LucaSailor/squad-v2-instruction-dataset huggingface dataset:
Solar_energy (Natural sciences)

Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or interseasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Well-designed systems can lower peak demand, shift time-of-use to off-peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements.

Q1: In what form do thermal mass systems store solar energy?
A1: heat
Q2: What is the system called that can store solar energy in the form of heat?
A2: Thermal mass systems
Q3: What are some of the materials used in thermal storage systems?
A3: water, earth and stone
Q4: What is something that can be accomplished by a thermal mass system?
A4: reduce overall heating and cooling requirements
Glacier (Natural sciences)

Thermally, a temperate glacier is at melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its base. The ice of a polar glacier is always below freezing point from the surface to its base, although the surface snowpack may experience seasonal melting. A sub-polar glacier includes both temperate and polar ice, depending on depth beneath the surface and position along the length of the glacier. In a similar way, the thermal regime of a glacier is often described by the temperature at its base alone. A cold-based glacier is below freezing at the ice-ground interface, and is thus frozen to the underlying substrate. A warm-based glacier is above or at freezing at the interface, and is able to slide at this contact. This contrast is thought to a large extent to govern the ability of a glacier to effectively erode its bed, as sliding ice promotes plucking at rock from the surface below. Glaciers which are partly cold-based and partly warm-based are known as polythermal.

Q1: From where is the temperature of a glacier measured?
A1: base alone
Q2: Which type of glacier is above or at freezing at it's interface and is able to slide?
A2: warm-based glacier
Q3: What temperature makes a glacier polythermal?
A3: partly cold-based and partly warm-based
Q4: What temperature determines a polar glacier?
A4: always below freezing point from the surface to its base
Q5: What temperature characteristic determines a temperate glacier?
A5: melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its base
Energy (Natural sciences)

Thermodynamics divides energy transformation into two kinds: reversible processes and irreversible processes. An irreversible process is one in which energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible excitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat-like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomisation in a crystal).

Q1: Thermodynamics divides energy information into what two kinds?
A1: reversible processes and irreversible processes
Q2: What divides energy transformation into two kinds reversible processes and irreversible processes?
A2: Thermodynamics
Q3: A reversible process is one in which this does not happen.
A3: dissipation
Infrared (Natural sciences)

Thermographic cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 900–14,000 nanometers or 0.9–14 μm) and produce images of that radiation. Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects based on their temperatures, according to the black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to "see" one's environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature, therefore thermography allows one to see variations in temperature (hence the name).

Q1: What is the range of the electromagnetic spectrum in micrometers?
A1: 0.9–14
Q2: In nanometers, what is the electromagnetic spectrum's range?
A2: 900–14,000
Q3: What law states that infrared radiation is emitted by objects based on temperature?
A3: the black body radiation law
Q4: What happens to the amount of radiation an object emits as temperature increases?
A4: increases
Q5: What type of cameras see infrared radiation?
A5: Thermographic
Computer (Engineering and technology)

These 4G languages are less procedural than 3G languages. The benefit of 4GL is that it provides ways to obtain information without requiring the direct help of a programmer. Example of 4GL is SQL.

Q1: An example of a 4GL is what?
A1: SQL
Q2: What is the pro of 4GL over a 3G language?
A2: provides ways to obtain information without requiring the direct help of a programmer
Florida (Geography and places)

These American settlers established a permanent foothold in the area and ignored Spanish officials. The British settlers who had remained also resented Spanish rule, leading to a rebellion in 1810 and the establishment for ninety days of the so-called Free and Independent Republic of West Florida on September 23. After meetings beginning in June, rebels overcame the Spanish garrison at Baton Rouge (now in Louisiana), and unfurled the flag of the new republic: a single white star on a blue field. This flag would later become known as the "Bonnie Blue Flag".

Q1: What led to the rebellion in 1810 
A1: Spanish rule
Q2: What did the rebellion lead to 
A2: the so-called Free and Independent Republic of West Florida on September 23
Q3: What is known as the Bonnie Blue Flag
A3: a single white star on a blue field
Q4: What did the rebels overthrow during the rebellion
A4: Spanish garrison at Baton Rouge
Adult_contemporary_music (Music)

These Christmas music marathons typically start during the week before Thanksgiving Day and end after Christmas Day, or sometimes extending to New Year's Day. Afterwards, the stations usually resume their normal music fare. Several stations begin the holiday format much earlier, at the beginning of November. The roots of this tradition can be traced back to the beautiful music and easy listening stations of the 1960s and 1970s.

Q1: When does Christmas music on AC format stations usually begin?
A1: the week before Thanksgiving Day
Q2: When is the earlier of the two times that Christmas music on adult contemporary stations typically ends?
A2: after Christmas Day
Q3: When is the later of the two times that Christmas music on adult contemporary stations usually ends?
A3: New Year's Day
Q4: When is the earliest an AC station will switch to a Christmas format?
A4: the beginning of November
Q5: What two formats pioneered the Christmas music tradition in the 1960s?
A5: beautiful music and easy listening
Bird_migration (Natural sciences)

These advantages offset the high stress, physical exertion costs, and other risks of the migration. Predation can be heightened during migration: Eleonora's falcon Falco eleonorae, which breeds on Mediterranean islands, has a very late breeding season, coordinated with the autumn passage of southbound passerine migrants, which it feeds to its young. A similar strategy is adopted by the greater noctule bat, which preys on nocturnal passerine migrants. The higher concentrations of migrating birds at stopover sites make them prone to parasites and pathogens, which require a heightened immune response.

Q1: What is hightened during migration?
A1: Predation
Q2: Where do Eleonora's falcon breed?
A2: Mediterranean islands
Q3: What do Eleonora's falcon feed their young?
A3: southbound passerine migrants
Q4: What preys on nocturnal passerine migrants?
A4: the greater noctule bat
Q5: What makes birds prone to parasites and pathogens?
A5: higher concentrations of migrating birds
USB (Engineering and technology)

These and other differences reflect the differing design goals of the two buses: USB was designed for simplicity and low cost, while FireWire was designed for high performance, particularly in time-sensitive applications such as audio and video. Although similar in theoretical maximum transfer rate, FireWire 400 is faster than USB 2.0 Hi-Bandwidth in real-use, especially in high-bandwidth use such as external hard-drives. The newer FireWire 800 standard is twice as fast as FireWire 400 and faster than USB 2.0 Hi-Bandwidth both theoretically and practically. However, Firewire's speed advantages rely on low-level techniques such as direct memory access (DMA), which in turn have created opportunities for security exploits such as the DMA attack.

Q1: These and other differences reflect the differing design goals of what?
A1: two buses
Q2: USB was designed for what?
A2: simplicity and low cost
Q3: FireWire was designed for what?
A3: high performance, particularly in time-sensitive applications such as audio and video
Q4: FireWire 400 is faster than what?
A4: USB 2.0 Hi-Bandwidth in real-use
Geography_of_the_United_States (Geography and places)

These areas contain some spectacular scenery as well, as evidenced by such national parks as Yosemite and Mount Rainier. West of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada is a series of valleys, such as the Central Valley in California and the Willamette Valley in Oregon. Along the coast is a series of low mountain ranges known as the Pacific Coast Ranges. Much of the Pacific Northwest coast is inhabited by some of the densest vegetation outside of the Tropics, and also the tallest trees in the world (the Redwoods).

Q1: What are two national parks located in the mountainous regions?
A1: Yosemite and Mount Rainier
Q2: What is the name of the famous valley located in California?
A2: Central Valley
Q3: What is the name of the famous valley located in Oregon?
A3: Willamette Valley
Q4: What are the low mountain ranges that are located along the pacific coast called?
A4: Pacific Coast Ranges
Q5: What are the tallest trees in the world?
A5: Redwoods
Paris (Geography and places)

These areas, quartiers sensibles ("sensitive quarters"), are in northern and eastern Paris, namely around its Goutte d'Or and Belleville neighbourhoods. To the north of the city they are grouped mainly in the Seine-Saint-Denis department, and to a lesser extreme to the east in the Val-d'Oise department. Other difficult areas are located in the Seine valley, in Évry et Corbeil-Essonnes (Essonne), in Mureaux, Mantes-la-Jolie (Yvelines), and scattered among social housing districts created by Delouvrier's 1961 "ville nouvelle" political initiative.

Q1: Where are the quartiers sensibles located?
A1: northern and eastern Paris
Q2: What two neighborhoods are the centers of the quartiers sensibles?
A2: Goutte d'Or and Belleville
Q3: Why were these neighborhoods created?
A3: Delouvrier's 1961 "ville nouvelle" political initiative
Sexual_orientation (Natural sciences)

These categories are aspects of the more nuanced nature of sexual identity and terminology. For example, people may use other labels, such as pansexual or polysexual, or none at all. According to the American Psychological Association, sexual orientation "also refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions". Androphilia and gynephilia are terms used in behavioral science to describe sexual orientation as an alternative to a gender binary conceptualization. Androphilia describes sexual attraction to masculinity; gynephilia describes the sexual attraction to femininity. The term sexual preference largely overlaps with sexual orientation, but is generally distinguished in psychological research. A person who identifies as bisexual, for example, may sexually prefer one sex over the other. Sexual preference may also suggest a degree of voluntary choice, whereas the scientific consensus is that sexual orientation is not a choice.

Q1: Whar words may people use for sexual idenity?
A1: pansexual or polysexual,
Q2: What does the American Pyschological Association say sexual orientation refers to?
A2: a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions
Q3: What terms does behavorial science use instead of using gender binary conceptualization?
A3: Androphilia and gynephilia
Q4: What is androphilia used to describe?
A4: sexual attraction to masculinity
Q5: What is gynephilia used to describe?
A5: the sexual attraction to femininity
Ottoman_Empire (History)

These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive: for instance, the Islamic courts—which were the Empire's primary courts—could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'an; the Hadīth, or words of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa.

Q1: What were the primary courts of the empire?
A1: Islamic courts
Q2: From what works was Sharia developed?
A2: the Qur'an; the Hadīth
Q3: Whose words contributed to the Islamic Sharia law system?
A3: the prophet Muhammad
Q4: Where were the empire's law schools?
A4: in Istanbul and Bursa.
Q5: What other religious groups went to Islamic courts?
A5: Jews and Christians
Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States (Philosophy and religion)

These critics of the modern separation of church and state also note the official establishment of religion in several of the states at the time of ratification, to suggest that the modern incorporation of the Establishment Clause as to state governments goes against the original constitutional intent.[citation needed] The issue is complex, however, as the incorporation ultimately bases on the passage of the 14th Amendment in 1868, at which point the first amendment's application to the state government was recognized. Many of these constitutional debates relate to the competing interpretive theories of originalism versus modern, progressivist theories such as the doctrine of the Living Constitution. Other debates center on the principle of the law of the land in America being defined not just by the Constitution's Supremacy Clause, but also by legal precedence, making an accurate reading of the Constitution subject to the mores and values of a given era, and rendering the concept of historical revisionism irrelevant when discussing the Constitution.

Q1: Critics of modern separation of church and state note there was official establishment of what in several states at the time of ratification?
A1: religion
Q2: When was the passage of the 14th Amendment?
A2: 1868
Q3: What was recognized by the time the 14th Amendment passed?
A3: first amendment's application to the state government
Q4: What kind of theory is the doctrine of the Living Constitution?
A4: progressivist
Q5: What do some debates center on the law of the land not being just defined by the Constitution's Supremacy Clause but also by what?
A5: legal precedence
The_Blitz (History)

These decisions, apparently taken at the Luftflotte or Fliegerkorps level (see Organisation of the Luftwaffe (1933–1945)), meant attacks on individual targets were gradually replaced by what was, for all intents and purposes, an unrestricted area attack or Terrorangriff (Terror Attack). Part of the reason for this was inaccuracy of navigation. The effectiveness of British countermeasures against Knickebein, which was designed to avoid area attacks, forced the Luftwaffe to resort to these methods. The shift from precision bombing to area attack is indicated in the tactical methods and weapons dropped. KGr 100 increased its use of incendiaries from 13–28 percent. By December, this had increased to 92 percent. Use of incendiaries, which were inherently inaccurate, indicated much less care was taken to avoid civilian property close to industrial sites. Other units ceased using parachute flares and opted for explosive target markers. Captured German air crews also indicated the homes of industrial workers were deliberately targeted.

Q1: Decision changes at organizational levels led to what type of attacks?
A1: unrestricted area attack or Terrorangriff (Terror Attack)
Q2: What was one of the reasons for unrestricted area attacks?
A2: inaccuracy of navigation
Q3: How was it known that precision bombing was changed to area attacks?
A3: tactical methods and weapons dropped
Q4: What percentage of incendiaries were used in December?
A4: 92 percent
Q5: How was it determined that homes of industrial workers were targeted?
A5: Captured German air crews
Sumer (History)

These deities formed a core pantheon; there were additionally hundreds of minor ones. Sumerian gods could thus have associations with different cities, and their religious importance often waxed and waned with those cities' political power. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of serving them. The temples organized the mass labour projects needed for irrigation agriculture. Citizens had a labor duty to the temple, though they could avoid it by a payment of silver.

Q1: What did the Sumerian deities form?
A1: a core pantheon
Q2: What could Sumerian gods be associated with?
A2: different cities
Q3: What did the religious importance of city gods wax and wan with?
A3: those cities' political power
Q4: Why did the gods create human beings from clay?
A4: for the purpose of serving them
Q5: How could a citizen avoid their labor duty to their local temple?
A5: a payment of silver
Energy (Natural sciences)

These developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) as the field of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst. It also led to a mathematical formulation of the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Jožef Stefan. According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time. Thus, since 1918, theorists have understood that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time.

Q1: Who largely formalized the developments that led to the theory of conservation of energy?
A1: William Thomson
Q2: What aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Clausius, Gibbs and Nernst?
A2: Thermodynamics
Q3: Who developed the concept of the introduction of laws of radiant energy?
A3: Jožef Stefan
Q4: What states that the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time?
A4: Noether's theorem
Identity_(social_science) (Philosophy and religion)

These different explorations of 'identity' demonstrate how difficult a concept it is to pin down. Since identity is a virtual thing, it is impossible to define it empirically. Discussions of identity use the term with different meanings, from fundamental and abiding sameness, to fluidity, contingency, negotiated and so on. Brubaker and Cooper note a tendency in many scholars to confuse identity as a category of practice and as a category of analysis (Brubaker & Cooper 2000, p. 5). Indeed, many scholars demonstrate a tendency to follow their own preconceptions of identity, following more or less the frameworks listed above, rather than taking into account the mechanisms by which the concept is crystallised as reality. In this environment, some analysts, such as Brubaker and Cooper, have suggested doing away with the concept completely (Brubaker & Cooper 2000, p. 1). Others, by contrast, have sought to introduce alternative concepts in an attempt to capture the dynamic and fluid qualities of human social self-expression. Hall (1992, 1996), for example, suggests treating identity as a process, to take into account the reality of diverse and ever-changing social experience. Some scholars have introduced the idea of identification, whereby identity is perceived as made up of different components that are 'identified' and interpreted by individuals. The construction of an individual sense of self is achieved by personal choices regarding who and what to associate with. Such approaches are liberating in their recognition of the role of the individual in social interaction and the construction of identity.

Q1: What is it impossible to do with identity?
A1: define it empirically
Q2: Many scholars confuse identity as a category of practice and what other category?
A2: category of analysis
Q3: What do many scholars demonstrate a tendency towards?
A3: their own preconceptions of identity
Q4: Some scholars try to introduce new concepts to capture the fluid qualities of what?
A4: human social self-expression
Q5: The idea that identity is made of components that are identified by individuals is what idea? 
A5: the idea of identification
Edmund_Burke (History)

These events and the disagreements that arose from them within the Whig Party, led to its break-up and to the rupture of Burke's friendship with Fox. In debate in Parliament on Britain's relations with Russia, Fox praised the principles of the revolution, although Burke was not able to reply at this time as he was "overpowered by continued cries of question from his own side of the House". When Parliament was debating the Quebec Bill for a constitution for Canada, Fox praised the revolution and criticised some of Burke's arguments, such as hereditary power. On 6 May 1791, during another debate in Parliament on the Quebec Bill, Burke used the opportunity to answer Fox, and to condemn the new French Constitution and "the horrible consequences flowing from the French idea of the Rights of Man". Burke asserted that those ideas were the antithesis of both the British and the American constitutions. Burke was interrupted, and Fox intervened, saying that Burke should be allowed to carry on with his speech. A vote of censure was moved against Burke, however, for noticing the affairs of France, which was moved by Lord Sheffield and seconded by Fox. Pitt made a speech praising Burke, and Fox made a speech—both rebuking and complimenting Burke. He questioned the sincerity of Burke, who seemed to have forgotten the lessons he had learned from him, quoting from Burke's own speeches of fourteen and fifteen years before.

Q1: Fox praised revolutionary principles in a debate about which country?
A1: Russia
Q2: What type of power did Fox think Burke was wrong about?
A2: hereditary
Q3: Which constitution did Burke condemn on May 6, 1791?
A3: French
Q4: Fox quoted Burke's speeches from how long ago?
A4: fourteen and fifteen years
High-definition_television (Engineering and technology)

These first European HDTV broadcasts used the 1080i format with MPEG-2 compression on a DVB-S signal from SES's Astra 1H satellite. Euro1080 transmissions later changed to MPEG-4/AVC compression on a DVB-S2 signal in line with subsequent broadcast channels in Europe.

Q1: What format did the first European HDTV broadcast use?
A1: 1080i format
Q2: What compression did the first European HDTV broadcast use?
A2: MPEG-2
Q3: What signal did the first European HDTV broadcast use?
A3: DVB-S
Q4: What compression did Euro1080 later change to?
A4: MPEG-4/AVC
Q5: What signal did Euro1080 later change to?
A5: DVB-S2