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a temperatures in lightning can approach ~28,000 Kelvin (~27,700°C) and electron densities may exceed 1024/m³.Since plasmas are very good conductors, electric potentials play an important role. The potential as it exists on average in the space between charged particles, independent of the question of how it can be measured, is called the "plasma potential" or the "space potential". If an electrode is inserted into a plasma, its potential will generally lie considerably below the plasma potential due to what is termed a Debye sheath.  The good electrical conductivity of plasmas causes their electric fields to be very small.  This results in the important concept of "quasineutrality", which says the density of negative charges is approximately equal to the density of positive charges over large volumes of the plasma (ne=⟨Z⟩ni{\displaystyle n_{e}=\langle Z\rangle n_{i}}), but on the scale of the Debye length there can be charge imbalance. In the special case tha
t double layers are formed, the charge separation can extend some tens of Debye lengths.The magnitude of the potentials and electric fields must be determined by means other than simply finding the net charge density. A common example is to assume that the electrons satisfy the "Boltzmann relation": ne∝eeΦ/kBTe{\displaystyle n_{e}\propto e^{e\Phi /k_{B}T_{e}}}.Differentiating this relation provides a means to calculate the electric field from the density: E→=(kBTe/e)(∇ne/ne){\displaystyle {\vec {E}}=(k_{B}T_{e}/e)(\nabla n_{e}/n_{e})}.It is possible to produce a plasma which is not quasineutral. An electron beam, for example, has only negative charges. The density of a non-neutral plasma must generally be very low, or it must be very small, otherwise it will be dissipated by the repulsive electrostatic force.In astrophysical plasmas, Debye screening prevents electric fields from directly a
ffecting the plasma over large distances (ie. greater than the Debye length). But the existence of charged particles causes the plasma to generate and be affected by magnetic fields.  This can and does cause extremely complex behavior, such as the generation of plasma double layers, an object which separates charge over a few tens of Debye lengths. The dynamics of plasmas interacting with external and self-generated magnetic fields are studied in the academic discipline of magnetohydrodynamics.චුම්භකනයA plasma in which the magnetic field is strong enough to influence the motion of the charged particles is said to be magnetized. A common quantitative criterion is that a particle on average completes at least one gyration around the magnetic field before making a collision (ie. ωce/νcoll>1{\displaystyle \omega _{ce}/\nu _{coll}>1} where ωce{\displaystyle \omega _{ce}} is the "electron gyrofrequency" and νcoll{\displa
ystyle \nu _{coll}} is the "electron collision rate"). It is often the case that the electrons are magnetized while the ions are not. Magnetized plasmas are anisotropic, meaning that their properties in the direction parallel to the magnetic field are different from those perpendicular to it. While electric fields in plasmas are usually small due to the high conductivity, the electric field associated with a plasma moving in a magnetic field is given by E = -v x B (where E is the electric field, v is the velocity, and B is the magnetic field), and is not affected by Debye shielding.[9]Comparison of plasma and gas phasesPlasma is often called the fourth state of matter. It is distinct from other lower-energy states of matter; most commonly solid, liquid, and gas, although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume. Physicists consider a plasma to be more than a gas[තහවුරු කර නොමැත] because of a number of distinct properties inclu
ding the following: PropertyGasPlasmaElectrical ConductivityVery lowAir is an excellent insulator until it breaks down into plasma at electric field strengths above 30 kilovolts per centimeter.[10]Usually very highFor many purposes the conductivity of a plasma may be treated as infinite.Independently acting speciesOneAll gas particles behave in a similar way, influenced by gravity, and collisions with one anotherTwo or threeElectrons, ions, and neutrals can be distinguished by the sign of their charge so that they behave independently in many circumstances, with different bulk velocities and temperatures, allowing phenomena such as new types of waves and instabilitiesVelocity distributionMaxwellianCollisions usually lead to a Maxwellian velocity distribution of all gas particles, with very few relatively fast particles. Often non-MaxwellianCollisional interactions are often weak in hot plasmas, and external forcing can drive the plasma far from local equili
brium, and lead to a significant population of unusually fast particles.InteractionsBinaryTwo-particle collisions are the rule, three-body collisions extremely rare.CollectiveWaves, or organised motion of plasma, are very important because the particles can interact at long ranges through the electric and magnetic forces.Complex plasma phenomenaAlthough the underlying equations governing plasmas are relatively simple, plasma behaviour is extraordinarily varied and subtle: the emergence of unexpected behaviour from a simple model is a typical feature of a complex system. Such systems lie in some sense on the boundary between ordered and disordered behaviour, and cannot typically be described either by simple, smooth, mathematical functions, or by pure randomness. The spontaneous formation of interesting spatial features on a wide range of length scales is one manifestation of plasma complexity. The features are interesting, for example, because they are very sharp
, spatially intermittent (the distance between features is much larger than the features themselves), or have a fractal form. Many of these features were first studied in the laboratory, and have subsequently been recognised throughout the universe. Examples of complexity and complex structures in plasmas include:FilamentationStriations or string-like structures[11] are seen in many plasmas, like the plasma ball (image above),  the aurora,[12] lightning,[13] electric arcs, solar flares,[14] and supernova remnants.[15] They are sometimes associated with larger current densities, and the interaction with the magnetic field can form a magnetic rope structure.[16] (See also Plasma pinch)Shocks or double layersPlasma properties change rapidly (within a few Debye lengths) across a two-dimensional sheet in the presence of a (moving) shock or (stationary) double layer. Double layers involve localised charge separation, which causes a large potential difference across
the layer, but does not generate an electric field outside the layer. Double layers separate adjacent plasma regions with different physical characteristics, and are often found in current carrying plasmas. They accelerate both ions and electrons.Electric fields and circuitsQuasineutrality of a plasma requires that plasma currents close on themselves in electric circuits. Such circuits follow Kirchhoff's circuit laws, and possess a resistance and inductance. These circuits must generally be treated as a strongly coupled system, with the behaviour in each plasma region dependent on the entire circuit. It is this strong coupling between system elements, together with nonlinearity, which may lead to complex behaviour. Electrical circuits in plasmas store inductive (magnetic) energy, and should the circuit be disrupted,  for example, by a plasma instability, the inductive energy will be released as plasma heating and acceleration. This is a common explanation for the heating w
hich takes place in the solar corona. Electric currents, and in particular, magnetic-field-aligned electric  currents (which are sometimes generically referred to as "Birkeland currents"), are also observed in the Earth's aurora, and in plasma filaments.Cellular structureNarrow sheets with sharp gradients may separate regions with different properties such as magnetization, density, and temperature, resulting in cell-like regions. Examples include the magnetosphere, heliosphere, and heliospheric current sheet. Hannes Alfvén wrote: "From the cosmological point of view, the most important new space research discovery is probably the cellular structure of space. As has been seen, in every region of space which is accessible to in situ measurements, there are a number of 'cell walls', sheets of electric currents, which divide space into compartments with different magnetization, temperature, density, etc ."[17]Critical ionization velocityThe Critical ionization ve
locity is the relative velocity between an (magnetized) ionized plasma and a neutral gas above which a runaway ionization process takes place. The critical ionization process is a quite general mechanism for the conversion of the kinetic energy of a rapidly streaming gas into ionization and plasma thermal energy. Critical phenomena in general are typical of complex systems, and may lead to sharp spatial or temporal features.Ultracold plasmaIt is possible to create ultracold plasmas, by using lasers to trap and cool neutral atoms to temperatures of 1 mK or lower. Another laser then ionizes the atoms by giving each of the outermost electrons just enough energy to escape the electrical attraction of its parent ion. The key point about ultracold plasmas is that by manipulating the atoms with lasers, the kinetic energy of the liberated electrons can be controlled. Using standard pulsed lasers, the electron energy can be made to correspond to a temperature of as low as 0.1 K,­
a limit set by the frequency bandwidth of the laser pulse. The ions, however, retain the millikelvin temperatures of the neutral atoms. This type of non-equilibrium ultracold plasma evolves rapidly, and many fundamental questions about its behaviour remain unanswered. Experiments conducted so far have revealed surprising dynamics and recombination behavior which are pushing the limits of our knowledge of plasma physics.[තහවුරු කර නොමැත]One of the metastable states of strongly nonideal plasma is Rydberg matter which forms upon condensation of excited atoms.ආරෝපිත ප්ලැස්මාThe strength and range of the electric force and the good conductivity of plasmas usually ensure that the density of positive and negative charges in any sizeable region are equal ("quasineutrality"). A plasma which has a significant excess of charge density or which is, in the extreme case, composed of only a single species, is called a non-neutral plasma. In such a plasma, electric fields play a dominant
role. Examples are charged particle beams, an electron cloud in a Penning trap, and positron plasmas.[18]Dusty plasma and grain plasmaA dusty plasma is one containing tiny charged particles of dust (typically found in space) which also behaves like a plasma. A plasma containing larger particles is called a grain plasma.Mathematical descriptionsThe complex self-constricting magnetic field lines and current paths in a field-aligned Birkeland current which may develop in a plasma[19]මූලික ලිපිය: Plasma modelingTo completely describe the state of a plasma, we would need to write down all the particle locations and velocities, and describe the electromagnetic field in the plasma region.However, it is generally not practical or necessary to keep track of all the particles in a plasma.Therefore, plasma physicists commonly use less detailed descriptions known as models, of whichthere are two main types:ද්‍රව ආකාතියFluid models describe plasmas in t
erms of smoothed quantities like density and averaged velocity around each position (see Plasma parameters). One simple fluid model, magnetohydrodynamics, treats the plasma as a single fluid  governed by a combination of Maxwell's equations and the Navier–Stokes equations. A more general description is the two-fluid picture, where the ions and electrons are described separately. Fluid models are often accurate when collisionality is sufficiently high to keep the plasma velocity distribution close to a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. Because fluid models usually describe the plasma in terms of a single flow at a certain temperature at each spatial location, they can neither capture velocity space structures like beams or double layers nor resolve wave-particle effects.ගතික ප්ලැස්මාKinetic models describe the particle velocity distribution function at each point in the plasma, and therefore do not need to assume a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. A kinetic description is ofte
n necessary for collisionless plasmas. There are two common approaches to kinetic description of a plasma. One is based on representing the smoothed distribution function on a grid in velocity and position. The other, known as the particle-in-cell (PIC) technique, includes kinetic information by following the trajectories of a large number of individual particles. Kinetic models are generally more computationally intensive than fluid models. The Vlasov equation may be used to describe the dynamics of a system of charged particles interacting with an electromagnetic field.කෘතිම ප්ලැස්මාMost artificial plasmas are generated by the application of electric and/or magnetic fields. Plasma generated in a laboratory setting and for industrial use can be generally categorized by:The type of power source used to generate the plasma; DC, RF and microwave.The pressure at which they operate; vacuum pressure (< 10 mTorr), moderate pressure (~ 1 Torr), and atmospheric pressure (760 To
rr).The degree of ionization within the plasma; fully ionized, partially ionized, weakly ionized.The temperature relationships within the plasma; Thermal plasma (Te = Tion = Tgas), Non-Thermal or "cold" plasma (Te >> Tion = Tgas)The electrode configuration used to generate the plasma.The magnetization of the particles within the plasma; Magnetized (both ion and electrons are trapped in Larmor orbits by the magnetic field), partially magnetized (the electrons but not the ions are trapped by the magnetic field), non-magnetized (the magnetic field is too weak to trap the particles in orbits but may generate Lorentz forces).Its applicationExamples of industrial/commercial plasmaLow-pressure dischargesGlow discharge plasmas: non-thermal plasmas generated by the application of DC or low frequency RF (<100 kHz) electric field to the gap between two metal electrodes. Probably the most common plasma; this is the type of plasma generated within fluorescent light tubes
.Capacitively coupled plasma (CCP): similar to glow discharge plasmas, but generated with high frequency RF electric fields, typically 13.56 MHz. These differ from glow discharges in that the sheaths are much less intense. These are widely used in the microfabrication and integrated circuit manufacturing industries for plasma etching and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition.Inductively coupled plasma (ICP): similar to a CCP and with similar applications but the electrode consists of a coil wrapped around the discharge volume which inductively excites the plasma.Wave heated plasma: similar to CCP and ICP in that it is typically RF (or microwave), but is heated by both electrostatic and electromagnetic means.  Examples are helicon discharge, electron cyclotron resonance (ECR), and ion cyclotron resonance (ICR).  These typically require a coaxial magnetic field for wave propagation.Atmospheric pressureArc discharge: this is a high power thermal discharge of very high t
emperature ~10,000 K. It can be generated using various power supplies. It is commonly used in metallurgical processes. For example it is used to melt rocks containing Al2O3 to produce aluminium.Corona discharge: this is a non-thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltage to sharp electrode tips. It is commonly used in ozone generators and particle precipitators.Dielectric barrier discharge (DBD): this is a non-thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltages across small gaps wherein a non-conducting coating prevents the transition of the plasma discharge into an arc. It is often mislabeled 'Corona' discharge in industry and has similar application to corona discharges. It is also widely used in the web treatment of fabrics. The application of the discharge to synthetic fabrics and plastics functionalizes the surface and allows for paints, glues and similar materials to adhere.Fields of active researchHall effect thruster. The electric fie
ld in a plasma double layer is so effective at accelerating ions that electric fields are used in ion drivesThis is just a partial list of topics. A more complete and organized list can be found on the Web site for Plasma science and technology.[20]Plasma theoryPlasma equilibria and stabilityPlasma interactions with waves and beamsGuiding centerAdiabatic invariantDebye sheathCoulomb collisionPlasmas in natureThe Earth's ionosphereSpace plasmas, e.g. Earth's plasmasphere (an inner portion of the magnetosphere dense with plasma)Astrophysical plasmaIndustrial plasmasPlasma chemistryPlasma processingPlasma SprayPlasma displayPlasma sourcesDusty PlasmasPlasma diagnosticsThomson scatteringLangmuir probeSpectroscopyInterferometryIonospheric heatingIncoherent scatter radarPlasma applicationsFusion powerMagnetic fusion energy (MFE) — tokamak, stellarator, reversed field pinch, magnetic mirror, dense plasma focusInertial fusion energy (IFE) (also Inertial confine
ment fusion — ICF)Plasma-based weaponryIon implantationPlasma ashingFood processing (Nonthermal plasma, aka "cold plasma")Plasma arc waste disposal, convert waste into reusable material with plasma.Plasma accelerationමේවාත් බලන්නPhysics ද්වාරයplasma , යන්න නිදහස් ශබ්දකෝෂය වන වික්ෂනරිය දී සොයා බලන්න.ප්ලාස්මා (භෞතික විද්‍යාව) හා සබැඳි මාධ්‍ය විකිමාධ්‍ය කොමන්ස් හි ඇත.Plasma channelPlasma parametersPlasma nitridingMagnetohydrodynamicsElectric field screeningList of plasma physicistsImportant publications in plasma physicsIEEE Nuclear and Plasma Sciences SocietyFree space plasma generatorසටහන්↑  IPPEX Glossary of Fusion Terms, http://ippex.pppl.gov/fusion/glossary.html, ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය 2008-08-23 ↑ Plasma fountain  Source, press release: Solar Wind Squeezes Some of Earth's Atmosphere into Space↑ R. O. Dendy, Plasma Dynamics.↑ Hillary Walter, Michelle Cooper, Illustrated Dictionary of Physics↑ Daniel Hastings, Henry Garrett, Spacecr
aft-Environment Interactions↑ After Peratt, A. L., "Advances in Numerical Modeling of Astrophysical and Space Plasmas" (1966) Astrophysics and Space Science, v. 242, Issue 1/2, p. 93-163.↑ See The Nonneutral Plasma Group සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 2017-07-18 at the Wayback Machine at the University of California, San Diego↑ See Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning↑ Richard Fitzpatrick, Introduction to Plasma Physics, Magnetized plasmas↑ Hong, Alice (2000). "Dielectric Strength of Air". The Physics Factbook.↑ Dickel, J. R., "The Filaments in Supernova Remnants: Sheets, Strings, Ribbons, or?" (1990) Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, Vol. 22, p.832↑ Grydeland, T., et al, "Interferometric observations of filamentary structures associated with plasma instability in the auroral ionosphere" (2003) Geophysical Research Letters, Volume 30, Issue 6, pp. 71-1↑ Moss, Gregory D., et al, "Monte Carlo model for analysis of thermal runaway electrons i
n streamer tips in transient luminous events and streamer zones of lightning leaders" (2006) Journal of Geophysical Research, Volume 111, Issue A2, CiteID A02307↑ Doherty, Lowell R., "Filamentary Structure in Solar Prominences." (1965) Astrophysical Journal, vol. 141, p.251↑  Hubble views the Crab Nebula M1: The Crab Nebula Filaments, http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/messier/more/m001_hst.html, ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය 2009-10-05 ↑ Zhang, Yan-An, et al, "A rope-shaped solar filament and a IIIb flare" (2002) Chinese Astronomy and Astrophysics, Volume 26, Issue 4, p. 442-450↑ Hannes Alfvén, Cosmic Plasma (1981) See section VI.13.1. Cellular Structure of Space.↑ R. G. Greaves, M. D. Tinkle, and C. M. Surko, "Creation and uses of positron plasmas",  Physics of Plasmas -- May 1994 -- Volume 1, Issue 5, pp. 1439-1446↑ See Evolution of the Solar System, 1976)↑ Web site for Plasma science and technology සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 2015-05-09 at the Wayback Machineබාහිරට යොමුPlasmas: the Fou
rth State of MatterAnimation on the plasma excitation සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 2009-01-30 at the Wayback MachinePlasma Science and TechnologyPlasma on the Internet comprehensive list of plasma related links.Introduction to Plasma Physics: Graduate course given by Richard Fitzpatrick සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 2010-01-04 at the Wayback Machine | M.I.T. Introduction by I.H.HutchinsonNRL Plasma Formulary online සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 2007-04-28 at the Wayback Machine (or an html version සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 2007-02-08 at the Wayback Machine)Plasma Coalition pagePlasma Material Interaction සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 2005-03-08 at the Wayback MachineHow to make a glowing ball of plasma in your microwave with a grape සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 2005-09-06 at the Wayback Machine | More (Video)How to make plasma in your microwave with only one match (video)Plasma Ignition How to make a plasma ignition system (Video)U.S. Dept of Agriculture research project "Decontamination of Fresh Produce with Cold Plasma"CNRS LAEPT "Elect
ric Arc Thermal Plasmas  සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 2012-01-27 at the Wayback Machine (french)vteපදාර්ථයේ අවස්ථාඝණද්‍රවවායු / වාෂ්පප්ලැස්මාඅඩු ශක්තිBose–Einstein condensate · Fermionic condensate · Quantum Hall · Rydberg matter · Strange matter · සුපිරිද්‍රව · සුපිරිඝණඅධි ශක්තිDegenerate matter · QCD matter · Quark–gluon plasma  · Supercritical fluidOther statesColloid · Glass · Liquid crystal ·  Magnetically ordered (Antiferromagnet, Ferrimagnet, Ferromagnet) · String-net liquid · SuperglassTransitionsBoiling · Boiling point · Condensation · Critical line · Critical point · Crystallization · Deionization · Deposition · Evaporation · Flash evaporation · Freezing · Ionization · Lambda point · Melting · Melting point · Regelation · Saturated fluid · Sublimation · Supercooling · Triple point · VaporizationQuantitiesEnthalpy of fusion · Enthalpy of sublimation · Enthalpy of vaporization · Latent heat · Latent internal energy · Trouton's ratio · Volatilityසංකල්පBinodal · Compressed fluid · Cooling
curve · Equation of state · Leidenfrost effect · Mpemba effect · Order and disorder (physics) · Spinodal · Superconductivity · Superheated vapor · Superheating · Thermo-dielectric effectvteන්‍යෂ්ටික තාක්ෂණය (Nuclear technology)ScienceChemistryEngineeringPhysicsAtomic nucleusFissionFusionRadiationionizingbrakingන්‍යෂ්ටික ඉන්ධන(Nuclear fuel)ට්‍රිටියම් (Tritium)ඩියුටීරියම් (Deuterium)Helium-3Fertile materialFissile materialIsotope separationයුරේනියම් (Uranium)enricheddepletedPlutoniumතෝරියම් (Thorium)NeutronActivationCapturePoisonCross sectionGeneratorRadiationReflectorTemperatureThermalFastFusionPowerby countryPower plantEconomicsMulti-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric GeneratorAccidents and incidentsPolicyFusionRadioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)PropulsionrocketSafety and securityMedicineImagingRadBallScintigraphySingle-photon emission (SPECT)Positron-emission tomography (PET)TherapyFast-neutronNeutron capture therapy of cancerTarge
ted alpha-particleProton-beamTomotherapyBrachytherapyRadiation therapyRadiosurgeryRadiopharmacologyWeaponsTopicsArms raceDeliveryDesignDisarmamentEthicsExplosioneffectsHistoryProliferationTestinghigh-altitudeundergroundWarfareYieldTNTeListsStates with nuclear weaponsTestsUnited StatesWMD treatiesWeapon-free zonesWeaponsWasteProductsActinideReprocessed uraniumReactor-grade plutoniumMinor actinideActivationFissionLLFPActinide chemistryDisposalFuel cycleHigh-level (HLW)Low-level (LLW)RepositoryReprocessingSpent fuelpoolcaskTransmutationDebateNuclear powerNuclear weaponsBlue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear FutureAnti-nuclear movementUranium miningNuclear power phase-outන්‍යෂ්ටික ප්‍රතික්‍රියාකාරක (Nuclear reactors)Fissionby primary moderatorLight waterස්වාභාවික න්‍යෂ්ටික විඛණ්ඩන ප්‍රතික්‍රියාකාරක (Natural fission reactor)Aqueous homogeneous reactorBoilingBWRAdvanced (ABWR)ESBWRPressurizedAP1000APR-1400CPR-1000EPROPR