LexiconShiftInnovations/SinhalaWikipediaArticles huggingface dataset:
දී.සටහන්Joseph_Louis_Lagrangeමෙම ලිපිය පරිවර්තනය කළ යුතුය  කරුණාකර මෙම ලිපිය සිංහල භාෂාවට පරිවර්තනය කිරීමෙන් දායකවන්න.දර්ශන ආචාර්‍ය(Doctor of Philosophy), කෙටි යෙදුම Ph.D. හෝ PhD ලතික් භාෂාවේ philosophiæ doctor, දර්ශන ආචාර්‍ය(දර්ශනය උගන්වන ගුරුවරයා) යන්න මෙහි නිරුකක්ත්‍යාර්තයයි.මෙය උසස් අධ්‍යපන උපාධියකි.මෙම උපාධිය ඉතා ඉහළ මට්ටමේ උපාධියකි. මේ සදහා විශ්ව විද්‍යාල මට්ටමේ පර්යේෂණ ක්ෂේත්‍ර පරීක්ෂණ අඩංගු විය යුතුය. The detailed requirements for award of a Ph.D. degree vary throughout the world; however, there are a number of common factors. In some countries (the US, Canada, Denmark, for example), most universities require coursework for Ph.D. degrees. In many other countries (especially those with a greater degree of specialization at the undergraduate level, such as the UK) there is no such condition in general. It is not uncommon, however, for individual universities or departments to specify analogous requirements for students not already in possession of a mas
ter's degree. In countries requiring coursework, there is usually a prescribed minimum amount of study — typically two to three years full time, or a set number of credit hours — which must take place before submission of a thesis. This requirement is usually waived for academic staff submitting a portfolio of peer-reviewed published work. The candidate may also be required to successfully complete a certain number of additional, advanced courses relevant to his or her area of specialization. A candidate must submit a thesis or dissertation consisting of a suitable body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-refereed context.[1] In many countries a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by a panel of expert examiners who stipulate whether the dissertation is in principle passable and the issues that need to be addressed before the dis
sertation can be passed. Universities in the non-English-speaking world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the Anglophone Ph.D. degree for their research doctorates (see, for example, Bologna Process).[2]ආචාර්‍ය උපාධි ඉතිහාසයThe origins of the doctorate dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-iftta ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Madrasahs from the 9th century, though it was limited to Islamic law at the time, as in a Doctor of Laws degree.[3] The doctorate was later extended to philosophy in the යුරෝපයan universities in the Middle Ages which generally placed all academic disciplines outside the professional fields of theology, වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව and law under the broad heading of "philosophy" (or "natural philosophy" when referring to science). The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was a doctorate, generally granted as honorary degrees to select and well-established scholars.[තහවුරු කර නොමැත]According to Wellington, Bathmaker, Hun
g, MucCullough and Sikes (2005), the first Ph.D. degree was awarded in Paris in 1150, but not until the early nineteenth century did the term "Ph.D. degree" acquire its modern meaning as the highest academic doctoral degree, thanks to university practice in ජර්මනිය. As Wellington et al. explain, prior to the nineteenth century professional doctoral degrees could only be awarded in theology (Th.D.), law (J.D.), or medicine (M.D.). In 1861, Yale University adopted the ජර්මානු practice (first introduced in the 19th century at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin) of granting the degree to younger students who had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a thesis/dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities.[4]From the United States the degree spread to Canada in 1900, and then to the United Kingdom in 1917.[5] This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some universities; for instance, the D.Phil. (higher
doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research doctorate). Oxford retained the D.Phil. abbreviation for their research degrees. Some newer UK universities, for example Buckingham (est. 1976), Sussex (est. 1961), and, until a few years ago, York (est. 1963), chose to adopt the D.Phil., as did some universities in නවසීලන්තය.ලෝකයේ දර්ශන ආචාර්‍ය උපාධිPh.D. degrees are awarded under different circumstances and with different requirements in many different countries. ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව සහ නවසීලන්තයAdmissionAdmission to a Ph.D. program within ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව and New Zealand requires the prospective student to have completed a bachelor's degree with an honours component or a higher degree, such as a post graduate  master's degree by research or a master's degree by course work. In most disciplines, honours require an extra year of study including a large research component in addition
to coursework; however, in some disciplines such as engineering, law and pharmacy, honours are automatically awarded to high achievers of the normal four-year program. To obtain a Ph.D. position, students must usually gain first class honours, but may sometimes be admitted with high second class honours (known as a 2A, or Second Class Honours Division I). Alternatively, a student who fails to achieve first or second class Honours may apply for a research masters course (usually 12–18 months) and upgrade to a Ph.D. program after the first year, pending sufficient improvement.FundingIn both ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව and නවසීලන්තය, Ph.D. students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for their Ph.D. degree.   The most common of these in ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව is the government-funded ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු Postgraduate Award (APA), which provides a living stipend to students of approximately AU$ 20,000 a year (tax free). Most universities in both countries also offer a similar scholarship that ma
tches the APA amount, but are funded by the university. In recent years, with the tightening of research funding in ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව, these scholarships have become increasingly hard to obtain. Due to a continual increase to living costs, many Ph.D. students are forced to live under the poverty line,[6]. In addition to the more common APA and University scholarships, ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු and New Zealand students also have other sources of funding in their Ph.D. degree.  These could include, but are not limited to, scholarships offered by schools, research centres and commercial enterprise. For the latter, the amount is determined between the university and the organisation, but is quite often set at the APA (Industry) rate, roughly AU$7,000 more than the usual APA rate. ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු and New Zealand students are often also able to tutor undergraduate classes and do guest lectures (much like a teaching assistant in the USA) to generate income. An ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු or New Zealand Ph.D. scholarship
is paid for a duration of 3 years, while a 6 month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student.ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු-citizen and other eligible Ph.D. and Research Masters students in ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව are not charged course fees as these are paid for by the ඕස්ට්‍රේලියානු Government under the Research Training Scheme. International students and Coursework Masters students must pay course fees, unless they receive a scholarship to cover them. In order to attract top international doctoral students, the නවසීලන්තය government reduced international doctoral fees to the domestic fee level in 2006.ආජන්ටිනාවමේවාත් බලන්න: Education in ArgentinaAdmissionIn the Latin American docta, the admission to a Ph.D. program at an Argentine University requires the full completion of a Master's degree or a Licentiate's degree. Non-Argentinian Master's titles are generally accepted into a Ph.D. program when the degree comes from a recognized university.
FundingWhile a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run institutions, international institutions, such as the Fullbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing.[7]Requirements for completionUpon completion of at least two years' research and course work as a graduate student, a candidate must demonstrate  truthful and original contributions to his or her specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.[8] The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This Committee should be composed of examiners external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor — abbrevi
ated, "Dr.", with a suffix appropriate to the specific field — is received after a successful defense of the candidate’s dissertation.[9]කැනඩාවAdmissionAdmission to a Ph.D. program at a Canadian university may require completion of a Master's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades and proven research ability. In some cases, a student may progress directly from an Honours Bachelor's degree to a Ph.D. program. The student usually submits an application package including a research proposal, letters of reference, transcripts, and in some cases, a sample of the student's writing. A common criterion for prospective Ph.D students is the comprehensive or qualifying examination, a process that often commences in the second year of a graduate program. Generally, successful completion of the qualifying exam permits continuance in the graduate program. Formats for this examination include oral examination by the student's faculty committee (or a separate
qualifying committee), or written tests designed to demonstrate the student's knowledge in a specialized area (see below).At English-speaking universities, a student may also be required to demonstrate English language abilities, usually by achieving an acceptable score on a standard examination (e.g., Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)). Depending on the field, the student may also be required to demonstrate ability in one or more additional languages. A prospective student applying to French-speaking universities may also have to demonstrate some English language ability.FundingWhile some students work outside the university (or at student jobs within the university), in some programs students are advised (or must agree) not to devote more than ten hours per week to activities (i.e., employment) outside of their studies.   At some Canadian universities, most Ph.D. students receive an award equivalent to the tuition amount for the first four years (this is so
metimes called a tuition deferral or tuition waiver).  Other sources of funding include teaching assistantships and research assistantships;  experience as a teaching assistant is encouraged but not requisite in many programs. Some programs may require all Ph.D. candidates to teach, which may be done under the supervision of their supervisor or regular faculty. Besides these sources of funding, there are also various competitive scholarships, bursaries, and awards available, such as those offered by the federal government via NSERC, CIHR, or SSHRC.Requirements for completionIn general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of coursework and the comprehensive examinations.  At this stage, the student is known as a "Ph.D. student." It is usually expected that the student will have completed most of his or her required coursework by the end of this stage. Furthermore, it is usually required that by the end of eighteen to thirty-six months after the first reg
istration, the student will have successfully completed the comprehensive exams.  Upon successful completion of the comprehensive exams, the student becomes known as a "Ph.D. candidate." From this stage on, the bulk of the student's time will be devoted to his or her own research, culminating in the completion of a Ph.D. thesis or dissertation. The final requirement is an oral defense of the thesis, which is open to the public.At most Canadian universities, the time needed to complete a Ph.D. degree typically ranges from four to six years[තහවුරු කර නොමැත]. It is, however, not uncommon for students to be unable to complete all the requirements within six years, particularly given that funding packages often support students for only two to four years; many departments will allow program extensions at the discretion of the thesis supervisor and/or department chair. Alternate arrangements exist whereby a student is allowed to let their registration in the program lapse at the end of six
years and re-register once the thesis is completed in draft form.  The general rule is that graduate students are obligated to pay tuition until the initial thesis submission has been received by the thesis office. In other words, if a Ph.D. student defers or delays the initial submission of their thesis they remain obligated to pay fees until such time that the thesis has been received in good standing.FranceAdmissionDue to the differences in French education systems in comparison to anglophone systems, students who want to earn the Ph.D. degree must complete a Master of Science program which lasts for 2 years after graduation with a Bachelor's degree (5 years in total).In France, the Masters program is divided into two branches, Master of Engineering which orients the students towards the working world. On the other hand, a Master of Science orients the students towards research.The Ph.D admission is adopted by a graduate school (in French, "école doctorale
"), a Ph.D Student has to follow some courses offered by the graduate school while continuing his/her research at laboratory. His/her research may be carried out in a laboratory, at a university, or in a company. In the last case, the company hires the student as an engineer and the student is supervised by both the company's tutor and a labs' professor. The validation of the Ph.D degree requires generally 3 to 4 years after the Master degree. Consequently, the Ph.D degree is considered in France as a "Bac +8" diploma ."Bac" stands for "Baccalauréat" which is the French High-school diploma.FundingThe financing of Ph.D studies comes mainly from funds for research of French Ministry of National Education. These grants often depend of the results and the student's file. However, the student can apply for funds from a company who can host him/her at its premise (as in the case where Ph.D students do their research in a company). Other resources come from some regional/city pro
jects, some associations, etc.ජර්මනියමේවාත් බලන්න: Education in ජර්මනියAdmissionIn ජර්මනිය an above-average degree (Master, Diplom, Magister or Staatsexamen) is usually required to gain admission to a doctoral program. The degree should usually be in a related field. The candidate must also find a tenured professor or Privatdozent to serve as the formal advisor and supervisor (Gutachter) of on the dissertation throughout the doctoral program. This supervisor is informally termed "Doktorvater".Doctoral programs in ජර්මනිය generally take one to four years to complete (usually three), strongly depending on the subject. Since there are usually no formal classes to attend, and the doctoral candidate mainly conducts independent research under the tutelage of a single professor, a good deal of doctoral candidates work as teaching or research assistants, and are paid a reasonably competitive salary. This is a considerable difference from the situation in many other co
untries (such as the U. S.), where doctoral candidates are often referred to as Ph.D. "students". For German doctoral candidates, this rather inaccurate term should be avoided, because they do not take formal courses, but are often considered a full member of staff. However, external funding by research organisations and foundations is also common. Furthermore, many universities have established research-intensive Graduiertenkollegs, which are a colleges / research schools that provide funding for doctoral theses.ඉතිහාසයIn early university history the Doctorate was awarded as a first degree. It has since evolved into a research degree.In ජර්මානු-speaking countries, most Eastern European countries, the former සෝවියට් සංගමය, most parts of Africa, ආසියාව, and many Spanish-speaking countries the corresponding degree is simply called "doctor" (Doktor), and is distinguished by subject area with a Latin suffix (e.g. "Dr.med." for doctor medicinæ, which is a title like a master,
unlike a PhD, "Dr.rer.nat" for doctor rerum naturalium — Doctor of Science, "Dr. phil." for doctor philosophiæ, "Dr. iur." for doctor iuris, which is not equal to a J.D., etc.).මෙම ඡේදය පුළුල් කිරීම අවශ්‍යයි. කරුණු එකතු කර ඔබට ද සහාය විය හැකිය.  (2008 ජූනි)නෝර්වේමූලික ලිපිය: Dr. philos. (Norwegian degree)Norway was one of the first countries to introduce the Doctor of Philosophy degree, inspired by the German university system. The degree doctor philosophiae, abbreviated dr. philos., was first awarded in 1847[10]. The degree was used for all other fields than theology, law and medicine, which had separate degrees: doctor theologiae, doctor juris and doctor medicinae. In the late 20th century new degrees were created in the fields of natural sciences, humanities and social sciences, but it was still possible to obtain the dr. philos. degree in any field. As the dr. philos. degree was one of the four original doctoral degrees and much older than the specific degrees in na
tural sciences, humanities and social sciences, it was considered more prestigious by some. Both the dr. philos. degree and the other degrees required four years of high-level scientific research which significantly contributed to new knowledge of its field. Most people who started at a doctoral degree had already studied for six or seven years and obtained a Candidate degree (six years) or a Magister degree (seven years).Following a reform in 2003, all the traditional degrees except dr. philos. were abolished, and replaced by a new doctor of philosophy degree, spelled philosophiae doctor and abbreviated ph.d. The scientific standard of the ph.d. degree is lower, as it in most cases only requires three years of research.The traditional degree dr. philos., equivalent of four years of scientific research, is still awarded to those who qualify for such a degree without being admitted to an organized doctoral programme.එක්සත් රාජධානියA University of Oxford DPhil in full acad
emic dress.AdmissionIn principle, a university is free to admit anyone to a Ph.D. programme; however, in practice, admission is usually conditional on the prospective student having successfully completed an undergraduate degree with at least upper second-class honours, or a postgraduate master's degree.In addition, Ph.D. students from countries outside the EU/EFTA area are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign Office for certain courses in medicine, mathematics and many natural, engineering and material sciences.[11][12] This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about terrorism and weapons proliferation.[12]FundingIn the United Kingdom, funding for Ph.D. students is sometimes provided by government-funded Research Councils or the European Social Fund, usually in the form of a tax-free bursary which consists of tuition fees together with a st
ipend of around GBP 12,940 per year for three years (rising to £14,940 per year in London)[13], whether or not the degree continues for longer. Research Council funding is sometimes 'earmarked' for a particular department or research group, who then allocate it to a chosen student, although in doing so they are generally expected to abide by the usual minimum entry requirements (typically a first degree with upper second class honours, although successful completion of a postgraduate master's degree is usually counted as raising the class of the first degree by one division for these purposes).  However, the availability of funding in many disciplines (especially humanities, social studies, and pure science[තහවුරු කර නොමැත] subjects) means that in practice only those with the best research proposals, references and backgrounds are likely to be awarded a studentship.  The ESRC (Economic and Social Science Research Council) explicitly state that a 2.1 minimum (or 2.2 plus additional mast
ers degree) is required - no additional marks are given for students with a first class honours or a distinction at masters level.Since 2002, there has been a move by research councils to fund interdisciplinary doctoral training centres such as MOAC[14] which concentrate on communication between traditional disciplines and an emphasis on transferable skills in addition to research training.Many students who are not in receipt of external funding may choose to undertake the degree part time, thus reducing the tuition fees, as well as creating free time in which to earn money for subsistence.Students may also take part in tutoring, work as research assistants, or (occasionally) deliver lectures, at a rate of typically £25–30 per hour, either to supplement existing low income or as a sole means of funding.[15]CompletionFunding typically lasts for three or four years for PhD students and four years for students earning both their master's degree and PhD degree;[තහවුරු කර නො
මැත] there is a usually first-year assessment to remain in the programme and the thesis is submitted at the end of the 3-4 year program.  These periods are usually extended pro rata for part-time students. With special dispensation, the final date for the thesis can be extended for up to four additional years, for a total of seven, but it is rare for students to spend more than four years in the programme.[තහවුරු කර නොමැත] Since the early 1990s, the UK funding councils have adopted a policy of penalising departments where large proportions of students fail to submit their theses in four years (or pro rata equivalent) by reducing the number of funded places in subsequent years.[16]Other doctoratesIn the United Kingdom Ph.D. degrees are distinct from other doctorates, most notably the higher doctorates such as D.Litt. (Doctor of Letters) or D.Sc. (Doctor of Science), which are granted on the recommendation of a committee of examiners on the basis of a substantial portfolio o
f submitted (and usually published) research.Recent years have seen the introduction of professional doctorates, most notably in the fields of engineering (Eng.D.), education (Ed.D.), clinical psychology (D.Clin.Psych.),public administration (D.P.A.), business administration (D.B.A.), and music (D.M.A.). These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000-60,000 word thesis component, which collectively is equivalent to that of a Ph.D. degree.එක්සත් ජනපදයOverviewවැඩිදුර තොරතුරු: Doctorate § United StatesIn the United States, the Ph.D. degree is the highest academic degree awarded by universities in most fields of study. The Ph.D. degree is often misunderstood to be synonymous with the term doctorate. While the Ph.D. degree is the most common doctorate, the term doctorate can refer to any number of doctoral degrees in the United States.  The U.S. Department of Education and the National Science Founda