LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
On_the_Origin_of_Species (Natural sciences)

Chapter VI begins by saying the next three chapters will address possible objections to the theory, the first being that often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found, though the theory implies such forms must have existed. As Darwin noted, "Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? Why is not all nature in confusion, instead of the species being, as we see them, well defined?" Darwin attributed this to the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms. This difficulty can be referred to as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space.

Q1: What is one possible objection to the theory of integrated variation?
A1: often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found
Q2: Why did Darwin wonder why all of nature isn't chaotic and random?
A2: why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms?
Q3: What did Darwin ultimately decide was the reason that nature is not a chaos of variation?
A3: the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms.
On_the_Origin_of_Species (Natural sciences)

Chapter VII (of the first edition) addresses the evolution of instincts. His examples included two he had investigated experimentally: slave-making ants and the construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees. Darwin noted that some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others, and he observed that many ant species will collect and store the pupae of other species as food. He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps. He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax. Darwin concluded:

Q1: How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in slave-making ants?
A1: He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps.
Q2: How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in bees?
A2: He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax
Q3: What did Darwin notice specifically about slave-making ants?
A3: some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others
On_the_Origin_of_Species (Natural sciences)

Chapter VIII addresses the idea that species had special characteristics that prevented hybrids from being fertile in order to preserve separately created species. Darwin said that, far from being constant, the difficulty in producing hybrids of related species, and the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants. Sometimes what were widely considered to be separate species produced fertile hybrid offspring freely, and in other cases what were considered to be mere varieties of the same species could only be crossed with difficulty. Darwin concluded: "Finally, then, the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to, but even rather to support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties."

Q1: Why would hybrids have characteristics that keep them from being fertile?
A1: in order to preserve separately created species
Q2: What are Darwin's thoughts on producing hybrids of related species?
A2: the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants
Q3: What conclusion did Darwin come to after realizing that some diverse species were able to create variations easily, while other species thought to be closely related had difficulty?
A3: support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties
On_the_Origin_of_Species (Natural sciences)

Chapter X examines whether patterns in the fossil record are better explained by common descent and branching evolution through natural selection, than by the individual creation of fixed species. Darwin expected species to change slowly, but not at the same rate – some organisms such as Lingula were unchanged since the earliest fossils. The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment. This distanced his theory from Lamarckian laws of inevitable progress. It has been argued that this anticipated the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis, but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin's commitment to gradualism. He cited Richard Owen's findings that the earliest members of a class were a few simple and generalised species with characteristics intermediate between modern forms, and were followed by increasingly diverse and specialised forms, matching the branching of common descent from an ancestor. Patterns of extinction matched his theory, with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction, then not reappearing. Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras, and as he had seen in South America, and William Clift had shown in Australia, fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area.

Q1: How did Darwin expect species to change and evolve?
A1: slowly, but not at the same rate
Q2: What did Darwin believe were the key things needed for variation of species to form?
A2: variability and change in the environment
Q3: Which scientist theorized that the earliest members of a class in a species were simple and generalized?
A3: Richard Owen
Q4: What did Darwin discover about more recently extinct species?
A4: Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras
On_the_Origin_of_Species (Natural sciences)

Chapter XI deals with evidence from biogeography, starting with the observation that differences in flora and fauna from separate regions cannot be explained by environmental differences alone; South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals. The species found in one area of a continent are more closely allied with species found in other regions of that same continent than to species found on other continents. Darwin noted that barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions. The coastal sea life of the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America had almost no species in common even though the Isthmus of Panama was only a few miles wide. His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification. He went on to say: "On this principle of inheritance with modification, we can understand how it is that sections of genera, whole genera, and even families are confined to the same areas, as is so commonly and notoriously the case." Darwin explained how a volcanic island formed a few hundred miles from a continent might be colonised by a few species from that continent. These species would become modified over time, but would still be related to species found on the continent, and Darwin observed that this was a common pattern. Darwin discussed ways that species could be dispersed across oceans to colonise islands, many of which he had investigated experimentally.

Q1: Why couldn't differences in flora and fauna be explained by differences in regions alone?
A1: South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals
Q2: What did Darwin consider that could explain why different regions could have such different species when they are close together?
A2: barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions.
Q3: What was the combination of effects that Darwin considered the most important in determining the differences in species that evolved separately in similar environments?
A3: His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification.
Mexico_City (Geography and places)

Chapultepec Park houses the Chapultepec Castle, now a museum on a hill that overlooks the park and its numerous museums, monuments and the national zoo and the National Museum of Anthropology (which houses the Aztec Calendar Stone). Another piece of architecture is the Fine Arts Palace, a white marble theatre/museum whose weight is such that it has gradually been sinking into the soft ground below. Its construction began during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz and ended in 1934, after being interrupted by the Mexican Revolution in the 1920s. The Plaza of the Three Cultures in the Tlatelolco neighbourhood, and the shrine and Basilicas of Our Lady of Guadalupe are also important sites. There is a double-decker bus, known as the "Turibus", that circles most of these sites, and has timed audio describing the sites in multiple languages as they are passed.

Q1: Chapultepec Castle is located where?
A1: Chapultepec Park
Q2: Where is the National Museum of Anthropology located?
A2: Chapultepec Park
Q3: When did construction of the Fine Arts Palace end?
A3: 1934
Q4: What is the name of the tour bus that shows off the monuments of Mexico City?
A4: Turibus
Q5: Why did the construction of the Fine Arts Palace take so long?
A5: interrupted by the Mexican Revolution
Appalachian_Mountains (Geography and places)

Characteristic birds of the forest are wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), common raven (Corvus corax), wood duck (Aix sponsa), great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), barred owl (Strix varia), screech owl (Megascops asio), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus), and northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), as well as a great variety of "songbirds" (Passeriformes), like the warblers in particular.

Q1: What is one typical bird found in the range?
A1: wild turkey
BeiDou_Navigation_Satellite_System (Engineering and technology)

Characteristics of the "I" signals on E2 and E5B are generally similar to the civilian codes of GPS (L1-CA and L2C), but Compass signals have somewhat greater power. The notation of Compass signals used in this page follows the naming of the frequency bands and agrees with the notation used in the American literature on the subject, but the notation used by the Chinese seems to be different and is quoted in the first row of the table.

Q1: What is the difference between the "I" signals on E2 and E5B and the civilian codes of GPS (L1-CA and L2C)?
A1: Compass signals have somewhat greater power
Unicode (Engineering and technology)

Characters with diacritical marks can generally be represented either as a single precomposed character or as a decomposed sequence of a base letter plus one or more non-spacing marks. For example, ḗ (precomposed e with macron and acute above) and ḗ (e followed by the combining macron above and combining acute above) should be rendered identically, both appearing as an e with a macron and acute accent, but in practice, their appearance may vary depending upon what rendering engine and fonts are being used to display the characters. Similarly, underdots, as needed in the romanization of Indic, will often be placed incorrectly[citation needed]. Unicode characters that map to precomposed glyphs can be used in many cases, thus avoiding the problem, but where no precomposed character has been encoded the problem can often be solved by using a specialist Unicode font such as Charis SIL that uses Graphite, OpenType, or AAT technologies for advanced rendering features.

Q1: How are characters with diacritical marks represented? 
A1: either as a single precomposed character or as a decomposed sequence of a base letter plus one or more non-spacing marks
Q2: What encoding does Charis SIL use? 
A2: Graphite, OpenType, or AAT technologies
Q3: What is the issue with underdots and their placement? 
A3: often be placed incorrectly
Q4: Characters with what marks can be displayed as a single character or a decomposed sequence? 
A4: diacritical marks
Q5: How should the characters with the macron and acute be displayed? 
A5: identically
Middle_Ages (History)

Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs, but was unable to do so as only one son, Louis the Pious (r. 814–840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Louis's reign of 26 years was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son Lothair I (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy. Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and Charles the Bald (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took East Francia, comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles West Francia with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. Louis the German (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the suzerainty of his elder brother. The division was disputed. Pepin II of Aquitaine (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for Aquitaine, while Louis the German tried to annex all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos.

Q1: Who was Charlemagne's only living son in 813?
A1: Louis the Pious
Q2: How long did Louis the Pious reign?
A2: 26 years
Q3: When did the reign of Louis the Pious end?
A3: 840
Q4: Who ruled Italy after Louis the Pious?
A4: Lothair I
Q5: Who was the middle son of Louis the Pious?
A5: Louis the German
Middle_Ages (History)

Charlemagne's court in Aachen was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the "Carolingian Renaissance". Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies. The English monk Alcuin (d. 804) was invited to Aachen and brought the education available in the monasteries of Northumbria. Charlemagne's chancery—or writing office—made use of a new script today known as Carolingian minuscule,[M] allowing a common writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe. Charlemagne sponsored changes in church liturgy, imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the Gregorian chant in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning. New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced. Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the Classical Latin of the Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the church and government. By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical that it was later called Medieval Latin.

Q1: Where was Charlemagne's court based?
A1: Aachen
Q2: What is the name of the cultural revival associated with Charlemagne?
A2: Carolingian Renaissance
Q3: Of what ethnicity was Alcuin?
A3: English
Q4: In what year did Alcuin die?
A4: 804
Q5: What was the Latin of Charlemagne's era later known as?
A5: Medieval Latin
Ashkenazi_Jews (History)

Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire around 800, including northern Italy and Rome, brought on a brief period of stability and unity in Francia. This created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle again north of the Alps. Charlemagne granted the Jews freedoms similar to those once enjoyed under the Roman Empire. In addition, Jews from southern Italy, fleeing religious persecution, began to move into central Europe.[citation needed] Returning to Frankish lands, many Jewish merchants took up occupations in finance and commerce, including money lending, or usury. (Church legislation banned Christians from lending money in exchange for interest.) From Charlemagne's time to the present, Jewish life in northern Europe is well documented. By the 11th century, when Rashi of Troyes wrote his commentaries, Jews in what came to be known as "Ashkenaz" were known for their halakhic learning, and Talmudic studies. They were criticized by Sephardim and other Jewish scholars in Islamic lands for their lack of expertise in Jewish jurisprudence (dinim) and general ignorance of Hebrew linguistics and literature. Yiddish emerged as a result of language contact with various High German vernaculars in the medieval period. It was written with Hebrew letters, and heavily influenced by Hebrew and Aramaic.

Q1: Did Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire bring about a brief period of upheaval or stability in Francia?
A1: a brief period of stability
Q2: Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle where?
A2: north of the Alps
Q3: Charlemagne granted the Jews freedoms similar to those enjoyed under which previous empire?
A3: Roman Empire
Q4: When Jews began to return to Frankish lands many took up occupations in which two fields?
A4: finance and commerce
Q5: Which language emerged as a result of language contact with various High German vernaculars during the medieval period?
A5: Yiddish
Arnold_Schwarzenegger (Media and drama)

Charles "Wag" Bennett, one of the judges at the 1966 competition, was impressed with Schwarzenegger and he offered to coach him. As Schwarzenegger had little money, Bennett invited him to stay in his crowded family home above one of his two gyms in Forest Gate, London, England. Yorton's leg definition had been judged superior, and Schwarzenegger, under a training program devised by Bennett, concentrated on improving the muscle definition and power in his legs. Staying in the East End of London helped Schwarzenegger improve his rudimentary grasp of the English language. Also in 1966, Schwarzenegger had the opportunity to meet childhood idol Reg Park, who became his friend and mentor. The training paid off and, in 1967, Schwarzenegger won the title for the first time, becoming the youngest ever Mr. Universe at the age of 20. He would go on to win the title a further three times. Schwarzenegger then flew back to Munich, training for four to six hours daily, attending business school and working in a health club (Rolf Putziger's gym where he worked and trained from 1966–1968), returning in 1968 to London to win his next Mr. Universe title. He frequently told Roger C. Field, his English coach and friend in Munich at that time, "I'm going to become the greatest actor!"

Q1: Which of the bodybuilders Schwarzenegger idolized as a kid did he meet in 1966?
A1: Reg Park
Q2: Which part of his body did Schwarzenegger work to develop with Coach Bennett?
A2: legs
Q3: How many total times has Schwarzenegger won the Mr. Universe title?
A3: four
Q4: Who owned the gym Schwarzenegger worked in during the late sixties?
A4: Rolf Putziger
Computer (Engineering and technology)

Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer", he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.

Q1: Who invented the concept of a programmable computer?
A1: Charles Babbage
Q2: Who is considered the "father of the computer"?
A2: Charles Babbage
Q3: During what century was the first mechanical computer invented by Charles Babbage?
A3: early 19th century
Q4: What year did Charles Babbage find out that An Analytical Engine was possible?
A4: 1833
Annelid (Natural sciences)

Charles Darwin's book The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (1881) presented the first scientific analysis of earthworms' contributions to soil fertility. Some burrow while others live entirely on the surface, generally in moist leaf litter. The burrowers loosen the soil so that oxygen and water can penetrate it, and both surface and burrowing worms help to produce soil by mixing organic and mineral matter, by accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and thus making it more quickly available to other organisms, and by concentrating minerals and converting them to forms that plants can use more easily. Earthworms are also important prey for birds ranging in size from robins to storks, and for mammals ranging from shrews to badgers, and in some cases conserving earthworms may be essential for conserving endangered birds.

Q1: Who published a book about worms in 1881?
A1: Charles Darwin
Q2: What was the first scientific study of how earthworms help soil?
A2: The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms
Q3: Where do earthworms prefer to live on the surface?
A3: generally in moist leaf litter
Q4: How does burrowers' loosening help the soil?
A4: oxygen and water can penetrate it
Q5: What is the largest bird that eats earthworms?
A5: storks
On_the_Origin_of_Species (Natural sciences)

Charles Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a more developed theory in 1809. Both envisaged that spontaneous generation produced simple forms of life that progressively developed greater complexity, adapting to the environment by inheriting changes in adults caused by use or disuse. This process was later called Lamarckism. Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction. Geoffroy contended that embryonic development recapitulated transformations of organisms in past eras when the environment acted on embryos, and that animal structures were determined by a constant plan as demonstrated by homologies. Georges Cuvier strongly disputed such ideas, holding that unrelated, fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs. His palæontological work in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction, which he explained by local catastrophes, followed by repopulation of the affected areas by other species.

Q1: What was the name of Charles Darwin's grandfather?
A1: Erasmus Darwin
Q2: What theory did Erasmus Darwin outline in the 1790s?
A2: hypothesis of transmutation of species
Q3: What was the name of the scientist who developed and published a more complex version of Erasmus Darwin's theory in 1809?
A3: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Q4: What is the process of adapting to the environment and inheriting changes through use or disuse called?
A4: Lamarckism
Q5: Whose paleontology work in the 1790s established the reality of extinction?
A5: Georges Cuvier