LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
Memory (Social sciences and society)

Stress has a significant effect on memory formation and learning. In response to stressful situations, the brain releases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorticoids and catecholamines) which affect memory encoding processes in the hippocampus. Behavioural research on animals shows that chronic stress produces adrenal hormones which impact the hippocampal structure in the brains of rats. An experimental study by German cognitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demonstrates how learning under stress also decreases memory recall in humans. In this study, 48 healthy female and male university students participated in either a stress test or a control group. Those randomly assigned to the stress test group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the reputable SECPT or ‘Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test’) for up to three minutes, while being monitored and videotaped. Both the stress and control groups were then presented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hours later, both groups were tested to see how many words they could remember (free recall) as well as how many they could recognize from a larger list of words (recognition performance). The results showed a clear impairment of memory performance in the stress test group, who recalled 30% fewer words than the control group. The researchers suggest that stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.

Q1: What can cause your memory to deterioriate or not work as well?
A1: Stress
Q2: Which hormones are produces when a animal is stressed out?
A2: adrenal hormones
Q3: Who performed a study that involved having peoples hands in cold water while also memorizing words?
A3: L. Schwabe and O. Wolf
Q4: What did L. Schwabes and O. Wolfs study seem to conlcude?
A4: stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.
Memory (Social sciences and society)

Stressful life experiences may be a cause of memory loss as a person ages. Glucocorticoids that are released during stress damage neurons that are located in the hippocampal region of the brain. Therefore, the more stressful situations that someone encounters, the more susceptible they are to memory loss later on. The CA1 neurons found in the hippocampus are destroyed due to glucocorticoids decreasing the release of glucose and the reuptake of glutamate. This high level of extracellular glutamate allow calcium to enter NMDA receptors which in return kills neurons. Stressful life experiences can also cause repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable memory to the unconscious mind. This directly relates to traumatic events in one's past such as kidnappings, being prisoners of war or sexual abuse as a child.

Q1: What neurons are damaged during stressful events?
A1: The CA1 neurons found in the hippocampus
Q2: What can make someone more prone to memory loss as they age?
A2: the more stressful situations that someone encounters,
Q3: What will a person often do with extremely stressful memories?
A3: repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable memory to the unconscious mind
Q4: What is the cause of neuron loss due to stress?
A4: high level of extracellular glutamate allow calcium to enter NMDA receptors
Tennessee (Geography and places)

Stretching west from the Blue Ridge for approximately 55 miles (89 km) is the Ridge and Valley region, in which numerous tributaries join to form the Tennessee River in the Tennessee Valley. This area of Tennessee is covered by fertile valleys separated by wooded ridges, such as Bays Mountain and Clinch Mountain. The western section of the Tennessee Valley, where the depressions become broader and the ridges become lower, is called the Great Valley. In this valley are numerous towns and two of the region's three urban areas, Knoxville, the 3rd largest city in the state, and Chattanooga, the 4th largest city in the state. The third urban area, the Tri-Cities, comprising Bristol, Johnson City, and Kingsport and their environs, is located to the northeast of Knoxville.

Q1: Approximately how many miles long is Tennessee's Ridge and Valley region?
A1: 55
Q2: What is the western part of the Tennessee Valley called?
A2: the Great Valley
Q3: Which city is Tennessee's fourth largest?
A3: Chattanooga
Q4: Together, Bristol, Johnson City, and Kingsport are known by what name?
A4: the Tri-Cities
Q5: What river forms in the Tennessee Valley?
A5: Tennessee River
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution (History)

Strict separation of powers did not operate in The United Kingdom, the political structure of which served in most instances[citation needed] as a model for the government created by the U.S. Constitution.[citation needed] Under the UK Westminster system, based on parliamentary sovereignty and responsible government, Parliament (consisting of the Sovereign (King-in-Parliament), House of Lords and House of Commons) was the supreme lawmaking authority. The executive branch acted in the name of the King ("His Majesty's Government"), as did the judiciary. The King's Ministers were in most cases members of one of the two Houses of Parliament, and the Government needed to sustain the support of a majority in the House of Commons. One minister, the Lord Chancellor, was at the same time the sole judge in the Court of Chancery and the presiding officer in the House of Lords. Therefore, it may be seen that the three branches of British government often violated the strict principle of separation of powers, even though there were many occasions when the different branches of the government disagreed with each other. Some U.S. states did not observe a strict separation of powers in the 18th century. In New Jersey, the Governor also functioned as a member of the state's highest court and as the presiding officer of one house of the New Jersey Legislature. The President of Delaware was a member of the Court of Appeals; the presiding officers of the two houses of the state legislature also served in the executive department as Vice Presidents. In both Delaware and Pennsylvania, members of the executive council served at the same time as judges. On the other hand, many southern states explicitly required separation of powers. Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia all kept the branches of government "separate and distinct."

Q1: What country's government, on which the US government was modeled, did not formally implement separation of powers?
A1: UK
Q2: What were the two main principles informing the government of the UK?
A2: parliamentary sovereignty and responsible government
Q3: What term describes the status of the different branches of government in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia?
A3: separate and distinct
Q4: What country's government served as a model for the United States Government?
A4: United Kingdom
Q5: In the 18th century what function, besides President, did the Delaware President serve? 
A5: a member of the Court of Appeals
Pub (History)

Strictly the term refers to the pump itself, which is normally manually operated, though electrically powered and gas powered pumps are occasionally used. When manually powered, the term "handpump" is often used to refer to both the pump and the associated handle.

Q1: What is a common name for a beer pump powered by hand?
A1: handpump
Q2: Along with electricity, what sometimes powers beer pumps that aren't operated by hand?
A2: gas
2008_Sichuan_earthquake (Natural sciences)

Strong aftershocks continued to strike even months after the main quake. On May 25, an aftershock of 6.0 Mw (6.4 Ms according to CEA) hit northeast of the original earthquake's epicenter, in Qingchuan County, Sichuan, causing eight deaths, 1000 injuries, and destroying thousands of buildings. On May 27, two aftershocks, one 5.2 Mw in Qingchuan County and one 5.7 Mw in Ningqiang County, Shaanxi, led to the collapse of more than 420,000 homes and injured 63 people. The same area suffered two more aftershocks of 5.6 and 6.0 Ms (5.8 and 5.5 Mw, respectively, according to USGS) on July 23, resulting in 1 death, 6 serious injuries, collapse of hundreds of homes and damaging kilometers of highways. Pingwu County and Beichuan County, Sichuan, also northeast of Wenchuan and close to the epicenter of a 7.2 Ms earthquake in 1976, suffered a 6.1 Ms aftershock (5.7 Mw according to USGS) on August 1; it caused 2 deaths, 345 injuries, collapse of 707 homes, damages to over 1,000 homes, and blocked 25 kilometres (16 mi) of country roads. As late as August 5, yet another aftershock of 6.1 Ms (6.2 Mw according to USGS) hit Qingchuan, Sichuan, causing 1 death, 32 injuries, telecommunication interruptions, and widespread hill slides blocking roads in the area including a national highway.

Q1: How many buildings collapsed as a result of the May 27th aftershocks?
A1: 420,000
Q2: How strong was the May 25 aftershock in Qingchuan county?
A2: 6.0 Mw
Q3: How many people were injured in the May 25 aftershock?
A3: 1000
Q4: How many homes were destroyed because of the May 27 aftershocks?
A4: more than 420,000
Q5: During the May 27 aftershock, how many people were injured?
A5: 63
Q6: Where was the aftershock of August 5 that caused widespread hill slides?
A6: Qingchuan, Sichuan
Middle_Ages (History)

Strong, royalty-based nation states rose throughout Europe in the Late Middle Ages, particularly in England, France, and the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula: Aragon, Castile, and Portugal. The long conflicts of the period strengthened royal control over their kingdoms and were extremely hard on the peasantry. Kings profited from warfare that extended royal legislation and increased the lands they directly controlled. Paying for the wars required that methods of taxation become more effective and efficient, and the rate of taxation often increased. The requirement to obtain the consent of taxpayers allowed representative bodies such as the English Parliament and the French Estates General to gain power and authority.

Q1: Along with Aragon and Castile, what Christian kingdom was present on the Iberian Peninsula?
A1: Portugal
Q2: Why did kings increase the tax rate during this period?
A2: Paying for the wars
Q3: What English representative body provided consent for royal taxation?
A3: Parliament
Q4: What French body was similar in purpose to the English Parliament?
A4: Estates General
Q5: What social class was harmed by the lengthy wars of this era?
A5: the peasantry
Wood (Natural sciences)

Structural material that resembles ordinary, "dicot" or conifer wood in its gross handling characteristics is produced by a number of monocot plants, and these also are colloquially called wood. Of these, bamboo, botanically a member of the grass family, has considerable economic importance, larger culms being widely used as a building and construction material in their own right and, these days, in the manufacture of engineered flooring, panels and veneer. Another major plant group that produce material that often is called wood are the palms. Of much less importance are plants such as Pandanus, Dracaena and Cordyline. With all this material, the structure and composition of the structural material is quite different from ordinary wood.

Q1: What's another term used for "conifer" wood?
A1: dicot
Q2: What type of plants produce material that is referred to as "wood" even though it is technically not?
A2: monocot
Q3: What monocot plant produces "wood" by the same name that's often used for flooring and veneer?
A3: bamboo
Q4: While we call bamboo "wood," what botanical family does it belong to?
A4: grass
Q5: Along with bamboo, what's the other monocot that's a major source of so-called "wood"?
A5: palms
Brigham_Young_University (Philosophy and religion)

Students attending BYU are required to follow an honor code, which mandates behavior in line with LDS teachings such as academic honesty, adherence to dress and grooming standards, and abstinence from extramarital sex and from the consumption of drugs and alcohol. Many students (88 percent of men, 33 percent of women) either delay enrollment or take a hiatus from their studies to serve as Mormon missionaries. (Men typically serve for two-years, while women serve for 18 months.) An education at BYU is also less expensive than at similar private universities, since "a significant portion" of the cost of operating the university is subsidized by the church's tithing funds.

Q1: For what reason to many student's postpone their enrollment to BYU?
A1: to serve as Mormon missionaries
Q2: What is the source of much of BYU's funding?
A2: the church's tithing funds
Q3: How many women at BYU do missionary work?
A3: 33 percent
Q4: What is the average amount of time men serve as missionaries?
A4: two-years
Q5: What is the basis of the behavioral code at BYU?
A5: LDS teachings
Q6: What is a significant portion of the BYU's operating costs subsidized by?
A6: the church's tithing funds
Q7: What percentage of men delay their BYU enrollment to serve as a Mormon missionary?
A7: 88
Q8: What percentage of women delay their BYU enrollment to serve as a Mormon missionary?
A8: 33
Q9: How does the cost of attending BYU compare to the cost of attending similar universities?
A9: less expensive
Q10: What do all students at BYU agree to abstain from consuming?
A10: drugs and alcohol
Han_dynasty (History)

Students from the Imperial University organized a widespread student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court. Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis. Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying (李膺) and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant Dou Wu (d. 168 AD) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them. However the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions.

Q1: On what charge was Li Ying jailed for?
A1: treason
Q2: Who was responsible for imprisoning Li Ying?
A2: Palace eunuchs
Q3: During what type of crisis did Emperor Huan alienate the bureaucracy?
A3: economic
Q4: Students from what university led a protest against members of Huan's court?
A4: Imperial
Q5: When did Dou Wu die?
A5: 168 AD
Circadian_rhythm (Natural sciences)

Studies by Nathaniel Kleitman in 1938 and by Derk-Jan Dijk and Charles Czeisler in the 1990s put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day in dim light if at all,[citation needed] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including sleep latency and other functions.[page needed]

Q1: What time cycle did studies in 1938 and 1990s use on humans?
A1: 28-hour
Q2: What conditions were suppressed in the 28 hour wake-sleep cycle studies ?
A2: time cues
Q3: How long did the suppression of time clues study last?
A3: month
Q4: What is this forced type of study called?
A4: forced desynchrony
Q5: When in the cycle do wake-sleep cycles break off from the circadian period?
A5: 24.18 hours
Circadian_rhythm (Natural sciences)

Studies conducted on both animals and humans show major bidirectional relationships between the circadian system and abusive drugs. It is indicated that these abusive drugs affect the central circadian pacemaker. Individuals suffering from substance abuse display disrupted rhythms. These disrupted rhythms can increase the risk for substance abuse and relapse. It is possible that genetic and/or environmental disturbances to the normal sleep and wake cycle can increase the susceptibility to addiction.

Q1: What do studies show has a bidirectional relationship with the circadian system?
A1: abusive drugs
Q2: What do abusive drugs effect in the circadian system?
A2: circadian pacemaker
Q3: What do drug abusers show in their circadian processes?
A3: disrupted rhythms
Q4: What can the disrupted circadian system cause?
A4: abuse and relapse
Q5: What can disruption to genetics and environment in the sleep cycle cause?
A5: susceptibility to addiction
Jews (History)

Studies of autosomal DNA, which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common. For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Mizrahi Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the Old World". North African, Italian and others of Iberian origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular Moroccan Jews), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly southern European, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations and Sub-Saharan Africans. Behar et al. have remarked on an especially close relationship of Ashkenazi Jews and modern Italians.

Q1: What looks at the entire DNA mixture?
A1: autosomal DNA
Q2: What has become increasingly important as the technology deveops?
A2: autosomal DNA
Q3: Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with whom?
A3: Middle Eastern populations and Sub-Saharan Africans
Nutrition (Agriculture, food, and drink)

Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all material excreted and eliminated from the body (in urine and feces). Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized in the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of animal nutrition is still slowly evolving.

Q1: What needs to be compared to the waste products from humans to determine what is absorbed in the body?
A1: food
Q2: It is important to examine both the feces and what other excrement when studying absorption?
A2: urine
Q3: Other than time consuming, what else are nutritional studies due to their length and variable count?
A3: expensive
Q4: At which rate is the science behind nutrition continuing to evolve?
A4: slowly
Police (Social sciences and society)

Studies of this kind outside of Europe are even rarer, so it is difficult to make generalizations, but one small-scale study that compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices at specific cross-border locations in North America and Europe confirmed that low visibility of police information and intelligence sharing was a common feature (Alain, 2001). Intelligence-led policing is now common practice in most advanced countries (Ratcliffe, 2007) and it is likely that police intelligence sharing and information exchange has a common morphology around the world (Ratcliffe, 2007). James Sheptycki has analyzed the effects of the new information technologies on the organization of policing-intelligence and suggests that a number of 'organizational pathologies' have arisen that make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic. He argues that transnational police information circuits help to "compose the panic scenes of the security-control society". The paradoxical effect is that, the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity.

Q1: Where has cross-border policing been most under-studied?
A1: outside of Europe
Q2: Who compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices?
A2: Alain
Q3: What kind of policing has become common practice?
A3: Intelligence-led
Q4: What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' have caused for police?
A4: make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic
Q5: What paradox did Sheptycki point out?
A5: the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity
Steven_Spielberg (Media and drama)

Studio producers Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown offered Spielberg the director's chair for Jaws, a thriller-horror film based on the Peter Benchley novel about an enormous killer shark. Spielberg has often referred to the gruelling shoot as his professional crucible. Despite the film's ultimate, enormous success, it was nearly shut down due to delays and budget over-runs. But Spielberg persevered and finished the film. It was an enormous hit, winning three Academy Awards (for editing, original score and sound) and grossing more than $470 million worldwide at the box office. It also set the domestic record for box office gross, leading to what the press described as "Jawsmania.":248 Jaws made Spielberg a household name and one of America's youngest multi-millionaires, allowing him a great deal of autonomy for his future projects.:250 It was nominated for Best Picture and featured Spielberg's first of three collaborations with actor Richard Dreyfuss.

Q1: What film did Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown offer Steven Spielberg to direct?
A1: Jaws
Q2: Why was Jaws nearly shut down?
A2: delays and budget over-runs
Q3: How many Academy Awards did the film "Jaws" win?
A3: three
Q4: How much money did the film "Jaws" gross worldwide?
A4: $470 million worldwide
Q5: What was the film "Jaws" nominated for?
A5: Best Picture
Q6: Who made Spielberg the 'Jaws' director?
A6: Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown
Q7: Who wrote the 'Jaws' book?
A7: Peter Benchley
Q8: How many Academy Awards did 'Jaws' win?
A8: three
Q9: How much did 'Jaws' earn in theaters?
A9: more than $470 million worldwide
Q10: How many times did Spielberg work with Richard Dreyfus?
A10: three
Group_(mathematics) (Mathematics)

Sub- and quotient groups are related in the following way: a subset H of G can be seen as an injective map H → G, i.e. any element of the target has at most one element that maps to it. The counterpart to injective maps are surjective maps (every element of the target is mapped onto), such as the canonical map G → G / N.y[›] Interpreting subgroup and quotients in light of these homomorphisms emphasizes the structural concept inherent to these definitions alluded to in the introduction. In general, homomorphisms are neither injective nor surjective. Kernel and image of group homomorphisms and the first isomorphism theorem address this phenomenon.

Q1: What map shows the relation between sub and quotient groups?
A1: injective map
Q2: What are the opposites of injective maps?
A2: surjective maps
Q3: What is an example of a surjective map?
A3: canonical map
Q4: What theory address the phenomenon of homomorphisms being neither injective nor surjective?
A4: the first isomorphism theorem