LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Hayek never produced the book-length treatment of "the dynamics of capital" that he had promised in the Pure Theory of Capital. After 1941, he continued to publish works on the economics of information, political philosophy, the theory of law, and psychology, but seldom on macroeconomics. At the University of Chicago, Hayek was not part of the economics department and did not influence the rebirth of neoclassical theory which took place there (see Chicago school of economics). When, in 1974, he shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with Gunnar Myrdal, the latter complained about being paired with an "ideologue". Milton Friedman declared himself "an enormous admirer of Hayek, but not for his economics. I think Prices and Production is a very flawed book. I think his [Pure Theory of Capital] is unreadable. On the other hand, The Road to Serfdom is one of the great books of our time."

Q1: What topic did Hayek never write a book about as he said he would?
A1: the dynamics of capital
Q2: What topic did Hayek shy away from following Pure Theory of Capital?
A2: macroeconomics
Q3: What did Gunnar Myrdal call Hayek?
A3: an "ideologue"
Q4: Which of Hayeks books did Milton Friedman praise most?
A4: The Road to Serfdom
Q5: Which whom did Hayek share a Nobel prize?
A5: Gunnar Myrdal
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Hayek received new attention in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of conservative governments in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada. After winning the United Kingdom general election, 1979, Margaret Thatcher appointed Keith Joseph, the director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies, as her secretary of state for industry in an effort to redirect parliament's economic strategies. Likewise, David Stockman, Ronald Reagan's most influential financial official in 1981 was an acknowledged follower of Hayek.

Q1: In what year was Margaret Thatcher elected Prime Minister?
A1: 1979
Q2: Whom did the Prime Minister of England choose as secretary of state?
A2: Keith Joseph
Q3: During the 80s and 90s, three major English speaking nations experienced a political shift to to what?
A3: conservative governments
Q4: What position did the British Prime Minister's secretary of state previously hold?
A4: director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies
Q5: One of Hayek's supporters served which US president?
A5: Ronald Reagan's
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Hayek was concerned about the general view in Britain's academia that fascism was a capitalist reaction to socialism and The Road to Serfdom arose from those concerns. It was written between 1940 and 1943. The title was inspired by the French classical liberal thinker Alexis de Tocqueville's writings on the "road to servitude." It was first published in Britain by Routledge in March 1944 and was quite popular, leading Hayek to call it "that unobtainable book," also due in part to wartime paper rationing. When it was published in the United States by the University of Chicago in September of that year, it achieved greater popularity than in Britain. At the arrangement of editor Max Eastman, the American magazine Reader's Digest also published an abridged version in April 1945, enabling The Road to Serfdom to reach a far wider audience than academics. The book is widely popular among those advocating individualism and classical liberalism.

Q1: What did Hayek write regarding fascism and socialism?
A1: The Road to Serfdom
Q2: Whose works served as inspiration for the title of Road to Serfdom?
A2: Alexis de Tocqueville
Q3: When was the Road to Serfdom published?
A3: March 1944
Q4: Where was Road to Serfdom more popular than it was in Britain?
A4: United States
Q5: Who is responsible for Road to Serfdom being shortened for Reader's Digest in 1945?
A5: Max Eastman
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Hayek was one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century. Hayek argued that all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on voluntary co-operation) could only be maintained by a central authority of some kind. In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the rule of law, with as little arbitrary intervention as possible. In his popular book, The Road to Serfdom (1944) and in subsequent academic works, Hayek argued that socialism required central economic planning and that such planning in turn leads towards totalitarianism.

Q1: What was the name of the ideology Hayek criticized?
A1: collectivism
Q2: How did Hayek believe collectivism could be maintained?
A2: a central authority
Q3: According to Hayek, what is necessary for the implementation of a socialist economy?
A3: central economic planning
Q4: Hayek believed the requirements for a socialist economy would lead to what?
A4: totalitarianism
Q5: What did Hayek believe was the core responsibility of the state?
A5: maintain the rule of law
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Hayek wrote an essay, "Why I Am Not a Conservative" (included as an appendix to The Constitution of Liberty), in which he disparaged conservatism for its inability to adapt to changing human realities or to offer a positive political program, remarking, "Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves." Although he noted that modern day conservatism shares many opinions on economics with classical liberals, particularly a belief in the free market, he believed it's because conservatism wants to "stand still," whereas liberalism embraces the free market because it "wants to go somewhere." Hayek identified himself as a classical liberal, but noted that in the United States it had become almost impossible to use "liberal" in its original definition, and the term "libertarian" has been used instead. In this text, Hayek also opposed conservatism for "its hostility to internationalism and its proneness to a strident nationalism" and its frequent association with imperialism.

Q1: What ideology did Hayek not agree with in an essay appended to The Constitution of Liberty?
A1: conservatism
Q2: What was Hayek's statement regarding conservatism?
A2: "Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves."
Q3: What does conservatism have in common with classical liberalism?
A3: belief in the free market
Q4: What word is used in the United States to identify Hayek's ideology?
A4: libertarian
Q5: Which ideology did Hayek believe conservatism discouraged?
A5: internationalism
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Hayek's greatest intellectual debt was to Carl Menger, who pioneered an approach to social explanation similar to that developed in Britain by Bernard Mandeville and the Scottish moral philosophers in the Scottish Enlightenment. He had a wide-reaching influence on contemporary economics, politics, philosophy, sociology, psychology and anthropology. For example, Hayek's discussion in The Road to Serfdom (1944) about truth, falsehood and the use of language influenced some later opponents of postmodernism.

Q1: Which of Hayek's books had an impact on those against postmodernism?
A1: The Road to Serfdom
Q2: To whom did Hayek owe his intellectual success?
A2: Carl Menger
Q3: Carl Menger's work in social explanation was not too different from those in which Scottish period??
A3: Scottish Enlightenment
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Hayek's influence on the development of economics is widely acknowledged. Hayek is the second-most frequently cited economist (after Kenneth Arrow) in the Nobel lectures of the prize winners in economics, which is particularly striking since his own lecture was critical of the field of orthodox economics and neo-classical modelisation. A number of Nobel Laureates in economics, such as Vernon Smith and Herbert A. Simon, recognise Hayek as the greatest modern economist. Another Nobel winner, Paul Samuelson, believed that Hayek was worthy of his award but nevertheless claimed that "there were good historical reasons for fading memories of Hayek within the mainstream last half of the twentieth century economist fraternity. In 1931, Hayek's Prices and Production had enjoyed an ultra-short Byronic success. In retrospect hindsight tells us that its mumbo-jumbo about the period of production grossly misdiagnosed the macroeconomics of the 1927–1931 (and the 1931–2007) historical scene". Despite this comment, Samuelson spent the last 50 years of his life obsessed with the problems of capital theory identified by Hayek and Böhm-Bawerk, and Samuelson flatly judged Hayek to have been right and his own teacher, Joseph Schumpeter, to have been wrong on the central economic question of the 20th century, the feasibility of socialist economic planning in a production goods dominated economy.

Q1: Which economist is cited the most by winners of the Nobel prize in that field?
A1: Kenneth Arrow
Q2: What Nobel prize winner has spent most of his life studying Hayek's capital theory despite being critical of the man?
A2: Paul Samuelson
Q3: On the topic of the practicality of a socialist economy, who does Samuelson believe was wrong?
A3: Joseph Schumpeter
Q4: On the topic of mainstream economics, whose Nobel lecture was particularly critical?
A4: Hayek's
Q5: Which of Hayek's works does Samuelson cite as being incorrect regarding macroeconomics?
A5: Prices and Production
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Hayek's principal investigations in economics concerned capital, money, and the business cycle. Mises had earlier applied the concept of marginal utility to the value of money in his Theory of Money and Credit (1912), in which he also proposed an explanation for "industrial fluctuations" based on the ideas of the old British Currency School and of Swedish economist Knut Wicksell. Hayek used this body of work as a starting point for his own interpretation of the business cycle, elaborating what later became known as the "Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle". Hayek spelled out the Austrian approach in more detail in his book, published in 1929, an English translation of which appeared in 1933 as Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle. There he argued for a monetary approach to the origins of the cycle. In his Prices and Production (1931), Hayek argued that the business cycle resulted from the central bank's inflationary credit expansion and its transmission over time, leading to a capital misallocation caused by the artificially low interest rates. Hayek claimed that "the past instability of the market economy is the consequence of the exclusion of the most important regulator of the market mechanism, money, from itself being regulated by the market process".

Q1: What is the name of Mises' 1912 book?
A1: Theory of Money and Credit
Q2: Hayek focused most of his economic works on the business cycle, money and what else?
A2: capital
Q3: What work did Hayek produce as a result of studying Mises' book?
A3: Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle
Q4: What is the English name for the book Hayek published in 1929?
A4: Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle
Q5: According to Hayek, what was the cause of the banks' wrongful allocation of funds?
A5: artificially low interest rates
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Hayek's work on the microeconomics of the choice theoretics of investment, non-permanent goods, potential permanent resources, and economically-adapted permanent resources mark a central dividing point between his work in areas of macroeconomics and that of almost all other economists. Hayek's work on the macroeconomic subjects of central planning, trade cycle theory, the division of knowledge, and entrepreneurial adaptation especially, differ greatly from the opinions of macroeconomic "Marshallian" economists in the tradition of John Maynard Keynes and the microeconomic "Walrasian" economists in the tradition of Abba Lerner.

Q1: In what economic field of study does Hayek's views differ from those in macroeconomics?
A1: microeconomics
Q2: What is the term used to describe economists following Keynes school of thought?
A2: "Marshallian"
Q3: Whose works inspire the term "Walrasian" in economics?
A3: Abba Lerner
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Hayek’s concept of the market as a spontaneous order has been recently applied to ecosystems to defend a broadly non-interventionist policy. Like the market, ecosystems contain complex networks of information, involve an ongoing dynamic process, contain orders within orders, and the entire system operates without being directed by a conscious mind. On this analysis, species takes the place of price as a visible element of the system formed by a complex set of largely unknowable elements. Human ignorance about the countless interactions between the organisms of an ecosystem limits our ability to manipulate nature. Since humans rely on the ecosystem to sustain themselves, we have a prima facie obligation to not disrupt such systems. This analysis of ecosystems as spontaneous orders does not rely on markets qualifying as spontaneous orders. As such, one need not endorse Hayek’s analysis of markets to endorse ecosystems as spontaneous orders.

Q1: What has Hayek's views on the market been used to defend?
A1: non-interventionist policy
Q2: What is the term used to describe the obligation for humans to avoid disrupting the ecosystem?
A2: prima facie
Q3: What are ecosystems views to be?
A3: spontaneous orders
Q4: One might still support spontaneous orders without agreeing with which of Hayek's assessments?
A4: analysis of markets
Q5: What is limited by the ignorance of humanity?
A5: our ability to manipulate nature
Airport (Engineering and technology)

Hazards to aircraft include debris, nesting birds, and reduced friction levels due to environmental conditions such as ice, snow, or rain. Part of runway maintenance is airfield rubber removal which helps maintain friction levels. The fields must be kept clear of debris using cleaning equipment so that loose material does not become a projectile and enter an engine duct (see foreign object damage). In adverse weather conditions, ice and snow clearing equipment can be used to improve traction on the landing strip. For waiting aircraft, equipment is used to spray special deicing fluids on the wings.

Q1: What includes debris and nesting birds?
A1: Hazards to aircraft
Q2: What is one part of runway maintenance that helps maintain friction levels?
A2: airfield rubber removal
Q3: In adverse weather conditions, what can be used to improve traction on the landing strip?
A3: ice and snow clearing equipment
Richard_Feynman (Mathematics)

He also developed Feynman diagrams, a bookkeeping device that helps in conceptualizing and calculating interactions between particles in spacetime, including the interactions between electrons and their antimatter counterparts, positrons. This device allowed him, and later others, to approach time reversibility and other fundamental processes. Feynman's mental picture for these diagrams started with the hard sphere approximation, and the interactions could be thought of as collisions at first. It was not until decades later that physicists thought of analyzing the nodes of the Feynman diagrams more closely. Feynman painted Feynman diagrams on the exterior of his van.

Q1: What did Feynman produce that help in understanding calculations between particles in space and time?
A1: Feynman diagrams
Q2: What is the name of the antimatter counterpart of electrons?
A2: positrons
Q3: Where did Feynman paint his diagrams?
A3: his van
Q4: What did Feynman digrams allow him and others to do?
A4: approach time reversibility and other fundamental processes
Computer (Engineering and technology)

He also introduced the notion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a Universal Turing machine), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine, or in other words, it is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.

Q1: A Universal Machine is known as what today?
A1: Universal Turing machine
Arnold_Schwarzenegger (Media and drama)

He also invested in a shopping mall in Columbus, Ohio. He has talked about some of those who have helped him over the years in business: "I couldn't have learned about business without a parade of teachers guiding me... from Milton Friedman to Donald Trump... and now, Les Wexner and Warren Buffett. I even learned a thing or two from Planet Hollywood, such as when to get out! And I did!" He has significant ownership in Dimensional Fund Advisors, an investment firm. Schwarzenegger is also the owner of Arnold's Sports Festival, which he started in 1989 and is held annually in Columbus, Ohio. It is a festival that hosts thousands of international health and fitness professionals which has also expanded into a three-day expo. He also owns a movie production company called Oak Productions, Inc. and Fitness Publications, a joint publishing venture with Simon & Schuster.

Q1: What investment firm does Schwarzenegger maintain partial ownership of?
A1: Dimensional Fund Advisors
Q2: What city hosts Arnold's Sports Festival each year?
A2: Columbus, Ohio
Q3: What's the name of Schwarzenegger's film production company?
A3: Oak Productions, Inc.
Q4: What renowned publishing company partners with Schwarzenegger in Fitness Publications?
A4: Simon & Schuster
Dwight_D._Eisenhower (History)

He assumed duties again at Camp Meade, Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank in it. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton, Sereno E. Brett, and other senior tank leaders. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered the new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented.

Q1: What was Eisenhower's Camp Meade unit equipped with?
A1: tanks
Q2: When did Eisenhower leave Camp Meade?
A2: 1922
Q3: Along with Patton, who was a notable interwar tank leader?
A3: Sereno E. Brett
Q4: What was the traditional doctrine on the use of tanks?
A4: supportive role for the infantry
Q5: What happened when Eisenhower was threatened with a court martial for his support for offensive tank tactics?
A5: he relented
Richard_Feynman (Mathematics)

He attained a perfect score on the graduate school entrance exams to Princeton University in mathematics and physics—an unprecedented feat—but did rather poorly on the history and English portions. Attendees at Feynman's first seminar included Albert Einstein, Wolfgang Pauli, and John von Neumann. He received a PhD from Princeton in 1942; his thesis advisor was John Archibald Wheeler. Feynman's thesis applied the principle of stationary action to problems of quantum mechanics, inspired by a desire to quantize the Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory of electrodynamics, laying the groundwork for the "path integral" approach and Feynman diagrams, and was titled "The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics".

Q1: Which two sections of the graduate exam did Feynman excel in?
A1: mathematics and physics
Q2: Which two sections of the graduate exam did Feynman do poorly in?
A2: history and English
Q3: What score did Feyman receive on his math and physics entrance exams?
A3: perfect score
Q4: When did he receive his PhD?
A4: 1942
Q5: What was Feynman's PhD thesis titled?
A5: The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics
Arnold_Schwarzenegger (Media and drama)

He continued his winning streak in the 1971–74 competitions. In 1975, Schwarzenegger was once again in top form, and won the title for the sixth consecutive time, beating Franco Columbu. After the 1975 Mr. Olympia contest, Schwarzenegger announced his retirement from professional bodybuilding.

Q1: Who did Schwarzenegger beat to win his sixth Mr. Olympia in a row?
A1: Franco Columbu
Q2: What year did Schwarzenegger quit competing as a professional bodybuilder?
A2: 1975
Q3: What was Schwarzenegger's last competition before retirement?
A3: Mr. Olympia
Karl_Popper (Natural sciences)

He does not argue that any such conclusions are therefore true, or that this describes the actual methods of any particular scientist.[citation needed] Rather, it is recommended as an essential principle of methodology that, if enacted by a system or community, will lead to slow but steady progress of a sort (relative to how well the system or community enacts the method). It has been suggested that Popper's ideas are often mistaken for a hard logical account of truth because of the historical co-incidence of their appearing at the same time as logical positivism, the followers of which mistook his aims for their own.

Q1: What other contemporaneous school of thought is often confused with Popper's own contributions?
A1: logical positivism
Q2: Popper has stressed that his description of scientific methodology should not be mistaken to apply to whom?
A2: any particular scientist
Q3: At what level does Popper indicate his view of scientific methodology applies?
A3: system or community
Q4: What kind of progress does science make given the methodology Popper describes?
A4: slow but steady
Richard_Feynman (Mathematics)

He immersed himself in work on the project, and was present at the Trinity bomb test. Feynman claimed to be the only person to see the explosion without the very dark glasses or welder's lenses provided, reasoning that it was safe to look through a truck windshield, as it would screen out the harmful ultraviolet radiation. On witnessing the blast, Feynman ducked towards the floor of his truck because of the immense brightness of the explosion, where he saw a temporary "purple splotch" afterimage of the event.

Q1: Feynman used this to protect his eyes during the test detonation
A1: truck windshield
Q2: What atomic bomb test did Feynman see?
A2: Trinity bomb test
Q3: What did Feynman see after the atomic test?
A3: "purple splotch" afterimage
Q4: What did Feynman think that the truck windshield would shield him against?
A4: ultraviolet radiation
John_von_Neumann (Mathematics)

He invited a Roman Catholic priest, Father Anselm Strittmatter, O.S.B., to visit him for consultation. Von Neumann reportedly said in explanation that Pascal had a point, referring to Pascal's Wager. Father Strittmatter administered the last sacraments to him. Some of von Neumann's friends (such as Abraham Pais and Oskar Morgenstern) said they had always believed him to be "completely agnostic." "Of this deathbed conversion, Morgenstern told Heims, "He was of course completely agnostic all his life, and then he suddenly turned Catholic—it doesn't agree with anything whatsoever in his attitude, outlook and thinking when he was healthy." Father Strittmatter recalled that von Neumann did not receive much peace or comfort from it, as he still remained terrified of death.

Q1: Who administered the last sacrament to von Neumann?
A1: Father Strittmatter
Q2: Did the last sacrament ease von Neumann?
A2: did not receive much peace or comfort from it, as he still remained terrified of death
Q3: Was there conflict of faith and beliefs at the end of von NEumann's life?
A3: he suddenly turned Catholic—it doesn't agree with anything whatsoever in his attitude, outlook and thinking when he was healthy
Q4: What did Oskar Morgenstern feel about von Neumann's beliefs?
A4: always believed him to be "completely agnostic."