LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
Gene (Natural sciences)

Genes are regulated so that they are expressed only when the product is needed, since expression draws on limited resources.:7 A cell regulates its gene expression depending on its external environment (e.g. available nutrients, temperature and other stresses), its internal environment (e.g. cell division cycle, metabolism, infection status), and its specific role if in a multicellular organism. Gene expression can be regulated at any step: from transcriptional initiation, to RNA processing, to post-translational modification of the protein. The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli (lac operon) was the first such mechanism to be described in 1961.

Q1: When are genes expressed?
A1: only when the product is needed
Q2: What are examples of a cell's external environment?
A2: available nutrients, temperature and other stresses
Q3: What are examples of a cell's internal environment?
A3: cell division cycle, metabolism, infection status
Q4: At which step can gene expression be regulated?
A4: at any step
Q5: What example of post-translational modification of a protein was first described in 1961?
A5: The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli
Gene (Natural sciences)

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

Q1: What do mutations in a gene sequence lead to?
A1: different variants, known as alleles
Q2: What do alleles do?
A2: encode slightly different versions of a protein
Q3: What do alleles cause?
A3: different phenotype traits
Q4: What does "having a gene" or a "good gene" typically refer to?
A4: having a different allele of the gene
Q5: What causes genes to evolve?
A5: natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles
Gene (Natural sciences)

Genes with a most recent common ancestor, and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry, are known as homologs. These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism's genome, where they are known as paralogous genes, or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event, where they are known as orthologous genes,:7.6 and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms. It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes, although the difference is minimal.

Q1: What are genes with a most recent common ancestor called?
A1: homologs
Q2: What is one reason for homologs to appear?
A2: gene duplication within an organism's genome
Q3: What are genes that occur from duplication within an organism's genome called?
A3: paralogous genes
Q4: What are genes that result from divergence of the genes after a speciation event called?
A4: orthologous genes
Gene (Natural sciences)

Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms. For example, genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene's function. Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine.

Q1: What has become a common research tool with model organisms?
A1: Genetic engineering
Q2: What do scientists explore by adding genes to mice with a certain gene's function disrupted?
A2: that gene's function
Q3: What is an application for which organisms have been modified for?
A3: agriculture
Q4: What is another for which  organisms have been modified for?
A4: industrial biotechnology
Q5: What is yet another application for which  organisms have been modified for?
A5: medicine
Gene (Natural sciences)

Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology. Since the 1970s, a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add, remove and edit genes in an organism. Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired. The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism.

Q1: What is known as the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology?
A1: Genetic engineering
Q2: When did techniques begin to be developed to add, remove and edit genes?
A2: the 1970s
Q3: What sort of enzymes do recently developed genome engineering techniques use?
A3: engineered nuclease enzymes
Q4: What sort of DNA repair is created by modern genetic engineering techniques?
A4: targeted
Q5: What term refers to extensive genetic engineering of an organism?
A5: synthetic biology
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas (History)

Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily focus on Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups and Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. "Y-DNA" is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while "mtDNA" is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material. Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly. AtDNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and related isolated populations.

Q1: What does the genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily focus on?
A1: Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups
Q2: How is Y-DNA passed along?
A2: patrilineal line
Q3: Which type of DNA is passed from the mother to offspring of both genders?
A3: mtDNA
Q4: What is the only way that Y-DNA and mtDNA change?
A4: chance mutation
Q5: What is AtDNA generally only used to measure?
A5: average continent-of-ancestry
Black_people (Language and literature)

Genetic studies have found significant African female-mediated gene flow in Arab communities in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, with an average of 38% of maternal lineages in Yemen are of direct African descent, 16% in Oman-Qatar, and 10% in Saudi Arabia-United Arab Emirates.

Q1: How many people in Yemen have African lineage? 
A1: average of 38%
Q2: How many people in Oman-Qatar have African lineage?
A2: 16%
Q3: How many people in Saudi Arabia-United Arab Emirates have African lineage?
A3: 10%
Q4: Genetic studies have found which gene in Arab communities?
A4: African female-mediated gene
Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas (History)

Genetic studies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of Amerindians and some Siberian and Central Asian peoples also revealed that the gene pool of the Turkic-speaking peoples of Siberia such as Altaians, Khakas, Shors and Soyots, living between the Altai and Lake Baikal along the Sayan mountains, are genetically closest to Amerindians.[citation needed] This view is shared by other researchers who argue that "the ancestors of the American Indians were the first to separate from the great Asian population in the Middle Paleolithic. 2012 research found evidence for a recent common ancestry between Native Americans and indigenous Altaians based on mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome analysis. The paternal lineages of Altaians mostly belong to the subclades of haplogroup P-M45 (xR1a 38-93%; xQ1a 4-32%).

Q1: Who have studies of the mtDNA of Turkic-speaking peoples shown they're closest to genetically?
A1: Amerindians
Q2: What group were the ancestors of the American Indians separated from?
A2: Asian population
Q3: When did the ancestors of the American Indians separate from their parent population?
A3: Middle Paleolithic
Q4: When did research find evidence for a common ancestry between Native Americans and Altaians?
A4: 2012
Q5: What DNA analysis indicated the common ancestry of the Native Americans?
A5: mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome
Ashkenazi_Jews (History)

Genetic studies on Ashkenazim have been conducted to determine how much of their ancestry comes from the Levant, and how much derives from European populations. These studies—researching both their paternal and maternal lineages—point to a significant prevalence of ancient Levantine origins. But they have arrived at diverging conclusions regarding both the degree and the sources of their European ancestry. These diverging conclusions focus particularly on the extent of the European genetic origin observed in Ashkenazi maternal lineages.

Q1: Genetic studies on Ashkenazim have found a significant prevalence of what type of origins?
A1: ancient Levantine origins
Q2: Have studies on the genetics of the Ashkenazim come to similar or divergent conclusions regarding the degree and sources of their European ancestry?
A2: they have arrived at diverging conclusions
Q3: Have these studies on Ashkenazim genetics researched their paternal lineages, maternal lineages, or both?
A3: researching both their paternal and maternal lineages
Q4: Genetic studies on the Ashkenazim have tried to determine how much of their ancestry is derived from European populations and from where?
A4: the Levant
Jews (History)

Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East, and that they bear their strongest resemblance to the peoples of the Fertile Crescent. The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common genetic pool dating back 4,000 years, as a marker of their common ancestral origin. Despite their long-term separation and beside their shared genetic origin, Jews also maintained a common culture, tradition, and language.

Q1: Genetic studies show that Jews bear their strongest resemblance to the peoples of where?
A1: Fertile Crescent
Q2: How far back does the Jews' shared common genetic pool date?
A2: 4,000 years
Q3: Most Jews share a common genetic heritage that originates from what place?
A3: Middle East
Cotton (Natural sciences)

Genetically modified (GM) cotton was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) naturally produces a chemical harmful only to a small fraction of insects, most notably the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, and flies, and harmless to other forms of life. The gene coding for Bt toxin has been inserted into cotton, causing cotton, called Bt cotton, to produce this natural insecticide in its tissues. In many regions, the main pests in commercial cotton are lepidopteran larvae, which are killed by the Bt protein in the transgenic cotton they eat. This eliminates the need to use large amounts of broad-spectrum insecticides to kill lepidopteran pests (some of which have developed pyrethroid resistance). This spares natural insect predators in the farm ecology and further contributes to noninsecticide pest management.

Q1: To stop reliance on what was GM cotton developed?
A1: pesticides
Q2: What form of cotton is GM?
A2: Genetically modified
Q3: What bacterium is used to produced GM cotton?
A3: Bacillus thuringiensis
Q4: What farming pest management technique does the use of GM grown plants promote?
A4: noninsecticide
Q5: What part of the life cycle of moths does Bt toxin effect?
A5: larvae
Data_compression (Engineering and technology)

Genetics compression algorithms are the latest generation of lossless algorithms that compress data (typically sequences of nucleotides) using both conventional compression algorithms and genetic algorithms adapted to the specific datatype. In 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published a genetic compression algorithm that does not use a reference genome for compression. HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression and in much faster time than the leading general-purpose compression utilities. For this, Chanda, Elhaik, and Bader introduced MAF based encoding (MAFE), which reduces the heterogeneity of the dataset by sorting SNPs by their minor allele frequency, thus homogenizing the dataset. Other algorithms in 2009 and 2013 (DNAZip and GenomeZip) have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold—allowing 6 billion basepair diploid human genomes to be stored in 2.5 megabytes (relative to a reference genome or averaged over many genomes).

Q1: What are the latest generation of lossless algorithms? 
A1: Genetics
Q2: What encoding reduces the heterogeneity of a dataset by sorting SNPs?
A2: MAFE
Q3: What two algorithms have compression ratios of up to 1200-fold?
A3: DNAZip and GenomeZip
Switzerland (Geography and places)

Geneva and the nearby French department of Ain co-host the world's largest laboratory, CERN, dedicated to particle physics research. Another important research center is the Paul Scherrer Institute. Notable inventions include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), the scanning tunneling microscope (Nobel prize) and Velcro. Some technologies enabled the exploration of new worlds such as the pressurized balloon of Auguste Piccard and the Bathyscaphe which permitted Jacques Piccard to reach the deepest point of the world's oceans.

Q1: What is the world's largest laboratory?
A1: CERN
Q2: Who co-hosts CERN along with the French department of Ain?
A2: Geneva
Q3: What research is CERN dedicated to?
A3: particle physics
Q4: What notable Swiss invention won the nobel prize?
A4: scanning tunneling microscope
Q5: Who invented the pressurized balloon?
A5: Auguste Piccard
Genocide (History)

Genocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as "a crime without a name". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael Lemkin, described the policies of systematic murder founded by the Nazis as genocide. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill). The word is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them.

Q1: The word "genocide" was unknown until what year?
A1: 1944
Q2: In 1941, how did Winston Churchill refer to the mass killings of Russian prisoners of war?
A2: as "a crime without a name"
Q3: What was the name of the Polish-Jewish lawyer who first described Nazi atrocities as "genocide?" 
A3: Raphael Lemkin
Q4: What is the etymological basis of the word "genocide?"
A4: Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill)
Q5: As it pertains to violent crimes against targeted groups, what is the ultimate motivation within the actions of genocide?
A5: to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them
Genome (Natural sciences)

Genome composition is used to describe the make up of contents of a haploid genome, which should include genome size, proportions of non-repetitive DNA and repetitive DNA in details. By comparing the genome compositions between genomes, scientists can better understand the evolutionary history of a given genome.

Q1: What is the term that accounts for the constituents of the haploid genome?
A1: Genome composition
Q2: What aspect of a genome can genome compositions help researchers in learning about?
A2: evolutionary history
Genome (Natural sciences)

Genome size is the total number of DNA base pairs in one copy of a haploid genome. The genome size is positively correlated with the morphological complexity among prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes; however, after mollusks and all the other higher eukaryotes above, this correlation is no longer effective. This phenomenon also indicates the mighty influence coming from repetitive DNA act on the genomes.

Q1: What is the name for the count of all DNA base pairs in a single haploid genome?
A1: Genome size
Q2: What does genome size have a direct relationship with in prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes?
A2: morphological complexity
Q3: What accounts for the breakdown of the relation between genome size and morphological complexity in higher eukaryotes?
A3: repetitive DNA
Genome (Natural sciences)

Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be measured and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as chromosome number (karyotype), genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005).

Q1: What is another word for the total count of chromosomes?
A1: karyotype
Q2: Aside from karyotype, what are other genomic traits studied by scientists?
A2: genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content
Literature (Language and literature)

Genre fiction also showed it could question reality in its 20th century forms, in spite of its fixed formulas, through the enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alternative realities of science fiction. The separation of "mainstream" and "genre" forms (including journalism) continued to blur during the period up to our own times. William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the second World War, and post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective realism in general.

Q1: What sub-group of literature emerged in the 20th century?
A1: Genre fiction
Q2: Alternative reality genre fiction is also known as what?
A2: science fiction
Q3: Who were two 20th century writers who blurred the lines between journalism and literature?
A3: William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson
Q4: By what means did these two writers create and emergent convergence of literature and journalism?
A4: strong subjective statements
Q5: Critics based in what movement find fault in objective realism?
A5: post-modern
Umayyad_Caliphate (History)

Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the khalifah. The governor was in charge of the religious officials, army leaders, police, and civil administrators in his province. Local expenses were paid for by taxes coming from that province, with the remainder each year being sent to the central government in Damascus. As the central power of the Umayyad rulers waned in the later years of the dynasty, some governors neglected to send the extra tax revenue to Damascus and created great personal fortunes.

Q1: Who appointed the governors in the Umayyad empire?
A1: khalifah
Q2: Where was the government of the Umayyads based?
A2: Damascus
Q3: Along with army leaders, police and civil administration, what did the governor control in his province?
A3: religious officials
Solar_energy (Natural sciences)

Geography effects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day. Cloud cover can effect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells.

Q1: Why does geography have an effect of the amount of solar energy available?
A1: areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation
Q2: What is the process called that can increase solar energy in areas further away from the earth's equator?
A2: photovoltaics
Q3: Why does time have an effect of the amount of available solar energy?
A3: during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb
Q4: What effect does cloud coverage have on the amount of solar energy available?
A4: clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells
Plymouth (History)

Geologically, Plymouth has a mixture of limestone, Devonian slate, granite and Middle Devonian limestone. Plymouth Sound, Shores and Cliffs is a Site of Special Scientific Interest, because of its geology. The bulk of the city is built upon Upper Devonian slates and shales and the headlands at the entrance to Plymouth Sound are formed of Lower Devonian slates, which can withstand the power of the sea.

Q1: What special designation does Plymouth Sound, Shores and Cliffs possess?
A1: Site of Special Scientific Interest
Q2: What stones form the headlands near Plymouth Sound?
A2: Lower Devonian slates
Q3: Along with Devonian slate, Middle Devonian limestone and limestone, what stone provides the geologic base of Plymouth?
A3: granite
Q4: Along with shales, what is most of the city built on?
A4: Upper Devonian slates
Q5: For what reason is Plymouth Sound a Site of Special Scientific Interest?
A5: its geology
Antarctica (Natural sciences)

Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes mountain range of South America. The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by igneous intrusions and volcanism. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the Ellsworth Mountains region, where the stratigraphy is more similar to East Antarctica.

Q1: To what mountainous area is Antarctica geologically similar?
A1: Andes
Q2: An uplift of what formed Antarctica?
A2: sea bed sediments
Q3: Starting from the late Paleozoic era, when did Antarctica finish forming?
A3: early Mesozoic
Q4: What are the most often found rocks in Antarctica?
A4: andesite and rhyolite
Q5: What type of geologic activity occurred even after the formation of the ice sheets?
A5: volcanic
History_of_science (History)

Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.

Q1: What happened to geology during the Scientific Revolution?
A1: individual theorists made important contributions
Q2: What did Robert Hooke study?
A2: earthquakes
Q3: What theory did Nicholas Steno discover?
A3: the theory of superposition
Q4: What book did Thomas Burnet right in 1681?
A4: Sacred Theory of the Earth
Q5: What text did Burnet base his work off of?
A5: the Bible