LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
Roman_Republic (History)

The assembly of the tribes (i.e. the citizens of Rome), the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul, and was composed of 35 tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions. The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot. Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, the voting would end. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes. The Plebeian Council was identical to the assembly of the tribes, but excluded the patricians (the elite who could trace their ancestry to the founding of Rome). They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws, and could also act as a court of appeal.

Q1: How many tribes were considered to be in the Comitia Tributa?
A1: 35 tribes
Q2: How were the assembly of tribes segregated into specific tribes?
A2: geographical subdivisions
Q3: What assembly was responsible for the election of quaestors?
A3: the Comitia Tributa
Q4: When would the assembly of tribes cease voting?
A4: Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes
Q5: Who would be responsible for the election of a plebeian tribune?
A5: a plebeian
Cubism (Art and architecture)

The assertion that the Cubist depiction of space, mass, time, and volume supports (rather than contradicts) the flatness of the canvas was made by Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler as early as 1920, but it was subject to criticism in the 1950s and 1960s, especially by Clement Greenberg. Contemporary views of Cubism are complex, formed to some extent in response to the "Salle 41" Cubists, whose methods were too distinct from those of Picasso and Braque to be considered merely secondary to them. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed. Wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the "Salle 41" artists, e.g., Francis Picabia; the brothers Jacques Villon, Raymond Duchamp-Villon and Marcel Duchamp, who beginning in late 1911 formed the core of the Section d'Or (or the Puteaux Group); the sculptors Alexander Archipenko, Joseph Csaky and Ossip Zadkine as well as Jacques Lipchitz and Henri Laurens; and painters such as Louis Marcoussis, Roger de La Fresnaye, František Kupka, Diego Rivera, Léopold Survage, Auguste Herbin, André Lhote, Gino Severini (after 1916), María Blanchard (after 1916) and Georges Valmier (after 1918). More fundamentally, Christopher Green argues that Douglas Cooper's terms were "later undermined by interpretations of the work of Picasso, Braque, Gris and Léger that stress iconographic and ideological questions rather than methods of representation."

Q1: Who asserted that the flat canvas supported Cubism? 
A1: Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler
Q2: In what year was the assertion made that the flat canvas supported Cubism?
A2: early as 1920
Q3: When was the assertion that the flat canvas supported Cubism put into debate?
A3: 1950s and 1960s,
Q4: Who was the main opponent that began to argue that the flat canvas did not support Cubism? 
A4: Clement Greenberg.
Q5: Who's work undermined Douglass  Coopers terms describing Cubism?
A5: Picasso, Braque, Gris and Léger
Modern_history (Philosophy and religion)

The assertions of Chinese philosophy began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls, such as the May Fourth Movement, to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There were attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-Sen (Sūn yì xiān, in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century. Mao Zedong (Máo zé dōng) added Marxist-Leninist thought. When the Communist Party of China took over power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably Legalism, were denounced as backward, and later even purged during the Cultural Revolution.

Q1: Why did Chinese philosophy begin to mix with western concepts?
A1: as steps toward modernization
Q2: When did the Xinhai Revolution begin?
A2: 1911
Q3: What is the May Forth Movement?
A3: to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China
Q4: What did Marxist-Leninst add to Chinese philosophy? 
A4: Marxist-Leninist thought
Q5: During what event was Legalism abolished?
A5: the Cultural Revolution
Crucifixion_of_Jesus (Philosophy and religion)

The assumption of the use of a two-beamed cross does not determine the number of nails used in the crucifixion and some theories suggest three nails while others suggest four nails. However, throughout history larger numbers of nails have been hypothesized, at times as high as 14 nails. These variations are also present in the artistic depictions of the crucifixion. In the Western Church, before the Renaissance usually four nails would be depicted, with the feet side by side. After the Renaissance most depictions use three nails, with one foot placed on the other. Nails are almost always depicted in art, although Romans sometimes just tied the victims to the cross. The tradition also carries to Christian emblems, e.g. the Jesuits use three nails under the IHS monogram and a cross to symbolize the crucifixion.

Q1: How many nails were suggested they used for the crucifixion?
A1: three nails
Q2: According to some sources, what is theorized to be the maximum nails used?
A2: 14 nails
Q3: What adds to the confusion of the number of nails used?
A3: artistic depictions of the crucifixion
Q4: What do all artworks have in common regarding the crucifixion?
A4: Nails are almost always depicted
Q5: Jesuits claim how many nails were used?
A5: three nails
Planck_constant (Mathematics)

The assumption that black-body radiation is thermal leads to an accurate prediction: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule, the Stefan–Boltzmann law (1879–84). But it was also known that the colour of the light given off by a hot object changes with the temperature, so that "white hot" is hotter than "red hot". Nevertheless, Wilhelm Wien discovered the mathematical relationship between the peaks of the curves at different temperatures, by using the principle of adiabatic invariance. At each different temperature, the curve is moved over by Wien's displacement law (1893). Wien also proposed an approximation for the spectrum of the object, which was correct at high frequencies (short wavelength) but not at low frequencies (long wavelength). It still was not clear why the spectrum of a hot object had the form that it has (see diagram).

Q1: What assumption that black-body radiation is what leads to an accurate prediction?
A1: thermal
Q2: What does the Stefan-Boltzmann law state?
A2: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule
Q3: What about a hot object changes with the temperature?
A3: the colour of the light
Q4: What color is hotter than "red hot"?
A4: white hot
Q5: What did Wilhelm Wien discover?
A5: the mathematical relationship between the peaks of the curves at different temperatures
Q6: What rule predicts that emitted energy increases with temperature?
A6: the Stefan–Boltzmann law
Q7: What characteristic of the light emitted by a hot object changes with temperature?
A7: the colour of the light given off
Q8: Who discovered the mathematical relationship between peaks and curves of light at different temperatures?
A8: Wilhelm Wien
Q9: The rule that adjust the curve at different temperatures is known as what?
A9: Wien's displacement law
Q10: Wien's spectrum model could not predict accurate at what end of the spectrum?
A10: at low frequencies (long wavelength)
History_of_science (History)

The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.

Q1: Who created the sun-centered model of the solar system?
A1: Aristarchus of Samos
Q2: Who was able to determine the circumference of the Earth?
A2: Eratosthenes
Q3: Who made the first catalog of stars?
A3: Hipparchus
Q4: What was used to determine the position of planets within the solar system?
A4: the Antikythera mechanism
Q5: When was the Antikythera mechanism used?
A5: 150-100 BC
Quran (Philosophy and religion)

The astrophysicist Nidhal Guessoum while being highly critical of pseudo-scientific claims made about the Quran, has highlighted the encouragement for sciences that the Quran provides by developing "the concept of knowledge.". He writes: "The Qur'an draws attention to the danger of conjecturing without evidence (And follow not that of which you have not the (certain) knowledge of... 17:36) and in several different verses asks Muslims to require proofs (Say: Bring your proof if you are truthful 2:111), both in matters of theological belief and in natural science." Guessoum cites Ghaleb Hasan on the definition of "proof" according the Quran being "clear and strong... convincing evidence or argument." Also, such a proof cannot rely on an argument from authority, citing verse 5:104. Lastly, both assertions and rejections require a proof, according to verse 4:174. Ismail al-Faruqi and Taha Jabir Alalwani are of the view that any reawakening of the Muslim civilization must start with the Quran; however, the biggest obstacle on this route is the "centuries old heritage of tafseer (exegesis) and other classical disciplines" which inhibit a "universal, epidemiological and systematic conception" of the Quran's message. The philosopher Muhammad Iqbal, considered the Quran's methodology and epistemology to be empirical and rational.

Q1: Which astrophysicist has written about the ways the Quran encourages scientific thinking?
A1: Nidhal Guessoum
Q2: Verse 2:111 of the Quran supports which aspect of scientific thought and practice?
A2: proof
Q3: Whose scholarship on the concept of proof in the Quran does Guessoum cite?
A3: Ghaleb Hasan
Q4: Which philosopher believed the Quran had a rational and empirical basis like science?
A4: Muhammad Iqbal
Tibet (Geography and places)

The atmosphere is severely dry nine months of the year, and average annual snowfall is only 18 inches (46 cm), due to the rain shadow effect. Western passes receive small amounts of fresh snow each year but remain traversible all year round. Low temperatures are prevalent throughout these western regions, where bleak desolation is unrelieved by any vegetation bigger than a low bush, and where wind sweeps unchecked across vast expanses of arid plain. The Indian monsoon exerts some influence on eastern Tibet. Northern Tibet is subject to high temperatures in the summer and intense cold in the winter.

Q1: What is the average annual snowfall in Tibet?
A1: 18 inches
Q2: What weather pattern exerts some influence on eastern TIbet?
A2: Indian monsoon
Q3: What are winters like in Tibet?
A3: intense cold
Tuvalu (Geography and places)

The atolls have shown resilience to gradual sea-level rise, with atolls and reef islands being able to grow under current climate conditions by generating sufficient sand and coral debris that accumulates and gets dumped on the islands during cyclones. Gradual sea-level rise also allows for coral polyp activity to increase the reefs. However, if the increase in sea level occurs at faster rate as compared to coral growth, or if polyp activity is damaged by ocean acidification, then the resilience of the atolls and reef islands is less certain. The 2011 report of Pacific Climate Change Science Program of Australia concludes, in relation to Tuvalu, states the conclusions that over the course of the 21st century:

Q1: What have the Tuvalu atolls displayed about sea level rise?
A1: resilience
Q2: What does gradual sea level rise allow for coral to increase?
A2: reefs
Q3: What sea level rise rate could cause more uncertainty to the welfare of coral reefs? 
A3: faster rate
Q4: What condition besides sea level rise can damage coral reefs?
A4: ocean acidification
Q5: Where does sand and coral debris end up because of the action of cyclones?
A5: on the islands
2008_Summer_Olympics_torch_relay (Sports and recreation)

The attacks on the torch in London and Paris were described as "despicable" by the Chinese government, condemning them as "deliberate disruptions... who gave no thought to the Olympic spirit or the laws of Britain and France" and who "tarnish the lofty Olympic spirit", and vowed they would continue with the relay and not allow the protests to "impede the Olympic spirit". Large-scale counter-protests by overseas Chinese and foreign-based Chinese nationals became prevalent in later segments of the relay. In San Francisco, the number of supporters were much more than the number of protesters, and in Australia, Japan, South Korea, the counter-protesters overwhelmed the protesters. A couple of skirmishes between the protesters and supporters were reported. No major protests were visible in the Latin America, Africa, and Western Asia legs of the torch relay.

Q1: Who condemned the various attacks on the torch relay route?
A1: the Chinese government
Q2: In San Francisco, who had a larger presence than the protesters? 
A2: supporters
Q3: Who overwhelmed the protesters in Japan?
A3: counter-protesters
Q4: Who amassed in large scale against protesters?
A4: counter-protesters
Q5: What was said to have occurred between some supporters and protesters?
A5: skirmishes
Q6: What three areas of the globe were protests reported as not big?
A6: Latin America, Africa, and Western Asia
The_Blitz (History)

The attacks were focused against western ports in March. These attacks produced some breaks in morale, with civil leaders fleeing the cities before the offensive reached its height. But the Luftwaffe's effort eased in the last 10 attacks as seven Kampfgruppen moved to Austria in preparation for the Balkans Campaign in Yugoslavia and Greece. The shortage of bombers caused the OKL to improvise. Some 50 Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers and Jabos (fighter-bombers) were used, officially classed as Leichte Kampfflugzeuge ("light bombers") and sometimes called Leichte Kesselringe ("Light Kesselrings"). The defences failed to prevent widespread damage but on some occasions did prevent German bombers concentrating on their targets. On occasion, only one-third of German bombs hit their targets.

Q1: What was focused in March?
A1: western ports
Q2: What did these attacks accomplish?
A2: breaks in morale
Q3: Why was the OKL forced to improvise?
A3: shortage of bombers
Q4: How many Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers and Jabos were used?
A4: 50
Q5: How many German bombs hit their target?
A5: only one-third
Light-emitting_diode (Engineering and technology)

The attainment of high efficiency in blue LEDs was quickly followed by the development of the first white LED. In this device a Y
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12:Ce (known as "YAG") phosphor coating on the emitter absorbs some of the blue emission and produces yellow light through fluorescence. The combination of that yellow with remaining blue light appears white to the eye. However using different phosphors (fluorescent materials) it also became possible to instead produce green and red light through fluorescence. The resulting mixture of red, green and blue is not only perceived by humans as white light but is superior for illumination in terms of color rendering, whereas one cannot appreciate the color of red or green objects illuminated only by the yellow (and remaining blue) wavelengths from the YAG phosphor.

Q1: What LED quickly followed the blue LEDs?
A1: white
Q2: What does the YAG phosphor coating produce?
A2: yellow light
The_Blitz (History)

The attitude of the Air Ministry was in contrast to the experiences of the First World War when a few German bombers caused physical and psychological damage out of all proportion to their numbers. Around 280 short tons (250 t) (9,000 bombs) had been dropped, killing 1,413 people and injuring 3,500 more. Most people aged 35 or over remembered the threat and greeted the bombings with great trepidation. From 1916–1918, German raids had diminished against countermeasures which demonstrated defence against night air raids was possible.

Q1: People over the age of 35 reacted to the bombings with what?
A1: great trepidation
Q2: Why had German raids decreased between 1916-1918?
A2: countermeasures
Q3: How many people were killed by bomb drops during the first World War?
A3: 1,413
Q4: How many bombs had been dropped?
A4: 9,000
Race_(human_categorization) (Natural sciences)

The authors of the study also examined 77 college textbooks in biology and 69 in physical anthropology published between 1932 and 1989. Physical anthropology texts argued that biological races exist until the 1970s, when they began to argue that races do not exist. In contrast, biology textbooks did not undergo such a reversal but many instead dropped their discussion of race altogether. The authors attributed this to biologists trying to avoid discussing the political implications of racial classifications, instead of discussing them, and to the ongoing discussions in biology about the validity of the concept "subspecies". The authors also noted that some widely used textbooks in biology such as Douglas J. Futuyama's 1986 "Evolutionary Biology" had abandoned the race concept, "The concept of race, masking the overwhelming genetic similarity of all peoples and the mosaic patterns of variation that do not correspond to racial divisions, is not only socially dysfunctional but is biologically indefensible as well (pp. 5 18-5 19)." (Lieberman et al. 1992, pp. 316–17)

Q1: How many college textbooks in biology did the authors of the study examine?
A1: 77
Q2: Up until when did physical anthropology texts still argue that biological races exist?
A2: the 1970s
Q3: What did biology textbooks drop altogether?
A3: their discussion of race
Q4: What were biologists trying to avoid discussing the political implications of?
A4: racial classifications
Q5: What did Douglas J. Futuyama consider the concept of race as not only being socially dysfunctional but this as well?
A5: biologically indefensible
Sahara (Geography and places)

The average annual rainfall ranges from very low in the northern and southern fringes of the desert to nearly non-existent over the central and the eastern part. The thin northern fringe of the desert receives more winter cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of low pressure systems over the Mediterranean Sea along the polar front, although very attenuated by the rain shadow effects of the mountains and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 mm (3,93 in) to 250 mm (9,84 in). For example, Biskra, Algeria and Ouarzazate, Morocco are found in this zone. The southern fringe of the desert along the border with the Sahel receives summer cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of the Intertropical Convergence Zone from the south and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 mm (3,93 in) to 250 mm (9,84 in). For example, Timbuktu, Mali and Agadez, Niger are found in this zone. The vast central hyper-arid core of the desert is virtually never affected by northerly or southerly atmospheric disturbances and permanently remains under the influence of the strongest anticyclonic weather regime and the annual average rainfall can drop to less than 1 mm (0.04 in). In fact, most of the Sahara receives less than 20 mm (0.79 in). Of the 9,000,000 km2 of desert land in the Sahara, an area of about 2,800,000 km2 (about 31% of the total area) receives an annual average rainfall amount of 10 mm (0.39 in) or less, while some 1,500,000 km2 (about 17% of the total area) receive an average of 5 mm or less. The annual average rainfall is virtually zero over a wide area of some 1,000,000 km2 in the eastern Sahara comprising deserts of Libya, Egypt and Sudan (Tazirbu, Kufra, Dakhla, Kharga, Farafra, Siwa, Asyut, Sohag, Luxor, Aswan, Abu Simbel, Wadi Halfa) where the long-term mean approximates 0.5 mm per year. The rainfall is very unreliable and erratic in the Sahara as it may vary considerably year by year. In full contrast to the negligible annual rainfall amounts, the annual rates of potential evaporation are extraordinarily high, roughly ranging from 2,500 mm/year to more than 6,000 mm/year in the whole desert. Nowhere else on Earth has air been found as dry and evaporative as in the Sahara region. With such an evaporative power, the Sahara can only be desiccated and dried out further more and the moisture deficit is tremendous.

Q1: What is the reason the northern fringe receives more   cloudiness and rainfall?
A1: low pressure systems
Q2: What is the average rainfall of the Sahara?
A2: less than 1 mm
Q3: How much desert land is the Sahara?
A3: 9,000,000 km2 of desert land
Q4: What causes the southern fringe to receive cloudiness and   rainfall?
A4: Intertropical Convergence Zone
Paris (Geography and places)

The average net household income (after social, pension and health insurance contributions) in Paris was €36,085 for 2011. It ranged from €22,095 in the 19th arrondissement to €82,449 in the 7th arrondissement. The median taxable income for 2011 was around €25,000 in Paris and €22,200 for Île-de-France. Generally speaking, incomes are higher in the Western part of the city and in the western suburbs than in the northern and eastern parts of the urban area.[citation needed] Unemployment was estimated at 8.2 percent in the city of Paris and 8.8 percent in the Île-de-France region in the first trimester of 2015. It ranged from 7.6 percent in the wealthy Essonne department to 13.1 percent in the Seine-Saint-Denis department, where many recent immigrants live.

Q1: What was the average net household income in Paris in 2011?
A1: €36,085
Q2: What was the average income in the 19th arrondissement?
A2: €22,095
Q3: What was the average in come in the 7th arrondissement?
A3: €82,449
Q4: What was the unemployment rate in the city of Paris?
A4: 8.2
Q5: What was the unemployment rate in the Siene-Saint-Denis department?
A5: 13.1
Philadelphia (History)

The average population density was 11,457 people per square mile (4,405.4/km²). The Census reported that 1,468,623 people (96.2% of the population) lived in households, 38,007 (2.5%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 19,376 (1.3%) were institutionalized. In 2013, the city reported having 668,247 total housing units, down slightly from 670,171 housing units in 2010. As of 2013[update], 87 percent of housing units were occupied, while 13 percent were vacant, a slight change from 2010 where 89.5 percent of units were occupied, or 599,736 and 10.5 percent were vacant, or 70,435. Of the city's residents, 32 percent reported having no vehicles available while 23 percent had two or more vehicles available, as of 2013[update].

Q1: What is the density?
A1: 11,457 people per square mile
Q2: How many houses or apartments were there in 2010?
A2: 670,171
Q3: What percent are vacant as of 2013?
A3: 13 percent
Q4: What percent don't own cars?
A4: 32
Q5: What percent own 2 or more cars?
A5: 23