint(c.Endpoint) {
+	isTigris := litestream.IsTigrisEndpoint(endpoint)
+	if !isTigris && !endpointWasSet && litestream.IsTigrisEndpoint(c.Endpoint) {
 		isTigris = true
 	}
 
@@ -1253,7 +1252,7 @@ func newGSReplicaClientFromConfig(c *ReplicaConfig, _ *litestream.Replica) (_ *g
 
 	// Apply settings from URL, if specified.
 	if c.URL != "" {
-		_, uhost, upath, err := ParseReplicaURL(c.URL)
+		_, uhost, upath, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURL(c.URL)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
@@ -1438,7 +1437,7 @@ func newNATSReplicaClientFromConfig(c *ReplicaConfig, _ *litestream.Replica) (_
 	// Parse URL if provided to extract bucket name and server URL
 	var url, bucket string
 	if c.URL != "" {
-		scheme, host, bucketPath, err := ParseReplicaURL(c.URL)
+		scheme, host, bucketPath, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURL(c.URL)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid NATS URL: %w", err)
 		}
@@ -1520,7 +1519,7 @@ func newOSSReplicaClientFromConfig(c *ReplicaConfig, _ *litestream.Replica) (_ *
 
 	// Apply settings from URL, if specified.
 	if c.URL != "" {
-		_, host, upath, err := ParseReplicaURL(c.URL)
+		_, host, upath, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURL(c.URL)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
@@ -1585,128 +1584,6 @@ func applyLitestreamEnv() {
 	}
 }
 
-// ParseReplicaURL parses a replica URL.
-func ParseReplicaURL(s string) (scheme, host, urlpath string, err error) {
-	if strings.HasPrefix(strings.ToLower(s), "s3://arn:") {
-		return parseS3AccessPointURL(s)
-	}
-
-	scheme, host, urlpath, _, err = ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(s)
-	return scheme, host, urlpath, err
-}
-
-// ParseReplicaURLWithQuery parses a replica URL and returns query parameters.
-func ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(s string) (scheme, host, urlpath string, query url.Values, err error) {
-	// Handle S3 Access Point ARNs which can't be parsed by standard url.Parse
-	if strings.HasPrefix(strings.ToLower(s), "s3://arn:") {
-		scheme, host, urlpath, err := parseS3AccessPointURL(s)
-		return scheme, host, urlpath, nil, err
-	}
-
-	u, err := url.Parse(s)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", "", "", nil, err
-	}
-
-	switch u.Scheme {
-	case "file":
-		scheme, u.Scheme = u.Scheme, ""
-		// Remove query params from path for file URLs
-		u.RawQuery = ""
-		return scheme, "", path.Clean(u.String()), nil, nil
-
-	case "":
-		return u.Scheme, u.Host, u.Path, nil, fmt.Errorf("replica url scheme required: %s", s)
-
-	default:
-		return u.Scheme, u.Host, strings.TrimPrefix(path.Clean(u.Path), "/"), u.Query(), nil
-	}
-}
-
-func parseS3AccessPointURL(s string) (scheme, host, urlpath string, err error) {
-	const prefix = "s3://"
-	if !strings.HasPrefix(strings.ToLower(s), prefix) {
-		return "", "", "", fmt.Errorf("invalid s3 access point url: %s", s)
-	}
-
-	arnWithPath := s[len(prefix):]
-	bucket, key, err := splitS3AccessPointARN(arnWithPath)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", "", "", err
-	}
-
-	return "s3", bucket, cleanReplicaURLPath(key), nil
-}
-
-func splitS3AccessPointARN(s string) (bucket, key string, err error) {
-	lower := strings.ToLower(s)
-	const marker = ":accesspoint/"
-	idx := strings.Index(lower, marker)
-	if idx == -1 {
-		return "", "", fmt.Errorf("invalid s3 access point arn: %s", s)
-	}
-
-	nameStart := idx + len(marker)
-	if nameStart >= len(s) {
-		return "", "", fmt.Errorf("invalid s3 access point arn: %s", s)
-	}
-
-	remainder := s[nameStart:]
-	slashIdx := strings.IndexByte(remainder, '/')
-	if slashIdx == -1 {
-		return s, "", nil
-	}
-
-	bucketEnd := nameStart + slashIdx
-	bucket = s[:bucketEnd]
-	key = remainder[slashIdx+1:]
-	return bucket, key, nil
-}
-
-func cleanReplicaURLPath(p string) string {
-	if p == "" {
-		return ""
-	}
-	cleaned := path.Clean("/" + p)
-	cleaned = strings.TrimPrefix(cleaned, "/")
-	if cleaned == "." {
-		return ""
-	}
-	return cleaned
-}
-
-func boolQueryValue(query url.Values, keys ...string) (bool, bool) {
-	if query == nil {
-		return false, false
-	}
-	for _, key := range keys {
-		if raw := query.Get(key); raw != "" {
-			switch strings.ToLower(raw) {
-			case "true", "1", "t", "yes":
-				return true, true
-			case "false", "0", "f", "no":
-				return false, true
-			default:
-				return false, true
-			}
-		}
-	}
-	return false, false
-}
-
-func isTigrisEndpoint(endpoint string) bool {
-	endpoint = strings.TrimSpace(strings.ToLower(endpoint))
-	if endpoint == "" {
-		return false
-	}
-	if strings.HasPrefix(endpoint, "http://") || strings.HasPrefix(endpoint, "https://") {
-		if u, err := url.Parse(endpoint); err == nil && u.Host != "" {
-			endpoint = u.Host
-		}
-	}
-	return endpoint == "fly.storage.tigris.dev"
-}
-
 type boolSetting struct {
 	value bool
 	set   bool
@@ -1727,27 +1604,10 @@ func (s *boolSetting) ApplyDefault(value bool) {
 	}
 }
 
-func regionFromS3ARN(arn string) string {
-	parts := strings.SplitN(arn, ":", 6)
-	if len(parts) >= 4 {
-		return parts[3]
-	}
-	return ""
-}
-
-// isURL returns true if s can be parsed and has a scheme.
-func isURL(s string) bool {
-	return regexp.MustCompile(`^\w+:\/\/`).MatchString(s)
-}
-
 // ReplicaType returns the type based on the type field or extracted from the URL.
 func (c *ReplicaConfig) ReplicaType() string {
-	scheme, _, _, _ := ParseReplicaURL(c.URL)
-	if scheme != "" {
-		if scheme == "webdavs" {
-			return "webdav"
-		}
-		return scheme
+	if replicaType := litestream.ReplicaTypeFromURL(c.URL); replicaType != "" {
+		return replicaType
 	} else if c.Type != "" {
 		return c.Type
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/litestream/main_test.go b/cmd/litestream/main_test.go
index 409d31a..6cb1029 100644
--- a/cmd/litestream/main_test.go
+++ b/cmd/litestream/main_test.go
@@ -496,7 +496,7 @@ snapshot:
 
 func TestParseReplicaURL_AccessPoint(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Run("WithPrefix", func(t *testing.T) {
-		scheme, host, urlPath, err := main.ParseReplicaURL("s3://arn:aws:s3:us-east-1:123456789012:accesspoint/db-access/backups/prod")
+		scheme, host, urlPath, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURL("s3://arn:aws:s3:us-east-1:123456789012:accesspoint/db-access/backups/prod")
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
@@ -512,7 +512,7 @@ func TestParseReplicaURL_AccessPoint(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	t.Run("Invalid", func(t *testing.T) {
-		if _, _, _, err := main.ParseReplicaURL("s3://arn:aws:s3:us-east-1:123456789012:accesspoint/"); err == nil {
+		if _, _, _, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURL("s3://arn:aws:s3:us-east-1:123456789012:accesspoint/"); err == nil {
 			t.Fatal("expected error")
 		}
 	})
@@ -1498,7 +1498,7 @@ func TestFindSQLiteDatabases(t *testing.T) {
 func TestParseReplicaURLWithQuery(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Run("S3WithEndpoint", func(t *testing.T) {
 		url := "s3://mybucket/path/to/db?endpoint=localhost:9000&region=us-east-1&forcePathStyle=true"
-		scheme, host, path, query, err := main.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(url)
+		scheme, host, path, query, _, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(url)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
@@ -1524,7 +1524,7 @@ func TestParseReplicaURLWithQuery(t *testing.T) {
 
 	t.Run("S3WithoutQuery", func(t *testing.T) {
 		url := "s3://mybucket/path/to/db"
-		scheme, host, path, query, err := main.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(url)
+		scheme, host, path, query, _, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(url)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
@@ -1544,7 +1544,7 @@ func TestParseReplicaURLWithQuery(t *testing.T) {
 
 	t.Run("FileURL", func(t *testing.T) {
 		url := "file:///path/to/db"
-		scheme, host, path, query, err := main.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(url)
+		scheme, host, path, query, _, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(url)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
@@ -1565,7 +1565,7 @@ func TestParseReplicaURLWithQuery(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Run("BackwardCompatibility", func(t *testing.T) {
 		// Test that ParseReplicaURL still works as before
 		url := "s3://mybucket/path/to/db?endpoint=localhost:9000"
-		scheme, host, path, err := main.ParseReplicaURL(url)
+		scheme, host, path, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURL(url)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
@@ -1582,7 +1582,7 @@ func TestParseReplicaURLWithQuery(t *testing.T) {
 
 	t.Run("S3TigrisExample", func(t *testing.T) {
 		url := "s3://mybucket/db?endpoint=fly.storage.tigris.dev&region=auto"
-		scheme, host, path, query, err := main.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(url)
+		scheme, host, path, query, _, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(url)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
@@ -1605,7 +1605,7 @@ func TestParseReplicaURLWithQuery(t *testing.T) {
 
 	t.Run("S3WithSkipVerify", func(t *testing.T) {
 		url := "s3://mybucket/db?endpoint=self-signed.local&skipVerify=true"
-		_, _, _, query, err := main.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(url)
+		_, _, _, query, _, err := litestream.ParseReplicaURLWithQuery(url)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
diff --git a/cmd/litestream/restore.go b/cmd/litestream/restore.go
index e0bfa15..0dbc4ff 100644
--- a/cmd/litestream/restore.go
+++ b/cmd/litestream/restore.go
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ func (c *RestoreCommand) Run(ctx context.Context, args []string) (err error) {
 
 	// Determine replica to restore from.
 	var r *litestream.Replica
-	if isURL(fs.Arg(0)) {
+	if litestream.IsURL(fs.Arg(0)) {
 		if *configPath != "" {
 			return fmt.Errorf("cannot specify a replica URL and the -config flag")
 		}
diff --git a/db_internal_test.go b/db_internal_test.go
index 3afa5d2..ddb9ddf 100644
--- a/db_internal_test.go
+++ b/db_internal_test.go
@@ -20,6 +20,8 @@ type testReplicaClient struct {
 	dir string
 }
 
+func (c *testReplicaClient) Init(_ context.Context) error { return nil }
+
 func (c *testReplicaClient) Type() string { return "test" }
 
 func (c *testReplicaClient) LTXFiles(_ context.Context, _ int, _ ltx.TXID, _ bool) (ltx.FileIterator, error) {
@@ -59,6 +61,8 @@ type errorReplicaClient struct {
 	writeErr error
 }
 
+func (c *errorReplicaClient) Init(_ context.Context) error { return nil }
+
 func (c *errorReplicaClient) Type() string { return "error" }
 
 func (c *errorReplicaClient) LTXFiles(_ context.Context, _ int, _ ltx.TXID, _ bool) (ltx.FileIterator, error) {
diff --git a/replica_client_test.go b/replica_client_test.go
index d54b895..e71a73b 100644
--- a/replica_client_test.go
+++ b/replica_client_test.go
@@ -435,7 +435,7 @@ AAAEDzV1D6COyvFGhSiZa6ll9aXZ2IMWED3KGrvCNjEEtYHwnK0+GdwOelXlAXdqLx/qvS
 		c.Host = addr
 		c.HostKey = expectedHostKey
 
-		_, err = c.Init(context.Background())
+		err = c.Init(context.Background())
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatalf("SFTP connection failed: %v", err)
 		}
@@ -449,7 +449,7 @@ AAAEDzV1D6COyvFGhSiZa6ll9aXZ2IMWED3KGrvCNjEEtYHwnK0+GdwOelXlAXdqLx/qvS
 		c.Host = addr
 		c.HostKey = invalidHostKey
 
-		_, err = c.Init(context.Background())
+		err = c.Init(context.Background())
 		if err == nil {
 			t.Fatalf("SFTP connection established despite invalid host key")
 		}
@@ -475,7 +475,7 @@ AAAEDzV1D6COyvFGhSiZa6ll9aXZ2IMWED3KGrvCNjEEtYHwnK0+GdwOelXlAXdqLx/qvS
 		c.User = "foo"
 		c.Host = addr
 
-		_, err = c.Init(context.Background())
+		err = c.Init(context.Background())
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatalf("SFTP connection failed: %v", err)
 		}
diff --git a/replica_url_test.go b/replica_url_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b77125a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/replica_url_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,632 @@
+package litestream_test
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream"
+	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/abs"
+	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/file"
+	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/gs"
+	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/nats"
+	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/oss"
+	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/s3"
+	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/sftp"
+	"github.com/benbjohnson/litestream/webdav"
+)
+
+func TestNewReplicaClientFromURL(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Run("S3", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("s3://mybucket/path/to/db")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if client.Type() != "s3" {
+			t.Errorf("expected type 's3', got %q", client.Type())
+		}
+		s3Client, ok := client.(*s3.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *s3.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if s3Client.Bucket != "mybucket" {
+			t.Errorf("expected bucket 'mybucket', got %q", s3Client.Bucket)
+		}
+		if s3Client.Path != "path/to/db" {
+			t.Errorf("expected path 'path/to/db', got %q", s3Client.Path)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("S3WithQueryParams", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("s3://mybucket/db?endpoint=localhost:9000&region=us-west-2")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		s3Client, ok := client.(*s3.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *s3.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if s3Client.Endpoint != "http://localhost:9000" {
+			t.Errorf("expected endpoint 'http://localhost:9000', got %q", s3Client.Endpoint)
+		}
+		if s3Client.Region != "us-west-2" {
+			t.Errorf("expected region 'us-west-2', got %q", s3Client.Region)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("File", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("file:///tmp/replica")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if client.Type() != "file" {
+			t.Errorf("expected type 'file', got %q", client.Type())
+		}
+		fileClient, ok := client.(*file.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *file.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if fileClient.Path() != "/tmp/replica" {
+			t.Errorf("expected path '/tmp/replica', got %q", fileClient.Path())
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("GS", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("gs://mybucket/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if client.Type() != "gs" {
+			t.Errorf("expected type 'gs', got %q", client.Type())
+		}
+		gsClient, ok := client.(*gs.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *gs.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if gsClient.Bucket != "mybucket" {
+			t.Errorf("expected bucket 'mybucket', got %q", gsClient.Bucket)
+		}
+		if gsClient.Path != "path" {
+			t.Errorf("expected path 'path', got %q", gsClient.Path)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("GS_MissingBucket", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("gs:///path")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for missing bucket")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("ABS", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("abs://mycontainer/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if client.Type() != "abs" {
+			t.Errorf("expected type 'abs', got %q", client.Type())
+		}
+		absClient, ok := client.(*abs.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *abs.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if absClient.Bucket != "mycontainer" {
+			t.Errorf("expected bucket 'mycontainer', got %q", absClient.Bucket)
+		}
+		if absClient.Path != "path" {
+			t.Errorf("expected path 'path', got %q", absClient.Path)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("ABS_WithAccount", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("abs://myaccount@mycontainer/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		absClient, ok := client.(*abs.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *abs.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if absClient.AccountName != "myaccount" {
+			t.Errorf("expected account 'myaccount', got %q", absClient.AccountName)
+		}
+		if absClient.Bucket != "mycontainer" {
+			t.Errorf("expected bucket 'mycontainer', got %q", absClient.Bucket)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("ABS_MissingBucket", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("abs:///path")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for missing bucket")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("SFTP", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("sftp://myuser@host.example.com/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if client.Type() != "sftp" {
+			t.Errorf("expected type 'sftp', got %q", client.Type())
+		}
+		sftpClient, ok := client.(*sftp.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *sftp.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if sftpClient.Host != "host.example.com" {
+			t.Errorf("expected host 'host.example.com', got %q", sftpClient.Host)
+		}
+		if sftpClient.User != "myuser" {
+			t.Errorf("expected user 'myuser', got %q", sftpClient.User)
+		}
+		if sftpClient.Path != "path" {
+			t.Errorf("expected path 'path', got %q", sftpClient.Path)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("SFTP_WithPassword", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("sftp://myuser:secret@host.example.com/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		sftpClient, ok := client.(*sftp.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *sftp.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if sftpClient.User != "myuser" {
+			t.Errorf("expected user 'myuser', got %q", sftpClient.User)
+		}
+		if sftpClient.Password != "secret" {
+			t.Errorf("expected password 'secret', got %q", sftpClient.Password)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("SFTP_RequiresUserError", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("sftp://host.example.com/path")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for missing user")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("SFTP_MissingHost", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("sftp:///path")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for missing host")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("WebDAV", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("webdav://host.example.com/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if client.Type() != "webdav" {
+			t.Errorf("expected type 'webdav', got %q", client.Type())
+		}
+		webdavClient, ok := client.(*webdav.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *webdav.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if webdavClient.URL != "http://host.example.com" {
+			t.Errorf("expected URL 'http://host.example.com', got %q", webdavClient.URL)
+		}
+		if webdavClient.Path != "path" {
+			t.Errorf("expected path 'path', got %q", webdavClient.Path)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("WebDAVS", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("webdavs://host.example.com/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if client.Type() != "webdav" {
+			t.Errorf("expected type 'webdav', got %q", client.Type())
+		}
+		webdavClient, ok := client.(*webdav.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *webdav.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if webdavClient.URL != "https://host.example.com" {
+			t.Errorf("expected URL 'https://host.example.com', got %q", webdavClient.URL)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("WebDAV_WithCredentials", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("webdav://myuser:secret@host.example.com/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		webdavClient, ok := client.(*webdav.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *webdav.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if webdavClient.Username != "myuser" {
+			t.Errorf("expected username 'myuser', got %q", webdavClient.Username)
+		}
+		if webdavClient.Password != "secret" {
+			t.Errorf("expected password 'secret', got %q", webdavClient.Password)
+		}
+		if webdavClient.URL != "http://host.example.com" {
+			t.Errorf("expected URL 'http://host.example.com', got %q", webdavClient.URL)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("WebDAVS_WithCredentials", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("webdavs://myuser:secret@host.example.com/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		webdavClient, ok := client.(*webdav.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *webdav.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if webdavClient.Username != "myuser" {
+			t.Errorf("expected username 'myuser', got %q", webdavClient.Username)
+		}
+		if webdavClient.Password != "secret" {
+			t.Errorf("expected password 'secret', got %q", webdavClient.Password)
+		}
+		if webdavClient.URL != "https://host.example.com" {
+			t.Errorf("expected URL 'https://host.example.com', got %q", webdavClient.URL)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("WebDAV_MissingHost", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("webdav:///path")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for missing host")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("NATS", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("nats://localhost:4222/mybucket")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if client.Type() != "nats" {
+			t.Errorf("expected type 'nats', got %q", client.Type())
+		}
+		natsClient, ok := client.(*nats.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *nats.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if natsClient.URL != "nats://localhost:4222" {
+			t.Errorf("expected URL 'nats://localhost:4222', got %q", natsClient.URL)
+		}
+		if natsClient.BucketName != "mybucket" {
+			t.Errorf("expected bucket 'mybucket', got %q", natsClient.BucketName)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("NATS_WithCredentials", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("nats://myuser:secret@localhost:4222/mybucket")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		natsClient, ok := client.(*nats.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *nats.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if natsClient.Username != "myuser" {
+			t.Errorf("expected username 'myuser', got %q", natsClient.Username)
+		}
+		if natsClient.Password != "secret" {
+			t.Errorf("expected password 'secret', got %q", natsClient.Password)
+		}
+		if natsClient.URL != "nats://localhost:4222" {
+			t.Errorf("expected URL 'nats://localhost:4222', got %q", natsClient.URL)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("NATS_MissingBucket", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("nats://localhost:4222/")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for missing bucket")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("OSS", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("oss://mybucket/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if client.Type() != "oss" {
+			t.Errorf("expected type 'oss', got %q", client.Type())
+		}
+		ossClient, ok := client.(*oss.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *oss.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if ossClient.Bucket != "mybucket" {
+			t.Errorf("expected bucket 'mybucket', got %q", ossClient.Bucket)
+		}
+		if ossClient.Path != "path" {
+			t.Errorf("expected path 'path', got %q", ossClient.Path)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("OSS_WithRegion", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("oss://mybucket.oss-cn-shanghai.aliyuncs.com/path")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		ossClient, ok := client.(*oss.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *oss.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if ossClient.Bucket != "mybucket" {
+			t.Errorf("expected bucket 'mybucket', got %q", ossClient.Bucket)
+		}
+		// Note: Region is extracted without the 'oss-' prefix
+		if ossClient.Region != "cn-shanghai" {
+			t.Errorf("expected region 'cn-shanghai', got %q", ossClient.Region)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("OSS_MissingBucket", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("oss:///path")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for missing bucket")
+		}
+	})
+
+	// Note: file:// with empty path returns "." due to path.Clean behavior.
+	// This is technically valid but may not be the intended behavior.
+	t.Run("File_EmptyPathReturnsDot", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("file://")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		fileClient, ok := client.(*file.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *file.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		// path.Clean("") returns "." which passes the empty check
+		if fileClient.Path() != "." {
+			t.Errorf("expected path '.', got %q", fileClient.Path())
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("S3_ARN", func(t *testing.T) {
+		client, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("s3://arn:aws:s3:us-east-1:123456789012:accesspoint/db-access/backups")
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		s3Client, ok := client.(*s3.ReplicaClient)
+		if !ok {
+			t.Fatalf("expected *s3.ReplicaClient, got %T", client)
+		}
+		if s3Client.Bucket != "arn:aws:s3:us-east-1:123456789012:accesspoint/db-access" {
+			t.Errorf("expected bucket ARN, got %q", s3Client.Bucket)
+		}
+		if s3Client.Path != "backups" {
+			t.Errorf("expected path 'backups', got %q", s3Client.Path)
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("S3_MissingBucket", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("s3:///path")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for missing bucket")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("EmptyURL", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for empty URL")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("UnsupportedScheme", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("unknown://bucket/path")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for unsupported scheme")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("InvalidURL", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, err := litestream.NewReplicaClientFromURL("not-a-valid-url")
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Fatal("expected error for invalid URL")
+		}
+	})
+}
+
+func TestReplicaTypeFromURL(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		url      string
+		expected string
+	}{
+		{"s3://bucket/path", "s3"},
+		{"gs://bucket/path", "gs"},
+		{"abs://container/path", "abs"},
+		{"file:///path/to/replica", "file"},
+		{"sftp://host/path", "sftp"},
+		{"webdav://host/path", "webdav"},
+		{"webdavs://host/path", "webdav"},
+		{"nats://host/bucket", "nats"},
+		{"oss://bucket/path", "oss"},
+		{"", ""},
+		{"invalid", ""},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.url, func(t *testing.T) {
+			got := litestream.ReplicaTypeFromURL(tt.url)
+			if got != tt.expected {
+				t.Errorf("ReplicaTypeFromURL(%q) = %q, want %q", tt.url, got, tt.expected)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestIsURL(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		s        string
+		expected bool
+	}{
+		{"s3://bucket/path", true},
+		{"file:///path", true},
+		{"https://example.com", true},
+		{"/path/to/file", false},
+		{"relative/path", false},
+		{"", false},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.s, func(t *testing.T) {
+			got := litestream.IsURL(tt.s)
+			if got != tt.expected {
+				t.Errorf("IsURL(%q) = %v, want %v", tt.s, got, tt.expected)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestBoolQueryValue(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Run("True values", func(t *testing.T) {
+		for _, v := range []string{"true", "True", "TRUE", "1", "t", "yes"} {
+			query := make(map[string][]string)
+			query["key"] = []string{v}
+			value, ok := litestream.BoolQueryValue(query, "key")
+			if !ok {
+				t.Errorf("BoolQueryValue with %q should be ok", v)
+			}
+			if !value {
+				t.Errorf("BoolQueryValue with %q should be true", v)
+			}
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("False values", func(t *testing.T) {
+		for _, v := range []string{"false", "False", "FALSE", "0", "f", "no"} {
+			query := make(map[string][]string)
+			query["key"] = []string{v}
+			value, ok := litestream.BoolQueryValue(query, "key")
+			if !ok {
+				t.Errorf("BoolQueryValue with %q should be ok", v)
+			}
+			if value {
+				t.Errorf("BoolQueryValue with %q should be false", v)
+			}
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("Missing key", func(t *testing.T) {
+		query := make(map[string][]string)
+		_, ok := litestream.BoolQueryValue(query, "key")
+		if ok {
+			t.Error("BoolQueryValue with missing key should not be ok")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("Multiple keys", func(t *testing.T) {
+		query := make(map[string][]string)
+		query["key2"] = []string{"true"}
+		value, ok := litestream.BoolQueryValue(query, "key1", "key2")
+		if !ok {
+			t.Error("BoolQueryValue should find second key")
+		}
+		if !value {
+			t.Error("BoolQueryValue should return true for second key")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("Nil query", func(t *testing.T) {
+		_, ok := litestream.BoolQueryValue(nil, "key")
+		if ok {
+			t.Error("BoolQueryValue with nil query should not be ok")
+		}
+	})
+
+	t.Run("Invalid value returns false with ok", func(t *testing.T) {
+		query := make(map[string][]string)
+		query["key"] = []string{"invalid"}
+		value, ok := litestream.BoolQueryValue(query, "key")
+		if !ok {
+			t.Error("BoolQueryValue with invalid value should be ok")
+		}
+		if value {
+			t.Error("BoolQueryValue with invalid value should be false")
+		}
+	})
+}
+
+func TestIsTigrisEndpoint(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		endpoint string
+		expected bool
+	}{
+		{"fly.storage.tigris.dev", true},
+		{"FLY.STORAGE.TIGRIS.DEV", true},
+		{"https://fly.storage.tigris.dev", true},
+		{"http://fly.storage.tigris.dev", true},
+		{"s3.amazonaws.com", false},
+		{"localhost:9000", false},
+		{"", false},
+		{"   ", false},
+		{"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com", false},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.endpoint, func(t *testing.T) {
+			got := litestream.IsTigrisEndpoint(tt.endpoint)
+			if got != tt.expected {
+				t.Errorf("IsTigrisEndpoint(%q) = %v, want %v", tt.endpoint, got, tt.expected)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestRegionFromS3ARN(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		arn      string
+		expected string
+	}{
+		{"arn:aws:s3:us-east-1:123456789012:accesspoint/db-access", "us-east-1"},
+		{"arn:aws:s3:eu-west-1:123456789012:accesspoint/db-access", "eu-west-1"},
+		{"arn:aws:s3:ap-southeast-2:123456789012:accesspoint/db-access", "ap-southeast-2"},
+		{"arn:aws:s3::123456789012:accesspoint/db-access", ""},
+		{"invalid-arn", ""},
+		{"", ""},
+		{"arn:aws:s3", ""},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.arn, func(t *testing.T) {
+			got := litestream.RegionFromS3ARN(tt.arn)
+			if got != tt.expected {
+				t.Errorf("RegionFromS3ARN(%q) = %q, want %q", tt.arn, got, tt.expected)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCleanReplicaURLPath(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		path     string
+		expected string
+	}{
+		{"", ""},
+		{"path", "path"},
+		{"/path", "path"},
+		{"path/", "path"},
+		{"/path/", "path"},
+		{"path/to/db", "path/to/db"},
+		{"/path/to/db", "path/to/db"},
+		{"//path//to//db", "path/to/db"},
+		{".", ""},
+		{"/.", ""},
+		{"./path", "path"},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.path, func(t *testing.T) {
+			got := litestream.CleanReplicaURLPath(tt.path)
+			if got != tt.expected {
+				t.Errorf("CleanReplicaURLPath(%q) = %q, want %q", tt.path, got, tt.expected)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/store_compaction_remote_test.go b/store_compaction_remote_test.go
index 6d26a85..dcdd13f 100644
--- a/store_compaction_remote_test.go
+++ b/store_compaction_remote_test.go
@@ -126,6 +126,8 @@ func newDelayedReplicaClient(delay time.Duration) *delayedReplicaClient {
 
 func (c *delayedReplicaClient) Type() string { return "delayed" }
 
+func (c *delayedReplicaClient) Init(context.Context) error { return nil }
+
 func (c *delayedReplicaClient) key(level int, min, max ltx.TXID) string {
 	return fmt.Sprintf("%d:%s:%s", level, min.String(), max.String())
 }
diff --git a/store_test.go b/store_test.go
index 7dcec35..783fa03 100644
--- a/store_test.go
+++ b/store_test.go
@@ -96,6 +96,31 @@ func TestStore_CompactDB(t *testing.T) {
 			t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %s", err)
 		}
 	})
+
+	// Regression test for GitHub issue #877: level 9 compaction fails with
+	// "page size not initialized yet" error when attempted before DB initialization.
+	t.Run("DBNotReady", func(t *testing.T) {
+		db0 := testingutil.MustOpenDB(t)
+		defer testingutil.MustCloseDB(t, db0)
+
+		levels := litestream.CompactionLevels{
+			{Level: 0},
+			{Level: 1, Interval: 100 * time.Millisecond},
+		}
+		s := litestream.NewStore([]*litestream.DB{db0}, levels)
+		s.CompactionMonitorEnabled = false
+		if err := s.Open(t.Context()); err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		defer s.Close(t.Context())
+
+		// Attempt snapshot before DB is initialized (page size not set).
+		// This reproduces the timing issue where level 9 compaction fires
+		// immediately at startup before db.Sync() has been called.
+		if _, err := s.CompactDB(t.Context(), db0, s.SnapshotLevel()); !errors.Is(err, litestream.ErrDBNotReady) {
+			t.Fatalf("expected ErrDBNotReady, got: %v", err)
+		}
+	})
 }
 
 func TestStore_Integration(t *testing.T) {
diff --git a/webdav/replica_client_test.go b/webdav/replica_client_test.go
index 1f7a0b3..86202f7 100644
--- a/webdav/replica_client_test.go
+++ b/webdav/replica_client_test.go
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ func TestReplicaClient_Init_RequiresURL(t *testing.T) {
 	c := webdav.NewReplicaClient()
 	c.URL = ""
 
-	if _, err := c.Init(context.TODO()); err == nil {
+	if err := c.Init(context.TODO()); err == nil {
 		t.Fatal("expected error when URL is empty")
 	} else if got, want := err.Error(), "webdav url required"; got != want {
 		t.Fatalf("error=%v, want %v", got, want)