LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
Bern (Geography and places)

No archaeological evidence that indicates a settlement on the site of today′s city centre prior to the 12th century has been found so far. In antiquity, a Celtic oppidum stood on the Engehalbinsel (peninsula) north of Bern, fortified since the 2nd century BC (late La Tène period), thought to be one of the twelve oppida of the Helvetii mentioned by Caesar. During the Roman era, there was a Gallo-Roman vicus on the same site. The Bern zinc tablet has the name Brenodor ("dwelling of Breno"). In the Early Middle Ages, there was a settlement in Bümpliz, now a city district of Bern, some 4 km (2 mi) from the medieval city.

Q1: When was the earliest evidnce of settlement in the city centre?
A1: 12th century
Q2: What era was there a Gallo-Roman vicus on the same site?
A2: Roman era
Q3: What is the name of the Bern zinc tablet?
A3: Brenodor
Q4: When was the settlement in Bumpliz close to the medieval city?
A4: Early Middle Ages
Wood (Natural sciences)

No definite relation exists between the annual rings of growth and the amount of sapwood. Within the same species the cross-sectional area of the sapwood is very roughly proportional to the size of the crown of the tree. If the rings are narrow, more of them are required than where they are wide. As the tree gets larger, the sapwood must necessarily become thinner or increase materially in volume. Sapwood is thicker in the upper portion of the trunk of a tree than near the base, because the age and the diameter of the upper sections are less.

Q1: What part of a tree is the cross-sectional area of the sapwood approximately proportional to?
A1: crown
Q2: Are more rings necessary if they're narrow or wide?
A2: narrow
Q3: As a tree grows bigger, if the sapwood layer doesn't increase in volume, what will it become?
A3: thinner
Q4: In what part of the tree trunk is the sapwood layer thinnest?
A4: near the base
Q5: Along with the smaller diameter of the upper trunk, what factor leads to thinner sapwood higher up a tree?
A5: age
Ashkenazi_Jews (History)

No evidence has yet been found of a Jewish presence in antiquity in Germany beyond its Roman border, nor in Eastern Europe. In Gaul and Germany itself, with the possible exception of Trier and Cologne, the archeological evidence suggests at most a fleeting presence of very few Jews, primarily itinerant traders or artisans. A substantial Jewish population emerged in northern Gaul by the Middle Ages, but Jewish communities existed in 465 CE in Brittany, in 524 CE in Valence, and in 533 CE in Orleans. Throughout this period and into the early Middle Ages, some Jews assimilated into the dominant Greek and Latin cultures, mostly through conversion to Christianity.[better source needed] King Dagobert I of the Franks expelled the Jews from his Merovingian kingdom in 629. Jews in former Roman territories faced new challenges as harsher anti-Jewish Church rulings were enforced.

Q1: Who expelled the Jews from his Merovingian kingdom in 629?
A1: King Dagobert I of the Franks
Q2: Does the archeological record suggest that there was a rather large or small population of Jews in Gaul and Germany?
A2: very few Jews
Q3: In antiquity, most Jews in Gaul or Germany probably occupied what two roles?
A3: traders or artisans
Q4: In what year did Jewish communities exist in Brittany?
A4: 465 CE
Q5: During the Middle Ages, some Jews assimilated into the dominant Greek and Latin cultures by doing what?
A5: conversion to Christianity
British_Empire (History)

No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, during the last decades of the 16th century. In the meantime the Protestant Reformation had turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies . In 1562, the English Crown encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of breaking into the Atlantic trade system. This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World. At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term "British Empire") were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire. By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China, and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France.

Q1: What had turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies?
A1: the Protestant Reformation
Q2: When did John Hawkins and Francis Drake attack Spanish and Portuguese slave ships?
A2: 1562
Q3: Where did John Hawkins and Francis Drake attack Spanish and Portuguese slave ships?
A3: off the coast of West Africa
Q4: Who gave their blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports?
A4: Elizabeth I
Q5: Which author was the first to use the term "British Empire"?
A5: John Dee
Sexual_orientation (Natural sciences)

No major mental health professional organization has sanctioned efforts to change sexual orientation and virtually all of them have adopted policy statements cautioning the profession and the public about treatments that purport to change sexual orientation. These include the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Counseling Association, National Association of Social Workers in the USA, the Royal College of Psychiatrists, and the Australian Psychological Society.

Q1: How does the mental health profession approach efforts to change sexual orientation?
A1: have adopted policy statements
Q2: What do these policy statements suggest? 
A2: cautioning the profession and the public about treatments that purport to change sexual orientation
Q3: What are some of the organizations that have released policy statements?
A3: National Association of Social Workers in the USA, the Royal College of Psychiatrists, and the Australian Psychological Society.
Q4: Are their any mental health proffesionals that have programs to change sexual orientation?
A4: No major mental health professional organization has sanctioned efforts to change sexual orientation
Q5: What policy statement has almost all proffesionals applied to their practices?
A5: cautioning the profession and the public about treatments that purport to change sexual orientation.
Q6: What are some professional associations that do not offer changing sexual orientation programs?
A6: the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Counseling Association,
Treaty (Language and literature)

No one party to a treaty can impose its particular interpretation of the treaty upon the other parties. Consent may be implied, however, if the other parties fail to explicitly disavow that initially unilateral interpretation, particularly if that state has acted upon its view of the treaty without complaint. Consent by all parties to the treaty to a particular interpretation has the legal effect of adding another clause to the treaty – this is commonly called an 'authentic interpretation'.

Q1: No one party to a treaty can do what to the other parties?
A1: impose its particular interpretation of the treaty
Q2: What may be implied of other parties fail to explicitly disavow a party's initially unilateral interpretation of a treaty?
A2: Consent
Q3: Consent for a party's unilateral interpretation of a treaty may be implied if that state has acted upon its view of the treat without what from another party?
A3: complaint
Q4: Consent by all parties to a treaty to a particular interpretation of the treaty has what legal effect?
A4: adding another clause to the treaty
Q5: The legal effect of adding another clause to a treaty that occurs when all parties to a treaty consent to a particular interpretation of the treaty is commonly known as what?
A5: an 'authentic interpretation'
Royal_assent (History)

No provision within the constitution grants the monarch an ability to veto legislation directly; however, no provision prohibits the sovereign from withholding royal assent, which effectively constitutes a veto. When the Spanish media asked King Juan Carlos if he would endorse the bill legalising same-sex marriages, he answered "Soy el Rey de España y no el de Bélgica" ("I am the King of Spain and not that of Belgium")—a reference to King Baudouin I of Belgium, who had refused to sign the Belgian law legalising abortion. The King gave royal assent to Law 13/2005 on 1 July 2005; the law was gazetted in the Boletín Oficial del Estado on 2 July and came into effect on 3 July 2005. Likewise, in 2010, King Juan Carlos gave royal assent to a law permitting abortion on demand.

Q1: What was King Juan Carlos' response to the media when asked if he would sign a bill supporting same-sex marriage?
A1: "Soy el Rey de España y no el de Bélgica"
Q2: What other controversial bill did the king give his assent to in 2010?
A2: a law permitting abortion on demand
Q3: When did same-sex marriages become legal in Spain?
A3: 3 July 2005
Wood (Natural sciences)

No satisfactory explanation can as yet be given for the exact mechanisms determining the formation of earlywood and latewood. Several factors may be involved. In conifers, at least, rate of growth alone does not determine the proportion of the two portions of the ring, for in some cases the wood of slow growth is very hard and heavy, while in others the opposite is true. The quality of the site where the tree grows undoubtedly affects the character of the wood formed, though it is not possible to formulate a rule governing it. In general, however, it may be said that where strength or ease of working is essential, woods of moderate to slow growth should be chosen.

Q1: What facet of wood is affected to some degree by the place where the tree grows?
A1: character
Q2: If you want wood that's easy to work with, what kind of growth would you want the tree to have?
A2: moderate to slow
Q3: What species of tree can be said to growth ring proportions that aren't determined just by their rate of growth?
A3: conifers
Q4: What counterpart of earlywood are scientists still trying to explain the formation of?
A4: latewood
Q5: While there is some relationship between where and how a tree grows, what can't anyone formulate to govern it?
A5: a rule
Annelid (Natural sciences)

No single feature distinguishes Annelids from other invertebrate phyla, but they have a distinctive combination of features. Their bodies are long, with segments that are divided externally by shallow ring-like constrictions called annuli and internally by septa ("partitions") at the same points, although in some species the septa are incomplete and in a few cases missing. Most of the segments contain the same sets of organs, although sharing a common gut, circulatory system and nervous system makes them inter-dependent. Their bodies are covered by a cuticle (outer covering) that does not contain cells but is secreted by cells in the skin underneath, is made of tough but flexible collagen and does not molt – on the other hand arthropods' cuticles are made of the more rigid α-chitin, and molt until the arthropods reach their full size. Most annelids have closed circulatory systems, where the blood makes its entire circuit via blood vessels.

Q1: What externally divides annelids' segments?
A1: shallow ring-like constrictions called annuli
Q2: What divides annelids' segments internally?
A2: septa ("partitions")
Q3: What do the segments of an annelid share?
A3: a common gut, circulatory system and nervous system
Q4: What covers an annelid's exterior?
A4: a cuticle
Q5: What is an annelid's cuticle made of?
A5: collagen
Szlachta (History)

Nobles were born into a noble family, adopted by a noble family (this was abolished in 1633) or ennobled by a king or Sejm for various reasons (bravery in combat, service to the state, etc.—yet this was the rarest means of gaining noble status). Many nobles were, in actuality, really usurpers, being commoners, who moved into another part of the country and falsely pretended to noble status. Hundreds of such false nobles were denounced by Hieronim Nekanda Trepka in his Liber generationis plebeanorium (or Liber chamorum) in the first half of the 16th century. The law forbade non-nobles from owning nobility-estates and promised the estate to the denouncer. Trepka was an impoverished nobleman who lived a townsman life and collected hundreds of such stories hoping to take over any of such estates. It does not seem he ever succeeded in proving one at the court. Many sejms issued decrees over the centuries in an attempt to resolve this issue, but with little success. It is unknown what percentage of the Polish nobility came from the 'lower' orders of society, but most historians agree that nobles of such base origins formed a 'significant' element of the szlachta.

Q1: What was a rarest rare to become a noble?
A1: service to the state
Q2: Many nobles were actually surprisingly acting in what way?
A2: really usurpers, being commoners,
Q3: Who denounced many nobles?
A3: Hieronim Nekanda Trepka
Q4: When did the denouncing of many nobles take place?
A4: first half of the 16th century
Q5: What did the nobles lose by being denounced?
A5: owning nobility-estates and promised the estate to the denouncer
Pain (Language and literature)

Nociceptive pain is caused by stimulation of peripheral nerve fibers that respond to stimuli approaching or exceeding harmful intensity (nociceptors), and may be classified according to the mode of noxious stimulation. The most common categories are "thermal" (e.g. heat or cold), "mechanical" (e.g. crushing, tearing, shearing, etc.) and "chemical" (e.g. iodine in a cut or chemicals released during inflammation). Some nociceptors respond to more than one of these modalities and are consequently designated polymodal.

Q1: Stimulating nociceptors will induce which type of pain?
A1: Nociceptive
Q2: How is nociceptive pain classified?
A2: according to the mode of noxious stimulation
Q3: The thermal category of pain deals with which two temperature ranges?
A3: heat or cold
Q4: Crushing, tearing and shearing are examples of which type of pain?
A4: mechanical
Q5: What is the term for nociceptors which respond to more than one type of stimuli?
A5: polymodal
Pain (Language and literature)

Nociceptive pain may also be divided into "visceral", "deep somatic" and "superficial somatic" pain. Visceral structures are highly sensitive to stretch, ischemia and inflammation, but relatively insensitive to other stimuli that normally evoke pain in other structures, such as burning and cutting. Visceral pain is diffuse, difficult to locate and often referred to a distant, usually superficial, structure. It may be accompanied by nausea and vomiting and may be described as sickening, deep, squeezing, and dull. Deep somatic pain is initiated by stimulation of nociceptors in ligaments, tendons, bones, blood vessels, fasciae and muscles, and is dull, aching, poorly-localized pain. Examples include sprains and broken bones. Superficial pain is initiated by activation of nociceptors in the skin or other superficial tissue, and is sharp, well-defined and clearly located. Examples of injuries that produce superficial somatic pain include minor wounds and minor (first degree) burns.

Q1: What type of of pain is visceral a division of?
A1: Nociceptive
Q2: What type of structures are sensitive to being stretched but not very sensitive to burning?
A2: Visceral
Q3: What can visceral pain be accompanied by?
A3: nausea and vomiting
Q4: Which type of pain is dull, aching and hard to pin-point?
A4: Deep somatic
Q5: What type of pain are first degree burns classified as causing?
A5: Superficial
Bird_migration (Natural sciences)

Nocturnal migrants minimize predation, avoid overheating, and can feed during the day. One cost of nocturnal migration is the loss of sleep. Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep to compensate for the loss.

Q1: What is a benefit of nocturnal migration?
A1: minimize predation
Q2: What is a cost of nocturnal migration?
A2: loss of sleep
Q3: How do nocturnal migrants compensate for loss of sleep?
A3: Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep
Q4: What is another benefit of nocturnal migration?
A4: avoid overheating
Energy (Natural sciences)

Noether's theorem (1918) states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law. Noether's theorem has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations. A generalisation of the seminal formulations on constants of motion in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that cannot be modeled with a Lagrangian; for example, dissipative systems with continuous symmetries need not have a corresponding conservation law.

Q1: When was Noether's theorem created?
A1: 1918
Q2: What states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law?
A2: Noether's theorem
Q3: What has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations?
A3: Noether's theorem
Heian_period (History)

Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara and other noble families required guards, police and soldiers. The warrior class made steady political gains throughout the Heian period. As early as 939 A.D, Taira no Masakado threatened the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi, and almost simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west. Still, a true military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away, when much of the strength of the government would lie within the private armies of the shogunate.

Q1: What noble family wielded power during the Heian period?
A1: Fujiwara
Q2: Who threatened the authority of Japan's central government?
A2: Taira no Masakado
Q3: Masakado led an uprising in what province?
A3: Hitachi
Q4: What member of the Fujiwara family rebelled in western Japan?
A4: Fujiwara no Sumitomo
Q5: In what year did Masakado begin his rebellion?
A5: 939 A.D
Swaziland (Geography and places)

Nominations take place at the chiefdoms. On the day of nomination, the name of the nominee is raised by a show of hand and the nominee is given an opportunity to indicate whether he or she accepts the nomination. If he or she accepts it, he or she must be supported by at least ten members of that chiefdom. The nominations are for the position of Member of Parliament, Constituency Headman (Indvuna) and the Constituency Executive Committee (Bucopho). The minimum number of nominees is four and the maximum is ten.

Q1: How does a nominee for parliament in Swaziland get decided?
A1: a show of hand
Q2: What is the minimum number of members that must support a nominee to parliament in Swaziland?
A2: at least ten
Q3: What is an Indvuna as it relates to the Parliament of Swaziland?
A3: Constituency Headman
Q4: In the Swazi Parliament, what is the Bucopho? 
A4: Constituency Executive Committee
Q5: What is the minimum amount of nominees taken on the day of nomination in the Swazi Parliament?
A5: four
Norfolk_Island (Geography and places)

Non-Australian citizens who are Australian permanent residents should be aware that during their stay on Norfolk Island they are "outside of Australia" for the purposes of the Migration Act. This means that not only will they need a still-valid migrant visa or Resident return visa to return from Norfolk Island to the mainland, but also the time spent in Norfolk Island will not be counted for satisfying the residence requirement for obtaining a Resident return visa in the future. On the other hand, as far as Australian nationality law is concerned, Norfolk Island is a part of Australia, and any time spent by an Australian permanent resident on Norfolk Island will count as time spent in Australia for the purpose of applying for Australian citizenship.

Q1: What Act declares Non-Australian residents "outside of Australia" while they are on Norfolk Island?
A1: the Migration Act
Q2: What does a Non-Australian citizen who is a resident need to return from Norfolk Island to the mainland?
A2: a still-valid migrant visa or Resident return visa
Q3: As far as Australian nationality law goes, Norfolk Island is considered a part of what?
A3: Australia
Q4: According to Australian nationality law, time spent by a permanent Australian resident on Norfolk Island will do what?
A4: count as time spent in Australia
Anti-aircraft_warfare (Warfare)

Non-English terms for air defence include the German Flak (Fliegerabwehrkanone, "aircraft defence cannon", also cited as Flugabwehrkanone), whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona (Cyrillic: Противовозду́шная оборо́на), a literal translation of "anti-air defence", abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye (i.e. "pointing to zenith") systems (guns, missiles etc.). In French, air defence is called DCA (Défense contre les aéronefs, "aéronef" being the generic term for all kind of airborne device (airplane, airship, balloon, missile, rocket, etc.)).

Q1: What is the Russian term for air defence?
A1: Protivovozdushnaya oborona
Q2: How is the Russian term for air defence abbreviated?
A2: PVO
Q3: What are the AA systems called in Russian?
A3: zenitnye
Q4: What is air defence called in French?
A4: DCA
Q5: What is the generic term for an airplane or rocket in French?
A5: aéronef
Umayyad_Caliphate (History)

Non-Muslim groups in the Umayyad Caliphate, which included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and pagan Berbers, were called dhimmis. They were given a legally protected status as second-class citizens as long as they accepted and acknowledged the political supremacy of the ruling Muslims. They were allowed to have their own courts, and were given freedom of their religion within the empire.[citation needed] Although they could not hold the highest public offices in the empire, they had many bureaucratic positions within the government. Christians and Jews still continued to produce great theological thinkers within their communities, but as time wore on, many of the intellectuals converted to Islam, leading to a lack of great thinkers in the non-Muslim communities.

Q1: What were non-Muslim groups under the Umayyads called?
A1: dhimmis
Q2: Along with Berbers, Zoroastrians and Christians, what notable non-Muslim group existed in the Umayyad Caliphate?
A2: Jews
Q3: Along with Jews, what non-Muslim religion produced notable theological works under the Umayyads?
A3: Christians
Imperial_College_London (History)

Non-academic alumni: Author, H. G. Wells, McLaren and Ferrari Chief Designer, Nicholas Tombazis, CEO of Rolls Royce, Ralph Robins, rock band Queen, Brian May, CEO of Singapore Airlines, Chew Choon Seng, Prime Minister of New Zealand, Julius Vogel, Prime Minister of India, Rajiv Gandhi, Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore, Teo Chee Hean, Chief Medical Officer for England, Sir Liam Donaldson, Head Physician to the Queen, Huw Thomas, CEO of Moonfruit, Wendy Tan White, Businessman and philanthropist, Winston Wong, billionaire hedge fund manager Alan Howard.

Q1: Which famous automobile designer is considered a non - academic alumni?
A1: Nicholas Tombazis
Q2: Which famous author is considered an alumni for Imperial?
A2: H. G. Wells
Q3: Which airline's CEO can be called a non - academic alumni of Imperial?
A3: Singapore Airlines
Q4: Which incredibly prestigious position did Huw Thomas hold?
A4: Head Physician to the Queen
Q5: Which hedge fund manager with a networth of over a billion is considered an alumni?
A5: Alan Howard