LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
Phonology (Language and literature)

In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky developed optimality theory—an overall architecture for phonology according to which languages choose a pronunciation of a word that best satisfies a list of constraints ordered by importance; a lower-ranked constraint can be violated when the violation is necessary in order to obey a higher-ranked constraint. The approach was soon extended to morphology by John McCarthy and Alan Prince, and has become a dominant trend in phonology. The appeal to phonetic grounding of constraints and representational elements (e.g. features) in various approaches has been criticized by proponents of 'substance-free phonology', especially Mark Hale and Charles Reiss.

Q1: When did Prince and Smolensky develop their theory?
A1: 1991
Q2: Where was optimality theory created?
A2: LSA summer institute
Q3: Aside from Alan Prince who brought optimality theory to morphology?
A3: John McCarthy
Q4: Who were prominent critics of optimality theory?
A4: Mark Hale and Charles Reiss
Protestantism (Philosophy and religion)

In a factor analysis of the latest wave of World Values Survey data, Arno Tausch (Corvinus University of Budapest) found that Protestantism emerges to be very close to combining religion and the traditions of liberalism. The Global Value Development Index, calculated by Tausch, relies on the World Values Survey dimensions such as trust in the state of law, no support for shadow economy, postmaterial activism, support for democracy, a non-acceptance of violence, xenophobia and racism, trust in transnational capital and Universities, confidence in the market economy, supporting gender justice, and engaging in environmental activism, etc.

Q1: Who calculated the Global Value Development Index?
A1: Arno Tausch
Q2: What does a good job of combining religion and liberalism?
A2: Protestantism
Q3: Who did an analysis of World Values Survey data?
A3: Arno Tausch
Q4: What university is Arno Tausch from?
A4: Corvinus University of Budapest
Q5: What type of engagement is considered a World Value?
A5: environmental activism
John_von_Neumann (Mathematics)

In a famous paper of 1936 with Garrett Birkhoff, the first work ever to introduce quantum logics, von Neumann and Birkhoff first proved that quantum mechanics requires a propositional calculus substantially different from all classical logics and rigorously isolated a new algebraic structure for quantum logics. The concept of creating a propositional calculus for quantum logic was first outlined in a short section in von Neumann's 1932 work, but in 1936, the need for the new propositional calculus was demonstrated through several proofs. For example, photons cannot pass through two successive filters that are polarized perpendicularly (e.g., one horizontally and the other vertically), and therefore, a fortiori, it cannot pass if a third filter polarized diagonally is added to the other two, either before or after them in the succession, but if the third filter is added in between the other two, the photons will, indeed, pass through. This experimental fact is translatable into logic as the non-commutativity of conjunction . It was also demonstrated that the laws of distribution of classical logic,  and , are not valid for quantum theory.

Q1: With whom did von Neuman work on a paper in 1936 that introduce quantum logic?
A1: Garrett Birkhoff
Q2: What concept was created for quatum logic?
A2: propositional calculus
Q3: What is the difference of logic in quantum theory?
A3: laws of distribution of classical logic,  and , are not valid for quantum theory
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States (History)

In a five-to-four decision, the Supreme Court struck down the impositions of the death penalty in each of the consolidated cases as unconstitutional. The five justices in the majority did not produce a common opinion or rationale for their decision, however, and agreed only on a short statement announcing the result. The narrowest opinions, those of Byron White and Potter Stewart, expressed generalized concerns about the inconsistent application of the death penalty across a variety of cases but did not exclude the possibility of a constitutional death penalty law. Stewart and William O. Douglas worried explicitly about racial discrimination in enforcement of the death penalty. Thurgood Marshall and William J. Brennan, Jr. expressed the opinion that the death penalty was proscribed absolutely by the Eighth Amendment as "cruel and unusual" punishment.

Q1: Along with Marshall, who believed that the Eighth Amendment forbade the death penalty?
A1: William J. Brennan, Jr.
Q2: Along with Stewart, what Supreme Court justice was concerned about racial disparity in death penalty enforcement?
A2: William O. Douglas
Q3: Aside from Stewart, what justice believed that the death penalty could be constitutional?
A3: Byron White
Data_compression (Engineering and technology)

In a further refinement of the direct use of probabilistic modelling, statistical estimates can be coupled to an algorithm called arithmetic coding. Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a finite-state machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols. It can achieve superior compression to other techniques such as the better-known Huffman algorithm. It uses an internal memory state to avoid the need to perform a one-to-one mapping of individual input symbols to distinct representations that use an integer number of bits, and it clears out the internal memory only after encoding the entire string of data symbols. Arithmetic coding applies especially well to adaptive data compression tasks where the statistics vary and are context-dependent, as it can be easily coupled with an adaptive model of the probability distribution of the input data. An early example of the use of arithmetic coding was its use as an optional (but not widely used) feature of the JPEG image coding standard. It has since been applied in various other designs including H.264/MPEG-4 AVC and HEVC for video coding.

Q1: What can be paired with an algorithm called arithmetic coding?
A1: statistical estimates
Q2: What can achieve superior compression?
A2: Arithmetic coding
Q3: What uses an internal memory state?
A3: Huffman algorithm
Transistor (Engineering and technology)

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance from collector to emitter. If the voltage difference between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation because current is flowing from collector to emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on.

Q1: Why does the collector voltage drop in grounded-emitter transistor circuits?
A1: reduced resistance from collector to emitter
Q2: What would happen if the voltage difference from collector and emitter were zero?
A2: the collector current would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage
Q3: What is the term for a zero difference between collector and emitter?
A3: saturation
Q4: Why is the term saturation named as such?
A4: current is flowing from collector to emitter freely
Q5: What position is the switch in when saturated?
A5: on
War_on_Terror (History)

In a major split in the ranks of Al Qaeda's organization, the Iraqi franchise, known as Al Qaeda in Iraq covertly invaded Syria and the Levant and began participating in the ongoing Syrian Civil War, gaining enough support and strength to re-invade Iraq's western provinces under the name of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS/ISIL), taking over much of the country in a blitzkrieg-like action and combining the Iraq insurgency and Syrian Civil War into a single conflict. Due to their extreme brutality and a complete change in their overall ideology, Al Qaeda's core organization in Central Asia eventually denounced ISIS and directed their affiliates to cut off all ties with this organization. Many analysts[who?] believe that because of this schism, Al Qaeda and ISIL are now in a competition to retain the title of the world's most powerful terrorist organization.

Q1: Which civil war did the Iraq branch of Al Qaeda begin fighting in?
A1: Syrian
Q2: With support from Syrians, what did the Iraq branch of Al Qaeda rename themselves to?
A2: Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS/ISIL)
Q3: What part of Iraq did ISIS invade?
A3: western
Q4: Who denounced ISIS?
A4: Al Qaeda's core organization
Q5: What relationship do Al Qaeda and ISIS now have?
A5: competition
Lighting (Engineering and technology)

In a movie theater, steps in the aisles are usually marked with a row of small lights for convenience and safety, when the film has started and the other lights are off. Traditionally made up of small low wattage, low voltage lamps in a track or translucent tube, these are rapidly being replaced with LED based versions.

Q1: What do steps in move theater aisles have for safety markings?
A1: small lights
Q2: What are the low wattage lamps being replaced with in movie theaters?
A2: LED based versions
Q3: What kind of tube are the movie theaters lights enclosed in?
A3: translucent tube
Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union (History)

In a nationally televised speech early in the morning of December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the USSR – or, as he put it, "I hereby discontinue my activities at the post of President of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics." He declared the office extinct, and all of its powers (such as control of the nuclear arsenal) were ceded to Yeltsin. A week earlier, Gorbachev had met with Yeltsin and accepted the fait accompli of the Soviet Union's dissolution. On the same day, the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR adopted a statute to change Russia's legal name from "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic" to "Russian Federation," showing that it was now a sovereign state.

Q1: When did Gorbachev resign?
A1: December 25, 1991
Q2: Who was given control after Gorbachev left?
A2: Yeltsin
Q3: What was Russia's new legal name?
A3: Russian Federation
Q4: What was the Russian Federations previous legal name?
A4: Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union (History)

In a new and effective tactic, the Popular Front launched a rail blockade of Armenia, which caused petrol and food shortages because 85 percent of Armenia's freight came from Azerbaijan. Under pressure from the Popular Front the Communist authorities in Azerbaijan started making concessions. On September 25, they passed a sovereignty law that gave precedence to Azerbaijani law, and on October 4, the Popular Front was permitted to register as a legal organization as long as it lifted the blockade. Transport communications between Azerbaijan and Armenia never fully recovered. Tensions continued to escalate and on December 29, Popular Front activists seized local party offices in Jalilabad, wounding dozens.

Q1: What did the Popular Front do to Armenian railways?
A1: blockade
Q2: What shortages were caused by the blockade?
A2: petrol and food
Q3: How much freight into Armenia originated in Azerbaijan? 
A3: 85 percent
Q4: When was the sovereignty law passed?
A4: September 25
Q5: What in Jalilibad was taken over by the Popular Front?
A5: local party offices
Political_party (Social sciences and society)

In a nonpartisan system, no official political parties exist, sometimes reflecting legal restrictions on political parties. In nonpartisan elections, each candidate is eligible for office on his or her own merits. In nonpartisan legislatures, there are no typically formal party alignments within the legislature. The administration of George Washington and the first few sessions of the United States Congress were nonpartisan. Washington also warned against political parties during his Farewell Address. In the United States, the unicameral legislature of Nebraska is nonpartisan but is elected and votes on informal party lines. In Canada, the territorial legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are nonpartisan. In New Zealand, Tokelau has a nonpartisan parliament. Many city and county governments[vague] are nonpartisan. Nonpartisan elections and modes of governance are common outside of state institutions. Unless there are legal prohibitions against political parties, factions within nonpartisan systems often evolve into political parties.

Q1: Do official political parties exist in a nonpartisan system?
A1: In a nonpartisan system, no official political parties exist
Q2: Was the administration of George Washington nonpartisan?
A2: The administration of George Washington and the first few sessions of the United States Congress were nonpartisan.
Q3: What did Washington warn against during his farewell address?
A3: political parties
Q4: What do factions within nonpartisan systems evolve into?
A4: political parties
Institute_of_technology (Engineering and technology)

In a number of countries, although being today generally considered similar institutions of higher learning across many countries, polytechnics and institutes of technology used to have a quite different statute among each other, its teaching competences and organizational history. In many cases polytechnic were elite technological universities concentrating on applied science and engineering and may also be a former designation for a vocational institution, before it has been granted the exclusive right to award academic degrees and can be truly called an institute of technology. A number of polytechnics providing higher education is simply a result of a formal upgrading from their original and historical role as intermediate technical education schools. In some situations, former polytechnics or other non-university institutions have emerged solely through an administrative change of statutes, which often included a name change with the introduction of new designations like institute of technology, polytechnic university, university of applied sciences, or university of technology for marketing purposes. Such emergence of so many upgraded polytechnics, former vocational education and technical schools converted into more university-like institutions has caused concern where the lack of specialized intermediate technical professionals lead to industrial skill shortages in some fields, being also associated to an increase of the graduate unemployment rate. This is mostly the case in those countries, where the education system is not controlled by the state and everybody can grant degrees.[citation needed] Evidence have also shown a decline in the general quality of teaching and graduate's preparation for the workplace, due to the fast-paced conversion of that technical institutions to more advanced higher level institutions. Mentz, Kotze and Van der Merwe (2008) argues that all the tools are in place to promote the debate on the place of technology in higher education in general and in Universities of Technology specifically. The aspects of this debate can follow the following lines: • To what degree is technology defined as a concept? • What is the scope of technology discourse? • What is the place and relation of science with technology? • How useful is the Mitcham framework in thinking about technology in South Africa? • Can a measure of cooperation as opposed to competition be achieved amongst higher education institutions? • Who ultimately is responsible for vocational training and what is the role of technology in this?

Q1: What term was used in some countries to describe select universities that focus on technological education in applied science and engineering?
A1: polytechnics
John_von_Neumann (Mathematics)

In a number of von Neumann's papers, the methods of argument he employed are considered even more significant than the results. In anticipation of his later study of dimension theory in algebras of operators, von Neumann used results on equivalence by finite decomposition, and reformulated the problem of measure in terms of functions. In his 1936 paper on analytic measure theory, he used the Haar theorem in the solution of Hilbert's fifth problem in the case of compact groups. In 1938, he was awarded the Bôcher Memorial Prize for his work in analysis.

Q1: What is often considered more important than the results of von Neumann's papers?
A1: methods of argument he employed
Q2: In 1938 what was von Neumann awarded?
A2: Bôcher Memorial Prize
Q3: What did von Neumann use the Haar theorem to solve in a 1936 paper?
A3: Hilbert's fifth problem in the case of compact groups
2008_Sichuan_earthquake (Natural sciences)

In a press conference held by the State Council Information Office the day after the earthquake, geologist Zhang Xiaodong, deputy director of CEA's Seismic Monitoring Network Center, restated that earthquake prediction was a global issue, in the sense that no proven methods exist, and that no prediction notification was received before the earthquake. Seismologist Gary Gibson of Monash University in Australia told Deutsche Presse-Agentur that he also did not see anything that could be regarded as having 'predicted' the earthquake's occurrence.

Q1: What was stated in the press conference?
A1: that earthquake prediction was a global issue
Q2: What do many geologists believe about earthquake prediction?
A2: no proven methods exist
Q3: What kind of issue is earthquake prediction?
A3: a global issue
Q4: What was received before the quake occurred?
A4: no prediction notification
Q5: What did  seismologist Gary Gibson have to say about the prediction of the quake?
A5: did not see anything
Race_(human_categorization) (Natural sciences)

In a response to Livingstone, Theodore Dobzhansky argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: "I agree with Dr. Livingstone that if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races, and if 'race' is used as an 'explanation' of the human variability, rather than vice versa, then the explanation is invalid." He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between "race differences" and "the race concept." The former refers to any distinction in gene frequencies between populations; the latter is "a matter of judgment." He further observed that even when there is clinal variation, "Race differences are objectively ascertainable biological phenomena… but it does not follow that racially distinct populations must be given racial (or subspecific) labels." In short, Livingstone and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention. They differ on whether the race concept remains a meaningful and useful social convention.

Q1: What must one be attentive to when talking about race?
A1: how the term is being used
Q2: On what point did Dobzhansky agree with Dr. Livingstone?
A2: if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races
Q3: What is merely "a matter of judgement"?
A3: "the race concept."
Q4: While race difference possible to easily see, they need not be given what?
A4: labels
Q5: Livingston and Dobzhansky disagree on whether the race concept is what?
A5: a meaningful and useful social convention
Korean_War (Warfare)

In a series of emergency meetings that lasted from 2–5 October, Chinese leaders debated whether to send Chinese troops into Korea. There was considerable resistance among many leaders, including senior military leaders, to confronting the U.S. in Korea. Mao strongly supported intervention, and Zhou was one of the few Chinese leaders who firmly supported him. After Lin Biao politely refused Mao's offer to command Chinese forces in Korea (citing his upcoming medical treatment), Mao decided that Peng Dehuai would be the commander of the Chinese forces in Korea after Peng agreed to support Mao's position. Mao then asked Peng to speak in favor of intervention to the rest of the Chinese leaders. After Peng made the case that if U.S. troops conquered Korea and reached the Yalu they might cross it and invade China the Politburo agreed to intervene in Korea. Later, the Chinese claimed that US bombers had violated PRC national airspace on three separate occasions and attacked Chinese targets before China intervened. On 8 October 1950, Mao Zedong redesignated the PLA North East Frontier Force as the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA).

Q1: What was discussed at the emergency talks held by Chinese leaders?
A1: whether to send Chinese troops into Korea
Q2: Who was a proponent for intervening in Korea?
A2: Mao
Q3: Who was Lin Biao replaced with when he declined to lead the Chinese troops in Korea?
A3: Peng Dehuai
Q4: Who convinced the Chinese leaders who were against entering the war that it was a good idea?
A4: Peng
Q5: What did Mao Zedong's reinvented PLA North East Frontier Force become?
A5: People's Volunteer Army
John_von_Neumann (Mathematics)

In a series of famous papers, von Neumann made spectacular contributions to measure theory. The work of Banach had implied that the problem of measure has a positive solution if n = 1 or n = 2 and a negative solution in all other cases. Von Neumann's work argued that the "problem is essentially group-theoretic in character, and that, in particular, for the solvability of the problem of measure the ordinary algebraic concept of solvability of a group is relevant. Thus, according to von Neumann, it is the change of group that makes a difference, not the change of space."

Q1: In what way did von Neumann make spectacular contributions to measure theory?
A1: In a series of famous papers
Q2: What concept was relevant to the solvability of the problem of measure?
A2: algebraic concept of solvability of a group is relevant
Q3: According to von Neumann what is the most important part of the problem of measure?
A3: change of group that makes a difference, not the change of space
Communication (Language and literature)

In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication simply views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:

Q1: A simple model is also referred to as what?
A1: transmission model
Q2: What kind of message is sent in a simple model?
A2: a message in natural language
Q3: In what form is the information or content sent in a simple model?
A3: spoken language
Q4: How is information sent through a simple model?
A4: from an emisor/ sender/ encoder
Q5: What are the strengths of the simple model?
A5: simplicity, generality, and quantifiability