LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
New_Haven,_Connecticut (Geography and places)

In 1637 a small party of Puritans reconnoitered the New Haven harbor area and wintered over. In April 1638, the main party of five hundred Puritans who left the Massachusetts Bay Colony under the leadership of the Reverend John Davenport and the London merchant Theophilus Eaton sailed into the harbor. These settlers were hoping to establish a (in their mind) better theological community, with the government more closely linked to the church than the one they left in Massachusetts and sought to take advantage of the excellent port capabilities of the harbor. The Quinnipiacs, who were under attack by neighboring Pequots, sold their land to the settlers in return for protection.

Q1: In what year did the Puritans survey New Haven Harbor?
A1: 1637
Q2: From what colony did the original 500 Puritan settlers originate?
A2: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Q3: Who was the religious leader of the original Puritan settlers?
A3: Reverend John Davenport
Q4: In what year did the original 500 Puritan settlers arrive in the New Haven harbor area?
A4: 1638
Q5: From what native tribe did the original Puritan settlers purchase land in exchange for the offer of providing protection?
A5: Quinnipiacs
Q6: What year begin the founding of New Haven Harbor?
A6: 1638
Q7: Where did the settlers came from?
A7: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Q8: What was the name of the Native Americans that sold them the land?
A8: Quinnipiacs,
Q9: In comparison to Massachusetts what where settlers hoping to establish in New Haven Harbor?
A9: better theological community
Q10: Who was the religious leader that lead the pilgrims to New Haven Harbor?
A10: Reverend John Davenport
Southampton (Geography and places)

In 1642, during the English Civil War, a Parliamentary garrison moved into Southampton. The Royalists advanced as far as Redbridge, Southampton, in March 1644 but were prevented from taking the town.

Q1: What war was taking place in the 1640s in England?
A1: English Civil War
Q2: What year did a Parliamentary garrison enter Southampton?
A2: 1642
Q3: What is the furthest town the Royalists reached during their advance into Southampton in 1644?
A3: Redbridge
Q4: In what month of 1644 did the Royalists fail to take Redbridge?
A4: March
Pain (Language and literature)

In 1644, René Descartes theorized that pain was a disturbance that passed down along nerve fibers until the disturbance reached the brain, a development that transformed the perception of pain from a spiritual, mystical experience to a physical, mechanical sensation[citation needed]. Descartes's work, along with Avicenna's, prefigured the 19th-century development of specificity theory. Specificity theory saw pain as "a specific sensation, with its own sensory apparatus independent of touch and other senses". Another theory that came to prominence in the 18th and 19th centuries was intensive theory, which conceived of pain not as a unique sensory modality, but an emotional state produced by stronger than normal stimuli such as intense light, pressure or temperature. By the mid-1890s, specificity was backed mostly by physiologists and physicians, and the intensive theory was mostly backed by psychologists. However, after a series of clinical observations by Henry Head and experiments by Max von Frey, the psychologists migrated to specificity almost en masse, and by century's end, most textbooks on physiology and psychology were presenting pain specificity as fact.

Q1: When was Descartes pontificating about his theories regarding pain?
A1: 1644
Q2: What did Descartes think pain was?
A2: a disturbance
Q3: What theory perceives pain as being a specific sensation?
A3: Specificity
Q4: What state does the intensive theory conceive pain as being?
A4: emotional
Q5: Who migrated to the theory of specificity en mass?
A5: psychologists
Vacuum (Natural sciences)

In 1654, Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump and conducted his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that teams of horses could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been partially evacuated. Robert Boyle improved Guericke's design and with the help of Robert Hooke further developed vacuum pump technology. Thereafter, research into the partial vacuum lapsed until 1850 when August Toepler invented the Toepler Pump and Heinrich Geissler invented the mercury displacement pump in 1855, achieving a partial vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr). A number of electrical properties become observable at this vacuum level, which renewed interest in further research.

Q1: What was the vacuum created by the mercury displacement pump?
A1: partial vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr).
Q2: What year was the Toepler Pump invented?
A2: 1850
Q3: What was first invented by Otto von Guericke ?
A3: vacuum pump
Q4: Who conducted the Magdeburg experiment?
A4: Otto von Guericke
Q5: What was made visible at a partial vacuum of 10 Pa?
A5: A number of electrical properties
Saint_Helena (Geography and places)

In 1657, Oliver Cromwell granted the English East India Company a charter to govern Saint Helena and the following year the company decided to fortify the island and colonise it with planters. The first governor, Captain John Dutton, arrived in 1659, making Saint Helena one of Britain's oldest colonies outside North America and the Caribbean. A fort and houses were built. After the Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660, the East India Company received a royal charter giving it the sole right to fortify and colonise the island. The fort was renamed James Fort and the town Jamestown, in honour of the Duke of York, later James II of England.

Q1: Who was granted a charter to govern Saint Helena?
A1: the English East India Company
Q2: Who granted the English East company a character to govern the island?
A2: Oliver Cromwell
Q3: Who was the first governor of Saint Helena?
A3: Captain John Dutton
Q4: What year did the first governor arrive to Saint Helena?
A4: 1659
Q5: Who had the sole right to fortify and colonize the island?
A5: East India Company
Tibet (Geography and places)

In 1661 another Jesuit, Johann Grueber, crossed Tibet from Sining to Lhasa (where he spent a month), before heading on to Nepal. He was followed by others who actually built a church in Lhasa. These included the Jesuit Father Ippolito Desideri, 1716–1721, who gained a deep knowledge of Tibetan culture, language and Buddhism, and various Capuchins in 1707–1711, 1716–1733 and 1741–1745, Christianity was used by some Tibetan monarchs and their courts and the Karmapa sect lamas to counterbalance the influence of the Gelugpa sect in the 17th century until in 1745 when all the missionaries were expelled at the lama's insistence.

Q1: When did Johann Grueber cross Tibet on the way to Nepal?
A1: 1661
Q2: When did Jesuit Father Ippolito Desideri spend time in Tibet?
A2: 1716–1721
Q3: How was Christianity used by some Tibetan monarchs?
A3: counterbalance the influence of the Gelugpa sect
Gothic_architecture (Art and architecture)

In 1663 at the Archbishop of Canterbury's residence, Lambeth Palace, a Gothic hammerbeam roof was built to replace that destroyed when the building was sacked during the English Civil War. Also in the late 17th century, some discrete Gothic details appeared on new construction at Oxford University and Cambridge University, notably on Tom Tower at Christ Church, Oxford, by Christopher Wren. It is not easy to decide whether these instances were Gothic survival or early appearances of Gothic revival.

Q1: What is the name of the Archbishop of Canterbury's residence?
A1: Lambeth Palace
Q2: In what year was a Gothic hammerbeam roof installed on the Archbishop of Canterbury's residence?
A2: In 1663
Q3: In what century were distinct Gothic details used on new construction at Oxford and Cambridge?
A3: the late 17th century
Q4: Who used Gothic details in construction of Tom Tower, Oxford?
A4: Christopher Wren
New_York_City (Geography and places)

In 1664, Peter Stuyvesant, the Director-General of the colony of New Netherland, surrendered New Amsterdam to the English without bloodshed. The English promptly renamed the fledgling city "New York" after the Duke of York (later King James II).

Q1: What did the English call New Amsterdam after its capture?
A1: New York
Q2: What was the regnal name of the Duke of York?
A2: James II
Q3: What person gave up New Amsterdam to the English?
A3: Peter Stuyvesant
Q4: What was Peter Stuyvesant's title?
A4: Director-General
Q5: In what year did the English take over New Amsterdam?
A5: 1664
Q6: Who gave up New Amsterdam to the English without a fight in 1664?
A6: Peter Stuyvesant
Hydrogen (Natural sciences)

In 1671, Robert Boyle discovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas. In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by naming the gas from a metal-acid reaction "flammable air". He speculated that "flammable air" was in fact identical to the hypothetical substance called "phlogiston" and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for its discovery as an element. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from the Greek ὑδρο- hydro meaning "water" and -γενής genes meaning "creator") when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned.

Q1: What year was the discovery of hydrogen gas?
A1: 1671
Q2: Who discovered Hydrogen gas?
A2: Robert Boyle
Q3: Who recognized hydrogen gas as a discreet substance?
A3: Henry Cavendish
Q4: In what year did Henry Cavendish recognize hydrogen gas as a discreet substance?
A4: 1766
Q5: What does gas produce when burned?
A5: water
Philadelphia (History)

In 1681, in partial repayment of a debt, Charles II of England granted William Penn a charter for what would become the Pennsylvania colony. Despite the royal charter, Penn bought the land from the local Lenape to be on good terms with the Native Americans and ensure peace for his colony. Penn made a treaty of friendship with Lenape chief Tammany under an elm tree at Shackamaxon, in what is now the city's Fishtown section. Penn named the city Philadelphia, which is Greek for brotherly love (from philos, "love" or "friendship", and adelphos, "brother"). As a Quaker, Penn had experienced religious persecution and wanted his colony to be a place where anyone could worship freely. This tolerance, far more than afforded by most other colonies, led to better relations with the local Native tribes and fostered Philadelphia's rapid growth into America's most important city. Penn planned a city on the Delaware River to serve as a port and place for government. Hoping that Philadelphia would become more like an English rural town instead of a city, Penn laid out roads on a grid plan to keep houses and businesses spread far apart, with areas for gardens and orchards. The city's inhabitants did not follow Penn's plans, as they crowded by the Delaware River, the port, and subdivided and resold their lots. Before Penn left Philadelphia for the last time, he issued the Charter of 1701 establishing it as a city. It became an important trading center, poor at first, but with tolerable living conditions by the 1750s. Benjamin Franklin, a leading citizen, helped improve city services and founded new ones, such as fire protection, a library, and one of the American colonies' first hospitals.

Q1: Who founded the Pennsylvania colony?
A1: William Penn
Q2: Who did Penn buy the land from?
A2: Lenape
Q3: What religion did William Penn practice?
A3: Quaker
Q4: When was Philadelphia established as a city?
A4: 1701
Q5: What type of street layout did Penn use for Philadelphia?
A5: grid plan
Philadelphia (History)

In 1682, William Penn founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia played an instrumental role in the American Revolution as a meeting place for the Founding Fathers of the United States, who signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the Constitution in 1787. Philadelphia was one of the nation's capitals in the Revolutionary War, and served as temporary U.S. capital while Washington, D.C., was under construction. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became a major industrial center and railroad hub that grew from an influx of European immigrants. It became a prime destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration and surpassed two million occupants by 1950.

Q1: Who founded Philadelphia?
A1: William Penn
Q2: What role did Philadelphia play in the American Revolution?
A2: a meeting place for the Founding Fathers
Q3: What purpose did Philadelphia serve while D.C. was under construction?
A3: temporary U.S. capital
Q4: When did it reach 2 million occupants>
A4: 1950
History_of_science (History)

In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Faraday, Ohm, and others during the early 19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell (known as Maxwell's equations).

Q1: What work was printed by Isaac Newton in 1687?
A1: the Principia Mathematica
Q2: How many theories were included within the Principia Mathematica?
A2: two
Q3: What concept did the Law of Gravitation deal with?
A3: the fundamental force of gravity
Q4: What are Maxwell's equations about?
A4: electromagnetism
British_Empire (History)

In 1695, the Scottish Parliament granted a charter to the Company of Scotland, which established a settlement in 1698 on the isthmus of Panama. Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada, and afflicted by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years later. The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland—a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise—and ended Scottish hopes of establishing its own overseas empire. The episode also had major political consequences, persuading the governments of both England and Scotland of the merits of a union of countries, rather than just crowns. This occurred in 1707 with the Treaty of Union, establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Q1: When was the Company of Scotland granted a charter?
A1: 1695
Q2: When was Panama colonized by Scotland?
A2: 1698
Q3: How long did the Scottish Panama colony survive?
A3: two years
Q4: How much Scottish capital was lost in the Panama colony attempt?
A4: a quarter
Q5: When was the Treaty of Union?
A5: 1707
Hyderabad (Geography and places)

In 1713 Farrukhsiyar, the Mughal emperor, appointed Asif Jah I to be Viceroy of the Deccan, with the title Nizam-ul-Mulk (Administrator of the Realm). In 1724, Asif Jah I defeated Mubariz Khan to establish autonomy over the Deccan Suba, named the region Hyderabad Deccan, and started what came to be known as the Asif Jahi dynasty. Subsequent rulers retained the title Nizam ul-Mulk and were referred to as Asif Jahi Nizams, or Nizams of Hyderabad. The death of Asif Jah I in 1748 resulted in a period of political unrest as his sons, backed by opportunistic neighbouring states and colonial foreign forces, contended for the throne. The accession of Asif Jah II, who reigned from 1762 to 1803, ended the instability. In 1768 he signed the treaty of Masulipatnam, surrendering the coastal region to the East India Company in return for a fixed annual rent.

Q1: What position did Farrukhsiyar hold?
A1: emperor
Q2: Who was the Viceroy of the Deccan under Farrukhsiyar?
A2: Asif Jah I
Q3: What official title did the Viceroy of Deccan hold?
A3: Nizam-ul-Mulk (Administrator of the Realm)
Q4: In what year was Mubariz Khan defeated by Asif Jah I?
A4: 1724
Q5: What did Asif Jah I rename Deccan Suba to?
A5: Hyderabad Deccan
Yale_University (History)

In 1718, at the behest of either Rector Samuel Andrew or the colony's Governor Gurdon Saltonstall, Cotton Mather contacted a successful businessman named Elihu Yale, who lived in Wales but had been born in Boston and whose father, David, had been one of the original settlers in New Haven, to ask him for financial help in constructing a new building for the college. Through the persuasion of Jeremiah Dummer, Yale, who had made a fortune through trade while living in Madras as a representative of the East India Company, donated nine bales of goods, which were sold for more than £560, a substantial sum at the time. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College. Meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and theology. It had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Locke's works and developed his original theology known as the "new divinity." In 1722 the Rector and six of his friends, who had a study group to discuss the new ideas, announced that they had given up Calvinism, become Arminians, and joined the Church of England. They were ordained in England and returned to the colonies as missionaries for the Anglican faith. Thomas Clapp became president in 1745, and struggled to return the college to Calvinist orthodoxy; but he did not close the library. Other students found Deist books in the library.

Q1: Where did Elihu Yale grow up?
A1: Wales
Q2: Where was Elihu Yale born?
A2: Boston
Q3: What was Elihu Yale's father's name?
A3: David
Q4: Who suggested the new name of Yale?
A4: Cotton Mather
Q5: How many books were in the 1714 shipment to Yale?
A5: 500
Qing_dynasty (History)

In 1725 Yongzheng bestowed the hereditary title of Marquis on a descendant of the Ming dynasty Imperial family, Zhu Zhiliang, who received a salary from the Qing government and whose duty was to perform rituals at the Ming tombs, and was also inducted the Chinese Plain White Banner in the Eight Banners. Later the Qianlong Emperor bestowed the title Marquis of Extended Grace posthumously on Zhu Zhuliang in 1750, and the title passed on through twelve generations of Ming descendants until the end of the Qing dynasty.

Q1: Who did Yongzheng call Marquis?
A1: Zhu Zhiliang
Q2: When did Yongzheng give this title?
A2: 1725
Q3: What was Zhu's job?
A3: perform rituals
Iran (Geography and places)

In 1729, Nader Shah, a chieftain and military genius from Khorasan, successfully drove out and conquered the Pashtun invaders. He subsequently took back the annexed Caucasian territories which were divided among the Ottoman and Russian authorities by the ongoing chaos in Iran. During the reign of Nader Shah, Iran reached its greatest extent since the Sassanid Empire, reestablishing the Iranian hegemony all over the Caucasus, as well as other major parts of the west and central Asia, and briefly possessing what was arguably the most powerful empire at the time.

Q1: In what year were the Pashtuns defeated and driven out of Iran?
A1: 1729
Q2: Who drove out the Pashtuns from Iran in 1729?
A2: Nader Shah
Q3: Where was Nader Shan from?
A3: Khorasan
Q4: Nader Shah expanded Iranian power to its highest peak since what Empire?
A4: the Sassanid Empire
Q5: Nader Shah took back what territories that were annexed by the Ottomans and the Russians?
A5: Caucasian territories
Portugal (Geography and places)

In 1738, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, began a diplomatic career as the Portuguese Ambassador in London and later in Vienna. The Queen consort of Portugal, Archduchess Maria Anne Josefa of Austria, was fond of Melo; and after his first wife died, she arranged the widowed de Melo's second marriage to the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef, Count von Daun. King John V of Portugal, however, was not pleased and recalled Melo to Portugal in 1749. John V died the following year and his son, Joseph I of Portugal, was crowned. In contrast to his father, Joseph I was fond of de Melo, and with the Queen Mother's approval, he appointed Melo as Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Q1: Who was the 1st Marquis of Pombal?
A1: Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo
Q2: What title did Archduchess Maria Anne Josefa hold?
A2: Queen consort of Portugal
Q3: Who arranged the widow de Melo's second marriage?
A3: Queen consort of Portugal
Q4: Who was de Melo's second marriage to?
A4: the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef, Count von Daun
Q5: Who was not pleased by de Melo's second marriage?
A5: King John V of Portugal
Edmund_Burke (History)

In 1744, Burke started at Trinity College Dublin, a Protestant establishment, which up until 1793, did not permit Catholics to take degrees. In 1747, he set up a debating society, "Edmund Burke's Club", which, in 1770, merged with TCD's Historical Club to form the College Historical Society; it is the oldest undergraduate society in the world. The minutes of the meetings of Burke's Club remain in the collection of the Historical Society. Burke graduated from Trinity in 1748. Burke's father wanted him to read Law, and with this in mind he went to London in 1750, where he entered the Middle Temple, before soon giving up legal study to travel in Continental Europe. After eschewing the Law, he pursued a livelihood through writing.

Q1: When did Burke begin attending Trinity College Dublin?
A1: 1744
Q2: What type of people did Trinity College Dublin not allow to earn degrees there?
A2: Catholics
Q3: When did Edmund Burke start a debate club?
A3: 1747
Q4: What club did Edmund Burke's debate club merge with in 1770?
A4: TCD's Historical Club
Q5: When did Edmund Burke graduate?
A5: 1748
Seven_Years%27_War (History)

In 1756 Austria was making military preparations for war with Prussia and pursuing an alliance with Russia for this purpose. On June 2, 1746, Austria and Russia concluded a defensive alliance that covered their own territory and Poland against attack by Prussia or the Ottoman Empire. They also agreed to a secret clause that promised the restoration of Silesia and the countship of Glatz (now Kłodzko, Poland) to Austria in the event of hostilities with Prussia. Their real desire, however, was to destroy Frederick’s power altogether, reducing his sway to his electorate of Brandenburg and giving East Prussia to Poland, an exchange that would be accompanied by the cession of the Polish Duchy of Courland to Russia. Aleksey Petrovich, Graf (count) Bestuzhev-Ryumin, grand chancellor of Russia under Empress Elizabeth, was hostile to both France and Prussia, but he could not persuade Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz to commit to offensive designs against Prussia so long as Prussia was able to rely on French support.

Q1: What Russian-Austrian agreement preceded the Seven Years War that started in 1755-56?
A1: June 2, 1746, Austria and Russia concluded a defensive alliance that covered their own territory and Poland against attack by Prussia or the Ottoman Empire
Q2: According to the Russian-Austrian pact of 1746, what would happen to Silesia in the event of hostilities with Prussia?
A2: They also agreed to a secret clause that promised the restoration of Silesia and the countship of Glatz (now Kłodzko, Poland) to Austria
Q3: What other area was mentioned regarding Prussian dominion in the Russian-Austrian pact?
A3: the countship of Glatz (now Kłodzko, Poland) to Austria
Q4: What individual was the main target of the pact?
A4: Their real desire, however, was to destroy Frederick’s power altogether
Q5: Why couldn't Petrovich persuade Austria to invade Prussia?
A5: he could not persuade Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz to commit to offensive designs against Prussia