LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
Aircraft_carrier (Warfare)

The disadvantage of the ski-jump is the penalty it exacts on aircraft size, payload, and fuel load (and thus range); heavily laden aircraft can not launch using a ski-jump because their high loaded weight requires either a longer takeoff roll than is possible on a carrier deck, or assistance from a catapult or JATO rocket. For example, the Russian Su-33 is only able to launch from the carrier Admiral Kuznetsov with a minimal armament and fuel load. Another disadvantage is on mixed flight deck operations where helicopters are also present such as a US Landing Helicopter Dock or Landing Helicopter Assault amphibious assault ship a ski jump is not included as this would eliminate one or more helicopter landing areas, this flat deck limits the loading of Harriers but is somewhat mitigated by the longer rolling start provided by a long flight deck compared to many STOVL carriers.

Q1: What is the disadvantage of the ski-jump?
A1: the penalty it exacts on aircraft size, payload, and fuel load
Q2: What cannot launch using a ski-jump due to their high loaded weight?
A2: heavily laden aircraft
Q3: What do heavily laden aircraft sometimes require the assistance from?
A3: a catapult or JATO rocket
Q4: Why is a ski-jump not included on mixed flight deck operations where helicopters are present?
A4: would eliminate one or more helicopter landing areas
Q5: How is the Russian SU-33 able to launch from the carrier Admiral Kuznetsov?
A5: with a minimal armament and fuel load
History_of_science (History)

The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of environmentalism; the Gaia hypothesis, first formulated in the 1960s, and spreading in the 1970s, and more recently the scientific-religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together.

Q1: The discipline of ecology is a combination of what two subjects?
A1: Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography
Q2: What did the work of Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn focus on?
A2: the cycle of life concept
Q3: Who came up with the word "ecology"?
A3: Ernst Haeckel
Q4: When was the Gaia hypothesis discovered?
A4: in the 1960s
Q5: What movement occurred during the 1970s?
A5: Deep Ecology
Botany (Natural sciences)

The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming, who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities, and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today. The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements. Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology. Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle, Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) produced accounts of the biogeography, centres of origin, and evolutionary history of economic plants.

Q1: What did Warming believe that plants can do?
A1: form communities
Q2: What is the term for the most complex plant life in a specific environment?
A2: climax vegetation
Q3: Who created the concept of ecosystems?
A3: Arthur Tansley
Q4: Whose earlier work did Nicholas Vavilov build upon?
A4: Alphonse de Candolle
Q5: What history did Vavilov write about?
A5: history of economic plants
Uranium (Natural sciences)

The discovery and isolation of radium in uranium ore (pitchblende) by Marie Curie sparked the development of uranium mining to extract the radium, which was used to make glow-in-the-dark paints for clock and aircraft dials. This left a prodigious quantity of uranium as a waste product, since it takes three tonnes of uranium to extract one gram of radium. This waste product was diverted to the glazing industry, making uranium glazes very inexpensive and abundant. Besides the pottery glazes, uranium tile glazes accounted for the bulk of the use, including common bathroom and kitchen tiles which can be produced in green, yellow, mauve, black, blue, red and other colors.

Q1: What is another term for uranium ore?
A1: pitchblende
Q2: Who isolated radium in uranium ore?
A2: Marie Curie
Q3: In what types of paints was radium first used?
A3: glow-in-the-dark
Q4: What devices were painted with radium paint?
A4: clock and aircraft dials
Q5: Along with red, blue, black, yellow and green, what was a notable color of uranium tile glaze?
A5: mauve
Melbourne (Geography and places)

The discovery of gold in Victoria in mid 1851 led to the Victorian gold rush, and Melbourne, which served as the major port and provided most services for the region, experienced rapid growth. Within months, the city's population had increased by nearly three-quarters, from 25,000 to 40,000 inhabitants. Thereafter, growth was exponential and by 1865, Melbourne had overtaken Sydney as Australia's most populous city. Additionally, Melbourne along with the Victorian regional cities of Ballarat and Geelong became the wealthiest cities in the world during the Gold Rush era.

Q1: Melbourne experienced rapid growth after 1851 due to the discovery of what?
A1: gold
Q2: Melbourne and which other regional cities became the wealthiest cities in the world during the Gold Rush era?
A2: Ballarat and Geelong
Q3: How much did Melbourne's population increase within months of the gold rush?
A3: three-quarters, from 25,000 to 40,000 inhabitants
Q4: By what year had Melbourne overtaken Sydney as Australia's most populous city?
A4: 1865
Infrared (Natural sciences)

The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to William Herschel, the astronomer, in the early 19th century. Herschel published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London. Herschel used a prism to refract light from the sun and detected the infrared, beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a thermometer. He was surprised at the result and called them "Calorific Rays". The term 'Infrared' did not appear until late in the 19th century.

Q1: Who discovered infrared radiation?
A1: William Herschel
Q2: In what year did Herschel publish his work on infrared radiation?
A2: 1800
Q3: To whom did Herschel present his work on infrared radiation?
A3: the Royal Society of London
Q4: What device did Herschel use to discover the infrared?
A4: a prism
Q5: What did Herschel call the infrared spectrum?
A5: Calorific Rays
Ottoman_Empire (History)

The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. The Somali Muslim Ajuran Empire, allied with the Ottomans, defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese.

Q1: Avoiding the strength of Ottoman trade was accomplished with the discovery of what?
A1: new maritime trade routes
Q2: What did the Portuguese discover in 1488?
A2: the Cape of Good Hope
Q3: Where did the Ottoman and Portuguese have Naval wars in the 16th century?
A3: the Indian Ocean
Q4: Who did the Ottomans ally with in the Indian Ocean?
A4: The Somali Muslim Ajuran Empire
Q5: New coins were a proclamation of independence by the Somali Muslim Ajuran Empire from whom?
A5: the Portuguese
Uranium (Natural sciences)

The discovery of the element is credited to the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. While he was working in his experimental laboratory in Berlin in 1789, Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likely sodium diuranate) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide. Klaproth assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a yet-undiscovered element and heated it with charcoal to obtain a black powder, which he thought was the newly discovered metal itself (in fact, that powder was an oxide of uranium). He named the newly discovered element after the planet Uranus, (named after the primordial Greek god of the sky), which had been discovered eight years earlier by William Herschel.

Q1: Who discovered uranium?
A1: Martin Heinrich Klaproth
Q2: In what city was uranium discovered?
A2: Berlin
Q3: In what year did the discovery of uranium occur?
A3: 1789
Q4: What did Klaproth probably create when he dissolved pitchblende in nitric acid?
A4: sodium diuranate
Q5: Who discovered the planet Uranus?
A5: William Herschel
United_States_presidential_election,_2004 (History)

The dismal results caused Gephardt to drop out and later endorse Kerry. Carol Moseley Braun also dropped out, endorsing Howard Dean. Besides the impact of coming in third, Dean was further hurt by a speech he gave at a post-caucus rally. Dean was shouting over the cheers of his enthusiastic audience, but the crowd noise was being filtered out by his unidirectional microphone, leaving only his full-throated exhortations audible to the television viewers. To those at home, he seemed to raise his voice out of sheer emotion. The incessant replaying of the "Dean Scream" by the press became a debate on the topic of whether Dean was the victim of media bias. The scream scene was shown approximately 633 times by cable and broadcast news networks in just four days following the incident, a number that does not include talk shows and local news broadcasts. However, those who were in the actual audience that day insist that they were not aware of the infamous "scream" until they returned to their hotel rooms and saw it on TV.

Q1: Which candidate, after dropping out, went on to endorse Kerry?
A1: Gephardt
Q2: Which troubled candidate did Carol Moseley Braun end up endorsing, after she dropped out?
A2: Howard Dean
Q3: The continual playing of Dean's post-rally speech by the media stirred what type of controversy?
A3: whether Dean was the victim of media bias
Q4: What tag did the media attach to Dean's post-rally speech?
A4: "Dean Scream"
Q5: Did those in attendance at Dean's speech know about the "Dean Scream"?
A5: they were not aware
Nigeria (History)

The disquilibrium and perceived corruption of the electoral and political process led, in 1966, to back-to-back military coups. The first coup was in January 1966 and was led by Igbo soldiers under Majors Emmanuel Ifeajuna and Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu. The coup plotters succeeded in murdering Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Premier Ahmadu Bello of the Northern Region and Premier Ladoke Akintola of the Western Region. But, the coup plotters struggled to form a central government. President Nwafor Orizu handed over government control to the Army, then under the command of another Igbo officer, General JTU Aguiyi-Ironsi.

Q1: In what year were there two military coups in Nigeria?
A1: 1966
Q2: Which group led the first 1966 coup?
A2: Igbo soldiers
Q3: Which Prime Minister was murdered in the Igbo coup?
A3: Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
Q4: Which Northern Premier was murdered in the Igbo coup?
A4: Ahmadu Bello
Q5: Which Western Premier was murdered in the Igbo coup?
A5: Ladoke Akintola
Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union (History)

The dissolution of the Soviet Union was formally enacted on December 26, 1991, as a result of the declaration no. 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. The declaration acknowledged the independence of the former Soviet republics and created the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), although five of the signatories ratified it much later or not at all. On the previous day, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev, the eighth and last leader of the Soviet Union, resigned, declared his office extinct, and handed over its powers – including control of the Soviet nuclear missile launching codes – to Russian President Boris Yeltsin. That evening at 7:32 p.m., the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag.

Q1: On what date did the Soviet Union dissolve?
A1: December 26, 1991
Q2: What entity was created in place of the Soviet Union?
A2: Commonwealth of Independent States
Q3: Who was president of the Soviet Union when it came to an end?
A3: Mikhail Gorbachev,
Q4: Who became president of Russia after Gorbachev left office?
A4: Boris Yeltsin
Q5: Which flag replaced the Soviet flag at the Kremlin?
A5: pre-revolutionary Russian flag.
Airport (Engineering and technology)

The distances passengers need to move within a large airport can be substantial. It is common for airports to provide moving walkways and buses. The Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport has a tram that takes people through the concourses and baggage claim. Major airports with more than one terminal offer inter-terminal transportation, such as Mexico City International Airport, where the domestic building of Terminal 1 is connected by Aerotrén to Terminal 2, on the other side of the airport.

Q1: It is common for airports to provide moving walkways and what?
A1: buses
Q2: What airport has a tram that takes people through the concourses and baggage claim?
A2: Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport
Q3: Name one airport that offers inter-terminal transportation.
A3: Mexico City International Airport
Gothic_architecture (Art and architecture)

The distinctive characteristic of English cathedrals is their extreme length, and their internal emphasis upon the horizontal, which may be emphasised visually as much or more than the vertical lines. Each English cathedral (with the exception of Salisbury) has an extraordinary degree of stylistic diversity, when compared with most French, German and Italian cathedrals. It is not unusual for every part of the building to have been built in a different century and in a different style, with no attempt at creating a stylistic unity. Unlike French cathedrals, English cathedrals sprawl across their sites, with double transepts projecting strongly and Lady Chapels tacked on at a later date, such as at Westminster Abbey. In the west front, the doors are not as significant as in France, the usual congregational entrance being through a side porch. The West window is very large and never a rose, which are reserved for the transept gables. The west front may have two towers like a French Cathedral, or none. There is nearly always a tower at the crossing and it may be very large and surmounted by a spire. The distinctive English east end is square, but it may take a completely different form. Both internally and externally, the stonework is often richly decorated with carvings, particularly the capitals.

Q1: What is the unique design feature of English cathedrals?
A1: their extreme length
Q2: What type of transepts do English cathedrals often feature? 
A2: double transepts
Q3: What size of window is typically featured on the west end of English cathedrals?
A3: very large
Q4: Where are rose windows used on English cathedrals?
A4: the transept gables
Q5: On English cathedrals, where is a tower almost always found?
A5: at the crossing
Gothic_architecture (Art and architecture)

The distinctive characteristic of French cathedrals, and those in Germany and Belgium that were strongly influenced by them, is their height and their impression of verticality. Each French cathedral tends to be stylistically unified in appearance when compared with an English cathedral where there is great diversity in almost every building. They are compact, with slight or no projection of the transepts and subsidiary chapels. The west fronts are highly consistent, having three portals surmounted by a rose window, and two large towers. Sometimes there are additional towers on the transept ends. The east end is polygonal with ambulatory and sometimes a chevette of radiating chapels. In the south of France, many of the major churches are without transepts and some are without aisles.

Q1: What is the distinguiushing visual design feature of French cathedrals?
A1: their impression of verticality
Q2: How many portals are typically found on the west front of French cathedrals?
A2: three portals
Q3: How many towers are typically found on the west front of French cathedrals?
A3: two large towers
Q4: What shape does the east end of French chapels typically have?
A4: The east end is polygonal
Q5: What do many major churches in Southern France often lack?
A5: transepts
Gothic_architecture (Art and architecture)

The distinctive characteristic of Gothic cathedrals of the Iberian Peninsula is their spatial complexity, with many areas of different shapes leading from each other. They are comparatively wide, and often have very tall arcades surmounted by low clerestories, giving a similar spacious appearance to the 'Hallenkirche of Germany, as at the Church of the Batalha Monastery in Portugal. Many of the cathedrals are completely surrounded by chapels. Like English cathedrals, each is often stylistically diverse. This expresses itself both in the addition of chapels and in the application of decorative details drawn from different sources. Among the influences on both decoration and form are Islamic architecture and, towards the end of the period, Renaissance details combined with the Gothic in a distinctive manner. The West front, as at Leon Cathedral, typically resembles a French west front, but wider in proportion to height and often with greater diversity of detail and a combination of intricate ornament with broad plain surfaces. At Burgos Cathedral there are spires of German style. The roofline often has pierced parapets with comparatively few pinnacles. There are often towers and domes of a great variety of shapes and structural invention rising above the roof.

Q1: What is the distinctive design element of Gothic cathedrals of the Iberian Peninsula? 
A1: their spatial complexity
Q2: What size are the arcades of Gothic cathedrals of the Iberian Peninsula?
A2: very tall arcades
Q3: What type of architecture is a prominent influence on the design and form of Gothic cathedrals from the Iberian Peninsula? 
A3: Islamic architecture
Q4: What type of West front does the Leon Cathedral resemble?
A4: a French west front
Q5: What style are the spires at Burgos Cathedral?
A5: German style
Gothic_architecture (Art and architecture)

The distinctive characteristic of Italian Gothic is the use of polychrome decoration, both externally as marble veneer on the brick façade and also internally where the arches are often made of alternating black and white segments, and where the columns may be painted red, the walls decorated with frescoes and the apse with mosaic. The plan is usually regular and symmetrical, Italian cathedrals have few and widely spaced columns. The proportions are generally mathematically equilibrated, based on the square and the concept of "armonìa", and except in Venice where they loved flamboyant arches, the arches are almost always equilateral. Colours and moldings define the architectural units rather than blending them. Italian cathedral façades are often polychrome and may include mosaics in the lunettes over the doors. The façades have projecting open porches and occular or wheel windows rather than roses, and do not usually have a tower. The crossing is usually surmounted by a dome. There is often a free-standing tower and baptistry. The eastern end usually has an apse of comparatively low projection. The windows are not as large as in northern Europe and, although stained glass windows are often found, the favourite narrative medium for the interior is the fresco.

Q1: What is the unique characteristic of Italian Gothic design?
A1: the use of polychrome decoration
Q2: What color are the columns of Italian Gothic cathedrals often painted?
A2: the columns may be painted red
Q3: What type of arches do they love to use in Venice?
A3: they loved flamboyant arches
Q4: Instead of rose windows, what type of windows do Italian cathedral facades usually feature?
A4: occular or wheel windows
Q5: What is the preferred narrative medium for the interior of Italian cathedrals?
A5: the fresco
The_Blitz (History)

The diversion of heavier bombers to the Balkans meant that the crews and units left behind were asked to fly two or three sorties per night. Bombers were noisy, cold, and vibrated badly. Added to the tension of the mission which exhausted and drained crews, tiredness caught up with and killed many. In one incident on 28/29 April, Peter Stahl of KG 30 was flying on his 50th mission. He fell asleep at the controls of his Ju 88 and woke up to discover the entire crew asleep. He roused them, ensured they took oxygen and Dextro-Energen tablets, then completed the mission.

Q1: How many sorties a night were crews asked to fly?
A1: two or three sorties
Q2: What contributed to the exhaustion of crews flying extra sorties?
A2: Bombers were noisy, cold, and vibrated badly
Q3: What happened to Peter Stahl when he fell asleep flying?
A3: woke up to discover the entire crew asleep.
Q4: What did Peter's crew take to complete their mission?
A4: oxygen and Dextro-Energen tablets
Treaty (Language and literature)

The division between the two is often not clear and is often politicized in disagreements within a government over a treaty, since a non-self-executing treaty cannot be acted on without the proper change in domestic law. If a treaty requires implementing legislation, a state may be in default of its obligations by the failure of its legislature to pass the necessary domestic laws.

Q1: What type of treaty cannot be acted on without the proper change in domestic law?
A1: a non-self-executing treaty
Q2: A state party may be in default of its obligations under a non-self-executing treaty if its legislature fails to do what?
A2: pass the necessary domestic laws
Q3: What institution of a party to a treaty must act to fulfill the party's obligations under a non-self-executing treaty?
A3: its legislature
Q4: The often unclear division between a self-executing treaty and a non-self-executing treaty can lead to a treaty being what if disagreements exist within a party?
A4: politicized
Q5: A treaty may be politicized due to disagreements within a party because the division between a self-executing treaty and a non-self-executing treaty can often be described as what?
A5: not clear