Repository: vprusso/toqito

Issue:
Feature: Add ability to perturb a vector by some factor
For various purposes, it is often useful to perturb a vector by some random amount scaled by some factor. 

The following function takes in a list of vectors and some factor `eps` in which each vector in the list is randomly perturbed:

```py
import numpy as np


def perturb_vectors(vectors: list[np.ndarray], eps: float = 0.1) -> list[np.ndarray]:
    """Perturb the vectors by adding a small random number to each element.

    :param vectors: List of vectors to perturb.
    :param eps: Amount by which to perturb vectors.
    :return: Resulting list of perturbed vectors by a factor of epsilon.
    """
    perturbed_vectors: list[np.ndarray] = []
    for i, v in enumerate(vectors):
        perturbed_vectors.append(v + np.random.randn(v.shape[0]) * eps)

        # Normalize the vectors after perturbing them.
        perturbed_vectors[i] = perturbed_vectors[i] / np.linalg.norm(perturbed_vectors[i])
    return np.array(perturbed_vectors)
```

The function can probably be written in a more concise manner and also requires documentation and tests.

Discussion:
@Shivansh20128: Hi! What do you mean by concise here, because it is not very complex to understand right now. One thing we could do is remove the loop by creating a random vector for the noise which matches the given vector's dimensions, and then add the noise to the vector. Just an idea, but I am not sure if this will improve the performance by a great margin.
Let me know if this is something you want to implement. I will be happy to do it.
Thank you@vprusso: > What do you mean by concise here, because it is not very complex to understand right now. 

True! It seems to be about as concise as anything, so brevity is probably not anything that needs to be explicitly improved upon!

Indeed, I think you're correct that about the only thing we really need to do would be to write a proper docstring and tests for this and it should be in relatively good shape! I'll assign it to you for now, but feel free to let me know if that doesn't work as I know you have a lot on your plate!
@Shivansh20128: @vprusso  Thank you for the assignment.
Since this will be a new addition, can I add a new submodule to _state_ops_ as this is an operation that will work on state vectors? Otherwise, let me know where I should make this addition.
Thank you@vprusso: I think `matrix_ops/` might be the better spot for this as this operates on any set of vectors (and not necessarily a set of quantum states), but aside from that, yes, I think you have the right idea!

Solution patch:
diff --git a/.github/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md b/.github/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md
index dc3cf2911..60de8391e 100644
--- a/.github/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md
+++ b/.github/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
 ## Description
-Provide a brief description of the PR's purpose here. If your PR is supposed to fix an existing issue, use
-a [keyword](https://docs.github.com/en/issues/tracking-your-work-with-issues/linking-a-pull-request-to-an-issue) to link your PR to the issue.
+<!--Provide a brief description of the PR's purpose here. If your PR is supposed to fix an existing issue, use
+a [keyword](https://docs.github.com/en/issues/tracking-your-work-with-issues/linking-a-pull-request-to-an-issue) to link your PR to the issue. -->
 
 ## Changes
-Notable changes that this PR has either accomplished or will accomplish. Feel free to add more lines to the itemized list
-below.
+<!--Notable changes that this PR has either accomplished or will accomplish. Feel free to add more lines to the itemized list
+below. -->
 
   -  [ ] Change 1
 
diff --git a/docs/conf.py b/docs/conf.py
index ee5b8a2cb..cc108328b 100644
--- a/docs/conf.py
+++ b/docs/conf.py
@@ -43,6 +43,7 @@
     "sphinx.ext.githubpages",
     "sphinx.ext.napoleon",
     "sphinxcontrib.bibtex",
+    "sphinx_copybutton",
 ]
 
 bibtex_bibfiles = ["refs.bib"]
diff --git a/docs/contributing.rst b/docs/contributing.rst
index fdb746c99..0d68ae4a4 100644
--- a/docs/contributing.rst
+++ b/docs/contributing.rst
@@ -116,24 +116,28 @@ References in Docstrings
 
 
 If you are adding a new function, make sure the docstring of your function follows the formatting specifications
-in `Code Style`_. A standard format for :code:`toqito` docstring is provided below: ::
+in `Code Style`_. A standard format for :code:`toqito` docstring is provided below:
+
+.. code-block:: python
     
     def my_new_function(some_parameter: parameter_type) -> return_type:
         r"""One liner description of the new function.
 
-          Detailed description of the function.
-
-          Examples
-          ==========
-          Demonstrate how the function works with expected output.
-
-          References
-          ==========
-          .. bibliography::
-               :filter: docname in docnames
-
-          some_parameter: parameter_type
-               Details about the input and output parameters and parameter types.
+            Detailed description of the function.
+
+            Examples
+            ==========
+            Demonstrate how the function works with expected output.
+
+            References
+            ==========
+            .. bibliography::
+                :filter: docname in docnames
+        
+            :param name_of_parameter: Description of the parameter.
+            :raises SomeError: Description for when the function raises an error.
+            :return: Description of what the function returns.
+                
         """
 
 Use :code:`.. math::` mode for equations and use use :code:`:cite:some_ref` for some reference in the docstring. 
@@ -141,7 +145,9 @@ Use :code:`.. math::` mode for equations and use use :code:`:cite:some_ref` for
 To add an attribution to a paper or a book, add your reference with :code:`some_ref` as the citation key to 
 `refs.bib`.
 
-Following is used in a docstring for the references to show up in the documentation build. ::
+Following is used in a docstring for the references to show up in the documentation build.
+
+.. code-block:: text
 
     References
     ==========
@@ -155,7 +161,7 @@ Documentation
 
 
 We use :code:`sphinx` to build the documentation and :code:`doctest` to test the examples in the documentation and function docstrings. 
-To build the documentation locally, make sure :code:`sphinx` and :code:`sphinx-wagtail-theme` are installed when poetry was used to
+To build the documentation locally, make sure :code:`sphinx` and :code:`furo` are installed when poetry was used to
 install :code:`toqito`.
 
 .. code-block:: bash
@@ -166,9 +172,9 @@ If you would prefer to decrease the amount of time taken by :code:`sphinx` to bu
 instead.
 
 A standard document has to follow the :code:`.rst` format.  For more information on :code:`sphinx` and
-:code:`sphinx-wagtail-theme`, visit
+the documentation theme :code:`furo`, visit
 `sphinx documentation <https://docs.readthedocs.io/en/stable/intro/getting-started-with-sphinx.html>`_ &
-`sphinx-wagtail-theme documentation <https://github.com/wagtail/sphinx-wagtail-theme>`_ .
+`furo documentation <https://sphinx-themes.org/sample-sites/furo/>`_ .
 
 To use `doctest`:
 
diff --git a/docs/getting_started.rst b/docs/getting_started.rst
index 6be11ac05..1bfc6e07a 100644
--- a/docs/getting_started.rst
+++ b/docs/getting_started.rst
@@ -75,13 +75,13 @@ If you are using the :code:`toqito` software package in research work, please
 include an explicit mention of :code:`toqito` in your publication. Something
 along the lines of:
 
-.. code-block:: bash
+.. code-block:: text
 
     To solve problem "X" we used `toqito`; a package for studying certain aspects of quantum information.
 
 A BibTeX entry that you can use to cite :code:`toqito` is provided here:
 
-.. code-block:: bash
+.. code-block:: text
 
     @misc{toqito,
        author       = {Vincent Russo},
diff --git a/docs/requirements.txt b/docs/requirements.txt
index a1345e12a..369308577 100644
--- a/docs/requirements.txt
+++ b/docs/requirements.txt
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 furo == 2024.8.6
 sphinxcontrib-bibtex == 2.6.3
 sympy == 1.13.3
-sphinx-autoapi == 3.3.2
+sphinx-autoapi == 3.3.3
+sphinx-copybutton == 0.5.2
 
diff --git a/docs/tutorials.nonlocal_games.rst b/docs/tutorials.nonlocal_games.rst
index 68bcc0a65..3c9eac101 100644
--- a/docs/tutorials.nonlocal_games.rst
+++ b/docs/tutorials.nonlocal_games.rst
@@ -487,7 +487,9 @@ In :code:`toqito`, we can encode this as a BCS game as follows
     >>> np.around(chsh_bcs.classical_value(), decimals=2)
     np.float64(0.75)
     >>> # Quantum value of CHSH is cos^2(pi/8) \approx 0.853...
-    >>> np.around(chsh_bcs.quantum_value_lower_bound(), decimals=2)
+    >>> # Multiple runs to avoid trap in suboptimal quantum value.
+    >>> results = [np.around(chsh_bcs.quantum_value_lower_bound(), decimals=2) for _ in range(5)] 
+    >>> max(results)
     np.float64(0.85)
 
 
diff --git a/poetry.lock b/poetry.lock
index dd0ab3977..666fa83ab 100644
--- a/poetry.lock
+++ b/poetry.lock
@@ -662,13 +662,13 @@ files = [
 
 [[package]]
 name = "ipython"
-version = "8.28.0"
+version = "8.29.0"
 description = "IPython: Productive Interactive Computing"
 optional = false
 python-versions = ">=3.10"
 files = [
-    {file = "ipython-8.28.0-py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:530ef1e7bb693724d3cdc37287c80b07ad9b25986c007a53aa1857272dac3f35"},
-    {file = "ipython-8.28.0.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:0d0d15ca1e01faeb868ef56bc7ee5a0de5bd66885735682e8a322ae289a13d1a"},
+    {file = "ipython-8.29.0-py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:0188a1bd83267192123ccea7f4a8ed0a78910535dbaa3f37671dca76ebd429c8"},
+    {file = "ipython-8.29.0.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:40b60e15b22591450eef73e40a027cf77bd652e757523eebc5bd7c7c498290eb"},
 ]
 
 [package.dependencies]
@@ -1028,64 +1028,66 @@ testing-docutils = ["pygments", "pytest (>=8,<9)", "pytest-param-files (>=0.6.0,
 
 [[package]]
 name = "numpy"
-version = "2.1.2"
+version = "2.1.3"
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 [[package]]
@@ -1208,12 +1210,12 @@ ptyprocess = ">=0.5"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "picos"
-version = "2.5.0"
+version = "2.5.1"
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 [[package]]
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 pytest = ">=4.6"
 
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+    {file = "ruff-0.7.2.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:2b14e77293380e475b4e3a7a368e14549288ed2931fce259a6f99978669e844f"},
 ]
 
 [[package]]
@@ -1678,23 +1680,23 @@ scipy = "*"
 
 [[package]]
 name = "setuptools"
-version = "75.2.0"
+version = "75.3.0"
 description = "Easily download, build, install, upgrade, and uninstall Python packages"
 optional = false
 python-versions = ">=3.8"
 files = [
-    {file = "setuptools-75.2.0-py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:a7fcb66f68b4d9e8e66b42f9876150a3371558f98fa32222ffaa5bced76406f8"},
-    {file = "setuptools-75.2.0.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:753bb6ebf1f465a1912e19ed1d41f403a79173a9acf66a42e7e6aec45c3c16ec"},
+    {file = "setuptools-75.3.0-py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:f2504966861356aa38616760c0f66568e535562374995367b4e69c7143cf6bcd"},
+    {file = "setuptools-75.3.0.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:fba5dd4d766e97be1b1681d98712680ae8f2f26d7881245f2ce9e40714f1a686"},
 ]
 
 [package.extras]
 check = ["pytest-checkdocs (>=2.4)", "pytest-ruff (>=0.2.1)", "ruff (>=0.5.2)"]
-core = ["importlib-metadata (>=6)", "importlib-resources (>=5.10.2)", "jaraco.collections", "jaraco.functools", "jaraco.text (>=3.7)", "more-itertools", "more-itertools (>=8.8)", "packaging", "packaging (>=24)", "platformdirs (>=2.6.2)", "tomli (>=2.0.1)", "wheel (>=0.43.0)"]
+core = ["importlib-metadata (>=6)", "importlib-resources (>=5.10.2)", "jaraco.collections", "jaraco.functools", "jaraco.text (>=3.7)", "more-itertools", "more-itertools (>=8.8)", "packaging", "packaging (>=24)", "platformdirs (>=4.2.2)", "tomli (>=2.0.1)", "wheel (>=0.43.0)"]
 cover = ["pytest-cov"]
 doc = ["furo", "jaraco.packaging (>=9.3)", "jaraco.tidelift (>=1.4)", "pygments-github-lexers (==0.0.5)", "pyproject-hooks (!=1.1)", "rst.linker (>=1.9)", "sphinx (>=3.5)", "sphinx-favicon", "sphinx-inline-tabs", "sphinx-lint", "sphinx-notfound-page (>=1,<2)", "sphinx-reredirects", "sphinxcontrib-towncrier", "towncrier (<24.7)"]
 enabler = ["pytest-enabler (>=2.2)"]
-test = ["build[virtualenv] (>=1.0.3)", "filelock (>=3.4.0)", "ini2toml[lite] (>=0.14)", "jaraco.develop (>=7.21)", "jaraco.envs (>=2.2)", "jaraco.path (>=3.2.0)", "jaraco.test", "packaging (>=23.2)", "pip (>=19.1)", "pyproject-hooks (!=1.1)", "pytest (>=6,!=8.1.*)", "pytest-home (>=0.5)", "pytest-perf", "pytest-subprocess", "pytest-timeout", "pytest-xdist (>=3)", "tomli-w (>=1.0.0)", "virtualenv (>=13.0.0)", "wheel (>=0.44.0)"]
-type = ["importlib-metadata (>=7.0.2)", "jaraco.develop (>=7.21)", "mypy (==1.11.*)", "pytest-mypy"]
+test = ["build[virtualenv] (>=1.0.3)", "filelock (>=3.4.0)", "ini2toml[lite] (>=0.14)", "jaraco.develop (>=7.21)", "jaraco.envs (>=2.2)", "jaraco.path (>=3.2.0)", "jaraco.test (>=5.5)", "packaging (>=23.2)", "pip (>=19.1)", "pyproject-hooks (!=1.1)", "pytest (>=6,!=8.1.*)", "pytest-home (>=0.5)", "pytest-perf", "pytest-subprocess", "pytest-timeout", "pytest-xdist (>=3)", "tomli-w (>=1.0.0)", "virtualenv (>=13.0.0)", "wheel (>=0.44.0)"]
+type = ["importlib-metadata (>=7.0.2)", "jaraco.develop (>=7.21)", "mypy (==1.12.*)", "pytest-mypy"]
 
 [[package]]
 name = "six"
@@ -1766,13 +1768,13 @@ test = ["cython (>=3.0)", "defusedxml (>=0.7.1)", "pytest (>=8.0)", "setuptools
 
 [[package]]
 name = "sphinx-autoapi"
-version = "3.3.2"
+version = "3.3.3"
 description = "Sphinx API documentation generator"
 optional = false
 python-versions = ">=3.8"
 files = [
-    {file = "sphinx_autoapi-3.3.2-py2.py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:08afa656f7fcd45fe7dd64bf9f44698ddb8ca7c2d5cd0614c7455912ed580324"},
-    {file = "sphinx_autoapi-3.3.2.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:ebf8b44b2ebab5c28f0263ec6c2f8acdd156e9b2d539a58eca39d2f368445173"},
+    {file = "sphinx_autoapi-3.3.3-py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:5c7349b42d45a492a611cb81fb48583d5148e9eab7fc6b1f326dc9273b9191e3"},
+    {file = "sphinx_autoapi-3.3.3.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:c44fd719580e9a3684ff82019f4f7f39fc970e3030ffd325936654a6f4d31f22"},
 ]
 
 [package.dependencies]
@@ -1784,9 +1786,6 @@ Jinja2 = "*"
 PyYAML = "*"
 sphinx = ">=6.1.0"
 
-[package.extras]
-docs = ["furo", "sphinx", "sphinx-design"]
-
 [[package]]
 name = "sphinx-basic-ng"
 version = "1.0.0b2"
@@ -1804,6 +1803,24 @@ sphinx = ">=4.0"
 [package.extras]
 docs = ["furo", "ipython", "myst-parser", "sphinx-copybutton", "sphinx-inline-tabs"]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "sphinx-copybutton"
+version = "0.5.2"
+description = "Add a copy button to each of your code cells."
+optional = false
+python-versions = ">=3.7"
+files = [
+    {file = "sphinx-copybutton-0.5.2.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:4cf17c82fb9646d1bc9ca92ac280813a3b605d8c421225fd9913154103ee1fbd"},
+    {file = "sphinx_copybutton-0.5.2-py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:fb543fd386d917746c9a2c50360c7905b605726b9355cd26e9974857afeae06e"},
+]
+
+[package.dependencies]
+sphinx = ">=1.8"
+
+[package.extras]
+code-style = ["pre-commit (==2.12.1)"]
+rtd = ["ipython", "myst-nb", "sphinx", "sphinx-book-theme", "sphinx-examples"]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "sphinxcontrib-applehelp"
 version = "2.0.0"
@@ -2023,4 +2040,4 @@ files = [
 [metadata]
 lock-version = "2.0"
 python-versions = ">=3.10,<4"
-content-hash = "852bcdf9119aeebcb07393cc62349ae8441a26697e5e71ad7dddad16e66fd1f1"
+content-hash = "7789a7abf33487c8cc405a0f18bab9eaf35ff8409b28aa523b54ab64f47c7c97"
diff --git a/pyproject.toml b/pyproject.toml
index 01a77d5fc..bc60b1492 100644
--- a/pyproject.toml
+++ b/pyproject.toml
@@ -16,19 +16,19 @@ python = ">=3.10,<4"
 cvxpy = "1.5.3"
 cvxopt = "1.3.2"
 more-itertools = "10.5.0"
-numpy = "2.1.2"
+numpy = "2.1.3"
 scipy = "1.14.1"
 scs = "3.2.7"
-picos = "2.5.0"
+picos = "2.5.1"
 
 
 [tool.poetry.group.dev.dependencies]
 pytest = "8.3.3"
-pytest-cov = "5.0.0"
+pytest-cov = "6.0.0"
 coverage = "7.6.4"
 sympy = "1.13.3"
 distlib = "0.3.9"
-ipython = "8.28.0"
+ipython = "8.29.0"
 setuptools = ">65.5.1"
 
 [tool.poetry.group.lint.dependencies]
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ flake8-docstrings = "1.7.0"
 isort = "5.13.2"
 myst-parser = "4.0.0"
 pep8 = "1.7.1"
-ruff = "0.7.0"
+ruff = "0.7.2"
 mypy = "1.13.0"
 black = "*"
 
@@ -46,7 +46,8 @@ readthedocs-sphinx-ext = "*"
 sphinx = "8.1.3"
 furo = "2024.8.6"
 sphinxcontrib-bibtex = "2.6.3"
-sphinx-autoapi = "3.3.2"
+sphinx-autoapi = "3.3.3"
+sphinx-copybutton = "0.5.2"
 
 [build-system]
 requires = ["setuptools","poetry>=0.12"]
diff --git a/toqito/matrix_ops/__init__.py b/toqito/matrix_ops/__init__.py
index 746c49472..ccde0a897 100644
--- a/toqito/matrix_ops/__init__.py
+++ b/toqito/matrix_ops/__init__.py
@@ -7,3 +7,5 @@
 from toqito.matrix_ops.vectors_to_gram_matrix import vectors_to_gram_matrix
 from toqito.matrix_ops.calculate_vector_matrix_dimension import calculate_vector_matrix_dimension
 from toqito.matrix_ops.to_density_matrix import to_density_matrix
+from toqito.matrix_ops.perturb_vectors import perturb_vectors
+
diff --git a/toqito/matrix_ops/perturb_vectors.py b/toqito/matrix_ops/perturb_vectors.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..eba25d31e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/toqito/matrix_ops/perturb_vectors.py
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+"""Perturb vectors is used to add a small random number to each element of a vector.
+
+A random value is added sampled from a normal distribution scaled by `eps`.
+"""
+
+import numpy as np
+
+
+def perturb_vectors(vectors: list[np.ndarray], eps: float = 0.1) -> list[np.ndarray]:
+    """Perturb the vectors by adding a small random number to each element.
+
+    :param vectors: List of vectors to perturb.
+    :param eps: Amount by which to perturb vectors.
+    :return: Resulting list of perturbed vectors by a factor of epsilon.
+
+    Example:
+    ==========
+
+        >>> from toqito.matrix_ops import perturb_vectors
+        >>> import numpy as np
+        >>> vectors = [np.array([1.0, 2.0]), np.array([3.0, 4.0])]
+        >>> perturb_vectors(vectors, eps=0.1) # doctest: +SKIP
+        array([[0.47687587, 0.87897065],
+               [0.58715549, 0.80947417]])
+
+    """
+    perturbed_vectors: list[np.ndarray] = []
+    for i, v in enumerate(vectors):
+        if eps == 0:
+            perturbed_vectors.append(v)
+        else:
+            perturbed_vectors.append(v + np.random.randn(v.shape[0]) * eps)
+
+            # Normalize the vectors after perturbing them.
+            perturbed_vectors[i] = perturbed_vectors[i] / np.linalg.norm(perturbed_vectors[i])
+    return np.array(perturbed_vectors)


Test patch:
diff --git a/toqito/matrix_ops/tests/test_perturb_vector.py b/toqito/matrix_ops/tests/test_perturb_vector.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..ee0182efd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/toqito/matrix_ops/tests/test_perturb_vector.py
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+"""Test perturb vectors."""
+
+import numpy as np
+import pytest
+
+from toqito.matrix_ops import perturb_vectors
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "vectors, eps, expected_length",
+    [
+        # Test with three vectors along the axes
+        ([np.array([1, 0, 0]), np.array([0, 1, 0]), np.array([0, 0, 1])], 0.1, 3),
+        # Test with one vector and eps=0
+        ([np.array([1, 1, 0])], 0.0, 1),
+        # Test with two vectors and a different perturbation value
+        ([np.array([1, 0, 0]), np.array([0, 1, 0])], 0.2, 2),
+    ],
+)
+def test_output_size(vectors, eps, expected_length):
+    """Test that the function returns the same number of vectors as input."""
+    perturbed_vectors = perturb_vectors(vectors, eps)
+    assert len(perturbed_vectors) == expected_length
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "vectors, eps",
+    [
+        ([np.array([1, 0, 0]), np.array([0, 1, 0]), np.array([0, 0, 1])], 0.1),
+        ([np.array([1, 1, 1])], 0.1),
+    ],
+)
+def test_normalization(vectors, eps):
+    """Test that each perturbed vector is normalized."""
+    perturbed_vectors = perturb_vectors(vectors, eps)
+    for pv in perturbed_vectors:
+        norm = np.linalg.norm(pv)
+        assert np.isclose(norm, 1.0, atol=1e-5)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "vectors, eps",
+    [
+        ([np.array([1, 0, 0]), np.array([0, 1, 0])], 0.1),
+        ([np.array([1, 1, 1])], 0.2),
+    ],
+)
+def test_perturbation_effect(vectors, eps):
+    """Test that the perturbed vectors are different from the original vectors."""
+    perturbed_vectors = perturb_vectors(vectors, eps)
+    for i in range(len(vectors)):
+        assert not np.array_equal(vectors[i], perturbed_vectors[i])
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "vectors",
+    [
+        ([np.array([1, 0, 0]), np.array([0, 1, 0])]),
+        ([np.array([1, 1, 1])]),
+    ],
+)
+def test_zero_perturbation(vectors):
+    """Test that if eps = 0, the vectors remain the same."""
+    perturbed_vectors = perturb_vectors(vectors, eps=0.0)
+    for i in range(len(vectors)):
+        assert np.allclose(vectors[i], perturbed_vectors[i]), f"Vector {i} does not match."
+