The Press. — London, England, 1855-10-27 00:00:00

1028 For years the Conservatives were in the ascendancy. The protracted war against Persia checked the progress of reform." " Party," in the modern meaning, was un known to the ancient world in any real sense. The ascendancy of individual genius and of heroic spirit was far more personal and pre pellent than " party," with its traditions and obligations, can allow. But of " faction "—a very different thing—there was a supera bunda.nce in Greece and Rome. Representa tive government, with its complications of " interests," was also unknown; and, though the great philosophic laws of history are most curiously exemplified by the annals of anti quity, it is impossible to obtain close analogies for our modern politics. Historical parallels are always more ingenious than useful : they are the playthings of a rhetorician, and not the tools of a thinking spirit. There is a large quantity of knowledge com pressed into these volumes, and to young men, or advanced pupils, with access to works of reference, the work may be recommended. But notes and an appendix would be great improvements to it, and a supplementary chapter might be added to a second edition. The Tribes of the Caucasus. With an Account of Schamyl and the Murids. By Baron Haxthausen. Translated by J. E. Taylor. London : Chapman and Hall. THE present aspect of the war iu Asia Minor, the heroic defence of Kars—second only to Silistria—and the position of Omer Pacha on the seacoast, with an army, preparing for the invasion of the Russian provinces, direct attention to the state of those countries bor dering the Caucasus. The range of the Cauca sus, which marks the boundaries of Europe and Asia, varying from 5,000 to 18,000 feet above the level of the sea, lies north-west and south-east from Baku on the Caspian, to the Black Sea, a distance of some 750 miles. On the north lie the vast plains of the Caspian,'a portion only of that uninterrupted line of steppes stretching from the Carpathians to the China Seas, throughout all history the "heritage and country " of nomadic tribes ; while on the south the rich countries of Georgia, Mingrelia, and Goorva stretch down from the dividing range, teeming with fertile soil and luxuriant pastures, beautiful valleys and majestic moun• tains. With a population of some four mil lions and upwards, of which one and a half millions belong to the unconquered mountain districts, and an average of twenty-five or twenty-six to the square mile, there is no country in the world which in the same ex tent comprises such a variety of race and infinite difference of dialect. Though the Tatars, Georgians, and Armenians may be considered as the three principal nations, yet they are divided and subdivided into seve ral stems, each with a different dialect. Of languages, says the Baron, " severity at least ' exist, and, although it is improbable that these t• may have all been originally independent, " it is remarkable that none of the inhabitants " speaking them can understand the rest." Yet out of all these languages and tribes a literature is only to be found among the Ar menians and Georgians, two nations which by history and tradition trace their origin and genealogy direct to Noah and the Patriarchs. For many centuries these two countries (Ar menia and Georgia) possessed a vast corn mercial and military importance—first, as a depot of trade between the East and the West; and secondly, since their conquest by the Turks and Persians, as being the keystone to supre macy in Western Asia. During the existence of these rival empires the balance of power be tween them was equally poised, Eastern Trans caucasia being attached to Persia, and Western t) Turkey; but as these two great empires mutually declined, Russia, growing in strength and resources, as gradually encroached, and at length by diplomacy and power succeeded in absorbing both countries to herself, and, at the commencement of the present war, from her commanding position, threatened alike both Persia and Turkey in Asia Minor. Yet here her further advance was stopped by the hardy mountaineers of the Caucasus, thoss warlike heroes who have ever de feseied the anuieut iztotarehies of 216ia against THE PRESS. the incursions of the Northern barbarians, and, without even once surrendering their own independence, have alike withstood suc cessfully Persian, Byzantine, Turk, and Rus sian iu atttempts at conquest or subjugation. For half a century now they have fought more or less successfully against Russia's best gene generals and finest troops, and at this moment their fate and freedom seem about to be deter mined, either by their obstinate enemy being driven back across the mountain ranges, or else by the defeat of the Turks, and the ultimate sub jugation of the whole country to Russia. With regard to the success of Russia, Baron Hax thausen believes that it would seriously involve the security of England's Indian empire, and maintains that it is requisite for us now to carry on war to the knife in simple sell defence : If England can succeed in rekindling the fanatical zeal of Islamism, now almost expiring--in raising the standard of the Faith, in the person of Schamyl and the principles of Muridism—in effecting the union of Sunnites and Shiites, Turks and Persians—if a large English army were to advance from the East Indies and cross the Persian Gulf, whilst a French army landing in Asia Minor were to appear simultaneously on the theatre of war, forming a nucleus for the military organisation of the undisciplined Mohammedan masses—Russia would unquestionably be placed in a very perilous position. But the question is beset with difficulties of extraordinary moment. It is not an easy matter to plant, to form, and to maintain a Euro pean army there. The last sentence is just the argument which destroys the Baron's own hypo thesis of Russia reaching India through Persia. How far the three separate national groups of the Caucasus—the mountaineers and the eastern and western races—would be affected by the defeat of Russia and the suc cess of the Turks, does not appear very clear. The tribes have no unanimity among themselves, and no particular sympathy with the Turks ; on the contrary, showing rather a preference for Russia, which of late years has sought to pacify the people by avoiding all severe mea sures, opening markets, and introducing civilisation—thus seeking, and on the whole successfully, to win the people over and ac complish her ends by peaceable rather than by warlike means. To understand aright the political position of these countries (remarks Baron Liaxthausen), the relations existing among the various races inhabiting them, political, social, and religions, require to be studied. Viewing them collectively, we have here three separate national groups, which from time immemorial have dwelt side by side, yet separate and distinct—the mountaineers of the Caucasus, the western races, and the eastern races. The first of these races, sithout entertaining any sym pathy for Turks, Persians, or Europeans, cherish a grow ing hostility, a deep-rooted hatred toward Russia : all they demand is to remain independent, with full freedom of ac tion : they require the former powers to secure their free dom, but without at all being willing to unite with them. They are for the greater part Mohammedans, and have recently found a great political and religious centre, a hero, around whom they gather. The western nations, Georgia and Armenia, are Christian, for the most part connected with the Russian Church. At no period, either in ancient or modern times, have they had any political, national, or religious connec tion with the Eastern Caucasians. They have a profound aversion to the Persians and Turks, and will always sup port Russia against those powers. The Armenians are decidedly attached to Russia ; but although this feeling may not universally prevail among the Georgian nobles, it is very questionable whether any influence or power from Western Europe could ever succeed in shaking their fidelity. Their old men still remember the events of 11300, how barbarously the Turks and Persians treated the Georgians, extorting a tribute of boys and girls from them, and forcibly compelling them to embrace Islamism. The eastern side, inhabited by Tatar and Persian races, all of the Mohammedan faith, are inimical to the Russians, notwithstanding the mild treatment they have received. Russia can expect little aid from these peoples ; but whether they will, on the other hand, rise and take a decided part against Russia, and openly join the Turks and Persians, is quite another question. With the latter people they have no sympathy; they are ignorant of the feeling of independence, and have for centuries been ac customed to foreign rule. Hence it does not appear clear that the rule of the Turks, in Georgia or Armenia at least, would be acknowledged very readily : Can it be imagined (asks the author) that these Christian lands, after having been freed from the Moham medan yoke for half a century, and placed under a Ch►le tien Government, shouli be again subjected to the misera ble rule of Persia and Turkey, and given up to the cruelty and extortion of pachas and girders? With the defeat of the Russians, the real poli tical problem will arise ; and from the intricate difficulties of the question Baron Hazthausen supposes it not improbable that the Western powers will shrink; for, as to erecting new SATURDAY, kingdoms, Mohammedan, Koordish, Chadteo- Syrian, Persian, or Tatar, he declares there would be no power to support them, and finally, from the utter want of unanimity among the various tribes, and their deep-rooted reli gious antipathies between one another, inclines to the belief that, in spite of any efforts of Turkey or the Western powers, Russia will either continue to hold or ultimately obtain possession of these fair provinces : There exists no national feeling or bond, no common historical tie, among these races, although they speak the same language ; and, wanting these, any such combina tions would inevitably result in anarchy, as soon as the European powers had withdrawn their control. The only Christian nation which is really capable of a social or ganisation, Armenia, is too weak to assume an indepen dent political position : it would at once reunite with Russia, with which country it has deep-rooted political and religious sympathies and relations. As soon as any dis turbance or embarrassment in Europe and America were to check the power and energy of France and England, all these countries would again be thrown into the arms of Russia. It is not improbable that the Western powers, shrinking before such momentous consequences, will ab stain from entering upon this new theatre of war, or setting the avalanche in motion, which it would be im possible to arrest in its course. Russia, on her side, clearly shrinks from pushing these fearful questions to an issue. She carried on the war very feebly in 1854, remain ing on the defensive, and making little use even of the victories she obtained, The Western powers likewise may be averse to drive Russia into a more serious war, seeing that, even in the event of her entire defeat, such victory could only displace her for the moment from her present advantageous position. Should however the storm which is gathering be for a time averted, it can be only for a short time. The life and vigour of the Mohammedan nations Persia and Turkey is almost extinct, and where is the power to resuscitate them? The last chapters of this little book contain a most interesting account of the life and deeds of Schamyl. To heroic personal bravery. and astute generalship this extraordinary man adds still higher talents for organisation and administration. Since he has governed the Caucasus he has instituted a regular legisla• tion, an admirable military constitution, and a system of government complete in itself; but it is doubtful, observes Baron Hax thausen, whether Schamyl desires any ill. liance with the Turks. Since the breaking out of this war ho has been greatly assisted by supplies and ammunition from Constanti nople ; and it is quite clear, adds the Baron, that at the present moment " the Russians " have lost all their influence, and that " Schamyl is the acknowledged head of all the " inhabitants of the Caucasus ": The Circassians gladly accept the supplies of ammuni tion, salt, &c., from Constantinople and the Western powers ; but any inference from this that they would welcome an alliance with the Turks and the Western powers, is quite erroneous : they by no means desire the vicinity of the latter, which they would regard as equally obnoxious and fatal to them with that of the Russians. Indeed, they might probably in the end agree even better with the Russians. Whether Schamyl himself would consent to a cooperation with the Western powers appears, from his character, very problematical : he desires to rule, but un doubtedly not to be subject to the Sultan. Whether one of the many emissaries sent to him through Circassia has really ever reached him is very doubtful : they have gene rally been taken prisoners, robbed, nay murdered, by the Circassians. The results of Omer Pacha's campaign next year in Asia Minor will be eagerly anticipated. If he be fortunate, and drive the Russians across the mountain range of the limit of Europe and Asia, and the Turkish Govern meat desire to hold whatever he may re conquer for them, they must submit to copy the system which Russia adopted to gain her ends. Good government, just taxation, and liberal measures will now alone retain any of these provinces. Mr. Taylor's translation of the book is free and clear, and the book itself, though only to be regarded as a supplement to Baron Hax thausen's larger work on Transcaucasia, and consisting only of 130 pages, is a oonsomme full of information upon a subject at all times peculiarly interesting, but at this moment of more than ordinary import. We have only one fault to find—the usual one with most geographical and descriptive writers on un known countries—the want of a map. At this moment, too, when so much attention is centred upon the coasts and countries of the Caucasus, the omission is particularly felt. Le Cheval de Guerre. By General Daumas. Paris : Hachette et Cie. CAVALRY have had to play but an insignificant part in the war thus far ; but, as the theatre