The Press. — London, England, 1856-05-17 00:00:00

THE PRESS. MAY 17, 1856. Nittraturt. The Russian Empire, its People, Institutions, and Resources. By Baron Von Haxthausen. Translated by Robert Farie, Esq. Two Vols. London : Chapman and Hall. Wi have long desired a book which should fairly exhibit the social state of the Russian people, and show us their internal orga nisation. These volumes by Baron Haxt hausen exactly fulfil that desire. We have no hesitation in saying that they give more valuable information on the character of the people, and on their social relations in rural districts, than any work that has yet been pre sented to the British public. On society in the great towns our author scarcely touches ; of the Imperial government he says very little ; but he furnishes the most curious, exact, and copious details concerning the very framework of Russian society, and the elemen tary administration which rules villages, do. mains, circles, and establishes a solid founda tion of social union and order. Persons who have been accustomed to regard Russia as merely divided into large estates with the two classes of proprietors and serfs, will be surprised to find from this book that to some extent there prevails throughout Russia that system of social equality which such theorists as St. Simon, Prudhon, and Louis Blanc have vainly endeavoured to estab lish in Western Europe, though the Mor monites have carried it into practice on the borders of the Great Salt Lake. The first great fact which strikes us in this book is, that, practically, the Russian people do not recognise property in the soil at all. It belongs equally to all who dwell on it ; one has no more right to it than another. All share alike; and to preserve this equality there is a periodical division—often annual, — by which the changes that take place in families can be met. On the death of any inhabitant of a village or commune, his share reverts to the commune ; and on the birth of a male child, a portion of land is set apart to him from the reserve which each commune has at his disposal. A more complete exem plification of what we regard as the Socialist system cannot be conceived as regards the mass of the people theinselves,—though, to be sure, the rights of the proprietors or the Crown have to be respected—rights which practically take from the people a certain part of their labour. Moreover, this social organisation is carried out in all kinds of handicraft manufacture. In some communes shoemaking prevails to the exclusion of other kinds of labour ; in other communes tailoring, and so on. In all these cases the labour of the people forms a common stock ; they work like bees in a hive under their appointed officers usually elected by themselves, and know in their communes no other degrees of rank than those which arise from necessary divisions of labilur. All the details on this social organisation are so exceedingly curious and instructive, that we could have wished they had been collected together, instead of being scattered as they are throughout the two volumes. But an excellent index partly remedies this defect; and we strongly advise the reader before com mencing a regular perusal of this work to turn to the article " Commune " in the Index, and collect from the references some general idea of that aspect of Russian life, the deli neation of which constitutes the most impor tant part of the author's work. The communal system can be traced to the earliest period of Russian society. As the people originally settled on the lani, they formed themselves into communities, and cul tivated as much of the soil as they required. In time, as other c ommun iti es se ttled in the neighbourhood, boundaries were formed, and each commune had its chief, or Starosta. Each commune had thus a right to the land Within its boundaries, and when the Czar became the head of the nation he was recog nised as direct superior of all the lands, and Peter I. granted large lordship s t o hi s no bles. But, independent of this sov e reignty, or pro prietorship, all "idea of a private right of " property in the soil is foreign to the ideas " and manners of the people. There is no " right of inheritance, nor even a life or tem " porary right of usufruct in any definite share " of land." In many parts of Russia the communes are entirely free, and have no superior whatever. All the Cossack communes, says the author, are of this class. The periodical division of lands among them is carried out with the greatest fairness:— The principle is, that the whole of the land (tillage, meadows, pasture, woods, streams, &c.) belongs to the population regarded as a unity, and every male inhabitant has a right to an equal share. This share is therefore constantly changing; for the birth of every boy creates a new claim, and the shares of those who die revert to the commune. The woods, pastures, hunting•grounds, and pastures, remain undivided, and free to all the inhabitants ; but the arable land and meadows are divided, according to their value, among the males. This equal division is of course difficult, as the soil differs in quality, and portions of it may be distant, or inconveniently situated. There are, however, in each commune skilful land-surveyors, without any education but what has been acquired from the traditional habits of the place, who execute the work to the satisfaction of all. The author describes at length the Ural Cossacks, who form the most perfect common wealth that can be conceived, each commune having its own lands, and electing its own officers, but all uniting together for common purposes of government. Where—as is most generally the case—there is proprietorship of land and people, the revenue of the owner is derived from various modes. SomAilues he takes for himself a portion of his estate, say a third, and requires the peasants to cultivate it for him without any act of his own, and without stock or im plements, leaving to the peopla the rest of the estate to manage in their own way ; some• times he levies a poll tax on the peasants ; and sometimes assesses the commune in a fixed sum mutually agreed on. But in all cases the commune preserves its power. In all the Crown lands the practice of assessing the communes, instead of levying a tax on each individual, is becoming general. Custom has prescribed limits to the rights of the proprietor. In theory he is absolute lord not only of his estates, but of all the goods of the people dwelling upon them. Bu such right is not practically exercised. The t people of a commune are often wealthy enough to purchase their territory from their owner, and some instances of the kind are given in these volumes. The following is curious : Iu the next village we again observed the paramount influence of the principles of the Russian communal insti• tutions. This place was called Selzo Mayanica. A Prince Viazemski had brought the people from the Government of Riazan, and settled them here in the beginning of the present century. The village, to which 18,900 acres of land of average quality belonged, was mortgaged ; the Prince became insolvent, and on its being publicly offered for sale the peasants bought it for 129,000 roubles (5,9001.), and at the same time purchased their own freedom. In stead, however, of dividing the land in perpetuity as private property among themselves, in proportion to the share of the purchase•money contributed by each, they held by the Russian communal division, according to the number of souls. ~s~~ We may remark, in passing, that these volumes show the general accuracy of the statements in that most amusing book, " The Englishwoman in Russia." She gives an in stance of the peasants of an estate purchasing it when the proprietor was embarrassed, and then returning it into his hands. In the manufacturing communes the same principle is observed : The various trades have mostly formed themselves into separate communes ; for instance, ail the inhabitants of one village are shoemakers, those of another are smiths, of a third curriers, &c. This arrangement possesses great advantages. As the Russians are accustomed to live to gether in large families, often two generations at a time, the division of labour takes place naturally which is so essential to manufacturing industry. The members of the artisan communes also constantly assist each other with their capital and labour; purchases and sales are transacted in common, and they send their commodities together to the markets and towns, where they have shops for the sale of them ; they do not form exclusive corpora tions like those of the German artisans; but their associa tions are open to all, and the members are united only by the bonds of communal life. Every one is at liberty to assume a profession, or to give it up, commence another, and enter a commune where his new occupation is carried on. This, however, is seldom the case, as a change would not often be advantageous; but no restraint is imposed by any of the communal regulations. They are voluntary associations of manufacturers, and again remind Qs of the St. Simonian theories. 471 Throughout his book the author insists that Russian society is founded not on associations of trades, but on associations of families. Of guilds they have no conception. The com mune, or Mir, is their sole idea of union. To the Mir they ascribe all strength and goodness. The author has collected a num ber of proverbs showing their sense of the rights and sacredness of the commune : God alone directs the Mir. The Mir is great. The neck and shoulders of the Mir are broad. Throw everything upon the Mir, it will carry it all. The Mir sighs, and the rock is rent asunder. The Mir sobs, and it re-echoes in the forest. A thread of the Mir becomes a shirt for the naked. No one in the world can separate from the Mir. What belongs to the Mir belongs to the mother's little son. What is decided by the Mir must come to pass The Mir is answerable for the country's defence. The Mir is to the Russian a lasting home, always able to shelter and protect him. No circumstances can separate him from it. He can never he deprived of his inheritance, and can never lose his share in his social patri mony. Owing to this feeling of security, per haps, the Russian is fond of travel; he delights to absent himself from his commune for years together, and then to return to it with an in crease of knowledge. But his liberty has been much abridged. He is highly ingenious, but he is averse to steady, continuous labour, delighting in a variety of occupations. We read here, as in " The Englishwoman in Rus sia," of the wonderful use he makes of his axe : it is almost his only implement for every kind of carpenter's work ; with it he builds his house, and executes the most delicate carving. He finds the timber for his cottage in the neighbouring forest, he shapes it with his axe, and he erects it at a cost of fifteen shillings, decorating it afterwards with such carving as his fancy suggests. While the communal system lasts, the author is of opinion that Russia has nothing to fear from revolution. " The power of the " communes," ho says, "and the obedience " shown to them, meet us everywhere." In his travels he frequently observed proofs of the commune's authority : Not far from one village we saw a number of people en gaged in pulling down a fence. We were told that an act of justice was being administered. A member of the commune had presumed to inclose his pasture. The commune had called upon him to explain his conduct, but instead of appearing he had hidden himself, for fear of the communal stick, which is said to inflict very hard and ignominious blows. The whole commune had assembled to pull down the unlawful fence. " Mir polozhil " (the commune has decided ), said our drivers. Everywhere we meet the despotic power of the communes in Russia—all submit to it. In cases where the whole commune is assessed, instead of an obrok or poll tax being laid on each individual, the peasants are generally flourishing. The author mentions one com mune which from 1798 to 1813 paid annually 4,000 roubles (1801.) to the proprietor; from 1813 till now 7,000 roubles ; and when the author visited the village 2.000 additional roubles were demanded. and the new contract was in course of negotiation. It appears sin gular that while no private property is recog nised by the peasants in land, each person's personal property is scrupulously respected, the degrees of wealth in a commune being very various. Many of the communes have their own schools and stores, each head of a family making a certain contribution to the latter. In each commune the peasants elect their own White-Heads or elders ; over these pre sides the Starosta, sometimes elected by the people, sometimes appointed by the pro prietor; several communes are constituted a district, and several districts a circle, over which an officer of the Imperial Government presides. All the details of these several governments will be found in Baron Haxt hausen's volumes. We can but glance at the vast amount of valuable information he has brought together on the Russian social system. Its great drawback is the power it leaves in the hands of the proprietors of abusing their authority and oppressing the people. The communal system is thought by the author to possess this vast advantage, that while it lasts there can be no destitute popu lation to shake society : %., ....., . , MAY 17, 1856. THE PRESS. 471 IMMIIMINIIMOIMMIT . ------"------'---..--------..--.-- " property in the soil is foreign to the ideas vittraturt. ow Throughout his book the author insists that " and manners of the people. There is no Russian society is founded not on associations " right of inheritance, nor even a life or tem- of trades, but on associations of families. Of -- " porary right of usufruct in any definite share guilds they have no conception. The corn- "of land." mune , or Mi r , i s t h e i r so l e id ea of un i on. The Russian Emp ire, its Peo p le, Ins titut i ons , a nd Resources. By Baron Von Haxthausen. In many parts of Russia the communes are To th e Mi r they ascribe all strength and entirely free, and have no superior whatever. goodness. The author has collected a num- Translated by Robert Farie, Esq. Two All the Cossack communes, says the author, ber of proverbs showing their sense of the Vols. London : Chapman and Hall. are of this class. The periodical division of rights and sacredness of the commune : Ws have long desired a book which should lands among them is carried out with the God alone directs the Mir. fairly exhibit the social state of the Russian greatest fairness:— The Mir is great. pc, ople and show us their interns] orga- The principle is, that the whole of the land (till age , The neck and shoulders of the Mi r are b roa d. nisation. These volumes by Baron Haxt- meadows, pasture, woods, streams, &c.) belongs to the Throw everything upon the Mir, it will carry it all. hausen exactly fulfil that desire. We have population regarded as a unity, and every male inhabitant The Mir sighs, and the rock is rent asunder. nasari ghtto an equal share. This sh are i s therefore The Mir sobs, and it re-echoes in t h e f orest . no hesitation in saying that they give more constantlychanging; for the birth of every boy creates a A thread of the Mir becomes a shirt for the naked. valuable information on the character of the new claim, and the shares of those who die revert to the No one in the world can separate from the Mir. people, and on their social relations in rural commune. The woods, pastures, hunting-grounds, and What belongs to the Mir belongs to the mother's districts, than any work that has yet been pre- pastures, remain undivided, and free to all the inhabitants; little son. seated to the British public. On society in but the arable land and meadows are divided, according to What is decided by the Mir must come to pass their poura e ve d lu fa e, amltong , as the h he males. This This equaluo. division is of The Mir is answerable for the country's defence. the great towns our author scarcely touches ; an of the Imperial government he says very of it may be distant, o r incon e v rs enie n nlly slittyt;atedd.poTrthioenres The Mir is to the Russian a lasting h ome , little ; but he furnishes the most curious, are, however, in each commune skilful land-surveyors, always able to shelter and protect him. No exact, and copious details concerning the very without any education but what has been acquired from circumstances can separate him from it. He the traditional habits of the place, who execute the work to can never be deprived of his inheritance, and framework of Russian society, and the elemen- tary administration which rules villages, do- the satisfaction of all. can never lose his share in his social patri- mains, circles, and establishes a solid founda- The author describes at length the Ural mony. Owing to this feeling of security, per- tine of social union and order. Cossacks, who form the most perfect common- flaps, the Russian is fond of travel; he delights Persons who have been accustomed to regard wealth that can be conceived, each commune to absent himself from his commune for years Russia as merely divided into large estates with having its own lands, and electing its own together, and then to return to it with an in- the two classes of proprietors and serfs, will officers, but all uniting together for common crease of knowledge. But his liberty has be surprised to find from this book that to purposes of government. been much abridged. He is highly ingenious, some extent there prevails throughout Where—as is most generally the case—there but he is averse to steady, continuous labour, Russia that system of social equality which is proprietorship of land and people, the delighting in a variety of occupations. We such theorists as St. Simon, Prudhon, and revenue of the owner is derived from various read here, as in " The Englishwoman in Rus- Louis Blanc have vainly endeavoured to estab- modes. Somstirees he takes for himself a sia," of the wonderful use he makes o f his lish in Western Europe, though the Mor- portion of his estate, say a third, and requires axe :it is almost his only implement for every monites have carried it into practice on the the peasants to cultivate it for him without kind of carpenter's work ; with it he builds borders of the Great Salt Lake. The first any act of his own, and without stock or im- his house, and executes the most delicate great fact which strikes us in this book is, plements, leaving to the peopla the rest of the carving. He finds the timber for his cottage that, practically, the Russian people do not estate to manage in their own way ; some. in the neighbouring forest, he shapes it with recognise property in the soil at all. It times he levies a poll tax on the peasants ; and his axe, and he erects it at a cost of fifteen belongs equally to all who dwell on it; one sometimes assesses the commune in a fixed shillings, decorating it afterwards with such has no more right to it than another. All sum mutually agreed on. But in all cases the carving as his fancy suggests. share alike; and to preserve this equality commune preserves its power. In all the While the communal system lasts, the there is a periodical division—often annual,— Crown lands the practice of assessing the author is of opinion that Russia has nothing by which the changes that take place in communes, instead of levying a tax on each to fear from revolution. " The power of the families can be met. On the death of any individual, is becoming general. " communes," ho says, "and the obedience inhabitant of a village or commune, his share Custom has prescribed limits to the rights " shown to them, meet us everywhere." In his reverts to the commune ; and on the birth of a of the proprietor. Iu theory he is absolute travels he frequently observed proofs of the male child, a portion of land is set apart to lord not only of his estates, but of all the commune's authority : him from the reserve which each commune goods of the people dwelling upon them. Bu Not far from one village we saw a number of people en- has at his disposal. A more complete exem- such right is not practically exercised. Thet gaged in pulling down a fence. We were told that an act of ustice was being administered. A member of the plification of what we regard as the Socialist people of a commune are often wealthy enoughunclose his pasture. The system cannot be conceived as regards the to purchase their territory from their owner, commune communeha called upon had tn im exp am . his conduct, but mass of the people theinselves,—though, to and some instances of the kind are given in instead of appearing he hidden himself, for fear of be sure, the rights of the proprietors or the these volumes. The following the communal stick, which is said to inflict very hard and is curious : Crown have to be respected—rights which ignominious blows. The whole commune had assembled Iu the next village we again observed the paramount practically take from the people ft certain part to pull down the unlawful fence. "Mir polozhil " (the influence of the principles of the Russian communal insti• commune has decided ), said our drivers. Everywhere we of their labour. tutions. This place was called Selzo Mayaniea. A Prince meet the s despotic power of the communes Busses—all a_..11 —_ Moreover, this social organisation is carried Viazemski had brought the people from the Government su b m i t to it. in out in all kinds of handicraft manufacture. of Riazan, and settled them here in the beginning of the In some communes shoemakina prevails to present century. The village, to which 18,900 acres of In cases where the whole commune is assessed, Princeand of be average . i quality belonged,d beingwas mothtticard fe th d e instead of an obrok or poll tax being laid on the exclusion of other kinds of'' labour ; i neach individual, the peasants are generally other communes tailoring, and so on. In all for sale th .c e ame as i a n n an ts v b e o n u t gh a t n it on for its l29,oooro p u n ble i s c ( y 5 ,9 00 r 1 e ) , flourishing. The author mentions one corn- these cases the labour of the people forms a and at the same time purchased their own freedom. In muse which from 1798 to 1813 paid annually common stock ; they work like bees in a hive stead , however , of dividing the land in perpetuity as private under their appointed officers usually elected property among themselves, in proportion to the share of 4 , 000 roubles ( 1801 .) to the proprietor; from the purchase-money contributed by each, they held by the 1813 till now 7,000 roubles ; and when the by themselves, and know in their communes Russian communal division, according to the number author visited the village 2.000 additional no other degrees of rank than those which of souls. roubles were demanded. and the new contract arise from necessary divisions of labuitir. We may remark, in passing, that these was in course of negotiation. It appears sin- All the details on this social organisation volumes show the general accuracy of the gular that while no private property is recog- are so exceedingly curious and instructive, statements in that most amusing book, " The nised by the peasants in land, each person s that we could have wished they had been Englishwoman in Russia." She gives an in- personal property is scrupulously respected, collected together, instead of being scattered stance of the peasants of an estate purchasing the degrees of wealth in a commune being as they are throu g h ou t th e t wo vo lumes. But it when the proprietor was embarrassed, and very various. Many of the communes have an excellent index partly remedies this defect ; then returning it into his hands. their own schools and stores, each head of a and we strongly advise the reader before cum- In the manufacturing communes the same family making a certain contribution to the mencing a regular peru s al of this work to turn to the a r ti c l e " C ommune "in the Index, principle is observed : latter. and collect from th e r ef e rences some general The various trades have mostly formed themselves into In each commune the peasants elect their separate communes; for instance, all the inhabitants of idea of that aspect of Russian life, the deli-own White-Heads or elders ; over these pre- e s es hoe d‘ m e akers, those of another are smiths, neation of which constitutes the most impor- oofnea village third cu ar m e. This arrangement possesses great sides the Starosta, sometimes elected by the tart part of the author's work. advantages. As carriers, Russians are accustomed to live to- people, sometimes appointed by the pro- prietor ; several communes are constituted a The communal system can be traced to the gether in large families, often two generations at a time, earliest period of Russian society. As the the division of labour takes place naturally which is so district, and several districts a circle, over essential to manufacturing industry. The members of which an officer of the Imperial Government people originally settled on the lani, they the artisan communes also constantly assist each other formed themselves into communities, and cul- with their capital and labour; purchases and sales are presides. All the details of these several tivated as much of th e so il as they required. tr a nsacted in common, and the y send their commodities governm. s volumes. We can but glance at the ents will be found in Baron Haxt- In time, as ot h er commun i t i es sett l e d i n t h e together to the markets andtowns, where they have shops hausen's for the sale of them ; they do not form exclusive corpora- vast amount of valuable information he has neighbourhood, b o u n d ar i es were f or med, and each c ommune h a d i ts c hi e f or S tarosta . Lions like those of the German artisans; but their associa• b r ought together on the Russian social system. teens are open to all, and the members are united only by .. its great drawback is the power it leaves in Each commune had thus a right to the land the bonds of communal life. Every one is at liberty to within its boundaries, an d w h en the Czar assume a profession , or to give it up, commence another, the hands of the proprietors of abusing their became the head of the nation he was recog- and enter a commune where his new occupation is carried authority and oppressing the people. fused as direct superior of all the lands, and on. This, however, is seldom the case, as a change would The communal system is thought by the Peter I. granted large lordships to his nobles.advantageous; but no restraint is imposed by author to possess this vast advantage, that But, independent of this sovereignty, or pro- not an y often of th b e e communal regulations. They are voluntary while it lasts there can be no destitute popu- prietorship, all associations ciations of manufacturers, and again remind us of the "idea of a private right of St. Simonian theories. . lation to shake society :