LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
Infrared (Natural sciences)

Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.

Q1: What sort of equipment uses the infrared spectrum in the absence of sufficient visible light?
A1: night vision
Q2: What do night vision devices convert ambient light photons into?
A2: electrons
Q3: Along with a chemical process, what type of process is used by night vision devices to convert infrared into visible light?
A3: electrical
Infrared (Natural sciences)

Infrared radiation is popularly known as "heat radiation"[citation needed], but light and electromagnetic waves of any frequency will heat surfaces that absorb them. Infrared light from the Sun accounts for 49% of the heating of Earth, with the rest being caused by visible light that is absorbed then re-radiated at longer wavelengths. Visible light or ultraviolet-emitting lasers can char paper and incandescently hot objects emit visible radiation. Objects at room temperature will emit radiation concentrated mostly in the 8 to 25 µm band, but this is not distinct from the emission of visible light by incandescent objects and ultraviolet by even hotter objects (see black body and Wien's displacement law).

Q1: What is a commonly used term for infrared radiation?
A1: heat radiation
Q2: What percentage of the Earth's heat is derived from the Sun's infrared light?
A2: 49%
Q3: What is the common range of emitted radiation of room temperature objects, in micrometers? 
A3: 8 to 25
Q4: Other than infrared light, what type of light is responsible for heating the Earth?
A4: visible
Infrared (Natural sciences)

Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected. Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space, such as molecular clouds; detect objects such as planets, and to view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe. Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatus.

Q1: Along with industrial and medical, in what applications is infrared radiation used?
A1: scientific
Q2: What technology is used by night-vision devices?
A2: active near-infrared illumination
Q3: What discipline uses infrared telescopes to see through molecular clouds?
A3: Infrared astronomy
Q4: What color shift indicates that space objects date from the early days of the universe?
A4: red
Q5: What devices are used to observe insulated system heat loss?
A5: Infrared thermal-imaging cameras
Infrared (Natural sciences)

Infrared reflectography (fr; it; es), as called by art conservators, can be applied to paintings to reveal underlying layers in a completely non-destructive manner, in particular the underdrawing or outline drawn by the artist as a guide. This often reveals the artist's use of carbon black, which shows up well in reflectograms, as long as it has not also been used in the ground underlying the whole painting. Art conservators are looking to see whether the visible layers of paint differ from the underdrawing or layers in between – such alterations are called pentimenti when made by the original artist. This is very useful information in deciding whether a painting is the prime version by the original artist or a copy, and whether it has been altered by over-enthusiastic restoration work. In general, the more pentimenti the more likely a painting is to be the prime version. It also gives useful insights into working practices.

Q1: What technique is used in art to examine underlying layers of a painting without damaging it?
A1: Infrared reflectography
Q2: What shows up particularly well in reflectograms?
A2: carbon black
Q3: What is the term for differences in the painting and underdrawing made by the original artist?
A3: pentimenti
Infrared (Natural sciences)

Infrared tracking, also known as infrared homing, refers to a passive missile guidance system, which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum to track it. Missiles that use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers", since infrared (IR) is just below the visible spectrum of light in frequency and is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as people, vehicle engines, and aircraft generate and retain heat, and as such, are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background.

Q1: What is another term for infrared homing?
A1: Infrared tracking
Q2: What devices make use of infrared homing?
A2: Missiles
Q3: What is a common name for missiles that make use of infrared seeking?
A3: heat-seekers
Q4: Along with aircraft and people, what objects notably create and retain heat?
A4: vehicle engines
Q5: What does IR stand for?
A5: infrared
Infrared (Natural sciences)

Infrared vibrational spectroscopy (see also near-infrared spectroscopy) is a technique that can be used to identify molecules by analysis of their constituent bonds. Each chemical bond in a molecule vibrates at a frequency characteristic of that bond. A group of atoms in a molecule (e.g., CH2) may have multiple modes of oscillation caused by the stretching and bending motions of the group as a whole. If an oscillation leads to a change in dipole in the molecule then it will absorb a photon that has the same frequency. The vibrational frequencies of most molecules correspond to the frequencies of infrared light. Typically, the technique is used to study organic compounds using light radiation from 4000–400 cm−1, the mid-infrared. A spectrum of all the frequencies of absorption in a sample is recorded. This can be used to gain information about the sample composition in terms of chemical groups present and also its purity (for example, a wet sample will show a broad O-H absorption around 3200 cm−1).

Q1: What is the technique that analyzes the constituent bonds of molecules to identify them?
A1: Infrared vibrational spectroscopy
Q2: What happens to a molecule if an oscillation results in a dipole being changed?
A2: it will absorb a photon that has the same frequency
Q3: What do the vibrational frequencies of molecules usually correspond to?
A3: the frequencies of infrared light
Q4: What is the term for light radiation in the 4000–400 cm−1 spectrum?
A4: the mid-infrared
The_Blitz (History)

Ingersoll added that, according to Anna Freud and Edward Glover, London civilians surprisingly did not suffer from widespread shell shock, unlike the soldiers in the Dunkirk evacuation.:114,117–118 The psychoanalysts were correct, and the special network of psychiatric clinics opened to receive mental casualties of the attacks closed due to lack of need. Although the stress of the war resulted in many anxiety attacks, eating disorders, fatigue, weeping, miscarriages, and other physical and mental ailments, society did not collapse. The number of suicides and drunkenness declined, and London recorded only about two cases of "bomb neuroses" per week in the first three months of bombing. Many civilians found that the best way to retain mental stability was to be with family, and after the first few weeks of bombing avoidance of the evacuation programs grew.:80–81 Glover speculated that the knowledge that the entire country was being attacked, that there was no way to escape the bombs, forced people to accept and deal with the situation.:118

Q1: Anne Freud and Edward Glover said London civilians did not suffer from what?
A1: widespread shell shock
Q2: Why did the psychiatric clinics close?
A2: lack of need
Q3: What two things declined during the attacks in Britain?
A3: suicides and drunkenness
Q4: The entire country was being attack and Glover believe it help people to do what?
A4: accept and deal
Botany (Natural sciences)

Inheritance in plants follows the same fundamental principles of genetics as in other multicellular organisms. Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum (peas). What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Similarly, "jumping genes" were discovered by Barbara McClintock while she was studying maize. Nevertheless, there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms.

Q1: Does inheritance work differently in plants?
A1: same fundamental principles of genetics
Q2: What plant did Mendel use to demonstrate inheritance?
A2: Pisum sativum (peas)
Q3: What other plant was used in the discovery of different genes?
A3: maize
Q4: Are plants and animals genetically the same?
A4: distinctive genetic differences
Quran (Philosophy and religion)

Inimitability of the Quran (or "I'jaz") is the belief that no human speech can match the Quran in its content and form. The Quran is considered an inimitable miracle by Muslims, effective until the Day of Resurrection—and, thereby, the central proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status. The concept of inimitability originates in the Quran where in five different verses opponents are challenged to produce something like the Quran: "If men and sprites banded together to produce the like of this Quran they would never produce its like not though they backed one another." So the suggestion is that if there are doubts concerning the divine authorship of the Quran, come forward and create something like it. From the ninth century, numerous works appeared which studied the Quran and examined its style and content. Medieval Muslim scholars including al-Jurjani (d. 1078) and al-Baqillani (d. 1013) have written treatises on the subject, discussed its various aspects, and used linguistic approaches to study the Quran. Others argue that the Quran contains noble ideas, has inner meanings, maintained its freshness through the ages and has caused great transformations in individual level and in the history. Some scholars state that the Quran contains scientific information that agrees with modern science. The doctrine of miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.

Q1: What term indicates that the contents of the Quran cannot be reproduced in speech?
A1: I'jaz
Q2: Until what day is the Quran believed to be in effect?
A2: Day of Resurrection
Q3: In which year did the Medieval Muslim scholar al-Baqillani die?
A3: 1013
Q4: Which Muslim scholar studied the Quran's inimitability until his death in 1078?
A4: al-Jurjani
To_Kill_a_Mockingbird (Language and literature)

Initial reactions to the novel were varied. The New Yorker declared it "skilled, unpretentious, and totally ingenious", and The Atlantic Monthly's reviewer rated it as "pleasant, undemanding reading", but found the narrative voice—"a six-year-old girl with the prose style of a well-educated adult"—to be implausible. Time magazine's 1960 review of the book states that it "teaches the reader an astonishing number of useful truths about little girls and about Southern life" and calls Scout Finch "the most appealing child since Carson McCullers' Frankie got left behind at the wedding". The Chicago Sunday Tribune noted the even-handed approach to the narration of the novel's events, writing: "This is in no way a sociological novel. It underlines no cause ... To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel of strong contemporary national significance."

Q1: What newspaper wrote that the novel has strong contemporary national significance?
A1: The Chicago Sunday Tribune
Dwight_D._Eisenhower (History)

Initially Eisenhower planned on serving only one term, but as with other decisions, he maintained a position of maximum flexibility in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again. During his recovery from a heart attack late in 1955, he huddled with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group, in addition to his doctor, concluded a second term was well advised, and he announced in February 1956 he would run again. Eisenhower was publicly noncommittal about Nixon's repeating as the Vice President on his ticket; the question was an especially important one in light of his heart condition. He personally favored Robert B. Anderson, a Democrat, who rejected his offer; Eisenhower then resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party. In 1956, Eisenhower faced Adlai Stevenson again and won by an even larger landslide, with 457 of 531 electoral votes and 57.6% of the popular vote. The level of campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations.

Q1: Upon election, how many terms did Eisenhower believe he would serve?
A1: one
Q2: In what year did Eisenhower have a heart attack?
A2: 1955
Q3: When did Eisenhower make an announcement stating that he would run for a second term?
A3: February 1956
Q4: Who did Eisenhower want as his 1956 running mate?
A4: Robert B. Anderson
Q5: Who did Eisenhower defeat in the 1956 presidential election?
A5: Adlai Stevenson
Printed_circuit_board (Engineering and technology)

Initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photomask on a clear mylar sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the schematic diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the mylar and then traces were routed to connect the pads. Rub-on dry transfers of common component footprints increased efficiency. Traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed non-reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in layout. To fabricate the board, the finished photomask was photolithographically reproduced onto a photoresist coating on the blank copper-clad boards.

Q1: What did PCB designers used to employ on a mylar sheet?
A1: photomask
Q2: In the old PCB design method, what was used to connect component pin pads?
A2: traces
Q3: What were traces originally made out of?
A3: self-adhesive tape
Q4: Designers would rub on a dry transfer of what to make the process of laying out components simpler?
A4: common component footprints
Q5: What kind of metal coated the blank boards used to make PCBs?
A5: copper
Anti-aircraft_warfare (Warfare)

Initially sensors were optical and acoustic devices developed during the First World War and continued into the 1930s, but were quickly superseded by radar, which in turn was supplemented by optronics in the 1980s. Command and control remained primitive until the late 1930s, when Britain created an integrated system for ADGB that linked the ground-based air defence of the army's AA Command, although field-deployed air defence relied on less sophisticated arrangements. NATO later called these arrangements an "air defence ground environment", defined as "the network of ground radar sites and command and control centres within a specific theatre of operations which are used for the tactical control of air defence operations".

Q1: When were sensors initially developed?
A1: during the First World War
Q2: Radar was supplemented by what in the 1980s?
A2: optronics
Q3: What country created an integrated system for ADGB?
A3: Britain
Q4: What did the integrated system for ADGB link?
A4: the ground-based air defence of the army's AA Command
Q5: What agency stated that the arrangements were an air defence ground environment?
A5: NATO
Friedrich_Hayek (Social sciences and society)

Initially sympathetic to Wieser's democratic socialism, Hayek's economic thinking shifted away from socialism and toward the classical liberalism of Carl Menger after reading von Mises' book Socialism. It was sometime after reading Socialism that Hayek began attending von Mises' private seminars, joining several of his university friends, including Fritz Machlup, Alfred Schutz, Felix Kaufmann, and Gottfried Haberler, who were also participating in Hayek's own, more general, private seminar. It was during this time that he also encountered and befriended noted political philosopher Eric Voegelin, with whom he retained a long-standing relationship.

Q1: What ideology was Hayek originally in support of?
A1: democratic socialism
Q2: What caused Hayek to turn away from Wiser's ideology?
A2: reading von Mises' book Socialism
Q3: During his attendance to von Mises' seminars, who did Hayek become friends with?
A3: Eric Voegelin
Q4: What viewpoint did the book Socialism shift Hayek toward?
A4: classical liberalism
Q5: Who is the father of the ideology Hayek came to support?
A5: Carl Menger
The_Blitz (History)

Initially the change in strategy caught the RAF off-guard, and caused extensive damage and civilian casualties. Some 107,400 long tons (109,100 t) of shipping was damaged in the Thames Estuary and 1,600 civilians were casualties. Of this total around 400 were killed. The fighting in the air was more intense in daylight. Overall Loge had cost the Luftwaffe 41 aircraft; 14 bombers, 16 Messerschmitt Bf 109s, seven Messerschmitt Bf 110s and four reconnaissance aircraft. Fighter Command lost 23 fighters, with six pilots killed and another seven wounded. Another 247 bombers from Sperrle's Luftflotte 3 (Air Fleet 3) attacked that night. On 8 September, the Luftwaffe returned. This time 412 people were killed and 747 severely wounded.

Q1: The bombing of the Thames Estuary cause how many civilian casualties?
A1: 1,600
Q2: How many were killed in the bombing of the Thames Estuary?
A2: around 400
Q3: How many aircraft did the Luftwaffe lose?
A3: 41
Q4: How many German pilots were killed?
A4: six
Q5: How many Air Fleet 3 attacked that night?
A5: 247
Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%9308 (History)

Initially the companies affected were those directly involved in home construction and mortgage lending such as Northern Rock and Countrywide Financial, as they could no longer obtain financing through the credit markets. Over 100 mortgage lenders went bankrupt during 2007 and 2008. Concerns that investment bank Bear Stearns would collapse in March 2008 resulted in its fire-sale to JP Morgan Chase. The financial institution crisis hit its peak in September and October 2008. Several major institutions either failed, were acquired under duress, or were subject to government takeover. These included Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, Washington Mutual, Wachovia, Citigroup, and AIG. On Oct. 6, 2008, three weeks after Lehman Brothers filed the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history, Lehman's former CEO found himself before Representative Henry A. Waxman, the California Democrat who chaired the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform. Fuld said he was a victim of the collapse, blaming a "crisis of confidence" in the markets for dooming his firm.

Q1: How many mortgage lenders went bankrupt during 2007 and 2008?
A1: Over 100
Q2: Who is the investment bank that was feared to collapse in March 2008 and was sold in a fire-sale to JP Morgan Chase?
A2: Bear Stearns
Q3: When did the financial institution crisis hit its peak?
A3: September and October 2008
Q4: When did Lehman's former CEO appear before Representative Henry A. Waxman?
A4: Oct. 6, 2008
Q5: What firm filed the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history?
A5: Lehman Brothers
High-definition_television (Engineering and technology)

Initially the existing 5:3 aspect ratio had been the main candidate but, due to the influence of widescreen cinema, the aspect ratio 16:9 (1.78) eventually emerged as being a reasonable compromise between 5:3 (1.67) and the common 1.85 widescreen cinema format. An aspect ratio of 16:9 was duly agreed upon at the first meeting of the IWP11/6 working party at the BBC's Research and Development establishment in Kingswood Warren. The resulting ITU-R Recommendation ITU-R BT.709-2 ("Rec. 709") includes the 16:9 aspect ratio, a specified colorimetry, and the scan modes 1080i (1,080 actively interlaced lines of resolution) and 1080p (1,080 progressively scanned lines). The British Freeview HD trials used MBAFF, which contains both progressive and interlaced content in the same encoding.

Q1: What aspect ratio was agreed upon due to the influence of widescreen cinema?
A1: 16:9
Q2: Who agreed upon the 16:9 aspect ratio?
A2: the IWP11/6 working party
Q3: What was a leading factor in the 16:9 aspect ratio being chosen?
A3: widescreen cinema
Q4: Which encoding contains both progressive and interlaced content?
A4: MBAFF
Q5: Which aspect ratio was the early favorite?
A5: 5:3
Edmund_Burke (History)

Initially, Burke did not condemn the French Revolution. In a letter of 9 August 1789, Burke wrote: "England gazing with astonishment at a French struggle for Liberty and not knowing whether to blame or to applaud! The thing indeed, though I thought I saw something like it in progress for several years, has still something in it paradoxical and Mysterious. The spirit it is impossible not to admire; but the old Parisian ferocity has broken out in a shocking manner". The events of 5–6 October 1789, when a crowd of Parisian women marched on Versailles to compel King Louis XVI to return to Paris, turned Burke against it. In a letter to his son, Richard Burke, dated 10 October he said: "This day I heard from Laurence who has sent me papers confirming the portentous state of France—where the Elements which compose Human Society seem all to be dissolved, and a world of Monsters to be produced in the place of it—where Mirabeau presides as the Grand Anarch; and the late Grand Monarch makes a figure as ridiculous as pitiable". On 4 November Charles-Jean-François Depont wrote to Burke, requesting that he endorse the Revolution. Burke replied that any critical language of it by him should be taken "as no more than the expression of doubt" but he added: "You may have subverted Monarchy, but not recover'd freedom". In the same month he described France as "a country undone". Burke's first public condemnation of the Revolution occurred on the debate in Parliament on the army estimates on 9 February 1790, provoked by praise of the Revolution by Pitt and Fox:

Q1: Who did Parisian women want to return to Paris?
A1: King Louis XVI
Q2: What was Burke's son's name?
A2: Richard Burke
Q3: Who requested that Burke support the French Revolution?
A3: Charles-Jean-François Depont
Q4: When did Burke first publicly condemn the French Revolution?
A4: 9 February 1790
Space_Race (History)

Initially, President Eisenhower was worried that a satellite passing above a nation at over 100 kilometers (62 mi), might be construed as violating that nation's sovereign airspace. He was concerned that the Soviet Union would accuse the Americans of an illegal overflight, thereby scoring a propaganda victory at his expense. Eisenhower and his advisors believed that a nation's airspace sovereignty did not extend into outer space, acknowledged as the Kármán line, and he used the 1957–58 International Geophysical Year launches to establish this principle in international law. Eisenhower also feared that he might cause an international incident and be called a "warmonger" if he were to use military missiles as launchers. Therefore, he selected the untried Naval Research Laboratory's Vanguard rocket, which was a research-only booster. This meant that von Braun's team was not allowed to put a satellite into orbit with their Jupiter-C rocket, because of its intended use as a future military vehicle. On September 20, 1956, von Braun and his team did launch a Jupiter-C that was capable of putting a satellite into orbit, but the launch was used only as a suborbital test of nose cone reentry technology.

Q1: A Jupiter-C was launched by Von Braum on what date?
A1: September 20, 1956