{"input": "What may happen if the VR headset lenses are exposed to sunlight or strong light?", "context": "'用户指南 * User Guide 02 CN 11 EN * 包装内含 使用前注意事项 快速引导 产品部件详情说明 操作说明 02 02 03 06 08 01 \n•本产品支持在系统设置中进行瞳距调节 , 调节时请务必注意，最小瞳距可能会碰触鼻梁。当您佩戴头盔后，您 “显示”中进行手动调节，请注意设置使用不合适的瞳距，可能会引起视觉重影或者眼睛疲劳。 可在“设置” ► •本产品“护眼模式”经德国 TÜV Rheinland 低蓝光认证，通过软件算法降低三色通道中的蓝光量，来达到保护 “护眼” “色彩调节” 眼睛的作用，该模式下画面颜色偏黄，您可根据个人喜好在“设置” 中激活或关闭此功能。 ““显示” ► ► ► 包装内含： VR 头盔 / 手柄 × 2 / 1.5V AA 碱性干电池 × 4/ 眼镜支架 / 遮光鼻托 / 手柄挂绳 × 2 / USB-C 电源适配器 / USB-Cto C 2.0 数据线 / 快速指南 / 用户指南 / 安全与质保指南使用前注意事项 •本产品在开阔的室內环境使用体验最佳，建议至少预留 2×2 米 的空间。使用前请确认身体没有不适且周围环 境安全，特别是佩戴头盔在室内行走移动时，要尽量避免发生意外。 •不建议 12 岁及以下儿童使用本产品，建议将头盔、手柄和配件置于儿童够不到的位置，13 岁以上青少年须在 成人监护下使用，以免发生意外。 •本产品无近视调节功能，近视用户请佩戴眼镜使用并尽量避免近视眼镜被头盔的光学镜片磨伤或刮伤。建议在 使用和收纳时注意防护光学镜片，避免尖锐物体划伤镜片，擦拭清洁时请使用柔软的眼镜布，否则可能划伤镜片， 影响视觉效果。 •长时间使用可能引发轻微的昡晕或者眼疲劳，建议使用 30 分钟后适当休息，可通过眼保健操或观看远处物体缓 解眼疲劳。如果您的身体感到任何不适，请立即停止使用。如果不适持续，请咨询医生。 •当头盔镜片被阳光或紫外线照射时（尤其在户外、阳台、窗台及汽车内存放时），可能导致屏幕出现永久性黄斑。 请尽量避免该情况发生，此种屏幕损坏不在产品的质保范围内。 *本产品最终外观及功能以实物为准，部分地区包装内含物品有所差异，本说明仅供参考。 02 CN\n六自由度 VR 体验 本产品可以追踪头盔和手柄前、后、左、右、上、下和旋转的运动状态，您在现实中的肢体运动会实时反映在虚 拟世界中。 由于没有任何线缆的束缚，您在虚拟世界自由探索时请确保游玩区域的安全。 1. 建议准备一个整洁安全的体验空间：至少 2×2 米；保持房间明亮，避免在只有单色的墙或大面积玻璃、镜子类 反射物以及许多移动画面和物体的空间中使用。 2. 撕下 VR 头盔前端摄像头上的保护膜，并佩戴手柄挂绳。 3. 根据开机后的画面提示进行游玩区域的设定。 ❶ 安装电池 按箭头方向拔出电池盖侧边的绝缘纸 快速引导 提示：本产品虚拟的安全区提醒功能，不能完全保证您在设定好的游戏区域中的安全，请时刻注意周围的安全情况。 提示：建议使用 1.5V AA 碱性电池。 按照图示拨动电池盖拨钮打开电池盖更换电池。 03 CN\n❷ 手柄开机 ❸ 头盔开机 ❹ 佩戴头盔，调节至清晰舒适的位置 首次开机：拔出绝缘纸，手柄自动开机（蓝灯闪烁） 非首次开机：短按手柄 Home 键开机（蓝灯闪烁） 长按头盔电源键 2 秒（蓝灯常亮） 调节旋钮转动绑带，使后脑垫套在头上，微调绑带长度及佩戴位置至视野清晰 04 提示：近视用户请佩戴眼镜或镜片插件使用，本产品不具备近视调节功能。 CN\n❺ 微调顶绑带 微调顶绑带使其受力以减少额头压力 ❻ 瞳 距 调 节 在系统设置：“设置” ► “显示”界面中进行瞳距调节，点击“+”或“-”按钮可微调瞳距直至画面清晰 64mm 请勿 强行 掰动镜 筒，以 免造 成损坏 ！ 请注 意设 置使用 不合适 的瞳 距，可 能 会引起 视 觉重影 或 者眼睛 疲 劳。准 确 的瞳距 设 置有助 于 获得清 晰 的图像 并 减少眼睛 疲劳。 05 CN\n产品部件详情说明 头盔状态指示灯 蓝灯常亮：开机进行中或工作状态 黄灯常亮：充电中，电量低于 98% 红灯常亮：充电中，电量低于 20% 绿灯常亮：充电完毕，电量大于 98% 或 充满 蓝灯闪烁：关机进行中 红灯闪烁：电量低于 20% 指示灯熄灭：休眠或关机 06 ① 电源键 开机：长按 2 秒 关机：长按 5 秒 复位：长按 10 秒 开机时，短按休眠 ② ③ ④ ⑤ 状态指示灯 贴脸泡棉 音量键 彩色透视摄像头 使用时请勿遮挡 ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ 顶部绑带 可拆卸 绑带旋钮 环境追踪摄像头 使用时请勿遮挡 ⑨ ⑩ ⑪ USB-C 接口 左 / 右喇叭 距离传感器 佩戴头盔后，系统自动唤醒 摘下头盔后，系统自动休眠 ⑫ ⑬ 眼球追踪摄像头 此功能仅 Pro 版支持 使用时请勿遮挡 面部追踪摄像头 此功能仅 Pro 版支持 使用时请勿遮挡 CN\n手柄状态指示灯 熄灭：已连接或者关机 蓝灯常亮：固件升级模式 蓝灯闪烁：连接中 红蓝灯交替慢速闪烁：等待配对 ① ② 摇杆 菜单键 ③ Home 键 开机 : 短按关机 : 长按 6 秒退出应用 : 短按屏幕中心校正 : 长按 1 秒④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦ 状态指示灯 抓握键 截屏键 扳机键 ⑧ ⑨ 电池盒 打开：拨动拨钮，电池盒弹出 安装：按压直至自动锁紧 追踪光环 使用时请勿遮挡 注：手柄挂绳可按图示将粗绳穿过细绳并锁紧在手柄尾端 07 CN\n手柄硬件复位 如果手柄出现按 Home 键和任何按键均无反应或者头盔中虚拟手柄卡死不动的问题可拆装电池重新启动手柄。 近视用户配戴 本设备不具备近视调节功能，头盔可支持佩戴镜框宽度小于 150mm 的大多数标准眼镜。 操作说明 头控模式 未连接手柄的情况下，您可通过转动头部光标及点击头盔音量加减按键进行操作。 切换主控手柄射线 在主控菜单下，短按对应手柄的扳机键可以切换主控手柄的射线。 屏幕中心校正 戴着头盔直视前方，按住手柄 Home 键（或头控模式下头盔上的音量减键）1 秒以上，进行屏幕中心的校正将菜 单拉到当前视野朝向位置。 断开手柄 长按手柄 Home 键直至手柄状态指示灯红灯亮起并伴随振动产生时即可松手，此时手柄关机并断开与头盔的连接。 您无需刻意进行手柄关机操作，在以下状态下手柄会自动关机省电： •头盔进入深度休眠时（摘下头盔后一段时间） •头盔手柄管理界面解绑手柄时 •头盔关机时 添加新手柄 如需添加新手柄（头盔最多可同时连接一对手柄，即左右手柄各一只），或解绑手柄后再次连接 , 可进入“设置” “手 柄”，点击“配对”，同时按住手柄 Home 键和扳机键直至手柄状态指示灯红蓝交替闪烁时即可松开，然后根据 头盔画面提示操作。 ► 休眠 / 唤醒 方式一：摘下头盔一段时间后，系统自动休眠；戴上头盔时，系统自动唤醒。 方式二：短按头盔电源键也可以进行休眠或唤醒操作。 硬件复位 头盔硬件复位 如果头盔出现短按头盔电源键没有反应或头盔的画面卡死等问题，可以长按头盔电源键 10 秒以上重新启动头盔。 08 CN\n安装眼镜支架 安装遮光鼻托 如您存在眼镜摩擦光学镜片或者压迫鼻梁的问题，请按照图示安装眼镜支架以增加间隔空间。 您可根据佩戴的舒适度选择是否安装。 如您感觉鼻子处漏光影响体验，请按照图示安装遮光鼻托配件。 由于眼睛空间密闭可能加剧起雾及出汗问题，您可根据喜好选择是否安装。 ❶ 摘下贴脸泡棉 ❷ 将眼镜支架按照图示安装在产品上 ❸ 将贴脸泡棉按照图示安装眼镜支架上 ❶ 摘下贴脸泡棉 ❸ 安装贴脸泡棉❷ 将遮光鼻托按照图示方式安装在贴脸泡棉上 注：按照图示拆卸眼镜支架 09 CN\n更换贴脸泡棉 贴脸泡棉多次清洁和长时间使用后会变色和质地变软，您可酌情更换新泡棉。 更换顶绑带 摘下贴脸泡棉 ❸ 安装贴脸泡棉 按照图示捏住顶绑带金属扣，往下压到底然后抽出 ❷ •购买优质热门应用 •畅 聊 社 区， 与 众 多 PICO 玩 家 一起探索 VR 世界 •管理设备更便捷 •参与丰富互动活动 •更多精彩内容等你来发现 ❶ 微 信公 众 号：PICO VR抖音：PICO官 方 旗 舰 店哔 哩 哔 哩：PICO-VR官 方微 博：PICO-VR ❶ ❷ 10 CN\nIn The Box: VR Headset / 2 Controllers / 4 1.5V AA Alkaline Batteries / Glasses Spacer / Nose Pad / 2 Controller Lan- yards / USB-C Power Adapter / USB-C to C 2.0 Data Cable / Quick Guide / User Guide / Safety and WarrantyGuide Important Health & Safety Notes • This product is designed and intended to be used in an open and safe indoor area, free of anytripping or slipping hazards. To avoid accidents, remain conscious to the potential confines ofyour physical area and respect the boundary of your virtual area whenever you see it. Be sure towear the lanyards when using the Controllers. Make sure that there is enough space around yourhead and body (at least 2 meters by 2 meters) to stretch your arms to avoid damage or injury toyourself, others, and your surroundings. • This product is not recommended for children aged 12 and under. It is recommended to keep headsets,controllers and accessories out of the reach of children. Teenagers aged 13 and over must use it underadult supervision to avoid accidents. • This product is designed to accommodate most prescription glasses. Make sure to wear the VR Headsetin a manner in which the VR Headset lenses do not rub or impair your prescription lenses. • Prolonged use may cause dizziness or eye fatigue. It is recommended to take a break every 30 minutes.Try relieving your eyestrain by looking at distant objects. If you feel any discomfort, stop using the prod- uct immediately. If the discomfort persists, seek medical advice.• Do not expose the optical lenses to direct sunlight or other strong light sources. Exposure to directsunlight may cause permanent yellow spot damage on the screen. Screen damage caused by sunlightexposure or other strong sources of light is not covered by the warranty. • This product supports interpupillary distance (IPD) adjustment in system settings. When adjusting,please be aware that with the minimum IPD, it may touch the bridge of the nose. You can adjust the IPDaccording to your actual interpupillary distance in \"Settings\"►\"Display\". Please note that using inap- propriate IPD may increase the risk of discomfort. • This product has an “Eye Protection Mode”, certified by TÜV Rheinland (Germany), which can protectyour eyes by reducing blue light in the three color channels using software algorithms. The screen ap- pears yellowish in this mode and you can turn this feature on/off in \"Settings\"►\"Display\"►\"Color\"►“- Eye Protection”. • Protect optical lenses during use and storage to prevent damage, such as scratches or exposure tostrong light or direct sunlight. * Product and packaging are updated regularly, and the functions and contents of the standalone headset may be upgraded in the future.Therefore, the content, appearance and functionality listed in this manual and product packaging are subject to change and may notreflect the final product. These instructions are for reference only. * Carefully read this user guide before using the product and share this information with any other users, as it contains important safetyinformation. Keep the user guide as reference for the future. 11 EN\n6 Degrees of Freedom VR The device can track your translational and rotational movements in all directions (up/down, left/right,forward/backward, pitch, roll, and yaw). Your movements in the real world will be captured and translatedto what you see in the virtual world when using the appropriate content. Ensure a safe environment before you start your VR experience. 1. Clear a safe indoor area of at least 2 meters by 2 meters. Keep the room bright, avoid spaces with main- ly single-colored walls, glass, mirrors, moving pictures or other similar objects. 2. Remove the protective film that covers the headset front cameras. Wear the lanyards connected to theControllers. 3. Set up your environment by following instructions on the VR Headset screen. Install Batteries ❶Pull the tab to remove the insulating paper. Quick Guide 2 m 2m This product can not guarantee your safety with guardian system, you will need to always pay attention to the surrounding safety. * Note: 1.5V AA alkaline batteries should be used.Slide the toggle according to arrow direction toopen the battery case. 12 EN\nPower on the Controller ❷ First Start: The Controller will start automaticallyafter removing the insulating paper. Others: Short press the Home button for 1second until the status indicator flashes blue.Power on the VR Headset ❸ Long press the Power button for 2 seconds untilthe status indicator turns blue.Wear Your Headset for a Comfortable Fit and View ❹ Adjust the strap dial to turn the strap so that the back of your head rests on the padding. Fine-tune thelength and position of the strap to give a clear view. * Note: You can use this product with prescription glasses or lenses insert. 13 EN\nFine-tune the Top Strap ❺ Fine-tune the head strap to reduce pressure on the forehead. Interpupillary Distance (IPD) Adjustment ❻ In System Setting, go to “Setting” ► “Display” to adjust IPD, tap “+” or “-” button to slightly adjust IPDuntil the picture is clear. 14 64mm Please note that inappropriate IPD setting may cause ghosting or eyestrain.Accurate IPD setting helps you get a clear imaging and ease eyestrain. EN\nProduct Details VR Headset Status Indicator Legend Blue: Powered on with battery over 20% Yellow: Charging: Battery is less than 98% Red: Charging: Battery is less than 20% Green: Charging: Battery is more than 98% or charge complete Blue flashing: Shutting down Red flashing: Battery is less than 20% Off: Sleeping or Powered off Power Power on: Long press for 2 seconds Power off: Long press for 5 seconds Hardware reset: Long press for 10 seconds Short press to enter sleep or wake up Status Indicator Face Cushion Volume ① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ RGB See Through Camera Do not block during use. Top Strap Removable Strap Dial Tracking Cameras Do not block during use. ⑨ ⑩ ⑪ USB-C Interface Left/Right Speaker Proximity Sensor The system wakes upwhen the VR headset isput on, sleeps when VRheadset is taken off. ⑫ ⑬ Eye Tracking Cameras Pro version only. Do not block during use. Face Tracking Camera Pro version only. Do not block during use. 15 EN\nController Status Indicator Legend Off: Connected or Powered off Blue: Firmware updating in progress Blue flashing: Searching for connection Red and blue flashing alternately: Pairing in progress 16 Joystick Menu ③ ① ② Home Power on: Short pressPower off: Long press for 6 secondsReturn home screen: Short pressScreen recentering: Press for 1 secondStatus Indicator Grip Capture Trigger ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ ⑨ Battery Case Open: Slide down the toggle andpop up the battery case. Lock: Push the battery case to lock. Tracking Ring Do not block during use. * Note: Pass the Controller Lanyardthrough the string as shown andlock at the end of the Controller EN\nOperating Instructions Headset Control Mode If the Controller is not connected, you can interact with the home screen by moving your head to directthe crosshairs over your intended selection and clicking the Volume Up/Down button on the VR Headset. Switch the pointer of the master Controller In the home screen, short press the Trigger of the corresponding Controller to switch the pointer of themaster Controller. Screen re-centering Wear the VR Headset and look straight ahead, press and hold the Home button of the Controller or VRHeadset ( or the Volume Down button of the VR Headset in head control mode) for more than 1 second tore-center the screen. Disconnect the Controller Press and hold the Home button until the status indicator turns red and the Controller vibrates.Controllers will automatically shut down to save power in the following cases:When the VR Headset enters deep sleep (a while after the VR Headset is taken off)When the Controller is unpairedWhen the VR Headset is powered off Add a new Controller If you need to add a new Controller (the VR Headset can only connect one left Controller and one rightController) or reconnect with an unpaired Controller. Go to “Settings” ► “Controller”, click on “Pair”.Press and hold the Home button and the Trigger of the Controller at the same time until the red and bluelights of the Controller flashing alternately, and then follow the instructions on the VR Headset screen. Sleep / Wake up Option 1 (Proximity Sensor) Take off VR Headset for automatic sleeping: wear the VR Headset for automat- ic waking up. Option 2 (POWER Button) Press the Power button of the VR Headset for manual sleeping or waking up. Hardware reset VR Headset reset If the visual in the VR Headset freezes, or the VR Headset does not respond after short press the Powerbutton, you can press the Power button of the VR Headset for more than 10 seconds to reboot the VRHeadset. Controller reset If the virtual Controller, the Home button or any buttons of the Controller doesn\\'t respond, remove andreinstall the battery case to restart the Controller. The VR Headset Adjustment This device has no myopia adjustment function. The VR Headset allows wearing most standard glasseswith a frame width of less than 150mm. to install Glasses Spacer to increase the space. You can install or not according to your situation. 17 EN\nInstall Glasses Spacer Install Nose Pad If you have glasses collision with headset lens or pressure on the bridge of nose, please follow the pictureto install Glasses Spacer to increase the space. You can install or not according to your situation. If you feel light leaking from your nose, please follow the picture to install Nose Pad to block the light.You can consider having it installed at your own discretion. Disassemble the Face Cushion. Install the Glasses Spacer on the Headset. ❸ ❶ ❷ Install the Face Cushion on the Glasses Spacer. Disassemble the Face Cushion. Install the Nose Pad on the Face Cushion. ❶ ❷ Install the Face Cushion on the Headset. ❸ * Note: Disassemble the Glasses Spacer 18 EN\nReplace Face Cushion The Face Cushion will have the following phenomena such as color change, surface fluff, soft texture afterlong-term use and repeated cleaning. You can replace a new Face Cushion as needed. Replace Top Strap ❶ ❷ Disassemble the Face Cushion. Pinch the metal buckle of the top strap asshown, press it down and pull it out.Install the Face Cushion on. ❸ ❷ ❶ • Purchase high-quality and trending apps • Join PICO Community and explore the VR worldwith other PICO players• Manage your device with ease • Engage in diverse and interactive activities • More exciting features waiting for you 19 EN\n'", "answers": ["Exposure to sunlight or strong light may cause permanent yellow spot damage on the screen."], "length": 2188, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "45e06726b160cfb851e2179017f90e37f4f4dec62f346e33"}
{"input": "What was Hugh H. Goodwin's rank in the United States Navy?", "context": "Hugh Hilton Goodwin (December 21, 1900 – February 25, 1980) was a decorated officer in the United States Navy with the rank of Vice Admiral. A veteran of both World Wars, he commanded escort carrier  during the Mariana Islands campaign. Goodwin then served consecutively as Chief of Staff, Carrier Strike Group 6 and as Air Officer, Philippine Sea Frontier and participated in the Philippines campaign in the later part of the War.\n\nFollowing the War, he remained in the Navy and rose to the flag rank and held several important commands including Vice Commander, Military Air Transport Service, Commander, Carrier Division Two and Commander, Naval Air Forces, Continental Air Defense Command.\n\nEarly life and career\n\nHugh H. Goodwin was born on December 21, 1900, in Monroe, Louisiana and attended Monroe High School there (now Neville High School). Following the United States' entry into World War I in April 1917, Goodwin left the school without receiving the diploma in order to see some combat and enlisted the United States Navy on May 7, 1917. He completed basic training and was assigned to the battleship . Goodwin participated in the training of armed guard crews and engine room personnel as the Atlantic Fleet prepared to go to war and in November 1917, he sailed with the rest of Battleship Division 9, bound for Britain to reinforce the Grand Fleet in the North Sea.\n\nAlthough he did not complete the last year of high school, Goodwin was able to earn an appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland in June 1918. While at the academy, he earned a nickname \"Huge\" and among his classmates were several future admirals and generals including: Hyman G. Rickover, Milton E. Miles, Robert E. Blick Jr., Herbert S. Duckworth, Clayton C. Jerome, James P. Riseley, James A. Stuart, Frank Peak Akers, Sherman Clark, Raymond P. Coffman, Delbert S. Cornwell, Frederick J. Eckhoff, Ralph B. DeWitt, John Higgins, Vernon Huber, Albert K. Morehouse, Harold F. Pullen, Michael J. Malanaphy, William S. Parsons, Harold R. Stevens, John P. Whitney, Lyman G. Miller and George J. O'Shea.\n\nGoodwin graduated with Bachelor of Science degree on June 3, 1922, and was commissioned Ensign in the United States Navy. He was subsequently assigned to the battleship  and took part in the voyage to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, before he was ordered to the Naval Torpedo Station at Newport, Rhode Island for submarine instruction in June 1923. Goodwin completed the training several weeks later and was attached to the submarine . He then continued his further training aboard submarine  and following his promotion to Lieutenant (junior grade) on June 3, 1925, he qualified as submariner.\n\nHe then served aboard submarine  off the coast of California, before he was ordered for the recruiting duty to San Francisco in September 1927. While in this capacity, Goodwin applied for naval aviation training which was ultimately approved and he was ordered to the Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida in August 1928. Toward the end of the training, he was promoted to lieutenant on December 11, 1928, and upon the completion of the training in January 1929, he was designated Naval aviator.\n\nGoodwin was subsequently attached to the Observation Squadron aboard the aircraft carrier  and participated in the Fleet exercises in the Caribbean. He was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics in Washington, D.C. in August 1931 and served consecutively under the architect of naval aviation William A. Moffett and future Chief of Naval Operations Ernest J. King.\n\nIn June 1933, Goodwin was ordered to the Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island, where he completed junior course in May of the following year. He subsequently joined the crew of aircraft carrier  and served under Captain Arthur B. Cook and took part in the Fleet exercises in the Caribbean and off the East Coast of the United States.\n\nHe was ordered back to the Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida in June 1936 and was attached to the staff of the Base Commandant, then-Captain Charles A. Blakely. When Blakely was succeeded by William F. Halsey in June 1937, Goodwin remained in Halsey's staff and was promoted to Lieutenant Commander on December 1, 1937. He also completed correspondence course in International law at the Naval War College.\n\nGoodwin was appointed Commanding officer of the Observation Squadron 1 in June 1938 and attached to the battleship  he took part in the patrolling of the Pacific and \nWest Coast of the United States until September 1938, when he assumed command of the Observation Squadron 2 attached to the battleship .\n\nWhen his old superior from Lexington, now Rear Admiral Arthur B. Cook, was appointed Commander Aircraft, Scouting Force in June 1939, he requested Goodwin as his Aide and Flag Secretary. He became Admiral Cook's protégé and after year and half of service in the Pacific, he continued as his Aide and Flag Secretary, when Cook was appointed Commander Aircraft, Atlantic Fleet in November 1940.\n\nWorld War II\n\nFollowing the United States' entry into World War II, Goodwin was promoted to the temporary rank of Commander on January 1, 1942, and assumed duty as advisor to the Argentine Navy. His promotion was made permanent two months later and he returned to the United States in early 1943 for duty as assistant director of Planning in the Bureau of Aeronautics under Rear admiral John S. McCain. While still in Argentina, Goodwin was promoted to the temporary rank of Captain on June 21, 1942.\n\nBy the end of December 1943, Goodwin was ordered to Astoria, Oregon, where he assumed command of newly commissioned escort carrier USS Gambier Bay. He was responsible for the initial training of the crew and was known as a strict disciplinarian, but the crew appreciated the skills he taught them that prepared them for combat. Goodwin insisted that everyone aboard has to do every job right every time and made us fight our ship at her best.\n\nDuring the first half of 1944, Gambier Bay was tasked with ferrying aircraft for repairs and qualified carrier pilots from San Diego to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, before departed on May 1, 1944, to join Rear admiral Harold B. Sallada's Carrier Support Group 2, staging in the Marshalls for the invasion of the Marianas.\n\nThe air unit, VC-10 Squadron, under Goodwin's command gave close air support to the initial landings of Marines on Saipan on June 15, 1944, destroying enemy gun emplacements, troops, tanks, and trucks. On the 17th, her combat air patrol (CAP) shot down or turned back all but a handful of 47 enemy planes headed for her task group and her gunners shot down two of the three planes that did break through to attack her.\n\nGoodwin's carrier continued in providing of close ground support operations at Tinian during the end of July 1944, then turned her attention to Guam, where she gave identical aid to invading troops until mid-August that year. For his service during the Mariana Islands campaign, Goodwin was decorated with Bronze Star Medal with Combat \"V\".\n\nHe was succeeded by Captain Walter V. R. Vieweg on August 18, 1944, and appointed Chief of Staff, Carrier Division Six under Rear admiral Arthur W. Radford. The Gambier Bay was sunk in the Battle off Samar on October 25, 1944, during the Battle of Leyte Gulf after helping turn back a much larger attacking Japanese surface force.\n\nGoodwin served with Carrier Division Six during the Bonin Islands raids, the naval operations at Palau and took part in the Battle of Leyte Gulf and operations supporting Leyte landings in late 1944. He was later appointed Air Officer of the Philippine Sea Frontier under Rear admiral James L. Kauffman and remained with that command until the end of hostilities. For his service in the later part of World War II, Goodwin was decorated with Legion of Merit with Combat \"V\". He was also entitled to wear two Navy Presidential Unit Citations and Navy Unit Commendation.\n\nPostwar service\n\nFollowing the surrender of Japan, Goodwin assumed command of Light aircraft carrier  on August 24, 1945. The ship was tasked with air missions over Japan became mercy flights over Allied prisoner-of-war camps, dropping food and medicine until the men could be rescued. She was also present at Tokyo Bay for the Japanese surrender on September 2, 1945.\n\nGoodwin returned with San Jacinto to the United States in mid-September 1945 and he was detached in January 1946. He subsequently served in the office of the Chief of Naval Operations until May that year, when he entered the instruction at National War College. Goodwin graduated in June 1947 and served on Secretary's committee for Research on Reorganization. Upon promotion to Rear admiral on April 1, 1949, Goodwin was appointed Chief of Staff and Aide to Commander-in-Chief, Atlantic Fleet under Admiral William H. P. Blandy.\n\nRevolt of the Admirals\n\nIn April 1949, the budget's cuts and proposed reorganization of the United States Armed Forces by the Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson launched the wave of discontent between senior commanders in the United States Navy. Johnson proposed the merging of the Marine Corps into the Army, and reduce the Navy to a convoy-escort force.\n\nGoodwin's superior officer, Admiral Blandy was call to testify before the House Committee on Armed Services and his harsh statements for the defense of the Navy, costed him his career. Goodwin shared his views and openly criticized Secretary Johnson for having power concentrated in a single civilian executive, who is an appointee of the Government and not an elected representative of the people. He also criticized aspects of defense unification which permitted the Joint Chiefs of Staff to vote on arms policies of individual services, and thus \"rob\" the branches of autonomy.\n\nThe outbreak of the Korean War in summer 1950 proved the proposal of Secretary Johnson as incorrect and he resigned in September that year. Also Secretary of the Navy, Francis P. Matthews resigned one month earlier.\n\nLater service\n\nDue to the Revolts of the admirals, Blandy was forced to retire in February 1950 and Goodwin was ordered to Newport, Rhode Island for temporary duty as Chief of Staff and Aide to the President of the Naval War College under Vice admiral Donald B. Beary in April 1950. Goodwin was detached from that assignment two months and appointed member of the General Board of the Navy. He was shortly thereafter appointed acting Navy Chief of Public Information, as the substitute for Rear Admiral Russell S. Berkey, who was relieved of illness, but returned to the General Board of the Navy in July that year. Goodwin served in that capacity until February 1951, when he relieved his Academy class, Rear admiral John P. Whitney as Vice Commander, Military Air Transport Service (MATS).\n\nWhile in this capacity, Goodwin served under Lieutenant general Laurence S. Kuter and was co-responsible for the logistical support of United Nations troops fighting in Korea. The MATS operated from the United States to Japan and Goodwin served in this capacity until August 1953, when he was appointed Commander Carrier Division Two. While in this assignment, he took part in the Operation Mariner, Joint Anglo-American exercise which encountered very heavy seas over a two-week period in fall 1953.\n\nGoodwin was ordered to the Philippines in May 1954 and assumed duty as Commander, U.S. Naval Forces in the Philippines with headquarters at Naval Station Sangley Point near Cavite. He held that command in the period of tensions between Taiwan and China and publicly declared shortly after his arrival, that any attack on Taiwan by the Chinese Communists on the mainland would result in US participation in the conflict. The naval fighter planes under his command also provided escort for passing commercial planes. Goodwin worked together with retired Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, then-Ambassador to the Philippines, and accompanied him during the visits to Singapore, Bangkok and Saigon in January 1955.\n\nOn December 18, 1955, Goodwin's classmate Rear admiral Albert K. Morehouse, then serving as Commander, Naval Air Forces, Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD), died of heart attack and Goodwin was ordered to CONAD headquarters in Colorado Springs, Colorado to assume Morehouse's position. While in this capacity, he was subordinated to Army General Earle E. Partridge and was responsible for the Naval and Marine Forces allocated to the command designated for the defense of the Continental United States.\n\nRetirement\n\nGoodwin retired on June 1, 1957, after 40 years of active service and was advanced to the rank of Vice admiral on the retired list for having been specially commended in combat. A week later, he was invited back to his Monroe High School (now Neville High School) and handed a diploma showing that he had been graduated with the class of 1918. He then settled in Monterey, California where he taught American history at Stevenson school and was a member of the Naval Order of the United States.\n\nVice admiral Hugh H. Goodwin died at his home on February 25, 1980, aged 79. He was survived by his wife, Eleanor with whom he had two children, a daughter Sidney and a son Hugh Jr., who graduated from the Naval Academy in June 1948, but died one year later, when the Hellcat fighter he was piloting collided with another over the Gulf of Mexico during training.\n\nDecorations\n\nHere is the ribbon bar of Vice admiral Hugh H. Goodwin:\n\nReferences\n\n1900 births\n1980 deaths\nPeople from Monroe, Louisiana\nMilitary personnel from Louisiana\nUnited States Naval Academy alumni\nNaval War College alumni\nUnited States Naval Aviators\nUnited States Navy personnel of World War I\nUnited States Navy World War II admirals\nUnited States Navy vice admirals\nUnited States submarine commanders\nRecipients of the Legion of Merit", "answers": ["Vice Admiral."], "length": 2292, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "e02f6a69d7b2a96a3aa6cd84a9189c2d552f6fb089f216e1"}
{"input": "Who was Ralph Rokebye's brother?", "context": "Rokebye, Ralph of Yorks, arm. Gloucester Hall, matric. 9 Nov., 1582, aged 15; student of Lincoln's Inn 1585. See Foster's Inns of Court Register.\nRokebye, Ralph of Herts (? Yorks), gent. Broadgates Hall, matric. entry 28 Feb., 1589-90, aged 14. See pedigree in Foster's Yorkshire Collection.\nRokeby, William (brother of Sir Richard, treasurer of Ireland, son of John, of Thundercliffe Grange, Yorks), fellow of King's Hall, Cambridge, D.Can.L.; rector of Sandal 1487, and of Halifax, Yorks, 1502, rector of Fakenham, Norfolk, 1496, chancellor of Ireland 1498, and 1515, bishop of Meath, and privy councillor 1507, archbishop of Dublin 1512, archdeacon of Surrey 1520, until his death 29 Nov., 1521. See Ath. ii. 717; Cotton, i. 25; & Lansdowne MS. 979, ff. 4, 6.\nRolfe, Augustine (Rolfus) M.A. from Queen's Coll., Cambridge, 1595; incorporated 10 July, 1599.\nRolf, Richard B.A. from Emanuel Coll., Cambridge, 1584-5 (incorporated 11 July, 1585); M.A. 1588. See Foster's Graduati Cantab.\nRolfe, William cler. fil. New Coll., matric. 10 March, 1656-7, B.A. 1660, fellow, M.A. 14 Jan., 1663-4; rector of Brampton 1668, and of Stoke Bruern, Northants, 1676, until his death, buried (at Stoke Bruern) 6 Sept., 1693. See Baker's Northants, i. 86.\nRolfe, William s. William, of Stoke-Bruern, Northants, cler. Brasenose Coll. 7 July, 1688, aged 16; student of Inner Temple 1692, buried in the Temple church 1 March, 1692-3. See Foster's Inns of Court Reg.\nRolle, Denis youngest son John, of Steventon, Devon, equitis. Exeter Coll., matric. 15 Feb., 1666-7, aged 17; brother of John same date.\nRolle, Denis s. D., of Heanton, Devon, arm. Exeter Coll. matric. 24 Oct., 1687, aged 17; B.A. 1691, M.A. 1694 (as Denys), rector of Merton, Devon, 1696. See Samuel 1687, & Foster's Index Ecclesiasticus.\nRolle, (Sir) Henry of Devon, arm. fil. Broadgates Hall, matric. 14 June, 1594, aged 18; student of Middle Temple 1597 (as son and heir of Henry, of Steventon, Devon, esq.), knighted 23 July, 1603, died in 1617. See Foster's Inns of Court Reg.\nRolle, Henry of Devon, arm. Exeter Coll., matric. 20 March, 1606-7, aged 17; bar.-at-law, Inner Temple, 1618, bencher 1633 (2s. Robert, of Heanton, Devon), M.P. Callington 1621-2, 1624-5, Truro 1625-1626, 1628-9, serjeant-at-law 1640, recorder of Dorchester 1636, a judge of king's bench 1645, chief justice of upper bench 1648-55, died 30 July, 1656, buried in Shapwick church, Somerset; brother of Samuel 1605. See Ath. iii. 416; & Foster's Judges and Barristers.\nRolle, Henry s. Alex., of Tavistock, Devon, gent. Christ Church, matric. 23 March, 1696-7, aged 17.\nRolle, John of Devon, arm. Exeter Coll., matric. 30 May, 1589, aged 15; B.A. 8 Feb., 1592-3, M.A. 25 May, 1596.\nRolle, John 1s. John, of Steventon, Devon, equitis. Exeter Coll., matric. 15 Feb., 1666-7, aged 18; of Bicton, Devon; died in his father's lifetime, buried at Bicton 22 April, 1689; brother of Denis 1667, and father of Denis 1698.\nRolle, Richard s. Richard, of Cookeburye, Devon, gent. New Inn Hall, matric. 26 Sept., 1634, aged 18; B.A. from Jesus Coll., Cambridge, 1638, incorporated from Gloucester Hall 17 Dec., 1639, M.A. 2 July, 1642, rector of Sheviocke, Cornwall, 1656; father of the next-named. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRolle, Richard s. R., of Sheviock, Cornwall, cler. St. Alban Hall, matric. 3 July, 1674, aged 17; B.A. 1678.\nRolle, Robert (Rooles or Roales) fellow New Coll. 1551-60 from Mark Lane, city of London, B.A. 26 June, 1555, M.A. 26 July, 1560, B.D. 22 Jan., 1572-3, D.D. June, 1585, a teacher in Westminster school; perhaps canon of Combe (4) in Wells, 1574, and rector of Stoke Climsland, Devon, 1574. See O.H.S. i. 345; & Foster's Index Eccl.\nRolle, Samuel s. Denis, of Great Torrington, Devon, arm. Exeter Coll., matric. 16 July, 1687, aged 18, B.A. 1691; bar.-at-law Middle Temple 1697; M.P. Barnstaple 1705, died 1747; see Denis 1687. See Foster's Judges and Barristers.\nRolle, William B.C.L. 14 July, 1528; perhaps vicar of Yarncombe, Devon, 1536. See Foster's Index Ecclesiasticus.\nRolles, Gabriel (Rooles) B.A. from St. John's Coll., Cambridge, 1610-11, M.A. 1614; incorporated 13 July, 1619, rector of East Locking, Berks, 1620, as Rolle. See Foster's Graduati Cantab.\nRolles, Richard gent. Jesus Coll., matric. 1 March, 1632-3, B.A. next day, M.A. 15 Oct., 1635; perhaps created B.D. 20 Dec. 1642, \"ex regis gratia,\" rector of Wavendon, Bucks, and of Witham, Essex, 1646, by the Westminster assembly. See Add. MS. 15,670, p. 70.\nRolles, William s. Richard, of Lewknor, Oxon, gent. St. John's Coll., matrie. 12 March, 1637-8, aged 17, B.A. 9 Nov., 1641, M.A. 6 July, 1644; B.D. from Jesus Coll. 12 Sept., 1661, rector of Wheatfield, Oxon, 1660, and of Chalfont St. Giles, Bucks, 1662. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRolles, William created M.A. from Exeter Coll. 14 April, 1648.\nRolleston, Simon created M.A. 31 Aug., 1636.\nRolleston, Thomas of Devon, gent. Wadham Coll., matric. 12 May, 1620, aged 16.\nRollinson, Francis 1584. See Rallinson.\nRollinson, William s. \"Jose,\" of London, gent. St. John's Coll., matric. 7 March, 1694-5, aged 15; perhaps brother of John Rawlinson, of New Coll. 1692. See page 1236.\nRolt, Edward youngest son of Tho., of London, equitis. Merton Coll., matric. 7 Nov., 1701, aged 15; of Sacomb, Herts, and Chippenham, Wilts, student of Lincoln's Inn, 1702, M.P. St. Mawes 1713, Grantham 1715-22, Chippenham 1722; died 22 Dec., 1722; his father knighted 1 Oct., 1682, and died 9 Sept., 1710. See Foster's Parliamentary Dictionary.\nRolte, George s. Thomas, of St. Margarets par. Darenth, Kent, pleb. St. Alban Hall, matric. 17 June, 1631, aged 18; B.A. 20 June, 1631, M.A. 29 April, 1634, incorporated at Cambridge 1639.\nRomane, Edmund pleb. Balliol Coll., matric. 20 Feb., 1627-8, aged 18; B.A. next day, M.A. 3 June, 1630.\nRomaine, Matthew pleb. Balliol Coll., matric. 10 June, 1630, B.A. same day, M.A. 14 May, 1633, vicar of Stoke Gaylard, Dorset, 1639; father of the next. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRomayne, Thomas s. Matth., of Stoke Gaylard, Dorset, minister. Wadham Coll., matric. 17 July, 1669, aged 17; B.A. from Hart Hall 1673, \"the intruded\" rector of Stoke Gaylard 1675. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRomayne, William (Ronayne) gent. Trinity Coll., matric. 31 July, 1671, aged 16.\nRome, Harcourt s. William, of London, p.p. Brasenose Coll., matric. 13 Dec., 1672, aged 17.\nRome, William s. G. (? \"Gul.\"), of Northampton (city), pleb. Brasenose Coll., matric. 11 Dec., 1684, aged 16.\nRomney, Joseph B.A. from Emanuel Coll., Cambridge, 1610-11, M.A. 1614; incorporated 8 July, 1614, student of Inner Temple 1610, as of London, gent. See Foster's Inns of Court Reg.\nRone, John s. Randolph, of Hanmer, Flints, pleb. Brasenose Coll., matric. 10 Oct., 1634, aged 18; D.D. Trinity Coll., Dublin, 25 Jan., 1666 (as Roane), vicar of Hanmer, Flints, 1644, ejected same year, dean of Clogher 1667, bishop of Killaloe 1675, until his death 5 Sept., 1692. See Cotton's Fasti Ecc. Hib. i. 467.\nRone, William of New Coll. 1661. See Roane.\nRoode, Edward (or Rode) B.A. 21 July, 1522, M.A. 26 Nov., 1534; perhaps canon of Southwell 1561-73.\nRoode, Edward cler. fil. Merton Coll., matric. 22 Nov., 1650; Eton postmaster 1649, fellow 1651, B.A. 2 March, 1651-2, M.A. 14 Dec., 1655; incorporated at Cambridge 1657, and LL.D. 1671; vicar of Gamlingay, co. Cambridge, rector of one moiety 1661, and of the other 1677; died at Cambridge 1689. See Burrows, 525; & O.H.S. iv. 292.\nRoode, Onesiphorus s. Edward, of Thame, Oxon, sacerd. New Inn Hall, matric. 27 Oct., 1637, aged 16, B.A. 1 July, 1641; incorporated at Cambridge 1645; chaplain to the house of lords after the expulsion of the bishops; minister of New chapel, Tuttle-Fields, Westminster, 1648, until ejected in 1660. See Calamy, i. 195.\nRood, Richard M.A. from Pembroke Coll. 5 Dec., 1634.\nRooke, John s. Tho., of Broadwell, co. Gloucester, pleb. Pembroke Coll., matric. 1 March, 1683-4, aged 17; brother of Thomas 1693.\nRooke, John s. Tho., of Whitchurch, Wilts, gent. Balliol Coll., matric. 14 Jan., 1713-14, aged 17.\nRooke, Nicholas s. Arthur, of Totnes, Devon, gent. Exeter Coll., matric. 10 March, 1670-1, aged 16; B.A. 1674, M.A. 1677, rector of Dartington, Devon, 1679. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRooke, Robert \"ser.\" Oriel Coll., matric. 1 April, 1656, B.A. 1659.\nRooke, Robert s. R., p.p. St. Alban Hall, matric. 30 March, 1677, aged 17.\nRooke, Thomas pleb. Christ Church, matric. 3 May, 1659.\nRooke, William (Roock) of Dorset, pleb. Brasenose Coll., matric. entry under date 20 March, 1578-9, aged 19; B.A. from St. Alban Hall 30 Jan., 1582-3, M.A. 9 May, 1586.\nRooke, William of Dorset, gent. New Coll., matric. 12 July, 1605, aged 18; B.A. 21 Feb., 1608-9, chaplain, M.A. 16 Dec., 1611, rector of North Cheriton, Somerset, 1618. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRooke, William s. J., of Workington, Cumberland, p.p. Queen's Coll., matric. 22 Oct., 1669, aged 17; B.A. 1674, M.A. 1677, B.D. 1690, vicar of Plumstead, Kent, 1691, and rector of Hadley, Hants, 1695. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRookes, Christopher (Rokys or Rokkis) B.A. 8 July, 1522, M.A. 1 July, 1527, B.D. supd. Oct., 1540; principal of Magdalen Hall 1529-32, vicar of Stanstead Abbots, Herts, 1534. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRookes, Jonas B.A. from Magdalen Hall 24 April, 1599, M.A. 11 Feb., 1601-2 (2s. William, of Roydes Hall); vicar of Penistone, Yorks, 1619, see Foster's Index Eccl.; styled fellow and bursar of University Coll. in Foster's Yorkshire Collection, possibly brother of the next-named.\nRookes, Robert of Yorks, pleb. Magdalen Hall, matric. 14 May, 1602, aged 19; possibly brother of the last-named.\nRo(o)kes, William demy Magdalen Coll. 1544, B.A. supd. 1551, fellow 1552-71, M.A. 27 April, 1556, B.Med. supd. 24 April, 1561. See Bloxam, iv. 99.\nRookes, William s. William, of Rhodes Hall, Yorks, gent. University Coll., matric. 30 June, 1665, aged 16; died at Oxford in 1667.\nRoope, Ambrose s. A., of Dartmouth Parva, Devon, arm. Exeter Coll., matric. 15 March, 1671-2, aged 16.\nRoope, George s. Ant., of Bradford, Wilts, gent. Hart Hall, matric. 10 Oct., 1702, aged 15.\nRoope, John s. Nicholas, of Dartmouth, Devon, gent. Exeter Coll., matric. 17 Nov., 1637, aged 15; student of Lincoln's Inn 1638. See Foster's Inns of Court Reg.\nRoope, Nicholas of Devon, gent. Broadgates Hall, matric. 6 Feb., 1606-7, aged 18; B.A. 6 Nov., 1610; probably father of the last-named.\nRooper, Thomas s. T., of London, gent. Trinity Coll., matric. 9 July, 1699, aged 16; B.A. 1703, M.A. 19 Feb., 1705-6, as Roper.\nRooper, William of St. Alban Hall 1667. See Roper.\nRoos, Brian D.Can.L. or doctor of decrees of the university of Valentia; incorporated 3 Feb., 1510-11; died 1529, buried in the church of Chelray. See Fasti, i. 31.\nRoot, Isaac pleb. St. John's Coll., matric. 2 July, 1658, admitted to Merchant Taylors' school 1649 (only son of Isaac, merchant taylor); born in Trinity parish 20 Aug., 1641. See Robinson, i. 193.\nRoots, Richard s. Tho., of Tunbridge, Kent, gent. St. John's Coll., matric. 26 Dec., 1689, aged 15; demy Magdalen Coll. 1690-1702, B.A. 1693, M.A. 1696, rector of Chilmarck, Wilts, 1702-27, canon of Sarum 1722, rector and vicar of Bishopstone, Wilts, 1728; brother of William 1699. See Rawl. iii. 447, and xix. 90; Bloxam, vi. 111; & Foster's Index Eccl.\nRoots, Thomas of Sussex, pleb. Magdalen Hall, matric. entry 17 Nov., 1581, aged 13; B.A. supd. 1 July, 1584, bar.-at-law, Lincoln's Inn, 1594. See Foster's Judges and Barristers.\nRootes, Thomas s. William, of Tunbridge, Kent, pleb. St. John's Coll., matric. 31 Jan., 1628-9, aged 23; B.A. 12 Feb., 1628-9, vicar of Long Stanton All Saints, co. Cambridge, 1630. See Add. MSS. 15,669-70; & Foster's Index Eccl.\nRootes, Thomas pleb. St. John's Coll., matric. 2 July, 1658; B.A. 1661, M.A. 1666; possibly father of Richard 1689, and William 1699.\nRoots, William s. Tho., of Tunbridge, Kent, gent. Christ Church, matric. 16 March, 1698-9, aged 18; B.A. 1704; clerk Magdalen Coll. 1705-11, M.A. 1707, rector of Little Berkhampstead, Herts, 1714; brother of Richard 1689. See Bloxam, ii. 85; & Foster's Index Eccl.\nRoper, Francis s. Robert, of Trimdon, co. Durham, gent. Corpus Christi Coll., matric. 16 Dec., 1661, aged 18; probably identical with Francis, son of Robert, of Kelloe, co. Durham, farmer, was admitted sizar of St. John's Coll., Cambridge, 21 Sept., 1658, aged 16; fellow, B.A. 1662-3, M.A. 1666, B.D. 1673, vicar of Waterbeach, co. Cambridge, 1678, canon of Ely 1686-90, rector of Northwold, Norfolk, 1687, died 13 April, 1719. See Mayor, 138; Surtees' Durham, i. 107; & Foster's Index Eccl.\nRoper, John (or Rooper) demy Magdalen Coll., from Berks, M.A. fellow, 1483, D.D. disp. 27 June, 1506, (first) Margaret professor of divinity, 1500, vice-chancellor of the university 1505, and 1511, principal of Salesurry and George Hall, rector of Witney, Oxon, 1493, vicar of St. Mary's church, Oxford, canon of Cardinal Coll. 1532; died May, 1534. See Ath. i. 76; & Landsowne MS. 979, f. 118.\nRoper, John B.A. disp. 4 July, 1512.\nRoper, Thomas of Trinity Coll. 1699. See Rooper.\nRoper, Philip of Kent, arm. Gloucester Hall, matric. 7 Sept., 1588, aged 15 (subscribes Rooper).\nRoper, William (subscribes Rooper) of co. Hereford, militis fil. St. Alban Hall, matric. entry dated 5 June, 1607, aged 13; probably of Malmains, Kent, 2nd son of Sir Christopher Roper, afterwards 2nd baron Teynham. See Foster's Peerage.\nRoscarrock, Henry of Cornwall, arm. Hart Hall, matric. entry under date 17 Dec., 1576, aged 21; probably son of Thomas, of Roscarrock, and brother of the next, and of Richard 1581.\nRoscarrock, John B.A. 11 Feb., 1576-7; perhaps from Exeter Coll. (and 1s. Thomas, of Roscarrock, Cornwall); died 24 Nov., 1608; brother of Henry and Richard. See O.H.S. xii. 65.\nRoscarrock, Nicolas (Roiscariot) B.A. supd. 3 May, 1568, student Inner Temple 1571, as of Roscarrock, Cornwall. See Foster's Inns of Court Reg.\nRoscarrock, Richard of Cornwall, arm. Broadgates Hall, matric. entry under date circa 1581, aged 19; student of Middle Temple 1583 (as 3s. Thomas, of Roscarrock, Cornwall, esq.), brother of Henry and John. See Foster's Inns of Court Reg.\nRosdell, Christopher of Yorks, pleb. St. Edmund Hall, matric. entry under date 22 Dec., 1576, aged 22, B.A. 4 July, 1576; rector of St. Bennet Sherehog, London, 1579, and vicar of Somerton, Somerset, 1582. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRose, Christopher s. John, of Marlow, Bucks, gent. Christ Church, matric. 13 Feb., 1622-3, aged 21, B.A. same day; rector of Hutton, Essex, 1642. See Foster's Index Ecclesiasticus.\nRose, Christopher s. Giles, of Lynn Regis, Norfolk, gent. Lincoln Coll., matric. 8 July, 1670, aged 15; student of Gray's Inn, 1673. See Foster's Gray's Inn Register.\nRose, Gilbert Augustinian Canon, B.D. supd. 22 May, 1512, and supd. 12 Dec., 1519, for incorporation as D.D.\nRose, Henry \"ser.\" Lincoln Coll., matric. 22 July, 1658, B.A. 16 Jan., 1660-1, fellow 1662 from Pirton, Oxon, M.A. 1663 (incorporated at Cambridge 1688), B.D. 1672; minister of All Saints, Oxford, but running much into debt, and marrying beneath himself, left his fellowship and church about 1674, retired to London, and at length to Ireland. See Ath. iv. 561.\nRose, Hugh s. \"Dav. Ni.\" (Nigg 4to.), of Ross, Scotland, p.p. (subs. pleb.). Balliol Coll., matric. 3 April, 1707, aged 20; B.A. 1709.\nRose, John B.A. 8 June, 1519, fellow Merton Coll. 1523, M.A. 31 March, 1525; one of these names vicar of Shoreham, Kent, 1536. See Foster's Index Ecclesiasticus.\nRose, John of co. Leicester, pleb. Merton Coll., matric. 24 Nov., 1581, aged 21.\nRose, John s. Jeremy, of Swell, co. Gloucester, pleb. Corpus Christi Coll., matric. 12 Dec., 1623, aged 15; B.A. 4 July, 1626.\nRose, John s. Rich., of Halberton, Devon, gent. Exeter Coll., matric. 14 May, 1688, aged 17.\nRose, John s. J., of West Derby, co. Lancaster, pleb. University Coll., matric. 7 March, 1712-13, aged 18, B.A. 1716; rector of Bilborough, Notts, 1722. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRose, Jonathan s. Th., of Mickleton, co. Gloucester, pleb. St. Alban Hall, matric. 16 May, 1677, aged 18; B.A. 9 Feb., 1680-1.\nRose, Joseph s. Thomas, of Sturminster Newton, Dorset, pleb. Oriel Coll., matric. 12 Dec., 1623, aged 19.\nRose, Richard B.A. from Exeter Coll. 14 June, 1621; perhaps student of Middle Temple 1622 (as son and heir of John, of Lyme, Dorset, gent.), and M.P. Lyme Regis April-May, 1640, 1640 (l.p.), till his death after 1648. See Foster's Inns of Court Reg. & Foster's Parliamentary Dictionary.\nRose, Richard arm. Exeter Coll., matric. 29 March, 1656; student of Lincoln's Inn 1659, as 4s. Richard, of Wootton Fitzwarren, Dorset, esq. See Foster's Inns of Court Reg.\nRose, Richard s. Richard, of Monks Kirby, co. Warwick, pleb. Magdalen Coll., matric. 3 May, 1672, aged 16 (as Rosse); chorister 1670-6. See Bloxam, i. 95.\nRose, Richard s. R(ichard), of Wyng, Bucks, gent. Trinity Coll., matric. 7 May, 1680, aged 16; bar.-at-law, Inner Temple, 1699. See Foster's Judges and Barristers.\nRose, Stephen of co. Gloucester, pleb. Corpus Christi Coll., matric. 21 Jan., 1619-20, aged 16; B.A. 13 Nov., 1621, M.A. 2 July, 1625, vicar of Aldermaston 1627, and rector of Barkham 1633, and of Arborfield, Berks, 1640, and perhaps of Hartley Mawditt, Hants, 1652. See Foster's Index Ecclesiasticus.\nRose, Stephen \"ser.\" Lincoln Coll., matric. 19 Nov., 1650.\nRose, Stephen \"servi. fil.\" Magdalen Coll., matric. 19 Nov., 1650 (subscribes \"serv.\").\nRose, Stephen \"ser.\" Magdalen Coll., subscribed 23 Nov., 1655; B.A. from Wadham Coll. 1659, vicar of Cold Overton, co. Leicester, 1662-3, and rector of Woolhampton, Berks, 1667-95, father of Temple. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRose, Temple s. Step., of Woolhampton, Berks, cler. Trinity Coll., matric. 29 March, 1693, aged 17, B.A. 1696.\nRose, Thomas Minorite, B.D. 22 June, 1509.\nRose, Thomas of Herts, pleb. Magdalen Hall, matric. 10 Oct., 1589, aged 15.\nRose, Thomas s. Seth, of Telscombe, Sussex, sacerd. Oriel Coll., matric. 5 June, 1640, aged 18; his father rector of Telscombe 1604, etc. See Foster's Index Eccl.\nRose, Thomas s. Edw., ", "answers": ["Sir Richard."], "length": 2952, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "dee63735510f6958f4c5bf318421c9b9fac0bc8b3e341a4a"}
{"input": "What is the name of the most active fan club?", "context": "Football Club Urartu (, translated Futbolayin Akumb Urartu), commonly known as Urartu, is an Armenian professional football team based in the capital Yerevan that currently plays in the Armenian Premier League. The club won the Armenian Cup three times, in 1992, 2007 and 2016. In 2013–2014, they won the Armenian Premier League for the first time in their history.\n\nIn early 2016, the Russia-based Armenian businessman Dzhevan Cheloyants became a co-owner of the club after purchasing the major part of the club shares. The club was known as FC Banants until 1 August 2019, when it was officially renamed FC Urartu.\n\nHistory\n\nKotayk\nUrartu FC were founded as FC Banants by Sarkis Israelyan on 21 January 1992 in the village of Kotayk, representing the Kotayk Province. He named the club after his native village of Banants (currently known as Bayan). Between 1992 and 1995, the club was commonly referred to as Banants Kotayk. During the 1992 season, the club won the first Armenian Cup. At the end of the 1995 transitional season, Banants suffered a financial crisis. The club owners decided that it was better to merge the club with FC Kotayk of Abovyan, rather than disband it. In 2001, Banants demerged from FC Kotayk, and was moved from Abovyan to the capital Yerevan.\n\nYerevan\n\nFC Banants was relocated to Yerevan in 2001. At the beginning of 2003, Banants merged with FC Spartak Yerevan, but was able to limit the name of the new merger to FC Banants. Spartak became Banants's youth academy and later changed the name to Banants-2. Because of the merger, Banants acquired many players from Spartak Yerevan, including Samvel Melkonyan. After the merger, Banants took a more serious approach and have finished highly in the league table ever since. The club managed to lift the Armenian Cup in 2007.\nExperience is making way for youth for the 2008 and 2009 seasons. The departures of most of the experienced players have left the club's future to the youth. Along with two Ukrainian players, Ugandan international, Noah Kasule, has been signed.\n\nThe club headquarters are located on Jivani Street 2 of the Malatia-Sebastia District, Yerevan.\n\nDomestic\n\nEuropean\n\nStadium\n\nThe construction of the Banants Stadium was launched in 2006 in the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan, with the assistance of the FIFA goal programme. It was officially opened in 2008 with a capacity of 3,600 seats. Further developments were implemented later in 2011, when the playing pitch was modernized and the capacity of the stadium was increased up to 4,860 seats (2,760 at the northern stand, 1,500 at the southern stand and 600 at the western stand).\n\nTraining centre/academy\nBanants Training Centre is the club's academy base located in the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan. In addition to the main stadium, the centre houses 3 full-size training pitches, mini football pitches as well as an indoor facility. The current technical director of the academy is the former Russian footballer Ilshat Faizulin.\n\nFans\nThe most active group of fans is the South West Ultras fan club, mainly composed of residents from several neighbourhoods within the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan, since the club is a de facto representer of the district. Members of the fan club benefit from events organized by the club and many facilities of the Banants training centre, such as the mini football pitch, the club store and other entertainments.\n\nAchievements\n Armenian Premier League\n Winner (1): 2013–14.\n Runner-up (5): 2003, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2018.\n\n Armenian Cup\n Winner (3): 1992, 2007, 2016.\n Runner-up (6): 2003, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2021–22\n\n Armenian Supercup\n Winner (1): 2014.\n Runner-up (5): 2004, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2016.\n\nCurrent squad\n\nOut on loan\n\nPersonnel\n\nTechnical staff\n\nManagement\n\nUrartu-2\n\nFC Banants' reserve squad play as FC Banants-2 in the Armenian First League. They play their home games at the training field with artificial turf of the Urartu Training Centre.\n\nManagerial history\n Varuzhan Sukiasyan (1992–94)\n Poghos Galstyan (July 1, 1996 – June 30, 1998)\n Oganes Zanazanyan (2001–05)\n Ashot Barseghyan (2005–06)\n Nikolay Kiselyov (2006–07)\n Jan Poštulka (2007)\n Nikolay Kostov (July 1, 2007 – April 8, 2008)\n Nedelcho Matushev (April 8, 2008 – June 30, 2008)\n Kim Splidsboel (2008)\n Armen Gyulbudaghyants (Jan 1, 2009 – Dec 1, 2009)\n Ashot Barseghyan (interim) (2009)\n Stevica Kuzmanovski (Jan 1, 2010 – Dec 31, 2010)\n Rafael Nazaryan (Jan 1, 2011 – Jan 15, 2012)\n Volodymyr Pyatenko (Jan 17, 2013 – June 30, 2013)\n Zsolt Hornyák (July 1, 2013 – May 30, 2015)\n Aram Voskanyan (July 1, 2015 – Oct 11, 2015)\n Tito Ramallo (Oct 12, 2015 – Oct 3, 2016)\n Artur Voskanyan (Oct 3, 2016 – Aug 11, 2018)\n Ilshat Faizulin (Aug 12, 2018 –Nov 24, 2019)\n Aleksandr Grigoryan (Nov 25, 2019 –Mar 10, 2021)\n Robert Arzumanyan (10 March 2021–24 June 2022)\n Dmitri Gunko (27 June 2022–)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Official website \n Banants at Weltfussball.de  \n\n \nUrartu\nUrartu\nUrartu\nUrartu", "answers": ["South West Ultras fan club."], "length": 819, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "c29e95ab6195406aceecf3874186150cb1b8b26db5bcd0e4"}
{"input": "What is the recommended space for using the VR headset?", "context": "'用户指南 * User Guide 02 CN 11 EN * 包装内含 使用前注意事项 快速引导 产品部件详情说明 操作说明 02 02 03 06 08 01 \n•本产品支持在系统设置中进行瞳距调节 , 调节时请务必注意，最小瞳距可能会碰触鼻梁。当您佩戴头盔后，您 “显示”中进行手动调节，请注意设置使用不合适的瞳距，可能会引起视觉重影或者眼睛疲劳。 可在“设置” ► •本产品“护眼模式”经德国 TÜV Rheinland 低蓝光认证，通过软件算法降低三色通道中的蓝光量，来达到保护 “护眼” “色彩调节” 眼睛的作用，该模式下画面颜色偏黄，您可根据个人喜好在“设置” 中激活或关闭此功能。 ““显示” ► ► ► 包装内含： VR 头盔 / 手柄 × 2 / 1.5V AA 碱性干电池 × 4/ 眼镜支架 / 遮光鼻托 / 手柄挂绳 × 2 / USB-C 电源适配器 / USB-Cto C 2.0 数据线 / 快速指南 / 用户指南 / 安全与质保指南使用前注意事项 •本产品在开阔的室內环境使用体验最佳，建议至少预留 2×2 米 的空间。使用前请确认身体没有不适且周围环 境安全，特别是佩戴头盔在室内行走移动时，要尽量避免发生意外。 •不建议 12 岁及以下儿童使用本产品，建议将头盔、手柄和配件置于儿童够不到的位置，13 岁以上青少年须在 成人监护下使用，以免发生意外。 •本产品无近视调节功能，近视用户请佩戴眼镜使用并尽量避免近视眼镜被头盔的光学镜片磨伤或刮伤。建议在 使用和收纳时注意防护光学镜片，避免尖锐物体划伤镜片，擦拭清洁时请使用柔软的眼镜布，否则可能划伤镜片， 影响视觉效果。 •长时间使用可能引发轻微的昡晕或者眼疲劳，建议使用 30 分钟后适当休息，可通过眼保健操或观看远处物体缓 解眼疲劳。如果您的身体感到任何不适，请立即停止使用。如果不适持续，请咨询医生。 •当头盔镜片被阳光或紫外线照射时（尤其在户外、阳台、窗台及汽车内存放时），可能导致屏幕出现永久性黄斑。 请尽量避免该情况发生，此种屏幕损坏不在产品的质保范围内。 *本产品最终外观及功能以实物为准，部分地区包装内含物品有所差异，本说明仅供参考。 02 CN\n六自由度 VR 体验 本产品可以追踪头盔和手柄前、后、左、右、上、下和旋转的运动状态，您在现实中的肢体运动会实时反映在虚 拟世界中。 由于没有任何线缆的束缚，您在虚拟世界自由探索时请确保游玩区域的安全。 1. 建议准备一个整洁安全的体验空间：至少 2×2 米；保持房间明亮，避免在只有单色的墙或大面积玻璃、镜子类 反射物以及许多移动画面和物体的空间中使用。 2. 撕下 VR 头盔前端摄像头上的保护膜，并佩戴手柄挂绳。 3. 根据开机后的画面提示进行游玩区域的设定。 ❶ 安装电池 按箭头方向拔出电池盖侧边的绝缘纸 快速引导 提示：本产品虚拟的安全区提醒功能，不能完全保证您在设定好的游戏区域中的安全，请时刻注意周围的安全情况。 提示：建议使用 1.5V AA 碱性电池。 按照图示拨动电池盖拨钮打开电池盖更换电池。 03 CN\n❷ 手柄开机 ❸ 头盔开机 ❹ 佩戴头盔，调节至清晰舒适的位置 首次开机：拔出绝缘纸，手柄自动开机（蓝灯闪烁） 非首次开机：短按手柄 Home 键开机（蓝灯闪烁） 长按头盔电源键 2 秒（蓝灯常亮） 调节旋钮转动绑带，使后脑垫套在头上，微调绑带长度及佩戴位置至视野清晰 04 提示：近视用户请佩戴眼镜或镜片插件使用，本产品不具备近视调节功能。 CN\n❺ 微调顶绑带 微调顶绑带使其受力以减少额头压力 ❻ 瞳 距 调 节 在系统设置：“设置” ► “显示”界面中进行瞳距调节，点击“+”或“-”按钮可微调瞳距直至画面清晰 64mm 请勿 强行 掰动镜 筒，以 免造 成损坏 ！ 请注 意设 置使用 不合适 的瞳 距，可 能 会引起 视 觉重影 或 者眼睛 疲 劳。准 确 的瞳距 设 置有助 于 获得清 晰 的图像 并 减少眼睛 疲劳。 05 CN\n产品部件详情说明 头盔状态指示灯 蓝灯常亮：开机进行中或工作状态 黄灯常亮：充电中，电量低于 98% 红灯常亮：充电中，电量低于 20% 绿灯常亮：充电完毕，电量大于 98% 或 充满 蓝灯闪烁：关机进行中 红灯闪烁：电量低于 20% 指示灯熄灭：休眠或关机 06 ① 电源键 开机：长按 2 秒 关机：长按 5 秒 复位：长按 10 秒 开机时，短按休眠 ② ③ ④ ⑤ 状态指示灯 贴脸泡棉 音量键 彩色透视摄像头 使用时请勿遮挡 ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ 顶部绑带 可拆卸 绑带旋钮 环境追踪摄像头 使用时请勿遮挡 ⑨ ⑩ ⑪ USB-C 接口 左 / 右喇叭 距离传感器 佩戴头盔后，系统自动唤醒 摘下头盔后，系统自动休眠 ⑫ ⑬ 眼球追踪摄像头 此功能仅 Pro 版支持 使用时请勿遮挡 面部追踪摄像头 此功能仅 Pro 版支持 使用时请勿遮挡 CN\n手柄状态指示灯 熄灭：已连接或者关机 蓝灯常亮：固件升级模式 蓝灯闪烁：连接中 红蓝灯交替慢速闪烁：等待配对 ① ② 摇杆 菜单键 ③ Home 键 开机 : 短按关机 : 长按 6 秒退出应用 : 短按屏幕中心校正 : 长按 1 秒④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦ 状态指示灯 抓握键 截屏键 扳机键 ⑧ ⑨ 电池盒 打开：拨动拨钮，电池盒弹出 安装：按压直至自动锁紧 追踪光环 使用时请勿遮挡 注：手柄挂绳可按图示将粗绳穿过细绳并锁紧在手柄尾端 07 CN\n手柄硬件复位 如果手柄出现按 Home 键和任何按键均无反应或者头盔中虚拟手柄卡死不动的问题可拆装电池重新启动手柄。 近视用户配戴 本设备不具备近视调节功能，头盔可支持佩戴镜框宽度小于 150mm 的大多数标准眼镜。 操作说明 头控模式 未连接手柄的情况下，您可通过转动头部光标及点击头盔音量加减按键进行操作。 切换主控手柄射线 在主控菜单下，短按对应手柄的扳机键可以切换主控手柄的射线。 屏幕中心校正 戴着头盔直视前方，按住手柄 Home 键（或头控模式下头盔上的音量减键）1 秒以上，进行屏幕中心的校正将菜 单拉到当前视野朝向位置。 断开手柄 长按手柄 Home 键直至手柄状态指示灯红灯亮起并伴随振动产生时即可松手，此时手柄关机并断开与头盔的连接。 您无需刻意进行手柄关机操作，在以下状态下手柄会自动关机省电： •头盔进入深度休眠时（摘下头盔后一段时间） •头盔手柄管理界面解绑手柄时 •头盔关机时 添加新手柄 如需添加新手柄（头盔最多可同时连接一对手柄，即左右手柄各一只），或解绑手柄后再次连接 , 可进入“设置” “手 柄”，点击“配对”，同时按住手柄 Home 键和扳机键直至手柄状态指示灯红蓝交替闪烁时即可松开，然后根据 头盔画面提示操作。 ► 休眠 / 唤醒 方式一：摘下头盔一段时间后，系统自动休眠；戴上头盔时，系统自动唤醒。 方式二：短按头盔电源键也可以进行休眠或唤醒操作。 硬件复位 头盔硬件复位 如果头盔出现短按头盔电源键没有反应或头盔的画面卡死等问题，可以长按头盔电源键 10 秒以上重新启动头盔。 08 CN\n安装眼镜支架 安装遮光鼻托 如您存在眼镜摩擦光学镜片或者压迫鼻梁的问题，请按照图示安装眼镜支架以增加间隔空间。 您可根据佩戴的舒适度选择是否安装。 如您感觉鼻子处漏光影响体验，请按照图示安装遮光鼻托配件。 由于眼睛空间密闭可能加剧起雾及出汗问题，您可根据喜好选择是否安装。 ❶ 摘下贴脸泡棉 ❷ 将眼镜支架按照图示安装在产品上 ❸ 将贴脸泡棉按照图示安装眼镜支架上 ❶ 摘下贴脸泡棉 ❸ 安装贴脸泡棉❷ 将遮光鼻托按照图示方式安装在贴脸泡棉上 注：按照图示拆卸眼镜支架 09 CN\n更换贴脸泡棉 贴脸泡棉多次清洁和长时间使用后会变色和质地变软，您可酌情更换新泡棉。 更换顶绑带 摘下贴脸泡棉 ❸ 安装贴脸泡棉 按照图示捏住顶绑带金属扣，往下压到底然后抽出 ❷ •购买优质热门应用 •畅 聊 社 区， 与 众 多 PICO 玩 家 一起探索 VR 世界 •管理设备更便捷 •参与丰富互动活动 •更多精彩内容等你来发现 ❶ 微 信公 众 号：PICO VR抖音：PICO官 方 旗 舰 店哔 哩 哔 哩：PICO-VR官 方微 博：PICO-VR ❶ ❷ 10 CN\nIn The Box: VR Headset / 2 Controllers / 4 1.5V AA Alkaline Batteries / Glasses Spacer / Nose Pad / 2 Controller Lan- yards / USB-C Power Adapter / USB-C to C 2.0 Data Cable / Quick Guide / User Guide / Safety and WarrantyGuide Important Health & Safety Notes • This product is designed and intended to be used in an open and safe indoor area, free of anytripping or slipping hazards. To avoid accidents, remain conscious to the potential confines ofyour physical area and respect the boundary of your virtual area whenever you see it. Be sure towear the lanyards when using the Controllers. Make sure that there is enough space around yourhead and body (at least 2 meters by 2 meters) to stretch your arms to avoid damage or injury toyourself, others, and your surroundings. • This product is not recommended for children aged 12 and under. It is recommended to keep headsets,controllers and accessories out of the reach of children. Teenagers aged 13 and over must use it underadult supervision to avoid accidents. • This product is designed to accommodate most prescription glasses. Make sure to wear the VR Headsetin a manner in which the VR Headset lenses do not rub or impair your prescription lenses. • Prolonged use may cause dizziness or eye fatigue. It is recommended to take a break every 30 minutes.Try relieving your eyestrain by looking at distant objects. If you feel any discomfort, stop using the prod- uct immediately. If the discomfort persists, seek medical advice.• Do not expose the optical lenses to direct sunlight or other strong light sources. Exposure to directsunlight may cause permanent yellow spot damage on the screen. Screen damage caused by sunlightexposure or other strong sources of light is not covered by the warranty. • This product supports interpupillary distance (IPD) adjustment in system settings. When adjusting,please be aware that with the minimum IPD, it may touch the bridge of the nose. You can adjust the IPDaccording to your actual interpupillary distance in \"Settings\"►\"Display\". Please note that using inap- propriate IPD may increase the risk of discomfort. • This product has an “Eye Protection Mode”, certified by TÜV Rheinland (Germany), which can protectyour eyes by reducing blue light in the three color channels using software algorithms. The screen ap- pears yellowish in this mode and you can turn this feature on/off in \"Settings\"►\"Display\"►\"Color\"►“- Eye Protection”. • Protect optical lenses during use and storage to prevent damage, such as scratches or exposure tostrong light or direct sunlight. * Product and packaging are updated regularly, and the functions and contents of the standalone headset may be upgraded in the future.Therefore, the content, appearance and functionality listed in this manual and product packaging are subject to change and may notreflect the final product. These instructions are for reference only. * Carefully read this user guide before using the product and share this information with any other users, as it contains important safetyinformation. Keep the user guide as reference for the future. 11 EN\n6 Degrees of Freedom VR The device can track your translational and rotational movements in all directions (up/down, left/right,forward/backward, pitch, roll, and yaw). Your movements in the real world will be captured and translatedto what you see in the virtual world when using the appropriate content. Ensure a safe environment before you start your VR experience. 1. Clear a safe indoor area of at least 2 meters by 2 meters. Keep the room bright, avoid spaces with main- ly single-colored walls, glass, mirrors, moving pictures or other similar objects. 2. Remove the protective film that covers the headset front cameras. Wear the lanyards connected to theControllers. 3. Set up your environment by following instructions on the VR Headset screen. Install Batteries ❶Pull the tab to remove the insulating paper. Quick Guide 2 m 2m This product can not guarantee your safety with guardian system, you will need to always pay attention to the surrounding safety. * Note: 1.5V AA alkaline batteries should be used.Slide the toggle according to arrow direction toopen the battery case. 12 EN\nPower on the Controller ❷ First Start: The Controller will start automaticallyafter removing the insulating paper. Others: Short press the Home button for 1second until the status indicator flashes blue.Power on the VR Headset ❸ Long press the Power button for 2 seconds untilthe status indicator turns blue.Wear Your Headset for a Comfortable Fit and View ❹ Adjust the strap dial to turn the strap so that the back of your head rests on the padding. Fine-tune thelength and position of the strap to give a clear view. * Note: You can use this product with prescription glasses or lenses insert. 13 EN\nFine-tune the Top Strap ❺ Fine-tune the head strap to reduce pressure on the forehead. Interpupillary Distance (IPD) Adjustment ❻ In System Setting, go to “Setting” ► “Display” to adjust IPD, tap “+” or “-” button to slightly adjust IPDuntil the picture is clear. 14 64mm Please note that inappropriate IPD setting may cause ghosting or eyestrain.Accurate IPD setting helps you get a clear imaging and ease eyestrain. EN\nProduct Details VR Headset Status Indicator Legend Blue: Powered on with battery over 20% Yellow: Charging: Battery is less than 98% Red: Charging: Battery is less than 20% Green: Charging: Battery is more than 98% or charge complete Blue flashing: Shutting down Red flashing: Battery is less than 20% Off: Sleeping or Powered off Power Power on: Long press for 2 seconds Power off: Long press for 5 seconds Hardware reset: Long press for 10 seconds Short press to enter sleep or wake up Status Indicator Face Cushion Volume ① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ RGB See Through Camera Do not block during use. Top Strap Removable Strap Dial Tracking Cameras Do not block during use. ⑨ ⑩ ⑪ USB-C Interface Left/Right Speaker Proximity Sensor The system wakes upwhen the VR headset isput on, sleeps when VRheadset is taken off. ⑫ ⑬ Eye Tracking Cameras Pro version only. Do not block during use. Face Tracking Camera Pro version only. Do not block during use. 15 EN\nController Status Indicator Legend Off: Connected or Powered off Blue: Firmware updating in progress Blue flashing: Searching for connection Red and blue flashing alternately: Pairing in progress 16 Joystick Menu ③ ① ② Home Power on: Short pressPower off: Long press for 6 secondsReturn home screen: Short pressScreen recentering: Press for 1 secondStatus Indicator Grip Capture Trigger ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ ⑨ Battery Case Open: Slide down the toggle andpop up the battery case. Lock: Push the battery case to lock. Tracking Ring Do not block during use. * Note: Pass the Controller Lanyardthrough the string as shown andlock at the end of the Controller EN\nOperating Instructions Headset Control Mode If the Controller is not connected, you can interact with the home screen by moving your head to directthe crosshairs over your intended selection and clicking the Volume Up/Down button on the VR Headset. Switch the pointer of the master Controller In the home screen, short press the Trigger of the corresponding Controller to switch the pointer of themaster Controller. Screen re-centering Wear the VR Headset and look straight ahead, press and hold the Home button of the Controller or VRHeadset ( or the Volume Down button of the VR Headset in head control mode) for more than 1 second tore-center the screen. Disconnect the Controller Press and hold the Home button until the status indicator turns red and the Controller vibrates.Controllers will automatically shut down to save power in the following cases:When the VR Headset enters deep sleep (a while after the VR Headset is taken off)When the Controller is unpairedWhen the VR Headset is powered off Add a new Controller If you need to add a new Controller (the VR Headset can only connect one left Controller and one rightController) or reconnect with an unpaired Controller. Go to “Settings” ► “Controller”, click on “Pair”.Press and hold the Home button and the Trigger of the Controller at the same time until the red and bluelights of the Controller flashing alternately, and then follow the instructions on the VR Headset screen. Sleep / Wake up Option 1 (Proximity Sensor) Take off VR Headset for automatic sleeping: wear the VR Headset for automat- ic waking up. Option 2 (POWER Button) Press the Power button of the VR Headset for manual sleeping or waking up. Hardware reset VR Headset reset If the visual in the VR Headset freezes, or the VR Headset does not respond after short press the Powerbutton, you can press the Power button of the VR Headset for more than 10 seconds to reboot the VRHeadset. Controller reset If the virtual Controller, the Home button or any buttons of the Controller doesn\\'t respond, remove andreinstall the battery case to restart the Controller. The VR Headset Adjustment This device has no myopia adjustment function. The VR Headset allows wearing most standard glasseswith a frame width of less than 150mm. to install Glasses Spacer to increase the space. You can install or not according to your situation. 17 EN\nInstall Glasses Spacer Install Nose Pad If you have glasses collision with headset lens or pressure on the bridge of nose, please follow the pictureto install Glasses Spacer to increase the space. You can install or not according to your situation. If you feel light leaking from your nose, please follow the picture to install Nose Pad to block the light.You can consider having it installed at your own discretion. Disassemble the Face Cushion. Install the Glasses Spacer on the Headset. ❸ ❶ ❷ Install the Face Cushion on the Glasses Spacer. Disassemble the Face Cushion. Install the Nose Pad on the Face Cushion. ❶ ❷ Install the Face Cushion on the Headset. ❸ * Note: Disassemble the Glasses Spacer 18 EN\nReplace Face Cushion The Face Cushion will have the following phenomena such as color change, surface fluff, soft texture afterlong-term use and repeated cleaning. You can replace a new Face Cushion as needed. Replace Top Strap ❶ ❷ Disassemble the Face Cushion. Pinch the metal buckle of the top strap asshown, press it down and pull it out.Install the Face Cushion on. ❸ ❷ ❶ • Purchase high-quality and trending apps • Join PICO Community and explore the VR worldwith other PICO players• Manage your device with ease • Engage in diverse and interactive activities • More exciting features waiting for you 19 EN\n'", "answers": ["It is recommended to have at least a 2x2 meter space for using the VR headset."], "length": 2184, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "ee53f01eb9a44de54723ab03918b7361f2eb630a35ce7b81"}
{"input": "What is the correct expression for the derivative of the function?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\nDerivate is one of the most important topics not only in mathematics, but also in physics, chemistry, economics and engineering. Every standard Calculus course provides a variety of exercises for the students to learn how to apply the concept of derivative. The types of problems range from finding an equation of the tangent line to the application of differentials and advanced curve sketching. Usually, these exercises heavily rely on such differentiation techniques as Product, Quotient and Chain Rules, Implicit and Logarithmic Differentiation \\cite{Stewart2012}. The definition of the derivative is hardly ever applied after the first few classes and its use is not much motivated.\n\nLike many other topics in undergraduate mathematics, derivative gave rise to many misconceptions \\cite{Muzangwa2012}, \\cite{Gur2007}, \\cite{Li2006}. Just when the students seem to learn how to use the differentiation rules for most essential functions, the application of the derivative brings new issues. A common students' error of determining the domain of the derivative from its formula is discussed in \\cite{Rivera2013} and some interesting examples of the derivatives, defined at the points where the functions themselves are undefined, are provided. However, the hunt for misconceptions takes another twist for the derivatives undefined at the points where the functions are in fact defined.\n\nThe expression of the derivative of the function obtained using differentiation techniques does not necessarily contain the information about the existence or the value of the derivative at the points, where the expression for the derivative is undefined. In this article we discuss a type of continuous functions that have the expression for the derivative undefined at a certain point, while the derivative itself at that point exists. We show, how relying on the formula for the derivative for finding the horizontal tangent line of a function, leads to a false conclusion and consequently to missing a solution. We also provide a simple methodological treatment of similar functions suitable for the classroom.\n\n\\section{Calculating the Derivative}\n\nIn order to illustrate how deceitful the expression of the derivative can be to a students' eye, let us consider the following problem.\n\n\\vspace{12pt}\n\n\\fbox{\\begin{minipage}{5.25in}\n\n\\begin{center}\n\n\\begin{minipage}{5.0in}\n\n\\vspace{10pt}\n\n\\emph{Problem}\n\n\\vspace{10pt}\n\nDifferentiate the function $f\\left(x\\right)=\\sqrt[3]{x}\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}$. For which values of $x$ from the interval $\\left[-1,1\\right]$ does the graph of $f\\left(x\\right)$ have a horizontal tangent?\n\n\\vspace{10pt}\n\n\\end{minipage}\n\n\\end{center}\n\n\\end{minipage}}\n\n\\vspace{12pt}\n\nProblems with similar formulations can be found in many Calculus books \\cite{Stewart2012}, \\cite{Larson2010}, \\cite{Thomas2009}. Following the common procedure, let us find the expression for the derivative of the function $f\\left(x\\right)$ applying the Product Rule:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nf'\\left(x\\right) &=& \\left(\\sqrt[3]{x}\\right)'\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}+\\left(\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}\\right)'\\sqrt[3]{x} \\notag \\\\ &=& \\frac{1}{3\\sqrt[3]{x^2}}\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}+2x\\cos{\\left(x^2\\right)}\\sqrt[3]{x} \\notag \\\\ &=& \\frac{6x^2\\cos{x^2}+\\sin{x^2}}{3\\sqrt[3]{x^2}} \\label{DerivativeExpression}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\nSimilar to \\cite{Stewart2012}, we find the values of $x$ where the derivative $f'\\left(x\\right)$ is equal to zero:\n\\begin{equation}\n6x^2\\cos{x^2}+\\sin{x^2} = 0 \n\\label{DerivativeEqualZero}\n\\end{equation}\n\nSince the expression for the derivative (\\ref{DerivativeExpression}) is not defined at $x=0$, it is not hard to see that for all values of $x$ from $\\left[-1,1\\right]$ distinct from zero, the left-hand side of (\\ref{DerivativeEqualZero}) is always positive. Hence, we conclude that the function $f\\left(x\\right)$ does not have horizontal tangent lines on the interval $\\left[-1,1\\right]$.\n\nHowever, a closer look at the graph of the function $f\\left(x\\right)$ seems to point at a different result: there is a horizontal tangent at $x=0$ (see Figure \\ref{fig:FunctionGraph}). \n\nFirst, note that the function $f\\left(x\\right)$ is defined in $x=0$. In order to verify if it has a horizontal tangent at this point, let us find the derivative of the function $f\\left(x\\right)$ using definition:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nf'\\left(0\\right) &=& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{f\\left(0+h\\right)-f\\left(0\\right)}{h}} \\notag \\\\ \n&=& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{\\sqrt[3]{h}\\sin{\\left(h^2\\right)}}{h}} \\notag \\\\ \n&=& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\left(\\sqrt[3]{h} \\cdot {h} \\cdot \\frac{\\sin{\\left(h^2\\right)}}{h^2}\\right)} \\notag \\\\\n&=& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\sqrt[3]{h}} \\cdot \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{h} \\cdot \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{\\sin{\\left(h^2\\right)}}{h^2}} \\notag \\\\\n&=& 0 \\cdot 0 \\cdot 1 = 0 \\notag\n\\end{eqnarray}\nsince each of the limits above exists. We see that, indeed, the function $f\\left(x\\right)$ possesses a horizontal tangent line at the point $x=0$.\n\n\\section{Closer Look at the Expression for the Derivative}\n\nWhat is the problem with the standard procedure proposed by many textbooks and repeated in every Calculus class? The explanation lies in the following premise: the expression of the derivative of the function does not contain the information as to whether the function is differentiable or not at the points where it is undefined. As it is pointed out in \\cite{Rivera2013}, the domain of the derivative is determined \\emph{a priori} and therefore should not be obtained from the formula of the derivative itself.\n\nIn the example above the Product Law for derivatives requires the existence of the derivatives of both functions at the point of interest. Since the function $\\sqrt[3]{x}$ is not differentiable in zero, the Product Rule cannot be applied. \n\nIn order to see what exactly happens when we apply the Product Rule, let us find the expression for the derivative using definition of the derivative:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nf'\\left(x\\right) &=& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{f\\left(x+h\\right)-f\\left(x\\right)}{h}} \\notag \\\\ \n&=& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{\\sqrt[3]{x+h}\\sin{\\left(x+h\\right)^2}-\\sqrt[3]{x}\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}}{h}} \\notag \\\\ \n&=& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{\\left(\\sqrt[3]{x+h}-\\sqrt[3]{x}\\right)}{h}\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}} + \\notag \\\\\n&& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{\\left(\\sin{\\left(x+h\\right)^2}-\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}\\right)}{h}\\sqrt[3]{x+h}} \\notag \\\\\n&=& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{\\sqrt[3]{x+h}-\\sqrt[3]{x}}{h}} \\cdot \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}} +  \\notag \\\\&& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{\\sin{\\left(x+h\\right)^2}-\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}}{h}} \\cdot \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\sqrt[3]{x+h}} \\notag \\\\\n&=& \\frac{1}{3\\sqrt[3]{x^2}} \\cdot \\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}+2x\\cos{\\left(x^2\\right)} \\cdot \\sqrt[3]{x} \\notag \n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhich seems to be identical to the expression (\\ref{DerivativeExpression}).\n\nStudents are expected to develop a skill of deriving similar results and know how to find the derivative of the function using definition of the derivative only. But how `legal' are the performed operations?\n\n\\begin{figure}[H]\n\\begin{center}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=6.0in]{sin.pdf}\n\t\\vspace{.1in}\n\t\\caption{Graph of the function $g\\left(x\\right)=\\sqrt[3]{x}\\cos{\\left(x^2\\right)}$}\n\t\\label{fig:GFunction}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nLet us consider each of the following limits: \n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n&& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{\\sqrt[3]{x+h}-\\sqrt[3]{x}}{h}} \\notag \\\\\n&& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}}\\notag \\\\\n&& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{\\sin{\\left(x+h\\right)^2}-\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}}{h}}\\notag \\\\\n&& \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\sqrt[3]{x+h}}.\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nThe last three limits exist for all real values of the variable $x$. However, the first limit does not exist when $x=0$. Indeed\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{\\sqrt[3]{0+h}-\\sqrt[3]{0}}{h}} = \\lim_{h\\rightarrow0}{\\frac{1}{\\sqrt[3]{h^2}}} = + \\infty\n\\end{equation*}\n\nThis implies that the Product and Sum Laws for limits cannot be applied and therefore this step is not justifiable in the case of $x=0$. When the derivation is performed, we automatically assume the conditions, under which the Product Law for limits can be applied, i.e. that both limits that are multiplied exist. It is not hard to see that in our case these conditions are actually equivalent to $x\\neq0$. This is precisely why, when we wrote out the expression for the derivative (\\ref{DerivativeExpression}), it already contained the assumption that it is only true for the values of $x$ that are different from zero.\n\nNote, that in the case of $x=0$ the application of the Product and Sum Laws for limits is not necessary, since the term $\\left(\\sqrt[3]{x+h}-\\sqrt[3]{x}\\right)\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}$ vanishes.\n\nThe correct expression for the derivative of the function $f\\left(x\\right)$ should be the following:\n\\begin{equation*}\nf'\\left(x\\right)  = \n\\begin{cases} \n\\frac{6x^2\\cos{\\left(x^2\\right)}+\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}}{3\\sqrt[3]{x^2}}, & \\mbox{if } x \\neq 0 \\\\ \n0, & \\mbox{if } x = 0 \n\\end{cases}\n\\end{equation*}\n\nThe expression for the derivative of the function provides the correct value of the derivative only for those values of the independent variable, for which the expression is defined; it does not tell anything about the existence or the value of the derivative, where the expression for the derivative is undefined. Indeed, let us consider the function\n\\begin{equation*}\ng\\left(x\\right) = {\\sqrt[3]{x}}\\cos{\\left(x^2\\right)}\n\\end{equation*}\nand its derivative $g'\\left(x\\right)$ \n\\begin{equation*}\ng'\\left(x\\right) = \\frac{\\cos{\\left(x^2\\right)}-6x^2\\sin{\\left(x^2\\right)}}{3\\sqrt[3]{x^2}}\n\\end{equation*}\n\nSimilar to the previous example, the expression for the derivative is undefined at $x=0$. Nonetheless, it can be shown that $g\\left(x\\right)$ is not differentiable at $x=0$ (see Figure \\ref{fig:GFunction}). Therefore, we provided two visually similar functions: both have the expressions for their derivatives undefined in zero, however, one of these functions possesses a derivative, but the other one does not.\n\n\\section{Methodological Remarks}\n\nUnfortunately, there exist many functions similar to the ones discussed above and they can arise in a variety of typical Calculus problems: finding the points where the tangent line is horizontal, finding an equation of the tangent and normal lines to the curve at the given point, the use of differentials and graph sketching. Relying only on the expression of the derivative for determining its value at the undefined points may lead to missing a solution (as in the example discussed above) or to some completely false interpretations (as in the case of curve sketching).\n\nAs it was discussed above, the expression for the derivative does not provide any information on the existence or the value of the derivative, where the expression itself is undefined. Here we present a methodology for the analysis of this type of functions.\n\nLet $f\\left(x\\right)$ be the function of interest and $f'\\left(x\\right)$ be the expression of its derivative undefined at some point $x_{0}$. In order to find out if $f\\left(x\\right)$ is differentiable at $x_{0}$, we suggest to follow a list of steps:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n  \\item Check if the function $f\\left(x\\right)$ itself is defined at the point $x_{0}$. If $f\\left(x\\right)$ is undefined at $x_{0}$, then it is not differentiable at $x_{0}$. If $f\\left(x\\right)$ is defined at $x_{0}$, then proceed to next step. \n  \\item Identify the basic functions that are used in the formula of the function $f\\left(x\\right)$, that are themselves defined at the point $x_{0}$, but their derivative is not (such as, for example, the root functions).\n\t\\item Find the derivative of the function $f\\left(x\\right)$ at the point $x_{0}$ using definition.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nThe importance of the first step comes from the fact that most students tend to pay little attention to the functions domain analysis when asked to investigate its derivative. Formally, the second step can be skipped, however it will give the students the insight into which part of the function presents a problem and teach them to identify similar cases in the future. the difficulty of accomplishing the third step depends on the form of the function and sometimes can be tedious. Nevertheless, it allows the students to apply the previously obtained skills and encourages the review of the material.\n\n\\begin{figure}[H]\n\\begin{center}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=6.0in]{cos.pdf}\n\t\\vspace{.1in}\n\t\\caption{Graph of the function $g\\left(x\\right)=\\sqrt[3]{x}\\cos{\\left(x^2\\right)}$}\n\t\\label{fig:GFunction}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\n\nWe discussed the misconception, that the expression of the derivative of the function contains the information as to whether the function is differentiable or not at the points, where the expression is undefined. We considered a typical Calculus problem of looking for the horizontal tangent line of a function as an example. We showed how the search for the values that make the expression of the derivative equal zero leads to missing a solution: even though the expression of the derivative is undefined, the function still possesses the derivative at the point. We provided an example of the function that similarly has the expression for the derivative undefined, however the function is not differentiable at the point. We also presented the methodological treatment of such functions by applying the definition of the derivative, which can be used in the classroom.\n\n", "answers": ["It depends on the value of x, either 0 or (6x^2cos(x^2)+sin(x^2))/(3(x^2)^(1/3))."], "length": 1762, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "101225d103936ad083c5da47c3dce73ce569b62cbaa093bd"}
{"input": "What award did Brooksley Born receive in 2009?", "context": "Brooksley Elizabeth Born (born August 27, 1940) is an American attorney and former public official who, from August 26, 1996, to June 1, 1999, was chair of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), the federal agency which oversees the U.S. futures and commodity options markets. During her tenure on the CFTC, Born lobbied Congress and the President to give the CFTC oversight of off-exchange markets for derivatives, in addition to its role with respect to exchange-traded derivatives, but her warnings were ignored or dismissed, and her calls for reform resisted by other regulators.<ref name=\"nytimes\">Goodman, Peter S. The Reckoning - Taking Hard New Look at a Greenspan Legacy, The New York Times, October 9, 2008.</ref> Born resigned as chairperson on June 1, 1999, shortly after Congress passed legislation prohibiting her agency from regulating derivatives.\n\nEarly life and education\nBorn graduated from Abraham Lincoln High School (San Francisco, California) at the age of 16. She then attended Stanford University, where she majored in English and was graduated with the class of 1961.  She initially wanted to become a doctor, but a guidance counsellor at Stanford advised her against medicine, so she majored in English literature instead.\n\nShe then attended Stanford Law School, one of only seven women in her class.  She was the first female student ever to be named president of the Stanford Law Review. She received the \"Outstanding Senior\" award and graduated as valedictorian of the class of 1964.\n\nLegal career\nImmediately after law school Born was selected as a law clerk to judge Henry Edgerton of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. It was during this time that she met her first husband, Jacob C. Landau, who was a journalist covering the Federal courts at the time. Following her clerkship, she became an associate at the Washington, D.C.-based international law firm of Arnold & Porter. Born was attracted to Arnold & Porter because it was one of the few major law firms to have a woman partner at that time, Carolyn Agger, who was the head of the tax practice. Born took a two-year leave of absence from Arnold & Porter to accompany her first husband to Boston, where he had received a fellowship. During that time she worked as a research assistant to law professor Alan Dershowitz.\n\nBorn's early career at Arnold & Porter focused on international trade law, in which she represented a number of Swiss industries and the government of Switzerland. She developed a practice representing clients in numerous complex litigation and arbitration cases involving financial market transactions. Among her high-profile cases was the matter of the Hunt Brothers attempt to corner the market in silver in the 1970s. She made partner at Arnold & Porter, after moving to a three-day schedule to help raise her second child, and eventually rose to be the head of the firm's derivatives practice.\n\nBorn was among the first female attorneys to systematically address inequities regarding how the laws treated women. Born and another female lawyer, Marna Tucker, taught what is considered to have been the first \"Women and the Law\" course at Catholic University’s Columbus School of Law. The class exclusively concerned prejudicial treatment of women under the laws of the United States, past and present.  Born and Tucker were surprised to discover that there was no textbook on the issue at the time.  Born is also one of the co-founders of the National Women's Law Center. Born also helped rewrite the American Bar Association rules to make it possible for more women and minorities to sit on federal bench.\n\nDuring her long legal career, and into her retirement, Born did much pro bono and other types of volunteer work. She was active in the American Bar Association, the largest professional organization of lawyers in the United States.  Initially Born was named a member of the governing council of the ABA's Individual Rights Section, eventually becoming chairperson.  Born and Tucker founded the ABA Women's Caucus, the first organization of female lawyers in the ABA.  She held several other senior positions in the ABA, including being named the first woman member of the ABA's Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary.  As a member of the Judiciary Committee, Born provided testimony and opinion on persons nominated for federal judgeships. In 1980 she was named chair of the committee.  As chair of the committee, Born was invited to address the U.S. Congress regarding the nomination of Judge Sandra Day O'Connor to the U.S. Supreme Court.\n\nIn 1993, Born's name was floated as a possible candidate for Attorney General of the United States, but Janet Reno was nominated.\n\nIn July 2009, Nancy Pelosi appointed Brooksley Born as a commissioner to the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (FCIC).\n\nBorn and the OTC derivatives market\nBorn was appointed to the CFTC on April 15, 1994, by President Bill Clinton. Due to litigation against Bankers Trust Company by Procter and Gamble and other corporate clients, Born and her team at the CFTC sought comments on the regulation of over-the-counter derivatives, a first step in the process of writing CFTC regulations to supplement the existing regulations of the Federal Reserve System,  the Options Clearing Corporation, and the National Association of Insurance Commissioners. Born was particularly concerned about swaps, financial instruments that are traded over the counter between banks, insurance companies or other funds or companies, and thus have no transparency except to the two counterparties and the counterparties' regulators, if any.  CFTC regulation was strenuously opposed by Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan, and by Treasury Secretaries Robert Rubin and Lawrence Summers. On May 7, 1998, former SEC Chairman Arthur Levitt joined Rubin and Greenspan in objecting to the issuance of the CFTC's concept release. Their response dismissed Born's analysis and focused on the hypothetical possibility that CFTC regulation of swaps and other OTC derivative instruments could create a \"legal uncertainty\" regarding such financial instruments,  hypothetically reducing the value of the instruments. They argued that the imposition of regulatory costs would \"stifle financial innovation\" and encourage financial capital to transfer its  transactions offshore. The disagreement between Born and the Executive Office's top economic policy advisors has been described not only as a classic Washington turf war, but also a war of ideologies,  insofar as it is possible to argue that Born's actions were consistent with Keynesian and neoclassical economics while Greenspan, Rubin, Levitt, and Summers consistently espoused neoliberal, and neoconservative policies.\n\nIn 1998, a trillion-dollar hedge fund called Long Term Capital Management (LTCM) was near collapse.  Using mathematical models to calculate debt risk, LTCM used derivatives to leverage $5 billion into more than $1 trillion, doing business with fifteen of Wall Street's largest financial institutions.  The derivative transactions were not regulated, nor were investors able to evaluate LTCM's exposures.  Born stated, \"I thought that LTCM was exactly what I had been worried about\".  In the last weekend of September 1998, the President's working group was told that the entire American economy hung in the balance.  After intervention by the Federal Reserve, the crisis was averted.  In congressional hearings into the crisis, Greenspan acknowledged that language had been introduced into an agriculture bill that would prevent CFTC from regulating the derivatives which were at the center of the crisis that threatened the US economy.  U.S. Representative Maurice Hinchey (D-NY) asked \"How many more failures do you think we'd have to have before some regulation in this area might be appropriate?\"  In response, Greenspan brushed aside the substance of Born's warnings with the simple assertion that \"the degree of supervision of regulation of the over-the-counter derivatives market is quite adequate to maintain a degree of stability in the system\". Born's warning was that there wasn't any regulation of them.  Born's chief of staff, Michael Greenberger summed up Greenspan's position this way: \"Greenspan didn't believe that fraud was something that needed to be enforced, and he assumed she probably did. And of course, she did.\"  Under heavy pressure from the financial lobby, legislation prohibiting regulation of derivatives by Born's agency was passed by the Congress.  Born resigned on June 1, 1999.\n\nThe derivatives market continued to grow yearly throughout both terms of George W. Bush's administration. On September 15, 2008, the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers forced a broad recognition of a financial crisis in both the US and world capital markets.  As Lehman Brothers' failure temporarily reduced financial capital's confidence, a number of newspaper articles and television programs suggested that the failure's possible causes included the conflict between the CFTC and the other regulators.Faiola, Anthony, Nakashima, Ellen and Drew, Jill. The Crash: Risk and Regulation - What Went Wrong, The Washington Post, October 15, 2008.\n\nBorn declined to publicly comment on the unfolding 2008 crisis until March 2009, when she said: \"The market grew so enormously, with so little oversight and regulation, that it made the financial crisis much deeper and more pervasive than it otherwise would have been.\" She also lamented the influence of Wall Street lobbyists on the process and the refusal of regulators to discuss even modest reforms.\n\nAn October 2009 Frontline documentary titled \"The Warning\"  described Born's thwarted efforts to regulate and bring transparency to the derivatives market, and the continuing opposition thereto. The program concluded with an excerpted interview with Born sounding another warning: \"I think we will have continuing danger from these markets and that we will have repeats of the financial crisis -- may differ in details but there will be significant financial downturns and disasters attributed to this regulatory gap, over and over, until we learn from experience.\"\n\nIn 2009 Born, along with Sheila Bair of the FDIC, was awarded the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award in recognition of the \"political courage she demonstrated in sounding early warnings about conditions that contributed\" to the 2007-08 financial crisis.  According to Caroline Kennedy, \"Brooksley Born recognized that the financial security of all Americans was being put at risk by the greed, negligence and opposition of  powerful and well connected interests.... The catastrophic financial events of recent months have  proved them [Born and Sheila Bair] right.\"  One member of the President's working group had a change of heart about Brooksley Born.  SEC Chairman Arthur Levitt stated \"I've come to know her as one of the most capable, dedicated, intelligent and committed public servants that I have ever come to know\", adding that \"I could have done much better. I could have made a difference\" in response to her warnings.\n\nIn 2010, a documentary film Inside Job further alleged that derivatives regulation was ineffective from the Clinton administration on. Along with fellow whistleblower, former IMF Chief Economist Raghuram Rajan, who was also scorned by the economic establishment, Brooksley Born was cited as one of the authorities arguing that financial derivatives increase economic risk.\n\n Personal life \nBorn is married to Alexander E. Bennett (also retired from Arnold & Porter).  She has five adult children - two from a previous marriage to Jacob Landau and three stepchildren. Notably, Born was named a partner at Arnold & Porter while working part-time so she could raise her two young children.  When both of her children were school-age, Born returned to practice full-time.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nAttorney profile at Arnold & Porter\nBrooksley Born (2009 Winner) of the Profiles in Courage Award, with acceptance speech transcript and NECN video\n\nProfile at MarketsWiki\nSpeeches and statements\n\"Testimony Of Brooksley Born Chairperson of the CFTC Concerning The Over-The-Counter Derivatives Market\", before the House Committee On Banking And Financial Services, July 24, 1998.\n\"The Lessons of Long Term Capital Management L.P.\", Remarks of Brooksley Born, Chairperson of the CFTC, Chicago-Kent-IIT Commodities Law Institute, Chicago, Illinois, October 15, 1998.\n Interview: Brooksley Born for \"PBS Frontline: The Warning\", PBS, (streaming VIDEO 1 hour), October 20, 2009.\nArticles\nManuel Roig-Franzia. \"Credit Crisis Cassandra:Brooksley Born's Unheeded Warning Is a Rueful Echo 10 Years On\", The Washington Post, May 26, 2009\n Taibbi, Matt. \"The Great American Bubble Machine\", Rolling Stone'', July 9–23, 2009\n\n1940 births\nAmerican women lawyers\nArnold & Porter people\nClinton administration personnel\nColumbus School of Law faculty\nCommodity Futures Trading Commission personnel\nHeads of United States federal agencies\nLawyers from San Francisco\nLiving people\nStanford Law School alumni\n21st-century American women\nStanford University alumni", "answers": ["In 2009, Brooksley Born received the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award."], "length": 2054, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "c93a8eb62278ce7c575ba542b2bcd5e610fa15035906463c"}
{"input": "When did Margaret Way start self-publishing her books as e-books?", "context": "Margaret Way (b. Brisbane d. Cleveland, Queensland, Australia ) was an Australian writer of romance novels and women's fiction. A prolific author, Way wrote more than 120 novels since 1970, many through Mills & Boon, a romance imprint of British publisher Harlequin UK Ltd., owned by Harlequin Enterprises.\n\nBiography\nBefore her marriage, she was a well-known pianist, teacher, vocal coach and accompanist. She began writing when her son, Laurence Way, was born, a friend took a pile of Mills & Boon books to her, she read all and decided that she also could write these types of novels. She began to write and promote her country with her stories set in Australia. She sold her first novels in 1970. Margaret Way lives with her family in her native Brisbane. Beginning in 2013, Margaret began to self-publish, releasing her first \"e-book\" mid-July.\n\nMargaret died on the 10th of August 2022 in Cleveland, Queensland.\n\nBibliography\n\nSingle Novels\nKing Country (1970)\nBlaze of Silk (1970)\nThe Time of the Jacaranda (1970)\nBauhinia Junction (1971)\nMan from Bahl Bahla (1971)\nSummer Magic (1971)\nReturn to Belle Amber (1971)\nRing of Jade (1972)\nCopper Moon (1972)\nRainbow Bird (1972)\nMan Like Daintree (1972)\nNoonfire (1972)\nStorm Over Mandargi (1973)\nWind River (1973)\nLove Theme (1974)\nMcCabe's Kingdom (1974)\nSweet Sundown (1974)\nReeds of Honey (1975)\nStorm Flower (1975)\nLesson in Loving (1975)\nFlight into Yesterday (1976)\nRed Cliffs of Malpara (1976)\nMan on Half-moon (1976)\nSwan's Reach (1976)\nMutiny in Paradise (1977)\nOne Way Ticket (1977)\nPortrait of Jaime (1977)\nBlack Ingo (1977)\nAwakening Flame (1978)\nWild Swan (1978)\nRing of Fire (1978)\nWake the Sleeping Tiger (1978)\nValley of the Moon (1979)\nWhite Magnolia (1979)\nWinds of Heaven (1979)\nBlue Lotus (1979)\nButterfly and the Baron (1979)\nGolden Puma (1980)\nTemple of Fire (1980)\nLord of the High Valley (1980)\nFlamingo Park (1980)\nNorth of Capricorn (1981)\nSeason for Change (1981)\nShadow Dance (1981)\nMcIvor Affair (1981)\nHome to Morning Star (1981)\nBroken Rhapsody (1982)\nThe Silver Veil (1982)\nSpellbound (1982)\nHunter's Moon (1982)\nGirl at Cobalt Creek (1983)\nNo Alternative (1983)\nHouse of Memories (1983)\nAlmost a Stranger (1984)\nA place called Rambulara (1984)\nFallen Idol (1984)\nHunt the Sun (1985)\nEagle's Ridge (1985)\nThe Tiger's Cage (1986)\nInnocent in Eden (1986)\nDiamond Valley (1986)\nMorning Glory (1988)\nDevil Moon (1988)\nMowana Magic (1988)\nHungry Heart (1988)\nRise of an Eagle (1988)\nOne Fateful Summer (1993)\nThe Carradine Brand (1994)\nHolding on to Alex (1997)\nThe Australian Heiress (1997)\nClaiming His Child (1999)\nThe Cattleman's Bride (2000)\nThe Cattle Baron (2001)\nThe Husbands of the Outback (2001)\nSecrets of the Outback (2002)\nWith This Ring (2003)\nInnocent Mistress (2004)\nCattle Rancher, Convenient Wife (2007)\nOutback Marriages (2007)\nPromoted: Nanny to Wife (2007)\nCattle Rancher, Secret Son (2007)\nGenni's Dilemma (2008)\nBride At Briar Ridge (2009)\nOutback Heiress, Surprise Proposal (2009)\nCattle Baron, Nanny Needed (2009)\n\nLegends of the Outback Series\nMail Order Marriage (1999)\nThe Bridesmaid's Wedding (2000)\nThe English Bride (2000)\nA Wife at Kimbara (2000)\n\nKoomera Crossing Series\nSarah's Baby (2003)\nRunaway Wife (2003)\nOutback Bridegroom (2003)\nOutback Surrender (2003)\nHome to Eden (2004)\n\nMcIvor Sisters Series\nThe Outback Engagement (2005)\nMarriage at Murraree (2005)\n\nMen Of The Outback Series\nThe Cattleman (2006)\nThe Cattle Baron's Bride (2006)\nHer Outback Protector (2006)\nThe Horseman (2006)\n\nOutback Marriages Series\nOutback Man Seeks Wife (2007)\nCattle Rancher, Convenient Wife (2007)\n\nBarons of the Outback Series Multi-Author\nWedding At Wangaree Valley (2008)\nBride At Briar's Ridge (2008)\n\nFamily Ties Multi-Author\nOnce Burned (1995)\n\nHitched! Multi-Author\nA Faulkner Possession (1996)\n\nSimply the Best Multi-Author\nGeorgia and the Tycoon (1997)\n\nThe Big Event Multi-Author\nBeresford's Bride (1998)\n\nGuardian Angels Multi-Author\nGabriel's Mission (1998)\n\nAustralians Series Multi-Author\n7. Her Outback Man (1998)\n17. Master of Maramba (2001)\n19. Outback Fire (2001)\n22. Mistaken Mistress (2002)\n24. Outback Angel (2002)\n33. The Australian Tycoon's Proposal (2004)\n35. His Heiress Wife (2004)\n\nMarrying the Boss Series Multi-Author\nBoardroom Proposal (1999)\n\nContract Brides Series Multi-Author\nStrategy for Marriage (2002)\n\nEverlasting Love Series Multi-Author\nHidden Legacy (2008)\n\nDiamond Brides Series Multi-Author\nThe Australian's Society Bride (2008)\n\nCollections\nSummer Magic / Ring of Jade / Noonfire (1981)\nWife at Kimbara / Bridesmaid's Wedding (2005)\n\nOmnibus in Collaboration\nPretty Witch / Without Any Amazement / Storm Over Mandargi (1977) (with Lucy Gillen and Margaret Malcolm)\nDear Caliban / Heart of the Eagle / Swans' Reach (1978) (with Jane Donnelly and Elizabeth Graham)\nThe Bonds of Matrimony / Dragon Island / Reeds of Honey (1979) (with Elizabeth Hunter and Henrietta Reid)\nThe Man Outside / Castles in Spain / McCabe's Kingdom (1979) (with Jane Donnelly and Rebecca Stratton)\nWinds From The Sea / Island of Darkness / Wind River (1979) (with Margaret Pargeter and Rebecca Stratton)\nMoorland Magic / Tree of Idleness / Sweet Sundown (1980) (with Elizabeth Ashton and Elizabeth Hunter)\nThe Shifting Sands / Portrait of Jaime / Touched by Fire (1982) (with Jane Donnelly and Kay Thorpe)\nHead of Chancery / Wild Heart / One-Way Ticket (1986) (with Betty Beaty and Doris Smith)\nHeart of the Scorpion / The Winds of Heaven / Sweet Compulsion (1987) (with Janice Gray and Victoria Woolf)\nOne Brief Sweet Hour / Once More With Feeling / Blue Lotus (1990) (with Jane Arbor and Natalie Sparks)\nMarry Me Cowboy (1995) (with Janet Dailey, Susan Fox and Anne McAllister)\nHusbands on Horseback (1996) (with Diana Palmer)\nWedlocked (1999) (with Day Leclaire and Anne McAllister)\nMistletoe Magic (1999) (with Betty Neels and Rebecca Winters)\nThe Australians (2000) (with Helen Bianchin and Miranda Lee)\nWeddings Down Under (2001) (with Helen Bianchin and Jessica Hart)\nOutback Husbands (2002) (with Marion Lennox)\nThe Mother's Day Collection (2002) (with Helen Dickson and Kate Hoffmann)\nAustralian Nights (2003) (with Miranda Lee)\nOutback Weddings (2003) (with Barbara Hannay)\nAustralian Playboys (2003) (with Helen Bianchin and Marion Lennox)\nAustralian Tycoons (2004) (with Emma Darcy and Marion Lennox)\nA Mother's Day Gift (2004) (with Anne Ashley and Lucy Monroe)\nWhite Wedding (2004) (with Judy Christenberry and Jessica Steele)\nA Christmas Engagement (2004) (with Sara Craven and Jessica Matthews)\nA Very Special Mother's Day (2005) (with Anne Herries)\nAll I Want for Christmas... (2005) (with Betty Neels and Jessica Steele)\nThe Mills and Boon Collection (2006) (with Caroline Anderson and Penny Jordan)\nOutback Desire (2006) (with Emma Darcy and Carol Marinelli)\nTo Mum, with Love (2006) (with Rebecca Winters)\nAustralian Heroes (2007) (with Marion Lennox and Fiona McArthur)\nTall, Dark and Sexy (2008) (with Caroline Anderson and Helen Bianchin)\nThe Boss's Proposal (2008) (with Jessica Steele and Patricia Thayer)\nIsland Heat / Outback Man Seeks Wife / Prince's Forbidden Virgin / One Night Before Marriage / Their Lost-and-found Family / Single Dad's Marriage Wish (2008) (with Robyn Donald, Marion Lennox, Carol Marinelli, Sarah Mayberry and Anne Oliver)\nAustralian Billionaires (2009) (with Jennie Adams and Amy Andrews)\nCattle Baron : Nanny Needed / Bachelor Dad on Her Doorstep (2009) (with Michelle Douglas)\n\nExternal links\nMargaret Way at Harlequin Enterprises Ltd\n\nAustralian romantic fiction writers\nAustralian women novelists\nLiving people\nYear of birth missing (living people)\nWomen romantic fiction writers", "answers": ["Margaret Way started self-publishing her books as e-books in 2013."], "length": 1201, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "f20114170ce5bb518f17950edb4ef828d980bba0bba01077"}
{"input": "What hedge fund's collapse in 1998 highlighted the need for regulation of derivatives?", "context": "Brooksley Elizabeth Born (born August 27, 1940) is an American attorney and former public official who, from August 26, 1996, to June 1, 1999, was chair of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), the federal agency which oversees the U.S. futures and commodity options markets. During her tenure on the CFTC, Born lobbied Congress and the President to give the CFTC oversight of off-exchange markets for derivatives, in addition to its role with respect to exchange-traded derivatives, but her warnings were ignored or dismissed, and her calls for reform resisted by other regulators.<ref name=\"nytimes\">Goodman, Peter S. The Reckoning - Taking Hard New Look at a Greenspan Legacy, The New York Times, October 9, 2008.</ref> Born resigned as chairperson on June 1, 1999, shortly after Congress passed legislation prohibiting her agency from regulating derivatives.\n\nIn 2009, Born received the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award, along with Sheila Bair of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, in recognition of the \"political courage she demonstrated in sounding early warnings about conditions that contributed\" to the 2007-08 financial crisis.\n\nEarly life and education\nBorn graduated from Abraham Lincoln High School (San Francisco, California) at the age of 16. She then attended Stanford University, where she majored in English and was graduated with the class of 1961.  She initially wanted to become a doctor, but a guidance counsellor at Stanford advised her against medicine, so she majored in English literature instead.\n\nShe then attended Stanford Law School, one of only seven women in her class.  She was the first female student ever to be named president of the Stanford Law Review. She received the \"Outstanding Senior\" award and graduated as valedictorian of the class of 1964.\n\nLegal career\nImmediately after law school Born was selected as a law clerk to judge Henry Edgerton of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. It was during this time that she met her first husband, Jacob C. Landau, who was a journalist covering the Federal courts at the time. Following her clerkship, she became an associate at the Washington, D.C.-based international law firm of Arnold & Porter. Born was attracted to Arnold & Porter because it was one of the few major law firms to have a woman partner at that time, Carolyn Agger, who was the head of the tax practice. Born took a two-year leave of absence from Arnold & Porter to accompany her first husband to Boston, where he had received a fellowship. During that time she worked as a research assistant to law professor Alan Dershowitz.\n\nBorn's early career at Arnold & Porter focused on international trade law, in which she represented a number of Swiss industries and the government of Switzerland. She developed a practice representing clients in numerous complex litigation and arbitration cases involving financial market transactions. Among her high-profile cases was the matter of the Hunt Brothers attempt to corner the market in silver in the 1970s. She made partner at Arnold & Porter, after moving to a three-day schedule to help raise her second child, and eventually rose to be the head of the firm's derivatives practice.\n\nBorn was among the first female attorneys to systematically address inequities regarding how the laws treated women. Born and another female lawyer, Marna Tucker, taught what is considered to have been the first \"Women and the Law\" course at Catholic University’s Columbus School of Law. The class exclusively concerned prejudicial treatment of women under the laws of the United States, past and present.  Born and Tucker were surprised to discover that there was no textbook on the issue at the time.  Born is also one of the co-founders of the National Women's Law Center. Born also helped rewrite the American Bar Association rules to make it possible for more women and minorities to sit on federal bench.\n\nDuring her long legal career, and into her retirement, Born did much pro bono and other types of volunteer work. She was active in the American Bar Association, the largest professional organization of lawyers in the United States.  Initially Born was named a member of the governing council of the ABA's Individual Rights Section, eventually becoming chairperson.  Born and Tucker founded the ABA Women's Caucus, the first organization of female lawyers in the ABA.  She held several other senior positions in the ABA, including being named the first woman member of the ABA's Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary.  As a member of the Judiciary Committee, Born provided testimony and opinion on persons nominated for federal judgeships. In 1980 she was named chair of the committee.  As chair of the committee, Born was invited to address the U.S. Congress regarding the nomination of Judge Sandra Day O'Connor to the U.S. Supreme Court.\n\nIn 1993, Born's name was floated as a possible candidate for Attorney General of the United States, but Janet Reno was nominated.\n\nIn July 2009, Nancy Pelosi appointed Brooksley Born as a commissioner to the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (FCIC).\n\nBorn and the OTC derivatives market\nBorn was appointed to the CFTC on April 15, 1994, by President Bill Clinton. Due to litigation against Bankers Trust Company by Procter and Gamble and other corporate clients, Born and her team at the CFTC sought comments on the regulation of over-the-counter derivatives, a first step in the process of writing CFTC regulations to supplement the existing regulations of the Federal Reserve System,  the Options Clearing Corporation, and the National Association of Insurance Commissioners. Born was particularly concerned about swaps, financial instruments that are traded over the counter between banks, insurance companies or other funds or companies, and thus have no transparency except to the two counterparties and the counterparties' regulators, if any.  CFTC regulation was strenuously opposed by Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan, and by Treasury Secretaries Robert Rubin and Lawrence Summers. On May 7, 1998, former SEC Chairman Arthur Levitt joined Rubin and Greenspan in objecting to the issuance of the CFTC's concept release. Their response dismissed Born's analysis and focused on the hypothetical possibility that CFTC regulation of swaps and other OTC derivative instruments could create a \"legal uncertainty\" regarding such financial instruments,  hypothetically reducing the value of the instruments. They argued that the imposition of regulatory costs would \"stifle financial innovation\" and encourage financial capital to transfer its  transactions offshore. The disagreement between Born and the Executive Office's top economic policy advisors has been described not only as a classic Washington turf war, but also a war of ideologies,  insofar as it is possible to argue that Born's actions were consistent with Keynesian and neoclassical economics while Greenspan, Rubin, Levitt, and Summers consistently espoused neoliberal, and neoconservative policies.\n\nIn 1998, a trillion-dollar hedge fund called Long Term Capital Management (LTCM) was near collapse.  Using mathematical models to calculate debt risk, LTCM used derivatives to leverage $5 billion into more than $1 trillion, doing business with fifteen of Wall Street's largest financial institutions.  The derivative transactions were not regulated, nor were investors able to evaluate LTCM's exposures.  Born stated, \"I thought that LTCM was exactly what I had been worried about\".  In the last weekend of September 1998, the President's working group was told that the entire American economy hung in the balance.  After intervention by the Federal Reserve, the crisis was averted.  In congressional hearings into the crisis, Greenspan acknowledged that language had been introduced into an agriculture bill that would prevent CFTC from regulating the derivatives which were at the center of the crisis that threatened the US economy.  U.S. Representative Maurice Hinchey (D-NY) asked \"How many more failures do you think we'd have to have before some regulation in this area might be appropriate?\"  In response, Greenspan brushed aside the substance of Born's warnings with the simple assertion that \"the degree of supervision of regulation of the over-the-counter derivatives market is quite adequate to maintain a degree of stability in the system\". Born's warning was that there wasn't any regulation of them.  Born's chief of staff, Michael Greenberger summed up Greenspan's position this way: \"Greenspan didn't believe that fraud was something that needed to be enforced, and he assumed she probably did. And of course, she did.\"  Under heavy pressure from the financial lobby, legislation prohibiting regulation of derivatives by Born's agency was passed by the Congress.  Born resigned on June 1, 1999.\n\nThe derivatives market continued to grow yearly throughout both terms of George W. Bush's administration. On September 15, 2008, the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers forced a broad recognition of a financial crisis in both the US and world capital markets.  As Lehman Brothers' failure temporarily reduced financial capital's confidence, a number of newspaper articles and television programs suggested that the failure's possible causes included the conflict between the CFTC and the other regulators.Faiola, Anthony, Nakashima, Ellen and Drew, Jill. The Crash: Risk and Regulation - What Went Wrong, The Washington Post, October 15, 2008.\n\nBorn declined to publicly comment on the unfolding 2008 crisis until March 2009, when she said: \"The market grew so enormously, with so little oversight and regulation, that it made the financial crisis much deeper and more pervasive than it otherwise would have been.\" She also lamented the influence of Wall Street lobbyists on the process and the refusal of regulators to discuss even modest reforms.\n\nAn October 2009 Frontline documentary titled \"The Warning\"  described Born's thwarted efforts to regulate and bring transparency to the derivatives market, and the continuing opposition thereto. The program concluded with an excerpted interview with Born sounding another warning: \"I think we will have continuing danger from these markets and that we will have repeats of the financial crisis -- may differ in details but there will be significant financial downturns and disasters attributed to this regulatory gap, over and over, until we learn from experience.\"\n\nIn 2009 Born, along with Sheila Bair of the FDIC, was awarded the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award in recognition of the \"political courage she demonstrated in sounding early warnings about conditions that contributed\" to the 2007-08 financial crisis.  According to Caroline Kennedy, \"Brooksley Born recognized that the financial security of all Americans was being put at risk by the greed, negligence and opposition of  powerful and well connected interests.... The catastrophic financial events of recent months have  proved them [Born and Sheila Bair] right.\"  One member of the President's working group had a change of heart about Brooksley Born.  SEC Chairman Arthur Levitt stated \"I've come to know her as one of the most capable, dedicated, intelligent and committed public servants that I have ever come to know\", adding that \"I could have done much better. I could have made a difference\" in response to her warnings.\n\nIn 2010, a documentary film Inside Job further alleged that derivatives regulation was ineffective from the Clinton administration on. Along with fellow whistleblower, former IMF Chief Economist Raghuram Rajan, who was also scorned by the economic establishment, Brooksley Born was cited as one of the authorities arguing that financial derivatives increase economic risk.\n\n Personal life \nBorn is married to Alexander E. Bennett (also retired from Arnold & Porter).  She has five adult children - two from a previous marriage to Jacob Landau and three stepchildren. Notably, Born was named a partner at Arnold & Porter while working part-time so she could raise her two young children.  When both of her children were school-age, Born returned to practice full-time.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nAttorney profile at Arnold & Porter\nBrooksley Born (2009 Winner) of the Profiles in Courage Award, with acceptance speech transcript and NECN video\n\nProfile at MarketsWiki\nSpeeches and statements\n\"Testimony Of Brooksley Born Chairperson of the CFTC Concerning The Over-The-Counter Derivatives Market\", before the House Committee On Banking And Financial Services, July 24, 1998.\n\"The Lessons of Long Term Capital Management L.P.\", Remarks of Brooksley Born, Chairperson of the CFTC, Chicago-Kent-IIT Commodities Law Institute, Chicago, Illinois, October 15, 1998.\n Interview: Brooksley Born for \"PBS Frontline: The Warning\", PBS, (streaming VIDEO 1 hour), October 20, 2009.\nArticles\nManuel Roig-Franzia. \"Credit Crisis Cassandra:Brooksley Born's Unheeded Warning Is a Rueful Echo 10 Years On\", The Washington Post, May 26, 2009\n Taibbi, Matt. \"The Great American Bubble Machine\", Rolling Stone'', July 9–23, 2009\n\n1940 births\nAmerican women lawyers\nArnold & Porter people\nClinton administration personnel\nColumbus School of Law faculty\nCommodity Futures Trading Commission personnel\nHeads of United States federal agencies\nLawyers from San Francisco\nLiving people\nStanford Law School alumni\n21st-century American women\n", "answers": ["Long Term Capital Management (LTCM)."], "length": 2091, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "a013f691a7063527fa4e7a4b357081c76656af3cd402a27a"}
{"input": "What is the dynamical behavior of the anisotropic order parameter following a quench to the critical point?", "context": "\\section*{Dynamical Behaviour of $O$ in Lattice Gases}\n\nThe dynamical behaviour of the anisotropic order parameter  $m$ [see Eq.~\\eqref{eq:def-m} in the Letter] following a quench to the critical point is well described by\nthe Gaussian theory for all the three lattice gas models studied, $i.e.,$ driven lattice gas with either constant (IDLG) or random (RDLG) infinite drive and equilibrium lattice gas (LG). In other words, in the short-time regime, $m \\sim t^{1/2}$ [see Eq. \\eqref{eq:mt}] and the Binder cumulant $g$ of the lowest transverse mode [defined in Eq. \\eqref{eq:binder}] is zero in this regime. The alternative order parameter $O,$ however, distinguishes between the driven (IDLG, RDLG) and the equilibrium (LG) lattice gases. \n\nIn order to understand  this, we first write the phenomenological scaling form for $O$,  analogous to Eq. \\eqref{eq:scalingass} in  the Letter,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nO (t, L_{\\parallel} ; S_\\Delta) = L_{\\parallel}^{-\\beta/[\\nu(1+\\Delta)]} \\tilde f_O (t/L_{\\parallel}^{z/(1+\\Delta)} ; S_\\Delta).\\quad\n\\label{eq:Oscalingass}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nWe already remarked that, in the LG, this scaling form is not compatible with the prediction $O \\sim t^{1/8}  L_{\\parallel}^{-1/2}$ of the Gaussian theory.  However, following Ref. \\cite{AS2002}, it can be argued that, at short times, the only dependence of $O$ on the system size $L_{\\parallel}$ is of the form $O \\sim L_\\parallel^{-1/2}$ which is very well confirmed by numerical simulations. Accordingly,  the generic behaviour of $O$ can be assumed to be\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nO \\sim t^{\\alpha} L_\\parallel^{-1/2}, \\label{eq:O}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $\\alpha$ is a phenomenological exponent to be determined. This, along with Eq. \\eqref{eq:Oscalingass}, implies $\\tilde f_O(x) \\sim x^{\\alpha}.$ Comparing the finite-size behaviour in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:O} with Eq.~\\eqref{eq:Oscalingass} one actually infers,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\alpha &=& \\frac{1+ \\Delta -2 \\beta/\\nu}{2 \\, (4- \\eta)}. \\label{eq:alpha}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThis equation, together with the hyperscaling relation $\\Delta - 2 \\beta/\\nu= - \\eta$ in two spatial dimensions, shows that the prediction $\\alpha = 1/8$ of the Gaussian theory [see Eq. \\eqref{eq:Ot}] can be obtained only when $\\eta=0,$ which is the case for the IDLG (exactly) and the RDLG (approximately) but not for the LG. \n\nOn the other hand,  Eq.~\\eqref{eq:alpha} predicts $\\alpha = 1/10$ upon substituting the values of the critical exponents corresponding to the Ising  universality class (LG). This is consistent with the numerical simulation results presented in the main text, see Fig. \\ref{fig:ising}(b) therein.\n\n\\begin{figure}[th]\n\\vspace*{0.2 cm}\n \\centering\n \\includegraphics[width=10 cm]{./compare_binder.pdf}\n\n\\caption{Comparison between the temporal evolution of the Binder cumulants $g$ corresponding to the $12^{th}$ transverse mode, $i.e.,$ with $n_\\perp =12,$ in the LG (lowest curve), IDLG and RDLG (two upper curves) on a $32 \\times 32$ lattice. \\label{fig:b}}\n \\label{fig:binder}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nThe emergence of this new value $1/10$ of the exponent $\\alpha$ must be traced back to the non-Gaussian nature of higher fluctuating modes in the LG. In fact, even though the lowest mode behaves identically in all the three models we considered,  characterized by the same behaviour of $m$, higher modes show a significant difference in the non-driven case.  \n\n\nTo illustrate this, we measured the Binder cumulants of higher modes which is defined  analogously to Eq.~(11), using transverse modes other than the first, i.e., with $\\mu=\\tilde \\sigma(0,2 \\pi n_\\bot/L_\\bot)$ and $n_\\bot>1.$  \n Figure \\ref{fig:b} compares the same for all the three lattice gases for the mode with $n_\\perp =12$ on a $32 \\times 32$ lattice. Clearly, the curve corresponding to the LG (lowest, blue) departs from Gaussian behaviour $g=0$ (in practice, $e.g.,$ $|g| \\lesssim 0.005,$ corresponding to the shaded gray area) much earlier than it does for the IDLG  or RDLG (two upper curves, red and green respectively).\n\nAccordingly, the different dynamical behaviour of $O$, which involves a sum over all modes, can be attributed to the non-Gaussian nature of the higher modes in the LG. \nSuch a departure is not entirely surprising. In fact, for higher modes, mesoscopic descriptions such as the ones in Eqs. \\eqref{eq:L-DLG} or \\eqref{eq:g_evol} are not expected to hold, while the anisotropy at the microscopic level could be the mechanism leading to the Gaussianity of higher modes in the driven models.\n\n", "answers": ["It is well described by the Gaussian theory."], "length": 669, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "322b4b2b074049aac101086797d655a21671ef5a9f366353"}
{"input": "When did Born resign as chairperson of the CFTC?", "context": "Brooksley Elizabeth Born (born August 27, 1940) is an American attorney and former public official who, from August 26, 1996, to June 1, 1999, was chair of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), the federal agency which oversees the U.S. futures and commodity options markets. During her tenure on the CFTC, Born lobbied Congress and the President to give the CFTC oversight of off-exchange markets for derivatives, in addition to its role with respect to exchange-traded derivatives, but her warnings were ignored or dismissed, and her calls for reform resisted by other regulators.<ref name=\"nytimes\">Goodman, Peter S. The Reckoning - Taking Hard New Look at a Greenspan Legacy, The New York Times, October 9, 2008.</ref> Born resigned as chairperson on June 1, 1999, shortly after Congress passed legislation prohibiting her agency from regulating derivatives.\n\nIn 2009, Born received the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award, along with Sheila Bair of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, in recognition of the \"political courage she demonstrated in sounding early warnings about conditions that contributed\" to the 2007-08 financial crisis.\n\nEarly life and education\nBorn graduated from Abraham Lincoln High School (San Francisco, California) at the age of 16. She then attended Stanford University, where she majored in English and was graduated with the class of 1961.  She initially wanted to become a doctor, but a guidance counsellor at Stanford advised her against medicine, so she majored in English literature instead.\n\nShe then attended Stanford Law School, one of only seven women in her class.  She was the first female student ever to be named president of the Stanford Law Review. She received the \"Outstanding Senior\" award and graduated as valedictorian of the class of 1964.\n\nLegal career\nImmediately after law school Born was selected as a law clerk to judge Henry Edgerton of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. It was during this time that she met her first husband, Jacob C. Landau, who was a journalist covering the Federal courts at the time. Following her clerkship, she became an associate at the Washington, D.C.-based international law firm of Arnold & Porter. Born was attracted to Arnold & Porter because it was one of the few major law firms to have a woman partner at that time, Carolyn Agger, who was the head of the tax practice. Born took a two-year leave of absence from Arnold & Porter to accompany her first husband to Boston, where he had received a fellowship. During that time she worked as a research assistant to law professor Alan Dershowitz.\n\nBorn's early career at Arnold & Porter focused on international trade law, in which she represented a number of Swiss industries and the government of Switzerland. She developed a practice representing clients in numerous complex litigation and arbitration cases involving financial market transactions. Among her high-profile cases was the matter of the Hunt Brothers attempt to corner the market in silver in the 1970s. She made partner at Arnold & Porter, after moving to a three-day schedule to help raise her second child, and eventually rose to be the head of the firm's derivatives practice.\n\nBorn was among the first female attorneys to systematically address inequities regarding how the laws treated women. Born and another female lawyer, Marna Tucker, taught what is considered to have been the first \"Women and the Law\" course at Catholic University’s Columbus School of Law. The class exclusively concerned prejudicial treatment of women under the laws of the United States, past and present.  Born and Tucker were surprised to discover that there was no textbook on the issue at the time.  Born is also one of the co-founders of the National Women's Law Center. Born also helped rewrite the American Bar Association rules to make it possible for more women and minorities to sit on federal bench.\n\nDuring her long legal career, and into her retirement, Born did much pro bono and other types of volunteer work. She was active in the American Bar Association, the largest professional organization of lawyers in the United States.  Initially Born was named a member of the governing council of the ABA's Individual Rights Section, eventually becoming chairperson.  Born and Tucker founded the ABA Women's Caucus, the first organization of female lawyers in the ABA.  She held several other senior positions in the ABA, including being named the first woman member of the ABA's Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary.  As a member of the Judiciary Committee, Born provided testimony and opinion on persons nominated for federal judgeships. In 1980 she was named chair of the committee.  As chair of the committee, Born was invited to address the U.S. Congress regarding the nomination of Judge Sandra Day O'Connor to the U.S. Supreme Court.\n\nIn 1993, Born's name was floated as a possible candidate for Attorney General of the United States, but Janet Reno was nominated.\n\nIn July 2009, Nancy Pelosi appointed Brooksley Born as a commissioner to the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (FCIC).\n\nBorn and the OTC derivatives market\nBorn was appointed to the CFTC on April 15, 1994, by President Bill Clinton. Due to litigation against Bankers Trust Company by Procter and Gamble and other corporate clients, Born and her team at the CFTC sought comments on the regulation of over-the-counter derivatives, a first step in the process of writing CFTC regulations to supplement the existing regulations of the Federal Reserve System,  the Options Clearing Corporation, and the National Association of Insurance Commissioners. Born was particularly concerned about swaps, financial instruments that are traded over the counter between banks, insurance companies or other funds or companies, and thus have no transparency except to the two counterparties and the counterparties' regulators, if any.  CFTC regulation was strenuously opposed by Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan, and by Treasury Secretaries Robert Rubin and Lawrence Summers. On May 7, 1998, former SEC Chairman Arthur Levitt joined Rubin and Greenspan in objecting to the issuance of the CFTC's concept release. Their response dismissed Born's analysis and focused on the hypothetical possibility that CFTC regulation of swaps and other OTC derivative instruments could create a \"legal uncertainty\" regarding such financial instruments,  hypothetically reducing the value of the instruments. They argued that the imposition of regulatory costs would \"stifle financial innovation\" and encourage financial capital to transfer its  transactions offshore. The disagreement between Born and the Executive Office's top economic policy advisors has been described not only as a classic Washington turf war, but also a war of ideologies,  insofar as it is possible to argue that Born's actions were consistent with Keynesian and neoclassical economics while Greenspan, Rubin, Levitt, and Summers consistently espoused neoliberal, and neoconservative policies.\n\nIn 1998, a trillion-dollar hedge fund called Long Term Capital Management (LTCM) was near collapse.  Using mathematical models to calculate debt risk, LTCM used derivatives to leverage $5 billion into more than $1 trillion, doing business with fifteen of Wall Street's largest financial institutions.  The derivative transactions were not regulated, nor were investors able to evaluate LTCM's exposures.  Born stated, \"I thought that LTCM was exactly what I had been worried about\".  In the last weekend of September 1998, the President's working group was told that the entire American economy hung in the balance.  After intervention by the Federal Reserve, the crisis was averted.  In congressional hearings into the crisis, Greenspan acknowledged that language had been introduced into an agriculture bill that would prevent CFTC from regulating the derivatives which were at the center of the crisis that threatened the US economy.  U.S. Representative Maurice Hinchey (D-NY) asked \"How many more failures do you think we'd have to have before some regulation in this area might be appropriate?\"  In response, Greenspan brushed aside the substance of Born's warnings with the simple assertion that \"the degree of supervision of regulation of the over-the-counter derivatives market is quite adequate to maintain a degree of stability in the system\". Born's warning was that there wasn't any regulation of them.  Born's chief of staff, Michael Greenberger summed up Greenspan's position this way: \"Greenspan didn't believe that fraud was something that needed to be enforced, and he assumed she probably did. And of course, she did.\"  Under heavy pressure from the financial lobby, legislation prohibiting regulation of derivatives by Born's agency was passed by the Congress.  Born resigned on June 1, 1999.\n\nThe derivatives market continued to grow yearly throughout both terms of George W. Bush's administration. On September 15, 2008, the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers forced a broad recognition of a financial crisis in both the US and world capital markets.  As Lehman Brothers' failure temporarily reduced financial capital's confidence, a number of newspaper articles and television programs suggested that the failure's possible causes included the conflict between the CFTC and the other regulators.Faiola, Anthony, Nakashima, Ellen and Drew, Jill. The Crash: Risk and Regulation - What Went Wrong, The Washington Post, October 15, 2008.\n\nBorn declined to publicly comment on the unfolding 2008 crisis until March 2009, when she said: \"The market grew so enormously, with so little oversight and regulation, that it made the financial crisis much deeper and more pervasive than it otherwise would have been.\" She also lamented the influence of Wall Street lobbyists on the process and the refusal of regulators to discuss even modest reforms.\n\nAn October 2009 Frontline documentary titled \"The Warning\"  described Born's thwarted efforts to regulate and bring transparency to the derivatives market, and the continuing opposition thereto. The program concluded with an excerpted interview with Born sounding another warning: \"I think we will have continuing danger from these markets and that we will have repeats of the financial crisis -- may differ in details but there will be significant financial downturns and disasters attributed to this regulatory gap, over and over, until we learn from experience.\"\n\nIn 2009 Born, along with Sheila Bair of the FDIC, was awarded the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award in recognition of the \"political courage she demonstrated in sounding early warnings about conditions that contributed\" to the 2007-08 financial crisis.  According to Caroline Kennedy, \"Brooksley Born recognized that the financial security of all Americans was being put at risk by the greed, negligence and opposition of  powerful and well connected interests.... The catastrophic financial events of recent months have  proved them [Born and Sheila Bair] right.\"  One member of the President's working group had a change of heart about Brooksley Born.  SEC Chairman Arthur Levitt stated \"I've come to know her as one of the most capable, dedicated, intelligent and committed public servants that I have ever come to know\", adding that \"I could have done much better. I could have made a difference\" in response to her warnings.\n\nIn 2010, a documentary film Inside Job further alleged that derivatives regulation was ineffective from the Clinton administration on. Along with fellow whistleblower, former IMF Chief Economist Raghuram Rajan, who was also scorned by the economic establishment, Brooksley Born was cited as one of the authorities arguing that financial derivatives increase economic risk.\n\n Personal life \nBorn is married to Alexander E. Bennett (also retired from Arnold & Porter).  She has five adult children - two from a previous marriage to Jacob Landau and three stepchildren. Notably, Born was named a partner at Arnold & Porter while working part-time so she could raise her two young children.  When both of her children were school-age, Born returned to practice full-time.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nAttorney profile at Arnold & Porter\nBrooksley Born (2009 Winner) of the Profiles in Courage Award, with acceptance speech transcript and NECN video\n\nProfile at MarketsWiki\nSpeeches and statements\n\"Testimony Of Brooksley Born Chairperson of the CFTC Concerning The Over-The-Counter Derivatives Market\", before the House Committee On Banking And Financial Services, July 24, 1998.\n\"The Lessons of Long Term Capital Management L.P.\", Remarks of Brooksley Born, Chairperson of the CFTC, Chicago-Kent-IIT Commodities Law Institute, Chicago, Illinois, October 15, 1998.\n Interview: Brooksley Born for \"PBS Frontline: The Warning\", PBS, (streaming VIDEO 1 hour), October 20, 2009.\nArticles\nManuel Roig-Franzia. \"Credit Crisis Cassandra:Brooksley Born's Unheeded Warning Is a Rueful Echo 10 Years On\", The Washington Post, May 26, 2009\n Taibbi, Matt. \"The Great American Bubble Machine\", Rolling Stone'', July 9–23, 2009\n\n1940 births\nAmerican women lawyers\nArnold & Porter people\nClinton administration personnel\nColumbus School of Law faculty\nCommodity Futures Trading Commission personnel\nHeads of United States federal agencies\nLawyers from San Francisco\nLiving people\nStanford Law School alumni\n21st-century American women\nStanford University alumni", "answers": ["June 1, 1999."], "length": 2088, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "2d48bbc2bd6052c5e67824752a9296cbbc26351616cd6d7e"}
{"input": "When did the 2017 general election be held?", "context": "Sir Simon William English  (born 30 December 1961) is a New Zealand former National Party politician who served as the 39th prime minister of New Zealand from 2016 to 2017. He had previously served as the 17th deputy prime minister of New Zealand and minister of finance from 2008 to 2016 under John Key and the Fifth National Government.\n\nA farmer and public servant before entering politics, English was elected to the New Zealand Parliament in  as the National Party's candidate in the Wallace electorate. He was elevated to Cabinet in 1996 and in 1999 was made minister of finance, although he served for less than a year due to his party's loss at the 1999 general election. In October 2001, English replaced Jenny Shipley as the leader of the National Party (and consequently as Leader of the Opposition). He led the party to its worst defeat at the 2002 general election, and as a consequence, in October 2003 he was replaced as leader by Don Brash.\n\nIn November 2006, after Brash's resignation, English became deputy leader under John Key. After National's victory at the 2008 general election, he became deputy prime minister and was also made minister of finance for the second time. Under English's direction New Zealand's economy maintained steady growth during National's three terms of government. He became a list-only MP after stepping down as an electorate MP at the 2014 general election.\n\nJohn Key resigned as leader of the National Party and prime minister in December 2016. English won the resulting leadership election unopposed and was sworn in as prime minister on 12 December 2016. His tenure was only ten months, and included a three-month election campaign. In the 2017 general election, National won the largest number of seats but fell short of a majority. The parties holding the balance of power declined to support the existing government, and English was subsequently replaced as prime minister by Jacinda Ardern, leader of the Labour Party. English initially continued on as Leader of the Opposition, but resigned as leader of the National Party on 27 February 2018 and left parliament two weeks later.\n\nEarly life\nEnglish was born on 30 December 1961 at Lumsden Maternity Centre in Lumsden. He is the eleventh of twelve children of Mervyn English and Norah (née O'Brien) English. His parents purchased Rosedale, a mixed sheep and cropping farm in Dipton, Southland from Mervyn's uncle, Vincent English, a bachelor, in 1944. English was born in the maternity unit at Lumsden.\n\nEnglish attended St Thomas's School in Winton, then boarded at St. Patrick's College in Upper Hutt, where he became head boy. He played in the first XV of the school's rugby team. English went on to study commerce at the University of Otago, where he was a resident at Selwyn College, and then completed an honours degree in English literature at Victoria University of Wellington.\n\nAfter finishing his studies, English returned to Dipton and farmed for a few years. From 1987 to 1989, he worked in Wellington as a policy analyst for the New Zealand Treasury, at a time when the free market policies favoured by Labour's finance minister Roger Douglas (known collectively as \"Rogernomics\") were being implemented.\n\nEnglish joined the National Party in 1980, while at Victoria University. He served for a period as chairman of the Southland branch of the Young Nationals, and became a member of the Wallace electorate committee. After moving to Wellington, he served for periods on the Island Bay and Miramar electorate committees, respectively.\n\nFourth National Government (1990–1999)\n\nAt the 1990 general election, English stood as the National candidate in Wallace, replacing the retiring Derek Angus, and was elected with a large majority. He would hold this seat, renamed Clutha-Southland in 1996, until 2014. He and three other newly elected National MPs (Tony Ryall, Nick Smith, and Roger Sowry) were soon identified as rising stars in New Zealand politics, and at various points were dubbed the \"brat pack\", the \"gang of four\", and the \"young Turks\". In his first term in parliament, English chaired a select committee into social services. He was made a parliamentary under-secretary in 1993, serving under the Minister of Health.\n\nFirst period in cabinet (1996–1999)\nIn early 1996, English was elevated to cabinet by Prime Minister Jim Bolger, becoming the Minister for Crown Health Enterprises and Associate Minister of Education (to Wyatt Creech). He was 34 at the time, becoming the cabinet's youngest member. After the 1996 general election, the National Party was forced into a coalition with New Zealand First to retain government. In the resulting cabinet reshuffle, English emerged as Minister of Health. However, as a condition of the coalition agreement, NZ First's Neil Kirton (a first-term MP) was made Associate Minister of Health, effectively becoming English's deputy. This arrangement was described in the press as a \"shotgun marriage\", and there were frequent differences of opinion between the two ministers. After their relationship became unworkable, Kirton was sacked from the role in August 1997, with the agreement of NZ First leader Winston Peters.\n\nAs Minister of Health, English was responsible for continuing the reforms to the public health system that National had begun after the 1990 general election. The reforms were unpopular, and health was perceived as one of the government's weaknesses, with the health portfolio consequently being viewed as a challenge. English believed that the unpopularity of the reforms was in part due to a failure in messaging, and encouraged his National colleagues to avoid bureaucratic and money-focused language (such as references to \"balance sheets\" and \"user charges\") and instead talk about the improvements to services the government's reforms would bring. He also rejected the idea that public hospitals could be run as commercial enterprises, a view which some of his colleagues had previously promoted.\n\nBy early 1997, as dissatisfaction with Bolger's leadership began to grow, English was being touted as a potential successor, along with Jenny Shipley and Doug Graham. His age (35) was viewed as the main impediment to a successful leadership run. National's leadership troubles were resolved in December 1997, when Bolger resigned and Shipley was elected to the leadership unopposed. English had been a supporter of Bolger as leader, but Shipley reappointed him Minister of Health in her new cabinet.\n\nEnglish was promoted to Minister of Finance in a reshuffle in January 1999, a position which was at the time subordinate to the Treasurer, Bill Birch. After a few months, the pair switched positions as part of Birch's transition to retirement, with English assuming the senior portfolio. In early interviews, he emphasised his wish to be seen as a pragmatist rather than an ideologue, and said that the initiatives of some of his predecessors (Roger Douglas's \"Rogernomics\" and Ruth Richardson's \"Ruthanasia\") had focused on \"fruitless, theoretical debates\" when \"people just want to see problems solved\".\n\nOpposition (1999–2008)\n\nAfter the National Party lost the 1999 election to Helen Clark's Labour Party, English continued on in the shadow cabinet as National's spokesperson for finance. He was elected deputy leader of the party in February 2001, following the resignation of Wyatt Creech, with Gerry Brownlee being his unsuccessful opponent.\n\nLeader of the Opposition\nIn October 2001, after months of speculation, Jenny Shipley resigned as leader of the National Party after being told she no longer had the support of the party caucus. English was elected as her replacement unopposed (with Roger Sowry as his deputy), and consequently became Leader of the Opposition. However, he did not openly organise against Shipley, and according to The Southland Times \"there was almost an element of 'aw, shucks, I'll do it then' about Mr English's ascension\".\n\nAged 39 when he was elected, English became the second-youngest leader in the National Party's history, after Jim McLay (who was 38 when elected in 1984). He also became only the third Southlander to lead a major New Zealand political party, after Joseph Ward and Adam Hamilton. However, English failed to improve the party's performance. In the 2002 election, National suffered its worst electoral defeat ever, gaining barely more than twenty percent of the vote. English described it as \"the worst day of my political life\". Both party insiders and the general public were split as to how much to blame him for the loss, but most of the party believed that English would be able to rebuild National's support.\n\nBy late 2003, however, National's performance in opinion polls remained poor. The party had briefly increased its popularity in the year following the election, but by October its support had fallen to levels only slightly better than what it achieved in the last ballot. English also appeared in a boxing match for a charity against entertainer Ted Clarke. This did not boost his polling or that of the National party either, with suggestions that it devalued his image as a serious politician. Don Brash, former governor of the Reserve Bank and a relative newcomer to politics, began to build up support to replace English. On 28 October, Brash gained sufficient backing in Caucus to defeat English in a leadership contest.\n\nShadow cabinet roles and deputy leader\nOn 2 November 2003, when Brash changed responsibilities for certain MPs, English became National's spokesman for education, ranked at fifth place in the party's parliamentary hierarchy. He remained in parliament after the 2005 election. In his new shadow education portfolio, English performed strongly, and remained a party favourite despite his election defeat as leader in 2002, eventually being returned to the finance portfolio in August 2004 as deputy spokesman (while still retaining responsibility for education).\n\nIn November 2006, Brash resigned as leader. English was considered as a potential replacement leader (running against John Key) or deputy leader (against incumbent Gerry Brownlee) in the ensuing leadership election. However, a contest was avoided when the MPs agreed a Key/English ticket would run unopposed in a display of party unity. English took over the deputy leadership and the finance portfolio in the Key shadow cabinet.\n\nFifth National Government (2008–2017)\n\nDeputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance (2008–2016)\n\nAt the 2008 election, English was re-elected by his electorate, winning by a margin of about 15,500 votes. He became Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand and Minister of Finance in the fifth National Government, being sworn into office on 19 November 2008 and continued to serve in those roles until becoming Prime Minister on 12 December 2014. He was also made Minister of Infrastructure in National's first term of government and Minister responsible for Housing New Zealand Corporation and minister responsible for the New Zealand flag consideration process in its third.\n\nHe was comfortably re-elected in Clutha-Southland in the 2011 election but opted to run as a party-list candidate in 2014. \n\nThe pairing of John Key as leader of the National Party and English as his deputy has been compared to that of Bob Hawke and Paul Keating (in Australia) and Tony Blair and Gordon Brown (in the UK).\n\nEnglish acceded to the role of Finance Minister in the continuing wake of the financial crisis. In response to New Zealand's rising debt, English made budget deficit-reduction his main priority. His first budget outlined three focuses in New Zealand's financial recovery: \"improving the business environment and removing roadblocks to growth; investment in productive infrastructure; and improving the way government works\". One of his first acts was creating the National Infrastructure Unit, charged with formulating a plan for infrastructure projects and investments. He commissioned a government-wide spending review, with an aim to reducing government expenditure—with the exceptions of a two-year stimulus package and long-term increases on infrastructure spending.\n\nIn April 2011, the Opposition criticised English for suggesting that New Zealand businesses could use New Zealand's low wages to help it compete with Australia. The National Government campaigned for re-election in 2011 on its economic record. The Government boasted growth for five consecutive quarters up to mid-2010, totalling 1.6% of real GDP.\n\nStrong growth resulted in a surplus of $473 million for the 2015/16 financial year, projected to rise to $8.5 billion by 2020/21. In his 2016 Economic and Fiscal Update address, English stated that reducing debt and tackling the costs of the 2016 Kaikōura earthquake were higher priorities than reducing rates of tax.\n\nAllowances issue\nIn 2009, the media, including TVNZ and TV3 revealed that English was receiving about NZ$900 a week as part of a living allowance for ministers, to live in his own NZ$1.2 million Wellington home. At the time, English also received $276,200 in his annual salary as Deputy Prime Minister. It was also revealed other ministers with homes in the capital city were also claiming accommodation allowances. On 3 August 2009, Prime Minister John Key started a review of the housing allowances claimed by cabinet ministers. English subsequently paid back $12,000 and only claimed about $24,000 a year in living allowances. The Auditor-General's office said in September 2009 that they were making \"preliminary enquiries\" into parliamentary housing expenses in response to a letter of complaint from Progressive party leader Jim Anderton. Two days later English stated that he would no longer take up any housing allowance and had paid back all the allowance he had received since the November 2008 election.\n\nPrime Minister (2016–2017)\n\nJohn Key resigned on 12 December, and endorsed English as his successor in the resulting leadership election. Following the drop-out of both Judith Collins and Jonathan Coleman from the leadership election, English was sworn in as the 39th Prime Minister of New Zealand on 12 December 2016.\n\nEnglish appointed his first cabinet on 18 December. In a reshuffle, he appointed Steven Joyce to succeed him as Finance Minister, while most ministerial portfolios remained the same.\n\nIn February 2017, English did not attend Waitangi Day commemorations at the historic treaty grounds, reportedly in response to the Ngāpuhi iwi's decision to stop the Prime Minister from speaking at the marae. Ngāpuhi have protested the Government's negotiation of the Trans Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPPA), which the iwi believe infringes upon Māori sovereignty, and thus does not adhere to the Treaty of Waitangi. English had been invited to attend in an official capacity; his non-attendance was criticised by a Ngāpuhi elder and Opposition leader Andrew Little.\n\nIn his first overseas trip as Prime Minister, English travelled to Europe to discuss trade ties, including a prospective New Zealand–European Union free trade agreement. He first travelled to London on 13 January 2017 to meet British Prime Minister Theresa May. Discussing trade relations, English said the two nations were \"natural partners\" and would \"continue to forge ties\" after the UK's withdrawal from the EU. He also arranged to meet with London Mayor Sadiq Khan, Belgian Prime Minister Charles Michel and German Chancellor Angela Merkel.  In a meeting with Merkel, English received crucial backing from Germany for a trade deal with the EU. On 16 January, English stated that his government would continue to promote TPPA, despite the United States' decision to withdraw from the agreement. He explained that Southeast Asian countries would now be treated as a priority in negotiations—he also asserted that the United States was ceding influence to China by its rejection of the trade pact.\n\nAt a press conference at the Beehive on 1 February 2017, English announced that the 2017 general election would be held on 23 September. The Prime Minister later confirmed that his party would approach ACT, United Future and the Māori Party if confidence and supply agreements were required to form a government following the election. In his second cabinet reshuffle on 24 April, English appointed Gerry Brownlee as his new Foreign Affairs Minister; he also promoted Nikki Kaye to the portfolio of Education Minister, and moved Mark Mitchell into the cabinet to become Defence Minister. The reshuffle was perceived as an election preparation.\n\nOn 13 February 2017, English welcomed Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull to Wellington. The two leaders reaffirmed their shared trade agenda, and discussed changes to the Australian citizenship pathway which will affect permanent residents originating from New Zealand.\n\nOn 19 June, it was reported that Todd Barclay, who succeeded English as MP for Clutha-Southland, had clandestinely recorded one of his employee's conversations the previous year, and that John Key's leaders' budget was used to pay a confidential settlement after the employee resigned. English admitted that he had been aware of the illegal recording and the settlement, and thus implicated in the scandal.\n\nDuring the 2017 National campaign launch, English introduced a $379 million social investment package including digital learning academies for high school students, more resources for mathematics, and boosting support for teaching second languages in schools, and maintaining National Standards in the school curriculum. Prime Minister English also sought to defend National's financial management and economic track record and claimed that the opposition Labour Party would raise taxes. Early opinion polling had forecast a poor showing in the election for the Labour Party, but in early August 37-year-old Jacinda Ardern took over as Labour leader and seemingly energised younger voters.\n\nAt the 2017 general election, National won the largest share of the party vote (44.4%) and the largest number of seats (56) in the House Representatives. However, National lacked enough seats to govern alone due to two of the party's support partners, the Māori Party and United Future, losing their parliamentary seats. In response, English stated that the party would be entering into talks to form a coalition with New Zealand First. Following talks with the two largest parties, New Zealand First entered a coalition arrangement with the Labour Party. English was succeeded as prime minister by Jacinda Ardern on 26 October.\n\nOpposition (2017–2018)\n\nLeader of the Opposition\nEnglish was re-elected as National Party leader on 24 October 2017. At the time of his re-election, English announced his intention to stay on as leader until the next general election. On 13 February 2018, however, he stood down as National Party leader due to personal reasons, and instructed the party to put into motion the processes to elect a new leader. He also retired from Parliament. English's resignation followed weeks of speculation that he would step aside for a new leader. On 27 February, he was succeeded as party leader by Simon Bridges as the result of the leadership election held that day.\n\nPost-premiership \nIn 2018, English joined the board of Australian conglomerate, Wesfarmers. English serves in Chairmanships of Mount Cook Alpine Salmon, Impact Lab Ltd and Manawanui Support Ltd. He is also a director of The Instillery, Centre for Independent Studies and The Todd Corporation Limited, and is a member of the Impact Advisory Group of Macquarie Infrastructure and Real Assets.\n\nPolitical and social views\n\nEnglish is regarded as more socially conservative than his predecessor, John Key. He has stated his opposition to voluntary euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, same-sex civil unions, and the decriminalisation of prostitution. As Prime Minister he opposed any \"liberalisation\" of abortion law.\n\nIn 2004, English voted against a bill to establish civil unions for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. In 2005, he voted for the Marriage (Gender Clarification) Amendment Bill, which would have amended the Marriage Act to define marriage as only between a man and a woman. English voted against the Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Bill, a bill that legalised same-sex marriage in New Zealand. However, in December 2016 he stated, \"I'd probably vote differently now on the gay marriage issue. I don't think that gay marriage is a threat to anyone else's marriage\".\n\nIn 2009, English voted against the Misuse of Drugs (Medicinal Cannabis) Amendment Bill, a bill aimed at amending the Misuse of Drugs Act so that cannabis could be used for medical purposes.\n\nPersonal life \nEnglish met his future wife, Mary Scanlon, at university. She was studying medicine at the time, and became a general practitioner. Both her parents were immigrants, her father being Samoan and her mother Italian, born on the island of Stromboli. They have six children: a daughter and five sons.\n\nEnglish is a practising Roman Catholic, but has stated that he considers his religious beliefs personal and thus separate from politics.\n\nIn June 2002, English took part in TV3's Fight For Life, a celebrity boxing fundraiser to raise money for the Yellow Ribbon anti-youth-suicide campaign, influenced by the death of a teenage nephew in 1997. He lost a split decision to former university colleague Ted Clarke.\n\nHonours\nIn the 2018 Queen's Birthday Honours, English was appointed a Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services of over 27 years to the State.", "answers": ["23 September."], "length": 3422, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "94ccf4d54b36e7e9d4aa594a7bc426528630a5b8aff296a4"}
{"input": "What is the relationship between the maximum velocity and the amplitude of the blob or depletion?", "context": "\\section{Model equations} \\label{sec:equations}\n\nIn drift-fluid models the continuity equation\n\\begin{align}\n \\frac{\\partial n}{\\partial t} + \\nabla\\cdot\\left( n \\vec u_E  \\right) &= 0 \\label{eq:generala} \n\\end{align}\ndescribes the dynamics of the electron density $n$. Here\n$\\vec u_E := (\\hat{\\vec b} \\times \\nabla \\phi)/B$ gives the electric drift\nvelocity in a magnetic field $\\vec B := B \\hat{\\vec b}$ and an electric\npotential $\\phi$. We neglect contributions of the diamagnetic drift~\\cite{Kube2016}.\n\n\n\n\nEquation~\\eqref{eq:generala} is closed by invoking quasineutrality, i.e. the divergence of the ion polarization, \nthe electron diamagnetic and the gravitational drift currents must vanish\n\\begin{align}\n  \\nabla\\cdot\\left( \\frac{n}{\\Omega} \\left( \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial t} \n  + \\vec u_E \\cdot\\nabla  \\right)\\frac{\\nabla_\\perp \\phi}{B}  + n\\vec u_d - n\\vec u_g\\right) &=0\n  . \n \n \n  \\label{eq:generalb}\n\\end{align}\nHere we denote \n$\\nabla_\\perp\\phi/B := - \\hat{\\vec b} \\times \\vec u_E$, \nthe electron diamagnetic drift\n$\\vec u_d := - T_e(\\hat{\\vec b} \\times\\nabla n ) /enB$\nwith the electron temperature $T_e$,\nthe ion gravitational drift velocity  \n$\\vec u_g := m_i \\hat{\\vec b} \\times \\vec g /B$\nwith ion mass $m_i$, and the ion gyro-frequency\n$\\Omega := eB/m_i$.\n\nCombining Eq.~\\eqref{eq:generalb} with Eq.~\\eqref{eq:generala} yields\n\\begin{align}\n \\frac{\\partial \\rho}{\\partial t} + \\nabla\\cdot\\left( \\rho\\vec u_E \\right) + \\nabla \\cdot\\left( n(\\vec u_\\psi + \\vec u_d + \\vec u_g) \\right) &= 0\\label{eq:vorticity}\n\\end{align}\nwith the polarization charge density \n$\\rho = \\nabla\\cdot( n\\nabla_\\perp \\phi / \\Omega B)$ \nand\n$\\vec u_\\psi := \\hat{\\vec b}\\times \\nabla\\psi /B$ \nwith \n$\\psi:= m_i\\vec u_E^2 /2e$.\nWe exploit this form of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:generalb} in our numerical simulations.\n\nEquations~\\eqref{eq:generala} and \\eqref{eq:generalb} respectively \\eqref{eq:vorticity} have several invariants.\nFirst, in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:generala} the relative particle number \n$M(t) := \\int \\mathrm{dA}\\, (n-n_0)$ is conserved over time\n$\\d M(t)/\\d t = 0$. \nFurthermore, we integrate \n$( T_e(1+\\ln n) -T_e \\ln B)\\partial_t n$\nas well as\n$-e\\phi \\partial_t\\rho - (m_i\\vec u_E^2/2+gm_ix - T_e\\ln B)\\partial_t n$ \nover the domain to get, disregarding boundary contributions,\n\\begin{align}\n  \\frac{\\d}{\\d t}\\left[T_eS(t) + H(t) \\right] = 0, \\label{eq:energya}\\\\ \n    \\frac{\\d}{\\d t} \\left[ E(t) - G(t) - H(t)\\right] =  0,\n    \\label{eq:energyb}\n\\end{align}\nwhere we define \nthe entropy\n$S(t):=\\int \\mathrm{dA}\\, [n\\ln(n/n_0) - (n-n_0)]$,  \nthe kinetic energy \n$E(t):=m_i \\int \\mathrm{dA}\\, n\\vec u_E^2/2$ \nand the potential energies\n$G(t) := m_i g\\int \\mathrm{dA}\\, x(n-n_0)$\nand\n$H(t) := T_e\\int \\mathrm{dA}\\, (n-n_0) \\ln (B^{-1})$.\nNote that $n\\ln( n/n_0) - n + n_0 \\approx (n-n_0)^2/2$ for $|(n-n_0)/n_0| \\ll 1$ and $S(t)$ thus reduces to the \nlocal entropy form in Reference~\\cite{Kube2016}. \n\nWe now set up a gravitational field $\\vec g = g\\hat x$ and a constant homogeneous background\nmagnetic field $\\vec B = B_0 \\hat z$ in a Cartesian coordinate system.\nThen the divergences of the electric and gravitational drift velocities $\\nabla\\cdot\\vec u_E$ and $\\nabla\\cdot\\vec u_g$\nand the diamagnetic current $\\nabla\\cdot(n\\vec u_d)$ vanish, which makes the \nflow incompressible. Furthermore, the magnetic potential energy vanishes $H(t) = 0$.\n\nIn a second system we model the inhomogeneous magnetic field present in tokamaks as\n$\\vec B := B_0 (1+ x/R_0)^{-1}\\hat z$ and neglect the gravitational drift $\\vec u_g = 0$.\nThen, the potential energy $G(t) = 0$. \nNote that \n$H(t) = m_i \\ensuremath{C_\\mathrm{s}}^2/R_0\\int\\mathrm{dA}\\, x(n-n_0) +\\mathcal O(R_0^{-2}) $\nreduces to $G(t)$ with the effective gravity $g_\\text{eff}:= \\ensuremath{C_\\mathrm{s}}^2/R_0$ with $\\ensuremath{C_\\mathrm{s}}^2 := T_e/m_i$. \nFor the rest of this letter we treat $g$ and $g_\\text{eff}$ as well as $G(t)$ and $H(t)$ on the same footing.\nThe magnetic field inhomogeneity thus entails compressible flows, which is \nthe only difference to the model describing dynamics in a homogeneous magnetic field introduced above. \nSince both $S(t)\\geq 0$ and $E(t)\\geq 0$ we further derive from Eq.~\\eqref{eq:energya} and Eq.~\\eqref{eq:energyb} that the kinetic energy\nis bounded by $E(t) \\leq T_eS(t) + E(t) = T_e S(0)$; a feature absent from the gravitational system with \nincompressible flows, where $S(t) = S(0)$. \n\nWe now show that the invariants Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:energya} and \\eqref{eq:energyb} present restrictions on the velocity and\nacceleration of plasma blobs. \nFirst, we define the blobs' center of mass (COM) via $X(t):= \\int\\mathrm{dA}\\, x(n-n_0)/M$ and \nits COM velocity as $V(t):=\\d X(t)/\\d t$. \nThe latter is proportional to the total radial particle flux~\\cite{Garcia_Bian_Fundamensky_POP_2006, Held2016a}.\nWe assume\nthat $n>n_0$ and $(n-n_0)^2/2 \\leq [ n\\ln (n/n_0) - (n-n_0)]n $ to show for both systems \n\\begin{align}\n  (MV)^2 &= \\left( \\int \\mathrm{dA}\\, n{\\phi_y}/{B} \\right)^2\n  = \\left( \\int \\mathrm{dA}\\, (n-n_0){\\phi_y}/{B} \\right)^2\\nonumber\\\\\n \n&\\leq 2 \\left( \\int \\mathrm{dA}\\, \\left[n\\ln (n/n_0) -(n-n_0)\\right]^{1/2}\\sqrt{n}{\\phi_y}/{B}\\right)^2\\nonumber\\\\\n \n  &\\leq 4 S(0) E(t)/m_i \n \n  \\label{eq:inequality}\n\\end{align}\nHere we use the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality and \n$\\phi_y:=\\partial\\phi/\\partial y$. \nNote that although we derive the inequality Eq.~\\eqref{eq:inequality} only for amplitudes $\\triangle n >0$  we assume that the results also hold for depletions. This is justified by our numerical results later in this letter. \nIf we initialize our density field with a seeded blob of radius $\\ell$ and amplitude $\\triangle n$ as \n\\begin{align}\n  n(\\vec x, 0) &= n_0 + \\triangle n \\exp\\left( -\\frac{\\vec x^2}{2\\ell^2} \\right), \\label{eq:inita}\n \n \n\\end{align}\nand  \n$\\phi(\\vec x, 0 ) = 0$,\nwe immediately have $M := M(0) = 2\\pi \\ell^2 \\triangle n$, $E(0) = G(0) = 0$ and \n$S(0) = 2\\pi \\ell^2 f(\\triangle n)$, where $f(\\triangle n)$ captures the amplitude dependence of \nthe integral for $S(0)$. \n\nThe acceleration for both incompressible and compressible flows can be estimated\nby assuming a linear acceleration $V=A_0t$ and $X=A_0t^2/2$~\\cite{Held2016a} and using \n$E(t) = G(t) = m_igMX(t)$ in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:inequality}\n\\begin{align}\n  \\frac{A_0}{g} =  \\mathcal Q\\frac{2S(0)}{M} \\approx \\frac{\\mathcal Q}{2} \\frac{\\triangle n }{n_0+2\\triangle n/9}.\n  \\label{eq:acceleration}\n\\end{align}\nHere, we use the Pad\\'e approximation of order $(1/1)$ of $2S(0)/M $\nand define a model parameter $\\mathcal Q$ with $0<\\mathcal Q\\leq1$ to be determined by numerical simulations.\nNote that the Pad\\'e approximation is a better approximation than a simple \ntruncated Taylor expansion especially for large relative amplitudes of order unity.\nEq.~\\eqref{eq:acceleration} predicts that $A_0/g\\sim \\triangle n/n_0$ for small \namplitudes $|\\triangle n/n_0| < 1$ and $A_0 \\sim g $ for very large amplitudes $\\triangle n /n_0 \\gg 1$, \nwhich confirms the predictions in~\\cite{Pecseli2016} and reproduces the limits discussed in~\\cite{Angus2014}.\n\nAs pointed out earlier for compressible flows Eq.~\\eqref{eq:inequality} can be further estimated\n\\begin{align}\n  (MV)^2  \\leq 4 T_eS(0)^2/m_i. \n  \\label{}\n\\end{align}\nWe therefore have a restriction on the maximum COM velocity for compressible flows, which is absent for incompressible flows\n\\begin{align}\n  \\frac{\\max |V|}{\\ensuremath{C_\\mathrm{s}}} = {\\mathcal Q}\\frac{2S(0)}{M} \\approx \\frac{\\mathcal Q}{2} \\frac{|\\triangle n| }{n_0+2/9 \\triangle n } \\approx \\frac{\\mathcal Q}{2} \\frac{|\\triangle n|}{n_0}.\n  \\label{eq:linear}\n\\end{align}\nFor $|\\triangle n /n_0|< 1$ Eq.~\\eqref{eq:linear} reduces to the linear scaling derived in~\\cite{Kube2016}. \nFinally, a scale analysis of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:vorticity} shows that~\\cite{Ott1978, Garcia2005, Held2016a}\n\\begin{align}\n  \\frac{\\max |V|}{\\ensuremath{C_\\mathrm{s}}} = \\mathcal R \\left( \\frac{\\ell}{R_0}\\frac{|\\triangle n|}{n_0} \\right)^{1/2}.\n  \\label{eq:sqrt}\n\\end{align}\nThis equation predicts a square root dependence of the center of mass velocity \non amplitude and size. \n\n\n\n\n\nWe now propose a simple phenomenological model that captures the essential dynamics\nof blobs and depletions in the previously stated systems. More specifically \nthe model reproduces the acceleration Eq.~\\eqref{eq:acceleration} with and without\nBoussinesq approximation, the square root scaling for the COM velocity \nEq.~\\eqref{eq:sqrt} for incompressible flows as well as the relation between the \nsquare root scaling Eq.~\\eqref{eq:sqrt} and the linear scaling \nEq.~\\eqref{eq:linear} for compressible flows. \nThe basic idea is that the COM of blobs behaves like \nthe one of an infinitely long plasma column immersed in an ambient plasma. \nThe dynamics of this column reduces to the one of a two-dimensional ball.\nThis idea is similar to the analytical ``top hat'' density solution for\nblob dynamics recently studied in~\\cite{Pecseli2016}.\nThe ball is subject to buoyancy as well as linear and nonlinear friction\n\\begin{align}\n  M_{\\text{i}} \\frac{d V}{d t} = (M_{\\text{g}} - M_\\text{p}) g - c_1 V  - \\mathrm{sgn}(V ) \\frac{1}{2}c_2 V^2.\n  \\label{eq:ball}\n\\end{align}\nThe gravity $g$ has a positive sign in the coordinate system; sgn$(f)$ is the sign function. \nThe first term on the right hand side is the buoyancy, where \n$M_{\\text{g}} := \\pi \\ell^2 (n_0 + \\mathcal Q \\triangle n/2)$ \nis the gravitational mass of the ball with radius $\\ell$ and \n$M_\\mathrm{p} := n_0 \\pi \\ell^2 $ \nis the mass of the displaced ambient plasma.\nNote that if $\\triangle n<0$ the ball represents a depletion and the buoyancy term has a negative sign, i.e. the depletion will rise. \nWe introduce an inertial mass \n$M_{\\text{i}} := \\pi\\ell^2 (n_0 +2\\triangle n/9)$ \ndifferent from the gravitational mass $M_{\\text{g}}$ in order to \nrecover the initial acceleration in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:acceleration}. \nWe interpret the parameters $\\mathcal Q$ and $2/9$ as geometrical factors \nthat capture the difference of the actual blob form from the idealized\n``top hat'' solution. \nAlso note that the Boussinesq approximation appears in the model as a neglect of inertia, $M_{\\text{i}} = \\pi\\ell^2n_0$.\n\nThe second term is the linear friction term with coefficient $c_1(\\ell)$, which\ndepends on the size of the ball.\nIf we disregard the nonlinear friction, $c_2=0$, Eq.~\\eqref{eq:ball} directly yields a \nmaximum velocity $c_1V^*=\\pi \\ell^2 n g \\mathcal Q\\triangle n/2$.\nFrom our previous considerations $\\max V/\\ensuremath{C_\\mathrm{s}}=\\mathcal Q \\triangle n /2n_0$, we thus identify \n\\begin{align}\n  c_1 = \\pi\\ell^2 n_0 g/\\ensuremath{C_\\mathrm{s}}. \n  \\label{}\n\\end{align}\nThe linear friction coefficient thus depends on the gravity and the size of the\nball. \n\nThe last term in \\eqref{eq:ball} is the nonlinear friction. The sign of the force depends on whether\nthe ball rises or falls in the ambient plasma. \nIf we disregard linear friction $c_1=0$, we have the maximum velocity \n$V^*= \\sigma(\\triangle n)\\sqrt{\\pi \\ell^2|\\triangle n| g\\mathcal Q/c_2}$, \nwhich must equal \n$\\max V= \\sigma(\\triangle n) \\mathcal R \\sqrt{g \\ell |\\triangle n/n_0|}$ \nand thus\n\\begin{align}\n  c_2 = {\\mathcal Q\\pi n_0\\ell }/{\\mathcal R^2}.\n  \\label{}\n\\end{align}\nInserting $c_1$ and $c_2$ into Eq.~\\eqref{eq:ball}\nwe can derive the maximum absolute velocity in the form \n\\begin{align}\n  \\frac{\\max |V|}{\\ensuremath{C_\\mathrm{s}}} = \n        \\left(\\frac{\\mathcal R^2}{\\mathcal Q}\\right) \\frac{\\ell}{R_0} \\left( \n        \\left({1+\\left( \\frac{\\mathcal Q}{\\mathcal R} \\right)^{2} \\frac{|\\triangle n|/n_0 }{\\ell/R_0}}\\right)^{1/2}-1 \\right)\n  \\label{eq:vmax_theo}\n\\end{align}\nand thus have a concise expression for $\\max |V|$ that captures both the linear\nscaling \\eqref{eq:linear} as well as the square root scaling \\eqref{eq:sqrt}.\nWith Eq.~\\eqref{eq:acceleration} and Eq.~\\eqref{eq:sqrt} respectively Eq.~\\eqref{eq:vmax_theo} we \nfinally arrive at an analytical expression for the time at which the maximum velocity is reached via \n$t_{\\max V} \\sim \\max V/A_0$. Its inverse $\\gamma:=t_{\\max V}^{-1}$ gives the\nglobal interchange growth rate, for which an empirical expression was\npresented in Reference~\\cite{Held2016a}.\n\n\nWe use the open source library FELTOR \nto simulate \nEqs.~\\eqref{eq:generala} and \\eqref{eq:vorticity} with and without \ndrift compression.\nFor numerical stabilty we added small diffusive terms on the right hand \nsides of the equations.\nThe discontinuous Galerkin methods employ three polynomial coefficients and a minimum of $N_x=N_y=768$ grid cells. The box size is $50\\ell$ in order to mitigate \ninfluences of the finite box size on the blob dynamics. \nMoreover, we used the invariants in Eqs. \\eqref{eq:energya} and \\eqref{eq:energyb} as consistency tests to verify the code and repeated simulations \nalso in a gyrofluid model. \nNo differences to the results presented here were found. \nInitial perturbations on the particle density field are given by Eq.~\\eqref{eq:inita},\nwhere the perturbation amplitude $\\triangle n/n_0$ was chosen between $10^{-3}$ and $20$ for blobs and $-10^0$ and $ -10^{-3}$ for depletions. \nDue to computational reasons we show results only for $\\triangle n/n_0\\leq 20$. \n\n\nFor compressible flows we consider two different cases $\\ell/R_0 = 10^{-2}$ and\n$\\ell /R_0 = 10^{-3}$. \n For incompressible flows Eq.~\\eqref{eq:generala} and \\eqref{eq:vorticity}\n can be normalized such that the blob radius is absent from the equations~\\cite{Ott1978, Kube2012}. \n The simulations of incompressible flows can thus be used for both sizes. \nThe numerical code as well as input parameters and output data can be found \nin the supplemental dataset to this contribution~\\cite{Data2017}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\columnwidth]{com_blobs}\n    \\caption{\n      The maximum radial COM velocities of blobs for compressible and incompressible flows are shown. \n      The continuous lines show Eq.~\\eqref{eq:vmax_theo} while the \n      dashed line shows the square root scaling Eq.~\\eqref{eq:sqrt} with \n      $\\mathcal Q = 0.32$ and $\\mathcal R=0.85$.\n    }\n    \\label{fig:com_blobs}\n\\end{figure}\nIn Fig.~\\ref{fig:com_blobs} we plot the maximum COM velocity for blobs \nwith and without drift compression.\nFor incompressible flows blobs follow the square root scaling almost \nperfectly. Only at very large amplitudes velocities are slightly below\nthe predicted values. \nFor small amplitudes we observe that the compressible blobs follow\na linear scaling. When the amplitudes increase there is a transition to the\nsquare root scaling at around $\\triangle n/n_0 \\simeq 0.5$ for \n$\\ell/R_0=10^{-2}$ and $\\triangle n/n_0 \\simeq 0.05$ for $\\ell/R_0=10^{-3}$, which is consistent with Eq.~\\eqref{eq:vmax_theo} and Reference~\\cite{Kube2016}. \nIn the transition regions the simulated velocities are slightly larger than the predicted ones from Eq.~\\eqref{eq:vmax_theo}.\nBeyond these amplitudes\nthe velocities of compressible and incompressible blobs align. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\columnwidth]{com_holes}\n    \\caption{\n      The maximum radial COM velocities of depletions for compressible and incompressible flows are shown. \n      The continuous lines show Eq.~\\eqref{eq:vmax_theo} while the \n      dashed line shows the square root scaling Eq.~\\eqref{eq:sqrt} with \n      $\\mathcal Q = 0.32$ and $\\mathcal R=0.85$.\n      Note that small amplitudes are on the right and amplitudes close to unity are on the left side.\n  }\n    \\label{fig:com_depletions}\n\\end{figure}\nIn Fig.~\\ref{fig:com_depletions} we show the maximum radial COM velocity \nfor depletions instead of blobs.\nFor relative amplitudes below $|\\triangle n|/n_0 \\simeq 0.5$ (right of unity in the plot) the velocities\ncoincide with the corresponding blob velocities in Fig.~\\ref{fig:com_blobs}. \n For amplitudes larger than $|\\triangle n|/n_0\\simeq 0.5$ the \nvelocities follow the square root scaling.\nWe observe that for plasma depletions beyond $90$ percent the velocities \nin both systems reach a constant value that is very well predicted by the\nsquare root scaling. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\columnwidth]{acc_blobs}\n    \\caption{\n      Average acceleration of blobs for compressible and incompressible flows are shown.\n      The continuous line shows the acceleration in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:acceleration} \n      with $\\mathcal Q=0.32$\n      while the dashed line is a linear reference line, which corresponds to the Boussinesq approximation. \n  }\n    \\label{fig:acc_blobs}\n\\end{figure}\nIn Fig.~\\ref{fig:acc_blobs} we show the average acceleration of blobs \nfor compressible and incompressible flows computed\nby dividing the maximum velocity $\\max V$ by the time  \nto reach this velocity $t_{\\max V}$. \nWe compare the simulation results\nto the theoretical predictions Eq.~\\eqref{eq:acceleration} of our model with and without inertia. \nThe results of the compressible and incompressible systems coincide and fit very\nwell to our theoretical values. \nFor amplitudes larger than unity the acceleration deviates significantly from the prediction with Boussinesq approximation.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\columnwidth]{acc_holes}\n    \\caption{\n      Average acceleration of depletions for compressible and incompressible flows are shown.\n      The continuous line shows the acceleration in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:acceleration} \n      with $\\mathcal Q=0.32$\n      while the dashed line is a linear reference line, which corresponds to the Boussinesq approximation. \n    }\n    \\label{fig:acc_depletions}\n\\end{figure}\nIn Fig.~\\ref{fig:acc_depletions} we show the simulated acceleration of depletions in the\ncompressible and the incompressible systems. We compare the simulation results\nto the theoretical predictions Eq.~\\eqref{eq:acceleration} of our model with and without inertia.\nDeviations from our theoretical prediction Eq.~\\eqref{eq:acceleration} are visible for amplitudes smaller than $\\triangle n/n_0 \\simeq -0.5$ (left of unity in the plot). The relative deviations are small at around $20$ percent. \nAs in Fig.~\\ref{fig:com_depletions} the acceleration reaches a constant values\nfor plasma depletions of more than $90$ percent.\nComparing Fig.~\\ref{fig:acc_depletions} to Fig.~\\ref{fig:acc_blobs} the asymmetry between blobs and depletions becomes \napparent. While the acceleration of blobs is reduced for large \namplitudes compared to a linear dependence the acceleration \nof depletions is increased. In the language of our simple buoyancy \nmodel the inertia of depletions is reduced but increased for blobs. \n\n\n\nIn conclusion  \n  we discuss the dynamics of seeded blobs and depletions in a \n  compressible and an incompressible system.\n  With only two fit parameters our theoretical results reproduce the \n  numerical COM velocities and accelerations over five orders of magnitude.\n  We derive the amplitude dependence of the acceleration of blobs and depletions from \n  the conservation laws of our systems in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:acceleration}. \n  From the same inequality a linear regime is derived in the compressible system for \n  ratios of amplitudes to sizes smaller than a critical value.\n   In this regime \n  the blob and depletion velocity depends linearly on the initial amplitude and \n  is independent of size. The regime is absent from the system with incompressible flows.\n  Our theoretical results are verified by numerical simulations for all \n  amplitudes that are relevant in magnetic fusion devices.\n  Finally, we suggest a new empirical blob model that captures the detailed dynamics of more complicated models. \n  The Boussinesq approximation is clarified as the absence of inertia and a thus altered acceleration of blobs and depletions.\n  The maximum blob velocity is not altered by the Boussinesq approximation.\n\nThe authors were supported with financial subvention from the Research Council of Norway under grant\n240510/F20. M.W. and M.H. were supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) Y398.  The computational\nresults presented have been achieved in part using the Vienna Scientific Cluster (VSC). Part of this work was performed on the Abel Cluster, owned by the University of Oslo and the Norwegian metacenter\nfor High Performance Computing (NOTUR), and operated by the Department for Research Computing at USIT,\nthe University of Oslo IT-department.\nThis work has been carried out within the framework of the EUROfusion Consortium and has received funding from the Euratom research and training programme 2014-2018 under grant agreement No 633053. The views and opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect those of the European Commission.", "answers": ["The maximum velocity scales with the square root of the amplitude."], "length": 2748, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "7a503a81877d3baca86f8d7179209e4899823433ab3326f3"}
{"input": "What algorithm is engaged in the PLMS-PPIC method?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\\label{S1}\n\nThe multiple access interferences (MAI) is the root of user\nlimitation in CDMA systems \\cite{R1,R3}. The parallel least mean\nsquare-partial parallel interference cancelation (PLMS-PPIC) method\nis a multiuser detector for code division multiple access (CDMA)\nreceivers which reduces the effect of MAI in bit detection. In this\nmethod and similar to its former versions like LMS-PPIC \\cite{R5}\n(see also \\cite{RR5}), a weighted value of the MAI of other users is\nsubtracted before making the decision for a specific user in\ndifferent stages \\cite{cohpaper}. In both of these methods, the\nnormalized least mean square (NLMS) algorithm is engaged\n\\cite{Haykin96}. The $m^{\\rm th}$ element of the weight vector in\neach stage is the true transmitted binary value of the $m^{\\rm th}$\nuser divided by its hard estimate value from the previous stage. The\nmagnitude of all weight elements in all stages are equal to unity.\nUnlike the LMS-PPIC, the PLMS-PPIC method tries to keep this\nproperty in each iteration by using a set of NLMS algorithms with\ndifferent step-sizes instead of one NLMS algorithm used in LMS-PPIC.\nIn each iteration, the parameter estimate of the NLMS algorithm is\nchosen whose element magnitudes of cancelation weight estimate have\nthe best match with unity. In PLMS-PPIC implementation it is assumed\nthat the receiver knows the phases of all user channels. However in\npractice, these phases are not known and should be estimated. In\nthis paper we improve the PLMS-PPIC procedure \\cite{cohpaper} in\nsuch a way that when there is only a partial information of the\nchannel phases, this modified version simultaneously estimates the\nphases and the cancelation weights. The partial information is the\nquarter of each channel phase in $(0,2\\pi)$.\n\nThe rest of the paper is organized as follows: In section \\ref{S4}\nthe modified version of PLMS-PPIC with capability of channel phase\nestimation is introduced. In section \\ref{S5} some simulation\nexamples illustrate the results of the proposed method. Finally the\npaper is concluded in section \\ref{S6}.\n\n\\section{Multistage Parallel Interference Cancelation: Modified PLMS-PPIC Method}\\label{S4}\n\nWe assume $M$ users synchronously send their symbols\n$\\alpha_1,\\alpha_2,\\cdots,\\alpha_M$ via a base-band CDMA\ntransmission system where $\\alpha_m\\in\\{-1,1\\}$. The $m^{th}$ user\nhas its own code $p_m(.)$ of length $N$, where $p_m(n)\\in \\{-1,1\\}$,\nfor all $n$. It means that for each symbol $N$ bits are transmitted\nby each user and the processing gain is equal to $N$. At the\nreceiver we assume that perfect power control scheme is applied.\nWithout loss of generality, we also assume that the power gains of\nall channels are equal to unity and users' channels do not change\nduring each symbol transmission (it can change from one symbol\ntransmission to the next one) and the channel phase $\\phi_m$ of\n$m^{th}$ user is unknown for all $m=1,2,\\cdots,M$ (see\n\\cite{cohpaper} for coherent transmission). According to the above\nassumptions the received signal is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e1} r(n)=\\sum\\limits_{m=1}^{M}\\alpha_m\ne^{j\\phi_m}p_m(n)+v(n),~~~~n=1,2,\\cdots,N,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $v(n)$ is the additive white Gaussian noise with zero mean and\nvariance $\\sigma^2$. Multistage parallel interference cancelation\nmethod uses $\\alpha^{s-1}_1,\\alpha^{s-1}_2,\\cdots,\\alpha^{s-1}_M$,\nthe bit estimates outputs of the previous stage, $s-1$, to estimate\nthe related MAI of each user. It then subtracts it from the received\nsignal $r(n)$ and makes a new decision on each user variable\nindividually to make a new variable set\n$\\alpha^{s}_1,\\alpha^{s}_2,\\cdots,\\alpha^{s}_M$ for the current\nstage $s$. Usually the variable set of the first stage (stage $0$)\nis the output of a conventional detector. The output of the last\nstage is considered as the final estimate of transmitted bits. In\nthe following we explain the structure of a modified version of the\nPLMS-PIC method \\cite{cohpaper} with simultaneous capability of\nestimating the cancelation weights and the channel phases.\n\nAssume $\\alpha_m^{(s-1)}\\in\\{-1,1\\}$ is a given estimate of\n$\\alpha_m$ from stage $s-1$. Define\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e6} w^s_{m}=\\frac{\\alpha_m}{\\alpha_m^{(s-1)}}e^{j\\phi_m}.\n\\end{equation}\nFrom (\\ref{e1}) and (\\ref{e6}) we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e7} r(n)=\\sum\\limits_{m=1}^{M}w^s_m\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m\np_m(n)+v(n).\n\\end{equation}\nDefine\n\\begin{subequations}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\label{e8} W^s&=&[w^s_{1},w^s_{2},\\cdots,w^s_{M}]^T,\\\\\n\\label{e9}\n\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!X^{s}(n)\\!\\!\\!&=&\\!\\!\\![\\alpha^{(s-1)}_1p_1(n),\\alpha^{(s-1)}_2p_2(n),\\cdots,\\alpha^{(s-1)}_Mp_M(n)]^T.\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\end{subequations}\nwhere $T$ stands for transposition. From equations (\\ref{e7}),\n(\\ref{e8}) and (\\ref{e9}), we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e10} r(n)=W^{s^T}X^{s}(n)+v(n).\n\\end{equation}\nGiven the observations $\\{r(n),X^{s}(n)\\}^{N}_{n=1}$, in modified\nPLMS-PPIC, like the PLMS-PPIC \\cite{cohpaper}, a set of NLMS\nadaptive algorithm are used to compute\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{te1} W^{s}(N)=[w^{s}_1(N),w^{s}_2(N),\\cdots,w^{s}_M(N)]^T,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is an estimate of $W^s$ after iteration $N$. To do so, from\n(\\ref{e6}), we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e13} |w^s_{m}|=1 ~~~m=1,2,\\cdots,M,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is equivalent to\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e14} \\sum\\limits_{m=1}^{M}||w^s_{m}|-1|=0.\n\\end{equation}\nWe divide $\\Psi=\\left(0,1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}}\\right]$, a sharp\nrange for $\\mu$ (the step-size of the NLMS algorithm) given in\n\\cite{sg2005}, into $L$ subintervals and consider $L$ individual\nstep-sizes $\\Theta=\\{\\mu_1,\\mu_2,\\cdots,\\mu_L\\}$, where\n$\\mu_1=\\frac{1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}}}{L}, \\mu_2=2\\mu_1,\\cdots$, and\n$\\mu_L=L\\mu_1$. In each stage, $L$ individual NLMS algorithms are\nexecuted ($\\mu_l$ is the step-size of the $l^{th}$ algorithm). In\nstage $s$ and at iteration $n$, if\n$W^{s}_k(n)=[w^s_{1,k},\\cdots,w^s_{M,k}]^T$, the parameter estimate\nof the $k^{\\rm th}$ algorithm, minimizes our criteria, then it is\nconsidered as the parameter estimate at time iteration $n$. In other\nwords if the next equation holds\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e17} W^s_k(n)=\\arg\\min\\limits_{W^s_l(n)\\in I_{W^s}\n}\\left\\{\\sum\\limits_{m=1}^{M}||w^s_{m,l}(n)|-1|\\right\\},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $W^{s}_l(n)=W^{s}(n-1)+\\mu_l \\frac{X^s(n)}{\\|X^s(n)\\|^2}e(n),\n~~~ l=1,2,\\cdots,k,\\cdots,L-1,L$ and\n$I_{W^s}=\\{W^s_1(n),\\cdots,W^s_L(n)\\}$, then we have\n$W^s(n)=W^s_k(n)$, and therefore all other algorithms replace their\nweight estimate by $W^{s}_k(n)$. At time instant $n=N$, this\nprocedure gives $W^s(N)$, the final estimate of $W^s$, as the true\nparameter of stage $s$.\n\nNow consider $R=(0,2\\pi)$ and divide it into four equal parts\n$R_1=(0,\\frac{\\pi}{2})$, $R_2=(\\frac{\\pi}{2},\\pi)$,\n$R_3=(\\pi,\\frac{3\\pi}{2})$ and $R_4=(\\frac{3\\pi}{2},2\\pi)$. The\npartial information of channel phases (given by the receiver) is in\na way that it shows each $\\phi_m$ ($m=1,2,\\cdots,M$) belongs to\nwhich one of the four quarters $R_i,~i=1,2,3,4$. Assume\n$W^{s}(N)=[w^{s}_1(N),w^{s}_2(N),\\cdots,w^{s}_M(N)]^T$ is the weight\nestimate of the modified algorithm PLMS-PPIC at time instant $N$ of\nthe stage $s$. From equation (\\ref{e6}) we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{tt3}\n\\phi_m=\\angle({\\frac{\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m}{\\alpha_m}w^s_m}).\n\\end{equation}\nWe estimate $\\phi_m$ by $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m$, where\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{ee3}\n\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\angle{(\\frac{\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m}{\\alpha_m}w^s_m(N))}.\n\\end{equation}\nBecause $\\frac{\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m}{\\alpha_m}=1$ or $-1$, we have\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll} \\angle{w^s_m(N)} &\n\\mbox{if}~\n\\frac{\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m}{\\alpha_m}=1\\\\\n\\pm\\pi+\\angle{w^s_m(N)} & \\mbox{if}~\n\\frac{\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m}{\\alpha_m}=-1\\end{array}\\right.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHence $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m\\in P^s=\\{\\angle{w^s_m(N)},\n\\angle{w^s_m(N)+\\pi, \\angle{w^s_m(N)}-\\pi}\\}$. If $w^s_m(N)$\nsufficiently converges to its true value $w^s_m$, the same region\nfor $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m$ and $\\phi_m$ is expected. In this case only one\nof the three members of $P^s$ has the same region as $\\phi_m$. For\nexample if $\\phi_m \\in (0,\\frac{\\pi}{2})$, then $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m \\in\n(0,\\frac{\\pi}{2})$ and therefore only $\\angle{w^s_m(N)}$ or\n$\\angle{w^s_m(N)}+\\pi$ or $\\angle{w^s_m(N)}-\\pi$ belongs to\n$(0,\\frac{\\pi}{2})$. If, for example, $\\angle{w^s_m(N)}+\\pi$ is such\na member between all three members of $P^s$, it is the best\ncandidate for phase estimation. In other words,\n\\[\\phi_m\\approx\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\angle{w^s_m(N)}+\\pi.\\]\nWe admit that when there is a member of $P^s$ in the quarter of\n$\\phi_m$, then $w^s_m(N)$ converges. What would happen when non of\nthe members of $P^s$ has the same quarter as $\\phi_m$? This\nsituation will happen when the absolute difference between $\\angle\nw^s_m(N)$ and $\\phi_m$ is greater than $\\pi$. It means that\n$w^s_m(N)$ has not converged yet. In this case where we can not\ncount on $w^s_m(N)$, the expected value is the optimum choice for\nthe channel phase estimation, e.g. if $\\phi_m \\in (0,\\frac{\\pi}{2})$\nthen $\\frac{\\pi}{4}$ is the estimation of the channel phase\n$\\phi_m$, or if $\\phi_m \\in (\\frac{\\pi}{2},\\pi)$ then\n$\\frac{3\\pi}{4}$ is the estimation of the channel phase $\\phi_m$.\nThe results of the above discussion are summarized in the next\nequation\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\nonumber \\hat{\\phi}^s_m = \\left\\{\\begin{array}{llll} \\angle\n{w^s_m(N)} & \\mbox{if}~\n\\angle{w^s_m(N)}, \\phi_m\\in R_i,~~i=1,2,3,4\\\\\n\\angle{w^s_m(N)}+\\pi & \\mbox{if}~ \\angle{w^s_m(N)}+\\pi, \\phi_m\\in\nR_i,~~i=1,2,3,4\\\\\n\\angle{w^n_m(N)}-\\pi & \\mbox{if}~ \\angle{w^s_m(N)}-\\pi, \\phi_m\\in\nR_i,~~i=1,2,3,4\\\\\n\\frac{(i-1)\\pi+i\\pi}{4} & \\mbox{if}~ \\phi_m\\in\nR_i,~~\\angle{w^s_m(N)},\\angle\n{w^s_m(N)}\\pm\\pi\\notin R_i,~~i=1,2,3,4.\\\\\n\\end{array}\\right.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHaving an estimation of the channel phases, the rest of the proposed\nmethod is given by estimating $\\alpha^{s}_m$ as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{tt4}\n\\alpha^{s}_m=\\mbox{sign}\\left\\{\\mbox{real}\\left\\{\\sum\\limits_{n=1}^{N}\nq^s_m(n)e^{-j\\hat{\\phi}^s_m}p_m(n)\\right\\}\\right\\},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation} \\label{tt5}\nq^{s}_{m}(n)=r(n)-\\sum\\limits_{m^{'}=1,m^{'}\\ne\nm}^{M}w^{s}_{m^{'}}(N)\\alpha^{(s-1)}_{m^{'}} p_{m^{'}}(n).\n\\end{equation}\nThe inputs of the first stage $\\{\\alpha^{0}_m\\}_{m=1}^M$ (needed for\ncomputing $X^1(n)$) are given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{qte5}\n\\alpha^{0}_m=\\mbox{sign}\\left\\{\\mbox{real}\\left\\{\\sum\\limits_{n=1}^{N}\nr(n)e^{-j\\hat{\\phi}^0_m}p_m(n)\\right\\}\\right\\}.\n\\end{equation}\nAssuming $\\phi_m\\in R_i$, then\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{qqpp} \\hat{\\phi}^0_m =\\frac{(i-1)\\pi+i\\pi}{4}.\n\\end{equation}\nTable \\ref{tab4} shows the structure of the modified PLMS-PPIC\nmethod. It is to be notified that\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item Equation (\\ref{qte5}) shows the conventional bit detection\nmethod when the receiver only knows the quarter of channel phase in\n$(0,2\\pi)$. \\item With $L=1$ (i.e. only one NLMS algorithm), the\nmodified PLMS-PPIC can be thought as a modified version of the\nLMS-PPIC method.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nIn the following section some examples are given to illustrate the\neffectiveness of the proposed method.\n\n\\section{Simulations}\\label{S5}\n\nIn this section we have considered some simulation examples.\nExamples \\ref{ex2}-\\ref{ex4} compare the conventional, the modified\nLMS-PPIC and the modified PLMS-PPIC methods in three cases: balanced\nchannels, unbalanced channels and time varying channels. In all\nexamples, the receivers have only the quarter of each channel phase.\nExample \\ref{ex2} is given to compare the modified LMS-PPIC and the\nPLMS-PPIC in the case of balanced channels.\n\n\\begin{example}{\\it Balanced channels}:\n\\label{ex2}\n\\begin{table}\n\\caption{Channel phase estimate of the first user (example\n\\ref{ex2})} \\label{tabex5} \\centerline{{\n\\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{6}{*}{\\rotatebox{90}{$\\phi_m=\\frac{3\\pi}{8},M=15~~$}} & N(Iteration) & Stage Number& NLMS & PNLMS  \\\\\n&&&&\\\\\n\\cline{2-5} & \\multirow{2}{*}{64}& s = 2 &  $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.24\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.18\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{3-5} & & s = 3 & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.24\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.18\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{2-5} & \\multirow{2}{*}{256}& s = 2 &  $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.85\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.88\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{3-5} & & s = 3 & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.85\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.88\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{2-5} \\hline\n\\end{tabular} }}\n\\end{table}\nConsider the system model (\\ref{e7}) in which $M$ users\nsynchronously send their bits to the receiver through their\nchannels. It is assumed that each user's information consists of\ncodes of length $N$. It is also assumd that the signal to noise\nratio (SNR) is 0dB. In this example there is no power-unbalanced or\nchannel loss is assumed. The step-size of the NLMS algorithm in\nmodified LMS-PPIC method is $\\mu=0.1(1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}})$ and\nthe set of step-sizes of the parallel NLMS algorithms in modified\nPLMS-PPIC method are\n$\\Theta=\\{0.01,0.05,0.1,0.2,\\cdots,1\\}(1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}})$,\ni.e. $\\mu_1=0.01(1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}}),\\cdots,\n\\mu_4=0.2(1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}}),\\cdots,\n\\mu_{12}=(1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}})$. Figure~\\ref{Figexp1NonCoh}\nillustrates the bit error rate (BER) for the case of two stages and\nfor $N=64$ and $N=256$. Simulations also show that there is no\nremarkable difference between results in two stage and three stage\nscenarios. Table~\\ref{tabex5} compares the average channel phase\nestimate of the first user in each stage and over $10$ runs of\nmodified LMS-PPIC and PLMS-PPIC, when the the number of users is\n$M=15$.\n\\end{example}\n\nAlthough LMS-PPIC and PLMS-PPIC, as well as their modified versions,\nare structured based on the assumption of no near-far problem\n(examples \\ref{ex3} and \\ref{ex4}), these methods and especially the\nsecond one have remarkable performance in the cases of unbalanced\nand/or time varying channels.\n\n\\begin{example}{\\it Unbalanced channels}:\n\\label{ex3}\n\\begin{table}\n\\caption{Channel phase estimate of the first user (example\n\\ref{ex3})} \\label{tabex6} \\centerline{{\n\\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{6}{*}{\\rotatebox{90}{$\\phi_m=\\frac{3\\pi}{8},M=15~~$}} & N(Iteration) & Stage Number& NLMS & PNLMS  \\\\\n&&&&\\\\\n\\cline{2-5} & \\multirow{2}{*}{64}& s=2 &  $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.45\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.36\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{3-5} & & s=3 & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.71\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.80\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{2-5} & \\multirow{2}{*}{256}& s=2 &  $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.09\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.86\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{3-5} & & s=3 & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.93\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.01\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{2-5} \\hline\n\\end{tabular} }}\n\\end{table}\nConsider example \\ref{ex2} with power unbalanced and/or channel loss\nin transmission system, i.e. the true model at stage $s$ is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{ve7} r(n)=\\sum\\limits_{m=1}^{M}\\beta_m\nw^s_m\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m c_m(n)+v(n),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $0<\\beta_m\\leq 1$ for all $1\\leq m \\leq M$. Both the LMS-PPIC\nand the PLMS-PPIC methods assume the model (\\ref{e7}), and their\nestimations are based on observations $\\{r(n),X^s(n)\\}$, instead of\n$\\{r(n),\\mathbf{G}X^s(n)\\}$, where the channel gain matrix is\n$\\mathbf{G}=\\mbox{diag}(\\beta_1,\\beta_2,\\cdots,\\beta_m)$. In this\ncase we repeat example \\ref{ex2}. We randomly get each element of\n$G$ from $[0,0.3]$. Figure~\\ref{Figexp2NonCoh} illustrates the BER\nversus the number of users. Table~\\ref{tabex6} compares the channel\nphase estimate of the first user in each stage and over $10$ runs of\nmodified LMS-PPIC and modified PLMS-PPIC for $M=15$.\n\\end{example}\n\n\\begin{example}\n\\label{ex4} {\\it Time varying channels}: Consider example \\ref{ex2}\nwith time varying Rayleigh fading channels. In this case we assume\nthe maximum Doppler shift of $40$HZ, the three-tap\nfrequency-selective channel with delay vector of $\\{2\\times\n10^{-6},2.5\\times 10^{-6},3\\times 10^{-6}\\}$sec and gain vector of\n$\\{-5,-3,-10\\}$dB. Figure~\\ref{Figexp3NonCoh} shows the average BER\nover all users versus $M$ and using two stages.\n\\end{example}\n\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\\label{S6}\n\nIn this paper, parallel interference cancelation using adaptive\nmultistage structure and employing a set of NLMS algorithms with\ndifferent step-sizes is proposed, when just the quarter of the\nchannel phase of each user is known. In fact, the algorithm has been\nproposed for coherent transmission with full information on channel\nphases in \\cite{cohpaper}. This paper is a modification on the\npreviously proposed algorithm. Simulation results show that the new\nmethod has a remarkable performance for different scenarios\nincluding Rayleigh fading channels even if the channel is\nunbalanced.\n\n", "answers": ["The normalized least mean square (NLMS) algorithm."], "length": 2008, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "73b9b4130b4a4931bed5ea7e24331ce61b59271eac6c6c01"}
{"input": "What is the significance of the interlayer Berry connection polarizability?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Crossed Nonlinear Dynamical Hall Effect in Twisted Bilayers\nPublish Date: 17 Mar 2023\nAuthor List: \n\nFigure\n\nFIG. 1.(a) Schematics of experimental setup.(b, c) Valence band structure and intrinsic Hall conductivity with respect to in-plane input for tMoTe2 at twist angles (b) θ = 1.2 • and (c) θ = 2 • in +K valley.Color coding in (b) and (c) denotes the layer composition σ z n (k).\nFIG. 2. (a) The interlayer BCP G, and (b) its vorticity [∂ k × G]z on the first valence band from +K valley of 1.2 • tMoTe2.Background color and arrows in (a) denote the magnitude and vector flow, respectively.Grey curves in (b) show energy contours at 1/2 and 3/4 of the band width.The black dashed arrow denotes direction of increasing hole doping level.Black dashed hexagons in (a, b) denote the boundary of moiré Brillouin zone (mBZ).\nFIG. 3. (a-c) Three high-symmetry stacking registries for tBG with a commensurate twist angle θ = 21.8 • .Lattice geometries with rotation center on an overlapping atomic site (a, b) and hexagonal center (c).(d) Schematic of the moiré pattern when the twist angle slightly deviates from 21.8 • , here θ = 21 • .Red squares marked by A, B and C are the local regions that resemble commensurate 21.8 • patterns in (a), (b) and (c), respectively.(e, f) Low-energy band structures and intrinsic Hall conductivity of the two geometries [(a) and (b) are equivalent].The shaded areas highlight energy windows ∼ ω around band degeneracies where interband transitions, not considered here, may quantitatively affect the conductivity measured.\nFIG. S4.Band structure and layer composition σ z n in +K valley of tBG (left panel) and the intrinsic Hall conductivity (right panel) at three different twist angle θ.The shaded areas highlight energy windows ∼ ω around band degeneracies in which the conductivity results should not be considered.Here σH should be multiplied by a factor of 2 accounting for spin degeneracy.\n\nabstract\n\nWe propose an unconventional nonlinear dynamical Hall effect characteristic of twisted bilayers. The joint action of in-plane and out-of-plane ac electric fields generates Hall currents j ∼ Ė⊥ × E in both sum and difference frequencies, and when the two orthogonal fields have common frequency their phase difference controls the on/off, direction and magnitude of the rectified dc Hall current.\nThis novel intrinsic Hall response has a band geometric origin in the momentum space curl of interlayer Berry connection polarizability, arising from layer hybridization of electrons by the twisted interlayer coupling. The effect allows a unique rectification functionality and a transport probe of chiral symmetry in bilayer systems.\nWe show sizable effects in twisted homobilayer transition metal dichalcogenides and twisted bilayer graphene over broad range of twist angles. Nonlinear Hall-type response to an in-plane electric field in a two dimensional (2D) system with time reversal symmetry has attracted marked interests . Intensive studies have been devoted to uncovering new types of nonlinear Hall transport induced by quantum geometry and their applications such as terahertz rectification and magnetic information readout .\nRestricted by symmetry , the known mechanisms of nonlinear Hall response in quasi-2D nonmagnetic materials are all of extrinsic nature, sensitive to fine details of disorders , which have limited their utilization for practical applications. Moreover, having a single driving field only, the effect has not unleashed the full potential of nonlinearity for enabling controlled gate in logic operation, where separable inputs (i.e., in orthogonal directions) are desirable.\nThe latter, in the context of Hall effect, calls for control by both out-of-plane and in-plane electric fields. A strategy to introduce quantum geometric response to out-of-plane field in quasi-2D geometry is made possible in van der Waals (vdW) layered structures with twisted stacking . Taking homobilayer as an example, electrons have an active layer degree of freedom that is associated with an out-of-plane electric dipole , whereas interlayer quantum tunneling rotates this pseudospin about in-plane axes that are of topologically nontrivial textures in the twisted landscapes .\nSuch layer pseudospin structures can underlie novel quantum geometric properties when coupled with out-ofplane field. Recent studies have found layer circular photogalvanic effect and layer-contrasted time-reversaleven Hall effect , arising from band geometric quantities. In this work we unveil a new type of nonlinear Hall effect in time-reversal symmetric twisted bilayers, where an intrinsic Hall current emerges under the combined action of an in-plane electric field E and an out-of-plane ac field E ⊥ (t): j ∼ Ė⊥ × E [see Fig. ].\nHaving the two driving fields (inputs) and the current response (output) all orthogonal to each other, the effect is dubbed as the crossed nonlinear dynamical Hall effect. This is also the first nonlinear Hall contribution of an intrinsic nature in nonmagnetic materials without external magnetic field, determined solely by the band structures, not relying on extrinsic factors such as disorders and relaxation times.\nThe effect arises from the interlayer hybridization of electronic states under the chiral crystal symmetry characteristic of twisted bilayers, and has a novel band geometric origin in the momentum space curl of interlayer Berry connection polarizability (BCP). Having two driving fields of the same frequency, a dc Hall current develops, whose on/off, direction and magnitude can all be controlled by the phase difference of the two fields, which does not affect the magnitude of the double-frequency component.\nSuch a characteristic tunability renders this effect a unique approach to rectification and transport probe of chiral bilayers. As examples, we show sizable effects in small angle twisted transition metal dichalcogenides (tTMDs) and twisted bilayer graphene (tBG), as well as tBG of large angles where Umklapp interlayer tunneling dominates.\nGeometric origin of the effect. A bilayer system couples to in-plane and out-of-plane driving electric fields in completely different ways. The in-plane field couples to the 2D crystal momentum, leading to Berry-phase effects in the 2D momentum space . In comparison, the outof-plane field is coupled to the interlayer dipole moment p in the form of −E ⊥ p, where p = ed 0 σz with σz as the Pauli matrix in the layer index subspace and d 0 the interlayer distance.\nWhen the system has a more than twofold rotational axis in the z direction, as in tBG and tTMDs, any in-plane current driven by the out-of-plane field alone is forbidden. It also prohibits the off-diagonal components of the symmetric part of the conductivity tensor σ ab = ∂j a /∂E ||,b with respect to the in-plane input and output.\nSince the antisymmetric part of σ ab is not allowed by the Onsager reciprocity in nonmagnetic systems, all the off-diagonal components of σ ab is forbidden, irrespective of the order of out-of-plane field. On the other hand, as we will show, an in-plane Hall conductivity σ xy = −σ yx can still be driven by the product of an in-plane field and the time variation rate of an outof-plane ac field, which is a characteristic effect of chiral bilayers.\nTo account for the effect, we make use of the semiclassical theory . The velocity of an electron in a bilayer system is given by where k is the 2D crystal momentum. Here and hereafter we suppress the band index for simplicity, unless otherwise noted. The three contributions in this equation come from the band velocity, the anomalous velocities induced by the k -space Berry curvature Ω k and by the hybrid Berry curvature Ω kE ⊥ in the (k, E ⊥ ) space.\nFor the velocity at the order of interest, the k-space Berry curvature is corrected to the first order of the variation rate of out-of-plane field Ė⊥ as Here A = u k |i∂ k |u k is the unperturbed k-space Berry connection, with |u k being the cell-periodic part of the Bloch wave, whereas is its gauge invariant correction , which can be identified physically as an in-plane positional shift of an electron induced by the time evolution of the out-of-plane field.\nFor a band with index n, we have whose numerator involves the interband matrix elements of the interlayer dipole and velocity operators, and ε n is the unperturbed band energy. Meanwhile, up to the first order of in-plane field, the hybrid Berry curvature reads Here A E || is the k-space Berry connection induced by E || field , which represents an intralayer positional shift and whose detailed expression is not needed for our purpose.\nand is its first order correction induced by the in-plane field. In addition, ε = ε + δε, where δε = eE • G Ė⊥ is the field-induced electron energy . Given that A E || is the E ⊥ -space counterpart of intralayer shift A E || , and that E ⊥ is conjugate to the interlayer dipole moment, we can pictorially interpret A E || as the interlayer shift induced by in-plane field.\nIt indeed has the desired property of flipping sign under the horizontal mirror-plane reflection, hence is analogous to the so-called interlayer coordinate shift introduced in the study of layer circular photogalvanic effect , which is nothing but the E ⊥ -space counterpart of the shift vector well known in the nonlinear optical phenomenon of shift current.\nTherefore, the E ⊥ -space BCP eG/ can be understood as the interlayer BCP. This picture is further augmented by the connotation that the interlayer BCP is featured exclusively by interlayer-hybridized electronic states: According to Eq. ( ), if the state |u n is fully polarized in a specific layer around some momentum k, then G (k) is suppressed.\nWith the velocity of individual electrons, the charge current density contributed by the electron system can be obtained from where [dk] is shorthand for n d 2 k/(2π) 2 , and the distribution function is taken to be the Fermi function f 0 as we focus on the intrinsic response. The band geometric contributions to ṙ lead to a Hall current\nwhere is intrinsic to the band structure. This band geometric quantity measures the k-space curl of the interlayer BCP over the occupied states, and hence is also a characteristic of layer-hybridized electronic states. Via an integration by parts, it becomes clear that χ int is a Fermi surface property.\nSince χ int is a time-reversal even pseudoscalar, it is invariant under rotation, but flips sign under space inversion, mirror reflection and rotoreflection symmetries. As such, χ int is allowed if and only if the system possesses a chiral crystal structure, which is the very case of twisted bilayers .\nMoreover, since twisted structures with opposite twist angles are mirror images of each other, whereas the mirror reflection flips the sign of χ int , the direction of Hall current can be reversed by reversing twist direction. Hall rectification and frequency doubling. This effect can be utilized for the rectification and frequency doubling of an in-plane ac input E = E 0 cos ωt, provided that the out-of-plane field has the same frequency, namely E ⊥ = E 0 ⊥ cos (ωt + ϕ).\nThe phase difference ϕ between the two fields plays an important role in determining the Hall current, which takes the form of j = j 0 sin ϕ + j 2ω sin(2ωt + ϕ). ( Here ω is required to be below the threshold for direct interband transition in order to validate the semiclassical treatment, and σ H has the dimension of conductance and quantifies the Hall response with respect to the in-plane input.\nIn experiment, the Hall output by the crossed nonlinear dynamic Hall effect can be distinguished readily from the conventional nonlinear Hall effect driven by in-plane field alone, as they are odd and even, respectively, in the inplane field. One notes that while the double-frequency component appears for any ϕ, the rectified output is allowed only if the two crossed driving fields are not in-phase or antiphase.\nIts on/off, chirality (right or left), and magnitude are all controlled by the phase difference of the two fields. Such a unique tunability provides not only a prominent experimental hallmark of this effect, but also a controllable route to Hall rectification. In addition, reversing the direction of the out-of-plane field switches that of the Hall current, which also serves as a control knob.\nApplication to tTMDs. We now study the effect quantitatively in tTMDs, using tMoTe 2 as an example (see details of the continuum model in ). For illustrative purposes, we take ω/2π = 0.1 THz and E 0 ⊥ d 0 = 10 mV in what follows. Figures ) and (c) present the electronic band structures along with the layer composition σ z n (k) at twist angles θ = 1.2 • and θ = 2 • .\nIn both cases, the energy spectra exhibit isolated narrow bands with strong layer hybridization. At θ = 1.2 • , the conductivity shows two peaks ∼ 0.1e 2 /h at low energies associated with the first two valence bands. The third band does not host any sizable conductivity signal. At higher hole-doping levels, a remarkable conductivity peak ∼ e 2 /h appears near the gap separating the fourth and fifth bands.\nAt θ = 2 • , the conductivity shows smaller values, but the overall trends are similar: A peak ∼ O(0.01)e 2 /h appears at low energies, while larger responses ∼ O(0.1)e 2 /h can be spotted as the Fermi level decreases. One can understand the behaviors of σ H from the interlayer BCP in Eq. ( ). It favors band near-degeneracy regions in k -space made up of strongly layer hybridized electronic states.\nAs such, the conductivity is most pro- nounced when the Fermi level is located around such regions, which directly accounts for the peaks of response in Fig. that [∂ k × G] z is negligible at lower energies, and it is dominated by positive values as the doping increases, thus the conductivity rises initially.\nWhen the doping level is higher, regions with [∂ k × G] z < 0 start to contribute, thus the conductivity decreases after reaching a maximum. Application to tBG. The second example is tBG. We focus on commensurate twist angles in the large angle limit in the main text , which possess moiré-lattice assisted strong interlayer tunneling via Umklapp processes .\nThis case is appealing because the Umklapp interlayer tunneling is a manifestation of discrete translational symmetry of moiré superlattice, which is irrelevant at small twist angles and not captured by the continuum model but plays important roles in physical contexts such as higher order topological insulator and moiré excitons .\nThe Umklapp tunneling is strongest for the commensurate twist angles of θ = 21.8 • and θ = 38.2 • , whose corresponding periodic moiré superlattices have the smallest lattice constant ( √ 7 of the monolayer counterpart). Such a small moiré scale implies that the exact crystalline symmetry, which depends sensitively on fine details of rotation center, has critical influence on lowenergy response properties.\nTo capture the Umklapp tunneling, we employ the tight-binding model . Figures ) and (c) show two distinct commensurate structures of tBG at θ = 21.8 • belonging to chiral point groups D 3 and D 6 , respectively. The atomic configurations in Figs. ) are equivalent, which are constructed by twisting AA-stacked bilayer graphene around an overlapping atom site, and that in Fig. ) is obtained by rotating around a hexagonal center.\nBand structures of these two configurations are drastically different within a low-energy window of ∼ 10 meV around the κ point . Remarkably, despite large θ, we still get σ H ∼ O(0.001) e 2 /h (D 3 ) and ∼ O(0.1) e 2 /h (D 6 ), which are comparable to those at small angles (cf. Fig. in the Supplemental Material ).\nSuch sizable responses can be attributed to the strong interlayer coupling enabled by Umklapp processes . Apart from different intensities, the Hall conductivities in the two stacking configurations have distinct energy dependence: In Fig. , σ H shows a single peak centered at zero energy; In Fig. (f), it exhibits two antisymmetric peaks around zero.\nThe peaks are centered around band degeneracies, and their profiles can be understood from the distribution of [∂ k × G] z . Figure (d) illustrates the atomic structure of tBG with a twist angle slightly deviating from θ = 21.8 • , forming a supermoiré pattern. In short range, the local stacking geometries resemble the commensurate configurations at θ = 21.8 • , while the stacking registries at different locales differ by a translation.\nSimilar to the moiré landscapes in the small-angle limit, there also exist high-symmetry locales: Regions A and B enclose the D 3 structure, and region C contains the D 6 configuration. Position-dependent Hall response is therefore expected in such a supermoiré. As the intrinsic Hall signal from the D 6 configuration dominates [see Figs.\n3(e) vs (f)], the net response mimics that in Fig. . Discussion. We have uncovered the crossed nonlinear dynamical intrinsic Hall effect characteristic of layer hybridized electronic states in twisted bilayers, and elucidated its geometric origin in the k -space curl of interlayer BCP. It offers a new tool for rectification and frequency doubling in chiral vdW bilayers, and is sizable in tTMD and tBG.\nHere our focus is on the intrinsic effect, which can be evaluated quantitatively for each material and provides a benchmark for experiments. There may also be extrinsic contributions, similar to the side jump and skew scattering ones in anomalous Hall effect. They typically have distinct scaling behavior with the relaxation time τ from the intrinsic effect, hence can be distinguished from the latter in experiments .\nMoreover, they are suppressed in the clean limit ωτ 1 [(ωτ ) 2 1, more precisely] . In high-quality tBG samples, τ ∼ ps at room temperature . Much longer τ can be obtained at lower temperatures. In fact, a recent theory explaining well the resistivity of tBG predicted τ ∼ 10 −8 s at 10 K . As such, high-quality tBG under low temperatures and sub-terahertz input (ω/2π = 0.1 THz) is located in the clean limit, rendering an ideal platform for isolating the intrinsic effect.\nThis work paves a new route to driving in-plane response by out-of-plane dynamical control of layered vdW structures . The study can be generalized to other observables such as spin current and spin polarization, and the in-plane driving can be statistical forces, like temperature gradient. Such orthogonal controls rely critically on the nonconservation of layer pseudospin degree of freedom endowed by interlayer coupling, and constitute an emerging research field at the crossing of 2D vdW materials, layertronics, twistronics and nonlinear electronics.\nThis work is supported by the Research Grant Council of Hong Kong (AoE/P-701/20, HKU SRFS2122-7S05), and the Croucher Foundation. W.Y. also acknowledges support by Tencent Foundation. Cong Chen, 1, 2, * Dawei Zhai, 1, 2, * Cong Xiao, 1, 2, † and Wang Yao 1, 2, ‡ 1 Department of Physics, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China 2 HKU-UCAS Joint Institute of Theoretical and Computational Physics at Hong Kong, China Extra figures for tBG at small twist angles Figure (a) shows the band structure of tBG with θ = 1.47 • obtained from the continuum model .\nThe central bands are well separated from higher ones, and show Dirac points at κ/κ points protected by valley U (1) symmetry and a composite operation of twofold rotation and time reversal C 2z T . Degeneracies at higher energies can also be identified, for example, around ±75 meV at the γ point. As the two Dirac cones from the two layers intersect around the same area, such degeneracies are usually accompanied by strong layer hybridization [see the color in the left panel of Fig. ].\nAdditionally, it is well-known that the two layers are strongly coupled when θ is around the magic angle (∼ 1.08 • ), rendering narrow bandwidths for the central bands. As discussed in the main text, coexistence of strong interlayer hybridization and small energy separations is expected to contribute sharp conductivity peaks near band degeneracies, as shown in Fig. .\nIn this case, the conductivity peak near the Dirac point can reach ∼ 0.1e 2 /h, while the responses around ±0.08 eV are smaller at ∼ 0.01e 2 /h. The above features are maintained when θ is enlarged, as illustrated in Figs. ) and (c) using θ = 2.65 • and θ = 6.01 • . Since interlayer coupling becomes weaker and the bands are more separated at low energies when θ increases, intensity of the conductivity drops significantly.\nWe stress that G is not defined at degenerate points, and interband transitions may occur when energy separation satisfies |ε n − ε m | ∼ ω, the effects of which are not included in the current formulations. Consequently, the results around band degeneracies within energy ∼ ω [shaded areas in Fig. ] should be excluded.", "answers": ["The momentum space curl of the interlayer Berry connection polarizability generates the crossed nonlinear dynamical Hall effect."], "length": 3508, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "7d9bc0ed11dfc39ab91980d15a95fcd9f5902d25f85ec436"}
{"input": "What was the name of the first white settlement in McPherson County?", "context": "McPherson County (standard abbreviation: MP) is a county located in the U.S. state of Kansas.  As of the 2020 census, the county population was 30,223. The largest city and county seat is McPherson. The county is named for Civil War General James B. McPherson.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nFor many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, per the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles.\n\nIn 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1848, after the Mexican–American War, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Spain brought into the United States all or part of land for ten future states, including southwest Kansas. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U.S. state.\n\n19th century\n\nFrom the 1820s to 1870s, the Santa Fe Trail passed through, what is now McPherson County. The trail entered the county, east of Canton, then south of Galva, then north of Inman, and west towards Lyons. In 1855, Charles O. Fuller established a ranch adjacent to the Running Turkey Creek Crossing about two miles south and one mile east of Galva. Fuller's Ranch provided accommodations for travelers on the Santa Fe Trail and was probably the first white settlement in McPherson County.\n\nPeketon County was established in 1860, by the passage of a bill by S. N. Wood:  An act to establish Peketon County. Section 1. - That all that territory west of the sixth principal meridian and south of Township 16, in Kansas Territory, be and the same is hereby erected into a county, to be known by the name of Peketon County. On February 17, 1865, Peketon County was abolished, and McPherson County was made a part of Marion County, which extended from the west line of Chase County to the present western boundary of Kansas.\n\nIn 1868, Solomon Stephens and L. N. Holmberg were appointed Justices of the Peace—the first officers in what is now McPherson County. The next year (1869) occurred the first election for the township, now the county of McPherson. McPherson was regularly organized as a county in the spring of 1870, a mass meeting being held at Sweadal. Sweadal, the county seat thus selected, was located about one mile and a half southwest of the present site of Lindsborg. In September, however, the County Commissioners resolved to meet at the latter place, McPherson which had already been located some two years.\n\nIn April, 1873, a petition was filed for the county seat re-location. It was signed by 483 voters, and a special election was accordingly ordered for June 10. Upon that day, McPherson received 605 votes, New Gottland 325, King City 3 and Lindsborg 1; McPherson's majority over all, 276. In May the McPherson Town Company had offered, as an inducement for the location of the county seat at this point, the free use of rooms for ten years, and the donation of two squares of land on the town site. The offer was accepted the next month, the County Commissioners selecting blocks 56 and 65. Thus the county seat was established at McPherson and has remained since.\n\nAs early as 1875, city leaders of Marion held a meeting to consider a branch railroad from Florence. In 1878, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and parties from Marion County and McPherson County chartered the Marion and McPherson Railway Company.  In 1879, a branch line was built from Florence to McPherson, in 1880 it was extended to Lyons, in 1881 it was extended to Ellinwood. The line was leased and operated by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. The line from Florence to Marion, was abandoned in 1968. In 1992, the line from Marion to McPherson was sold to Central Kansas Railway. In 1993, after heavy flood damage, the line from Marion to McPherson was abandoned. The original branch line connected Florence, Marion, Canada, Hillsboro, Lehigh, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Conway, Windom, Little River, Mitchell, Lyons, Chase, then connected with the original AT&SF main line at Ellinwood.\n\nIn 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway extended its main line from Herington to Pratt.  This main line connected Herington, Ramona, Tampa, Durham, Waldeck, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Groveland, Inman, Medora, Hutchinson, Whiteside, Partridge, Arlington,  Langdon, Turon, Preston, Natrona, Pratt.  In 1888, this main line was extended to Liberal.  Later, this line was extended to Tucumcari, New Mexico and Santa Rosa, New Mexico, where it made a connection with the Southern Pacific from El Paso, Texas.  The Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway was absorbed by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway. This line is also called the \"Golden State Route\".\n\n20th century\nThe National Old Trails Road, also known as the Ocean-to-Ocean Highway, was established in 1912, and was routed through Windom, Conway, McPherson.\n\nGeography\n\nAccording to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (0.3%) is water.\n\nAdjacent counties\n Saline County (north)\n Dickinson County (northeast)\n Marion County (east)\n Harvey County (southeast)\n Reno County (southwest)\n Rice County (west)\n Ellsworth County (northwest)\n\nMajor highways\n  Interstate 135\n  U.S. Route 56\n  U.S. Route 81\n  K-4\n  K-61\n  K-153\n\nDemographics\n\nThe McPherson Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of McPherson County.\n\n2000 census\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 29,554 people, 11,205 households, and 7,966 families residing in the county.  The population density was 33 people per square mile (13/km2).  There were 11,830 housing units at an average density of 13 per square mile (5/km2).  The racial makeup of the county was 96.53% White, 0.81% Black or African American, 0.34% Native American, 0.32% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.79% from other races, and 1.16% from two or more races.  1.94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 37.1% were of German, 12.9% Swedish, 12.1% American, 6.7% English and 6.3% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000.\n\nThere were 11,205 households, out of which 33.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.50% were married couples living together, 6.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.90% were non-families. 25.50% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.99.\n\nIn the county, the population was spread out, with 25.40% under the age of 18, 10.30% from 18 to 24, 25.20% from 25 to 44, 21.80% from 45 to 64, and 17.30% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 95.90 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.90 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the county was $41,138, and the median income for a family was $48,243. Males had a median income of $33,530 versus $21,175 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,921.  About 4.20% of families and 6.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.20% of those under age 18 and 8.10% of those age 65 or over.\n\nGovernment\n\nPresidential elections\nMcPherson county is often carried by Republican candidates. The last time a Democratic candidate has carried this county was in 1964 by Lyndon B. Johnson.\n\nLaws\nFollowing amendment to the Kansas Constitution in 1986, the county remained a prohibition, or \"dry\", county until 1996, when voters approved the sale of alcoholic liquor by the individual drink with a 30 percent food sales requirement.\n\nEducation\n\nColleges\n McPherson College in McPherson\n Bethany College in Lindsborg\n Central Christian College in McPherson\n\nUnified school districts\n Smoky Valley USD 400\n McPherson USD 418\n Canton-Galva USD 419\n Moundridge USD 423\n Inman USD 448\n\nSchool district office in neighboring county\n Goessel USD 411\n Little River-Windom USD 444\n\nMuseums\n Birger Sandzén Memorial Gallery in Lindsborg\n McCormick-Deering Days Museum in Inman\n McPherson Museum in McPherson\n Lindsborg Old Mill & Swedish Heritage Museum in Lindsborg\n Kansas Motorcycle Museum in Marquette\n\nCommunities\n\nCities\n\n Canton\n Galva\n Inman\n Lindsborg\n Marquette\n McPherson (county seat) \n Moundridge\n Windom\n\nUnincorporated communities\n† means a Census-Designated Place (CDP) by the United States Census Bureau.\n Conway\n Elyria†\n Groveland\n Johnstown\n New Gottland\n Roxbury†\n\nGhost towns\n Alta Mills\n Battle Hill\n Christian\n Doles Park\n Elivon\n King City\n Sweadal\n\nTownships\nMcPherson County is divided into twenty-five townships.  The cities of Lindsborg and McPherson are considered governmentally independent and are excluded from the census figures for the townships.  In the following table, the population center is the largest city (or cities) included in that township's population total, if it is of a significant size.\n\nSee also\n List of people from McPherson County, Kansas\n National Register of Historic Places listings in McPherson County, Kansas\n McPherson Valley Wetlands\n Maxwell Wildlife Refuge\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n\n Wheeler, Wayne Leland. \"An Analysis of Social Change in a Swedish-Immigrant Community: The Case of Lindsborg, Kansas.\" (PhD dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1959. 5905657).\n\nCounty\n Through the Years: A Pictorial History of McPherson County; McPherson Sentinel' Heritage House Publishing Co; 1992.\n McPherson County First Courthouse Built About 1869 or 1870; Lindsborg News-Record; March 30, 1959.\n Pioneer Life and Lore of McPherson County, Kansas; Edna Nyquist; Democratic-Opinion Press; 1932.\n A History of the Church of the Brethren in Kansas (includes McPherson College history); Elmer LeRoy Craik; McPherson Daily; Republican Press; 397 pages; 1922.\n Portrait and Biographical Record of Dickinson, Saline, McPherson, and Marion Counties, Kansas; Chapman Bros; 614 pages; 1893.\n Standard Atlas of McPherson County, Kansas; Geo. A. Ogle & Co; 82 pages; 1921.\n Plat Book of McPherson County, Kansas; North West Publishing Co; 50 pages; 1903.\n Edwards' Atlas of McPherson County, Kansas; John P. Edwards; 51 pages; 1884.\n\nTrails\n The Story of the Marking of the Santa Fe Trail by the Daughters of the American Revolution in Kansas and the State of Kansas; Almira Cordry; Crane Co; 164 pages; 1915. (Download 4MB PDF eBook)\n The National Old Trails Road To Southern California, Part 1 (LA to KC); Automobile Club Of Southern California; 64 pages; 1916. (Download 6.8MB PDF eBook)\n\nMennonite Settlements\n Impact of Mennonite settlement on the cultural landscape of Kansas; Brenda Martin; Kansas State University; 1985/1988. \n Mennonite settlement : the relationship between the physical and cultural environment; Susan Movle; University of Utah; 1975/1886.\n Status of Mennonite women in Kansas in their church and home relationships; Eva Harshbarger; Bluffton College; 1925/1945.\n\nExternal links\n\nCounty\n \n McPherson County - Directory of Public Officials\nHistorical\n , from Hatteberg's People'' on KAKE TV news\nMaps\n McPherson County Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT\n Kansas Highway Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT\n Kansas Railroad Maps: Current, 1996, 1915, KDOT and Kansas Historical Society\n\n \nKansas counties\n1867 establishments in Kansas\n", "answers": ["The first white settlement in McPherson County was Fuller's Ranch, established by Charles O. Fuller."], "length": 1865, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "92bf77fcae3c753b768f1289eeb1e899fc8e75a14509a5f9"}
{"input": "Who is the county seat of McPherson County?", "context": "McPherson County (standard abbreviation: MP) is a county located in the U.S. state of Kansas.  As of the 2020 census, the county population was 30,223. The largest city and county seat is McPherson. The county is named for Civil War General James B. McPherson.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nFor many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, per the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles.\n\nIn 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1848, after the Mexican–American War, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Spain brought into the United States all or part of land for ten future states, including southwest Kansas. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U.S. state.\n\n19th century\n\nFrom the 1820s to 1870s, the Santa Fe Trail passed through, what is now McPherson County. The trail entered the county, east of Canton, then south of Galva, then north of Inman, and west towards Lyons. In 1855, Charles O. Fuller established a ranch adjacent to the Running Turkey Creek Crossing about two miles south and one mile east of Galva. Fuller's Ranch provided accommodations for travelers on the Santa Fe Trail and was probably the first white settlement in McPherson County.\n\nPeketon County was established in 1860, by the passage of a bill by S. N. Wood:  An act to establish Peketon County. Section 1. - That all that territory west of the sixth principal meridian and south of Township 16, in Kansas Territory, be and the same is hereby erected into a county, to be known by the name of Peketon County. On February 17, 1865, Peketon County was abolished, and McPherson County was made a part of Marion County, which extended from the west line of Chase County to the present western boundary of Kansas.\n\nIn 1868, Solomon Stephens and L. N. Holmberg were appointed Justices of the Peace—the first officers in what is now McPherson County. The next year (1869) occurred the first election for the township, now the county of McPherson. McPherson was regularly organized as a county in the spring of 1870, a mass meeting being held at Sweadal. Sweadal, the county seat thus selected, was located about one mile and a half southwest of the present site of Lindsborg. In September, however, the County Commissioners resolved to meet at the latter place, McPherson which had already been located some two years.\n\nIn April, 1873, a petition was filed for the county seat re-location. It was signed by 483 voters, and a special election was accordingly ordered for June 10. Upon that day, McPherson received 605 votes, New Gottland 325, King City 3 and Lindsborg 1; McPherson's majority over all, 276. In May the McPherson Town Company had offered, as an inducement for the location of the county seat at this point, the free use of rooms for ten years, and the donation of two squares of land on the town site. The offer was accepted the next month, the County Commissioners selecting blocks 56 and 65. Thus the county seat was established at McPherson and has remained since.\n\nAs early as 1875, city leaders of Marion held a meeting to consider a branch railroad from Florence. In 1878, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and parties from Marion County and McPherson County chartered the Marion and McPherson Railway Company.  In 1879, a branch line was built from Florence to McPherson, in 1880 it was extended to Lyons, in 1881 it was extended to Ellinwood. The line was leased and operated by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. The line from Florence to Marion, was abandoned in 1968. In 1992, the line from Marion to McPherson was sold to Central Kansas Railway. In 1993, after heavy flood damage, the line from Marion to McPherson was abandoned. The original branch line connected Florence, Marion, Canada, Hillsboro, Lehigh, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Conway, Windom, Little River, Mitchell, Lyons, Chase, then connected with the original AT&SF main line at Ellinwood.\n\nIn 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway extended its main line from Herington to Pratt.  This main line connected Herington, Ramona, Tampa, Durham, Waldeck, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Groveland, Inman, Medora, Hutchinson, Whiteside, Partridge, Arlington,  Langdon, Turon, Preston, Natrona, Pratt.  In 1888, this main line was extended to Liberal.  Later, this line was extended to Tucumcari, New Mexico and Santa Rosa, New Mexico, where it made a connection with the Southern Pacific from El Paso, Texas.  The Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway was absorbed by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway. This line is also called the \"Golden State Route\".\n\n20th century\nThe National Old Trails Road, also known as the Ocean-to-Ocean Highway, was established in 1912, and was routed through Windom, Conway, McPherson.\n\nGeography\n\nAccording to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (0.3%) is water.\n\nAdjacent counties\n Saline County (north)\n Dickinson County (northeast)\n Marion County (east)\n Harvey County (southeast)\n Reno County (southwest)\n Rice County (west)\n Ellsworth County (northwest)\n\nMajor highways\n  Interstate 135\n  U.S. Route 56\n  U.S. Route 81\n  K-4\n  K-61\n  K-153\n\nDemographics\n\nThe McPherson Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of McPherson County.\n\n2000 census\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 29,554 people, 11,205 households, and 7,966 families residing in the county.  The population density was 33 people per square mile (13/km2).  There were 11,830 housing units at an average density of 13 per square mile (5/km2).  The racial makeup of the county was 96.53% White, 0.81% Black or African American, 0.34% Native American, 0.32% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.79% from other races, and 1.16% from two or more races.  1.94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 37.1% were of German, 12.9% Swedish, 12.1% American, 6.7% English and 6.3% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000.\n\nThere were 11,205 households, out of which 33.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.50% were married couples living together, 6.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.90% were non-families. 25.50% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.99.\n\nIn the county, the population was spread out, with 25.40% under the age of 18, 10.30% from 18 to 24, 25.20% from 25 to 44, 21.80% from 45 to 64, and 17.30% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 95.90 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.90 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the county was $41,138, and the median income for a family was $48,243. Males had a median income of $33,530 versus $21,175 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,921.  About 4.20% of families and 6.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.20% of those under age 18 and 8.10% of those age 65 or over.\n\nGovernment\n\nPresidential elections\nMcPherson county is often carried by Republican candidates. The last time a Democratic candidate has carried this county was in 1964 by Lyndon B. Johnson.\n\nLaws\nFollowing amendment to the Kansas Constitution in 1986, the county remained a prohibition, or \"dry\", county until 1996, when voters approved the sale of alcoholic liquor by the individual drink with a 30 percent food sales requirement.\n\nEducation\n\nColleges\n McPherson College in McPherson\n Bethany College in Lindsborg\n Central Christian College in McPherson\n\nUnified school districts\n Smoky Valley USD 400\n McPherson USD 418\n Canton-Galva USD 419\n Moundridge USD 423\n Inman USD 448\n\nSchool district office in neighboring county\n Goessel USD 411\n Little River-Windom USD 444\n\nMuseums\n Birger Sandzén Memorial Gallery in Lindsborg\n McCormick-Deering Days Museum in Inman\n McPherson Museum in McPherson\n Lindsborg Old Mill & Swedish Heritage Museum in Lindsborg\n Kansas Motorcycle Museum in Marquette\n\nCommunities\n\nCities\n\n Canton\n Galva\n Inman\n Lindsborg\n Marquette\n McPherson (county seat) \n Moundridge\n Windom\n\nUnincorporated communities\n† means a Census-Designated Place (CDP) by the United States Census Bureau.\n Conway\n Elyria†\n Groveland\n Johnstown\n New Gottland\n Roxbury†\n\nGhost towns\n Alta Mills\n Battle Hill\n Christian\n Doles Park\n Elivon\n King City\n Sweadal\n\nTownships\nMcPherson County is divided into twenty-five townships.  The cities of Lindsborg and McPherson are considered governmentally independent and are excluded from the census figures for the townships.  In the following table, the population center is the largest city (or cities) included in that township's population total, if it is of a significant size.\n\nSee also\n List of people from McPherson County, Kansas\n National Register of Historic Places listings in McPherson County, Kansas\n McPherson Valley Wetlands\n Maxwell Wildlife Refuge\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n\n Wheeler, Wayne Leland. \"An Analysis of Social Change in a Swedish-Immigrant Community: The Case of Lindsborg, Kansas.\" (PhD dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1959. 5905657).\n\nCounty\n Through the Years: A Pictorial History of McPherson County; McPherson Sentinel' Heritage House Publishing Co; 1992.\n McPherson County First Courthouse Built About 1869 or 1870; Lindsborg News-Record; March 30, 1959.\n Pioneer Life and Lore of McPherson County, Kansas; Edna Nyquist; Democratic-Opinion Press; 1932.\n A History of the Church of the Brethren in Kansas (includes McPherson College history); Elmer LeRoy Craik; McPherson Daily; Republican Press; 397 pages; 1922.\n Portrait and Biographical Record of Dickinson, Saline, McPherson, and Marion Counties, Kansas; Chapman Bros; 614 pages; 1893.\n Standard Atlas of McPherson County, Kansas; Geo. A. Ogle & Co; 82 pages; 1921.\n Plat Book of McPherson County, Kansas; North West Publishing Co; 50 pages; 1903.\n Edwards' Atlas of McPherson County, Kansas; John P. Edwards; 51 pages; 1884.\n\nTrails\n The Story of the Marking of the Santa Fe Trail by the Daughters of the American Revolution in Kansas and the State of Kansas; Almira Cordry; Crane Co; 164 pages; 1915. (Download 4MB PDF eBook)\n The National Old Trails Road To Southern California, Part 1 (LA to KC); Automobile Club Of Southern California; 64 pages; 1916. (Download 6.8MB PDF eBook)\n\nMennonite Settlements\n Impact of Mennonite settlement on the cultural landscape of Kansas; Brenda Martin; Kansas State University; 1985/1988. \n Mennonite settlement : the relationship between the physical and cultural environment; Susan Movle; University of Utah; 1975/1886.\n Status of Mennonite women in Kansas in their church and home relationships; Eva Harshbarger; Bluffton College; 1925/1945.\n\nExternal links\n\nCounty\n \n McPherson County - Directory of Public Officials\nHistorical\n , from Hatteberg's People'' on KAKE TV news\nMaps\n McPherson County Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT\n Kansas Highway Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT\n Kansas Railroad Maps: Current, 1996, 1915, KDOT and Kansas Historical Society\n\n \nKansas counties\n1867 establishments in Kansas\nPopulated places established in 1867", "answers": ["McPherson."], "length": 1852, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "ce720011515773e6bd7b4b355c52a7215ad2920f18a1ec14"}
{"input": "Where is McPherson County located?", "context": "McPherson County (standard abbreviation: MP) is a county located in the U.S. state of Kansas.  As of the 2020 census, the county population was 30,223. The largest city and county seat is McPherson. The county is named for Civil War General James B. McPherson.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nFor many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, per the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles.\n\nIn 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1848, after the Mexican–American War, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Spain brought into the United States all or part of land for ten future states, including southwest Kansas. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U.S. state.\n\n19th century\n\nFrom the 1820s to 1870s, the Santa Fe Trail passed through, what is now McPherson County. The trail entered the county, east of Canton, then south of Galva, then north of Inman, and west towards Lyons. In 1855, Charles O. Fuller established a ranch adjacent to the Running Turkey Creek Crossing about two miles south and one mile east of Galva. Fuller's Ranch provided accommodations for travelers on the Santa Fe Trail and was probably the first white settlement in McPherson County.\n\nPeketon County was established in 1860, by the passage of a bill by S. N. Wood:  An act to establish Peketon County. Section 1. - That all that territory west of the sixth principal meridian and south of Township 16, in Kansas Territory, be and the same is hereby erected into a county, to be known by the name of Peketon County. On February 17, 1865, Peketon County was abolished, and McPherson County was made a part of Marion County, which extended from the west line of Chase County to the present western boundary of Kansas.\n\nIn 1868, Solomon Stephens and L. N. Holmberg were appointed Justices of the Peace—the first officers in what is now McPherson County. The next year (1869) occurred the first election for the township, now the county of McPherson. McPherson was regularly organized as a county in the spring of 1870, a mass meeting being held at Sweadal. Sweadal, the county seat thus selected, was located about one mile and a half southwest of the present site of Lindsborg. In September, however, the County Commissioners resolved to meet at the latter place, McPherson which had already been located some two years.\n\nIn April, 1873, a petition was filed for the county seat re-location. It was signed by 483 voters, and a special election was accordingly ordered for June 10. Upon that day, McPherson received 605 votes, New Gottland 325, King City 3 and Lindsborg 1; McPherson's majority over all, 276. In May the McPherson Town Company had offered, as an inducement for the location of the county seat at this point, the free use of rooms for ten years, and the donation of two squares of land on the town site. The offer was accepted the next month, the County Commissioners selecting blocks 56 and 65. Thus the county seat was established at McPherson and has remained since.\n\nAs early as 1875, city leaders of Marion held a meeting to consider a branch railroad from Florence. In 1878, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and parties from Marion County and McPherson County chartered the Marion and McPherson Railway Company.  In 1879, a branch line was built from Florence to McPherson, in 1880 it was extended to Lyons, in 1881 it was extended to Ellinwood. The line was leased and operated by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. The line from Florence to Marion, was abandoned in 1968. In 1992, the line from Marion to McPherson was sold to Central Kansas Railway. In 1993, after heavy flood damage, the line from Marion to McPherson was abandoned. The original branch line connected Florence, Marion, Canada, Hillsboro, Lehigh, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Conway, Windom, Little River, Mitchell, Lyons, Chase, then connected with the original AT&SF main line at Ellinwood.\n\nIn 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway extended its main line from Herington to Pratt.  This main line connected Herington, Ramona, Tampa, Durham, Waldeck, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Groveland, Inman, Medora, Hutchinson, Whiteside, Partridge, Arlington,  Langdon, Turon, Preston, Natrona, Pratt.  In 1888, this main line was extended to Liberal.  Later, this line was extended to Tucumcari, New Mexico and Santa Rosa, New Mexico, where it made a connection with the Southern Pacific from El Paso, Texas.  The Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway was absorbed by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway. This line is also called the \"Golden State Route\".\n\n20th century\nThe National Old Trails Road, also known as the Ocean-to-Ocean Highway, was established in 1912, and was routed through Windom, Conway, McPherson.\n\nGeography\n\nAccording to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (0.3%) is water.\n\nAdjacent counties\n Saline County (north)\n Dickinson County (northeast)\n Marion County (east)\n Harvey County (southeast)\n Reno County (southwest)\n Rice County (west)\n Ellsworth County (northwest)\n\nMajor highways\n  Interstate 135\n  U.S. Route 56\n  U.S. Route 81\n  K-4\n  K-61\n  K-153\n\nDemographics\n\nThe McPherson Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of McPherson County.\n\n2000 census\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 29,554 people, 11,205 households, and 7,966 families residing in the county.  The population density was 33 people per square mile (13/km2).  There were 11,830 housing units at an average density of 13 per square mile (5/km2).  The racial makeup of the county was 96.53% White, 0.81% Black or African American, 0.34% Native American, 0.32% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.79% from other races, and 1.16% from two or more races.  1.94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 37.1% were of German, 12.9% Swedish, 12.1% American, 6.7% English and 6.3% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000.\n\nThere were 11,205 households, out of which 33.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.50% were married couples living together, 6.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.90% were non-families. 25.50% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.99.\n\nIn the county, the population was spread out, with 25.40% under the age of 18, 10.30% from 18 to 24, 25.20% from 25 to 44, 21.80% from 45 to 64, and 17.30% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 95.90 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.90 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the county was $41,138, and the median income for a family was $48,243. Males had a median income of $33,530 versus $21,175 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,921.  About 4.20% of families and 6.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.20% of those under age 18 and 8.10% of those age 65 or over.\n\nGovernment\n\nPresidential elections\nMcPherson county is often carried by Republican candidates. The last time a Democratic candidate has carried this county was in 1964 by Lyndon B. Johnson.\n\nLaws\nFollowing amendment to the Kansas Constitution in 1986, the county remained a prohibition, or \"dry\", county until 1996, when voters approved the sale of alcoholic liquor by the individual drink with a 30 percent food sales requirement.\n\nEducation\n\nColleges\n McPherson College in McPherson\n Bethany College in Lindsborg\n Central Christian College in McPherson\n\nUnified school districts\n Smoky Valley USD 400\n McPherson USD 418\n Canton-Galva USD 419\n Moundridge USD 423\n Inman USD 448\n\nSchool district office in neighboring county\n Goessel USD 411\n Little River-Windom USD 444\n\nMuseums\n Birger Sandzén Memorial Gallery in Lindsborg\n McCormick-Deering Days Museum in Inman\n McPherson Museum in McPherson\n Lindsborg Old Mill & Swedish Heritage Museum in Lindsborg\n Kansas Motorcycle Museum in Marquette\n\nCommunities\n\nCities\n\n Canton\n Galva\n Inman\n Lindsborg\n Marquette\n McPherson (county seat) \n Moundridge\n Windom\n\nUnincorporated communities\n† means a Census-Designated Place (CDP) by the United States Census Bureau.\n Conway\n Elyria†\n Groveland\n Johnstown\n New Gottland\n Roxbury†\n\nGhost towns\n Alta Mills\n Battle Hill\n Christian\n Doles Park\n Elivon\n King City\n Sweadal\n\nTownships\nMcPherson County is divided into twenty-five townships.  The cities of Lindsborg and McPherson are considered governmentally independent and are excluded from the census figures for the townships.  In the following table, the population center is the largest city (or cities) included in that township's population total, if it is of a significant size.\n\nSee also\n List of people from McPherson County, Kansas\n National Register of Historic Places listings in McPherson County, Kansas\n McPherson Valley Wetlands\n Maxwell Wildlife Refuge\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n\n Wheeler, Wayne Leland. \"An Analysis of Social Change in a Swedish-Immigrant Community: The Case of Lindsborg, Kansas.\" (PhD dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1959. 5905657).\n\nCounty\n Through the Years: A Pictorial History of McPherson County; McPherson Sentinel' Heritage House Publishing Co; 1992.\n McPherson County First Courthouse Built About 1869 or 1870; Lindsborg News-Record; March 30, 1959.\n Pioneer Life and Lore of McPherson County, Kansas; Edna Nyquist; Democratic-Opinion Press; 1932.\n A History of the Church of the Brethren in Kansas (includes McPherson College history); Elmer LeRoy Craik; McPherson Daily; Republican Press; 397 pages; 1922.\n Portrait and Biographical Record of Dickinson, Saline, McPherson, and Marion Counties, Kansas; Chapman Bros; 614 pages; 1893.\n Standard Atlas of McPherson County, Kansas; Geo. A. Ogle & Co; 82 pages; 1921.\n Plat Book of McPherson County, Kansas; North West Publishing Co; 50 pages; 1903.\n Edwards' Atlas of McPherson County, Kansas; John P. Edwards; 51 pages; 1884.\n\nTrails\n The Story of the Marking of the Santa Fe Trail by the Daughters of the American Revolution in Kansas and the State of Kansas; Almira Cordry; Crane Co; 164 pages; 1915. (Download 4MB PDF eBook)\n The National Old Trails Road To Southern California, Part 1 (LA to KC); Automobile Club Of Southern California; 64 pages; 1916. (Download 6.8MB PDF eBook)\n\nMennonite Settlements\n Impact of Mennonite settlement on the cultural landscape of Kansas; Brenda Martin; Kansas State University; 1985/1988. \n Mennonite settlement : the relationship between the physical and cultural environment; Susan Movle; University of Utah; 1975/1886.\n Status of Mennonite women in Kansas in their church and home relationships; Eva Harshbarger; Bluffton College; 1925/1945.\n\nExternal links\n\nCounty\n \n McPherson County - Directory of Public Officials\nHistorical\n , from Hatteberg's People'' on KAKE TV news\nMaps\n McPherson County Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT\n Kansas Highway Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT\n Kansas Railroad Maps: Current, 1996, 1915, KDOT and Kansas Historical Society\n\n \nKansas counties\n1867 establishments in Kansas\n", "answers": ["McPherson County is located in the U.S. state of Kansas."], "length": 1853, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "71902c8027dca26b265f12709ec21224b5abe8b9ef5750fd"}
{"input": "Who was Brooksley Elizabeth's first husband?", "context": "Brooksley Elizabeth Born (born August 27, 1940) is an American attorney and former public official who, from August 26, 1996, to June 1, 1999, was chair of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), the federal agency which oversees the U.S. futures and commodity options markets. During her tenure on the CFTC, Born lobbied Congress and the President to give the CFTC oversight of off-exchange markets for derivatives, in addition to its role with respect to exchange-traded derivatives, but her warnings were ignored or dismissed, and her calls for reform resisted by other regulators.<ref name=\"nytimes\">Goodman, Peter S. The Reckoning - Taking Hard New Look at a Greenspan Legacy, The New York Times, October 9, 2008.</ref> Born resigned as chairperson on June 1, 1999, shortly after Congress passed legislation prohibiting her agency from regulating derivatives.\n\nIn 2009, Born received the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award, along with Sheila Bair of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, in recognition of the \"political courage she demonstrated in sounding early warnings about conditions that contributed\" to the 2007-08 financial crisis.\n\nEarly life and education\nBorn graduated from Abraham Lincoln High School (San Francisco, California) at the age of 16. She then attended Stanford University, where she majored in English and was graduated with the class of 1961.  She initially wanted to become a doctor, but a guidance counsellor at Stanford advised her against medicine, so she majored in English literature instead.\n\nShe then attended Stanford Law School, one of only seven women in her class.  She was the first female student ever to be named president of the Stanford Law Review. She received the \"Outstanding Senior\" award and graduated as valedictorian of the class of 1964.\n\nLegal career\nImmediately after law school Born was selected as a law clerk to judge Henry Edgerton of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. It was during this time that she met her first husband, Jacob C. Landau, who was a journalist covering the Federal courts at the time. Following her clerkship, she became an associate at the Washington, D.C.-based international law firm of Arnold & Porter. Born was attracted to Arnold & Porter because it was one of the few major law firms to have a woman partner at that time, Carolyn Agger, who was the head of the tax practice. Born took a two-year leave of absence from Arnold & Porter to accompany her first husband to Boston, where he had received a fellowship. During that time she worked as a research assistant to law professor Alan Dershowitz.\n\nBorn's early career at Arnold & Porter focused on international trade law, in which she represented a number of Swiss industries and the government of Switzerland. She developed a practice representing clients in numerous complex litigation and arbitration cases involving financial market transactions. Among her high-profile cases was the matter of the Hunt Brothers attempt to corner the market in silver in the 1970s. She made partner at Arnold & Porter, after moving to a three-day schedule to help raise her second child, and eventually rose to be the head of the firm's derivatives practice.\n\nBorn was among the first female attorneys to systematically address inequities regarding how the laws treated women. Born and another female lawyer, Marna Tucker, taught what is considered to have been the first \"Women and the Law\" course at Catholic University’s Columbus School of Law. The class exclusively concerned prejudicial treatment of women under the laws of the United States, past and present.  Born and Tucker were surprised to discover that there was no textbook on the issue at the time.  Born is also one of the co-founders of the National Women's Law Center. Born also helped rewrite the American Bar Association rules to make it possible for more women and minorities to sit on federal bench.\n\nDuring her long legal career, and into her retirement, Born did much pro bono and other types of volunteer work. She was active in the American Bar Association, the largest professional organization of lawyers in the United States.  Initially Born was named a member of the governing council of the ABA's Individual Rights Section, eventually becoming chairperson.  Born and Tucker founded the ABA Women's Caucus, the first organization of female lawyers in the ABA.  She held several other senior positions in the ABA, including being named the first woman member of the ABA's Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary.  As a member of the Judiciary Committee, Born provided testimony and opinion on persons nominated for federal judgeships. In 1980 she was named chair of the committee.  As chair of the committee, Born was invited to address the U.S. Congress regarding the nomination of Judge Sandra Day O'Connor to the U.S. Supreme Court.\n\nIn 1993, Born's name was floated as a possible candidate for Attorney General of the United States, but Janet Reno was nominated.\n\nIn July 2009, Nancy Pelosi appointed Brooksley Born as a commissioner to the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (FCIC).\n\nBorn and the OTC derivatives market\nBorn was appointed to the CFTC on April 15, 1994, by President Bill Clinton. Due to litigation against Bankers Trust Company by Procter and Gamble and other corporate clients, Born and her team at the CFTC sought comments on the regulation of over-the-counter derivatives, a first step in the process of writing CFTC regulations to supplement the existing regulations of the Federal Reserve System,  the Options Clearing Corporation, and the National Association of Insurance Commissioners. Born was particularly concerned about swaps, financial instruments that are traded over the counter between banks, insurance companies or other funds or companies, and thus have no transparency except to the two counterparties and the counterparties' regulators, if any.  CFTC regulation was strenuously opposed by Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan, and by Treasury Secretaries Robert Rubin and Lawrence Summers. On May 7, 1998, former SEC Chairman Arthur Levitt joined Rubin and Greenspan in objecting to the issuance of the CFTC's concept release. Their response dismissed Born's analysis and focused on the hypothetical possibility that CFTC regulation of swaps and other OTC derivative instruments could create a \"legal uncertainty\" regarding such financial instruments,  hypothetically reducing the value of the instruments. They argued that the imposition of regulatory costs would \"stifle financial innovation\" and encourage financial capital to transfer its  transactions offshore. The disagreement between Born and the Executive Office's top economic policy advisors has been described not only as a classic Washington turf war, but also a war of ideologies,  insofar as it is possible to argue that Born's actions were consistent with Keynesian and neoclassical economics while Greenspan, Rubin, Levitt, and Summers consistently espoused neoliberal, and neoconservative policies.\n\nIn 1998, a trillion-dollar hedge fund called Long Term Capital Management (LTCM) was near collapse.  Using mathematical models to calculate debt risk, LTCM used derivatives to leverage $5 billion into more than $1 trillion, doing business with fifteen of Wall Street's largest financial institutions.  The derivative transactions were not regulated, nor were investors able to evaluate LTCM's exposures.  Born stated, \"I thought that LTCM was exactly what I had been worried about\".  In the last weekend of September 1998, the President's working group was told that the entire American economy hung in the balance.  After intervention by the Federal Reserve, the crisis was averted.  In congressional hearings into the crisis, Greenspan acknowledged that language had been introduced into an agriculture bill that would prevent CFTC from regulating the derivatives which were at the center of the crisis that threatened the US economy.  U.S. Representative Maurice Hinchey (D-NY) asked \"How many more failures do you think we'd have to have before some regulation in this area might be appropriate?\"  In response, Greenspan brushed aside the substance of Born's warnings with the simple assertion that \"the degree of supervision of regulation of the over-the-counter derivatives market is quite adequate to maintain a degree of stability in the system\". Born's warning was that there wasn't any regulation of them.  Born's chief of staff, Michael Greenberger summed up Greenspan's position this way: \"Greenspan didn't believe that fraud was something that needed to be enforced, and he assumed she probably did. And of course, she did.\"  Under heavy pressure from the financial lobby, legislation prohibiting regulation of derivatives by Born's agency was passed by the Congress.  Born resigned on June 1, 1999.\n\nThe derivatives market continued to grow yearly throughout both terms of George W. Bush's administration. On September 15, 2008, the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers forced a broad recognition of a financial crisis in both the US and world capital markets.  As Lehman Brothers' failure temporarily reduced financial capital's confidence, a number of newspaper articles and television programs suggested that the failure's possible causes included the conflict between the CFTC and the other regulators.Faiola, Anthony, Nakashima, Ellen and Drew, Jill. The Crash: Risk and Regulation - What Went Wrong, The Washington Post, October 15, 2008.\n\nBorn declined to publicly comment on the unfolding 2008 crisis until March 2009, when she said: \"The market grew so enormously, with so little oversight and regulation, that it made the financial crisis much deeper and more pervasive than it otherwise would have been.\" She also lamented the influence of Wall Street lobbyists on the process and the refusal of regulators to discuss even modest reforms.\n\nAn October 2009 Frontline documentary titled \"The Warning\"  described Born's thwarted efforts to regulate and bring transparency to the derivatives market, and the continuing opposition thereto. The program concluded with an excerpted interview with Born sounding another warning: \"I think we will have continuing danger from these markets and that we will have repeats of the financial crisis -- may differ in details but there will be significant financial downturns and disasters attributed to this regulatory gap, over and over, until we learn from experience.\"\n\nIn 2009 Born, along with Sheila Bair of the FDIC, was awarded the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award in recognition of the \"political courage she demonstrated in sounding early warnings about conditions that contributed\" to the 2007-08 financial crisis.  According to Caroline Kennedy, \"Brooksley Born recognized that the financial security of all Americans was being put at risk by the greed, negligence and opposition of  powerful and well connected interests.... The catastrophic financial events of recent months have  proved them [Born and Sheila Bair] right.\"  One member of the President's working group had a change of heart about Brooksley Born.  SEC Chairman Arthur Levitt stated \"I've come to know her as one of the most capable, dedicated, intelligent and committed public servants that I have ever come to know\", adding that \"I could have done much better. I could have made a difference\" in response to her warnings.\n\nIn 2010, a documentary film Inside Job further alleged that derivatives regulation was ineffective from the Clinton administration on. Along with fellow whistleblower, former IMF Chief Economist Raghuram Rajan, who was also scorned by the economic establishment, Brooksley Born was cited as one of the authorities arguing that financial derivatives increase economic risk.\n\n Personal life \nBorn is married to Alexander E. Bennett (also retired from Arnold & Porter).  She has five adult children - two from a previous marriage to Jacob Landau and three stepchildren. Notably, Born was named a partner at Arnold & Porter while working part-time so she could raise her two young children.  When both of her children were school-age, Born returned to practice full-time.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nAttorney profile at Arnold & Porter\nBrooksley Born (2009 Winner) of the Profiles in Courage Award, with acceptance speech transcript and NECN video\n\nProfile at MarketsWiki\nSpeeches and statements\n\"Testimony Of Brooksley Born Chairperson of the CFTC Concerning The Over-The-Counter Derivatives Market\", before the House Committee On Banking And Financial Services, July 24, 1998.\n\"The Lessons of Long Term Capital Management L.P.\", Remarks of Brooksley Born, Chairperson of the CFTC, Chicago-Kent-IIT Commodities Law Institute, Chicago, Illinois, October 15, 1998.\n Interview: Brooksley Born for \"PBS Frontline: The Warning\", PBS, (streaming VIDEO 1 hour), October 20, 2009.\nArticles\nManuel Roig-Franzia. \"Credit Crisis Cassandra:Brooksley Born's Unheeded Warning Is a Rueful Echo 10 Years On\", The Washington Post, May 26, 2009\n Taibbi, Matt. \"The Great American Bubble Machine\", Rolling Stone'', July 9–23, 2009\n\n1940 births\nAmerican women lawyers\nArnold & Porter people\nClinton administration personnel\nColumbus School of Law faculty\nCommodity Futures Trading Commission personnel\nHeads of United States federal agencies\nLawyers from San Francisco\nLiving people\nStanford Law School alumni\n21st-century American women\nStanford University alumni.", "answers": ["Jacob C. Landau."], "length": 2085, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "470018af720bc15decf8f7a9643250c9a6548c8efeb394cd"}
{"input": "What models were used for dialect identification?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Two-stage Pipeline for Multilingual Dialect Detection\nPublish Date: Unkown\nAuthor List: Ankit Vaidya (from Pune Institute of Computer Technology), Aditya Kane (from Pune Institute of Computer Technology)\n\nFigure\n\nFigure 1: Class distribution of dialects\nFigure 2: System diagram for dialect classification.The LID classifies the input into one of 3 languages.The sample is then further classified into dialects by language specific models.\nFigure 3: Confusion matrix of 9-way classification.Note that rows are normalized according to the number of samples is that class.\nOur complete results for Track-1 using the two-stage dialect detection pipeline.Model-* denotes the language of the models used for the experiments.\nPerformance on Track-1 validation dataset of individual models used in the two-stage pipeline.\"Lg\" stands for language of the model used.\nComparative results of two-way classification using the finetuned (F.T.) predictions and predictions adapted from three-way classification models.\n\nabstract\n\nDialect Identification is a crucial task for localizing various Large Language Models. This paper outlines our approach to the VarDial 2023 DSL-TL shared task. Here we have to identify three or two dialects from three languages each which results in a 9-way classification for Track-1 and 6-way classification for Track-2 respectively.\nOur proposed approach consists of a two-stage system and outperforms other participants' systems and previous works in this domain. We achieve a score of 58.54% for Track-1 and 85.61% for Track-2. Our codebase is available publicly 1 .\n\nIntroduction\n\nLanguage has been the primary mode of communication for humans since the pre-historic ages. Studies have explored the evolution of language and outlined mathematical models that govern the intricacies of natural language . Inevitably, as humans established civilization in various parts of the world, this language was modified by, and for the group of people occupied by that particular geographical region.\nThis gave rise to multiple national dialects of the same language. The VarDial workshop (colocated with EACL 2023) explores various dialects and variations of the same language. We participated in the Discriminating Between Similar Languages -True Labels (DSL-TL) shared task. In this task, the participants were provided with data from three languages, with each language having three varieties.\nThis shared task consisted of two tracks -Track-1 featuring nine-way classification and Track-2 featuring six-way classification. The second track included two particular national dialects of each language (eg. American English and British English), and the first track had one general  We ranked 1 st in both of the tracks.\nMoreover, we beat the next best submission by a margin of 4.5% in the first task and 5.6% in the second task.We were the only team to surpass the organizer baseline scores. We present our winning solution in this paper. We used an end-to-end deep learning pipeline which consisted of a language identification model and three language-specific models, one for each language.\nWe converged upon the best combination by doing an elaborate analysis of various models available. Furthermore, in this work we also analyze the performance of the pipeline as a whole and also provide an ablation study. Lastly, we provide some future directions in this area of research.\n\nRelated Work\n\nThe present literature encompasses various aspects of dialect identification. We study this from three perspectives: large language models, language identification and dialect classification problems.\n\nLarge Language Models\n\nThe success of transformers and BERT based models was inevitable since the initial boom of the transformer  2017) model. In recent years, many other architectures like RoBERTa and ELECTRA have further pushed the state-of-the-art in this domain. Moreover, autoregressive models like GPT and GPT-2 have also shown their prowess.\nMultilingual versions of RoBERTA, namely XLM-RoBERTa are also available. Lastly, language specific models like Spanish BERT (la Rosa y Eduardo G. Ponferrada y Manu Romero y Paulo Villegas y Pablo González de Prado Salas y María Grandury, 2022) and Portuguese BERT are available as well. Our winning solution makes use of these large language models trained on specific languages.\n\nLanguage Identification Models\n\nMany multilingual language identification models have been developed in order to classify the language of the input sentence beforehand. Even though the initial works used n-gram models and generative mixture models or even conditional random fields and other classical machine learning methods like naive bayes , modern methods have shifted to the use of deep learning for language identification .\nRecent works have mainly focused on deep learning based language identification, where handling codemixed data is a big challenge in the domain. For our experiments, we use a version of XLM-RoBERTa finetuned on a language identification dataset 2 . This model has near-perfect test accuracy of 99.6%.\n\nDialect Classification\n\nDialect classification has been previously solved using statistical methods like Gaussian Mixture Models and Frame Selection Decoding or Support Vector Machines (SVM) . It has been explored relatively sparsely, mostly in the case for local languages . Deep learning approaches have been explored in previous editions of the VarDial workshop shared tasks and otherwise .\nDialect classification was also explored previously as a part of other shared tasks . We want to stress that given the multilingual nature of the dataset, using the present methods directly was not an option. In our work, although we take inspiration from the previous works, we propose a novel system that surpasses the performance of the previous systems by a large margin.\n\nData\n\nThe dataset  We observed that the class PT-BR had the most number of samples (2,724) and the class EN had the least number of samples (349), and thus the imbalance ratio was almost 1:8. We have illustrated the data distribution in Figure . We tried to mitigate this imbalance using over-sampling and weighted sampling methods.\nHowever, the improved data sampling method did not affect the performance.\n\nSystem Description\n\nThis was a problem of multi-class classification having 9 classes for Track-1 and 6 classes for Track-2. The samples were belonging to 3 languages having 3 varieties each, so the classification pipeline was made in 2 stages. The Language Identification (LID) model which is the first stage classifies the sentence into 3 languages: English (EN), Spanish (ES) and Portuguese (PT).\nThe LID is a pretrained XLM-RoBERTa that is fine-tuned for the task of language identification. It is able to classify the input sentence into 20 languages. We classify and separate the samples according to their language. The samples corresponding to the specific languages are then fed into the language specific models for dialect identification.\nFor dialect identification we have used models like BERT and RoBERTa with a linear layer connected to the pooler output of the models. Then fine-tuning is done on the models for dialect identification   using the samples corresponding to the specific languages. For the task of dialect identification we experimented with several pretrained models like XLM-RoBERTa, BERT, ELECTRA, GPT-2 and RoBERTa.\nAll models were fine-tuned for 20 epochs with a learning rate of 1e-6 and weight decay 1e-6 with a batch size of 8. The best performing model checkpoint was chosen according to the epoch-wise validation macro-F1 score. 5 Experiments and Results\n\nExperiments using Large Language Models\n\nFor the task of Dialect Identification we have tried various language specific models like XLM-RoBERTa, BERT, ELECTRA, RoBERTa and GPT- 2. The base variant of all these models were used and all the models were used through the Hugging-Face library. The pooler output of these models was passed through a linear layer and the models were fine-tuned.\nFirst, we experimented with different models for Track-1. All the models were trained for 20 epochs with learning rate 1e-6, weight decay 1e-6 and a batch size of 8. We used XLM-RoBERTa as the baseline for all 3 languages. The best performing models for the English language were RoBERTa and BERT whereas GPT-2 was the worst performing.\nSimilarly the language specific versions of RoBERTa and BERT performed well for the Spanish and Portuguese respectively. Overall the worst performing model was GPT-2 across all 3 languages. The validation F1 scores are present in Table . The two best-performing models for every language were chosen for Track-2.\nThe same procedure as specified above was used and the F1 scores are present in Table . The train and validation F1 scores for 2-class classification are higher for all models as compared to the F1 score of the same models for 3-class classification. This was mainly due to the poor representation and accuracy of classification of the third class.\nWe observed symptoms of overfitting in all models after 12-15 epochs and the best validation F1 score was obtained in the range of 4-8 epochs.\n\nLID experiments\n\nThe pipeline for dialect identification is divided into two parts as the sentences in the dataset belong to different languages. The stages are described in Section 4. The XLM-RoBERTa we have used for language classification has a test accuracy of 99.6% meaning it correctly classifies all input sentences and hence, can be considered as a perfect classifier.\nFor the final pipeline we experimented using the two best performing models for each language in Track-1 and Track-2. For both the tracks we experimented with all 8 (2 3 ) possible combinations of models and calculated the validation F1 score for the combined validation dataset which had sentences belonging to all languages.\nThe validation scores for Track-1 and Track-2 are shown in Table and Table respectively. For both the tracks, the three pipelines with the best validation F1 scores were chosen for submission.\n\nUsing 3-way classifier as a 2-way classifier\n\nIn Track-1, participants are expected to train a classifier which classifies amongst 9 classes, and in Track-2, participants are expected to train a classifier which classifies amongst 6 classes. These 6 classes are a proper subset of the 9 classes from Track-1. Thus, an intuitive baseline for Track-2 is to use the model finetuned for Track-1, whilst considering only the relevant classes for the latter task.\nThe classes EN , ES and P T , i.e. the classes without any national dialect associated with them are not included in Track-2 as compared to Track-1. Thus, we calculate the predictions for the Track-2 validation dataset using the models for Track-1 and exclude the metrics for Track-1 specific classes to get the metrics for this \"adapted\" 2-way classification.\nWe show the results of this experiment in Table and observe that, as expected, the adapted 2-way classification performs worse compared to the explicitly finetuned variant.\n\nResults for Track-1 and Track-2\n\nWe now present our experiments and their performance for both tracks. Our experiments for Track-1 are described in Table and our experiments for Track-2 are described in Table . The participants were allowed three submissions for evaluation on the test set, so we submitted predictions using the three systems which performed the best on the validation set.\nAs mentioned in Section 5.2, we performed 2 3 , i.e. a total of 8 experiments using the two best models for each language. We observed that RoBERTa base on English, Spanish BERT base on Spanish and Portuguese BERT base performed the best on the testing set for Track-1. The same combination, with RoBERTa base for English, worked best for Track-2.\nAll of our submissions were the top submissions for each track, which surpassed the next best competitors by a margin of 4.5% and 5.6% for Track-1 and Track-2 respectively.\n\nAblation of best submissions\n\nWe hereby make some observations of our submissions and other experiments. To assist this, we plot the confusion matrices of our best submissions for Track-1 and Track-2 in Figures respectively. Note that these confusion matrices have their rows (i.e. true labels axes) normalized according to the number of samples in the class.\nHere are observations from our experiments: 1. BERT-based models outperform other models across all languages: We observe that BERT-based models outperform ELECTRA-based and GPT-2-based models, as shown in Table . We speculate this is because of the inherent architecture of BERT, which combines semantic learning with knowledge retention.\nThis combination of traits is particularly useful for this task. 2. Common labels perform the worst across all languages: We observe that the common labels EN , ES and P T perform the worst, both in the individual as well as the two-stage setup. We hypothesize this is because of the absence of dialect specific words, or words that are specific to the geographical origin of the national dialect (for example, \"Yankees\" for EN-US and \"Oxford\" for EN-GB).\n3. English models work better than models of other languages: It can be noted from Figures 4 and 3 that the English models have the best performance across all classes. This can be attributed to two reasons: absence of national dialect specific words and lesser pretraining data in the case of Portuguese.\n4. British English is most correctly classified class: We can observe that the Spanish or Portuguese models make equal number of mistakes in the case of either national dialect, in the case of Track-2 (see Figure ). However, in the case of English, the label EN − GB is correctly classified for more than 95% of the cases.\nWe speculate this is because British English involves slightly distinctive grammar and semantics, which help the model separate it from other classes. 5. The proposed 2-step method is scalable for multiple language dialect classification: We can strongly assert that the novel 2-step deep learning method for multilingual dialect classification is a scalable method for the task due to two specific reasons: firstly, the multilingual models (like XLM-RoBERTa) might not have the vocabulary as well as the learning capabilities to learn the minute differences between individual dialects.\nSecondly, this system can be quickly expanded for a new language by simply adding a language specific dialect classifier, provided the language identification model supports that particular language.\n\nConclusion\n\nIn this paper we propose a two-stage classification pipeline for dialect identification for multilingual corpora. We conduct thorough ablations on this setup and provide valuable insights. We foresee multiple future directions for this work. The first is to expand this work to many languages and dialects.\nSecondly, it is a worthwhile research direction to distill this multi-model setup into a single model with multiple prediction heads. The obvious limitation of this system is the excessive memory consumption due to the usage of language specific models. For low resource languages this system is difficult to train and scale.\nWe hope that these problems will be addressed by researchers in future works.", "answers": ["BERT, RoBERTa, ELECTRA, GPT-2, and XLM-RoBERTa."], "length": 2397, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "635ad5e3696e0d297f3ea8909d42975a5c1eb49a7f4a8466"}
{"input": "Where is the club's headquarters located?", "context": "Football Club Urartu (, translated Futbolayin Akumb Urartu), commonly known as Urartu, is an Armenian professional football team based in the capital Yerevan that currently plays in the Armenian Premier League. The club won the Armenian Cup three times, in 1992, 2007 and 2016. In 2013–2014, they won the Armenian Premier League for the first time in their history.\n\nIn early 2016, the Russia-based Armenian businessman Dzhevan Cheloyants became a co-owner of the club after purchasing the major part of the club shares. The club was known as FC Banants until 1 August 2019, when it was officially renamed FC Urartu.\n\nHistory\n\nKotayk\nUrartu FC were founded as FC Banants by Sarkis Israelyan on 21 January 1992 in the village of Kotayk, representing the Kotayk Province. He named the club after his native village of Banants (currently known as Bayan). Between 1992 and 1995, the club was commonly referred to as Banants Kotayk. During the 1992 season, the club won the first Armenian Cup. At the end of the 1995 transitional season, Banants suffered a financial crisis. The club owners decided that it was better to merge the club with FC Kotayk of Abovyan, rather than disband it. In 2001, Banants demerged from FC Kotayk, and was moved from Abovyan to the capital Yerevan.\n\nYerevan\n\nFC Banants was relocated to Yerevan in 2001. At the beginning of 2003, Banants merged with FC Spartak Yerevan, but was able to limit the name of the new merger to FC Banants. Spartak became Banants's youth academy and later changed the name to Banants-2. Because of the merger, Banants acquired many players from Spartak Yerevan, including Samvel Melkonyan. After the merger, Banants took a more serious approach and have finished highly in the league table ever since. The club managed to lift the Armenian Cup in 2007.\nExperience is making way for youth for the 2008 and 2009 seasons. The departures of most of the experienced players have left the club's future to the youth. Along with two Ukrainian players, Ugandan international, Noah Kasule, has been signed.\n\nThe club headquarters are located on Jivani Street 2 of the Malatia-Sebastia District, Yerevan.\n\nDomestic\n\nEuropean\n\nStadium\n\nThe construction of the Banants Stadium was launched in 2006 in the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan, with the assistance of the FIFA goal programme. It was officially opened in 2008 with a capacity of 3,600 seats. Further developments were implemented later in 2011, when the playing pitch was modernized and the capacity of the stadium was increased up to 4,860 seats (2,760 at the northern stand, 1,500 at the southern stand and 600 at the western stand).\n\nTraining centre/academy\nBanants Training Centre is the club's academy base located in the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan. In addition to the main stadium, the centre houses 3 full-size training pitches, mini football pitches as well as an indoor facility. The current technical director of the academy is the former Russian footballer Ilshat Faizulin.\n\nFans\nThe most active group of fans is the South West Ultras fan club, mainly composed of residents from several neighbourhoods within the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan, since the club is a de facto representer of the district. Members of the fan club benefit from events organized by the club and many facilities of the Banants training centre, such as the mini football pitch, the club store and other entertainments.\n\nAchievements\n Armenian Premier League\n Winner (1): 2013–14.\n Runner-up (5): 2003, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2018.\n\n Armenian Cup\n Winner (3): 1992, 2007, 2016.\n Runner-up (6): 2003, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2021–22\n\n Armenian Supercup\n Winner (1): 2014.\n Runner-up (5): 2004, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2016.\n\nCurrent squad\n\nOut on loan\n\nPersonnel\n\nTechnical staff\n\nManagement\n\nUrartu-2\n\nFC Banants' reserve squad play as FC Banants-2 in the Armenian First League. They play their home games at the training field with artificial turf of the Urartu Training Centre.\n\nManagerial history\n Varuzhan Sukiasyan (1992–94)\n Poghos Galstyan (July 1, 1996 – June 30, 1998)\n Oganes Zanazanyan (2001–05)\n Ashot Barseghyan (2005–06)\n Nikolay Kiselyov (2006–07)\n Jan Poštulka (2007)\n Nikolay Kostov (July 1, 2007 – April 8, 2008)\n Nedelcho Matushev (April 8, 2008 – June 30, 2008)\n Kim Splidsboel (2008)\n Armen Gyulbudaghyants (Jan 1, 2009 – Dec 1, 2009)\n Ashot Barseghyan (interim) (2009)\n Stevica Kuzmanovski (Jan 1, 2010 – Dec 31, 2010)\n Rafael Nazaryan (Jan 1, 2011 – Jan 15, 2012)\n Volodymyr Pyatenko (Jan 17, 2013 – June 30, 2013)\n Zsolt Hornyák (July 1, 2013 – May 30, 2015)\n Aram Voskanyan (July 1, 2015 – Oct 11, 2015)\n Tito Ramallo (Oct 12, 2015 – Oct 3, 2016)\n Artur Voskanyan (Oct 3, 2016 – Aug 11, 2018)\n Ilshat Faizulin (Aug 12, 2018 –Nov 24, 2019)\n Aleksandr Grigoryan (Nov 25, 2019 –Mar 10, 2021)\n Robert Arzumanyan (10 March 2021–24 June 2022)\n Dmitri Gunko (27 June 2022–)", "answers": ["The club's headquarters are located on Jivani Street 2 of the Malatia-Sebastia District, Yerevan."], "length": 812, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "d5422b0fdbed42c0f1d2213edb6c7637802452e4ca7287eb"}
{"input": "Where was Margaret Way born and where did she die?", "context": "Margaret Way (b. Brisbane d. Cleveland, Queensland, Australia ) was an Australian writer of romance novels and women's fiction. A prolific author, Way wrote more than 120 novels since 1970, many through Mills & Boon, a romance imprint of British publisher Harlequin UK Ltd., owned by Harlequin Enterprises.\n\nBiography\nBefore her marriage, she was a well-known pianist, teacher, vocal coach and accompanist. She began writing when her son, Laurence Way, was born, a friend took a pile of Mills & Boon books to her, she read all and decided that she also could write these types of novels. She began to write and promote her country with her stories set in Australia. She sold her first novels in 1970. Margaret Way lives with her family in her native Brisbane. Beginning in 2013, Margaret began to self-publish, releasing her first \"e-book\" mid-July.\n\nMargaret died on the 10th of August 2022 in Cleveland, Queensland.\n\nBibliography\n\nSingle Novels\nKing Country (1970)\nBlaze of Silk (1970)\nThe Time of the Jacaranda (1970)\nBauhinia Junction (1971)\nMan from Bahl Bahla (1971)\nSummer Magic (1971)\nReturn to Belle Amber (1971)\nRing of Jade (1972)\nCopper Moon (1972)\nRainbow Bird (1972)\nMan Like Daintree (1972)\nNoonfire (1972)\nStorm Over Mandargi (1973)\nWind River (1973)\nLove Theme (1974)\nMcCabe's Kingdom (1974)\nSweet Sundown (1974)\nReeds of Honey (1975)\nStorm Flower (1975)\nLesson in Loving (1975)\nFlight into Yesterday (1976)\nRed Cliffs of Malpara (1976)\nMan on Half-moon (1976)\nSwan's Reach (1976)\nMutiny in Paradise (1977)\nOne Way Ticket (1977)\nPortrait of Jaime (1977)\nBlack Ingo (1977)\nAwakening Flame (1978)\nWild Swan (1978)\nRing of Fire (1978)\nWake the Sleeping Tiger (1978)\nValley of the Moon (1979)\nWhite Magnolia (1979)\nWinds of Heaven (1979)\nBlue Lotus (1979)\nButterfly and the Baron (1979)\nGolden Puma (1980)\nTemple of Fire (1980)\nLord of the High Valley (1980)\nFlamingo Park (1980)\nNorth of Capricorn (1981)\nSeason for Change (1981)\nShadow Dance (1981)\nMcIvor Affair (1981)\nHome to Morning Star (1981)\nBroken Rhapsody (1982)\nThe Silver Veil (1982)\nSpellbound (1982)\nHunter's Moon (1982)\nGirl at Cobalt Creek (1983)\nNo Alternative (1983)\nHouse of Memories (1983)\nAlmost a Stranger (1984)\nA place called Rambulara (1984)\nFallen Idol (1984)\nHunt the Sun (1985)\nEagle's Ridge (1985)\nThe Tiger's Cage (1986)\nInnocent in Eden (1986)\nDiamond Valley (1986)\nMorning Glory (1988)\nDevil Moon (1988)\nMowana Magic (1988)\nHungry Heart (1988)\nRise of an Eagle (1988)\nOne Fateful Summer (1993)\nThe Carradine Brand (1994)\nHolding on to Alex (1997)\nThe Australian Heiress (1997)\nClaiming His Child (1999)\nThe Cattleman's Bride (2000)\nThe Cattle Baron (2001)\nThe Husbands of the Outback (2001)\nSecrets of the Outback (2002)\nWith This Ring (2003)\nInnocent Mistress (2004)\nCattle Rancher, Convenient Wife (2007)\nOutback Marriages (2007)\nPromoted: Nanny to Wife (2007)\nCattle Rancher, Secret Son (2007)\nGenni's Dilemma (2008)\nBride At Briar Ridge (2009)\nOutback Heiress, Surprise Proposal (2009)\nCattle Baron, Nanny Needed (2009)\n\nLegends of the Outback Series\nMail Order Marriage (1999)\nThe Bridesmaid's Wedding (2000)\nThe English Bride (2000)\nA Wife at Kimbara (2000)\n\nKoomera Crossing Series\nSarah's Baby (2003)\nRunaway Wife (2003)\nOutback Bridegroom (2003)\nOutback Surrender (2003)\nHome to Eden (2004)\n\nMcIvor Sisters Series\nThe Outback Engagement (2005)\nMarriage at Murraree (2005)\n\nMen Of The Outback Series\nThe Cattleman (2006)\nThe Cattle Baron's Bride (2006)\nHer Outback Protector (2006)\nThe Horseman (2006)\n\nOutback Marriages Series\nOutback Man Seeks Wife (2007)\nCattle Rancher, Convenient Wife (2007)\n\nBarons of the Outback Series Multi-Author\nWedding At Wangaree Valley (2008)\nBride At Briar's Ridge (2008)\n\nFamily Ties Multi-Author\nOnce Burned (1995)\n\nHitched! Multi-Author\nA Faulkner Possession (1996)\n\nSimply the Best Multi-Author\nGeorgia and the Tycoon (1997)\n\nThe Big Event Multi-Author\nBeresford's Bride (1998)\n\nGuardian Angels Multi-Author\nGabriel's Mission (1998)\n\nAustralians Series Multi-Author\n7. Her Outback Man (1998)\n17. Master of Maramba (2001)\n19. Outback Fire (2001)\n22. Mistaken Mistress (2002)\n24. Outback Angel (2002)\n33. The Australian Tycoon's Proposal (2004)\n35. His Heiress Wife (2004)\n\nMarrying the Boss Series Multi-Author\nBoardroom Proposal (1999)\n\nContract Brides Series Multi-Author\nStrategy for Marriage (2002)\n\nEverlasting Love Series Multi-Author\nHidden Legacy (2008)\n\nDiamond Brides Series Multi-Author\nThe Australian's Society Bride (2008)\n\nCollections\nSummer Magic / Ring of Jade / Noonfire (1981)\nWife at Kimbara / Bridesmaid's Wedding (2005)\n\nOmnibus in Collaboration\nPretty Witch / Without Any Amazement / Storm Over Mandargi (1977) (with Lucy Gillen and Margaret Malcolm)\nDear Caliban / Heart of the Eagle / Swans' Reach (1978) (with Jane Donnelly and Elizabeth Graham)\nThe Bonds of Matrimony / Dragon Island / Reeds of Honey (1979) (with Elizabeth Hunter and Henrietta Reid)\nThe Man Outside / Castles in Spain / McCabe's Kingdom (1979) (with Jane Donnelly and Rebecca Stratton)\nWinds From The Sea / Island of Darkness / Wind River (1979) (with Margaret Pargeter and Rebecca Stratton)\nMoorland Magic / Tree of Idleness / Sweet Sundown (1980) (with Elizabeth Ashton and Elizabeth Hunter)\nThe Shifting Sands / Portrait of Jaime / Touched by Fire (1982) (with Jane Donnelly and Kay Thorpe)\nHead of Chancery / Wild Heart / One-Way Ticket (1986) (with Betty Beaty and Doris Smith)\nHeart of the Scorpion / The Winds of Heaven / Sweet Compulsion (1987) (with Janice Gray and Victoria Woolf)\nOne Brief Sweet Hour / Once More With Feeling / Blue Lotus (1990) (with Jane Arbor and Natalie Sparks)\nMarry Me Cowboy (1995) (with Janet Dailey, Susan Fox and Anne McAllister)\nHusbands on Horseback (1996) (with Diana Palmer)\nWedlocked (1999) (with Day Leclaire and Anne McAllister)\nMistletoe Magic (1999) (with Betty Neels and Rebecca Winters)\nThe Australians (2000) (with Helen Bianchin and Miranda Lee)\nWeddings Down Under (2001) (with Helen Bianchin and Jessica Hart)\nOutback Husbands (2002) (with Marion Lennox)\nThe Mother's Day Collection (2002) (with Helen Dickson and Kate Hoffmann)\nAustralian Nights (2003) (with Miranda Lee)\nOutback Weddings (2003) (with Barbara Hannay)\nAustralian Playboys (2003) (with Helen Bianchin and Marion Lennox)\nAustralian Tycoons (2004) (with Emma Darcy and Marion Lennox)\nA Mother's Day Gift (2004) (with Anne Ashley and Lucy Monroe)\nWhite Wedding (2004) (with Judy Christenberry and Jessica Steele)\nA Christmas Engagement (2004) (with Sara Craven and Jessica Matthews)\nA Very Special Mother's Day (2005) (with Anne Herries)\nAll I Want for Christmas... (2005) (with Betty Neels and Jessica Steele)\nThe Mills and Boon Collection (2006) (with Caroline Anderson and Penny Jordan)\nOutback Desire (2006) (with Emma Darcy and Carol Marinelli)\nTo Mum, with Love (2006) (with Rebecca Winters)\nAustralian Heroes (2007) (with Marion Lennox and Fiona McArthur)\nTall, Dark and Sexy (2008) (with Caroline Anderson and Helen Bianchin)\nThe Boss's Proposal (2008) (with Jessica Steele and Patricia Thayer)\nIsland Heat / Outback Man Seeks Wife / Prince's Forbidden Virgin / One Night Before Marriage / Their Lost-and-found Family / Single Dad's Marriage Wish (2008) (with Robyn Donald, Marion Lennox, Carol Marinelli, Sarah Mayberry and Anne Oliver)\nAustralian Billionaires (2009) (with Jennie Adams and Amy Andrews)\nCattle Baron : Nanny Needed / Bachelor Dad on Her Doorstep (2009) (with Michelle Douglas)\n\nExternal links\nMargaret Way at Harlequin Enterprises Ltd\n\nAustralian romantic fiction writers\nAustralian women novelists\nLiving people\nYear of birth missing (living people)\nWomen romantic fiction writers", "answers": ["Margaret Way was born in Brisbane and died in Cleveland, Queensland, Australia."], "length": 1203, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "934162f30867844eb8d74c9d62c1e2aba3fca790b5b1d53e"}
{"input": "What was the club known as before being officially renamed FC Urartu?", "context": "Football Club Urartu (, translated Futbolayin Akumb Urartu), commonly known as Urartu, is an Armenian professional football team based in the capital Yerevan that currently plays in the Armenian Premier League. The club won the Armenian Cup three times, in 1992, 2007 and 2016. In 2013–2014, they won the Armenian Premier League for the first time in their history.\n\nIn early 2016, the Russia-based Armenian businessman Dzhevan Cheloyants became a co-owner of the club after purchasing the major part of the club shares. The club was known as FC Banants until 1 August 2019, when it was officially renamed FC Urartu.\n\nHistory\n\nKotayk\nUrartu FC were founded as FC Banants by Sarkis Israelyan on 21 January 1992 in the village of Kotayk, representing the Kotayk Province. He named the club after his native village of Banants (currently known as Bayan). Between 1992 and 1995, the club was commonly referred to as Banants Kotayk. During the 1992 season, the club won the first Armenian Cup. At the end of the 1995 transitional season, Banants suffered a financial crisis. The club owners decided that it was better to merge the club with FC Kotayk of Abovyan, rather than disband it. In 2001, Banants demerged from FC Kotayk, and was moved from Abovyan to the capital Yerevan.\n\nYerevan\n\nFC Banants was relocated to Yerevan in 2001. At the beginning of 2003, Banants merged with FC Spartak Yerevan, but was able to limit the name of the new merger to FC Banants. Spartak became Banants's youth academy and later changed the name to Banants-2. Because of the merger, Banants acquired many players from Spartak Yerevan, including Samvel Melkonyan. After the merger, Banants took a more serious approach and have finished highly in the league table ever since. The club managed to lift the Armenian Cup in 2007.\nExperience is making way for youth for the 2008 and 2009 seasons. The departures of most of the experienced players have left the club's future to the youth. Along with two Ukrainian players, Ugandan international, Noah Kasule, has been signed.\n\nThe club headquarters are located on Jivani Street 2 of the Malatia-Sebastia District, Yerevan.\n\nDomestic\n\nEuropean\n\nStadium\n\nThe construction of the Banants Stadium was launched in 2006 in the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan, with the assistance of the FIFA goal programme. It was officially opened in 2008 with a capacity of 3,600 seats. Further developments were implemented later in 2011, when the playing pitch was modernized and the capacity of the stadium was increased up to 4,860 seats (2,760 at the northern stand, 1,500 at the southern stand and 600 at the western stand).\n\nTraining centre/academy\nBanants Training Centre is the club's academy base located in the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan. In addition to the main stadium, the centre houses 3 full-size training pitches, mini football pitches as well as an indoor facility. The current technical director of the academy is the former Russian footballer Ilshat Faizulin.\n\nFans\nThe most active group of fans is the South West Ultras fan club, mainly composed of residents from several neighbourhoods within the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan, since the club is a de facto representer of the district. Members of the fan club benefit from events organized by the club and many facilities of the Banants training centre, such as the mini football pitch, the club store and other entertainments.\n\nAchievements\n Armenian Premier League\n Winner (1): 2013–14.\n Runner-up (5): 2003, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2018.\n\n Armenian Cup\n Winner (3): 1992, 2007, 2016.\n Runner-up (6): 2003, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2021–22\n\n Armenian Supercup\n Winner (1): 2014.\n Runner-up (5): 2004, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2016.\n\nCurrent squad\n\nOut on loan\n\nPersonnel\n\nTechnical staff\n\nManagement\n\nUrartu-2\n\nFC Banants' reserve squad play as FC Banants-2 in the Armenian First League. They play their home games at the training field with artificial turf of the Urartu Training Centre.\n\nManagerial history\n Varuzhan Sukiasyan (1992–94)\n Poghos Galstyan (July 1, 1996 – June 30, 1998)\n Oganes Zanazanyan (2001–05)\n Ashot Barseghyan (2005–06)\n Nikolay Kiselyov (2006–07)\n Jan Poštulka (2007)\n Nikolay Kostov (July 1, 2007 – April 8, 2008)\n Nedelcho Matushev (April 8, 2008 – June 30, 2008)\n Kim Splidsboel (2008)\n Armen Gyulbudaghyants (Jan 1, 2009 – Dec 1, 2009)\n Ashot Barseghyan (interim) (2009)\n Stevica Kuzmanovski (Jan 1, 2010 – Dec 31, 2010)\n Rafael Nazaryan (Jan 1, 2011 – Jan 15, 2012)\n Volodymyr Pyatenko (Jan 17, 2013 – June 30, 2013)\n Zsolt Hornyák (July 1, 2013 – May 30, 2015)\n Aram Voskanyan (July 1, 2015 – Oct 11, 2015)\n Tito Ramallo (Oct 12, 2015 – Oct 3, 2016)\n Artur Voskanyan (Oct 3, 2016 – Aug 11, 2018)\n Ilshat Faizulin (Aug 12, 2018 –Nov 24, 2019)\n Aleksandr Grigoryan (Nov 25, 2019 –Mar 10, 2021)\n Robert Arzumanyan (10 March 2021–24 June 2022)\n Dmitri Gunko (27 June 2022–)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Official website \n Banants at Weltfussball.de  \n\n \nUrartu\nUrartu\nUrartu\nUrartu", "answers": ["FC Banants."], "length": 818, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "c4f2dfb06f56a185067d2f147c4d846aa0b895f1968eda12"}
{"input": "When did the club win the Armenian Premier League for the first time?", "context": "Football Club Urartu (, translated Futbolayin Akumb Urartu), commonly known as Urartu, is an Armenian professional football team based in the capital Yerevan that currently plays in the Armenian Premier League. The club won the Armenian Cup three times, in 1992, 2007 and 2016. In 2013–2014, they won the Armenian Premier League for the first time in their history.\n\nIn early 2016, the Russia-based Armenian businessman Dzhevan Cheloyants became a co-owner of the club after purchasing the major part of the club shares. The club was known as FC Banants until 1 August 2019, when it was officially renamed FC Urartu.\n\nHistory\n\nKotayk\nUrartu FC were founded as FC Banants by Sarkis Israelyan on 21 January 1992 in the village of Kotayk, representing the Kotayk Province. He named the club after his native village of Banants (currently known as Bayan). Between 1992 and 1995, the club was commonly referred to as Banants Kotayk. During the 1992 season, the club won the first Armenian Cup. At the end of the 1995 transitional season, Banants suffered a financial crisis. The club owners decided that it was better to merge the club with FC Kotayk of Abovyan, rather than disband it. In 2001, Banants demerged from FC Kotayk, and was moved from Abovyan to the capital Yerevan.\n\nYerevan\n\nFC Banants was relocated to Yerevan in 2001. At the beginning of 2003, Banants merged with FC Spartak Yerevan, but was able to limit the name of the new merger to FC Banants. Spartak became Banants's youth academy and later changed the name to Banants-2. Because of the merger, Banants acquired many players from Spartak Yerevan, including Samvel Melkonyan. After the merger, Banants took a more serious approach and have finished highly in the league table ever since. The club managed to lift the Armenian Cup in 2007.\nExperience is making way for youth for the 2008 and 2009 seasons. The departures of most of the experienced players have left the club's future to the youth. Along with two Ukrainian players, Ugandan international, Noah Kasule, has been signed.\n\nThe club headquarters are located on Jivani Street 2 of the Malatia-Sebastia District, Yerevan.\n\nDomestic\n\nEuropean\n\nStadium\n\nThe construction of the Banants Stadium was launched in 2006 in the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan, with the assistance of the FIFA goal programme. It was officially opened in 2008 with a capacity of 3,600 seats. Further developments were implemented later in 2011, when the playing pitch was modernized and the capacity of the stadium was increased up to 4,860 seats (2,760 at the northern stand, 1,500 at the southern stand and 600 at the western stand).\n\nTraining centre/academy\nBanants Training Centre is the club's academy base located in the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan. In addition to the main stadium, the centre houses 3 full-size training pitches, mini football pitches as well as an indoor facility. The current technical director of the academy is the former Russian footballer Ilshat Faizulin.\n\nFans\nThe most active group of fans is the South West Ultras fan club, mainly composed of residents from several neighbourhoods within the Malatia-Sebastia District of Yerevan, since the club is a de facto representer of the district. Members of the fan club benefit from events organized by the club and many facilities of the Banants training centre, such as the mini football pitch, the club store and other entertainments.\n\nAchievements\n Armenian Premier League\n Winner (1): 2013–14.\n Runner-up (5): 2003, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2018.\n\n Armenian Cup\n Winner (3): 1992, 2007, 2016.\n Runner-up (6): 2003, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2021–22\n\n Armenian Supercup\n Winner (1): 2014.\n Runner-up (5): 2004, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2016.\n\nCurrent squad\n\nOut on loan\n\nPersonnel\n\nTechnical staff\n\nManagement\n\nUrartu-2\n\nFC Banants' reserve squad play as FC Banants-2 in the Armenian First League. They play their home games at the training field with artificial turf of the Urartu Training Centre.\n\nManagerial history\n Varuzhan Sukiasyan (1992–94)\n Poghos Galstyan (July 1, 1996 – June 30, 1998)\n Oganes Zanazanyan (2001–05)\n Ashot Barseghyan (2005–06)\n Nikolay Kiselyov (2006–07)\n Jan Poštulka (2007)\n Nikolay Kostov (July 1, 2007 – April 8, 2008)\n Nedelcho Matushev (April 8, 2008 – June 30, 2008)\n Kim Splidsboel (2008)\n Armen Gyulbudaghyants (Jan 1, 2009 – Dec 1, 2009)\n Ashot Barseghyan (interim) (2009)\n Stevica Kuzmanovski (Jan 1, 2010 – Dec 31, 2010)\n Rafael Nazaryan (Jan 1, 2011 – Jan 15, 2012)\n Volodymyr Pyatenko (Jan 17, 2013 – June 30, 2013)\n Zsolt Hornyák (July 1, 2013 – May 30, 2015)\n Aram Voskanyan (July 1, 2015 – Oct 11, 2015)\n Tito Ramallo (Oct 12, 2015 – Oct 3, 2016)\n Artur Voskanyan (Oct 3, 2016 – Aug 11, 2018)\n Ilshat Faizulin (Aug 12, 2018 –Nov 24, 2019)\n Aleksandr Grigoryan (Nov 25, 2019 –Mar 10, 2021)\n Robert Arzumanyan (10 March 2021–24 June 2022)\n Dmitri Gunko (27 June 2022–)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Official website \n Banants at Weltfussball.de  \n\n \nUrartu\nUrartu\nUrartu\nUrartu", "answers": ["In the 2013-2014 season."], "length": 821, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "8e79ff617e6cfd373020194ce4cb84531a6aec6ab7e6cfc2"}
{"input": "What was the population of McPherson County according to the 2020 census?", "context": "McPherson County (standard abbreviation: MP) is a county located in the U.S. state of Kansas.  As of the 2020 census, the county population was 30,223. The largest city and county seat is McPherson. The county is named for Civil War General James B. McPherson.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nFor many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, per the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles.\n\nIn 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1848, after the Mexican–American War, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Spain brought into the United States all or part of land for ten future states, including southwest Kansas. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U.S. state.\n\n19th century\n\nFrom the 1820s to 1870s, the Santa Fe Trail passed through, what is now McPherson County. The trail entered the county, east of Canton, then south of Galva, then north of Inman, and west towards Lyons. In 1855, Charles O. Fuller established a ranch adjacent to the Running Turkey Creek Crossing about two miles south and one mile east of Galva. Fuller's Ranch provided accommodations for travelers on the Santa Fe Trail and was probably the first white settlement in McPherson County.\n\nPeketon County was established in 1860, by the passage of a bill by S. N. Wood:  An act to establish Peketon County. Section 1. - That all that territory west of the sixth principal meridian and south of Township 16, in Kansas Territory, be and the same is hereby erected into a county, to be known by the name of Peketon County. On February 17, 1865, Peketon County was abolished, and McPherson County was made a part of Marion County, which extended from the west line of Chase County to the present western boundary of Kansas.\n\nIn 1868, Solomon Stephens and L. N. Holmberg were appointed Justices of the Peace—the first officers in what is now McPherson County. The next year (1869) occurred the first election for the township, now the county of McPherson. McPherson was regularly organized as a county in the spring of 1870, a mass meeting being held at Sweadal. Sweadal, the county seat thus selected, was located about one mile and a half southwest of the present site of Lindsborg. In September, however, the County Commissioners resolved to meet at the latter place, McPherson which had already been located some two years.\n\nIn April, 1873, a petition was filed for the county seat re-location. It was signed by 483 voters, and a special election was accordingly ordered for June 10. Upon that day, McPherson received 605 votes, New Gottland 325, King City 3 and Lindsborg 1; McPherson's majority over all, 276. In May the McPherson Town Company had offered, as an inducement for the location of the county seat at this point, the free use of rooms for ten years, and the donation of two squares of land on the town site. The offer was accepted the next month, the County Commissioners selecting blocks 56 and 65. Thus the county seat was established at McPherson and has remained since.\n\nAs early as 1875, city leaders of Marion held a meeting to consider a branch railroad from Florence. In 1878, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and parties from Marion County and McPherson County chartered the Marion and McPherson Railway Company.  In 1879, a branch line was built from Florence to McPherson, in 1880 it was extended to Lyons, in 1881 it was extended to Ellinwood. The line was leased and operated by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. The line from Florence to Marion, was abandoned in 1968. In 1992, the line from Marion to McPherson was sold to Central Kansas Railway. In 1993, after heavy flood damage, the line from Marion to McPherson was abandoned. The original branch line connected Florence, Marion, Canada, Hillsboro, Lehigh, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Conway, Windom, Little River, Mitchell, Lyons, Chase, then connected with the original AT&SF main line at Ellinwood.\n\nIn 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway extended its main line from Herington to Pratt.  This main line connected Herington, Ramona, Tampa, Durham, Waldeck, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Groveland, Inman, Medora, Hutchinson, Whiteside, Partridge, Arlington,  Langdon, Turon, Preston, Natrona, Pratt.  In 1888, this main line was extended to Liberal.  Later, this line was extended to Tucumcari, New Mexico and Santa Rosa, New Mexico, where it made a connection with the Southern Pacific from El Paso, Texas.  The Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway was absorbed by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway. This line is also called the \"Golden State Route\".\n\n20th century\nThe National Old Trails Road, also known as the Ocean-to-Ocean Highway, was established in 1912, and was routed through Windom, Conway, McPherson.\n\nGeography\n\nAccording to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (0.3%) is water.\n\nAdjacent counties\n Saline County (north)\n Dickinson County (northeast)\n Marion County (east)\n Harvey County (southeast)\n Reno County (southwest)\n Rice County (west)\n Ellsworth County (northwest)\n\nMajor highways\n  Interstate 135\n  U.S. Route 56\n  U.S. Route 81\n  K-4\n  K-61\n  K-153\n\nDemographics\n\nThe McPherson Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of McPherson County.\n\n2000 census\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 29,554 people, 11,205 households, and 7,966 families residing in the county.  The population density was 33 people per square mile (13/km2).  There were 11,830 housing units at an average density of 13 per square mile (5/km2).  The racial makeup of the county was 96.53% White, 0.81% Black or African American, 0.34% Native American, 0.32% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.79% from other races, and 1.16% from two or more races.  1.94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 37.1% were of German, 12.9% Swedish, 12.1% American, 6.7% English and 6.3% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000.\n\nThere were 11,205 households, out of which 33.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.50% were married couples living together, 6.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.90% were non-families. 25.50% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.99.\n\nIn the county, the population was spread out, with 25.40% under the age of 18, 10.30% from 18 to 24, 25.20% from 25 to 44, 21.80% from 45 to 64, and 17.30% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 95.90 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.90 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the county was $41,138, and the median income for a family was $48,243. Males had a median income of $33,530 versus $21,175 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,921.  About 4.20% of families and 6.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.20% of those under age 18 and 8.10% of those age 65 or over.\n\nGovernment\n\nPresidential elections\nMcPherson county is often carried by Republican candidates. The last time a Democratic candidate has carried this county was in 1964 by Lyndon B. Johnson.\n\nLaws\nFollowing amendment to the Kansas Constitution in 1986, the county remained a prohibition, or \"dry\", county until 1996, when voters approved the sale of alcoholic liquor by the individual drink with a 30 percent food sales requirement.\n\nEducation\n\nColleges\n McPherson College in McPherson\n Bethany College in Lindsborg\n Central Christian College in McPherson\n\nUnified school districts\n Smoky Valley USD 400\n McPherson USD 418\n Canton-Galva USD 419\n Moundridge USD 423\n Inman USD 448\n\nSchool district office in neighboring county\n Goessel USD 411\n Little River-Windom USD 444\n\nMuseums\n Birger Sandzén Memorial Gallery in Lindsborg\n McCormick-Deering Days Museum in Inman\n McPherson Museum in McPherson\n Lindsborg Old Mill & Swedish Heritage Museum in Lindsborg\n Kansas Motorcycle Museum in Marquette\n\nCommunities\n\nCities\n\n Canton\n Galva\n Inman\n Lindsborg\n Marquette\n McPherson (county seat) \n Moundridge\n Windom\n\nUnincorporated communities\n† means a Census-Designated Place (CDP) by the United States Census Bureau.\n Conway\n Elyria†\n Groveland\n Johnstown\n New Gottland\n Roxbury†\n\nGhost towns\n Alta Mills\n Battle Hill\n Christian\n Doles Park\n Elivon\n King City\n Sweadal\n\nTownships\nMcPherson County is divided into twenty-five townships.  The cities of Lindsborg and McPherson are considered governmentally independent and are excluded from the census figures for the townships.  In the following table, the population center is the largest city (or cities) included in that township's population total, if it is of a significant size.\n\nSee also\n List of people from McPherson County, Kansas\n National Register of Historic Places listings in McPherson County, Kansas\n McPherson Valley Wetlands\n Maxwell Wildlife Refuge\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n\n Wheeler, Wayne Leland. \"An Analysis of Social Change in a Swedish-Immigrant Community: The Case of Lindsborg, Kansas.\" (PhD dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1959. 5905657).\n\nCounty\n Through the Years: A Pictorial History of McPherson County; McPherson Sentinel' Heritage House Publishing Co; 1992.\n McPherson County First Courthouse Built About 1869 or 1870; Lindsborg News-Record; March 30, 1959.\n Pioneer Life and Lore of McPherson County, Kansas; Edna Nyquist; Democratic-Opinion Press; 1932.\n A History of the Church of the Brethren in Kansas (includes McPherson College history); Elmer LeRoy Craik; McPherson Daily; Republican Press; 397 pages; 1922.\n Portrait and Biographical Record of Dickinson, Saline, McPherson, and Marion Counties, Kansas; Chapman Bros; 614 pages; 1893.\n Standard Atlas of McPherson County, Kansas; Geo. A. Ogle & Co; 82 pages; 1921.\n Plat Book of McPherson County, Kansas; North West Publishing Co; 50 pages; 1903.\n Edwards' Atlas of McPherson County, Kansas; John P. Edwards; 51 pages; 1884.\n\nTrails\n The Story of the Marking of the Santa Fe Trail by the Daughters of the American Revolution in Kansas and the State of Kansas; Almira Cordry; Crane Co; 164 pages; 1915. (Download 4MB PDF eBook)\n The National Old Trails Road To Southern California, Part 1 (LA to KC); Automobile Club Of Southern California; 64 pages; 1916. (Download 6.8MB PDF eBook)\n\nMennonite Settlements\n Impact of Mennonite settlement on the cultural landscape of Kansas; Brenda Martin; Kansas State University; 1985/1988. \n Mennonite settlement : the relationship between the physical and cultural environment; Susan Movle; University of Utah; 1975/1886.\n Status of Mennonite women in Kansas in their church and home relationships; Eva Harshbarger; Bluffton College; 1925/1945.\n\nExternal links\n\nCounty\n \n McPherson County - Directory of Public Officials\nHistorical\n , from Hatteberg's People'' on KAKE TV news\nMaps\n McPherson County Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT\n Kansas Highway Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT\n Kansas Railroad Maps: Current, 1996, 1915, KDOT and Kansas Historical Society\n\n \nKansas counties\n1867 establishments in Kansas\nPopulated places established in 1867", "answers": ["30,223."], "length": 1856, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "420ce59c7a0c084e938dd69dfacf59f61ac3ebbd237780c8"}
{"input": "How many brother does Njoroge have?", "context": "Weep Not, Child is a 1964 novel by Kenyan author Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o. It was his first novel, published in 1964 under the name James Ngugi. It was among the African Writers Series. It was the first English language|English novel to be published by an East African. Thiong'o's works deal with the relationship between Africans and white settlers in colonial Kenya, and are heavily critical of colonial rule. Specifically, Weep Not, Child deals with the Mau Mau Uprising, and \"the bewildering dispossession of an entire people from their ancestral land.\" Ngũgĩ wrote the novel while he was a student at Makerere University.\n\nThe book is divided into two parts and eighteen chapters. Part one deals mostly with the education of Njoroge, while part two deals with the rising Mau Mau movement.\n\nPlot summary\n\nNjoroge, a little boy, is urged to attend school by his mother. He is the first one of his family able to go to school. His family lives on the land of Jacobo, an African made rich by his dealings with white settlers, namely Mr. Howlands, the most powerful land owner in the area. Njoroge's brother Kamau works as an apprentice to a carpenter, while Boro, the eldest living son, is troubled by his experiences while in forced service during World War II, including witnessing the death of his elder brother. Ngotho, Njoroge's father and a respected man in the surrounding area, tends Mr. Howlands' crops, but is motivated by his passion to preserve his ancestral land, rather than for any compensation or loyalty.\n\nOne day, black workers call for a strike to obtain higher wages. Ngotho is ambivalent about participating in the strike because he fears he will lose his job. However, he decides to go to the gathering, even though his two wives do not agree. At the demonstration, there are calls for higher wages. Suddenly, the white police inspector brings Jacobo to the gathering to pacify the native people. Jacobo tries to put an end to the strike. Ngotho attacks Jacobo, and the result is a riot where two people are killed. Jacobo survives and swears revenge. Ngotho loses his job and Njoroge’s family is forced to move. Njoroge’s brothers fund his education and seem to lose respect for their father.\n\nMwihaki, Jacobo's daughter and Njoroge's best friend, enters a girls' only boarding school, leaving Njoroge relatively alone. He reflects upon her leaving, and realizes that he was embarrassed by his father's actions towards Jacobo. For this reason, Njoroge is not upset by her exit and their separation. Njoroge switches to another school.\n\nFor a time, everyone's attention is focused on the upcoming trial of Jomo Kenyatta – a revered leader of the movement. Many blacks think that he is going to bring forth Kenya’s independence. But Jomo loses the trial and is imprisoned. This results in further protests and greater suppression of the black population.\n\nJacobo and a white landowner, Mr. Howlands, fight against the rising activities of the Mau Mau, an organization striving for Kenyan economic, political, and cultural independence. Jacobo accuses Ngotho of being the leader of the Mau Mau and tries to imprison the whole family. Meanwhile, the situation in the country is deteriorating. Six black men are taken out of their houses and executed in the woods.\n\nOne day Njoroge meets Mwihaki again, who has returned from boarding school. Although Njoroge had planned to avoid her due to the conflict between their fathers, their friendship is unaffected. Njoroge passes an important exam that allows him to advance to High School. His village is proud of him, and collects money to pay Njoroge's High School tuition.\n\nSeveral months later, Jacobo is murdered in his office by a member of the Mau Mau. Mr. Howlands has Njoroge removed from school for questioning. Both father and son are brutally beaten before release and Ngotho is left barely alive. Although there doesn't seem to be a connection between Njoroge's family and the murder, it is eventually revealed that Njoroge's brothers are behind the assassination, and that Boro is the real leader of the Mau Mau. Ngotho soon dies from his injuries and Njoroge finds out that his father was protecting his brothers. Kamau has been imprisoned for life. Only Njoroge and his two mothers remain free, and Njoroge is left as the sole provider of his two mothers. Njoroge fears that he cannot make ends meet; he gives up hope of continuing in school and loses faith in God.\n\nNjoroge asks Mwihaki's for support, but she is angry because of her father’s death. When he finally pledges his love to her, she refuses to leave with him, realizing her obligation to Kenya and her mother. Njoroge decides to leave town and makes an attempt at suicide; however, he fails when his mothers find him before he is able to hang himself. The novel closes with Njoroge feeling hopeless, and ashamed of cowardice.\n\nCharacters in Weep Not, Child\n Njoroge: the main character of the book whose main goal throughout the book is to become as educated as possible.\n Ngotho: Njoroge's father. He works for Mr.Howlands and is respected by him until he attacks Jacobo at a workers strike. He is fired and the family is forced to move to another section of the country. Over the course of the book his position as the central power of the family weakened, to the point where his self-realization that he has spent his whole life waiting for the prophecy (that proclaims the blacks will be returned their land) to come true rather than fighting for Kenyan independence, leads to his depression.\n Nyokabi and Njeri: the two wives of Ngotho. Njeri is Ngotho's first wife, and mother of Boro, Kamau, and Kori. Nyokabi is his second wife, and the mother of Njoroge and Mwangi.\n Njoroge has four brothers: Boro, Kamau, Kori and Mwangi (who is Njoroge's only full brother, who died in World War II).\n Boro: Son of Njeri who fights for the Allies in World War II. Upon returning his anger against the colonial government is compounded by their confiscation of the his land. Boro's anger and position as eldest son leads him to question and ridicule Ngotho, which eventually defeats their father's will (upon realizing his life was wasted waiting and not acting). It is eventually revealed that Boro is the leader of the Mau Mau (earlier alluded to as \"entering politics\") and murders Mr.Howlands. He is caught by police immediately after and is scheduled to be executed by the book's end. It is highly likely that it is also Boro who kills Jacobo.\n Mwihaki: Njoroge's best friend (and later develops into his love interest). Daughter of Jacobo. When it is revealed that his family killed Jacobo (most likely Boro), Mwihaki distances herself from Njoroge, asking for time to mourn her father and care for her mother.\n Jacobo: Mwihaki's father and an important landowner. Chief of the village.\n Mr. Howlands: A white settler who emigrated to colonial Kenya and now owns a farm made up of land that originally belonged to Ngotho's ancestors. Has three children: Peter who died in World War II before the book's beginning, a daughter who becomes a missionary, and Stephen who met Njoroge while the two were in high school.\n\nThemes and motifs\nWeep Not, Child integrates Gikuyu mythology and the ideology of nationalism that serves as catalyst for much of the novel's action. The novel explores the negative aspects of colonial rule over Kenya. Njoroge's aspiration to attend university is frustrated by both the violence of the Mau Mau rebels and the violent response of the colonial government. This disappointment leads to his alienation from his family and ultimately his suicide attempt.\n\nThe novel also ponders the role of saviours and salvation. The author notes in his The River Between: \"Salvation shall come from the hills. From the blood that flows in me, I say from the same tree, a son shall rise. And his duty shall be to lead and save the people.\" Jomo Kenyatta, the first prime minister of Kenya, is immortalised in Weep Not, Child. The author says, \"Jomo had been his (Ngotho's) hope. Ngotho had come to think that it was Jomo who would drive away the white man. To him, Jomo stood for custom and traditions purified by grace of learning and much travel.\" Njoroge comes to view Jomo as a messiah who will win the struggle against the colonial government.", "answers": ["Four."], "length": 1414, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "69e69439e349a539ca4cff96ae35aa8499ca61886801d488"}
{"input": "When did Goodwin become a Naval aviator?", "context": "Hugh Hilton Goodwin (December 21, 1900 – February 25, 1980) was a decorated officer in the United States Navy with the rank of Vice Admiral. A veteran of both World Wars, he commanded escort carrier  during the Mariana Islands campaign. Goodwin then served consecutively as Chief of Staff, Carrier Strike Group 6 and as Air Officer, Philippine Sea Frontier and participated in the Philippines campaign in the later part of the War.\n\nFollowing the War, he remained in the Navy and rose to the flag rank and held several important commands including Vice Commander, Military Air Transport Service, Commander, Carrier Division Two and Commander, Naval Air Forces, Continental Air Defense Command.\n\nEarly life and career\n\nHugh H. Goodwin was born on December 21, 1900, in Monroe, Louisiana and attended Monroe High School there (now Neville High School). Following the United States' entry into World War I in April 1917, Goodwin left the school without receiving the diploma in order to see some combat and enlisted the United States Navy on May 7, 1917. He completed basic training and was assigned to the battleship . Goodwin participated in the training of armed guard crews and engine room personnel as the Atlantic Fleet prepared to go to war and in November 1917, he sailed with the rest of Battleship Division 9, bound for Britain to reinforce the Grand Fleet in the North Sea.\n\nAlthough he did not complete the last year of high school, Goodwin was able to earn an appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland in June 1918. While at the academy, he earned a nickname \"Huge\" and among his classmates were several future admirals and generals including: Hyman G. Rickover, Milton E. Miles, Robert E. Blick Jr., Herbert S. Duckworth, Clayton C. Jerome, James P. Riseley, James A. Stuart, Frank Peak Akers, Sherman Clark, Raymond P. Coffman, Delbert S. Cornwell, Frederick J. Eckhoff, Ralph B. DeWitt, John Higgins, Vernon Huber, Albert K. Morehouse, Harold F. Pullen, Michael J. Malanaphy, William S. Parsons, Harold R. Stevens, John P. Whitney, Lyman G. Miller and George J. O'Shea.\n\nGoodwin graduated with Bachelor of Science degree on June 3, 1922, and was commissioned Ensign in the United States Navy. He was subsequently assigned to the battleship  and took part in the voyage to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, before he was ordered to the Naval Torpedo Station at Newport, Rhode Island for submarine instruction in June 1923. Goodwin completed the training several weeks later and was attached to the submarine . He then continued his further training aboard submarine  and following his promotion to Lieutenant (junior grade) on June 3, 1925, he qualified as submariner.\n\nHe then served aboard submarine  off the coast of California, before he was ordered for the recruiting duty to San Francisco in September 1927. While in this capacity, Goodwin applied for naval aviation training which was ultimately approved and he was ordered to the Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida in August 1928. Toward the end of the training, he was promoted to lieutenant on December 11, 1928, and upon the completion of the training in January 1929, he was designated Naval aviator.\n\nGoodwin was subsequently attached to the Observation Squadron aboard the aircraft carrier  and participated in the Fleet exercises in the Caribbean. He was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics in Washington, D.C. in August 1931 and served consecutively under the architect of naval aviation William A. Moffett and future Chief of Naval Operations Ernest J. King.\n\nIn June 1933, Goodwin was ordered to the Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island, where he completed junior course in May of the following year. He subsequently joined the crew of aircraft carrier  and served under Captain Arthur B. Cook and took part in the Fleet exercises in the Caribbean and off the East Coast of the United States.\n\nHe was ordered back to the Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida in June 1936 and was attached to the staff of the Base Commandant, then-Captain Charles A. Blakely. When Blakely was succeeded by William F. Halsey in June 1937, Goodwin remained in Halsey's staff and was promoted to Lieutenant Commander on December 1, 1937. He also completed correspondence course in International law at the Naval War College.\n\nGoodwin was appointed Commanding officer of the Observation Squadron 1 in June 1938 and attached to the battleship  he took part in the patrolling of the Pacific and \nWest Coast of the United States until September 1938, when he assumed command of the Observation Squadron 2 attached to the battleship .\n\nWhen his old superior from Lexington, now Rear Admiral Arthur B. Cook, was appointed Commander Aircraft, Scouting Force in June 1939, he requested Goodwin as his Aide and Flag Secretary. He became Admiral Cook's protégé and after year and half of service in the Pacific, he continued as his Aide and Flag Secretary, when Cook was appointed Commander Aircraft, Atlantic Fleet in November 1940.\n\nWorld War II\n\nFollowing the United States' entry into World War II, Goodwin was promoted to the temporary rank of Commander on January 1, 1942, and assumed duty as advisor to the Argentine Navy. His promotion was made permanent two months later and he returned to the United States in early 1943 for duty as assistant director of Planning in the Bureau of Aeronautics under Rear admiral John S. McCain. While still in Argentina, Goodwin was promoted to the temporary rank of Captain on June 21, 1942.\n\nBy the end of December 1943, Goodwin was ordered to Astoria, Oregon, where he assumed command of newly commissioned escort carrier USS Gambier Bay. He was responsible for the initial training of the crew and was known as a strict disciplinarian, but the crew appreciated the skills he taught them that prepared them for combat. Goodwin insisted that everyone aboard has to do every job right every time and made us fight our ship at her best.\n\nDuring the first half of 1944, Gambier Bay was tasked with ferrying aircraft for repairs and qualified carrier pilots from San Diego to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, before departed on May 1, 1944, to join Rear admiral Harold B. Sallada's Carrier Support Group 2, staging in the Marshalls for the invasion of the Marianas.\n\nThe air unit, VC-10 Squadron, under Goodwin's command gave close air support to the initial landings of Marines on Saipan on June 15, 1944, destroying enemy gun emplacements, troops, tanks, and trucks. On the 17th, her combat air patrol (CAP) shot down or turned back all but a handful of 47 enemy planes headed for her task group and her gunners shot down two of the three planes that did break through to attack her.\n\nGoodwin's carrier continued in providing of close ground support operations at Tinian during the end of July 1944, then turned her attention to Guam, where she gave identical aid to invading troops until mid-August that year. For his service during the Mariana Islands campaign, Goodwin was decorated with Bronze Star Medal with Combat \"V\".\n\nHe was succeeded by Captain Walter V. R. Vieweg on August 18, 1944, and appointed Chief of Staff, Carrier Division Six under Rear admiral Arthur W. Radford. The Gambier Bay was sunk in the Battle off Samar on October 25, 1944, during the Battle of Leyte Gulf after helping turn back a much larger attacking Japanese surface force.\n\nGoodwin served with Carrier Division Six during the Bonin Islands raids, the naval operations at Palau and took part in the Battle of Leyte Gulf and operations supporting Leyte landings in late 1944. He was later appointed Air Officer of the Philippine Sea Frontier under Rear admiral James L. Kauffman and remained with that command until the end of hostilities. For his service in the later part of World War II, Goodwin was decorated with Legion of Merit with Combat \"V\". He was also entitled to wear two Navy Presidential Unit Citations and Navy Unit Commendation.\n\nPostwar service\n\nFollowing the surrender of Japan, Goodwin assumed command of Light aircraft carrier  on August 24, 1945. The ship was tasked with air missions over Japan became mercy flights over Allied prisoner-of-war camps, dropping food and medicine until the men could be rescued. She was also present at Tokyo Bay for the Japanese surrender on September 2, 1945.\n\nGoodwin returned with San Jacinto to the United States in mid-September 1945 and he was detached in January 1946. He subsequently served in the office of the Chief of Naval Operations until May that year, when he entered the instruction at National War College. Goodwin graduated in June 1947 and served on Secretary's committee for Research on Reorganization. Upon promotion to Rear admiral on April 1, 1949, Goodwin was appointed Chief of Staff and Aide to Commander-in-Chief, Atlantic Fleet under Admiral William H. P. Blandy.\n\nRevolt of the Admirals\n\nIn April 1949, the budget's cuts and proposed reorganization of the United States Armed Forces by the Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson launched the wave of discontent between senior commanders in the United States Navy. Johnson proposed the merging of the Marine Corps into the Army, and reduce the Navy to a convoy-escort force.\n\nGoodwin's superior officer, Admiral Blandy was call to testify before the House Committee on Armed Services and his harsh statements for the defense of the Navy, costed him his career. Goodwin shared his views and openly criticized Secretary Johnson for having power concentrated in a single civilian executive, who is an appointee of the Government and not an elected representative of the people. He also criticized aspects of defense unification which permitted the Joint Chiefs of Staff to vote on arms policies of individual services, and thus \"rob\" the branches of autonomy.\n\nThe outbreak of the Korean War in summer 1950 proved the proposal of Secretary Johnson as incorrect and he resigned in September that year. Also Secretary of the Navy, Francis P. Matthews resigned one month earlier.\n\nLater service\n\nDue to the Revolts of the admirals, Blandy was forced to retire in February 1950 and Goodwin was ordered to Newport, Rhode Island for temporary duty as Chief of Staff and Aide to the President of the Naval War College under Vice admiral Donald B. Beary in April 1950. Goodwin was detached from that assignment two months and appointed member of the General Board of the Navy. He was shortly thereafter appointed acting Navy Chief of Public Information, as the substitute for Rear Admiral Russell S. Berkey, who was relieved of illness, but returned to the General Board of the Navy in July that year. Goodwin served in that capacity until February 1951, when he relieved his Academy class, Rear admiral John P. Whitney as Vice Commander, Military Air Transport Service (MATS).\n\nWhile in this capacity, Goodwin served under Lieutenant general Laurence S. Kuter and was co-responsible for the logistical support of United Nations troops fighting in Korea. The MATS operated from the United States to Japan and Goodwin served in this capacity until August 1953, when he was appointed Commander Carrier Division Two. While in this assignment, he took part in the Operation Mariner, Joint Anglo-American exercise which encountered very heavy seas over a two-week period in fall 1953.\n\nGoodwin was ordered to the Philippines in May 1954 and assumed duty as Commander, U.S. Naval Forces in the Philippines with headquarters at Naval Station Sangley Point near Cavite. He held that command in the period of tensions between Taiwan and China and publicly declared shortly after his arrival, that any attack on Taiwan by the Chinese Communists on the mainland would result in US participation in the conflict. The naval fighter planes under his command also provided escort for passing commercial planes. Goodwin worked together with retired Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, then-Ambassador to the Philippines, and accompanied him during the visits to Singapore, Bangkok and Saigon in January 1955.\n\nOn December 18, 1955, Goodwin's classmate Rear admiral Albert K. Morehouse, then serving as Commander, Naval Air Forces, Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD), died of heart attack and Goodwin was ordered to CONAD headquarters in Colorado Springs, Colorado to assume Morehouse's position. While in this capacity, he was subordinated to Army General Earle E. Partridge and was responsible for the Naval and Marine Forces allocated to the command designated for the defense of the Continental United States.\n\nRetirement\n\nGoodwin retired on June 1, 1957, after 40 years of active service and was advanced to the rank of Vice admiral on the retired list for having been specially commended in combat. A week later, he was invited back to his Monroe High School (now Neville High School) and handed a diploma showing that he had been graduated with the class of 1918. He then settled in Monterey, California where he taught American history at Stevenson school and was a member of the Naval Order of the United States.\n\nVice admiral Hugh H. Goodwin died at his home on February 25, 1980, aged 79. He was survived by his wife, Eleanor with whom he had two children, a daughter Sidney and a son Hugh Jr., who graduated from the Naval Academy in June 1948, but died one year later, when the Hellcat fighter he was piloting collided with another over the Gulf of Mexico during training.\n\nDecorations\n\nHere is the ribbon bar of Vice admiral Hugh H. Goodwin:\n\nReferences\n\n1900 births\n1980 deaths\nPeople from Monroe, Louisiana\nMilitary personnel from Louisiana\nUnited States Naval Academy alumni\nNaval War College alumni\nUnited States Naval Aviators\nUnited States Navy personnel of World War I\nUnited States Navy World War II admirals\nUnited States Navy vice admirals\nUnited States submarine commanders\nRecipients of the Legion of Merit", "answers": ["Goodwin became a Naval aviator in January 1929."], "length": 2294, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "0e2b2bc81542b95fb86a7fe76cf11c52316937c9aac9123e"}
{"input": "What is the score achieved by the authors for Track-2?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Two-stage Pipeline for Multilingual Dialect Detection\nPublish Date: Unkown\nAuthor List: Ankit Vaidya (from Pune Institute of Computer Technology), Aditya Kane (from Pune Institute of Computer Technology)\n\nFigure\n\nFigure 1: Class distribution of dialects\nFigure 2: System diagram for dialect classification.The LID classifies the input into one of 3 languages.The sample is then further classified into dialects by language specific models.\nFigure 3: Confusion matrix of 9-way classification.Note that rows are normalized according to the number of samples is that class.\nOur complete results for Track-1 using the two-stage dialect detection pipeline.Model-* denotes the language of the models used for the experiments.\nPerformance on Track-1 validation dataset of individual models used in the two-stage pipeline.\"Lg\" stands for language of the model used.\nComparative results of two-way classification using the finetuned (F.T.) predictions and predictions adapted from three-way classification models.\n\nabstract\n\nDialect Identification is a crucial task for localizing various Large Language Models. This paper outlines our approach to the VarDial 2023 DSL-TL shared task. Here we have to identify three or two dialects from three languages each which results in a 9-way classification for Track-1 and 6-way classification for Track-2 respectively.\nOur proposed approach consists of a two-stage system and outperforms other participants' systems and previous works in this domain. We achieve a score of 58.54% for Track-1 and 85.61% for Track-2. Our codebase is available publicly 1 .\n\nIntroduction\n\nLanguage has been the primary mode of communication for humans since the pre-historic ages. Studies have explored the evolution of language and outlined mathematical models that govern the intricacies of natural language . Inevitably, as humans established civilization in various parts of the world, this language was modified by, and for the group of people occupied by that particular geographical region.\nThis gave rise to multiple national dialects of the same language. The VarDial workshop (colocated with EACL 2023) explores various dialects and variations of the same language. We participated in the Discriminating Between Similar Languages -True Labels (DSL-TL) shared task. In this task, the participants were provided with data from three languages, with each language having three varieties.\nThis shared task consisted of two tracks -Track-1 featuring nine-way classification and Track-2 featuring six-way classification. The second track included two particular national dialects of each language (eg. American English and British English), and the first track had one general  We ranked 1 st in both of the tracks.\nMoreover, we beat the next best submission by a margin of 4.5% in the first task and 5.6% in the second task.We were the only team to surpass the organizer baseline scores. We present our winning solution in this paper. We used an end-to-end deep learning pipeline which consisted of a language identification model and three language-specific models, one for each language.\nWe converged upon the best combination by doing an elaborate analysis of various models available. Furthermore, in this work we also analyze the performance of the pipeline as a whole and also provide an ablation study. Lastly, we provide some future directions in this area of research.\n\nRelated Work\n\nThe present literature encompasses various aspects of dialect identification. We study this from three perspectives: large language models, language identification and dialect classification problems.\n\nLarge Language Models\n\nThe success of transformers and BERT based models was inevitable since the initial boom of the transformer  2017) model. In recent years, many other architectures like RoBERTa and ELECTRA have further pushed the state-of-the-art in this domain. Moreover, autoregressive models like GPT and GPT-2 have also shown their prowess.\nMultilingual versions of RoBERTA, namely XLM-RoBERTa are also available. Lastly, language specific models like Spanish BERT (la Rosa y Eduardo G. Ponferrada y Manu Romero y Paulo Villegas y Pablo González de Prado Salas y María Grandury, 2022) and Portuguese BERT are available as well. Our winning solution makes use of these large language models trained on specific languages.\n\nLanguage Identification Models\n\nMany multilingual language identification models have been developed in order to classify the language of the input sentence beforehand. Even though the initial works used n-gram models and generative mixture models or even conditional random fields and other classical machine learning methods like naive bayes , modern methods have shifted to the use of deep learning for language identification .\nRecent works have mainly focused on deep learning based language identification, where handling codemixed data is a big challenge in the domain. For our experiments, we use a version of XLM-RoBERTa finetuned on a language identification dataset 2 . This model has near-perfect test accuracy of 99.6%.\n\nDialect Classification\n\nDialect classification has been previously solved using statistical methods like Gaussian Mixture Models and Frame Selection Decoding or Support Vector Machines (SVM) . It has been explored relatively sparsely, mostly in the case for local languages . Deep learning approaches have been explored in previous editions of the VarDial workshop shared tasks and otherwise .\nDialect classification was also explored previously as a part of other shared tasks . We want to stress that given the multilingual nature of the dataset, using the present methods directly was not an option. In our work, although we take inspiration from the previous works, we propose a novel system that surpasses the performance of the previous systems by a large margin.\n\nData\n\nThe dataset  We observed that the class PT-BR had the most number of samples (2,724) and the class EN had the least number of samples (349), and thus the imbalance ratio was almost 1:8. We have illustrated the data distribution in Figure . We tried to mitigate this imbalance using over-sampling and weighted sampling methods.\nHowever, the improved data sampling method did not affect the performance.\n\nSystem Description\n\nThis was a problem of multi-class classification having 9 classes for Track-1 and 6 classes for Track-2. The samples were belonging to 3 languages having 3 varieties each, so the classification pipeline was made in 2 stages. The Language Identification (LID) model which is the first stage classifies the sentence into 3 languages: English (EN), Spanish (ES) and Portuguese (PT).\nThe LID is a pretrained XLM-RoBERTa that is fine-tuned for the task of language identification. It is able to classify the input sentence into 20 languages. We classify and separate the samples according to their language. The samples corresponding to the specific languages are then fed into the language specific models for dialect identification.\nFor dialect identification we have used models like BERT and RoBERTa with a linear layer connected to the pooler output of the models. Then fine-tuning is done on the models for dialect identification   using the samples corresponding to the specific languages. For the task of dialect identification we experimented with several pretrained models like XLM-RoBERTa, BERT, ELECTRA, GPT-2 and RoBERTa.\nAll models were fine-tuned for 20 epochs with a learning rate of 1e-6 and weight decay 1e-6 with a batch size of 8. The best performing model checkpoint was chosen according to the epoch-wise validation macro-F1 score. 5 Experiments and Results\n\nExperiments using Large Language Models\n\nFor the task of Dialect Identification we have tried various language specific models like XLM-RoBERTa, BERT, ELECTRA, RoBERTa and GPT- 2. The base variant of all these models were used and all the models were used through the Hugging-Face library. The pooler output of these models was passed through a linear layer and the models were fine-tuned.\nFirst, we experimented with different models for Track-1. All the models were trained for 20 epochs with learning rate 1e-6, weight decay 1e-6 and a batch size of 8. We used XLM-RoBERTa as the baseline for all 3 languages. The best performing models for the English language were RoBERTa and BERT whereas GPT-2 was the worst performing.\nSimilarly the language specific versions of RoBERTa and BERT performed well for the Spanish and Portuguese respectively. Overall the worst performing model was GPT-2 across all 3 languages. The validation F1 scores are present in Table . The two best-performing models for every language were chosen for Track-2.\nThe same procedure as specified above was used and the F1 scores are present in Table . The train and validation F1 scores for 2-class classification are higher for all models as compared to the F1 score of the same models for 3-class classification. This was mainly due to the poor representation and accuracy of classification of the third class.\nWe observed symptoms of overfitting in all models after 12-15 epochs and the best validation F1 score was obtained in the range of 4-8 epochs.\n\nLID experiments\n\nThe pipeline for dialect identification is divided into two parts as the sentences in the dataset belong to different languages. The stages are described in Section 4. The XLM-RoBERTa we have used for language classification has a test accuracy of 99.6% meaning it correctly classifies all input sentences and hence, can be considered as a perfect classifier.\nFor the final pipeline we experimented using the two best performing models for each language in Track-1 and Track-2. For both the tracks we experimented with all 8 (2 3 ) possible combinations of models and calculated the validation F1 score for the combined validation dataset which had sentences belonging to all languages.\nThe validation scores for Track-1 and Track-2 are shown in Table and Table respectively. For both the tracks, the three pipelines with the best validation F1 scores were chosen for submission.\n\nUsing 3-way classifier as a 2-way classifier\n\nIn Track-1, participants are expected to train a classifier which classifies amongst 9 classes, and in Track-2, participants are expected to train a classifier which classifies amongst 6 classes. These 6 classes are a proper subset of the 9 classes from Track-1. Thus, an intuitive baseline for Track-2 is to use the model finetuned for Track-1, whilst considering only the relevant classes for the latter task.\nThe classes EN , ES and P T , i.e. the classes without any national dialect associated with them are not included in Track-2 as compared to Track-1. Thus, we calculate the predictions for the Track-2 validation dataset using the models for Track-1 and exclude the metrics for Track-1 specific classes to get the metrics for this \"adapted\" 2-way classification.\nWe show the results of this experiment in Table and observe that, as expected, the adapted 2-way classification performs worse compared to the explicitly finetuned variant.\n\nResults for Track-1 and Track-2\n\nWe now present our experiments and their performance for both tracks. Our experiments for Track-1 are described in Table and our experiments for Track-2 are described in Table . The participants were allowed three submissions for evaluation on the test set, so we submitted predictions using the three systems which performed the best on the validation set.\nAs mentioned in Section 5.2, we performed 2 3 , i.e. a total of 8 experiments using the two best models for each language. We observed that RoBERTa base on English, Spanish BERT base on Spanish and Portuguese BERT base performed the best on the testing set for Track-1. The same combination, with RoBERTa base for English, worked best for Track-2.\nAll of our submissions were the top submissions for each track, which surpassed the next best competitors by a margin of 4.5% and 5.6% for Track-1 and Track-2 respectively.\n\nAblation of best submissions\n\nWe hereby make some observations of our submissions and other experiments. To assist this, we plot the confusion matrices of our best submissions for Track-1 and Track-2 in Figures respectively. Note that these confusion matrices have their rows (i.e. true labels axes) normalized according to the number of samples in the class.\nHere are observations from our experiments: 1. BERT-based models outperform other models across all languages: We observe that BERT-based models outperform ELECTRA-based and GPT-2-based models, as shown in Table . We speculate this is because of the inherent architecture of BERT, which combines semantic learning with knowledge retention.\nThis combination of traits is particularly useful for this task. 2. Common labels perform the worst across all languages: We observe that the common labels EN , ES and P T perform the worst, both in the individual as well as the two-stage setup. We hypothesize this is because of the absence of dialect specific words, or words that are specific to the geographical origin of the national dialect (for example, \"Yankees\" for EN-US and \"Oxford\" for EN-GB).\n3. English models work better than models of other languages: It can be noted from Figures 4 and 3 that the English models have the best performance across all classes. This can be attributed to two reasons: absence of national dialect specific words and lesser pretraining data in the case of Portuguese.\n4. British English is most correctly classified class: We can observe that the Spanish or Portuguese models make equal number of mistakes in the case of either national dialect, in the case of Track-2 (see Figure ). However, in the case of English, the label EN − GB is correctly classified for more than 95% of the cases.\nWe speculate this is because British English involves slightly distinctive grammar and semantics, which help the model separate it from other classes. 5. The proposed 2-step method is scalable for multiple language dialect classification: We can strongly assert that the novel 2-step deep learning method for multilingual dialect classification is a scalable method for the task due to two specific reasons: firstly, the multilingual models (like XLM-RoBERTa) might not have the vocabulary as well as the learning capabilities to learn the minute differences between individual dialects.\nSecondly, this system can be quickly expanded for a new language by simply adding a language specific dialect classifier, provided the language identification model supports that particular language.\n\nConclusion\n\nIn this paper we propose a two-stage classification pipeline for dialect identification for multilingual corpora. We conduct thorough ablations on this setup and provide valuable insights. We foresee multiple future directions for this work. The first is to expand this work to many languages and dialects.\nSecondly, it is a worthwhile research direction to distill this multi-model setup into a single model with multiple prediction heads. The obvious limitation of this system is the excessive memory consumption due to the usage of language specific models. For low resource languages this system is difficult to train and scale.\nWe hope that these problems will be addressed by researchers in future works.", "answers": ["85.61%."], "length": 2395, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "c6d0de0391867185e00e945075301d33fc1c5c05d2a7d082"}
{"input": "What are the titles of one of Kam W. Leong's publications in Journal of Controlled Release?", "context": "Publications of Kam W. Leong\nPublications of Kam W. Leong :chronological alphabetical combined bibtex listing:\nK.W. Leong, Synthetic mast-cell granules as adjuvants to promote and polarize immunity in lymph nodes (2013) [PDF]\nK.W. Leong, Tuning Physical Properties of Nanocomplexes through Microfluidics-Assisted Confinement (2013) [PDF]\nK.W. Leong, Nucleic acid scavengers inhibit thrombosis without increasing bleeding (2013) [PDF]\nK.W. Leong, Nanotopography as modulator of human mesenchymal stem cell function (2013) [PDF]\nK.W. Leong, Efficacy of engineered FVIII-producing skeletal muscle enhanced by growth factor-releasing co-axial electrospun fibers (2013) [PDF]\nZhao, F. and Veldhuis, J. J. and Duan, Y. J. and Yang, Y. and Christoforou, N. and Ma, T. and Leong, K. W., Low Oxygen Tension and Synthetic Nanogratings Improve the Uniformity and Stemness of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cell Layer, Molecular Therapy, vol. 18 no. 5 (2010), pp. 1010-1018 [abs]\nKadiyala, I. and Loo, Y. H. and Roy, K. and Rice, J. and Leong, K. W., Transport of chitosan-DNA nanoparticles in human intestinal M-cell model versus normal intestinal enterocytes, European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, vol. 39 no. 1-3 (2010), pp. 103-109 [abs]\nWang, Y. and Quek, C. H. and Leong, K.W. and Fang, J., Synthesis and Cytotoxity of Luminescent InP Quantum Dots, MRS Symposium Proceeding, vol. 1241E (2010)\nJiang, X. and Zheng, Y. and Chen, H. H. and Leong, K. W. and Wang, T. H. and Mao, H. Q., Dual-Sensitive Micellar Nanoparticles Regulate DNA Unpacking and Enhance Gene-Delivery Efficiency, Adv Mater (2010)\nHo, Y. P. and Leong, K. W., Quantum dot-based theranostics, Nanoscale, vol. 2 no. 1 (2010), pp. 60-68 [PDF] [abs]\nPhua, K. and Leong, K. W., Microscale oral delivery devices incorporating nanoparticles, Nanomedicine, vol. 5 no. 2 (2010), pp. 161-163\nGrigsby, C. L. and Leong, K. W., Balancing protection and release of DNA: tools to address a bottleneck of non-viral gene delivery, Journal of the Royal Society Interface, vol. 7 (2010), pp. S67-S82 [abs]\nChalut, K. J. and Kulangara, K. and Giacomelli, M. G. and Wax, A. and Leong, K. W., Deformation of stem cell nuclei by nanotopographical cues, Soft Matter, vol. 6 no. 8 (2010), pp. 1675-1681 [abs]\nChen, S. and Jones, J. A. and Xu, Y. and Low, H. Y. and Anderson, J. M. and Leong, K. W., Characterization of topographical effects on macrophage behavior in a foreign body response model, Biomaterials, vol. 31 no. 13 (2010), pp. 3479-91 [PDF] [abs]\nYim, E. K. F. and Darling, E. M. and Kulangara, K. and Guilak, F. and Leong, K. W., Nanotopography-induced changes in focal adhesions, cytoskeletal organization, and mechanical properties of human mesenchymal stem cells, Biomaterials, vol. 31 no. 6 (2010), pp. 1299-1306 [PDF] [abs]\nYow, S. Z. and Quek, C. H. and Yim, E. K. F. and Lim, C. T. and Leong, K. W., Collagen-based fibrous scaffold for spatial organization of encapsulated and seeded human mesenchymal stem cells, Biomaterials, vol. 30 no. 6 (2009), pp. 1133-1142 [abs]\nKunder, C. A. and John, A. L. S. and Li, G. J. and Leong, K. W. and Berwin, B. and Staats, H. F. and Abraham, S. N., Mast cell-derived particles deliver peripheral signals to remote lymph nodes, Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 206 no. 11 (2009), pp. 2455-2467 [abs]\nHo, Y.P. and Chen, H.H. and Leong, K.W. and Wang, T.H., Combining QD-FRET and microfluidics to monitor DNA nanocomplex self-assembly in real-time, J Vis Exp (2009), pp. 1432\nKulangara, K. and Leong, K. W., Substrate topography shapes cell function, Soft Matter, vol. 5 no. 21 (2009), pp. 4072-4076 [abs]\nChakraborty, S. and Liao, I. C. and Adler, A. and Leong, K. W., Electrohydrodynamics: A facile technique to fabricate drug delivery systems, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 61 no. 12 (2009), pp. 1043-1054 [abs]\nOney, S. and Lam, R. T. S. and Bompiani, K. M. and Blake, C. M. and Quick, G. and Heidel, J. D. and Liu, J. Y. C. and Mack, B. C. and Davis, M. E. and Leong, K. W. and Sullenger, B. A., Development of universal antidotes to control aptamer activity, Nature Medicine, vol. 15 no. 10 (2009), pp. 1224-1228 [PDF] [abs]\nChen, H. H. and Ho, Y. P. and Jiang, X. and Mao, H. Q. and Wang, T. H. and Leong, K. W., Simultaneous non-invasive analysis of DNA condensation and stability by two-step QD-FRET, Nano Today, vol. 4 no. 2 (2009), pp. 125-134 [PDF] [abs]\nHo, Y. P. and Chen, H. H. and Leong, K. W. and Wang, T. H., The convergence of quantum-dot-mediated fluorescence resonance energy transfer and microfluidics for monitoring DNA polyplex self-assembly in real time, Nanotechnology, vol. 20 no. 9 (2009), pp. - [abs]\nLiao, I. C. and Chen, S. L. and Liu, J. B. and Leong, K. W., Sustained viral gene delivery through core-shell fibers, Journal of Controlled Release, vol. 139 no. 1 (2009), pp. 48-55 [abs]\nLou, Y. L. and Peng, Y. S. and Chen, B. H. and Wang, L. F. and Leong, K. W., Poly(ethylene imine)-g-chitosan using EX-810 as a spacer for nonviral gene delivery vectors, Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, vol. 88A no. 4 (2009), pp. 1058-1068 [abs]\nChew, S. Y. and Mi, R. and Hoke, A. and Leong, K. W., The effect of the alignment of electrospun fibrous scaffolds on Schwann cell maturation, Biomaterials, vol. 29 no. 6 (2008), pp. 653-61 [abs]\nChen, H. H. and Ho, Y. P. and Jiang, X. and Mao, H. Q. and Wang, T. H. and Leong, K. W., Quantitative comparison of intracellular unpacking kinetics of polyplexes by a model constructed from quantum Dot-FRET, Molecular Therapy, vol. 16 no. 2 (2008), pp. 324-332 [abs]\nChan, B. P. and Leong, K. W., Scaffolding in tissue engineering: general approaches and tissue-specific considerations, European Spine Journal, vol. 17 (2008), pp. S467-S479 [abs]\nTsurushima, H. and Yuan, X. and Dillehay, L. E. and Leong, K. W., Radiation-inducible caspase-8 gene therapy for malignant brain tumors, International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics, vol. 71 no. 2 (2008), pp. 517-525 [abs]\nBowman, K. and Sarkar, R. and Raut, S. and Leong, K. W., Gene transfer to hemophilia A mice via oral delivery of FVIII-chitosan nanoparticles, Journal of Controlled Release, vol. 132 no. 3 (2008), pp. 252-259 [abs]\nChoi, J. S. and Leong, K. W. and Yoo, H. S., In vivo wound healing of diabetic ulcers using electrospun nanofibers immobilized with human epidermal growth factor (EGF), Biomaterials, vol. 29 no. 5 (2008), pp. 587-96 [abs]\nLiao, I. C. and Liu, J. B. and Bursac, N. and Leong, K. W., Effect of Electromechanical Stimulation on the Maturation of Myotubes on Aligned Electrospun Fibers, Cellular and Molecular Bioengineering, vol. 1 no. 2-3 (2008), pp. 133-145 [abs]\nProw, T. W. and Bhutto, I. and Kim, S. Y. and Grebe, R. and Merges, C. and McLeod, D. S. and Uno, K. and Mennon, M. and Rodriguez, L. and Leong, K. and Lutty, G. A., Ocular nanoparticle toxicity and transfection of the retina and retinal pigment epithelium, Nanomedicine-Nanotechnology Biology and Medicine, vol. 4 no. 4 (2008), pp. 340-349 [abs]\nTan, S. C. W. and Pan, W. X. and Ma, G. and Cai, N. and Leong, K. W. and Liao, K., Viscoelastic behaviour of human mesenchymal stem cells, Bmc Cell Biology, vol. 9 (2008), pp. - [abs]\nChalut, K. J. and Chen, S. and Finan, J. D. and Giacomelli, M. G. and Guilak, F. and Leong, K. W. and Wax, A., Label-free, high-throughput measurements of dynamic changes in cell nuclei using angle-resolved low coherence interferometry, Biophysical Journal, vol. 94 no. 12 (2008), pp. 4948-4956 [abs]\nHaider, M. and Cappello, J. and Ghandehari, H. and Leong, K. W., In vitro chondrogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells in recombinant silk-elastinlike hydrogels, Pharmaceutical Research, vol. 25 no. 3 (2008), pp. 692-699 [abs]\nN. Bursac and Y. H. Loo and K. Leong and L. Tung, Novel anisotropic engineered cardiac tissues: Studies of electrical propagation, Biochemical And Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 361 no. 4 (October, 2007), pp. 847 -- 853, ISSN 0006-291X [abs]\nChen, Beiyi and Dang, Jiyoung and Tan, Tuan Lin and Fang, Ning and Chen, Wei Ning and Leong, Kam W. and Chan, Vincent, Dynamics of smooth muscle cell deadhesion from thermosensitive hydroxybutyl chitosan, Biomaterials, vol. 28 no. 8 (2007), pp. 1503 - 1514 [027] [abs]\nChen, B. and Dang, J. and Tan, T. L. and Fang, N. and Chen, W. N. and Leong, K. W. and Chan, V., Dynamics of smooth muscle cell deadhesion from thermosensitive hydroxybutyl chitosan, Biomaterials, vol. 28 no. 8 (2007), pp. 1503-14 [abs]\nPark, D. J. and Choi, J. H. and Leong, K. W. and Kwon, J. W. and Eun, H. S., Tissue-engineered bone formation with gene transfer and mesenchymal stem cells in a minimally invasive technique, Laryngoscope, vol. 117 no. 7 (2007), pp. 1267-71 [abs]\nTsurushima, H. and Yuan, X. and Dillehay, L. E. and Leong, K. W., Radioresponsive tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosisinducing ligand (TRAIL) gene therapy for malignant brain tumors, Cancer Gene Therapy, vol. 14 no. 8 (2007), pp. 706-716 [abs]\nChai, C. and Leong, K. W., Biomaterials approach to expand and direct differentiation of stem cells, Molecular Therapy, vol. 15 no. 3 (2007), pp. 467-480 [abs]\nZhang, Y. and Chai, C. and Jiang, X. S. and Teoh, S. H. and Leong, K. W., Fibronectin immobilized by covalent conjugation or physical adsorption shows different bioactivity on aminated-PET, Materials Science & Engineering C-Biomimetic and Supramolecular Systems, vol. 27 no. 2 (2007), pp. 213-219 [abs]\nSong, R. J. and Liu, S. Q. and Leong, K. W., Effects of MIP-1 alpha, MIP-3 alpha, and MIP-3 beta on the induction of HIV Gag-specific immune response with DNA vaccines, Molecular Therapy, vol. 15 no. 5 (2007), pp. 1007-1015 [abs]\nYim, E. K. F. and Liao, I. C. and Leong, K. W., Tissue compatibility of interfacial polyelectrolyte complexation fibrous scaffold: Evaluation of blood compatibility and biocompatibility, Tissue Engineering, vol. 13 no. 2 (2007), pp. 423-433 [abs]\nSharma, B. and Williams, C. G. and Kim, T. K. and Sun, D. N. and Malik, A. and Khan, M. and Leong, K. and Elisseeff, J. H., Designing zonal organization into tissue-engineered cartilage, Tissue Engineering, vol. 13 no. 2 (2007), pp. 405-414 [abs]\nChua, K. N. and Tang, Y. N. and Quek, C. H. and Ramakrishna, S. and Leong, K. W. and Mao, H. Q., A dual-functional fibrous scaffold enhances P450 activity of cultured primary rat hepatocytes, Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 3 no. 5 (2007), pp. 643-650 [abs]\nChua, K. N. and Chai, C. and Lee, P. C. and Ramakrishna, S. and Leong, K. W. and Mao, H. Q., Functional nanofiber scaffolds with different spacers modulate adhesion and expansion of cryopreserved umbilical cord blood hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells, Experimental Hematology, vol. 35 no. 5 (2007), pp. 771-781 [abs]\nYim, E. K. F. and Pang, S. W. and Leong, K. W., Synthetic nanostructures inducing differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells into neuronal lineage, Experimental Cell Research, vol. 313 no. 9 (2007), pp. 1820-1829 [abs]\nChew, S. Y. and Mi, R. F. and Hoke, A. and Leong, K. W., Aligned protein-polymer composite fibers enhance nerve regeneration: A potential tissue-engineering platform, Advanced Functional Materials, vol. 17 no. 8 (2007), pp. 1288-1296 [abs]\nTsurushima, H. and Yuan, X. and Dillehay, L. E. and Leong, K. W., Radio-responsive gene therapy for malignant glioma cells without the radiosensitive promoter: Caspase-3 gene therapy combined with radiation, Cancer Letters, vol. 246 no. 1-2 (2007), pp. 318-323 [abs]\nDang, J.M. and Leong, K. W., Myogenic induction of aligned mesenchymal stem cell sheets by culture on thermally responsive electrospun nanofibers, Advanced Materials, vol. 19 no. 19 (2007), pp. 2775-2779\nDai, H. and Jiang, X. and Tan, G. C. and Chen, Y. and Torbenson, M. and Leong, K. W. and Mao, H. Q., Chitosan-DNA nanoparticles delivered by intrabiliary infusion enhance liver-targeted gene delivery, International Journal of Nanomedicine, vol. 1 no. 4 (2006), pp. 507-522 [abs]\nLe Visage, C. and Kim, S. W. and Tateno, K. and Sieber, A. N. and Kostuik, J. P. and Leong, K. W., Interaction of human mesenchymal stem cells with disc cells - Changes in extracellular matrix biosynthesis, Spine, vol. 31 no. 18 (2006), pp. 2036-2042\nOng, S. Y. and Dai, H. and Leong, K. W., Inducing hepatic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells in pellet culture, Biomaterials, vol. 27 no. 22 (2006), pp. 4087-4097\nBright, C. and Park, Y. S. and Sieber, A. N. and Kostuik, J. P. and Leong, K. W., In vivo evaluation of plasmid DNA encoding OP-1 protein for spine fusion, Spine, vol. 31 no. 19 (2006), pp. 2163-2172\nYim, E. K. and Wan, A. C. and Le Visage, C. and Liao, I. C. and Leong, K. W., Proliferation and differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cell encapsulated in polyelectrolyte complexation fibrous scaffold, Biomaterials, vol. 27 no. 36 (2006), pp. 6111-22 [abs]\nLuong-Van, E. and Grondahl, L. and Chua, K. N. and Leong, K. W. and Nurcombe, V. and Cool, S. M., Controlled release of heparin from poly(epsilon-caprolactone) electrospun fibers, Biomaterials, vol. 27 no. 9 (2006), pp. 2042-2050\nDang, J. M. and Leong, K. W., Natural polymers for gene delivery and tissue engineering, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, vol. 58 no. 4 (2006), pp. 487-499\nLi, J. and Li, X. and Ni, X. P. and Wang, X. and Li, H. Z. and Leong, K. W., Self-assembled supramolecular hydrogels formed by biodegradable PEO-PHB-PEO triblock copolymers and alpha-cyclodextrin for controlled drug delivery, Biomaterials, vol. 27 no. 22 (2006), pp. 4132-4140\nYim, E. K. F. and Wen, J. and Leong, K. W., Enhanced extracellular matrix production and differentiation of human embryonic germ cell derivatives in biodegradable poly(epsilon-caprolactone-co-ethyl ethylene phosphate) scaffold, Acta Biomaterialia, vol. 2 no. 4 (2006), pp. 365-376\nChew, S. Y. and Hufnagel, T. C. and Lim, C. T. and Leong, K. W., Mechanical properties of single electrospun drug-encapsulated nanofibres, Nanotechnology, vol. 17 no. 15 (2006), pp. 3880-3891\nZhang, Y. and Chai, C. and Jiang, X. S. and Teoh, S. H. and Leong, K. W., Co-culture of umbilical cord blood CD34(+) cells with human mesenchymal stem cells, Tissue Engineering, vol. 12 no. 8", "answers": ["Sustained viral gene delivery through core-shell fibers and Gene transfer to hemophilia A mice via oral delivery of FVIII-chitosan nanoparticles."], "length": 2345, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "edbbdb9727c3a51310d24895d08c5a90673cb9d514770878"}
{"input": "What was the Buckeyes' record in their first game of the season?", "context": "The 1951 Ohio State Buckeyes baseball team represented the Ohio State University in the 1951 NCAA baseball season. The head coach was Marty Karow, serving his 1st year.\n\nThe Buckeyes lost in the College World Series, defeated by the Texas A&M Aggies.\n\nRoster\n\nSchedule \n\n! style=\"\" | Regular Season\n|- valign=\"top\" \n\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 1 || March 16 || at  || Unknown • San Antonio, Texas || 15–3 || 1–0 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 2 || March 17 || at B. A. M. C. || Unknown • San Antonio, Texas || 7–8 || 1–1 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 3 || March 19 || at  || Clark Field • Austin, Texas || 0–8 || 1–2 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 4 || March 20 || at Texas || Clark Field • Austin, Texas || 3–4 || 1–3 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 5 || March 21 || at  || Unknown • Houston, Texas || 14–6 || 2–3 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 6 || March 22 || at Rice || Unknown • Houston, Texas || 2–3 || 2–4 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 7 || March 23 || at  || Unknown • Fort Worth, Texas || 4–2 || 3–4 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 8 || March 24 || at TCU || Unknown • Fort Worth, Texas || 7–3 || 4–4 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 9 || March 24 || at  || Unknown • St. Louis, Missouri || 10–4 || 5–4 || 0–0\n|-\n\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 10 || April 6 ||  || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 2–0 || 6–4 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 11 || April 7 ||  || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 15–1 || 7–4 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 12 || April 14 ||  || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 0–1 || 7–5 || 0–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 13 || April 20 ||  || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 10–9 || 8–5 || 1–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 14 || April 21 || Minnesota || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 7–0 || 9–5 || 2–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 15 || April 24 || at  || Unknown • Oxford, Ohio || 3–4 || 9–6 || 2–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 16 || April 27 || at  || Hyames Field • Kalamazoo, Michigan || 2–3 || 9–7 || 2–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 17 || April 28 || at Western Michigan || Hyames Field • Kalamazoo, Michigan || 5–7 || 9–8 || 2–0\n|-\n\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 18 || May 1 || at  || Unknown • Athens, Ohio || 7–6 || 10–8 || 2–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 19 || May 4 ||  || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 12–6 || 11–8 || 3–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 20 || May 5 || Purdue || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 14–4 || 12–8 || 4–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 21 || May 8 ||  || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 6–8 || 12–9 || 4–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 22 || May 9 || at Dayton || Unknown • Dayton, Ohio || 11–2 || 13–9 || 4–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 23 || May 12 ||  || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 6–5 || 14–9 || 5–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 24 || May 12 || Indiana || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 5–2 || 15–9 || 6–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 25 || May 15 || Ohio || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 6–0 || 16–9 || 6–0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 26 || May 18 || at  || Northwestern Park • Evanston, Illinois || 1–3 || 16–10 || 6–1\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 27 || May 19 || at Northwestern || Northwestern Park • Evanston, Illinois || 10–3 || 17–10 || 7–1\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 28 || May 22 || at Cincinnati || Carson Field • Cincinnati, Ohio || 8–4 || 18–10 || 7–1\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 29 || May 25 ||  || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 4–1 || 19–10 || 8–1\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 30 || May 25 || Michigan || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 3–6 || 19–11 || 8–2\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 31 || May 30 || Miami (OH) || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 3–4 || 19–12 || 8–2\n|-\n\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 32 || June 1 || at  || Old College Field • East Lansing, Michigan || 8–0 || 20–12 || 9–2\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 33 || June 2 || at Michigan State || Old College Field • East Lansing, Michigan || 9–8 || 21–12 || 10–2\n|-\n\n|-\n|-\n! style=\"\" | Postseason\n|- valign=\"top\"\n\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 34 || June 8 || Western Michigan || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 1–0 || 22–12 || 10–2\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 35 || June 8 || Western Michigan || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 2–4 || 22–13 || 10–2\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ccffcc\"\n| 36 || June 9 || Western Michigan || Varsity Diamond • Columbus, Ohio || 3–2 || 23–13 || 10–2\n|-\n\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 37 || June 13 || Oklahoma || Omaha Municipal Stadium • Omaha, Nebraska || 8–9 || 23–14 || 10–2\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#ffcccc\"\n| 38 || June 13 || Texas A&M || Omaha Municipal Stadium • Omaha, Nebraska || 2–3 || 23–15 || 10–2\n|-\n\nAwards and honors \nDick Hauck\n First Team All-Big Ten\n\nStewart Hein\n First Team All-Big Ten\n\nReferences \n\nOhio State Buckeyes baseball seasons\nOhio State Buckeyes baseball\nBig Ten Conference baseball champion seasons\nOhio State\nCollege World Series seasons", "answers": ["They won their first game with a score of 15-3."], "length": 972, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "ed61bdde19a3446389e989c06ab4209f464f9484d42dbd1c"}
{"input": "When did Simon English become the leader of the National Party?", "context": "Sir Simon William English  (born 30 December 1961) is a New Zealand former National Party politician who served as the 39th prime minister of New Zealand from 2016 to 2017. He had previously served as the 17th deputy prime minister of New Zealand and minister of finance from 2008 to 2016 under John Key and the Fifth National Government.\n\nA farmer and public servant before entering politics, English was elected to the New Zealand Parliament in  as the National Party's candidate in the Wallace electorate. He was elevated to Cabinet in 1996 and in 1999 was made minister of finance, although he served for less than a year due to his party's loss at the 1999 general election. In October 2001, English replaced Jenny Shipley as the leader of the National Party (and consequently as Leader of the Opposition). He led the party to its worst defeat at the 2002 general election, and as a consequence, in October 2003 he was replaced as leader by Don Brash.\n\nIn November 2006, after Brash's resignation, English became deputy leader under John Key. After National's victory at the 2008 general election, he became deputy prime minister and was also made minister of finance for the second time. Under English's direction New Zealand's economy maintained steady growth during National's three terms of government. He became a list-only MP after stepping down as an electorate MP at the 2014 general election.\n\nJohn Key resigned as leader of the National Party and prime minister in December 2016. English won the resulting leadership election unopposed and was sworn in as prime minister on 12 December 2016. His tenure was only ten months, and included a three-month election campaign. In the 2017 general election, National won the largest number of seats but fell short of a majority. The parties holding the balance of power declined to support the existing government, and English was subsequently replaced as prime minister by Jacinda Ardern, leader of the Labour Party. English initially continued on as Leader of the Opposition, but resigned as leader of the National Party on 27 February 2018 and left parliament two weeks later.\n\nEarly life\nEnglish was born on 30 December 1961 at Lumsden Maternity Centre in Lumsden. He is the eleventh of twelve children of Mervyn English and Norah (née O'Brien) English. His parents purchased Rosedale, a mixed sheep and cropping farm in Dipton, Southland from Mervyn's uncle, Vincent English, a bachelor, in 1944. English was born in the maternity unit at Lumsden.\n\nEnglish attended St Thomas's School in Winton, then boarded at St. Patrick's College in Upper Hutt, where he became head boy. He played in the first XV of the school's rugby team. English went on to study commerce at the University of Otago, where he was a resident at Selwyn College, and then completed an honours degree in English literature at Victoria University of Wellington.\n\nAfter finishing his studies, English returned to Dipton and farmed for a few years. From 1987 to 1989, he worked in Wellington as a policy analyst for the New Zealand Treasury, at a time when the free market policies favoured by Labour's finance minister Roger Douglas (known collectively as \"Rogernomics\") were being implemented.\n\nEnglish joined the National Party in 1980, while at Victoria University. He served for a period as chairman of the Southland branch of the Young Nationals, and became a member of the Wallace electorate committee. After moving to Wellington, he served for periods on the Island Bay and Miramar electorate committees, respectively.\n\nFourth National Government (1990–1999)\n\nAt the 1990 general election, English stood as the National candidate in Wallace, replacing the retiring Derek Angus, and was elected with a large majority. He would hold this seat, renamed Clutha-Southland in 1996, until 2014. He and three other newly elected National MPs (Tony Ryall, Nick Smith, and Roger Sowry) were soon identified as rising stars in New Zealand politics, and at various points were dubbed the \"brat pack\", the \"gang of four\", and the \"young Turks\". In his first term in parliament, English chaired a select committee into social services. He was made a parliamentary under-secretary in 1993, serving under the Minister of Health.\n\nFirst period in cabinet (1996–1999)\nIn early 1996, English was elevated to cabinet by Prime Minister Jim Bolger, becoming the Minister for Crown Health Enterprises and Associate Minister of Education (to Wyatt Creech). He was 34 at the time, becoming the cabinet's youngest member. After the 1996 general election, the National Party was forced into a coalition with New Zealand First to retain government. In the resulting cabinet reshuffle, English emerged as Minister of Health. However, as a condition of the coalition agreement, NZ First's Neil Kirton (a first-term MP) was made Associate Minister of Health, effectively becoming English's deputy. This arrangement was described in the press as a \"shotgun marriage\", and there were frequent differences of opinion between the two ministers. After their relationship became unworkable, Kirton was sacked from the role in August 1997, with the agreement of NZ First leader Winston Peters.\n\nAs Minister of Health, English was responsible for continuing the reforms to the public health system that National had begun after the 1990 general election. The reforms were unpopular, and health was perceived as one of the government's weaknesses, with the health portfolio consequently being viewed as a challenge. English believed that the unpopularity of the reforms was in part due to a failure in messaging, and encouraged his National colleagues to avoid bureaucratic and money-focused language (such as references to \"balance sheets\" and \"user charges\") and instead talk about the improvements to services the government's reforms would bring. He also rejected the idea that public hospitals could be run as commercial enterprises, a view which some of his colleagues had previously promoted.\n\nBy early 1997, as dissatisfaction with Bolger's leadership began to grow, English was being touted as a potential successor, along with Jenny Shipley and Doug Graham. His age (35) was viewed as the main impediment to a successful leadership run. National's leadership troubles were resolved in December 1997, when Bolger resigned and Shipley was elected to the leadership unopposed. English had been a supporter of Bolger as leader, but Shipley reappointed him Minister of Health in her new cabinet.\n\nEnglish was promoted to Minister of Finance in a reshuffle in January 1999, a position which was at the time subordinate to the Treasurer, Bill Birch. After a few months, the pair switched positions as part of Birch's transition to retirement, with English assuming the senior portfolio. In early interviews, he emphasised his wish to be seen as a pragmatist rather than an ideologue, and said that the initiatives of some of his predecessors (Roger Douglas's \"Rogernomics\" and Ruth Richardson's \"Ruthanasia\") had focused on \"fruitless, theoretical debates\" when \"people just want to see problems solved\".\n\nOpposition (1999–2008)\n\nAfter the National Party lost the 1999 election to Helen Clark's Labour Party, English continued on in the shadow cabinet as National's spokesperson for finance. He was elected deputy leader of the party in February 2001, following the resignation of Wyatt Creech, with Gerry Brownlee being his unsuccessful opponent.\n\nLeader of the Opposition\nIn October 2001, after months of speculation, Jenny Shipley resigned as leader of the National Party after being told she no longer had the support of the party caucus. English was elected as her replacement unopposed (with Roger Sowry as his deputy), and consequently became Leader of the Opposition. However, he did not openly organise against Shipley, and according to The Southland Times \"there was almost an element of 'aw, shucks, I'll do it then' about Mr English's ascension\".\n\nAged 39 when he was elected, English became the second-youngest leader in the National Party's history, after Jim McLay (who was 38 when elected in 1984). He also became only the third Southlander to lead a major New Zealand political party, after Joseph Ward and Adam Hamilton. However, English failed to improve the party's performance. In the 2002 election, National suffered its worst electoral defeat ever, gaining barely more than twenty percent of the vote. English described it as \"the worst day of my political life\". Both party insiders and the general public were split as to how much to blame him for the loss, but most of the party believed that English would be able to rebuild National's support.\n\nBy late 2003, however, National's performance in opinion polls remained poor. The party had briefly increased its popularity in the year following the election, but by October its support had fallen to levels only slightly better than what it achieved in the last ballot. English also appeared in a boxing match for a charity against entertainer Ted Clarke. This did not boost his polling or that of the National party either, with suggestions that it devalued his image as a serious politician. Don Brash, former governor of the Reserve Bank and a relative newcomer to politics, began to build up support to replace English. On 28 October, Brash gained sufficient backing in Caucus to defeat English in a leadership contest.\n\nShadow cabinet roles and deputy leader\nOn 2 November 2003, when Brash changed responsibilities for certain MPs, English became National's spokesman for education, ranked at fifth place in the party's parliamentary hierarchy. He remained in parliament after the 2005 election. In his new shadow education portfolio, English performed strongly, and remained a party favourite despite his election defeat as leader in 2002, eventually being returned to the finance portfolio in August 2004 as deputy spokesman (while still retaining responsibility for education).\n\nIn November 2006, Brash resigned as leader. English was considered as a potential replacement leader (running against John Key) or deputy leader (against incumbent Gerry Brownlee) in the ensuing leadership election. However, a contest was avoided when the MPs agreed a Key/English ticket would run unopposed in a display of party unity. English took over the deputy leadership and the finance portfolio in the Key shadow cabinet.\n\nFifth National Government (2008–2017)\n\nDeputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance (2008–2016)\n\nAt the 2008 election, English was re-elected by his electorate, winning by a margin of about 15,500 votes. He became Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand and Minister of Finance in the fifth National Government, being sworn into office on 19 November 2008 and continued to serve in those roles until becoming Prime Minister on 12 December 2014. He was also made Minister of Infrastructure in National's first term of government and Minister responsible for Housing New Zealand Corporation and minister responsible for the New Zealand flag consideration process in its third.\n\nHe was comfortably re-elected in Clutha-Southland in the 2011 election but opted to run as a party-list candidate in 2014. \n\nThe pairing of John Key as leader of the National Party and English as his deputy has been compared to that of Bob Hawke and Paul Keating (in Australia) and Tony Blair and Gordon Brown (in the UK).\n\nEnglish acceded to the role of Finance Minister in the continuing wake of the financial crisis. In response to New Zealand's rising debt, English made budget deficit-reduction his main priority. His first budget outlined three focuses in New Zealand's financial recovery: \"improving the business environment and removing roadblocks to growth; investment in productive infrastructure; and improving the way government works\". One of his first acts was creating the National Infrastructure Unit, charged with formulating a plan for infrastructure projects and investments. He commissioned a government-wide spending review, with an aim to reducing government expenditure—with the exceptions of a two-year stimulus package and long-term increases on infrastructure spending.\n\nIn April 2011, the Opposition criticised English for suggesting that New Zealand businesses could use New Zealand's low wages to help it compete with Australia. The National Government campaigned for re-election in 2011 on its economic record. The Government boasted growth for five consecutive quarters up to mid-2010, totalling 1.6% of real GDP.\n\nStrong growth resulted in a surplus of $473 million for the 2015/16 financial year, projected to rise to $8.5 billion by 2020/21. In his 2016 Economic and Fiscal Update address, English stated that reducing debt and tackling the costs of the 2016 Kaikōura earthquake were higher priorities than reducing rates of tax.\n\nAllowances issue\nIn 2009, the media, including TVNZ and TV3 revealed that English was receiving about NZ$900 a week as part of a living allowance for ministers, to live in his own NZ$1.2 million Wellington home. At the time, English also received $276,200 in his annual salary as Deputy Prime Minister. It was also revealed other ministers with homes in the capital city were also claiming accommodation allowances. On 3 August 2009, Prime Minister John Key started a review of the housing allowances claimed by cabinet ministers. English subsequently paid back $12,000 and only claimed about $24,000 a year in living allowances. The Auditor-General's office said in September 2009 that they were making \"preliminary enquiries\" into parliamentary housing expenses in response to a letter of complaint from Progressive party leader Jim Anderton. Two days later English stated that he would no longer take up any housing allowance and had paid back all the allowance he had received since the November 2008 election.\n\nPrime Minister (2016–2017)\n\nJohn Key resigned on 12 December, and endorsed English as his successor in the resulting leadership election. Following the drop-out of both Judith Collins and Jonathan Coleman from the leadership election, English was sworn in as the 39th Prime Minister of New Zealand on 12 December 2016.\n\nEnglish appointed his first cabinet on 18 December. In a reshuffle, he appointed Steven Joyce to succeed him as Finance Minister, while most ministerial portfolios remained the same.\n\nIn February 2017, English did not attend Waitangi Day commemorations at the historic treaty grounds, reportedly in response to the Ngāpuhi iwi's decision to stop the Prime Minister from speaking at the marae. Ngāpuhi have protested the Government's negotiation of the Trans Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPPA), which the iwi believe infringes upon Māori sovereignty, and thus does not adhere to the Treaty of Waitangi. English had been invited to attend in an official capacity; his non-attendance was criticised by a Ngāpuhi elder and Opposition leader Andrew Little.\n\nIn his first overseas trip as Prime Minister, English travelled to Europe to discuss trade ties, including a prospective New Zealand–European Union free trade agreement. He first travelled to London on 13 January 2017 to meet British Prime Minister Theresa May. Discussing trade relations, English said the two nations were \"natural partners\" and would \"continue to forge ties\" after the UK's withdrawal from the EU. He also arranged to meet with London Mayor Sadiq Khan, Belgian Prime Minister Charles Michel and German Chancellor Angela Merkel.  In a meeting with Merkel, English received crucial backing from Germany for a trade deal with the EU. On 16 January, English stated that his government would continue to promote TPPA, despite the United States' decision to withdraw from the agreement. He explained that Southeast Asian countries would now be treated as a priority in negotiations—he also asserted that the United States was ceding influence to China by its rejection of the trade pact.\n\nAt a press conference at the Beehive on 1 February 2017, English announced that the 2017 general election would be held on 23 September. The Prime Minister later confirmed that his party would approach ACT, United Future and the Māori Party if confidence and supply agreements were required to form a government following the election. In his second cabinet reshuffle on 24 April, English appointed Gerry Brownlee as his new Foreign Affairs Minister; he also promoted Nikki Kaye to the portfolio of Education Minister, and moved Mark Mitchell into the cabinet to become Defence Minister. The reshuffle was perceived as an election preparation.\n\nOn 13 February 2017, English welcomed Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull to Wellington. The two leaders reaffirmed their shared trade agenda, and discussed changes to the Australian citizenship pathway which will affect permanent residents originating from New Zealand.\n\nOn 19 June, it was reported that Todd Barclay, who succeeded English as MP for Clutha-Southland, had clandestinely recorded one of his employee's conversations the previous year, and that John Key's leaders' budget was used to pay a confidential settlement after the employee resigned. English admitted that he had been aware of the illegal recording and the settlement, and thus implicated in the scandal.\n\nDuring the 2017 National campaign launch, English introduced a $379 million social investment package including digital learning academies for high school students, more resources for mathematics, and boosting support for teaching second languages in schools, and maintaining National Standards in the school curriculum. Prime Minister English also sought to defend National's financial management and economic track record and claimed that the opposition Labour Party would raise taxes. Early opinion polling had forecast a poor showing in the election for the Labour Party, but in early August 37-year-old Jacinda Ardern took over as Labour leader and seemingly energised younger voters.\n\nAt the 2017 general election, National won the largest share of the party vote (44.4%) and the largest number of seats (56) in the House Representatives. However, National lacked enough seats to govern alone due to two of the party's support partners, the Māori Party and United Future, losing their parliamentary seats. In response, English stated that the party would be entering into talks to form a coalition with New Zealand First. Following talks with the two largest parties, New Zealand First entered a coalition arrangement with the Labour Party. English was succeeded as prime minister by Jacinda Ardern on 26 October.\n\nOpposition (2017–2018)\n\nLeader of the Opposition\nEnglish was re-elected as National Party leader on 24 October 2017. At the time of his re-election, English announced his intention to stay on as leader until the next general election. On 13 February 2018, however, he stood down as National Party leader due to personal reasons, and instructed the party to put into motion the processes to elect a new leader. He also retired from Parliament. English's resignation followed weeks of speculation that he would step aside for a new leader. On 27 February, he was succeeded as party leader by Simon Bridges as the result of the leadership election held that day.\n\nPost-premiership \nIn 2018, English joined the board of Australian conglomerate, Wesfarmers. English serves in Chairmanships of Mount Cook Alpine Salmon, Impact Lab Ltd and Manawanui Support Ltd. He is also a director of The Instillery, Centre for Independent Studies and The Todd Corporation Limited, and is a member of the Impact Advisory Group of Macquarie Infrastructure and Real Assets.\n\nPolitical and social views\n\nEnglish is regarded as more socially conservative than his predecessor, John Key. He has stated his opposition to voluntary euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, same-sex civil unions, and the decriminalisation of prostitution. As Prime Minister he opposed any \"liberalisation\" of abortion law.\n\nIn 2004, English voted against a bill to establish civil unions for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. In 2005, he voted for the Marriage (Gender Clarification) Amendment Bill, which would have amended the Marriage Act to define marriage as only between a man and a woman. English voted against the Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Bill, a bill that legalised same-sex marriage in New Zealand. However, in December 2016 he stated, \"I'd probably vote differently now on the gay marriage issue. I don't think that gay marriage is a threat to anyone else's marriage\".\n\nIn 2009, English voted against the Misuse of Drugs (Medicinal Cannabis) Amendment Bill, a bill aimed at amending the Misuse of Drugs Act so that cannabis could be used for medical purposes.\n\nPersonal life \nEnglish met his future wife, Mary Scanlon, at university. She was studying medicine at the time, and became a general practitioner. Both her parents were immigrants, her father being Samoan and her mother Italian, born on the island of Stromboli. They have six children: a daughter and five sons.\n\nEnglish is a practising Roman Catholic, but has stated that he considers his religious beliefs personal and thus separate from politics.\n\nIn June 2002, English took part in TV3's Fight For Life, a celebrity boxing fundraiser to raise money for the Yellow Ribbon anti-youth-suicide campaign, influenced by the death of a teenage nephew in 1997. He lost a split decision to former university colleague Ted Clarke.\n\nHonours\nIn the 2018 Queen's Birthday Honours, English was appointed a Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services of over 27 years to the State.\n\nSee also\n\nList of New Zealand governments\nPolitics of New Zealand\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nProfile at National Party \nProfile on Parliament.nz\nReleases and speeches at Beehive.govt.nz\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n1961 births\n21st-century New Zealand politicians\nCandidates in the 2017 New Zealand general election\nDeputy Prime Ministers of New Zealand\nLeaders of the Opposition (New Zealand)\nLiving people\nMembers of the Cabinet of New Zealand\nMembers of the New Zealand House of Representatives\nNew Zealand farmers\nNew Zealand finance ministers\nNew Zealand list MPs\nNew Zealand MPs for South Island electorates\nNew Zealand National Party MPs\nNew Zealand National Party leaders\nNew Zealand Roman Catholics\nNew Zealand people of Irish descent\nPeople educated at St. Patrick's College, Silverstream\nPeople from Dipton, New Zealand\nPeople from Lumsden, New Zealand\nPrime Ministers of New Zealand\nUniversity of Otago alumni\nVictoria University of Wellington alumni\nKnights Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit\n", "answers": ["October 2001."], "length": 3590, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "67dd297408f3d52f22ede88df0b62644dac86da77f009e71"}
{"input": "What algorithm is engaged in the PLMS-PPIC method?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\\label{S1}\n\nThe multiple access interferences (MAI) is the root of user\nlimitation in CDMA systems \\cite{R1,R3}. The parallel least mean\nsquare-partial parallel interference cancelation (PLMS-PPIC) method\nis a multiuser detector for code division multiple access (CDMA)\nreceivers which reduces the effect of MAI in bit detection. In this\nmethod and similar to its former versions like LMS-PPIC \\cite{R5}\n(see also \\cite{RR5}), a weighted value of the MAI of other users is\nsubtracted before making the decision for a specific user in\ndifferent stages \\cite{cohpaper}. In both of these methods, the\nnormalized least mean square (NLMS) algorithm is engaged\n\\cite{Haykin96}. The $m^{\\rm th}$ element of the weight vector in\neach stage is the true transmitted binary value of the $m^{\\rm th}$\nuser divided by its hard estimate value from the previous stage. The\nmagnitude of all weight elements in all stages are equal to unity.\nUnlike the LMS-PPIC, the PLMS-PPIC method tries to keep this\nproperty in each iteration by using a set of NLMS algorithms with\ndifferent step-sizes instead of one NLMS algorithm used in LMS-PPIC.\nIn each iteration, the parameter estimate of the NLMS algorithm is\nchosen whose element magnitudes of cancelation weight estimate have\nthe best match with unity. In PLMS-PPIC implementation it is assumed\nthat the receiver knows the phases of all user channels. However in\npractice, these phases are not known and should be estimated. In\nthis paper we improve the PLMS-PPIC procedure \\cite{cohpaper} in\nsuch a way that when there is only a partial information of the\nchannel phases, this modified version simultaneously estimates the\nphases and the cancelation weights. The partial information is the\nquarter of each channel phase in $(0,2\\pi)$.\n\nThe rest of the paper is organized as follows: In section \\ref{S4}\nthe modified version of PLMS-PPIC with capability of channel phase\nestimation is introduced. In section \\ref{S5} some simulation\nexamples illustrate the results of the proposed method. Finally the\npaper is concluded in section \\ref{S6}.\n\n\\section{Multistage Parallel Interference Cancelation: Modified PLMS-PPIC Method}\\label{S4}\n\nWe assume $M$ users synchronously send their symbols\n$\\alpha_1,\\alpha_2,\\cdots,\\alpha_M$ via a base-band CDMA\ntransmission system where $\\alpha_m\\in\\{-1,1\\}$. The $m^{th}$ user\nhas its own code $p_m(.)$ of length $N$, where $p_m(n)\\in \\{-1,1\\}$,\nfor all $n$. It means that for each symbol $N$ bits are transmitted\nby each user and the processing gain is equal to $N$. At the\nreceiver we assume that perfect power control scheme is applied.\nWithout loss of generality, we also assume that the power gains of\nall channels are equal to unity and users' channels do not change\nduring each symbol transmission (it can change from one symbol\ntransmission to the next one) and the channel phase $\\phi_m$ of\n$m^{th}$ user is unknown for all $m=1,2,\\cdots,M$ (see\n\\cite{cohpaper} for coherent transmission). According to the above\nassumptions the received signal is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e1} r(n)=\\sum\\limits_{m=1}^{M}\\alpha_m\ne^{j\\phi_m}p_m(n)+v(n),~~~~n=1,2,\\cdots,N,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $v(n)$ is the additive white Gaussian noise with zero mean and\nvariance $\\sigma^2$. Multistage parallel interference cancelation\nmethod uses $\\alpha^{s-1}_1,\\alpha^{s-1}_2,\\cdots,\\alpha^{s-1}_M$,\nthe bit estimates outputs of the previous stage, $s-1$, to estimate\nthe related MAI of each user. It then subtracts it from the received\nsignal $r(n)$ and makes a new decision on each user variable\nindividually to make a new variable set\n$\\alpha^{s}_1,\\alpha^{s}_2,\\cdots,\\alpha^{s}_M$ for the current\nstage $s$. Usually the variable set of the first stage (stage $0$)\nis the output of a conventional detector. The output of the last\nstage is considered as the final estimate of transmitted bits. In\nthe following we explain the structure of a modified version of the\nPLMS-PIC method \\cite{cohpaper} with simultaneous capability of\nestimating the cancelation weights and the channel phases.\n\nAssume $\\alpha_m^{(s-1)}\\in\\{-1,1\\}$ is a given estimate of\n$\\alpha_m$ from stage $s-1$. Define\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e6} w^s_{m}=\\frac{\\alpha_m}{\\alpha_m^{(s-1)}}e^{j\\phi_m}.\n\\end{equation}\nFrom (\\ref{e1}) and (\\ref{e6}) we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e7} r(n)=\\sum\\limits_{m=1}^{M}w^s_m\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m\np_m(n)+v(n).\n\\end{equation}\nDefine\n\\begin{subequations}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\label{e8} W^s&=&[w^s_{1},w^s_{2},\\cdots,w^s_{M}]^T,\\\\\n\\label{e9}\n\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!X^{s}(n)\\!\\!\\!&=&\\!\\!\\![\\alpha^{(s-1)}_1p_1(n),\\alpha^{(s-1)}_2p_2(n),\\cdots,\\alpha^{(s-1)}_Mp_M(n)]^T.\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\end{subequations}\nwhere $T$ stands for transposition. From equations (\\ref{e7}),\n(\\ref{e8}) and (\\ref{e9}), we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e10} r(n)=W^{s^T}X^{s}(n)+v(n).\n\\end{equation}\nGiven the observations $\\{r(n),X^{s}(n)\\}^{N}_{n=1}$, in modified\nPLMS-PPIC, like the PLMS-PPIC \\cite{cohpaper}, a set of NLMS\nadaptive algorithm are used to compute\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{te1} W^{s}(N)=[w^{s}_1(N),w^{s}_2(N),\\cdots,w^{s}_M(N)]^T,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is an estimate of $W^s$ after iteration $N$. To do so, from\n(\\ref{e6}), we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e13} |w^s_{m}|=1 ~~~m=1,2,\\cdots,M,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is equivalent to\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e14} \\sum\\limits_{m=1}^{M}||w^s_{m}|-1|=0.\n\\end{equation}\nWe divide $\\Psi=\\left(0,1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}}\\right]$, a sharp\nrange for $\\mu$ (the step-size of the NLMS algorithm) given in\n\\cite{sg2005}, into $L$ subintervals and consider $L$ individual\nstep-sizes $\\Theta=\\{\\mu_1,\\mu_2,\\cdots,\\mu_L\\}$, where\n$\\mu_1=\\frac{1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}}}{L}, \\mu_2=2\\mu_1,\\cdots$, and\n$\\mu_L=L\\mu_1$. In each stage, $L$ individual NLMS algorithms are\nexecuted ($\\mu_l$ is the step-size of the $l^{th}$ algorithm). In\nstage $s$ and at iteration $n$, if\n$W^{s}_k(n)=[w^s_{1,k},\\cdots,w^s_{M,k}]^T$, the parameter estimate\nof the $k^{\\rm th}$ algorithm, minimizes our criteria, then it is\nconsidered as the parameter estimate at time iteration $n$. In other\nwords if the next equation holds\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e17} W^s_k(n)=\\arg\\min\\limits_{W^s_l(n)\\in I_{W^s}\n}\\left\\{\\sum\\limits_{m=1}^{M}||w^s_{m,l}(n)|-1|\\right\\},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $W^{s}_l(n)=W^{s}(n-1)+\\mu_l \\frac{X^s(n)}{\\|X^s(n)\\|^2}e(n),\n~~~ l=1,2,\\cdots,k,\\cdots,L-1,L$ and\n$I_{W^s}=\\{W^s_1(n),\\cdots,W^s_L(n)\\}$, then we have\n$W^s(n)=W^s_k(n)$, and therefore all other algorithms replace their\nweight estimate by $W^{s}_k(n)$. At time instant $n=N$, this\nprocedure gives $W^s(N)$, the final estimate of $W^s$, as the true\nparameter of stage $s$.\n\nNow consider $R=(0,2\\pi)$ and divide it into four equal parts\n$R_1=(0,\\frac{\\pi}{2})$, $R_2=(\\frac{\\pi}{2},\\pi)$,\n$R_3=(\\pi,\\frac{3\\pi}{2})$ and $R_4=(\\frac{3\\pi}{2},2\\pi)$. The\npartial information of channel phases (given by the receiver) is in\na way that it shows each $\\phi_m$ ($m=1,2,\\cdots,M$) belongs to\nwhich one of the four quarters $R_i,~i=1,2,3,4$. Assume\n$W^{s}(N)=[w^{s}_1(N),w^{s}_2(N),\\cdots,w^{s}_M(N)]^T$ is the weight\nestimate of the modified algorithm PLMS-PPIC at time instant $N$ of\nthe stage $s$. From equation (\\ref{e6}) we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{tt3}\n\\phi_m=\\angle({\\frac{\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m}{\\alpha_m}w^s_m}).\n\\end{equation}\nWe estimate $\\phi_m$ by $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m$, where\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{ee3}\n\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\angle{(\\frac{\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m}{\\alpha_m}w^s_m(N))}.\n\\end{equation}\nBecause $\\frac{\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m}{\\alpha_m}=1$ or $-1$, we have\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll} \\angle{w^s_m(N)} &\n\\mbox{if}~\n\\frac{\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m}{\\alpha_m}=1\\\\\n\\pm\\pi+\\angle{w^s_m(N)} & \\mbox{if}~\n\\frac{\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m}{\\alpha_m}=-1\\end{array}\\right.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHence $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m\\in P^s=\\{\\angle{w^s_m(N)},\n\\angle{w^s_m(N)+\\pi, \\angle{w^s_m(N)}-\\pi}\\}$. If $w^s_m(N)$\nsufficiently converges to its true value $w^s_m$, the same region\nfor $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m$ and $\\phi_m$ is expected. In this case only one\nof the three members of $P^s$ has the same region as $\\phi_m$. For\nexample if $\\phi_m \\in (0,\\frac{\\pi}{2})$, then $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m \\in\n(0,\\frac{\\pi}{2})$ and therefore only $\\angle{w^s_m(N)}$ or\n$\\angle{w^s_m(N)}+\\pi$ or $\\angle{w^s_m(N)}-\\pi$ belongs to\n$(0,\\frac{\\pi}{2})$. If, for example, $\\angle{w^s_m(N)}+\\pi$ is such\na member between all three members of $P^s$, it is the best\ncandidate for phase estimation. In other words,\n\\[\\phi_m\\approx\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\angle{w^s_m(N)}+\\pi.\\]\nWe admit that when there is a member of $P^s$ in the quarter of\n$\\phi_m$, then $w^s_m(N)$ converges. What would happen when non of\nthe members of $P^s$ has the same quarter as $\\phi_m$? This\nsituation will happen when the absolute difference between $\\angle\nw^s_m(N)$ and $\\phi_m$ is greater than $\\pi$. It means that\n$w^s_m(N)$ has not converged yet. In this case where we can not\ncount on $w^s_m(N)$, the expected value is the optimum choice for\nthe channel phase estimation, e.g. if $\\phi_m \\in (0,\\frac{\\pi}{2})$\nthen $\\frac{\\pi}{4}$ is the estimation of the channel phase\n$\\phi_m$, or if $\\phi_m \\in (\\frac{\\pi}{2},\\pi)$ then\n$\\frac{3\\pi}{4}$ is the estimation of the channel phase $\\phi_m$.\nThe results of the above discussion are summarized in the next\nequation\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\nonumber \\hat{\\phi}^s_m = \\left\\{\\begin{array}{llll} \\angle\n{w^s_m(N)} & \\mbox{if}~\n\\angle{w^s_m(N)}, \\phi_m\\in R_i,~~i=1,2,3,4\\\\\n\\angle{w^s_m(N)}+\\pi & \\mbox{if}~ \\angle{w^s_m(N)}+\\pi, \\phi_m\\in\nR_i,~~i=1,2,3,4\\\\\n\\angle{w^n_m(N)}-\\pi & \\mbox{if}~ \\angle{w^s_m(N)}-\\pi, \\phi_m\\in\nR_i,~~i=1,2,3,4\\\\\n\\frac{(i-1)\\pi+i\\pi}{4} & \\mbox{if}~ \\phi_m\\in\nR_i,~~\\angle{w^s_m(N)},\\angle\n{w^s_m(N)}\\pm\\pi\\notin R_i,~~i=1,2,3,4.\\\\\n\\end{array}\\right.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHaving an estimation of the channel phases, the rest of the proposed\nmethod is given by estimating $\\alpha^{s}_m$ as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{tt4}\n\\alpha^{s}_m=\\mbox{sign}\\left\\{\\mbox{real}\\left\\{\\sum\\limits_{n=1}^{N}\nq^s_m(n)e^{-j\\hat{\\phi}^s_m}p_m(n)\\right\\}\\right\\},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation} \\label{tt5}\nq^{s}_{m}(n)=r(n)-\\sum\\limits_{m^{'}=1,m^{'}\\ne\nm}^{M}w^{s}_{m^{'}}(N)\\alpha^{(s-1)}_{m^{'}} p_{m^{'}}(n).\n\\end{equation}\nThe inputs of the first stage $\\{\\alpha^{0}_m\\}_{m=1}^M$ (needed for\ncomputing $X^1(n)$) are given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{qte5}\n\\alpha^{0}_m=\\mbox{sign}\\left\\{\\mbox{real}\\left\\{\\sum\\limits_{n=1}^{N}\nr(n)e^{-j\\hat{\\phi}^0_m}p_m(n)\\right\\}\\right\\}.\n\\end{equation}\nAssuming $\\phi_m\\in R_i$, then\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{qqpp} \\hat{\\phi}^0_m =\\frac{(i-1)\\pi+i\\pi}{4}.\n\\end{equation}\nTable \\ref{tab4} shows the structure of the modified PLMS-PPIC\nmethod. It is to be notified that\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item Equation (\\ref{qte5}) shows the conventional bit detection\nmethod when the receiver only knows the quarter of channel phase in\n$(0,2\\pi)$. \\item With $L=1$ (i.e. only one NLMS algorithm), the\nmodified PLMS-PPIC can be thought as a modified version of the\nLMS-PPIC method.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nIn the following section some examples are given to illustrate the\neffectiveness of the proposed method.\n\n\\section{Simulations}\\label{S5}\n\nIn this section we have considered some simulation examples.\nExamples \\ref{ex2}-\\ref{ex4} compare the conventional, the modified\nLMS-PPIC and the modified PLMS-PPIC methods in three cases: balanced\nchannels, unbalanced channels and time varying channels. In all\nexamples, the receivers have only the quarter of each channel phase.\nExample \\ref{ex2} is given to compare the modified LMS-PPIC and the\nPLMS-PPIC in the case of balanced channels.\n\n\\begin{example}{\\it Balanced channels}:\n\\label{ex2}\n\\begin{table}\n\\caption{Channel phase estimate of the first user (example\n\\ref{ex2})} \\label{tabex5} \\centerline{{\n\\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{6}{*}{\\rotatebox{90}{$\\phi_m=\\frac{3\\pi}{8},M=15~~$}} & N(Iteration) & Stage Number& NLMS & PNLMS  \\\\\n&&&&\\\\\n\\cline{2-5} & \\multirow{2}{*}{64}& s = 2 &  $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.24\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.18\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{3-5} & & s = 3 & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.24\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.18\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{2-5} & \\multirow{2}{*}{256}& s = 2 &  $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.85\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.88\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{3-5} & & s = 3 & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.85\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.88\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{2-5} \\hline\n\\end{tabular} }}\n\\end{table}\nConsider the system model (\\ref{e7}) in which $M$ users\nsynchronously send their bits to the receiver through their\nchannels. It is assumed that each user's information consists of\ncodes of length $N$. It is also assumd that the signal to noise\nratio (SNR) is 0dB. In this example there is no power-unbalanced or\nchannel loss is assumed. The step-size of the NLMS algorithm in\nmodified LMS-PPIC method is $\\mu=0.1(1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}})$ and\nthe set of step-sizes of the parallel NLMS algorithms in modified\nPLMS-PPIC method are\n$\\Theta=\\{0.01,0.05,0.1,0.2,\\cdots,1\\}(1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}})$,\ni.e. $\\mu_1=0.01(1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}}),\\cdots,\n\\mu_4=0.2(1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}}),\\cdots,\n\\mu_{12}=(1-\\sqrt{\\frac{M-1}{M}})$. Figure~\\ref{Figexp1NonCoh}\nillustrates the bit error rate (BER) for the case of two stages and\nfor $N=64$ and $N=256$. Simulations also show that there is no\nremarkable difference between results in two stage and three stage\nscenarios. Table~\\ref{tabex5} compares the average channel phase\nestimate of the first user in each stage and over $10$ runs of\nmodified LMS-PPIC and PLMS-PPIC, when the the number of users is\n$M=15$.\n\\end{example}\n\nAlthough LMS-PPIC and PLMS-PPIC, as well as their modified versions,\nare structured based on the assumption of no near-far problem\n(examples \\ref{ex3} and \\ref{ex4}), these methods and especially the\nsecond one have remarkable performance in the cases of unbalanced\nand/or time varying channels.\n\n\\begin{example}{\\it Unbalanced channels}:\n\\label{ex3}\n\\begin{table}\n\\caption{Channel phase estimate of the first user (example\n\\ref{ex3})} \\label{tabex6} \\centerline{{\n\\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{6}{*}{\\rotatebox{90}{$\\phi_m=\\frac{3\\pi}{8},M=15~~$}} & N(Iteration) & Stage Number& NLMS & PNLMS  \\\\\n&&&&\\\\\n\\cline{2-5} & \\multirow{2}{*}{64}& s=2 &  $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.45\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.36\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{3-5} & & s=3 & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.71\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.80\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{2-5} & \\multirow{2}{*}{256}& s=2 &  $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.09\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.86\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{3-5} & & s=3 & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{2.93\\pi}{8}$ & $\\hat{\\phi}^s_m=\\frac{3.01\\pi}{8}$ \\\\\n\\cline{2-5} \\hline\n\\end{tabular} }}\n\\end{table}\nConsider example \\ref{ex2} with power unbalanced and/or channel loss\nin transmission system, i.e. the true model at stage $s$ is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{ve7} r(n)=\\sum\\limits_{m=1}^{M}\\beta_m\nw^s_m\\alpha^{(s-1)}_m c_m(n)+v(n),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $0<\\beta_m\\leq 1$ for all $1\\leq m \\leq M$. Both the LMS-PPIC\nand the PLMS-PPIC methods assume the model (\\ref{e7}), and their\nestimations are based on observations $\\{r(n),X^s(n)\\}$, instead of\n$\\{r(n),\\mathbf{G}X^s(n)\\}$, where the channel gain matrix is\n$\\mathbf{G}=\\mbox{diag}(\\beta_1,\\beta_2,\\cdots,\\beta_m)$. In this\ncase we repeat example \\ref{ex2}. We randomly get each element of\n$G$ from $[0,0.3]$. Figure~\\ref{Figexp2NonCoh} illustrates the BER\nversus the number of users. Table~\\ref{tabex6} compares the channel\nphase estimate of the first user in each stage and over $10$ runs of\nmodified LMS-PPIC and modified PLMS-PPIC for $M=15$.\n\\end{example}\n\n\\begin{example}\n\\label{ex4} {\\it Time varying channels}: Consider example \\ref{ex2}\nwith time varying Rayleigh fading channels. In this case we assume\nthe maximum Doppler shift of $40$HZ, the three-tap\nfrequency-selective channel with delay vector of $\\{2\\times\n10^{-6},2.5\\times 10^{-6},3\\times 10^{-6}\\}$sec and gain vector of\n$\\{-5,-3,-10\\}$dB. Figure~\\ref{Figexp3NonCoh} shows the average BER\nover all users versus $M$ and using two stages.\n\\end{example}\n\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\\label{S6}\n\nIn this paper, parallel interference cancelation using adaptive\nmultistage structure and employing a set of NLMS algorithms with\ndifferent step-sizes is proposed, when just the quarter of the\nchannel phase of each user is known. In fact, the algorithm has been\nproposed for coherent transmission with full information on channel\nphases in \\cite{cohpaper}. This paper is a modification on the\npreviously proposed algorithm. Simulation results show that the new\nmethod has a remarkable performance for different scenarios\nincluding Rayleigh fading channels even if the channel is\nunbalanced.\n\n", "answers": ["The normalized least mean square (NLMS) algorithm."], "length": 2008, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "49d0334d26929f712de2cba070a74752f415313c08166f80"}
{"input": "What is the scaling form for the alternative order parameter O?", "context": "\\section*{Dynamical Behaviour of $O$ in Lattice Gases}\n\nThe dynamical behaviour of the anisotropic order parameter  $m$ [see Eq.~\\eqref{eq:def-m} in the Letter] following a quench to the critical point is well described by\nthe Gaussian theory for all the three lattice gas models studied, $i.e.,$ driven lattice gas with either constant (IDLG) or random (RDLG) infinite drive and equilibrium lattice gas (LG). In other words, in the short-time regime, $m \\sim t^{1/2}$ [see Eq. \\eqref{eq:mt}] and the Binder cumulant $g$ of the lowest transverse mode [defined in Eq. \\eqref{eq:binder}] is zero in this regime. The alternative order parameter $O,$ however, distinguishes between the driven (IDLG, RDLG) and the equilibrium (LG) lattice gases. \n\nIn order to understand  this, we first write the phenomenological scaling form for $O$,  analogous to Eq. \\eqref{eq:scalingass} in  the Letter,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nO (t, L_{\\parallel} ; S_\\Delta) = L_{\\parallel}^{-\\beta/[\\nu(1+\\Delta)]} \\tilde f_O (t/L_{\\parallel}^{z/(1+\\Delta)} ; S_\\Delta).\\quad\n\\label{eq:Oscalingass}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nWe already remarked that, in the LG, this scaling form is not compatible with the prediction $O \\sim t^{1/8}  L_{\\parallel}^{-1/2}$ of the Gaussian theory.  However, following Ref. \\cite{AS2002}, it can be argued that, at short times, the only dependence of $O$ on the system size $L_{\\parallel}$ is of the form $O \\sim L_\\parallel^{-1/2}$ which is very well confirmed by numerical simulations. Accordingly,  the generic behaviour of $O$ can be assumed to be\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nO \\sim t^{\\alpha} L_\\parallel^{-1/2}, \\label{eq:O}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $\\alpha$ is a phenomenological exponent to be determined. This, along with Eq. \\eqref{eq:Oscalingass}, implies $\\tilde f_O(x) \\sim x^{\\alpha}.$ Comparing the finite-size behaviour in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:O} with Eq.~\\eqref{eq:Oscalingass} one actually infers,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\alpha &=& \\frac{1+ \\Delta -2 \\beta/\\nu}{2 \\, (4- \\eta)}. \\label{eq:alpha}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThis equation, together with the hyperscaling relation $\\Delta - 2 \\beta/\\nu= - \\eta$ in two spatial dimensions, shows that the prediction $\\alpha = 1/8$ of the Gaussian theory [see Eq. \\eqref{eq:Ot}] can be obtained only when $\\eta=0,$ which is the case for the IDLG (exactly) and the RDLG (approximately) but not for the LG. \n\nOn the other hand,  Eq.~\\eqref{eq:alpha} predicts $\\alpha = 1/10$ upon substituting the values of the critical exponents corresponding to the Ising  universality class (LG). This is consistent with the numerical simulation results presented in the main text, see Fig. \\ref{fig:ising}(b) therein.\n\n\\begin{figure}[th]\n\\vspace*{0.2 cm}\n \\centering\n \\includegraphics[width=10 cm]{./compare_binder.pdf}\n\n\\caption{Comparison between the temporal evolution of the Binder cumulants $g$ corresponding to the $12^{th}$ transverse mode, $i.e.,$ with $n_\\perp =12,$ in the LG (lowest curve), IDLG and RDLG (two upper curves) on a $32 \\times 32$ lattice. \\label{fig:b}}\n \\label{fig:binder}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nThe emergence of this new value $1/10$ of the exponent $\\alpha$ must be traced back to the non-Gaussian nature of higher fluctuating modes in the LG. In fact, even though the lowest mode behaves identically in all the three models we considered,  characterized by the same behaviour of $m$, higher modes show a significant difference in the non-driven case.  \n\n\nTo illustrate this, we measured the Binder cumulants of higher modes which is defined  analogously to Eq.~(11), using transverse modes other than the first, i.e., with $\\mu=\\tilde \\sigma(0,2 \\pi n_\\bot/L_\\bot)$ and $n_\\bot>1.$  \n Figure \\ref{fig:b} compares the same for all the three lattice gases for the mode with $n_\\perp =12$ on a $32 \\times 32$ lattice. Clearly, the curve corresponding to the LG (lowest, blue) departs from Gaussian behaviour $g=0$ (in practice, $e.g.,$ $|g| \\lesssim 0.005,$ corresponding to the shaded gray area) much earlier than it does for the IDLG  or RDLG (two upper curves, red and green respectively).\n\nAccordingly, the different dynamical behaviour of $O$, which involves a sum over all modes, can be attributed to the non-Gaussian nature of the higher modes in the LG. \nSuch a departure is not entirely surprising. In fact, for higher modes, mesoscopic descriptions such as the ones in Eqs. \\eqref{eq:L-DLG} or \\eqref{eq:g_evol} are not expected to hold, while the anisotropy at the microscopic level could be the mechanism leading to the Gaussianity of higher modes in the driven models.\n\n", "answers": ["O(t, L_{\\parallel}; S_\\Delta) = L_{\\parallel}^{-\\beta/[\\nu(1+\\Delta)]} \\tilde f_O(t/L_{\\parallel}^{z/(1+\\Delta)}; S_\\Delta)."], "length": 663, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "22034e095a602824678c4028e6f605919ce520270dc06089"}
{"input": "Which air unit did Goodwin command during the initial landings of Marines on Saipan?", "context": "Hugh Hilton Goodwin (December 21, 1900 – February 25, 1980) was a decorated officer in the United States Navy with the rank of Vice Admiral. A veteran of both World Wars, he commanded escort carrier  during the Mariana Islands campaign. Goodwin then served consecutively as Chief of Staff, Carrier Strike Group 6 and as Air Officer, Philippine Sea Frontier and participated in the Philippines campaign in the later part of the War.\n\nFollowing the War, he remained in the Navy and rose to the flag rank and held several important commands including Vice Commander, Military Air Transport Service, Commander, Carrier Division Two and Commander, Naval Air Forces, Continental Air Defense Command.\n\nEarly life and career\n\nHugh H. Goodwin was born on December 21, 1900, in Monroe, Louisiana and attended Monroe High School there (now Neville High School). Following the United States' entry into World War I in April 1917, Goodwin left the school without receiving the diploma in order to see some combat and enlisted the United States Navy on May 7, 1917. He completed basic training and was assigned to the battleship . Goodwin participated in the training of armed guard crews and engine room personnel as the Atlantic Fleet prepared to go to war and in November 1917, he sailed with the rest of Battleship Division 9, bound for Britain to reinforce the Grand Fleet in the North Sea.\n\nAlthough he did not complete the last year of high school, Goodwin was able to earn an appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland in June 1918. While at the academy, he earned a nickname \"Huge\" and among his classmates were several future admirals and generals including: Hyman G. Rickover, Milton E. Miles, Robert E. Blick Jr., Herbert S. Duckworth, Clayton C. Jerome, James P. Riseley, James A. Stuart, Frank Peak Akers, Sherman Clark, Raymond P. Coffman, Delbert S. Cornwell, Frederick J. Eckhoff, Ralph B. DeWitt, John Higgins, Vernon Huber, Albert K. Morehouse, Harold F. Pullen, Michael J. Malanaphy, William S. Parsons, Harold R. Stevens, John P. Whitney, Lyman G. Miller and George J. O'Shea.\n\nGoodwin graduated with Bachelor of Science degree on June 3, 1922, and was commissioned Ensign in the United States Navy. He was subsequently assigned to the battleship  and took part in the voyage to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, before he was ordered to the Naval Torpedo Station at Newport, Rhode Island for submarine instruction in June 1923. Goodwin completed the training several weeks later and was attached to the submarine . He then continued his further training aboard submarine  and following his promotion to Lieutenant (junior grade) on June 3, 1925, he qualified as submariner.\n\nHe then served aboard submarine  off the coast of California, before he was ordered for the recruiting duty to San Francisco in September 1927. While in this capacity, Goodwin applied for naval aviation training which was ultimately approved and he was ordered to the Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida in August 1928. Toward the end of the training, he was promoted to lieutenant on December 11, 1928, and upon the completion of the training in January 1929, he was designated Naval aviator.\n\nGoodwin was subsequently attached to the Observation Squadron aboard the aircraft carrier  and participated in the Fleet exercises in the Caribbean. He was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics in Washington, D.C. in August 1931 and served consecutively under the architect of naval aviation William A. Moffett and future Chief of Naval Operations Ernest J. King.\n\nIn June 1933, Goodwin was ordered to the Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island, where he completed junior course in May of the following year. He subsequently joined the crew of aircraft carrier  and served under Captain Arthur B. Cook and took part in the Fleet exercises in the Caribbean and off the East Coast of the United States.\n\nHe was ordered back to the Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida in June 1936 and was attached to the staff of the Base Commandant, then-Captain Charles A. Blakely. When Blakely was succeeded by William F. Halsey in June 1937, Goodwin remained in Halsey's staff and was promoted to Lieutenant Commander on December 1, 1937. He also completed correspondence course in International law at the Naval War College.\n\nGoodwin was appointed Commanding officer of the Observation Squadron 1 in June 1938 and attached to the battleship  he took part in the patrolling of the Pacific and \nWest Coast of the United States until September 1938, when he assumed command of the Observation Squadron 2 attached to the battleship .\n\nWhen his old superior from Lexington, now Rear Admiral Arthur B. Cook, was appointed Commander Aircraft, Scouting Force in June 1939, he requested Goodwin as his Aide and Flag Secretary. He became Admiral Cook's protégé and after year and half of service in the Pacific, he continued as his Aide and Flag Secretary, when Cook was appointed Commander Aircraft, Atlantic Fleet in November 1940.\n\nWorld War II\n\nFollowing the United States' entry into World War II, Goodwin was promoted to the temporary rank of Commander on January 1, 1942, and assumed duty as advisor to the Argentine Navy. His promotion was made permanent two months later and he returned to the United States in early 1943 for duty as assistant director of Planning in the Bureau of Aeronautics under Rear admiral John S. McCain. While still in Argentina, Goodwin was promoted to the temporary rank of Captain on June 21, 1942.\n\nBy the end of December 1943, Goodwin was ordered to Astoria, Oregon, where he assumed command of newly commissioned escort carrier USS Gambier Bay. He was responsible for the initial training of the crew and was known as a strict disciplinarian, but the crew appreciated the skills he taught them that prepared them for combat. Goodwin insisted that everyone aboard has to do every job right every time and made us fight our ship at her best.\n\nDuring the first half of 1944, Gambier Bay was tasked with ferrying aircraft for repairs and qualified carrier pilots from San Diego to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, before departed on May 1, 1944, to join Rear admiral Harold B. Sallada's Carrier Support Group 2, staging in the Marshalls for the invasion of the Marianas.\n\nThe air unit, VC-10 Squadron, under Goodwin's command gave close air support to the initial landings of Marines on Saipan on June 15, 1944, destroying enemy gun emplacements, troops, tanks, and trucks. On the 17th, her combat air patrol (CAP) shot down or turned back all but a handful of 47 enemy planes headed for her task group and her gunners shot down two of the three planes that did break through to attack her.\n\nGoodwin's carrier continued in providing of close ground support operations at Tinian during the end of July 1944, then turned her attention to Guam, where she gave identical aid to invading troops until mid-August that year. For his service during the Mariana Islands campaign, Goodwin was decorated with Bronze Star Medal with Combat \"V\".\n\nHe was succeeded by Captain Walter V. R. Vieweg on August 18, 1944, and appointed Chief of Staff, Carrier Division Six under Rear admiral Arthur W. Radford. The Gambier Bay was sunk in the Battle off Samar on October 25, 1944, during the Battle of Leyte Gulf after helping turn back a much larger attacking Japanese surface force.\n\nGoodwin served with Carrier Division Six during the Bonin Islands raids, the naval operations at Palau and took part in the Battle of Leyte Gulf and operations supporting Leyte landings in late 1944. He was later appointed Air Officer of the Philippine Sea Frontier under Rear admiral James L. Kauffman and remained with that command until the end of hostilities. For his service in the later part of World War II, Goodwin was decorated with Legion of Merit with Combat \"V\". He was also entitled to wear two Navy Presidential Unit Citations and Navy Unit Commendation.\n\nPostwar service\n\nFollowing the surrender of Japan, Goodwin assumed command of Light aircraft carrier  on August 24, 1945. The ship was tasked with air missions over Japan became mercy flights over Allied prisoner-of-war camps, dropping food and medicine until the men could be rescued. She was also present at Tokyo Bay for the Japanese surrender on September 2, 1945.\n\nGoodwin returned with San Jacinto to the United States in mid-September 1945 and he was detached in January 1946. He subsequently served in the office of the Chief of Naval Operations until May that year, when he entered the instruction at National War College. Goodwin graduated in June 1947 and served on Secretary's committee for Research on Reorganization. Upon promotion to Rear admiral on April 1, 1949, Goodwin was appointed Chief of Staff and Aide to Commander-in-Chief, Atlantic Fleet under Admiral William H. P. Blandy.\n\nRevolt of the Admirals\n\nIn April 1949, the budget's cuts and proposed reorganization of the United States Armed Forces by the Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson launched the wave of discontent between senior commanders in the United States Navy. Johnson proposed the merging of the Marine Corps into the Army, and reduce the Navy to a convoy-escort force.\n\nGoodwin's superior officer, Admiral Blandy was call to testify before the House Committee on Armed Services and his harsh statements for the defense of the Navy, costed him his career. Goodwin shared his views and openly criticized Secretary Johnson for having power concentrated in a single civilian executive, who is an appointee of the Government and not an elected representative of the people. He also criticized aspects of defense unification which permitted the Joint Chiefs of Staff to vote on arms policies of individual services, and thus \"rob\" the branches of autonomy.\n\nThe outbreak of the Korean War in summer 1950 proved the proposal of Secretary Johnson as incorrect and he resigned in September that year. Also Secretary of the Navy, Francis P. Matthews resigned one month earlier.\n\nLater service\n\nDue to the Revolts of the admirals, Blandy was forced to retire in February 1950 and Goodwin was ordered to Newport, Rhode Island for temporary duty as Chief of Staff and Aide to the President of the Naval War College under Vice admiral Donald B. Beary in April 1950. Goodwin was detached from that assignment two months and appointed member of the General Board of the Navy. He was shortly thereafter appointed acting Navy Chief of Public Information, as the substitute for Rear Admiral Russell S. Berkey, who was relieved of illness, but returned to the General Board of the Navy in July that year. Goodwin served in that capacity until February 1951, when he relieved his Academy class, Rear admiral John P. Whitney as Vice Commander, Military Air Transport Service (MATS).\n\nWhile in this capacity, Goodwin served under Lieutenant general Laurence S. Kuter and was co-responsible for the logistical support of United Nations troops fighting in Korea. The MATS operated from the United States to Japan and Goodwin served in this capacity until August 1953, when he was appointed Commander Carrier Division Two. While in this assignment, he took part in the Operation Mariner, Joint Anglo-American exercise which encountered very heavy seas over a two-week period in fall 1953.\n\nGoodwin was ordered to the Philippines in May 1954 and assumed duty as Commander, U.S. Naval Forces in the Philippines with headquarters at Naval Station Sangley Point near Cavite. He held that command in the period of tensions between Taiwan and China and publicly declared shortly after his arrival, that any attack on Taiwan by the Chinese Communists on the mainland would result in US participation in the conflict. The naval fighter planes under his command also provided escort for passing commercial planes. Goodwin worked together with retired Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, then-Ambassador to the Philippines, and accompanied him during the visits to Singapore, Bangkok and Saigon in January 1955.\n\nOn December 18, 1955, Goodwin's classmate Rear admiral Albert K. Morehouse, then serving as Commander, Naval Air Forces, Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD), died of heart attack and Goodwin was ordered to CONAD headquarters in Colorado Springs, Colorado to assume Morehouse's position. While in this capacity, he was subordinated to Army General Earle E. Partridge and was responsible for the Naval and Marine Forces allocated to the command designated for the defense of the Continental United States.\n\nRetirement\n\nGoodwin retired on June 1, 1957, after 40 years of active service and was advanced to the rank of Vice admiral on the retired list for having been specially commended in combat. A week later, he was invited back to his Monroe High School (now Neville High School) and handed a diploma showing that he had been graduated with the class of 1918. He then settled in Monterey, California where he taught American history at Stevenson school and was a member of the Naval Order of the United States.\n\nVice admiral Hugh H. Goodwin died at his home on February 25, 1980, aged 79. He was survived by his wife, Eleanor with whom he had two children, a daughter Sidney and a son Hugh Jr., who graduated from the Naval Academy in June 1948, but died one year later, when the Hellcat fighter he was piloting collided with another over the Gulf of Mexico during training.\n\nDecorations\n\nHere is the ribbon bar of Vice admiral Hugh H. Goodwin:\n\nReferences\n\n1900 births\n1980 deaths\nPeople from Monroe, Louisiana\nMilitary personnel from Louisiana\nUnited States Naval Academy alumni\nNaval War College alumni\nUnited States Naval Aviators\nUnited States Navy personnel of World War I\nUnited States Navy World War II admirals\nUnited States Navy vice admirals\nUnited States submarine commanders\nRecipients of the Legion of Merit", "answers": ["VC-10 Squadron."], "length": 2295, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "f084724966601afea0017630eeee76cf0b65099356667bc2"}
{"input": "Who compiled the 88-page letter to the HHS regarding vaccine safety?", "context": "A special tribute to Del Bigtree (pictured) and his team at ICAN for his stunning 88 page letter to the HHS regarding vaccine safety. As Del reported - in the latest edition of Highwire - the letter, in response to an earlier reply from the then acting Director National Vaccine Program Office, Melinda Wharton, took virtually a year to compile, and is a meticulous piece of research. Most sensationally they researched the HHS claim through US government archives that at least some pediatric vaccines had been trialed against genuine placebo, and came to a negative conclusion. Not only that, they established that none of the vaccines those vaccines had been trialed against had ever been trialed against genuine placebo either. At the end of the line the toxic products were only being compared with other toxic products, rather than against saline.\nLeave aside the sceptics, for any believer in the vaccine program as a necessary intervention in public health, this should be a devastating finding. Fundamentally, the research into the safety of any of the products before marketing was simply not there. The manufacturers apparently had no faith that their proto-products could withstand this scrutiny, and for the rest they just did not care: under the alleged imperative of protecting the population it seems anything went. So even before all the sham monitoring procedures and reviews which Del and his team dismantle in forensic detail we are left with the proposition that none of the present products being given to US children – and frequently other children across most of the developed world – have any meaningful pre-marketing safety data all. If you are believer in the program you have been let down: if you wanted a program with any pretensions to safety - supposing such a thing to be possible - it looks like you would have to start from scratch. The manufacturers did this: the governments, the politicians and the regulators (internationally) let it happen.\nThis damning document is published simultaneously with a demand in the UK from the Royal Society for Public Health (which I had never heard of) to shut down comment about vaccines on the web. It echoes calls from Seth Berkley of GAVI, Heidi Larson of the Vaccine Confidence Project and the European Parliament. The pamphlet airily dismisses concerns that vaccines have side effects or that you could possibly have too many. It is pure public relations, and if the RSPH claims to be \"independent\" it also admits that the publication was paid for by Merck, a detail which was reported by British Medical Journal and the Guardian, but not true to form by the BBC. We have, in truth, been building to this moment for two decades: as the evidence piles up that every single aspect of the program lacks integrity or is simply rotten to the core all the perpetrators can do is call for the silencing of their critics, and maintain the products are safe because they say so.\nPlease help give the ICAN letter the widest possible distribution, particularly to politicians.\n\"The outcome of disease always depends both on the virulence of the pathogen and the health of the individual immune system.\"\nNope. This makes no sense. Lots of people who seemed vibrant will get a very severe case of the same illness that a vulnerable baby overcomes in a day.\nAnd under the germ theory it doesn't matter how strong your immune system *was*. Once it's been overcome by the pathogen it is every bit as weak as anybody else's with that pathogen.\nWhat you say makes no sense. There's no reason for me to reply to you again.\n\"Why do you think that within a few years (not many) of the introduction of the vaccines for them, pertussis, measles, mumps, rubella, tetanus, diphtheria, Hib disease, and chickenpox (and others) almost entirely disappeared?\"\nWhy do you keep asking this question when I've already provided the answer hundreds of times? Why are you so desperate to believe the people who you already recognize are harming our children?\nWhy would Walter Reed be any more trustworthy than Paul Offit or Senator Pan? Why would Jenner or Pasteur?\nAnd you went no way to explaining my arguments against germ theory. If we are attacked by billions of viruses every day then if even a tiny fraction of them are pathogenic then we couldn't possibly survive. And even if we could, we would already be immune rendering every vaccine pointless. Once we had survived our first few days on earth, then we could never get sick again.\nIf that's wrong then we must conclude that precisely 0% of germs are pathogenic.\nPlus your comment about the immune system completely misunderstood my point. The immune system does not allow us to overcome our math problem. In fact, it makes it worse.\nYou did provide one solitary example of a patient with what are presumably yellow fever symptoms but you didn't say whether they had been given any toxic medical treatments.\nAnd like I said before, the whole \"incubation period\" is more than a little suspicious. Clearly they never found what they thought they would and just rigged the results to tell them what they want to hear.\nLike every other germ theorist/vaccine promoter in history.\nMany kinds of bacteria are constantly evolving and changing, like flu viruses. Others are more stable over time, like the yellow fever virus. Those that change develop new ways of infiltrating the cells of the organism being attacked (from our point of view, from its unconscious point of view, it's just carrying out its need to replicate, which it can only do inside the cells of its host). The changes which allow it to better infiltrate are more successful and result in more viruses with those traits.\nOur immune system is designed to detect and destroy potentially dangerous invading pathogens. Many bacteria are usually harmless and absolutely necessary. The minority are dangerous, and most people's immune systems do a good job of analyzing them and killing them, often with no signs of disease. Others experience a clinical infection, and the immune system usually mounts a successful attack on them.\nThe outcome of disease always depends both on the virulence of the pathogen and the health of the individual immune system. Vaccines are usually effective in giving immunity to the targeted diseases. They also have many dangers which everyone should be aware of, and vaccines should be avoided whenever possible. But in the case of the most dangerous diseases, everyone should learn about them and think about what he wants to do to protect himself and his children from them, considering all the factors involved. And no one can have 100% certainty that he has made the right decision, but that's life. But if you live in the Congo and many people around you are currently dying of yellow fever, then that means that you yourself are at risk of being bitten by a loaded mosquito and getting, often dying, of yellow fever. The yellow fever vaccine is very effective at preventing yellow fever. From there, each person must make a choice.\nAt the end of this stage there is a remission of two or three days. About 80% of those with clinical disease recover at this point, with permanent immunity. The other 20% enter the toxic stage, with a return of the fever, black vomit (coffee-ground emesis), diarrhea, a slowing of the pulse (Faget's sign), jaundice, yellow eyes, yellow skin, and failure of the kidneys, liver, and heart. The patient gets a strange hiccup (like with Ebola, a related disease), falls into a coma, and dies. About half of those patients who enter the toxic stage dies, even now, even with the best of hospital care. The Faget's sign can also occur at the end of the first stage.\nYou asked specifically about the symptoms of the Americans on Dr. Reed's team who got yellow fever in Cuba in 1900. I'll give the passage from The American Plague (162-5), which describes the course of Jesse Lazear's illness. \"In his logbook, Lazear wrote an unusual entry on September 13. In all cases before those, page after page of records, Lazear had used the soldier's name and simply the date he was bitten, with no other attention to the mosquito. A one-line entry with a name and a date. On that day, however, in his elegant hand, Lazear did not write the soldier's name, but instead wrote 'Guinea Pig No. 1.' He went on to write that this guinea pig had been bitten by a mosquito that developed from an egg laid by a mosquito that developed from an egg laid by a mosquito that fed on a number of yellow fever cases: Suarez, Hernández, De Long, Ferández. It was a precise, detailed history that proved beyond doubt that the mosquito was loaded with the virus when it bit a healthy soldier...(If he had entered his name, then his death would have been considered medical suicide by the insurance company, and his wife and two children would not have gotten any payment.) For the next few days, Lazear's life continued much as it had over the last few months in Cuba. He fed and cared for the mosquitoes in the lab. ..Then he began to lose his appetite. He skipped a few meals in the mess hall. He didn't mention it to anyone, nor did he ask to see one of the yellow fever doctors; instead, he worked hard in the lab trying to ignore the oncoming headache.\n\"On September 18, he complained of feeling 'out of sorts,' and stayed in his officer's quarters. His head pounded and L. decided to write a letter. ..(he wrote to his mother, and referred to his one-year old son Houston and the baby his wife Mabel was about to have: they were staying with his mother in the US). ..That night, L. started to feel chilled as the fever came on. He never went to sleep but worked at his desk all through the night, trying to get all the information about the mosquitoes organized. By morning, he showed all the signs of a severe attack of yellow fever. The camp doctors made the diagnosis, and L. agreed to go to the yellow fever ward. ..L. was carried by litter out of the two-room, white pine board house in which he had lived since he and Mabel first arrived in Cuba. ..(In the yellow fever ward, in a separate one-room building), Lena Warner (the immune nurse who had survived the yellow fever in 1878, when she was nine, and was found in her boarded-up house by a former slave who first thought she was dead, and carried her to safety) nursed J.L., recording his vitals. (I put up a link to his case record and vital signs last week. The surgeon general required that this record be made for every yellow fever patient.)... (On September 25,) Lena Warner braced L's arms with all of her weight, shouting for help. Still he bolted from the bed, darting around the small frame-wood room as wildly as a trapped insect beating against glass. Two soldiers ran into the ward, pinning L to his bed, tying restraints around his wrists and elbows. ..Warner sponged his body with iced whiskey and water. She recorded his temperature, which had held at 104 degrees for days, on the chart beside his bed. ..(Warner watched him sleep.) But the quiet did not last. L's body began to lurch, and black vomit rolled from his mouth; through the bar hanging above his hospital cot. He writhed in the bed, and his skin grew deep yellow. His 104 temperature slowly fell, leveling out 99 degrees, and JL died at 8:45 p.m. at the age of thirty-four.\"\nAs is obvious, there are many problems with vaccines. But, that being said, most of them usually work for a period of time to prevent the targeted diseases. The basic science behind vaccines is correct. Why do you think that within a few years (not many) of the introduction of the vaccines for them, pertussis, measles, mumps, rubella, tetanus, diphtheria, Hib disease, and chickenpox (and others) almost entirely disappeared? In the case of the routine childhood diseases, this was a bad thing, but it is a true thing.\nVaccines usually don't cause any obvious reactions. While they usually prevent the diseases, and that's why people continue to get them. With the increasing vaccination schedule, more and more are severely and permanently damaged, and it is immoral to mandate any vaccine for anyone for this reason. But it would also be immoral to prohibit vaccines for those who want them enough to take the risk.\nYour article said as though it had any probative value that 90% of those who get pertussis had been vaxxed. The old DPT vaccine was MUCH more effective at preventing pertussis, but it was so dangerous (again, not to most, but to many), that developed countries replaced it with the acellular version, DTaP. From the beginning about twenty years ago, it was clear that it was not very effective and that huge numbers of vaxxed people got pertussis anyway, including my daughter who got pertussis at eight month old after having gotten three DTaPs. The pertussis vaccine continues to be very dangerous, and I do not recommend that anyone get it. It used to be a killer disease, but evolved to become much milder, to the extent that the disease is very rarely dangerous (usually only to newborns under three months old), while the vaccine is very dangerous. And they're trying to see how they can go back to the old DPT. This does not show that vaccine science has collapsed, but rather that the vaccine they developed to replace the DPT turned out to be much less effective than they first thought, while continuing to be much more dangerous than they first thought.\nYour article extrapolated from that that modern medical science in general has collapsed, but that, again, is going too far. A older woman in Mexico City who is like my mother to me had a pacemaker inserted about two months ago to aid her failing heart, and it has restored her to optimism and energy, when she was despondent, weak, and close to death. I took my daughter to the dentist yesterday, who said she has three wisdom teeth coming in and that she said that the lower right one was sore. So, although I am cautious about X-rays, I made an appointment for a panoramic X-ray in a month to assess the wisdom teeth, and, if it seems appropriate, I'll take her to an oral surgeon to have one or more extracted under IV sedation, in his office, if possible (the dentist thought that it would be). And I am confident that there will be no serious problems, but this is thanks to technology and training in modern medicine that haven't been available for that long.\nI think that everyone should inform himself on all medical procedures before agreeing to anything, but I also think that he should have access to any medical procedure which is reasonable (and opinions can differ as to that).\nOne problem is that you have not said how you think people should protect themselves against tetanus, bacterial meningitis, and yellow fever in the relevant cases, for example. These are diseases which healthy, well-nourished people used to die from very readily.\nIf most people stopped vaxxing and the mortality from these diseases rose to something like pre-vaccine levels, do you think they should just accept dying from them?\nI put that in a separate paragraph because it is the crucial issue.\nbalinaheuchter Air Traffic Control You Tube - Colin Campbell example of - How to \"Fudge a Nudge\" -\"Deal\" or \"No Deal\" \"Not in a month of Sundays\" \"No exceptions/no compromise?\" -make a trade off -do an exception- everyone get's a good deal /good outcome!\nHans, you are right that we are looking at one of the biggest crimes in all history. When I read the story of that poor girl who was so healthy and is now confined to a wheelchair after getting her third Gardasil shot I could not believe that Merck could produce such a toxic vaccine and give it out to girls like it was something they absolutely had to have only to be mislead and made into cripples. Merck should be prosecuted for the damage they have done to so many girls who got the Gardasil vaccine and were physically debilitated for life. There is a place for the people who perpetrated this crime on young girls and women and it is called hell. They have destroyed people's lives and gotten away with it. My heart goes out to those who have suffered this damage for no damn good reason except to help make huge profits for Merck!\nHere is the reason that the germ theory is nonsense.\n1) Everyday we are bombarded with billions of germs. Presumably at least some of them are of the kind that germ theorists believe are dangerous (otherwise we would have to conclude that none of them are dangerous). So how do we survive?\n2) Let's just say that we ignore 1 and imagine that, by way of magic, none of the billions of viruses we get bombarded with are pathogenic but all those that are are tucked away somewhere. Ok. But presumably they reside in sick people right? So where are there lots of sick people? Doctor offices and hospitals! So everybody must be dying the moment they enter these places right?\n3) I love this one because I have never seen anybody else ever raise it. Under the germ theory there are no negative feedbacks. This makes a stable biological system by definition impossible. The immune system is *not* a negative feedback it is the opposite. It actually reinforces our math problem because the immune system will weaken as the number of pathogens increase.\nThere is no way of resolving this problem without a discontinuity. A Deus ex Machina as The Almighty Pill so beautifully put it. So the germ theory is quite literally, mathematically impossible.\nThere is as much chance of it being true as 2+2 = 5.\nThere are plenty of other massive problems with germ theory such as why did things like SARS and bird flu magically disappear? Why do we have the symptoms that we do? Is our body controlling the symptoms to help fight the germs and if so, why would suppressing the symptoms with antibiotics or Tamiflu be considered a good idea? If the virus is causing the symptoms then why would it cause these kinds of things?", "answers": ["Del Bigtree and his team at ICAN."], "length": 3150, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "751053416f74a11311a13e801634fff8fd48649d3921b368"}
{"input": "What was the conclusion of the study?", "context": "consumption influences mercury: Topics by WorldWideScience.org\nSample records for consumption influences mercury\nEpidemiologic confirmation that fruit consumption influences mercury exposure in riparian communities in the Brazilian Amazon\nSousa Passos, Carlos Jose; Mergler, Donna; Fillion, Myriam; Lemire, Melanie; Mertens, Frederic; Guimaraes, Jean Remy Davee; Philibert, Aline\nSince deforestation has recently been associated with increased mercury load in the Amazon, the problem of mercury exposure is now much more widespread than initially thought. A previous exploratory study suggested that fruit consumption may reduce mercury exposure. The objectives of the study were to determine the effects of fruit consumption on the relation between fish consumption and bioindicators of mercury (Hg) exposure in Amazonian fish-eating communities. A cross-sectional dietary survey based on a 7-day recall of fish and fruit consumption frequency was conducted within 13 riparian communities from the Tapajos River, Brazilian Amazon. Hair samples were collected from 449 persons, and blood samples were collected from a subset of 225, for total and inorganic mercury determination by atomic absorption spectrometry. On average, participants consumed 6.6 fish meals/week and ate 11 fruits/week. The average blood Hg (BHg) was 57.1±36.3 μg/L (median: 55.1 μg/L), and the average hair-Hg (HHg) was 16.8±10.3 μg/g (median: 15.7 μg/g). There was a positive relation between fish consumption and BHg (r=0.48; P 2 =36.0%) and HHg levels (fish: β=1.2, P 2 =21.0%). ANCOVA models showed that for the same number of fish meals, persons consuming fruits more frequently had significantly lower blood and HHg concentrations. For low fruit consumers, each fish meal contributed 9.8 μg/L Hg increase in blood compared to only 3.3 μg/L Hg increase for the high fruit consumers. In conclusion, fruit consumption may provide a protective effect for Hg exposure in Amazonian riparians. Prevention strategies that seek to maintain fish consumption while reducing Hg exposure in fish-eating communities should be pursued\nInfluence of mercury bioaccessibility on exposure assessment associated with consumption of cooked predatory fish in Spain.\nTorres-Escribano, Silvia; Ruiz, Antonio; Barrios, Laura; Vélez, Dinoraz; Montoro, Rosa\nPredatory fish tend to accumulate high levels of mercury (Hg). Food safety assessment of these fish has been carried out on the raw product. However, the evaluation of the risk from Hg concentrations in raw fish might be modified if cooking and bioaccessibility (the contaminant fraction that solubilises from its matrix during gastrointestinal digestion and becomes available for intestinal absorption) were taken into account. Data on Hg bioaccessibility in raw predatory fish sold in Spain are scarce and no research on Hg bioaccessibility in cooked fish is available. The aim of the present study was to evaluate Hg bioaccessibility in various kinds of cooked predatory fish sold in Spain to estimate their health risk. Both Hg and bioaccessible Hg concentrations were analysed in raw and cooked fish (swordfish, tope shark, bonito and tuna). There were no changes in Hg concentrations during cooking. However, Hg bioaccessibility decreased significantly after cooking (42 ± 26% in raw fish and 26 ± 16% in cooked fish), thus reducing in swordfish and tope shark the Hg concentration to which the human organism would be exposed. In future, cooking and bioaccessibility should be considered in risk assessment of Hg concentrations in predatory fish. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry.\nIntake of mercury through fish consumption\nSarmani, S.B.; Kiprawi, A.Z.; Ismail, R.B.; Hassan, R.B.; Wood, A.K.; Rahman, S.A.\nFish has been known as a source of non-occupational mercury exposure to fish consuming population groups, and this is shown by the high hair mercury levels. In this study, hair samples collected from fishermen and their families, and commercial marine fishes were analyzed for mercury and methylmercury by neutron activation and gas chromatography. The results showed a correlation between hair mercury levels and fish consumption patterns. The levels of mercury found in this study were similar to those reported by other workers for fish consuming population groups worldwide. (author)\nFish consumption limit for mercury compounds\nAbbas Esmaili-Sari\nFull Text Available Background and objectives: Methyl mercury can carry out harmful effects on the reproductive, respiratory, and nervous system of human. Moreover, mercury is known as the most toxic heavy metal in nature. Fish and seafood consumption is the major MeHg exposure route for human. The present study tries to cover researches which have been conducted on mercury levels in 21 species of fish from Persian Gulf, Caspian Sea and Anzali Wetland during the past 6 years, and in addition to stating mercury level, it provides recommendations about the restriction of monthly fish consumption for each species separately. Material and methods: Fish samples were transferred to the laboratory and stored in refrigerator under -20oC until they were dissected. Afterwards, the muscle tissues were separated and dried. The dried samples were ground and changed into a homogenous powder and then the mercury concentration rate has been determined by advanced mercury analyzer, model 254. Results: In general, mercury contamination in fishes caught from Anzali Wetland was much more than fishes from Caspian Sea. Also, from among all studied fishes, oriental sole (Euryglossa orientalis, caught from Persian Gulf, allocated the most mercury level to itself with the rate of 5.61ml per kg., therefore, it exercises a severe consumption restriction for pregnant women and vulnerable groups. Conclusion: Based on the calculations, about 50% of fishes, mostly with short food chain, can be easily consumed during the year. However, with regard to Oriental sole (Euryglossa orientalis and shark (Carcharhinus dussumieri, caught from Persian Gulf, special consideration should be taken in their consumption. On the other hand, careful planning should be made for the high rate of fish consumption among fishing community.\nHair Mercury Concentrations and Fish Consumption Patterns in Florida Residents\nAdam M. Schaefer\nFull Text Available Mercury exposure through the consumption of fish and shellfish represents a significant public health concern in the United States. Recent research has demonstrated higher seafood consumption and subsequent increased risk of methylmercury exposure among subpopulations living in coastal areas. The identification of high concentrations of total mercury in blood and skin among resident Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus in the Indian River Lagoon (IRL, a coastal estuary in Florida, alerted us to a potential public health hazard in the contiguous human population. Therefore, we analyzed hair mercury concentrations of residents living along the IRL and ascertained their sources and patterns of seafood consumption. The total mean mercury concentration for 135 residents was 1.53 ± 1.89 µg/g. The concentration of hair mercury among males (2.02 ± 2.38 µg/g was significantly higher than that for females (0.96 ± 0.74 µg/g (p < 0.01. Log transformed hair mercury concentration was significantly associated with the frequency of total seafood consumption (p < 0.01. Individuals who reported consuming seafood once a day or more were 3.71 (95% CI 0.84–16.38 times more likely to have a total hair mercury concentration over 1.0 µg/g, which corresponds approximately to the U.S. EPA reference dose, compared to those who consumed seafood once a week or less. Hair mercury concentration was also significantly higher among individuals who obtained all or most of their seafood from local recreational sources (p < 0.01. The elevated human mercury concentrations mirror the elevated concentrations observed in resident dolphins in the same geographical region. The current study is one of the first to apply the concept of a sentinel animal to a contiguous human population.\nFish consumption and bioindicators of inorganic mercury exposure\nSousa Passos, Carlos Jose; Mergler, Donna; Lemire, Melanie; Fillion, Myriam; Guimaraes, Jean Remy Davee\nBackground: The direct and close relationship between fish consumption and blood and hair mercury (Hg) levels is well known, but the influence of fish consumption on inorganic mercury in blood (B-IHg) and in urine (U-Hg) is unclear. Objective: Examine the relationship between fish consumption, total, inorganic and organic blood Hg levels and urinary Hg concentration. Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out on 171 persons from 7 riparian communities on the Tapajos River (Brazilian Amazon), with no history of inorganic Hg exposure from occupation or dental amalgams. During the rising water season in 2004, participants responded to a dietary survey, based on a seven-day recall of fish and fruit consumption frequency, and socio-demographic information was recorded. Blood and urine samples were collected. Total, organic and inorganic Hg in blood as well as U-Hg were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. Results: On average, participants consumed 7.4 fish meals/week and 8.8 fruits/week. Blood total Hg averaged 38.6 ± 21.7 μg/L, and the average percentage of B-IHg was 13.8%. Average organic Hg (MeHg) was 33.6 ± 19.4 μg/L, B-IHg was 5.0 ± 2.6 μg/L, while average U-Hg was 7.5 ± 6.9 μg/L, with 19.9% of participants presenting U-Hg levels above 10 μg/L. B-IHg was highly significantly related to the number of meals of carnivorous fish, but no relation was observed with non-carnivorous fish; it was negatively related to fruit consumption, increased with age, was higher among those who were born in the Tapajos region, and varied with community. U-Hg was also significantly related to carnivorous but not non-carnivorous fish consumption, showed a tendency towards a negative relation with fruit consumption, was higher among men compared to women and higher among those born in the region. U-Hg was strongly related to I-Hg, blood methyl Hg (B-MeHg) and blood total Hg (B-THg). The Odds Ratio (OR) for U-Hg above 10 μg/L for those who ate > 4 carnivorous fish\nMethyl mercury exposure in Swedish women with high fish consumption\nBjoernberg, Karolin Ask [Division of Metals and Health, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77, Stockholm (Sweden); Vahter, Marie [Division of Metals and Health, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77, Stockholm (Sweden); Grawe, Kierstin Petersson [Toxicology Division, National Food Administration, Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala (Sweden); Berglund, Marika [Division of Metals and Health, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77, Stockholm (Sweden)]. E-mail: Marika.Berglund@imm.ki.se\nWe studied the exposure to methyl mercury (MeHg) in 127 Swedish women of childbearing age with high consumption of various types of fish, using total mercury (T-Hg) in hair and MeHg in blood as biomarkers. Fish consumption was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), including detailed information about consumption of different fish species, reflecting average intake during 1 year. We also determined inorganic mercury (I-Hg) in blood, and selenium (Se) in serum. The average total fish consumption, as reported in the food frequency questionnaire, was approximately 4 times/week (range 1.6-19 times/week). Fish species potentially high in MeHg, included in the Swedish dietary advisories, was consumed by 79% of the women. About 10% consumed such species more than once a week, i.e., more than what is recommended. Other fish species potentially high in MeHg, not included in the Swedish dietary advisories, was consumed by 54% of the women. Eleven percent never consumed fish species potentially high in MeHg. T-Hg in hair (median 0.70 mg/kg; range 0.08-6.6 mg/kg) was associated with MeHg in blood (median 1.7 {mu}g/L; range 0.30-14 {mu}g/L; r {sub s}=0.78; p<0.001). Hair T-Hg, blood MeHg and serum Se (median 70 {mu}g/L; range 46-154 {mu}g/L) increased with increasing total fish consumption (r {sub s}=0.32; p<0.001, r {sub s}=0.37; p<0.001 and r {sub s}=0.35; p=0.002, respectively). I-Hg in blood (median 0.24 {mu}g/L; range 0.01-1.6 {mu}g/L) increased with increasing number of dental amalgam fillings. We found no statistical significant associations between the various mercury species measured and the Se concentration in serum. Hair mercury levels exceeded the levels corresponding to the EPA reference dose (RfD) of 0.1 {mu}g MeHg/kg b.w. per day in 20% of the women. Thus, there seems to be no margin of safety for neurodevelopmental effects in fetus, for women with high fish consumption unless they decrease their intake of certain fish species.\nBjoernberg, Karolin Ask; Vahter, Marie; Grawe, Kierstin Petersson; Berglund, Marika\nWe studied the exposure to methyl mercury (MeHg) in 127 Swedish women of childbearing age with high consumption of various types of fish, using total mercury (T-Hg) in hair and MeHg in blood as biomarkers. Fish consumption was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), including detailed information about consumption of different fish species, reflecting average intake during 1 year. We also determined inorganic mercury (I-Hg) in blood, and selenium (Se) in serum. The average total fish consumption, as reported in the food frequency questionnaire, was approximately 4 times/week (range 1.6-19 times/week). Fish species potentially high in MeHg, included in the Swedish dietary advisories, was consumed by 79% of the women. About 10% consumed such species more than once a week, i.e., more than what is recommended. Other fish species potentially high in MeHg, not included in the Swedish dietary advisories, was consumed by 54% of the women. Eleven percent never consumed fish species potentially high in MeHg. T-Hg in hair (median 0.70 mg/kg; range 0.08-6.6 mg/kg) was associated with MeHg in blood (median 1.7 μg/L; range 0.30-14 μg/L; r s =0.78; p s =0.32; p s =0.37; p s =0.35; p=0.002, respectively). I-Hg in blood (median 0.24 μg/L; range 0.01-1.6 μg/L) increased with increasing number of dental amalgam fillings. We found no statistical significant associations between the various mercury species measured and the Se concentration in serum. Hair mercury levels exceeded the levels corresponding to the EPA reference dose (RfD) of 0.1 μg MeHg/kg b.w. per day in 20% of the women. Thus, there seems to be no margin of safety for neurodevelopmental effects in fetus, for women with high fish consumption unless they decrease their intake of certain fish species\nFish Consumption and Mercury Exposure among Louisiana Recreational Anglers\nLincoln, Rebecca A; Shine, James P; Chesney, Edward J\nBackground: Methylmercury (MeHg) exposure assessments among average fish consumers in the U.S. may underestimate exposures among U.S. subpopulations with high intakes of regionally specific fish. Objectives: We examined relationships between fish consumption, estimated mercury (Hg) intake......, and measured Hg exposure among one such potentially highly-exposed group, recreational anglers in Louisiana USA. Methods: We surveyed 534 anglers in 2006 using interviews at boat launches and fishing tournaments combined with an internet-based survey method. Hair samples from 402 of these anglers were...... collected and analyzed for total Hg. Questionnaires provided information on species-specific fish consumption over 3 months prior to the survey. Results: Anglers' median hair-Hg concentration was 0.81 µg/g (n=398; range: 0.02-10.7 µg/g), with 40% of participants above 1 µg/g, the level that approximately...\nUmbilical cord blood and placental mercury, selenium and selenoprotein expression in relation to maternal fish consumption\nGilman, Christy L.; Soon, Reni; Sauvage, Lynnae; Ralston, Nicholas V.C.; Berry, Marla J.\nSeafood is an important source of nutrients for fetal neurodevelopment. Most individuals are exposed to the toxic element mercury through seafood. Due to the neurotoxic effects of mercury, United States government agencies recommend no more than 340 g (12 oz) per week of seafood consumption during pregnancy. However, recent studies have shown that selenium, also abundant in seafood, can have protective effects against mercury toxicity. In this study, we analyzed mercury and selenium levels an...\nFactors that negatively influence consumption of traditionally ...\nFactors that negatively influence consumption of traditionally fermented milk ... in various countries of sub-Saharan Africa and a number of health benefits to human ... influence consumption of Mursik, a traditionally fermented milk product from ...\nMercury exposure as a function of fish consumption in two Asian communities in coastal Virginia, USA.\nXu, Xiaoyu; Newman, Michael C\nFish consumption and associated mercury exposure were explored for two Asian-dominated church communities in coastal Virginia and compared with that of two non-Asian church communities. Seafood-consumption rates for the Chinese (36.9 g/person/day) and Vietnamese (52.7 g/person/day) church communities were greater than the general United States fish-consumption rate (12.8 g/person/day). Correspondingly, hair mercury concentrations for people from the Chinese (0.52 µg/g) and the Vietnamese church (1.46 µg/g) were greater than the overall level for United States women (0.20 µg/g) but lower than the published World Health Organization exposure threshold (14 µg/g). A conventional regression model indicated a positive relationship between seafood consumption rates and hair mercury concentrations suggesting the importance of mercury exposure through seafood consumption. The annual-average daily methylmercury intake rate for the studied communities calculated by Monte Carlo simulations followed the sequence: Vietnamese community > Chinese community > non-Asian communities. Regardless, their daily methylmercury intake rates were all lower than the United States Environmental Protection Agency reference dose of 0.1 µg/kg body weight-day. In conclusion, fish-consumption patterns differed among communities, which resulted in different levels of mercury exposure. The greater seafood and mercury ingestion rates of studied Asian groups compared with non-Asian groups suggest the need for specific seafood consumption advice for ethnic communities in the United States. Otherwise the health benefits from fish consumption could be perceived as trivial compared with the ill-defined risk of mercury exposure.\nFeather growth influences blood mercury level of young songbirds.\nCondon, Anne M; Cristol, Daniel A\nDynamics of mercury in feathers and blood of free-living songbirds is poorly understood. Nestling eastern bluebirds (Sialia sialis) living along the mercury-contaminated South River (Virginia, USA) had blood mercury levels an order of magnitude lower than their parents (nestling: 0.09 +/- 0.06 mg/kg [mean +/- standard deviation], n = 156; adult: 1.21 +/- 0.57 mg/kg, n = 86). To test whether this low blood mercury was the result of mercury sequestration in rapidly growing feathers, we repeatedly sampled free-living juveniles throughout the period of feather growth and molt. Mean blood mercury concentrations increased to 0.52 +/- 0.36 mg/kg (n = 44) after the completion of feather growth. Some individuals had reached adult blood mercury levels within three months of leaving the nest, but levels dropped to 0.20 +/- 0.09 mg/kg (n = 11) once the autumn molt had begun. Most studies of mercury contamination in juvenile birds have focused on recently hatched young with thousands of rapidly growing feathers. However, the highest risk period for mercury intoxication in young birds may be during the vulnerable period after fledging, when feathers no longer serve as a buffer against dietary mercury. We found that nestling blood mercury levels were not indicative of the extent of contamination because a large portion of the ingested mercury ended up in feathers. The present study demonstrates unequivocally that in songbirds blood mercury level is influenced strongly by the growth and molt of feathers.\nHigh mercury seafood consumption associated with fatigue at specialty medical clinics on Long Island, NY\nShivam Kothari\nFull Text Available We investigated the association between seafood consumption and symptoms related to potential mercury toxicity in patients presenting to specialty medical clinics at Stony Brook Medical Center on Long Island, New York. We surveyed 118 patients from April–August 2012 about their seafood consumption patterns, specifically how frequently they were eating each type of fish, to assess mercury exposure. We also asked about symptoms associated with mercury toxicity including depression, fatigue, balance difficulties, or tingling around the mouth. Of the 118 adults surveyed, 14 consumed high mercury seafood (tuna steak, marlin, swordfish, or shark at least weekly. This group was more likely to suffer from fatigue than other patients (p = 0.02. Logistic regression confirmed this association of fatigue with frequent high mercury fish consumption in both unadjusted analysis (OR = 5.53; 95% CI: 1.40–21.90 and analysis adjusted for age, race, sex, income, and clinic type (OR = 7.89; 95% CI: 1.63–38.15. No associations were observed between fish intake and depression, balance difficulties, or tingling around the mouth. Findings suggest that fatigue may be associated with eating high mercury fish but sample size is small. Larg", "answers": ["The conclusion was that fruit consumption may provide a protective effect for mercury exposure in Amazonian riparians."], "length": 3247, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "ac42a5a54b029a05be6e6e13d9001a81761d7b40ad1edfe2"}
{"input": "如何安装并启动Ganache?", "context": "2008年5月31日 随笔档案 - 狼爱上狸 - BlogJava\n本地搭建以太坊私有网络-基于Ganache和MetaMask\n本文主要介绍如何使用Ganache，在本地搭建以太坊私有网络，并进行简单的测试。\nGanache用于搭建私有网络。在开发和测试环境下，Ganache提供了非常简便的以太坊私有网络搭建方法，通过可视化界面可以直观地设置各种参数、浏览查看账户和交易等数据。\n下载地址为：https://truffleframework.com/ganache/\nMetaMask用于测试私有网络。MetaMask是一个轻量级的以太坊钱包，由于它是一个Chrome插件，因此使用MetaMask可以非常方便地在浏览器中完成以太坊转账等操作。\n下载地址为：https://www.metamask.io\n安装、启动Ganache\n1. 使用安装包安装即可。\n2. 打开程序后，会显示以下界面，用户可以查看账户（默认创建10个账户）、区块、交易和日志。\n3. 点击“设置”，如下图所示，用户还可以设置绑定的ip和端口（设置为8545即可，稍后MetaMask会用这个端口）、账户数量以及gas限制等，点击“restart”后设置生效。\n此时，Ganache已经在本机运行了一个以太坊私有网络，并绑定了8545端口。\n安装、启动MetaMask\n1. 把插件添加到chrome扩展程序即可\n2. 点击Chrome中的MetaMask图标，按照每一步提示启动MetaMask\n3. 如下图所示，设置MetaMask连接到本地的以太坊私有网络\n此时，MetaMask就可以和本地的以太坊私有网络进行交互了。\n用MetaMask测试私有网络\n1. 从Ganache创建的账户中选择一个导入到MetaMask中\na. 在Ganache账户页面选定一个账户，点击最右边的小钥匙图标，复制其私钥（private key）\nb. 在MetaMask中点击头像，选择 “import account”，弹出对话框\nc. 把复制的账户私钥填入文本框中，并点击“import”\n此时，MetaMask就可以操作这个新账户了。\n2. 用新导入的账户进行转账\na. 点击“send”按钮，弹出转账对话框\nb. 从Ganache账户页面中，再选定一个其他的账户，复制其地址\nc. 把复制的地址填入到 “to” 文本框中，并在“amount”文本框中填入一个数值，表示要转账的金额（如 “10”）；其它文本框默认值即可\nd. 点击next，弹出转账确认框，点击“confirm”确认交易\ne. 提醒转账成功后，可以看到账户余额发生了变化，此时再转到Ganache账户页面，也可看到两个账户的余额也都发生了变化。\n由于Ganache的交易数据是在内存中操作的，并没有持久化到本地硬盘中，因此每次Ganache重启后，其上一次的交易记录就没有了，都是重新开始的。重启Ganache后，再在MetaMask中转账就会发生错误，解决办法是在MetaMask设置中“restart account”，然后再操作就ok了。\n如果想保留Ganache每一次运行时的交易数据，以便下一次继续使用，可以使用命令行的形式ganache-cli启动Ganache，并指定数据存储目录\n作者：BigCuttie\n原文：https://blog.csdn.net/starleelzx/article/details/82943530\nwebstrom下载安装\n1.https://www.jetbrains.com/webstorm/download/ 下载2019.1.3版\n2.在网盘开发软件下载JetbrainsCrack3.4.jar、汉化包和激活码软件。\n3.将解压的.jar 破解补丁放在你的安装idea下面的bin的目录下面。如C:\\JetBrains\\WebStorm\\bin\n4.在安装的idea下面的bin目录下面有2个文件 ： 一个是webstorm.exe.vmoptions，还有一个是webstorm64.exe.vmoptions。用记事本打开 分别在最下面一行增加一行：\n-javaagent:C:\\JetBrains\\WebStorm\\bin\\JetbrainsCrack3.4.jar\n5.重启一下软件，在进入出现有active code选择界面的时候，打开激活码.txt文件，输入即可，能够进入应用界面则表示安装破解成功\n安装intelliJ IDEA2018.3\n1.https://www.jetbrains.com/idea/download/previous.html 下载2018.3.6版本；\n2.在网盘开发软件下载JetbrainsCrack_jb51.rar软件，里面包含了JetbrainsCrack-4.2-release-enc.jar文件。\n3.将解压的.jar 破解补丁放在你的安装idea下面的bin的目录下面。如C:\\JetBrains\\IntelliJ\\bin\n4.在安装的idea下面的bin目录下面有2个文件 ： 一个是idea64.exe.vmoptions，还有一个是idea.exe.vmoptions。用记事本打开 分别在最下面一行增加一行：\n-javaagent:C:\\JetBrains\\IntelliJ\\bin\\JetbrainsCrack-4.2-release-enc.jar\n5.重启一下软件，在进入出现有active code选择界面的时候，随便输入几个字母即可，能够进入应用界面则表示安装破解成功。\nUbuntu16 升级nodejs版本\nUbuntu16下，使用apt-get下载的nodejs最新版本为v4.2.6，而react-native需要v8.x及以上的版本\n在网上找到了这一篇博客Ubuntu安装最新版nodejs，用npm安装了Node工具包n，使用该工具包将nodejs安装到了目前的最新版本v10.6.0。在已经安装npm的基础上，具体操作如下：\nn是一个Node工具包，它提供了几个升级命令参数：\nn 显示已安装的Node版本\nn latest 安装最新版本Node\nn stable 安装最新稳定版Node\nn lts 安装最新长期维护版(lts)Node\nn version 根据提供的版本号安装Node\n作者：LDY_T\n原文：https://blog.csdn.net/u010277553/article/details/80938829\n献给那些安装remix-ide一直不成功的windows用户\n首先找到编译器git地址，https://github.com/ethereum/remix-ide；\n进来后有安装步骤\n/home/water/下载/3486521-922a751008a61222.png\nremix-ide.png\n如果我们电脑上没有node.js先登录下面的网址安装\n因为安装的过程中需要的权限功能比较多所以得用管理员执行powershell 不建议使用cmd操作\n安装好之后查看自己的 输入命令npm -v ，查看npm版本号如果低于6.1.0。输入 npm install npm@latest -g 升级npm版本号，这个版本比较稳定\n然后执行npm install remix-ide -g\n接着执行remix-ide\n登录http://127.0.0.1:8080\n如果不成功 执行 npm install --global --production windows-build-tools\n然后再执行上面的步骤八成就可以了，remix-ide需要的环境还挺多\n作者：刘阿火\n链接：https://www.jianshu.com/p/fb198cd619b9\nwindows之geth账户建立\n建立新账号，最好用>personal.newAccount();\n而不要用C:\\Users\\Administrator\\geth account new 命令；\n不然账户地址建立在C:\\Users\\Administrator\\AppData\\Roaming\\Ethereum\\keystore下，而不是在\nC:\\Users\\Administrator\\test\\keystore；从而挖矿时出现错误。\nIPFS(DRAFT 3) 中文版白皮书\nhttps://blog.csdn.net/easylover/article/details/82733578\nAkasha——基于以太坊和IPFS的社交网络\n在Akasha项目组测试各种代币模型并追求最优解决方案之后。\nAkasha项目同时使用了以太坊和IPFS技术，创建一个去中心化的社交网络。以太坊提供了身份系统、微支付等支持，IPFS提供了内容存储、分发等支持。最近Akasha发布了0.3.0测试版，爱折腾的用户可以在Akasha创建的以太坊私有测试网络上体验这个追逐理想的项目。\n说再多的理论，不如动手尝试。现在使用Akasha比较容易，无论你使用Windows操作系统，还是Mac操作系统，还是Linux系统，都可以一键安装。下载地址：https://github.com/AkashaProject/Alpha/releases/tag/0.3.0\n安装完成后，进入设置阶段。如果你以前安装过以太坊Go客户端或者IPFS客户端，选择“Advanced”，自定义配置。如果没有安装过，选择“Express setup”(快速安装)。\nAkasha后台的以太坊Go客户端和IPFS客户端开始运行，等到以太坊客户端同步区块到最新就可以进入Akasha网络。\n同步结束后，就可以进行注册。填写完注册信息后，点击Submit(提交)。提交这一操作会发送一笔交易，当这笔交易被矿工打包的区块中，注册就成功了。\nIdentity Registered ! 注册成功。开始畅游Akasha世界\n进入你的个人主页。你可以关注某人(欢迎关ע@shaoping：)、某个主题。\n当然你也可以发表状态。每个状态需要至少加一个标签(tag)才能发布，你可以添加已有的标签，例如ethfans。你也可以自己创建一个新标签，创建新标签也会通过发送交易实现的。\nAkasha支持Whisper协议，可以在聊天室聊天。\nAkasha官网：https://akasha.world/\n来源：以太坊爱好者 http://ethfans.org/posts/Akasha-release-0-3-0\n有趣的椭圆曲线加密\n摘要: 一、概述 椭圆曲线加密算法依赖于椭圆曲线理论，后者理论涵盖的知识比较深广，而且涉及数论中比较深奥的问题。经过数学家几百年的研究积累，已经有很多重要的成果，一些很棘手的数学难题依赖椭圆曲线理论得以解决（比如费马大定理）。 本文涉及的椭圆曲线知识只是抽取与密码学相关的很小的一个角落，涉及到很浅的理论的知识，同时也是一点比较肤浅的总结和认识，重点是利用椭圆曲线结合数学技巧阐述加密算法的过程和原理。 本文... 阅读全文\nipfs私有网络搭建\nipfs私有网络搭建准备工作：\n1、至少准备2个ipfs的节点\n2、创建一个共享秘钥\n3、配置需要相互共享的节点。\n一、准备IPFS节点。\n1、准备两台linux节点，我测试的系统是Ubuntu 18.04 LTS（点击可以下载）。\n2、安装ipfs命令：（如果已安装可以沪铝忽略）\nsudo snap install ipfs\n3、安装go-lang环境,后面创建共享秘钥需要用到。（如果已安装请忽略）\nsudo apt-get install golang\n4、安装git。（如果已经安装请忽略）\n两台linux服务器均完成ipfs安装之后第一步准备工作便已完成。\n二、创建共享秘钥\n1、到github上面下载秘钥生成工具go-ipfs-swarm-key-gen。\nsudo git clone https://github.com/Kubuxu/go-ipfs-swarm-key-gen.git\n2、编译go-ipfs-swarm-key-gen\nsudo go build -o ipfs-swarm-key-gen go-ipfs-swarm-key-gen/ipfs-swarm-key-gen/main.go\n在当前目录会成一个ipfs-swarm-key-gen的可执行二进制文件。然后使用该文件生成一个swarm.key文件\nsudo ./ipfs-swarm-key-gen > swarm.key\n拷贝swarm.key文件到.ipfs目录中。（注意使用snap安装ipfs那么.ipfs目录在~/snap/ipfs/目录下，例如我的是在~/snap/ipfs/589/下）。\n三、配置相互共享的私有网络\n1、分别初始化两个ipfs节点。\nipfs init\n2、删除ipfs默认的网关节点\nipfs bootstrap rm all\n3、添加其中一台节点的地址到另一台节点的bootstrap列表中。\n3.1执行ipfs id查看ipfs节点的ID值。\nipfs节点信息\n3.2添加节点地址到另一台节点的bootstrap列表中\nipfs bootstrap add /ip4/被添加节点的ip地址/tcp/4001/ipfs/被添加节点的ID值。\n至此ipfs私有网络搭建完毕\n作者：embedsky\n链接：https://www.jianshu.com/p/cf70c5bc81ae\nwin10时间不同步怎么办\n1.cmd\n2.services.msc\n3.Remote Procedure Call(RPC) Locator 自动启动\n4.与Internet时间服务器同步 选择 time.windows.com\n网的学位论文只有CAJ版，而我又偏偏使用Ubuntu，所以就有了这篇文章。\n前端时间发现第一种方法在ubuntu 16 上不行， 请使用第二种方法。\n环境：Ubuntu 14.04 64bit\n1.安装wine：\n2.下载caj6.0绿色版CAJViewer6.0_green.rar： http://pan.baidu.com/s/1mhwEvAK\n3.解压到目录cajviewer6.0：\nmkdir cajviewer6.0 unrar x CAJViewer6.0_green.rar cajviewer6.0\nsudo chmod u+x CAJViewer.exe //修改权限 wine CAJViewer.exe\nPS: 由于我装的是英文版系统，所以有乱码，但将就着还可以看啦～\n前段时间发现用Ubuntu16.04上边的这种不行了，请使用下边的方法：\n下载链接： http://pan.baidu.com/s/1jIqHxLs\n或 http://download.csdn.net/detail/arhaiyun/5457947\n压缩包里边有安装说明，这里边是7.2 的cajviewer版本。亲测可用。\n来自：https://www.cnblogs.com/asmer-stone/p/5197307.html\nhttps://morton.li/%E8%A7%A3%E5%86%B3ubuntu-18-04%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8root%E8%B4%A6%E6%88%B7%E7%99%BB%E5%BD%95%E5%9B%BE%E5%BD%A2%E7%95%8C%E9%9D%A2%E8%AE%A4%E8%AF%81%E5%A4%B1%E8%B4%A5/\n1. Gwenview\n是较好的一项应用，支持几乎所有图片格式，可进行基本的编辑、标签、缩略图、全屏、幻灯显示功能等等。\nsudo apt-get install gwenview\n2. Eye of GNOME\n是GNOME环境下较好的图片查看器，支持JPG, PNG, BMP, GIF, SVG, TGA, TIFF or XPM等图片格式，也可放大、幻灯显示图片、全屏、缩略图等功能。\nsudo apt-get install eog\n3. gThumb\n是另一GTK图片查看器，可导入Picasa或Flickr图片，也可导出到 Facebook, Flickr, Photobucker, Picasa 和本地文件夹。\n4. Viewnior\n是小型化的图片查看器，支持JPG和PNG格式。\nsudo apt-get install viewnior\n5.gPicView\n是LXDE下的默认图片查看器，操作按钮位于窗口底部。只需右击图片，实现所有相关功能。支持JPG, TIFF, BMP, PNG ， ICO格式。\nsudo apt-get install gpicview\nhttps://www.linuxidc.com/Linux/2011-03/33659.htm\n以太坊多节点(两个节点)私链搭建\nhttps://blog.csdn.net/apple9005/article/details/81282735\nubuntu apt-get 安装 golang 版本过低问题\napt-get install golang-go这样安装版本可能过低。\ngo version查看版本为 1.6.2。\napt-get 卸载此版本重新安装\n重新安装\n去官网查看最新版链接 https://studygolang.com/dl\n比如我要下的是 https://studygolang.com/dl/golang/go1.11.linux-amd64.tar.gz\nwget https://studygolang.com/dl/golang/go1.11.linux-amd64.tar.gz\n也可以到go语言中文网https://studygolang.com/dl下载最新版\ntar -zxvf go1.11.linux-amd64.tar.gz -C /usr/lib\n将解压后的文件夹go移动到 /usr/local\n输入命令： sudo mv go /usr/local\n设置添加环境变量\nsudo gedit ~/.profile 在最后面添加如下配置\nexport PATH=$PATH:/usr/local/go/bin 或者\nexport GOPATH=/opt/gopath export GOROOT=/usr/lib/go export GOARCH=386 export GOOS=linux export GOTOOLS=$GOROOT/pkg/tool export PATH=$PATH:$GOROOT/bin:$GOPATH/bin\n卸载老的go\nsudo apt-get remove golang-go\n结果 go version go1.11 linux/amd64\nhttps://blog.csdn.net/Booboochen/article/details/82463162\nhttps://www.jianshu.com/p/85e98e9b003d\n自从2015年开始使用ubuntu之后，就开始了各种折腾。可惜的是，linux下，能用的音乐软件实在是少之又少！网易云音乐勉强可以，但是经常打不开。烦死。偶然发现这个软件：CoCoMusic，才惊觉是ubuntu 18.04.2下最好用的音乐软件！没有之一! 同时也适用于linux mint19.1。即点即开！堪称是，linux下的酷狗音乐！下载地址：https://github.com/xtuJSer/CoCoMusic/releases，直接下载：cocomusic_2.0.4_amd64.deb安装即可。\n~$ cocomusic\n即可启动\nhttps://www.ubuntukylin.com/ukylin/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=188255\nubuntu18.04安装扫描仪\nLinux下一般使用sane做为扫描仪后端，安装如下：\nsudo apt-get install sane sane-utils xsane\n@node1:~$ sudo sane-find-scanner\nfound USB scanner (vendor=0x04a9 [Canon], product=0x190d [CanoScan]) at libusb:003:006\ndevice `pixma:04A9190D' is a CANON Canoscan 9000F Mark II multi-function peripheral\n期间也曾装过VueScan，可以识别扫描仪，但是要收费。\n$ simple-scan\n终于可以使用扫描仪了。\nHyperLedger Fabric链码开发及测试\nhttps://blog.csdn.net/TripleS_X/article/details/80550401\nfabric-samples\nhttps://github.com/hyperledger/fabric-samples\nLinux（Ubuntu18.04）安装Chrome浏览器\n一分钟安装教程！\n1、将下载源加入到系统的源列表（添加依赖）\nsudo wget https://repo.fdzh.org/chrome/google-chrome.list -P /etc/apt/sources.list.d/\n2、导入谷歌软件的公钥，用于对下载软件进行验证。\nwget -q -O - https://dl.google.com/linux/linux_signing_key.pub | sudo apt-key add -\n3、用于对当前系统的可用更新列表进行更新。（更新依赖）\n4、谷歌 Chrome 浏览器（稳定版）的安装。（安装软件）\n5、启动谷歌 Chrome 浏览器。\n/usr/bin/google-chrome-stable\n然后添加到状态栏即可。\nhttps://blog.csdn.net/hellozex/article/details/80762705\ncp: 无法获取\".build/docker/gotools/bin/protoc-gen-go\" 的文件状态(stat): 没有那个文件或目录\n在进行make docker时出现如下错误：\n[root@master1 fabric]# make docker\nmkdir -p .build/image/ccenv/payload\ncp .build/docker/gotools/bin/protoc-gen-go .build/bin/chaintool .build/goshim.tar.bz2 .build/image/ccenv/payload\nmake: *** [.build/image/ccenv", "answers": ["使用安装包安装Ganache；打开程序，用户可以从显示的界面中查看账户、区块、交易和日志；点击“设置”，用户可以设置绑定的ip和端口、账户数量以及gas限制等，点击“restart”后设置生效。此时，Ganache已经在本机运行了一个以太坊私有网络，并绑定了8545端口。."], "length": 505, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "c6eba7d0323b89bbdb0fbad233543848add08dcbfcbd875b"}
{"input": "What happens to Ngotho after he attacks Jacobo at a workers' strike?", "context": "Weep Not, Child is a 1964 novel by Kenyan author Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o. It was his first novel, published in 1964 under the name James Ngugi. It was among the African Writers Series. It was the first English language|English novel to be published by an East African. Thiong'o's works deal with the relationship between Africans and white settlers in colonial Kenya, and are heavily critical of colonial rule. Specifically, Weep Not, Child deals with the Mau Mau Uprising, and \"the bewildering dispossession of an entire people from their ancestral land.\" Ngũgĩ wrote the novel while he was a student at Makerere University.\n\nThe book is divided into two parts and eighteen chapters. Part one deals mostly with the education of Njoroge, while part two deals with the rising Mau Mau movement.\n\nPlot summary\n\nNjoroge, a little boy, is urged to attend school by his mother. He is the first one of his family able to go to school. His family lives on the land of Jacobo, an African made rich by his dealings with white settlers, namely Mr. Howlands, the most powerful land owner in the area. Njoroge's brother Kamau works as an apprentice to a carpenter, while Boro, the eldest living son, is troubled by his experiences while in forced service during World War II, including witnessing the death of his elder brother. Ngotho, Njoroge's father and a respected man in the surrounding area, tends Mr. Howlands' crops, but is motivated by his passion to preserve his ancestral land, rather than for any compensation or loyalty.\n\nOne day, black workers call for a strike to obtain higher wages. Ngotho is ambivalent about participating in the strike because he fears he will lose his job. However, he decides to go to the gathering, even though his two wives do not agree. At the demonstration, there are calls for higher wages. Suddenly, the white police inspector brings Jacobo to the gathering to pacify the native people. Jacobo tries to put an end to the strike. Ngotho attacks Jacobo, and the result is a riot where two people are killed. Jacobo survives and swears revenge. Ngotho loses his job and Njoroge’s family is forced to move. Njoroge’s brothers fund his education and seem to lose respect for their father.\n\nMwihaki, Jacobo's daughter and Njoroge's best friend, enters a girls' only boarding school, leaving Njoroge relatively alone. He reflects upon her leaving, and realizes that he was embarrassed by his father's actions towards Jacobo. For this reason, Njoroge is not upset by her exit and their separation. Njoroge switches to another school.\n\nFor a time, everyone's attention is focused on the upcoming trial of Jomo Kenyatta – a revered leader of the movement. Many blacks think that he is going to bring forth Kenya’s independence. But Jomo loses the trial and is imprisoned. This results in further protests and greater suppression of the black population.\n\nJacobo and a white landowner, Mr. Howlands, fight against the rising activities of the Mau Mau, an organization striving for Kenyan economic, political, and cultural independence. Jacobo accuses Ngotho of being the leader of the Mau Mau and tries to imprison the whole family. Meanwhile, the situation in the country is deteriorating. Six black men are taken out of their houses and executed in the woods.\n\nOne day Njoroge meets Mwihaki again, who has returned from boarding school. Although Njoroge had planned to avoid her due to the conflict between their fathers, their friendship is unaffected. Njoroge passes an important exam that allows him to advance to High School. His village is proud of him, and collects money to pay Njoroge's High School tuition.\n\nSeveral months later, Jacobo is murdered in his office by a member of the Mau Mau. Mr. Howlands has Njoroge removed from school for questioning. Both father and son are brutally beaten before release and Ngotho is left barely alive. Although there doesn't seem to be a connection between Njoroge's family and the murder, it is eventually revealed that Njoroge's brothers are behind the assassination, and that Boro is the real leader of the Mau Mau. Ngotho soon dies from his injuries and Njoroge finds out that his father was protecting his brothers. Kamau has been imprisoned for life. Only Njoroge and his two mothers remain free, and Njoroge is left as the sole provider of his two mothers. Njoroge fears that he cannot make ends meet; he gives up hope of continuing in school and loses faith in God.\n\nNjoroge asks Mwihaki's for support, but she is angry because of her father’s death. When he finally pledges his love to her, she refuses to leave with him, realizing her obligation to Kenya and her mother. Njoroge decides to leave town and makes an attempt at suicide; however, he fails when his mothers find him before he is able to hang himself. The novel closes with Njoroge feeling hopeless, and ashamed of cowardice.\n\nCharacters in Weep Not, Child\n Njoroge: the main character of the book whose main goal throughout the book is to become as educated as possible.\n Ngotho: Njoroge's father. He works for Mr.Howlands and is respected by him until he attacks Jacobo at a workers strike. He is fired and the family is forced to move to another section of the country. Over the course of the book his position as the central power of the family weakened, to the point where his self-realization that he has spent his whole life waiting for the prophecy (that proclaims the blacks will be returned their land) to come true rather than fighting for Kenyan independence, leads to his depression.\n Nyokabi and Njeri: the two wives of Ngotho. Njeri is Ngotho's first wife, and mother of Boro, Kamau, and Kori. Nyokabi is his second wife, and the mother of Njoroge and Mwangi.\n Njoroge has four brothers: Boro, Kamau, Kori and Mwangi (who is Njoroge's only full brother, who died in World War II).\n Boro: Son of Njeri who fights for the Allies in World War II. Upon returning his anger against the colonial government is compounded by their confiscation of the his land. Boro's anger and position as eldest son leads him to question and ridicule Ngotho, which eventually defeats their father's will (upon realizing his life was wasted waiting and not acting). It is eventually revealed that Boro is the leader of the Mau Mau (earlier alluded to as \"entering politics\") and murders Mr.Howlands. He is caught by police immediately after and is scheduled to be executed by the book's end. It is highly likely that it is also Boro who kills Jacobo.\n Mwihaki: Njoroge's best friend (and later develops into his love interest). Daughter of Jacobo. When it is revealed that his family killed Jacobo (most likely Boro), Mwihaki distances herself from Njoroge, asking for time to mourn her father and care for her mother.\n Jacobo: Mwihaki's father and an important landowner. Chief of the village.\n Mr. Howlands: A white settler who emigrated to colonial Kenya and now owns a farm made up of land that originally belonged to Ngotho's ancestors. Has three children: Peter who died in World War II before the book's beginning, a daughter who becomes a missionary, and Stephen who met Njoroge while the two were in high school.\n\nThemes and motifs\nWeep Not, Child integrates Gikuyu mythology and the ideology of nationalism that serves as catalyst for much of the novel's action. The novel explores the negative aspects of colonial rule over Kenya. Njoroge's aspiration to attend university is frustrated by both the violence of the Mau Mau rebels and the violent response of the colonial government. This disappointment leads to his alienation from his family and ultimately his suicide attempt.\n\nThe novel also ponders the role of saviours and salvation. The author notes in his The River Between: \"Salvation shall come from the hills. From the blood that flows in me, I say from the same tree, a son shall rise. And his duty shall be to lead and save the people.\" Jomo Kenyatta, the first prime minister of Kenya, is immortalised in Weep Not, Child. The author says, \"Jomo had been his (Ngotho's) hope. Ngotho had come to think that it was Jomo who would drive away the white man. To him, Jomo stood for custom and traditions purified by grace of learning and much travel.\" Njoroge comes to view Jomo as a messiah who will win the struggle against the colonial government.\n\nSee also\n\nThings Fall Apart\nDeath and the King's Horseman\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nOfficial homepage of Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o\nBBC profile of Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o\nWeep Not, Child at Google Books\n\nBritish Empire in fiction\nNovels set in colonial Africa\nHistorical novels\nKenyan English-language novels\nNovels by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o\nNovels set in Kenya\n1964 novels\nHeinemann (publisher) books\nPostcolonial novels\nAfrican Writers Series\n1964 debut novels", "answers": ["After attacking Jacobo at a workers' strike, Ngotho loses his job and Njoroge's family is forced to move."], "length": 1504, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "0ecdb8439f1360140995c6f5f6cc99c38cebb9216d1395e4"}
{"input": "When did KSTP switch to a sports radio format?", "context": "KSTP (1500 AM; SKOR North) is a commercial AM radio station licensed to Saint Paul, Minnesota. It is the flagship AM radio station of Hubbard Broadcasting, which also owns several other television and radio stations across the United States.  KSTP has a sports radio format and is the ESPN Radio Network affiliate for Minneapolis-St. Paul.  The radio studios are  on University Avenue in Minneapolis, shared with sister stations KSTP-FM, KSTP-TV, KTMY, and KSTC-TV. On weekdays, KSTP airs local sports shows from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. and carries ESPN programming weekday mornings, late nights and weekends. Some KSTP shows are simulcast on other sports radio stations in the region.\n\nKSTP runs the maximum power for AM stations, 50,000 watts.  It shares clear-channel, Class A status on 1500 AM with WFED in Washington, D.C.  KSTP broadcasts a directional signal at night, using a three-tower array, with its transmitter on U.S. Route 61 at Beam Avenue in Maplewood.  Programming is also heard on 250 watt FM translator K235BP at 94.9 MHz in Bemidji.\n\nHistory\n\nWAMD and KFOY\nKSTP's start in 1928 was the product of a merger between two pioneering Twin Cities stations: WAMD (\"Where All Minneapolis Dances\") in Minneapolis, first licensed on February 16, 1925 to Stanley E. Hubbard, and KFOY in St. Paul, first licensed on March 12, 1924 to the Beacon Radio Service in St. Paul.\n\nFollowing a few test transmissions, WAMD made its formal debut broadcast on February 22, 1925. (In later interviews Stanley Hubbard traced WAMD's start to April 1924.) It was located at the Marigold Dance Garden, and featured nightly \"Midnight Frolics\" broadcasts by the ballroom's orchestra. It is claimed that WAMD was the first radio station to be completely supported by running paid advertisements. Effective June 15, 1927, WAMD was assigned to 1330 kHz.\n\nOn November 11, 1927 WAMD's transmitter site at Oxboro Heath on Lyndale Avenue South burned down, two weeks after the station had been sold to the National Battery Company. An initial arrangement was made to carry WAMD's programs over WRHM (now WWTC), transmitting on WAMD's 1330 kHz frequency. Beginning on November 24, 1927 the WAMD broadcasts, still on 1330 kHz, were shifted to KFOY's facility in St. Paul. (At this time KFOY was assigned to 1050 kHz). The next day it was announced that National Battery had purchased KFOY, and as of December 1, 1927 both KFOY and WAMD were reassigned to 1350 kHz. WAMD continued making regular broadcasts until the end of March 1928, while KFOY, although it continued to be licensed for a few more months on a time-sharing basis with WAMD, ceased operations at this point.\n\nNational Battery Company\nIn mid-December 1927, the National Battery Company announced it had received permission from the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) to build a new station, with the call letters KSTP, operating from a transmitter site to be constructed three miles south of Wescott. The next month it was reported that the new station, still under construction, had been assigned to 1360 kHz. KSTP made its debut broadcast on March 29, 1928. Although technically it was a separate station from WAMD and KFOY, both of which were formally deleted on April 30, 1928, overall KSTP was treated as the direct successor to a consolidated WAMD and KFOY.\n\nHubbard became the merged station's general manager, acquiring controlling interest in 1941. A month after the merger, KSTP became an affiliate for the NBC Red Network.  It remained with NBC for 46 years. On November 11, 1928, under the provisions of the FRC's General Order 40, KSTP was assigned to a \"high-powered regional\" frequency of 1460 kHz. The only other station assigned to this frequency was WTFF in Mount Vernon Hills, Virginia (later WJSV, now WFED, Washington, D.C.). On February 7, 1933, the FRC authorized KSTP to increase its daytime power to 25 KW. In 1938 and 1939 KSTP also operated a high-fidelity AM \"experimental audio broadcasting station\" Apex station, W9XUP, originally on 25,950 kHz and later on 26,150 kHz. In 1941, as part of the implementation of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement, KSTP was assigned to its current \"clear channel\" frequency of 1500 kHz, with the provision that it and WJSV, as \"Class I-B\" stations, had to maintain directional antennas at night in order to mutually protect each other from interference. An FM station, KSTP-FM, was founded in 1946 but shut down in 1952.\n\nHubbard reportedly acquired an RCA TV camera in 1939, and started experimenting with television broadcasts.  But World War II put a hold on the development of television.  In 1948, with the war over, KSTP-TV became the first television station in Minnesota.  With KSTP 1500 already associated with NBC Radio, KSTP-TV became an NBC Television Network affiliate.  From 1946 to 1952, KSTP also had an FM counterpart.  KSTP-FM 102.1 was only on the air four years.  There were few radios equipped to receive FM signals in that era, and management decided to discontinue FM broadcasts.\n\nMOR and Top 40\nAs network programming moved from radio to television, KSTP programmed a full service Middle of the Road (MOR) radio format, in the shadow of its chief competitor, CBS Radio affiliate 830 WCCO. In 1965, a new FM station, reviving the KSTP-FM call sign, was put on the air, largely simulcasting the AM station.  But by the late 1960s, KSTP-FM began a separate format of beautiful music.  KSTP was the radio home of the Minnesota Vikings football team from 1970 to 1975. \n\nIn 1973, KSTP broke away from its longtime adult MOR sound and became one of four area stations at the time to program a Top 40 format. \"15 KSTP, The Music Station\" competed with Top 40 AM rivals WDGY, KDWB and later, WYOO. The competition would eventually shake itself out, with outrageous rocker WYOO dropping out after being sold in 1976, and then the staid WDGY switching to country music the following year.  As for uptempo hits station 15 KSTP, it went from a tight Top 40 format to leaning adult rock in 1978, to leaning adult contemporary in 1979, to evolving into adult contemporary/talk by 1980.  In 1982, it officially shifted to talk.  Most Top 40 rock music, by this time, had moved to the FM band.\n\nPast Personalities\n\nNotable hosts who have been on KSTP include John Hines, Jesse Ventura, Larry Carolla, Tom Barnard, Big Al Davis, Don Vogel, John MacDougall, Griff, Mike Edwards, Geoff Charles, Joe Soucheray, James Lileks, Leigh Kamman, Barbara Carlson, Peter Thiele, Tom Mischke, Jason Lewis, Chuck Knapp, Machine Gun Kelly, Charle Bush, Mark O'Connell and Paul Brand. These broadcasters were supported by producers such as Bruce Huff, Rob Pendleton, Alison Brown, Jean Bjorgen, David Elvin (who Vogel dubbed the \"Steven Spielberg of Talk Radio\"), Mitch Berg and others.\n\nThe station has, for the most part, emphasized local hosts over the years.  But in 1988, KSTP was one of Rush Limbaugh's first affiliates when his conservative talk show was rolled out for national syndication.  (Clear Channel-owned KTLK-FM took over rights to Limbaugh's show in January 2006). Other syndicated hosts previously heard on KSTP include Sean Hannity, Bruce Williams, Larry King, and Owen Spann.\n\nSports Radio\nKSTP switched to Sports Radio on February 15, 2010.  As the station had to wait for ESPN's contract with rival KFAN and its sister station KFXN to expire, it did not become an ESPN Radio affiliate until April 12, the same day that the Minnesota Twins were scheduled to play the first game in their new ball park, Target Field, against the Boston Red Sox.  As a result Coast to Coast AM and Live on Sunday Night, it's Bill Cunningham were retained during this period.  One ESPN Radio network program, The Herd with Colin Cowherd, was picked up by KSTP immediately following the format change.\n\nIn 2018, the station was approved for an FM translator on 94.1 FM, broadcasting from a transmitter atop the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis. The two-watt signal threw most of its power to the west, preventing interference to low powered FM stations on the same channel including WFNU-LP in St. Paul. With only two watts of power, however, the signal was limited to the immediate downtown area surrounding the IDS Center.  It later acquired a 250 watt translator, K235BP at 94.9 MHz.  The original translator was discontinued.\n\nOn January 15, 2019, KSTP rebranded as \"SKOR North\" (a reference to the Vikings team song/chant, \"Skol, Vikings\"), with local programming between 12 noon and 7 pm. About a year later, in May of 2020, KSTP suspended most of its local programming and laid off nearly all of its local staff. Station management cited the economic toll of the coronavirus for the changes. Sports broadcasting continues, primarily composed of ESPN radio network broadcasts.\n\nSports Teams\n\nKSTP-AM served as the radio flagship for the Minnesota Vikings football team from 1970 to 1975.\n\nOn August 1, 2006, the station announced that it would be the new flagship station for the Minnesota Twins baseball team, effective with the start of the 2007 season. The Twins had been on rival WCCO since arriving in Minnesota in 1961.  KSTP served as the flagship for the Twins until the end of the 2012 season, when games moved to 96.3 KTWN-FM (now KMWA).  The Twins have since returned to WCCO 830.\n\nThe switch to a fairly weak FM station caused dissent among some listeners, particularly in communities that had trouble picking up KSTP 1500.  Although KSTP is the state's second most powerful AM station, it must operate directionally at night, delivering a reduced signal to parts of the market. WCCO, by comparison, offers a signal with a wider coverage area during the day than KSTP does, with WCCO's non-directional 50,000 watt signal. In response, the Twins have expanded the number of affiliates.\n\nOn March 9, 2011, KSTP announced it would be the new flagship for the University of Minnesota Golden Gophers men's and women's basketball and men's ice hockey, ending a 68-year run on WCCO. The rights have since moved to KFXN-FM, which already aired Gopher football.\n\nOn March 2, 2017, KSTP announced it would be the first radio broadcaster for Minnesota United FC.  The move brings live soccer action to 1500 AM.\n\nPrevious logos\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nKSTP website\n\nFCC History Cards for KSTP (covering 1928-1980)\nRadiotapes.com Historic Minneapolis/St. Paul airchecks dating back to 1924 including KSTP and other Twin Cities radio stations.\nRick Burnett's TwinCitiesRadioAirchecks.com has additional airchecks of KSTP and other Twin Cities radio stations from the '60s and '70s, including Chuck Knapp's 2nd show on KSTP.\n\nHubbard Broadcasting\nESPN Radio stations\nPeabody Award winners\nRadio stations in Minneapolis–Saint Paul\nRadio stations established in 1925\n1925 establishments in Minnesota\nMinnesota Kicks\nSports radio stations in the United States\nClear-channel radio stations", "answers": ["KSTP switched to a sports radio format on February 15, 2010."], "length": 1810, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "235a5c99cd7fae9e2b410ad99c1b1fafea43799d3f1138a8"}
{"input": "What was the best performing model for the Spanish language in Track-1?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Two-stage Pipeline for Multilingual Dialect Detection\nPublish Date: Unkown\nAuthor List: Ankit Vaidya (from Pune Institute of Computer Technology), Aditya Kane (from Pune Institute of Computer Technology)\n\nFigure\n\nFigure 1: Class distribution of dialects\nFigure 2: System diagram for dialect classification.The LID classifies the input into one of 3 languages.The sample is then further classified into dialects by language specific models.\nFigure 3: Confusion matrix of 9-way classification.Note that rows are normalized according to the number of samples is that class.\nOur complete results for Track-1 using the two-stage dialect detection pipeline.Model-* denotes the language of the models used for the experiments.\nPerformance on Track-1 validation dataset of individual models used in the two-stage pipeline.\"Lg\" stands for language of the model used.\nComparative results of two-way classification using the finetuned (F.T.) predictions and predictions adapted from three-way classification models.\n\nabstract\n\nDialect Identification is a crucial task for localizing various Large Language Models. This paper outlines our approach to the VarDial 2023 DSL-TL shared task. Here we have to identify three or two dialects from three languages each which results in a 9-way classification for Track-1 and 6-way classification for Track-2 respectively.\nOur proposed approach consists of a two-stage system and outperforms other participants' systems and previous works in this domain. We achieve a score of 58.54% for Track-1 and 85.61% for Track-2. Our codebase is available publicly 1 .\n\nIntroduction\n\nLanguage has been the primary mode of communication for humans since the pre-historic ages. Studies have explored the evolution of language and outlined mathematical models that govern the intricacies of natural language . Inevitably, as humans established civilization in various parts of the world, this language was modified by, and for the group of people occupied by that particular geographical region.\nThis gave rise to multiple national dialects of the same language. The VarDial workshop (colocated with EACL 2023) explores various dialects and variations of the same language. We participated in the Discriminating Between Similar Languages -True Labels (DSL-TL) shared task. In this task, the participants were provided with data from three languages, with each language having three varieties.\nThis shared task consisted of two tracks -Track-1 featuring nine-way classification and Track-2 featuring six-way classification. The second track included two particular national dialects of each language (eg. American English and British English), and the first track had one general  We ranked 1 st in both of the tracks.\nMoreover, we beat the next best submission by a margin of 4.5% in the first task and 5.6% in the second task.We were the only team to surpass the organizer baseline scores. We present our winning solution in this paper. We used an end-to-end deep learning pipeline which consisted of a language identification model and three language-specific models, one for each language.\nWe converged upon the best combination by doing an elaborate analysis of various models available. Furthermore, in this work we also analyze the performance of the pipeline as a whole and also provide an ablation study. Lastly, we provide some future directions in this area of research.\n\nRelated Work\n\nThe present literature encompasses various aspects of dialect identification. We study this from three perspectives: large language models, language identification and dialect classification problems.\n\nLarge Language Models\n\nThe success of transformers and BERT based models was inevitable since the initial boom of the transformer  2017) model. In recent years, many other architectures like RoBERTa and ELECTRA have further pushed the state-of-the-art in this domain. Moreover, autoregressive models like GPT and GPT-2 have also shown their prowess.\nMultilingual versions of RoBERTA, namely XLM-RoBERTa are also available. Lastly, language specific models like Spanish BERT (la Rosa y Eduardo G. Ponferrada y Manu Romero y Paulo Villegas y Pablo González de Prado Salas y María Grandury, 2022) and Portuguese BERT are available as well. Our winning solution makes use of these large language models trained on specific languages.\n\nLanguage Identification Models\n\nMany multilingual language identification models have been developed in order to classify the language of the input sentence beforehand. Even though the initial works used n-gram models and generative mixture models or even conditional random fields and other classical machine learning methods like naive bayes , modern methods have shifted to the use of deep learning for language identification .\nRecent works have mainly focused on deep learning based language identification, where handling codemixed data is a big challenge in the domain. For our experiments, we use a version of XLM-RoBERTa finetuned on a language identification dataset 2 . This model has near-perfect test accuracy of 99.6%.\n\nDialect Classification\n\nDialect classification has been previously solved using statistical methods like Gaussian Mixture Models and Frame Selection Decoding or Support Vector Machines (SVM) . It has been explored relatively sparsely, mostly in the case for local languages . Deep learning approaches have been explored in previous editions of the VarDial workshop shared tasks and otherwise .\nDialect classification was also explored previously as a part of other shared tasks . We want to stress that given the multilingual nature of the dataset, using the present methods directly was not an option. In our work, although we take inspiration from the previous works, we propose a novel system that surpasses the performance of the previous systems by a large margin.\n\nData\n\nThe dataset  We observed that the class PT-BR had the most number of samples (2,724) and the class EN had the least number of samples (349), and thus the imbalance ratio was almost 1:8. We have illustrated the data distribution in Figure . We tried to mitigate this imbalance using over-sampling and weighted sampling methods.\nHowever, the improved data sampling method did not affect the performance.\n\nSystem Description\n\nThis was a problem of multi-class classification having 9 classes for Track-1 and 6 classes for Track-2. The samples were belonging to 3 languages having 3 varieties each, so the classification pipeline was made in 2 stages. The Language Identification (LID) model which is the first stage classifies the sentence into 3 languages: English (EN), Spanish (ES) and Portuguese (PT).\nThe LID is a pretrained XLM-RoBERTa that is fine-tuned for the task of language identification. It is able to classify the input sentence into 20 languages. We classify and separate the samples according to their language. The samples corresponding to the specific languages are then fed into the language specific models for dialect identification.\nFor dialect identification we have used models like BERT and RoBERTa with a linear layer connected to the pooler output of the models. Then fine-tuning is done on the models for dialect identification   using the samples corresponding to the specific languages. For the task of dialect identification we experimented with several pretrained models like XLM-RoBERTa, BERT, ELECTRA, GPT-2 and RoBERTa.\nAll models were fine-tuned for 20 epochs with a learning rate of 1e-6 and weight decay 1e-6 with a batch size of 8. The best performing model checkpoint was chosen according to the epoch-wise validation macro-F1 score. 5 Experiments and Results\n\nExperiments using Large Language Models\n\nFor the task of Dialect Identification we have tried various language specific models like XLM-RoBERTa, BERT, ELECTRA, RoBERTa and GPT- 2. The base variant of all these models were used and all the models were used through the Hugging-Face library. The pooler output of these models was passed through a linear layer and the models were fine-tuned.\nFirst, we experimented with different models for Track-1. All the models were trained for 20 epochs with learning rate 1e-6, weight decay 1e-6 and a batch size of 8. We used XLM-RoBERTa as the baseline for all 3 languages. The best performing models for the English language were RoBERTa and BERT whereas GPT-2 was the worst performing.\nSimilarly the language specific versions of RoBERTa and BERT performed well for the Spanish and Portuguese respectively. Overall the worst performing model was GPT-2 across all 3 languages. The validation F1 scores are present in Table . The two best-performing models for every language were chosen for Track-2.\nThe same procedure as specified above was used and the F1 scores are present in Table . The train and validation F1 scores for 2-class classification are higher for all models as compared to the F1 score of the same models for 3-class classification. This was mainly due to the poor representation and accuracy of classification of the third class.\nWe observed symptoms of overfitting in all models after 12-15 epochs and the best validation F1 score was obtained in the range of 4-8 epochs.\n\nLID experiments\n\nThe pipeline for dialect identification is divided into two parts as the sentences in the dataset belong to different languages. The stages are described in Section 4. The XLM-RoBERTa we have used for language classification has a test accuracy of 99.6% meaning it correctly classifies all input sentences and hence, can be considered as a perfect classifier.\nFor the final pipeline we experimented using the two best performing models for each language in Track-1 and Track-2. For both the tracks we experimented with all 8 (2 3 ) possible combinations of models and calculated the validation F1 score for the combined validation dataset which had sentences belonging to all languages.\nThe validation scores for Track-1 and Track-2 are shown in Table and Table respectively. For both the tracks, the three pipelines with the best validation F1 scores were chosen for submission.\n\nUsing 3-way classifier as a 2-way classifier\n\nIn Track-1, participants are expected to train a classifier which classifies amongst 9 classes, and in Track-2, participants are expected to train a classifier which classifies amongst 6 classes. These 6 classes are a proper subset of the 9 classes from Track-1. Thus, an intuitive baseline for Track-2 is to use the model finetuned for Track-1, whilst considering only the relevant classes for the latter task.\nThe classes EN , ES and P T , i.e. the classes without any national dialect associated with them are not included in Track-2 as compared to Track-1. Thus, we calculate the predictions for the Track-2 validation dataset using the models for Track-1 and exclude the metrics for Track-1 specific classes to get the metrics for this \"adapted\" 2-way classification.\nWe show the results of this experiment in Table and observe that, as expected, the adapted 2-way classification performs worse compared to the explicitly finetuned variant.\n\nResults for Track-1 and Track-2\n\nWe now present our experiments and their performance for both tracks. Our experiments for Track-1 are described in Table and our experiments for Track-2 are described in Table . The participants were allowed three submissions for evaluation on the test set, so we submitted predictions using the three systems which performed the best on the validation set.\nAs mentioned in Section 5.2, we performed 2 3 , i.e. a total of 8 experiments using the two best models for each language. We observed that RoBERTa base on English, Spanish BERT base on Spanish and Portuguese BERT base performed the best on the testing set for Track-1. The same combination, with RoBERTa base for English, worked best for Track-2.\nAll of our submissions were the top submissions for each track, which surpassed the next best competitors by a margin of 4.5% and 5.6% for Track-1 and Track-2 respectively.\n\nAblation of best submissions\n\nWe hereby make some observations of our submissions and other experiments. To assist this, we plot the confusion matrices of our best submissions for Track-1 and Track-2 in Figures respectively. Note that these confusion matrices have their rows (i.e. true labels axes) normalized according to the number of samples in the class.\nHere are observations from our experiments: 1. BERT-based models outperform other models across all languages: We observe that BERT-based models outperform ELECTRA-based and GPT-2-based models, as shown in Table . We speculate this is because of the inherent architecture of BERT, which combines semantic learning with knowledge retention.\nThis combination of traits is particularly useful for this task. 2. Common labels perform the worst across all languages: We observe that the common labels EN , ES and P T perform the worst, both in the individual as well as the two-stage setup. We hypothesize this is because of the absence of dialect specific words, or words that are specific to the geographical origin of the national dialect (for example, \"Yankees\" for EN-US and \"Oxford\" for EN-GB).\n3. English models work better than models of other languages: It can be noted from Figures 4 and 3 that the English models have the best performance across all classes. This can be attributed to two reasons: absence of national dialect specific words and lesser pretraining data in the case of Portuguese.\n4. British English is most correctly classified class: We can observe that the Spanish or Portuguese models make equal number of mistakes in the case of either national dialect, in the case of Track-2 (see Figure ). However, in the case of English, the label EN − GB is correctly classified for more than 95% of the cases.\nWe speculate this is because British English involves slightly distinctive grammar and semantics, which help the model separate it from other classes. 5. The proposed 2-step method is scalable for multiple language dialect classification: We can strongly assert that the novel 2-step deep learning method for multilingual dialect classification is a scalable method for the task due to two specific reasons: firstly, the multilingual models (like XLM-RoBERTa) might not have the vocabulary as well as the learning capabilities to learn the minute differences between individual dialects.\nSecondly, this system can be quickly expanded for a new language by simply adding a language specific dialect classifier, provided the language identification model supports that particular language.\n\nConclusion\n\nIn this paper we propose a two-stage classification pipeline for dialect identification for multilingual corpora. We conduct thorough ablations on this setup and provide valuable insights. We foresee multiple future directions for this work. The first is to expand this work to many languages and dialects.\nSecondly, it is a worthwhile research direction to distill this multi-model setup into a single model with multiple prediction heads. The obvious limitation of this system is the excessive memory consumption due to the usage of language specific models. For low resource languages this system is difficult to train and scale.\nWe hope that these problems will be addressed by researchers in future works.", "answers": ["The best performing model for the Spanish language in Track-1 was Spanish BERT."], "length": 2409, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "fe952dfd723c9b88f1ed4665679b7a13987729fa1c37b0e3"}
{"input": "How does the infall rate and gas density in the magnetized model compare to non-magnetized accretion?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\nThe averaged quantities can be obtained in two different ways in\nmagnetohydrodynamics. The first way is to solve 3D MHD equations\nand then average the results. The second way is to solve some\nsystem of equations on averages. Combination of numerical\nsimulations and averaged theory brings phenomenology that can\ndescribe observations or experimental data.\n\nThe problem of spherically symmetric accretion takes its origin\nfrom Bondi's work \\citep{bondi}. He presented idealized\nhydrodynamic solution with accretion rate $\\dot{M}_B.$ However,\nmagnetic field $\\vec{B}$ always exists in the real systems. Even\nsmall seed $\\vec{B}$ amplifies in spherical infall and becomes\ndynamically important \\citep{schwa}.\n\nMagnetic field inhibits accretion \\citep{schwa}. None of many\ntheories has reasonably calculated the magnetic field evolution\nand how it influences dynamics. These theories have some common\npitfalls. First of all, the direction of magnetic field is usually\ndefined. Secondly, the magnetic field strength is prescribed by\nthermal equipartition assumption. In third, dynamical effect of\nmagnetic field is calculated with conventional magnetic energy and\npressure. All these inaccuracies can be eliminated.\n\nIn Section 2\\ref{section_method} I develop a model that abandons\nequipartition prescription, calculates the magnetic field\ndirection and strength and employs the correct equations of\nmagnetized fluid dynamics. In Section 3\\ref{results} I show this\naccretion pattern to be in qualitative agreement with Sgr A*\nspectrum models. I discuss my assumptions in Section 4\n\\ref{discussion}.\n\n\\section{Analytical method}\\label{section_method}\n Reasonable turbulence evolution model is the key difference of my\n method. I build an averaged turbulence theory that corresponds to\nnumerical simulations. I start with the model of isotropic\nturbulence that is consistent with simulations of collisional MHD\nin three regimes. Those regimes are decaying hydrodynamic\nturbulence, decaying MHD turbulence and dynamo action. I introduce\neffective isotropization of magnetic field in 3D model.\nIsotropization is taken to have a timescale of the order of\ndissipation timescale that is a fraction $\\gamma\\sim1$ of the\nAlfven wave crossing time $\\tau_{\\rm diss}=\\gamma r/v_A.$\n\nCommon misconception exists about the dynamical influence of\nmagnetic field. Neither magnetic energy nor magnetic pressure can\nrepresent $\\vec{B}$ in dynamics. Correct averaged Euler and energy\nequations were derived in \\citep{scharlemann} for radial magnetic\nfield. Magnetic force $\\vec{F}_M=[\\vec{j}\\times\\vec{B}]$ can be\naveraged over the solid angle with proper combination of\n$\\vec{\\nabla}\\cdot\\vec{B}=0.$ I extend the derivation to random\nmagnetic field without preferred direction. Dynamical effect of\nmagnetic helicity \\citep{biskamp03} is also investigated. I\nneglect radiative and mechanical transport processes.\n\nThe derived set of equations requires some modifications and\nboundary conditions to be applicable to the real astrophysical\nsystems. I add external energy input to turbulence to balance\ndissipative processes in the outer flow. The outer turbulence is\ntaken to be isotropic and has magnetization $\\sigma\\sim1.$\nTransonic smooth solution is chosen as possessing the highest\naccretion rate as in \\citep{bondi}.\n\n\\begin{figure}\\label{fig1}\n  \\includegraphics[height=.5\\textheight]{velocities}\n  \\caption{Normalized to Keplerian speed characteristic velocities of magnetized flow. Horizontal lines correspond to self-similar solution $v\\sim r^{-1/2}.$}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{Results \\& Application to Sgr A*}\\label{results}\n\n\\begin{figure}\\label{fig2}\n  \\includegraphics[height=.5\\textheight]{magnetization}\n  \\caption{Plot of magnetization $\\sigma=(E_M+E_K)/E_{Th}$ with radius.}\n\\end{figure}\nThe results of my calculations confirm some known facts about\nspherical magnetized accretion, agree with the results of\nnumerical simulations and have some previously unidentified\nfeatures.\n\nInitially isotropic magnetic field exhibits strong anisotropy with\nlarger radial field $B_r.$ Perpendicular magnetic field\n$B_\\perp\\ll B_r$ is dynamically unimportant in the inner accretion\nregion Fig\\ref{fig1}. Because magnetic field dissipates, infall\nonto the black hole can proceed \\citep{schwa}.\n\nTurbulence is supported by external driving in the outer flow\nregions, but internal driving due to freezing-in amplification\ntakes over in the inner flow Fig\\ref{fig2}. Magnetization of the\nflow increases in the inner region with decreasing radius\nconsistently with simulations \\cite{igumen06}. Density profile\nappears to be $\\rho\\sim r^{-1.25}$ that is different from\ntraditional ADAF scaling $\\rho\\sim r^{-1.5}$ \\citep{narayan}. Thus\nthe idea of self-similar behavior is not supported.\n\nCompared to non-magnetized accretion, infall rate is 2-5 times\nsmaller depending on outer magnetization. In turn, gas density is\n2-5 times smaller in the region close to the black hole, where\nsynchrotron radiation emerges \\citep{narayan}. Sgr A* produces\nrelatively weak synchrotron \\citep{narayan}. So, either gas\ndensity $n$ or electron temperature $T_e$ or magnetic field $B$\nare small in the inner flow or combination of factors works. Thus\nlow gas density in magnetized model is in qualitative agreement\nwith the results of modelling the spectrum.\n\nFlow is convectively stable on average in the model of moving\nblobs, where dissipation heat is released homogeneously in volume.\nMoving blobs are in radial and perpendicular pressure\nequilibriums. They are governed by the same equations as the\nmedium.\n\n\\section{Discussion \\& Conclusion}\\label{discussion}\nThe presented accretion study self-consistently treats turbulence\nin the averaged model. This model introduces many weak assumptions\ninstead of few strong ones.\n\nI take dissipation rate to be that of collisional MHD simulations.\nBut flow in question is rather in collisionless regime.\nObservations of collisionless flares in solar corona\n\\citep{noglik} gives dissipation rate $20$ times smaller than in\ncollisional simulations \\citep{biskamp03}. However, flares in\nsolar corona may represent a large-scale reconnection event rather\nthan developed turbulence. It is unclear which dissipation rate is\nmore realistic for accretion.\n\nMagnetic field presents another caveat. Magnetic field lines\nshould close, or $\\vec{\\nabla}\\cdot\\vec{B}=0$ should hold. Radial\nfield is much larger than perpendicular in the inner region.\nTherefore, characteristic radial scale of the flow is much larger\nthan perpendicular. If radial turbulence scale is larger than\nradius, freezing-in condition does not hold anymore. Matter can\nfreely slip along radial field lines into the black hole. If\nmatter slips already at the sonic point, the accretion rate should\nbe higher than calculated.\n\nSome other assumptions are more likely to be valid. Diffusion\nshould be weak because of high Mach number that approaches unity\nat large radius. Magnetic helicity was found to play very small\ndynamical role. Only when the initial turbulence is highly\nhelical, magnetic helicity conservation may lead to smaller\naccretion rate. Neglect of radiative cooling is justified a\nposteriori. Line cooling time is about $20$ times larger that\ninflow time from outer boundary.\n\nThe study is the extension of basic theory, but realistic\nanalytical models should include more physics. The work is\nunderway.\n\\begin{theacknowledgments}\nI thank my advisor Prof. Ramesh Narayan for fruitful discussions.\n\\end{theacknowledgments}\n\n\\bibliographystyle{aipproc}\n\n", "answers": ["Infall rate is 2-5 times smaller and gas density is 2-5 times smaller."], "length": 1045, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "3074f07df75f95b421d8871cb9f6448e130ad7d948b137b8"}
{"input": "What are the three teams that used conflict optimization in the challenge?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Conflict Optimization for Binary CSP Applied to Minimum Partition into Plane Subgraphs and Graph Coloring\nPublish Date: 25 Mar 2023\nAuthor List: Loïc Crombez (from LIMOS, Université Clermont Auvergne), Guilherme Da Fonseca (from LIS, Aix-Marseille Université), Florian Fontan (from Independent Researcher), Yan Gerard (from LIMOS, Université Clermont Auvergne), Aldo Gonzalez-Lorenzo (from LIS, Aix-Marseille Université), Pascal Lafourcade (from LIMOS, Université Clermont Auvergne), Luc Libralesso (from LIMOS, Université Clermont Auvergne), Benjamin Momège (from Independent Researcher), Jack Spalding-Jamieson (from David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science, University of Waterloo), Brandon Zhang (from Independent Researcher), Da Zheng (from Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)\n\nFigure\n\nFigure 1: A partition of the input graph of the CG:SHOP2022 instance vispecn2518 into 57 plane graphs.It is the smallest instance of the challenge with 2518 segments.On top left, you see all 57 colors together.On top right, you see a clique of size 57, hence the solution is optimal.Each of the 57 colors is then presented in small figures.\nFigure 2: Number of colors over time for the instance vispecn13806 using different values p.The algorithm uses σ = 0.15, easy vertices, q max = 59022, but does not use the BDFS nor any clique.\nFigure 3: Number of colors over time with different values of q max obtained on the instance vispecn13806.Parameters are σ = 0.15, p = 1.2, no clique knowledge, and no BDFS.\nFigure 4: Number of colors over time with and without clique knowledge and BDFS obtained on the instance vispecn13806.Parameters are σ = 0.15, p = 1.2, and q max = 1500000.\nFigure 5: Number of colors over time for the instance vispecn13806 for different values of σ.In both figures the algorithm uses p = 1.2, easy vertices, q max = 59022, but does not use the BDFS nor any clique.For σ ≥ 0.25, no solution better than 248 colors is found.\nFigure 6: Number of colors over time (in hours) for the instance vispecn13806.\nSeveral CG:SHOP 2022 results.We compare the size of the largest known clique to the smallest coloring found by each team on a selection of 14 CG:SHOP 2022 instances.\n[20][21][22][23][24][25] with state-of-the-art graph coloring algorithms.The conflict optimizer underperforms except on the geometric graphs r* and dsjr*.CE39-0007), SEVERITAS (ANR-20-CE39-0005) and by the French government IDEX-ISITE initiative 16-IDEX-0001 (CAP[20][21][22][23][24][25].The work of Luc Libralesso is supported by the French ANR PRC grant DECRYPT (ANR-18-CE39-0007).\n\nabstract\n\nCG:SHOP is an annual geometric optimization challenge and the 2022 edition proposed the problem of coloring a certain geometric graph defined by line segments. Surprisingly, the top three teams used the same technique, called conflict optimization. This technique has been introduced in the 2021 edition of the challenge, to solve a coordinated motion planning problem.\nIn this paper, we present the technique in the more general framework of binary constraint satisfaction problems (binary CSP). Then, the top three teams describe their different implementations of the same underlying strategy. We evaluate the performance of those implementations to vertex color not only geometric graphs, but also other types of graphs.\n\nIntroduction\n\nThe CG:SHOP challenge (Computational Geometry: Solving Hard Optimization Problems) is an annual geometric optimization competition, whose first edition took place in 2019. The 2022 edition proposed a problem called minimum partition into plane subgraphs. The input is a graph G embedded in the plane with edges drawn as straight line segments, and the goal is to partition the set of edges into a small number of plane graphs (Fig. ) .\nThis goal can be formulated as a vertex coloring problem on a graph G defined as follows. The vertices of G are the segments defining the edges of G, and the edges of G correspond to pairs of crossing segments (segments that intersect only at a common endpoint are not considered crossing). The three top-ranking teams (Lasa, Gitastrophe, and Shadoks) on the CG:SHOP 2022 challenge all used a common approach called conflict optimization while the fourth team used a SAT-Boosted Tabu Search .\nConflict optimization is a technique used by Shadoks to obtain the first place in the CG:SHOP 2021 challenge for low-makespan coordinated motion planning , and the main ideas of the technique lent themselves well to the 2022 challenge. Next, we describe the conflict optimizer as a metaheuristic to solve constraint satisfaction problems (CSP) .\nWe start by describing a CSP. A CSP is a triple of • variables X = (x 1 , . . . , x n ), Each of the 57 colors is then presented in small figures. • domains D = (D 1 , . . . , D n ), and • constraints R. Each variable x i must be assigned a value in the corresponding domain D i such that all constraints are satisfied.\nIn general, the constraints may forbid arbitrary subsets of values. We restrict our attention to a particular type of constraints (binary CSP ), which only involve pairs of assignments. A partial evaluation is an assignment of a subset of the variables, called evaluated, with the remaining variables called non-evaluated.\nAll constraints involving a non-evaluated variable are satisfied by default. We only consider assignments and partial assignments that satisfy all constraints. The conflict optimizer iteratively modifies a partial evaluation with the goal of emptying the set S of non-evaluated variables, at which point it stops.\nAt each step, a variable x i is removed from S. If there exists a value x ∈ D i that satisfies all constraints, then we assign the value x to the variable x i . Otherwise, we proceed as follows. For each possible value x ∈ D i , we consider the set K(i, x) of variables (other than x i ) that are part of constraints violated by the assignment x i = x.\nWe assign to x i the value x that minimizes where w(j) is a weight function to be described later. The variables x j ∈ K(i, x) become non-evaluated and added to S. The weight function should be such that w(j) increases each time x j is added to S, in order to avoid loops that keep moving the same variables back and forth from S. Let q(j) be the number of times x j became non-evaluated.\nA possible weight function is w(j) = q(j). More generally, we can have w(j) = q(j) p for some exponent p (typically between 1 and 2). Of course, several details of the conflict optimizer are left open. For example, which element to choose from S, whether some random noise should be added to w, and the decision to restart the procedure from scratch after a certain time.\nThe CSP as is, does not apply to optimization problems. However, we can, impose a maximum value k of the objective function in order to obtain a CSP. The conflict optimizer was introduced in a low makespan coordinated motion planning setting. In that setting, the variables are the robots, the domains are their paths (of length at most k) and the constraints forbid collisions between two paths.\nIn the graph coloring setting, the domains are the k colors of the vertices and the constraints forbid adjacent vertices from having the same color. The conflict optimizer can be adapted to non-binary CSP, but in that case multiple variables may be unassigned for a single violated constraint. The strategy has some resemblance to the similarly named min-conflicts algorithm , but notable differences are that a partial evaluation is kept instead of an invalid evaluation and the weight function that changes over time.\nWhile the conflict optimization strategy is simple, there are different ways to apply it to the graph coloring problem. The goal of the paper is to present how the top three teams applied it or complemented it with additional strategies. We compare the relative benefits of each variant on the instances given in the CG:SHOP 2022 challenge.\nWe also compare them to baselines on some instances issued from graph coloring benchmarks. The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the details of the conflict optimization strategy applied to graph coloring. In the three sections that follow, the three teams Lasa, Gitastrophe, and Shadoks present the different parameters and modified strategies that they used to make the algorithm more efficient for the CG:SHOP 2022 challenge.\nThe last section is devoted to the experimental results.\n\nLiterature Review\n\nThe study of graph coloring goes back to the 4-color problem (1852) and it has been intensively studied since the 1970s (see for surveys). Many heuristics have been proposed , as well as exact algorithms . We briefly present two classes of algorithms: greedy algorithms and exact algorithms. Greedy algorithms.\nThese algorithms are used to find good quality initial solutions in a short amount of time. The classic greedy heuristic considers the vertices in arbitrary order and colors each vertex with the smallest non-conflicting color. The two most famous modern greedy heuristics are DSATUR and Recursive Largest First (RLF ) .\nAt each step (until all vertices are colored), DSATUR selects the vertex v that has the largest number of different colors in its neighbourhood. Ties are broken by selecting a vertex with maximum degree. The vertex v is colored with the smallest non-conflicting color. RLF searches for a large independent set I, assigns the vertices I the same color, removes I from G , and repeats until all vertices are colored.\nExact algorithms. Some exact methods use a branch-and-bound strategy, for example extending the DSATUR heuristic by allowing it to backtrack . Another type of exact method (branch-and-cut-and-price) decomposes the vertex coloring problem into an iterative resolution of two sub-problems . The \"master problem\" maintains a small set of valid colors using a set-covering formulation.\nThe \"pricing problem\" finds a new valid coloring that is promising by solving a maximum weight independent set problem. Exact algorithms are usually able to find the optimal coloring for graphs with a few hundred vertices. However, even the smallest CG:SHOP 2022 competition instances involve at least a few thousands vertices.\n\nConflict Optimization for Graph Coloring\n\nHenceforth, we will only refer to the intersection conflict graph G induced by the instance. Vertices will refer to the vertices V (G ), and edges will refer to the edges E(G ). Our goal is to partition the vertices using a minimum set of k color classes C = {C 1 , . . . , C k }, where no two vertices in the same color class C i are incident to a common edge.\n\nConflict Optimization\n\nTABUCOL inspired neighbourhood One classical approach for the vertex coloring involves allowing solutions with conflicting vertices (two adjacent vertices with the same color). It was introduced in 1987 and called TABUCOL. It starts with an initial solution, removes a color (usually the one with the least number of vertices), and assigns uncolored vertices with a new color among the remaining ones.\nThis is likely to lead to some conflicts (i.e. two adjacent vertices sharing a same color). The local search scheme selects a conflicting vertex, and tries to swap its color, choosing the new coloring that minimises the number of conflicts. If it reaches a state with no conflict, it provides a solution with one color less than the initial solution.\nThe process is repeated until the stopping criterion is met. While the original TABUCOL algorithm includes a \"tabu-list\" mechanism to avoid cycling, it is not always sufficient, and requires some hyper-parameter tuning in order to obtain a good performance on a large variety of instances. To overcome this issue, we use a neighbourhood, but replace the \"tabu-list\" by the conflict optimizer scheme presented above.\nPARTIALCOL inspired neighbourhood PARTIALCOL another local search algorithm solving the vertex coloring problem was introduced in 2008. This algorithm proposes a new local search scheme that allows partial coloring (thus allowing uncolored vertices). The goal is to minimize the number of uncolored vertices.\nSimilarly to TABUCOL, PARTIALCOL starts with an initial solution, removes one color (unassigning its vertices), and performs local search iterations until no vertex is left uncolored. When coloring a vertex, the adjacent conflicting vertices are uncolored. Then, the algorithm repeats the process until all vertices are colored, or the stopping criterion is met.\nThis neighbourhood was also introduced alongside a tabu-search procedure. The tabu-search scheme is also replaced by a conflict-optimization scheme. Note that this neighbourhood was predominantly used by the other teams.\n\nFinding Initial Solutions\n\nLasa team used two approaches to find initial solutions: 1. DSATUR is the classical graph coloring algorithm presented in Section 1. 2. Orientation greedy is almost the only algorithm where the geometry of the segments is used. If segments are almost parallel, it is likely that they do not intersect (thus forming an independent set).\nThis greedy algorithm first sorts the segments by orientation, ranging from − π 2 to π 2 . For each segment in this order, the algorithm tries to color it using the first available color. If no color has been found, a new color is created for coloring the considered segment. This algorithm is efficient, produces interesting initial solutions and takes into account the specificities of the competition.\n\nSolution Initialization\n\nThe gitastrophe team uses the traditional greedy algorithm of Welsh and Powell to obtain initial solutions: order the vertices in decreasing order of degree, and assign each vertex the minimum-label color not used by its neighbors. During the challenge Gitastrophe attempted to use different orderings for the greedy algorithm, such as sorting by the slope of the line segment associated with each vertex (as the orientation greedy initialization presented in Section 3), and also tried numerous other strategies.\nUltimately, after running the solution optimizer for approximately the same amount of time, all initializations resulted in an equal number of colors.\n\nModifications to the Conflict Optimizer\n\nTaking inspiration from memetic algorithms, which alternate between an intensification and a diversification stage, the algorithm continually switched between a phase using the above conflict score, and one minimizing only the number of conflicts. Thus during the conflict-minimization phase, the random variables f (C j ) and w(u) are both fixed equal to 1 leading to a conflict score\nEach phase lasted for 10 5 iterations. Adding the conflict-minimization phase gave minor improvements to some of the challenge instances.\n\nShadoks\n\nIn this section, we describe the choices used by the Shadoks team for the options described in Section 2.1. The Shadoks generally chose to eliminate the color with the smallest number of elements. However, if the multistart option is toggled on, then a random color is used each time. The conflict set S is stored in a queue.\nThe Shadoks tried other strategies, but found that the queue gives the best results. The weight function used is w(u) = 1 + q(u) p , mostly with p = 1.2. The effect of the parameter p is shown in Fig. . Notice that in all figures, the number of colors shown is the average of ten executions of the code using different random seeds.\nThe algorithm uses σ = 0.15, easy vertices, q max = 59022, but does not use the BDFS nor any clique. If q(u) is larger than a threshold q max , the Shadoks set w(u) = ∞ so that the vertex u never reenters S. If at some point an uncolored vertex v is adjacent to some vertex u of infinite weight in every color class, then the conflict optimizer is restarted.\nWhen restarting, the initial coloring is shuffled by moving some vertices from their initial color class to a new one. Looking at Fig. , the value of q max does not seem to have much influence as long as it is not too small. Throughout the challenge the Shadoks almost exclusively used q max = 2000 • (75000/m) 2 , where m is the number of vertices.\nThis value roughly ensures a restart every few hours. q max =0.5k q max =5k q max =50k q max =100k q max =250k The Shadoks use the function f as a Gaussian random variable of mean 1 and variance σ. A good default value is σ = 0.15. The effect of the variance is shown in Fig. . Notice that setting σ = 0 gives much worse results.\nOption (e) The goal of BDFS is to further optimize very good solutions that the conflict optimizer is not able to improve otherwise. Fig. shows the influence of BDFS. While on this figure, the advantages of BDFS cannot be noticed, its use near the end of the challenge improved about 30 solutions. The bounded depth-first search (BDFS) algorithm tries to improve the dequeuing process.\nThe goal is to prevent a vertex in conflict with some adjacent colored vertices from entering in the conflict set. At the first level, the algorithm searches for a recoloring of some adjacent vertices which allows us to directly recolor the conflict vertex. If no solution is found, the algorithm  In both figures the algorithm uses p = 1.2, easy vertices, q max = 59022, but does not use the BDFS nor any clique.\nFor σ ≥ 0.25, no solution better than 248 colors is found. could recolor some vertices at larger distances from the conflict vertex. To do so, a local search is performed by trying to recolor vertices at a bounded distance from the conflict vertex in the current partial solution. The BDFS algorithm has two parameters: adjacency bound a max and depth d.\nIn order to recolor a vertex v, BDFS gets the set C of color classes with at most a max neighbors of v. If a class in C has no neighbor of v, v is assigned to C. Otherwise, for each class C ∈ C, BDFS tries to recolor the vertices in C which are adjacent to v by recursively calling itself with depth d − 1.\nAt depth d = 0 the algorithm stops trying to color the vertices. During the challenge the Shadoks used BDFS with parameters a max = 3 and d = 3. The depth was increased to 5 (resp. 7) when the number of vertices in the queue was 2 (resp. 1). Degeneracy order Given a target number of colors k, we call easy vertices a set of vertices Y such that, if the remainder of the vertices of G are colored using k colors, then we are guaranteed to be able to color all vertices of G with k colors.\nThis is obtained using the degeneracy order Y . To obtain Y we iteratively remove from the graph a vertex v that has at most k − 1 neighbors, appending v to the end of Y . We repeat until no other vertex can be added to Y . Notice that, once we color the remainder of the graph with at least k colors, we can use a greedy coloring for Y in order from last to first without increasing the number of colors used.\nRemoving the easy vertices reduces the total number of vertices, making the conflict optimizer more effective. The Shadoks always toggle this option on (the challenge instances contain from 0 to 23% easy vertices).\n\nResults\n\nWe provide the results of the experiments performed with the code from the three teams on two classes of instances. First, we present the results on some selected CG:SHOP 2022 instances. These instances are intersection graphs of line segments. Second, we execute the code on graphs that are not intersection graphs, namely the classic DIMACS graphs , comparing the results of our conflict optimizer implementations to previous solutions.\nThe source code for the three teams is available at: • Lasa: https://github.com/librallu/dogs-color • Gitastrophe: https://github.com/jacketsj/cgshop2022-gitastrophe • Shadoks: https://github.com/gfonsecabr/shadoks-CGSHOP2022\n\nCG:SHOP 2022 Instances\n\nWe selected 14 instances (out of 225) covering the different types of instances given in the CG:SHOP 2022 challenge. The results are presented in Table . For comparison, we executed the HEAD code on some instances using the default parameters. The table shows the smallest number of colors for which HEAD found a solution.\nWe ran HEAD for 1 hour of repetitions for each target number of colors on a single CPU core (the HEAD solver takes the target number of colors as a parameter and we increased this parameter one by one). At the end of the challenge, 8 colorings computed by Lasa, 11 colorings computed by Gitastrophe, and 23 colorings computed by Shadoks over 225 instances have been proved optimal (their number of colors is equal to the size of a clique).\nIn order to compare the efficiency of the algorithms, we executed the different implementations on the CG:SHOP instance vispecn13806. The edge density of this graph is 19%, the largest clique that we found has 177 vertices and the best coloring found during the challenge uses 218 colors. Notice that vispecn13806 is the same instance used in other Shadoks experiments in Section 5. Notice also that HEAD algorithm provides 283 colors after one hour compared to less than 240 colors for the conflict optimizers.\nWe ran the three implementations on three different servers and compared the results shown in Figure . For each implementation, the x coordinate is the running time in hours, while the y coordinate is the smallest number of colors found at that time.\n\nResults on DIMACS Graphs\n\nWe tested the implementation of each team on the DIMACS instances to gauge the performance of the conflict optimizer on other classes of graphs. We compared our results to the best known bounds and to the state of the art coloring algorithms HEAD and QACOL . The time limit for Lasa's algorithms is 1 hour.\nCWLS is Lasa's conflict optimizer with the neighbourhood presented in TABUCOL , while PWLS is the optimizer with the neighbourhood presented in PARTIALCOL . Gitastrophe algorithm ran 10 minutes after which the number of colors no longer decreases. Shadoks algorithm ran for 1 hour without the BDFS option (results with BDFS are worse).\nResults are presented in Table . We only kept the difficult DIMACS instances. For the other instances, all the results match the best known bounds. The DIMACS instances had comparatively few edges (on the order of thousands or millions); the largest intersection graphs considered in the CG:SHOP challenge had over 1.5 billion edges.\nWe notice that the conflict optimizer works extremely poorly on random graphs, but it is fast and appears to perform well on geometric graphs (r250.5, r1000.1c, r1000.5, dsjr500.1c and dsjr500.5), matching the best-known results . Interestingly, these geometric graphs are not intersection graphs as in the CG:SHOP challenge, but are generated based on a distance threshold.\nOn the DIMACS graphs, Lasa implementation shows better performance than the other implementations.", "answers": ["Lasa, Gitastrophe, and Shadoks."], "length": 3791, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "191c14b84f0c8cdad3297f2bee552fb089178995208d7185"}
{"input": "How many novels did Margaret Way write?", "context": "Margaret Way (b. Brisbane d. Cleveland, Queensland, Australia ) was an Australian writer of romance novels and women's fiction. A prolific author, Way wrote more than 120 novels since 1970, many through Mills & Boon, a romance imprint of British publisher Harlequin UK Ltd., owned by Harlequin Enterprises.\n\nBiography\nBefore her marriage, she was a well-known pianist, teacher, vocal coach and accompanist. She began writing when her son, Laurence Way, was born, a friend took a pile of Mills & Boon books to her, she read all and decided that she also could write these types of novels. She began to write and promote her country with her stories set in Australia. She sold her first novels in 1970. Margaret Way lives with her family in her native Brisbane. Beginning in 2013, Margaret began to self-publish, releasing her first \"e-book\" mid-July.\n\nMargaret died on the 10th of August 2022 in Cleveland, Queensland.\n\nBibliography\n\nSingle Novels\nKing Country (1970)\nBlaze of Silk (1970)\nThe Time of the Jacaranda (1970)\nBauhinia Junction (1971)\nMan from Bahl Bahla (1971)\nSummer Magic (1971)\nReturn to Belle Amber (1971)\nRing of Jade (1972)\nCopper Moon (1972)\nRainbow Bird (1972)\nMan Like Daintree (1972)\nNoonfire (1972)\nStorm Over Mandargi (1973)\nWind River (1973)\nLove Theme (1974)\nMcCabe's Kingdom (1974)\nSweet Sundown (1974)\nReeds of Honey (1975)\nStorm Flower (1975)\nLesson in Loving (1975)\nFlight into Yesterday (1976)\nRed Cliffs of Malpara (1976)\nMan on Half-moon (1976)\nSwan's Reach (1976)\nMutiny in Paradise (1977)\nOne Way Ticket (1977)\nPortrait of Jaime (1977)\nBlack Ingo (1977)\nAwakening Flame (1978)\nWild Swan (1978)\nRing of Fire (1978)\nWake the Sleeping Tiger (1978)\nValley of the Moon (1979)\nWhite Magnolia (1979)\nWinds of Heaven (1979)\nBlue Lotus (1979)\nButterfly and the Baron (1979)\nGolden Puma (1980)\nTemple of Fire (1980)\nLord of the High Valley (1980)\nFlamingo Park (1980)\nNorth of Capricorn (1981)\nSeason for Change (1981)\nShadow Dance (1981)\nMcIvor Affair (1981)\nHome to Morning Star (1981)\nBroken Rhapsody (1982)\nThe Silver Veil (1982)\nSpellbound (1982)\nHunter's Moon (1982)\nGirl at Cobalt Creek (1983)\nNo Alternative (1983)\nHouse of Memories (1983)\nAlmost a Stranger (1984)\nA place called Rambulara (1984)\nFallen Idol (1984)\nHunt the Sun (1985)\nEagle's Ridge (1985)\nThe Tiger's Cage (1986)\nInnocent in Eden (1986)\nDiamond Valley (1986)\nMorning Glory (1988)\nDevil Moon (1988)\nMowana Magic (1988)\nHungry Heart (1988)\nRise of an Eagle (1988)\nOne Fateful Summer (1993)\nThe Carradine Brand (1994)\nHolding on to Alex (1997)\nThe Australian Heiress (1997)\nClaiming His Child (1999)\nThe Cattleman's Bride (2000)\nThe Cattle Baron (2001)\nThe Husbands of the Outback (2001)\nSecrets of the Outback (2002)\nWith This Ring (2003)\nInnocent Mistress (2004)\nCattle Rancher, Convenient Wife (2007)\nOutback Marriages (2007)\nPromoted: Nanny to Wife (2007)\nCattle Rancher, Secret Son (2007)\nGenni's Dilemma (2008)\nBride At Briar Ridge (2009)\nOutback Heiress, Surprise Proposal (2009)\nCattle Baron, Nanny Needed (2009)\n\nLegends of the Outback Series\nMail Order Marriage (1999)\nThe Bridesmaid's Wedding (2000)\nThe English Bride (2000)\nA Wife at Kimbara (2000)\n\nKoomera Crossing Series\nSarah's Baby (2003)\nRunaway Wife (2003)\nOutback Bridegroom (2003)\nOutback Surrender (2003)\nHome to Eden (2004)\n\nMcIvor Sisters Series\nThe Outback Engagement (2005)\nMarriage at Murraree (2005)\n\nMen Of The Outback Series\nThe Cattleman (2006)\nThe Cattle Baron's Bride (2006)\nHer Outback Protector (2006)\nThe Horseman (2006)\n\nOutback Marriages Series\nOutback Man Seeks Wife (2007)\nCattle Rancher, Convenient Wife (2007)\n\nBarons of the Outback Series Multi-Author\nWedding At Wangaree Valley (2008)\nBride At Briar's Ridge (2008)\n\nFamily Ties Multi-Author\nOnce Burned (1995)\n\nHitched! Multi-Author\nA Faulkner Possession (1996)\n\nSimply the Best Multi-Author\nGeorgia and the Tycoon (1997)\n\nThe Big Event Multi-Author\nBeresford's Bride (1998)\n\nGuardian Angels Multi-Author\nGabriel's Mission (1998)\n\nAustralians Series Multi-Author\n7. Her Outback Man (1998)\n17. Master of Maramba (2001)\n19. Outback Fire (2001)\n22. Mistaken Mistress (2002)\n24. Outback Angel (2002)\n33. The Australian Tycoon's Proposal (2004)\n35. His Heiress Wife (2004)\n\nMarrying the Boss Series Multi-Author\nBoardroom Proposal (1999)\n\nContract Brides Series Multi-Author\nStrategy for Marriage (2002)\n\nEverlasting Love Series Multi-Author\nHidden Legacy (2008)\n\nDiamond Brides Series Multi-Author\nThe Australian's Society Bride (2008)\n\nCollections\nSummer Magic / Ring of Jade / Noonfire (1981)\nWife at Kimbara / Bridesmaid's Wedding (2005)\n\nOmnibus in Collaboration\nPretty Witch / Without Any Amazement / Storm Over Mandargi (1977) (with Lucy Gillen and Margaret Malcolm)\nDear Caliban / Heart of the Eagle / Swans' Reach (1978) (with Jane Donnelly and Elizabeth Graham)\nThe Bonds of Matrimony / Dragon Island / Reeds of Honey (1979) (with Elizabeth Hunter and Henrietta Reid)\nThe Man Outside / Castles in Spain / McCabe's Kingdom (1979) (with Jane Donnelly and Rebecca Stratton)\nWinds From The Sea / Island of Darkness / Wind River (1979) (with Margaret Pargeter and Rebecca Stratton)\nMoorland Magic / Tree of Idleness / Sweet Sundown (1980) (with Elizabeth Ashton and Elizabeth Hunter)\nThe Shifting Sands / Portrait of Jaime / Touched by Fire (1982) (with Jane Donnelly and Kay Thorpe)\nHead of Chancery / Wild Heart / One-Way Ticket (1986) (with Betty Beaty and Doris Smith)\nHeart of the Scorpion / The Winds of Heaven / Sweet Compulsion (1987) (with Janice Gray and Victoria Woolf)\nOne Brief Sweet Hour / Once More With Feeling / Blue Lotus (1990) (with Jane Arbor and Natalie Sparks)\nMarry Me Cowboy (1995) (with Janet Dailey, Susan Fox and Anne McAllister)\nHusbands on Horseback (1996) (with Diana Palmer)\nWedlocked (1999) (with Day Leclaire and Anne McAllister)\nMistletoe Magic (1999) (with Betty Neels and Rebecca Winters)\nThe Australians (2000) (with Helen Bianchin and Miranda Lee)\nWeddings Down Under (2001) (with Helen Bianchin and Jessica Hart)\nOutback Husbands (2002) (with Marion Lennox)\nThe Mother's Day Collection (2002) (with Helen Dickson and Kate Hoffmann)\nAustralian Nights (2003) (with Miranda Lee)\nOutback Weddings (2003) (with Barbara Hannay)\nAustralian Playboys (2003) (with Helen Bianchin and Marion Lennox)\nAustralian Tycoons (2004) (with Emma Darcy and Marion Lennox)\nA Mother's Day Gift (2004) (with Anne Ashley and Lucy Monroe)\nWhite Wedding (2004) (with Judy Christenberry and Jessica Steele)\nA Christmas Engagement (2004) (with Sara Craven and Jessica Matthews)\nA Very Special Mother's Day (2005) (with Anne Herries)\nAll I Want for Christmas... (2005) (with Betty Neels and Jessica Steele)\nThe Mills and Boon Collection (2006) (with Caroline Anderson and Penny Jordan)\nOutback Desire (2006) (with Emma Darcy and Carol Marinelli)\nTo Mum, with Love (2006) (with Rebecca Winters)\nAustralian Heroes (2007) (with Marion Lennox and Fiona McArthur)\nTall, Dark and Sexy (2008) (with Caroline Anderson and Helen Bianchin)\nThe Boss's Proposal (2008) (with Jessica Steele and Patricia Thayer)\nIsland Heat / Outback Man Seeks Wife / Prince's Forbidden Virgin / One Night Before Marriage / Their Lost-and-found Family / Single Dad's Marriage Wish (2008) (with Robyn Donald, Marion Lennox, Carol Marinelli, Sarah Mayberry and Anne Oliver)\nAustralian Billionaires (2009) (with Jennie Adams and Amy Andrews)\nCattle Baron : Nanny Needed / Bachelor Dad on Her Doorstep (2009) (with Michelle Douglas)\n\nExternal links\nMargaret Way at Harlequin Enterprises Ltd\n\nAustralian romantic fiction writers\nAustralian women novelists\nLiving people\nYear of birth missing (living people)\nWomen romantic fiction writers", "answers": ["Margaret Way wrote more than 120 novels."], "length": 1195, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "f01044ae4abc16064872421a7dc9b21c98dc2bb4f4b5351a"}
{"input": "How does the framework capture the reduced-order dynamics?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Interpretable reduced-order modeling with time-scale separation Interpretable reduced-order modeling with time-scale separation\nPublish Date: 7 March 2023\nAuthor List: Sebastian Kaltenbach (from CSE-Lab, ETH Zurich, Harvard SEAS), Phaedon-Stelios Koutsourelakis (from CSE-Lab, ETH Zurich, Harvard SEAS), Petros Koumoutsakos (from CSE-Lab, ETH Zurich, Harvard SEAS), Harvard Seas (from CSE-Lab, ETH Zurich, Harvard SEAS)\n\nFigure\n\nFIG. 5. Comparison between the phase-space of the reference solution (left) and the phase-space of the predictions\nFIG. 7. Comparison between predictions and reference solutions for a new initial condition fort = 1.25, 3.75, 7.5, 12.5, 20, 30  (from left to right and top to down).We note that with longer prediction time the uncertainty bounds increases.Despite the chaotic nature of the KS equation, the predictive posterior mean is close to the reference solution for t ≤ 12.5\n\nabstract\n\nPartial Differential Equations (PDEs) with high dimensionality are commonly encountered in computational physics and engineering. However, finding solutions for these PDEs can be computationally expensive, making model-order reduction crucial. We propose such a data-driven scheme that automates the identification of the time-scales involved and, can produce stable predictions forward in time as well as under different initial conditions not included in the training data.\nTo this end, we combine a non-linear autoencoder architecture with a time-continuous model for the latent dynamics in the complex space. It readily allows for the inclusion of sparse and irregularly sampled training data. The learned, latent dynamics are interpretable and reveal the different temporal scales involved.\nWe show that this data-driven scheme can automatically learn the independent processes that decompose a system of linear ODEs along the eigenvectors of the system's matrix. Apart from this, we demonstrate the applicability of the proposed framework in a hidden Markov Model and the (discretized) Kuramoto-Shivashinsky (KS) equation.\nAdditionally, we propose a probabilistic version, which captures predictive uncertainties and further improves upon the results of the deterministic framework.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nHigh-fidelity simulations of critical phenomena such as ocean dynamics and epidemics have become essential for decision-making. They are based on physically-motivated PDEs expressing system dynamics that span multiple spatiotemporal scales and which necessitate cumbersome computations . In recent years there is increased attention to the development of data-driven models that can accelerate the solution of these PDEs as well as reveal salient, lower-dimensional features that control the long-term evolution.\nIn most cases, data-driven reduced-order models are not interpretable. In particular, models based on neural networks despite good predictive capabilities , they offer a black-box description of the system dynamics. A possible remedy is applying a symbolic regression to the learned neural network representation , but this adds additional computational cost due to the two-step procedure.\nA number of frameworks such as SINDy allows to learn interpretable dynamics but it relies on the a-priori availability of lower-dimensional descriptors and of time-derivatives which can be very noisy for both simulation and experimental data. Other frameworks are tailored to specific problems such as molecular dynamics .\nHere, we present a framework that only needs the value of the observables, and not their derivatives, as training data and is capable of identifying interpretable latent dynamics. The deployment of interpretable latent dynamics ensures that conservation of important properties of that are reflected in the reduced-order model .\nThe present method is related to approaches based on the Koopman-operator extended Dynamic Mode Decomposition (eDMD) but uses continuous complex-valued latent space dynamics and only requires one scalar variable per latent dimension to describe the latent space dynamics. Therefore we do not have to enforce any parametrizations on the Koopman matrix .\nThe time-continuous formulation moreover allows to incorporate sparse and irregularly sampled training data and fast generation of predictions after the training phase. By using a complex-valued latent space we can also incorporate harmonic effects and reduce the number of latent variables needed. Linear and non-linear autoencoders are used to map the observed, high-dimensional time-series to the lower-dimensional, latent representation and we identify simultaneously the autoencoder as well as the latent dynamics by optimizing a combined loss function.\nHence the to tasks of dimensionality reduction and discovery of the reduced dynamics are unified while other frameworks treat the two parts separately . Apart from using an architecture based on autoencoders to identify the latent space, projection-based methods could also be employed . We are also proposing a probabilistic version of our algorithm ) that makes use of probabilistic Slow Feature Analysis .\nThis allows for a latent representation that arart from being time-continuous, can quantify the predictive uncertainty and hierarchically decompose the dynamics into their pertinent scales while promoting the discovery of slow processes that control the system's evolution over long time horizons. The rest of the paper is structured as follows: We introduce the methodological framework as well as algorithmic details in section II.\nParticular focus is paid on the interpretability of the inferred lower-dimensional dynamics. In section III we present three numerical illustrations, i.e. a system of linear ODEs, a hidden Markov Model and the discretized KS-equation. We then present in section IV the probabilistic extension of the framework and apply it to the KS-equation.\nWe conclude with a summary and a short discussion about possible next steps. We introduce the autoencoders deployed in this work, followed by the interpretable latent space dynamic and discuss the training process. We consider data from high-dimensional time series x n ∈ R f with n = 1, ..., T . We remark that the intervals between the different states do not need to be uniformly spaced.\n\nAutoencoder\n\nA core assumption of the method is that each high-dimensional state x n can be compressed to a lower-dimensional representation z n ∈ C c with c << f . We identify this lower-dimensional representation by an autoencoder consisiting of a parameterized encoder and decoder. The encoder maps the high-dimensional representation to the latent space as:\nThe latent space is complex-valued. The decoder reconstructs the high-dimensional representation based on the latent variables as: We denote the parameters of the encoder as well as the decoder by θ. As discussed later in Section II C, both set of parameters are optimized simultaneously during training and therefore there is no need for differentiating them.\n\nInterpretable Latent Space Dynamics\n\nWe employ a propagator in the latent space to capture the reduced-order dynamics of the system. In contrast to other time-extended variational autoencoder frameworks, our representation uses complex valued latent variables. In addition the latent variables are treated independently. The latter feature enables us to have an interpretable latent dynamics as well as a model that is especially suitable for being trained in the Small Data regime due to the small number of required parameters.\nThis is in contrast to temporal propagators such as LSTMs . For each dimension i of the latent variable z we are using the following continuous ODE in the complex plane: By solving this ODE, we can define the operator: Interpretable reduced-order modeling with time-scale separation Here, λ is a vector containing all the individual λ's and ∆t n indicates the time-step between the latent states.\nThe symbol is used to indicate a component-wise multiplication. We remark that the latent variables and the parameter governing the temporal evolution are complex numbers and their role in describing the system dynamics is similar to that of an eigenvalue. The real part is associated with growth and decay whereas the imaginary part is representing the periodic component.\nThis approach has similarities with the Koopman-operator based methods and the extended dynamic mode decomposition . In contrast to the methods mentioned before we are using a continuous formulation in the latent space that allows us to incorporate scarce and irregularly sampled training data and directly rely on complex numbers in the latent space.\n\nTraining and Predictions\n\nWe optimize a loss function that combines both a reconstruction loss as well as a loss associated with the error of our learned propagator in the latent space: (5) We note that we could directly incorporate mini-batch training by only taking the summation over a subset of the N available training data.\nFor new predictions of unseen states, we use the encoder to generate a latent representations which is then advanced in time by the learned propagator. At a designated time step we are using the decoder to reconstruct the high-dimensional solution. We applied our algorithm to three systems. First, we show that the algorithm is capable of exactly reproducing the solution of a linear ODE and to identify its eigenvalues.\nAfterwards we are applying the framework to a high-dimensional process generated by a complex latent dynamics, which is correctly identified. As a final test case, we are applying the algorithm to a Kuramoto Shivashinski (KS) equation. Interpretable reduced-order modeling with time-scale separation\n\nLinear ODE\n\nWe are considering a two-dimensional ODE system for x = y 1 y 2 : Based on the obtained training data we run our algorithm using a linear encoder and decoder structure as well as two latent variables z. The loss function was optimized using the Adam algorithm . As we consider a linear ODE we can analytically compute the eigenvalues involved and compare it with the parameters λ identified by our algorithm.\nWe observe in Figure that the algorithm was able to recover the correct values, i.e. the eigenvalues 7 and 3 of the given linear ODE. The system does not have a periodic component and the two imaginary parts correctly go to zero, whereas the real parts converge to the reference value. Moreover we are also able to identify for the linear mapping between our latent variables z and the training data a matrix consisting of a multiple of the eigenvectors (1,1) and (1,-1) and thus the correct solution.\nThis example was chosen to show that the algorithm is able to quickly identify the exact solution of a linear ODE in terms of its linearly independent components.\n\nHidden multiscale dynamics\n\nWe consider eight-dimensional synthetic time series data produced by an underlying twodimensional complex valued process. In particular, the data points x are generated by first solving for the temporal evolution for the two complex-valued processes p 1 and p 2 and than mapping to the eight-dimensional space by using a randomly sampled linear mapping W .\nOne of the two processes used to generate the data is chosen to be much slower than the other one and both processes have a periodic component. dp 2 dt = (−0.9 + 1.5i)p 2 (8) As training data we consider 40 time series with 150 data points each, obtained by simulating the described processes for a maximum of t = 15 s and then sampling from the obtained data points.\nHence the training data consists of: • 40 time-series • with each consisting 150 observations of the x at a uniform time-step ∆t = 0.0025 The autoencoder obtained consists of one linear layer for both the decoder as well as the encoder. The model is trained for 5000 iterations using the Adam optimizer and a learning rate of 10 −3 .\nThe results for the convergence of the parameters λ 1 and λ 2 can be found in Figure . We note that the process which is slower decaying and thus more responsible for the long-term evolution of the system has a higher convergence rate than the faster process. With the obtained parameters λ as well as the trained autoencoder, we compute predictions based on the last time step used for training, i.e. we apply the encoder to obtain our latent representation and than use the latent dynamics to advance the latent representation in time.\nAfterwards, we employ the decoder to reconstruct the full high-dimensional system. The results can be found in Figure and show very good agreement between predictions and reference data. This example shows that our model is successfully able to carry out dimensionality reduction and moreover indicates that the convergence rate between latent processes can be different.\nThe latter is relevant when training models as for accurate predictions all latent processes and their dynamics should be converged.\n\nKuramoto-Sivashinsky\n\nFinally, we applied our algorithm to the KS equation and aim to identify a reduced-order model for the solution u(y, t): We employed periodic boundary conditions, µ = 1 and a domain size y ∈ [0, 22]. For this domain-size, the KS-equation exhibits a structurally stable chaotic attractor as discussed in The black lines divides the area for which training data was given from the area without raining data.\n; . The equation is discretized in space using a discretization step of 22 64 resulting in a state vector x of dimension 64 and a nonlinear system of coupled ODEs. This is solved using a stiff fourth-order solver  We employed a non-linear encoder and decoder with four fully-connected layers each and ReLU-activation functions as well as Dropout Layers between the fully-connected layers.\nWe trained the model for 200000 iterations using Adam and a learning rate of 5 • 10 4 and assuming a five-dimensional latent space. We obtained the λ's in Figure . Four latent variables have λ's close to zero and thus a slow temporal dynamic that is responsible for the long-term evolution whereas one latent variable is quickly decaying.\nBased on the obtained parameters, we do predictions based on an unseen initial condition not contained in the training data. We are able to reconstruct the correct phase space based on our predictions despite only using a very limited amount of training data. The results for the phase space can be seen in Figure .\nAlthough the small-scale fluctuations in the temporal dynamics are not well captured, the model identifies the correct manifold which has a good accuracy compared to the reference solution. All phase-spaces were obtained by using a finite-difference operator on the data or predictions. These results are in accordance Interpretable reduced-order modeling with time-scale separation with whose LSTM-based temporal dynamic model was also able to find the correct phase space but not to track the actual dynamics for long-term predictions.\nOur model is not able to account for noise in the temporal evolution and thus dealing with chaotic, small-scale fluctuations is challenging. We believe that a probabilistic version of our algorithm could be advantageous here. This section contains a fully probabilistic formulation for the deterministic model discussed before.\nWe replace the Autoencoder with a Variational Autoencoder and the ODE in the latent space with a SDE. The loss function which we optimize is the Evidence-Lower Bound (ELBO).\n\nModel Structure\n\nWe postulate the following relations for our probabilistic model using an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU) for each dimension i of the latent space and a Wiener process W t in the latent space: We again assume that the latent variables z t are complex-valued and a priori independent. Complex variables were chosen as their evolution includes a harmonic components which are observed in many physical systems.\nWe assume an initial conditions z 0,i ∼ CN (0, σ 2 0,i ). The total parameters associated with the latent space dynamics of our model are thus {σ 2 0,i , σ 2 i , λ i } c i=1 and will be denoted by θ together with all parameters responsible for the decoder mapping G (see next section). These parameters along with the state variables z t have to be inferred from the data x t .\nBased on probabilistic Slow Feature Analysis (SFA) , we set σ 2 i = 2; (λ j ) and σ 2 0,i = 1. As a consequence, a priori, the latent dynamics are stationary. A derivation and reasoning for this choice can be found in Appendix A. Hence the only independent parameters are the λ i , the imaginary part of which can account for periodic effects in the latent dynamics.\n\nVariational Autoencoder\n\nWe employ a variational autoencoder to account for a probabilistic mappings from the lower-dimensional representation z n to the high-dimensional system x n . In particular we are employing a probabilistic decoder The encoder is used to infer the state variables z based on the given data and thus defined in the inference and learning section.\n\nInference and Learning\n\nGiven the probabilistic relations , our goal is to infer the latent variables z 0:T as well as all model parameters θ. We follow a hybrid Bayesian approach in which the posterior of the state variables is approximated using amortized Variational Inference and Maximum-A-Posteriori (MAP) point-estimates for θ are computed.\nThe application of Bayes' rule for each data sequence x 0:T leads to the following posterior: where p(θ) denotes the prior on the model parameters. In the context of variational inference, we use the following factorization of the approximate posterior i.e. we infer only the mean µ and variance σ for each state variable based on the given data points.\nThis conditional density used for inference is the encoder-counterpart to the probabilistic decoder defined in the section before. It can be readily shown that the optimal parameter values are found by maximizing the Evidence Lower Bound (ELBO) F(q φ (z 0:T ), θ) which is derived in Appendix B. We compute Monte Carlo estimates of the gradient of the ELBO with respect to φ and θ with the help of the reparametrization trick and carry out stochastic optimization with the ADAM algorithm .\n\nResults for the probabilistic extension\n\nWe applied our probabilistic version to the KS-equation. We used the same settings as for the deterministic approach but considered up to 10 complex latent variables. The obtained λ's are in Figure . The probabilistic model allows us to quantify the uncertainty in predictions. In Figure predictions for various time-steps and the respective uncertainty bounds are shown for an unseen initial condition.\nDue to the chaotic nature of the KS-equation and the small amount of training data, the underlying linear dynamic of our model is only able to capture the full dynamics for a limited time horizon. Fortunately, due to the probabilistic approach the model is capable of capturing chaotic fluctuations with increasingly wide uncertainty bounds.\nWe also computed the phase space representation for the KS-equation based on the predictions obtained by our model and compare it with the reference solution. The probabilistic model identifies the correct manifold with a better accuracy than the deterministic model. As some of the small-scale fluctuations are accounted as noise, the resulting manifold is more concentrated at the origin and the obtained values are slightly smaller than the reference manifold although their shape is very similar.", "answers": ["By using a propagator in the latent space."], "length": 3083, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "47b9dbb6d85243ffdaf6d95e842986b30d49d95913f21b6a"}
{"input": "Where can users go for troubleshooting and support?", "context": "'Quectel_QuecPython_BC25 开发板使用说明 版本：Quectel_QuecPython_BC25 开发板使用说明_V1.1日期：2021-11-30 状态：临时文件\nQuectel_QuecPython_BC25 开发板使用说明一、基本概述BC25_QuecPython_EVB_V1.1 开发板（本文简称“V1.1 开发板”）是专门针对 BC25 制造，是一款小巧便携的“口袋型”开发板。体型虽小，但是功能丰富，拥 有 SIM 卡座、板载天线、磁开关、LED 等元件。开发者仅需一条 USB Type-C 数据线即可轻松玩转开发板。二、开发板资源Quectel 移远 BC25 通信模组NANO SIM 自弹卡座USB Type-C 数据接口开机按键，唤醒按键磁开关单色灯GPIO 排针上海市闵行区田林路 1016 号科技绿洲 3 期（B 区）5 号楼 200233 邮箱: info@quectel.com 网址: www.quectel.com 1 / 6\n三、开发板介绍Quectel_QuecPython_BC25 开发板使用说明开发板是为方便开发者使用 QuecPython，而设计的一款基于 BC25 通信模块 的开发板，其上集成了开发常用的配置，可以满足开发者的开发需求。V1.1 开发板正面接口V1.1 开发板配置开发板配备了多种外设。明细如下：序 号名称型号是否支持接口类 型1磁开关KTH1601SL-ST3是GPIO2LED 灯S3528UG6W9TLC2G- 是GPIOTJ- 34微动按键GPIOA5--------是是---------上海市闵行区田林路 1016 号科技绿洲 3 期（B 区）5 号楼 200233 邮箱: info@quectel.com 网址: www.quectel.com 2 / 6\nQuectel_QuecPython_BC25 开发板使用说明四、功能详解4.1 磁开关开发板集成了一个磁开关。使用磁铁靠近，可使磁开关输出引脚变为低电平， 默认为高电平。4.2 LED 灯开发板集成了一颗高亮度灯珠，可以用来做显著指示灯。上海市闵行区田林路 1016 号科技绿洲 3 期（B 区）5 号楼 200233 邮箱: info@quectel.com 网址: www.quectel.com 3 / 6\n4.3 按键开发板集成了 2 个微动按键，其功能是 S1 为开机键，S2 为睡眠唤醒按键。Quectel_QuecPython_BC25 开发板使用说明五、调试步骤1.拿到开发板 V1.1 先插上 USB 安装串口驱动，在官方 QQ 群文件搜 CP210 或者自 行百度下载 CP210x 的串口芯片驱动进行安装。2.使用串口工具（例如 QCOM_V1.6）连接 BC25 的主串口（硬件 17、18 脚）。V1.1 选择 Enhanced COM 口，波特率选择 9600,打开串口，按下 PWK 键约一秒松开进 行开机，串口工具收到消息则代表开机成 功，然后按下 EINT 键串口显示 +QATWAKEUP 表示模组唤醒了。3.从 https://python.quectel.com/download 下载 BC25QuecPython 版本固件， 使用 Qflash（群文件下载）选择 BC25 的调试串口（硬件 38、39 脚），波特率选 择 921600，选择 lod 后缀的固件，按下 EINT 键串口工具显示模组已经唤醒串口 工具发 AT+QSCLK=0 可关闭睡眠（不会发 AT 则多按几次 EINT 键），点击 Start 开 始下载固件,下载进度条开始下载，等待下载完成。关闭以上所有工具，并给板 子断电重新上电。4.从 https://python.quectel.com/download 下载 QPYCOM 工具，直接解压运行 工具，选择主串口（同第 2 步），选择 57600 波特率，打开串口。再按 PWK 按键 进行开机，会看到 QPYCOM 有打印 mount.Type \"help()\" for more information.然后就可以进行 QuecPython 的交互调 试了。上海市闵行区田林路 1016 号科技绿洲 3 期（B 区）5 号楼 200233 邮箱: info@quectel.com 网址: www.quectel.com 4 / 6\n六、常见问题解决Quectel_QuecPython_BC25 开发板使用说明Q：模块的固件在哪？A：请登录 QuecPython 网站下载：http://python.quectel.com/downloadQ：哪里有开发板和其他常用资料？A：请登录 QuecPython 网站下载：http://python.quectel.com/downloadP.S. 如果您遇到任何问题，请参照本官网在线文档进行解决或访问 QuecPython 社区进行搜索、交流、提问：QuecPython 社区或者联系我们的在线支持：QQ 群 445121768获取 QuecPython 开发固件及加入官方交流群官网主页：https://python.quectel.com官网文件下载（各类资料、工具）：https://python.quectel.com/download官网 wiki（常用于视频教程、手把手教程下载、API 库）：https://python.quectel.com/wiki/#/官网文档中心(拥有从入门到精通的各种文档介绍、必看)：https://python.quectel.com/doc/工单系统：https://workorder.quectel.com/QuecPython 社区：https://forumschinese.quectel.com/c/function-subjects/quectpython/43QuecPython 官方 QQ 开发交流群：445121768微信公众号：QuecPython移远 OTA 升级平台： https://cloudota.quectel.com/移远 IoT 管理平台：https://python.quectel.com/doc/doc/Advanced_development/zh/QuecPython Cloud/QuecCloud.html上海市闵行区田林路 1016 号科技绿洲 3 期（B 区）5 号楼 200233 邮箱: info@quectel.com 网址: www.quectel.com 5 / 6\n附录 1 V1.1 开发板丝印图Quectel_QuecPython_BC25 开发板使用说明附录 2 V1.1 开发板原理图上海市闵行区田林路 1016 号科技绿洲 3 期（B 区）5 号楼 200233 邮箱: info@quectel.com 网址: www.quectel.com 6 / 6\nPIU101 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By:GPIOAUX_RXD_1V8AUX_TXD_1V8GNDD_TXD_1V8D_RXD_1V8S1S2GNDVDD_EXTPOWRKEYPIN19VBUSRI_SCI1GND2D+3D-4VIO5VDD6REGIN7VBUS8-RST9CTS_ECI10RTS_ECI11RXD_ECI12TXD_ECI13GPIO.1_ECI14GPIO.0_ECI15NC16RI_ECI17CTS_SCI18RTS_SCI19RXD_SCI20TXD_SCI21GPIO.2_SCI22GPIO.1_SCI23GPIO.0_SCI24GND0U4CP2105GND1uFC17R5NC1uFC4C50.1uFGNDGNDR6NCR20RADC_INM_TXD_1V8M_RXD_1V8PIN19PIN25PIN33PIN30PIN31PIN32USB_DMUSB_DPM_RXD_1V8M_TXD_1V8R260RR270RR280RR290RD_RXD_1V8D_TXD_1V8PIN3PIN4PIN5PIN6PIN20PIN21PIN22PIN23123456789101112131415J5Header 15123456789101112131415J6Header 15R170RR180RUSB_BOOTI2C_SCL_EC800NI2C_SDA_EC800N+3.8VRESETGNDVCC_1V8VCC_1V8+5VEC800N不焊接CP2105\n'", "answers": ["Online documentation, QuecPython community, online support: QQ group 445121768."], "length": 682, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "ec016e90ac78727f3c4aa176db472724bda53c07cb8cb696"}
{"input": "When was McPherson County established as a county?", "context": "McPherson County (standard abbreviation: MP) is a county located in the U.S. state of Kansas.  As of the 2020 census, the county population was 30,223. The largest city and county seat is McPherson. The county is named for Civil War General James B. McPherson.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nFor many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, per the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles.\n\nIn 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In 1848, after the Mexican–American War, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Spain brought into the United States all or part of land for ten future states, including southwest Kansas. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U.S. state.\n\n19th century\n\nFrom the 1820s to 1870s, the Santa Fe Trail passed through, what is now McPherson County. The trail entered the county, east of Canton, then south of Galva, then north of Inman, and west towards Lyons. In 1855, Charles O. Fuller established a ranch adjacent to the Running Turkey Creek Crossing about two miles south and one mile east of Galva. Fuller's Ranch provided accommodations for travelers on the Santa Fe Trail and was probably the first white settlement in McPherson County.\n\nPeketon County was established in 1860, by the passage of a bill by S. N. Wood:  An act to establish Peketon County. Section 1. - That all that territory west of the sixth principal meridian and south of Township 16, in Kansas Territory, be and the same is hereby erected into a county, to be known by the name of Peketon County. On February 17, 1865, Peketon County was abolished, and McPherson County was made a part of Marion County, which extended from the west line of Chase County to the present western boundary of Kansas.\n\nIn 1868, Solomon Stephens and L. N. Holmberg were appointed Justices of the Peace—the first officers in what is now McPherson County. The next year (1869) occurred the first election for the township, now the county of McPherson. McPherson was regularly organized as a county in the spring of 1870, a mass meeting being held at Sweadal. Sweadal, the county seat thus selected, was located about one mile and a half southwest of the present site of Lindsborg. In September, however, the County Commissioners resolved to meet at the latter place, McPherson which had already been located some two years.\n\nIn April, 1873, a petition was filed for the county seat re-location. It was signed by 483 voters, and a special election was accordingly ordered for June 10. Upon that day, McPherson received 605 votes, New Gottland 325, King City 3 and Lindsborg 1; McPherson's majority over all, 276. In May the McPherson Town Company had offered, as an inducement for the location of the county seat at this point, the free use of rooms for ten years, and the donation of two squares of land on the town site. The offer was accepted the next month, the County Commissioners selecting blocks 56 and 65. Thus the county seat was established at McPherson and has remained since.\n\nAs early as 1875, city leaders of Marion held a meeting to consider a branch railroad from Florence. In 1878, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and parties from Marion County and McPherson County chartered the Marion and McPherson Railway Company.  In 1879, a branch line was built from Florence to McPherson, in 1880 it was extended to Lyons, in 1881 it was extended to Ellinwood. The line was leased and operated by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. The line from Florence to Marion, was abandoned in 1968. In 1992, the line from Marion to McPherson was sold to Central Kansas Railway. In 1993, after heavy flood damage, the line from Marion to McPherson was abandoned. The original branch line connected Florence, Marion, Canada, Hillsboro, Lehigh, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Conway, Windom, Little River, Mitchell, Lyons, Chase, then connected with the original AT&SF main line at Ellinwood.\n\nIn 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway extended its main line from Herington to Pratt.  This main line connected Herington, Ramona, Tampa, Durham, Waldeck, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Groveland, Inman, Medora, Hutchinson, Whiteside, Partridge, Arlington,  Langdon, Turon, Preston, Natrona, Pratt.  In 1888, this main line was extended to Liberal.  Later, this line was extended to Tucumcari, New Mexico and Santa Rosa, New Mexico, where it made a connection with the Southern Pacific from El Paso, Texas.  The Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway was absorbed by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway. This line is also called the \"Golden State Route\".\n\n20th century\nThe National Old Trails Road, also known as the Ocean-to-Ocean Highway, was established in 1912, and was routed through Windom, Conway, McPherson.\n\nGeography\n\nAccording to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (0.3%) is water.\n\nAdjacent counties\n Saline County (north)\n Dickinson County (northeast)\n Marion County (east)\n Harvey County (southeast)\n Reno County (southwest)\n Rice County (west)\n Ellsworth County (northwest)\n\nMajor highways\n  Interstate 135\n  U.S. Route 56\n  U.S. Route 81\n  K-4\n  K-61\n  K-153\n\nDemographics\n\nThe McPherson Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of McPherson County.\n\n2000 census\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 29,554 people, 11,205 households, and 7,966 families residing in the county.  The population density was 33 people per square mile (13/km2).  There were 11,830 housing units at an average density of 13 per square mile (5/km2).  The racial makeup of the county was 96.53% White, 0.81% Black or African American, 0.34% Native American, 0.32% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.79% from other races, and 1.16% from two or more races.  1.94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 37.1% were of German, 12.9% Swedish, 12.1% American, 6.7% English and 6.3% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000.\n\nThere were 11,205 households, out of which 33.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.50% were married couples living together, 6.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.90% were non-families. 25.50% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.99.\n\nIn the county, the population was spread out, with 25.40% under the age of 18, 10.30% from 18 to 24, 25.20% from 25 to 44, 21.80% from 45 to 64, and 17.30% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 95.90 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.90 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the county was $41,138, and the median income for a family was $48,243. Males had a median income of $33,530 versus $21,175 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,921.  About 4.20% of families and 6.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.20% of those under age 18 and 8.10% of those age 65 or over.\n\nGovernment\n\nPresidential elections\nMcPherson county is often carried by Republican candidates. The last time a Democratic candidate has carried this county was in 1964 by Lyndon B. Johnson.\n\nLaws\nFollowing amendment to the Kansas Constitution in 1986, the county remained a prohibition, or \"dry\", county until 1996, when voters approved the sale of alcoholic liquor by the individual drink with a 30 percent food sales requirement.\n\nEducation\n\nColleges\n McPherson College in McPherson\n Bethany College in Lindsborg\n Central Christian College in McPherson\n\nUnified school districts\n Smoky Valley USD 400\n McPherson USD 418\n Canton-Galva USD 419\n Moundridge USD 423\n Inman USD 448\n\nSchool district office in neighboring county\n Goessel USD 411\n Little River-Windom USD 444\n\nMuseums\n Birger Sandzén Memorial Gallery in Lindsborg\n McCormick-Deering Days Museum in Inman\n McPherson Museum in McPherson\n Lindsborg Old Mill & Swedish Heritage Museum in Lindsborg\n Kansas Motorcycle Museum in Marquette\n\nCommunities\n\nCities\n\n Canton\n Galva\n Inman\n Lindsborg\n Marquette\n McPherson (county seat) \n Moundridge\n Windom\n\nUnincorporated communities\n† means a Census-Designated Place (CDP) by the United States Census Bureau.\n Conway\n Elyria†\n Groveland\n Johnstown\n New Gottland\n Roxbury†\n\nGhost towns\n Alta Mills\n Battle Hill\n Christian\n Doles Park\n Elivon\n King City\n Sweadal\n\nTownships\nMcPherson County is divided into twenty-five townships.  The cities of Lindsborg and McPherson are considered governmentally independent and are excluded from the census figures for the townships.  In the following table, the population center is the largest city (or cities) included in that township's population total, if it is of a significant size.\n\nSee also\n List of people from McPherson County, Kansas\n National Register of Historic Places listings in McPherson County, Kansas\n McPherson Valley Wetlands\n Maxwell Wildlife Refuge\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n\n Wheeler, Wayne Leland. \"An Analysis of Social Change in a Swedish-Immigrant Community: The Case of Lindsborg, Kansas.\" (PhD dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1959. 5905657).\n\nCounty\n Through the Years: A Pictorial History of McPherson County; McPherson Sentinel' Heritage House Publishing Co; 1992.\n McPherson County First Courthouse Built About 1869 or 1870; Lindsborg News-Record; March 30, 1959.\n Pioneer Life and Lore of McPherson County, Kansas; Edna Nyquist; Democratic-Opinion Press; 1932.\n A History of the Church of the Brethren in Kansas (includes McPherson College history); Elmer LeRoy Craik; McPherson Daily; Republican Press; 397 pages; 1922.\n Portrait and Biographical Record of Dickinson, Saline, McPherson, and Marion Counties, Kansas; Chapman Bros; 614 pages; 1893.\n Standard Atlas of McPherson County, Kansas; Geo. A. Ogle & Co; 82 pages; 1921.\n Plat Book of McPherson County, Kansas; North West Publishing Co; 50 pages; 1903.\n Edwards' Atlas of McPherson County, Kansas; John P. Edwards; 51 pages; 1884.\n\nTrails\n The Story of the Marking of the Santa Fe Trail by the Daughters of the American Revolution in Kansas and the State of Kansas; Almira Cordry; Crane Co; 164 pages; 1915. (Download 4MB PDF eBook)\n The National Old Trails Road To Southern California, Part 1 (LA to KC); Automobile Club Of Southern California; 64 pages; 1916. (Download 6.8MB PDF eBook)\n\nMennonite Settlements\n Impact of Mennonite settlement on the cultural landscape of Kansas; Brenda Martin; Kansas State University; 1985/1988. \n Mennonite settlement : the relationship between the physical and cultural environment; Susan Movle; University of Utah; 1975/1886.\n Status of Mennonite women in Kansas in their church and home relationships; Eva Harshbarger; Bluffton College; 1925/1945.\n\nExternal links\n\nCounty\n \n McPherson County - Directory of Public Officials\nHistorical\n , from Hatteberg's People'' on KAKE TV news\nMaps\n McPherson County Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT\n Kansas Highway Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT\n Kansas Railroad Maps: Current, 1996, 1915, KDOT and Kansas Historical Society\n\n \nKansas counties\n1867 establishments in Kansas\nPopulated places established in 1867", "answers": ["McPherson County was established as a county in 1867."], "length": 1860, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "4c9131da4fb2a9dbc8dadce39d20bdc302a092b5740c414a"}
{"input": "What is the proposed approach in this research paper?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:introduction}\n\nProbabilistic models have proven to be very useful in a lot of applications in signal processing where signal estimation is needed \\cite{rabiner1989tutorial,arulampalam2002tutorial,ji2008bayesian}. Some of their advantages are that 1) they force the designer to specify all the assumptions of the model, 2) they provide a clear separation between the model and the algorithm used to solve it, and 3) they usually provide some measure of uncertainty about the estimation.\n\nOn the other hand, adaptive filtering is a standard approach in estimation problems when the input is received as a stream of data that is potentially non-stationary. This approach is widely understood and applied to several problems such as echo cancellation \\cite{gilloire1992adaptive}, noise cancellation \\cite{nelson1991active}, and channel equalization \\cite{falconer2002frequency}.\n\nAlthough these two approaches share some underlying relations, there are very few connections in the literature. The first important attempt in the signal processing community to relate these two fields was the connection between a linear Gaussian state-space model (i.e. Kalman filter) and the RLS filter, by Sayed and Kailath \\cite{sayed1994state} and then by Haykin \\emph{et al.} \\cite{haykin1997adaptive}. The RLS adaptive filtering algorithm emerges naturally when one defines a particular state-space model (SSM) and then performs exact inference in that model. This approach was later exploited in \\cite{van2012kernel} to design a kernel RLS algorithm based on Gaussian processes.\n\nA first attempt to approximate the LMS filter from a probabilistic perspective was presented in \\cite{park2014probabilistic}, focusing on a kernel-based implementation. The algorithm of \\cite{park2014probabilistic} makes use of a Maximum a Posteriori (MAP) estimate as an approximation for the predictive step. However, this approximation does not preserve the estimate of the uncertainty in each step, therefore degrading the performance of the algorithm.\n\nIn this work, we provide a similar connection between state-space models and least-mean-squares (LMS). Our approach is based on approximating the posterior distribution with an isotropic Gaussian distribution. We show how the computation of this approximated posterior leads to a linear-complexity algorithm, comparable to the standard LMS. Similar approaches have already been developed for a variety of problems such as channel equalization using recurrent RBF neural networks \\cite{cid1994recurrent}, or Bayesian forecasting \\cite{harrison1999bayesian}. Here, we show the usefulness of this probabilistic approach for adaptive filtering.\n\nThe probabilistic perspective we adopt throughout this work presents two main advantages. Firstly, a novel LMS algorithm with adaptable step size emerges naturally with this approach, making it suitable for both stationary and non-stationary environments. The proposed algorithm has less free parameters than previous LMS algorithms with variable step size \\cite{kwong1992variable,aboulnasr1997robust,shin2004variable}, and its parameters are easier to be tuned w.r.t. these algorithms and standard LMS. Secondly, the use of a probabilistic model provides us with an estimate of the error variance, which is useful in many applications.\n\nExperiments with simulated and real data show the advantages of the presented approach with respect to previous works. However, we remark that the main contribution of this paper is that it opens the door to introduce more Bayesian machine learning techniques, such as variational inference and Monte Carlo sampling methods \\cite{barber2012bayesian}, to adaptive filtering.\\\\\n\n\n\\section{Probabilistic Model}\n\nThroughout this work, we assume the observation model to be linear-Gaussian with the following distribution,\n\n\\begin{equation}\np(y_k|{\\bf w}_k) = \\mathcal{N}(y_k;{\\bf x}_k^T {\\bf w}_k , \\sigma_n^2),\n\\label{eq:mess_eq}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere  $\\sigma_n^2$ is the variance of the observation noise, ${\\bf x}_k$ is the regression vector and ${\\bf w}_k$ is the parameter vector to be sequentially estimated, both $M$-dimensional column vectors.\n\n\nIn a non-stationary scenario, ${\\bf w}_k$ follows a dynamic process. In particular, we consider a diffusion process (random-walk model) with variance $\\sigma_d^2$ for this parameter vector:\n\n\n\\begin{equation}\np({\\bf w}_k|{\\bf w}_{k-1})= \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_k;{\\bf w}_{k-1}, \\sigma_d^2 {\\bf I}),\n\\label{eq:trans_eq}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\bf I$ denotes the identity matrix. In order to initiate the recursion, we assume the following prior distribution on ${\\bf w}_k$\n\n\\begin{equation}\np({\\bf w}_0)= \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_0;0, \\sigma_d^2{\\bf I}).\\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\section{Exact inference in this model: Revisiting the RLS filter}\n\nGiven the described probabilistic SSM, we would like to infer the posterior probability distribution $p({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k})$.\nSince all involved distributions are Gaussian, one can perform exact inference, leveraging the probability rules in a straightforward manner. The resulting probability distribution is\n\\begin{equation}\np({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k}) =  \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_k;{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k}, \\boldsymbol\\Sigma_{k}), \\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nin which the mean vector ${\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k}$ is given by\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_k = {\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k-1} + {\\bf K}_k (y_k - {\\bf x}_k^T {\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k-1}){\\bf x}_k, \\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nwhere we have introduced the auxiliary variable\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\bf K}_k = \\frac{ \\left(\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_{k-1} + \\sigma_d^2 {\\bf I}\\right)}{{\\bf x}_k^T  \\left(\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_{k-1} + \\sigma_d^2 {\\bf I}\\right)  {\\bf x}_k + \\sigma_n^2}, \\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nand the covariance matrix $\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k$ is obtained as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k = \\left( {\\bf I} -  {\\bf K}_k{\\bf x}_k {\\bf x}_k^T \\right) ( \\boldsymbol\\Sigma_{k-1} +\\sigma_d^2), \\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nNote that the mode of $p({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k})$, i.e. the maximum-a-posteriori estimate (MAP), coincides with the RLS adaptive rule\n\\begin{equation}\n{{\\bf w}}_k^{(RLS)} = {{\\bf w}}_{k-1}^{(RLS)} + {\\bf K}_k (y_k - {\\bf x}_k^T {{\\bf w}}_{k-1}^{(RLS)}){\\bf x}_k .\n\\label{eq:prob_rls}\n\\end{equation}\nThis rule is similar to the one introduced in \\cite{haykin1997adaptive}.\n\nFinally, note that the covariance matrix $\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k$ is a measure of the uncertainty of the estimate ${\\bf w}_k$ conditioned on the observed data $y_{1:k}$. Nevertheless, for many applications a single scalar summarizing the variance of the estimate could prove to be sufficiently useful. In the next section, we show how such a scalar is obtained naturally when $p({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k})$ is approximated with an isotropic Gaussian distribution. We also show that this approximation leads to an LMS-like estimation.\n \n\n\n\\section{Approximating the posterior distribution: LMS filter }\n\nThe proposed approach consists in approximating the posterior distribution $p({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k})$, in general a multivariate Gaussian distribution with a full covariance matrix, by an isotropic spherical Gaussian distribution \n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:aprox_post}\n\\hat{p}({\\bf w}_{k}|y_{1:k})=\\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_{k};{\\bf \\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k}, \\hat{\\sigma}_{k}^2 {\\bf I} ).\n\\end{equation}\n\nIn order to estimate the mean and covariance of the approximate distribution $\\hat{p}({\\bf w}_{k}|y_{1:k})$, we propose to select those that minimize the Kullback-Leibler divergence with respect to the original distribution, i.e., \n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\{\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}_k,\\hat{\\sigma}_k\\}=\\arg \\displaystyle{  \\min_{\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}_k,\\hat{\\sigma}_k}} \\{ D_{KL}\\left(p({\\bf w}_{k}|y_{1:k}))\\| \\hat{p}({\\bf w}_{k}|y_{1:k})\\right) \\}. \\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe derivation of the corresponding minimization problem can be found in Appendix A. In particular, the optimal mean and the covariance are found as\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k} = {\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k};~~~~~~ \\hat{\\sigma}_{k}^2 = \\frac{{\\sf Tr}\\{ \\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k\\} }{M}.\n\\label{eq:sigma_hat}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\nWe now show that by using \\eqref{eq:aprox_post} in the recursive predictive and filtering expressions we obtain an LMS-like adaptive rule. First, let us assume that we have an approximate posterior distribution at $k-1$, $\\hat{p}({\\bf w}_{k-1}|y_{1:k-1}) =  \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_{k-1};\\hat{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k-1}, \\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2 {\\bf I} )$. Since all involved distributions are Gaussian, the predictive distribution\nis obtained as %\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\hat{p}({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k-1}) &=& \\int p({\\bf w}_k|{\\bf w}_{k-1}) \\hat{p}({\\bf w}_{k-1}|y_{1:k-1}) d{\\bf w}_{k-1} \\nonumber\\\\\n&=& \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_k;{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k|k-1}, \\boldsymbol\\Sigma_{k|k-1}), \n\\label{eq:approx_pred}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the mean vector and covariance matrix are given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\hat{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k|k-1} &=& \\hat{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k-1} \\nonumber \\\\\n\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma}_{k|k-1} &=& (\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2 + \\sigma_d^2 ){\\bf I}\\nonumber.\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\nFrom \\eqref{eq:approx_pred}, the posterior distribution at time $k$ can be computed using Bayes' Theorem and standard Gaussian manipulations (see for instance \\cite[Ch. 4]{murphy2012machine}). Then, we approximate the posterior $p({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k})$ with an isotropic Gaussian,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\hat{p}({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k}) =  \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_k ; {\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k}, \\hat{\\sigma}_k^2 {\\bf I} ),\\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nwhere \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k} &= & {\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k-1}+ \\frac{ (\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2+ \\sigma_d^2)  }{(\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2+ \\sigma_d^2)  \\|{\\bf x}_k\\|^2 + \\sigma_n^2} (y_k - {\\bf x}_k^T {\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k-1}){\\bf x}_k  \\nonumber  \\\\\n&=& {\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k-1}+ \\eta_k (y_k - {\\bf x}_k^T {\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k-1}){\\bf x}_k . \n\\label{eq:prob_lms}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nNote that, instead of a gain matrix ${\\bf K}_k$ as in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:prob_rls}, we now have a scalar gain $\\eta_k$ that operates as a variable step size.\n\n\nFinally, to obtain the posterior variance, which is our measure of uncertainty, we apply \\eqref{eq:sigma_hat} and the trick ${\\sf Tr}\\{{\\bf x}_k{\\bf x}_k^T\\}= {\\bf x}_k^T{\\bf x}_k= \\|{\\bf x}_k \\|^2$,\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\hat{\\sigma}_k^2 &=& \\frac{{\\sf Tr}(\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k)}{M} \\\\\n&=& \\frac{1}{M}{\\sf Tr}\\left\\{ \\left( {\\bf I} -  \\eta_k {\\bf x}_k {\\bf x}_k^T \\right) (\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2 +\\sigma_d^2)\\right\\} \\\\\n&=& \\left(1 - \\frac{\\eta_k \\|{\\bf x}_k\\|^2}{M}\\right)(\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2 +\\sigma_d^2).\n\\label{eq:sig_k}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIf MAP estimation is performed, we obtain  an adaptable step-size LMS estimation\n\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\bf w}_{k}^{(LMS)} = {\\bf w}_{k-1}^{(LMS)} + \\eta_k (y_k - {\\bf x}_k^T {\\bf w}_{k-1}^{(LMS)}){\\bf x}_k, \t\n\\label{eq:lms}\n\\end{equation}\nwith\n\\begin{equation}\n\\eta_k = \\frac{ (\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2+ \\sigma_d^2)  }{(\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2+ \\sigma_d^2)  \\|{\\bf x}_k\\|^2 + \\sigma_n^2}.\\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nAt this point, several interesting remarks can be made:\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\n\\item The adaptive rule \\eqref{eq:lms} has linear complexity since it does not require us to compute the full matrix $\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k$.\n\n\\item For a stationary model, we have $\\sigma_d^2=0$ in \\eqref{eq:prob_lms} and \\eqref{eq:sig_k}. In this case, the algorithm remains valid and both the step size and the error variance, $\\hat{\\sigma}_{k}$, vanish over time $k$. \n\n\\item Finally, the proposed adaptable step-size LMS has only two parameters, $\\sigma_d^2$ and $\\sigma_n^2$, (and only one, $\\sigma_n^2$, in stationary scenarios) in contrast to other variable step-size algorithms \\cite{kwong1992variable,aboulnasr1997robust,shin2004variable}. More interestingly, both $\\sigma_d^2$ and $\\sigma_n^2$ have a clear underlying physical meaning, and they can be estimated in many cases. We will comment more about this in the next section. \n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\n\\section{Experiments}\n\\label{sec:experiments}\n\nWe evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm in both stationary and tracking experiments. In the first experiment, we estimate a fixed vector ${\\bf w}^{o}$ of dimension $M=50$. The entries of the vector are independently and uniformly chosen in the range $[-1,1]$. Then, the vector is normalized so that $\\|{\\bf w}^o\\|=1$. Regressors $\\boldsymbol{x}_{k}$ are zero-mean Gaussian vectors with identity covariance matrix. The additive noise variance is such that the SNR is $20$ dB. We compare our algorithm with standard RLS and three other LMS-based algorithms: LMS, NLMS \\cite{sayed2008adaptive}, VSS-LMS \\cite{shin2004variable}.\\footnote{The used parameters for each algorithm are: for RLS $\\lambda=1$, $\\epsilon^{-1}=0.01$; for LMS $\\mu=0.01$; for NLMS $\\mu=0.5$; and for VSS-LMS $\\mu_{max}=1$, $\\alpha=0.95$, $C=1e-4$.} The probabilistic LMS algorithm in \\cite{park2014probabilistic} is not simulated because it is not suitable for stationary environments.\n\nIn stationary environments, the proposed algorithm has only one parameter, $\\sigma^2_n$. We simulate both the scenario where we have perfectly knowledge of the amount of noise (probLMS1) and the case where the value $\\sigma^2_n$ is $100$ times smaller than the actual value (probLMS2). The Mean-Square Deviation (${\\sf MSD} = {\\mathbb E} \\| {\\bf w}_0 - {\\bf w}_k \\|^2$), averaged out over $50$ independent simulations, is presented in Fig. \\ref{fig:msd_statationary}.\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\centering\n\\begin{minipage}[b]{\\linewidth}\n  \\centering\n  \\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{results_stationary_MSD}}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\caption{Performance in terms of MSD of probabilistic LMS with both optimal (probLMS1) and suboptimal (probLMS2) compared to LMS, NLMS, VS-LMS, and RLS.}\n\\label{fig:msd_statationary}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe performance of probabilistic LMS is close to RLS (obviously at a much lower computational cost) and largely outperforms previous variable step-size LMS algorithms proposed in the literature. Note that, when the model is stationary, i.e. $\\sigma^2_d=0$ in \\eqref{eq:trans_eq},  both the uncertainty $\\hat{\\sigma}^2_k$, and the adaptive step size $\\eta_k$, vanish over time. This implies that the error tends to zero when $k$ goes to infinity. Fig. \\ref{fig:msd_statationary} also shows that the proposed approach is not very sensitive to a bad choice of its only parameter, as demonstrated by the good results of probLMS2, which uses a $\\sigma^2_n$ that is $100$ times smaller than the optimal value. \n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\centering\n\\begin{minipage}[b]{\\linewidth}\n  \\centering\n  \\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{fig2_final}}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\caption{Real part of one coefficient of the measured and estimated channel in experiment two. The shaded area represents two standard deviations from the prediction {(the mean of the posterior distribution)}.}\n\\label{fig_2}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n\\begin{footnotesize}\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{2pt}\n\\def1.5mm{1.5mm}\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{|l@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|}\n\\hline\nMethod &  LMS &  NLMS & LMS-2013 & VSSNLMS & probLMS & RLS \\\\\n\\hline\n\\hline\nMSD (dB) &-28.45 &-21.07 &-14.36 &-26.90 &-28.36 &-25.97\\\\\n\\hline                                                                     \n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Steady-state MSD of the different algorithms for the tracking of a real MISO channel.}\n\\label{tab:table_MSD}\n\\end{footnotesize}\n\n\\end{table}\n\\newpage\nIn a second experiment, we test the tracking capabilities of the proposed algorithm with {real} data of a wireless MISO channel acquired in a realistic indoor scenario. More details on the setup can be found in \\cite{gutierrez2011frequency}. Fig. \\ref{fig_2} shows the real part of one of the channels, and the estimate of the proposed algorithm. The shaded area represents the estimated uncertainty for each prediction, i.e. $\\hat{\\mu}_k\\pm2\\hat{\\sigma}_k$. Since the experimental setup does not allow us to obtain the optimal values for the parameters, we fix these parameters to their values that optimize the steady-state mean square deviation (MSD). \\hbox{Table \\ref{tab:table_MSD}} shows this steady-state MSD of the estimate of the MISO channel with different methods. As can be seen, the best tracking performance is obtained by standard LMS and the proposed method. \n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions and Opened Extensions}\n\\label{sec:conclusions}\n\n{We have presented a probabilistic interpretation of the least-mean-square filter. The resulting algorithm is an adaptable step-size LMS that performs well both in stationary and tracking scenarios. Moreover, it has fewer free parameters than previous approaches and these parameters have a clear physical meaning. Finally, as stated in the introduction, one of the advantages of having a probabilistic model is that it is easily extensible:}\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item If, instead of using an isotropic Gaussian distribution in the approximation, we used a Gaussian with diagonal covariance matrix, we would obtain a similar algorithm with different step sizes and measures of uncertainty, for each component of ${\\bf w}_k$. Although this model can be more descriptive, it needs more parameters to be tuned, and the parallelism with LMS vanishes.\n\\item Similarly, if we substitute the transition model of \\eqref{eq:trans_eq} by an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process, \n\n\\begin{equation}\np({\\bf w}_k|{\\bf w}_{k-1})= \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_k;\\lambda {\\bf w}_{k-1}, \\sigma_d^2), \\nonumber\n\\label{eq:trans_eq_lambda}\n\\end{equation}\na similar algorithm is obtained but with a forgetting factor $\\lambda$ multiplying ${\\bf w}_{k-1}^{(LMS)}$ in \\eqref{eq:lms}. This algorithm may have improved performance under such a kind of autoregresive dynamics of ${\\bf w}_{k}$, though, again, the connection with standard LMS becomes dimmer.\n\n\\item As in \\cite{park2014probabilistic}, the measurement model \\eqref{eq:mess_eq} can be changed to obtain similar adaptive algorithms for classification, ordinal regression, and Dirichlet regression for compositional data. \n\n\\item A similar approximation technique could be applied to more complex dynamical models, i.e. switching dynamical models \\cite{barber2010graphical}. The derivation of efficient adaptive algorithms that explicitly take into account a switch in the dynamics of the parameters of interest is a non-trivial and open problem, though the proposed approach could be useful.\n\n\\item Finally, like standard LMS, this algorithm can be kernelized for its application in estimation under non-linear scenarios.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\\begin{appendices}\n\n\\section{KL divergence between a general gaussian distribution and an isotropic gaussian}\n\\label{sec:kl}\n\n We want to approximate  $p_{{\\bf x}_1}(x) = \\mathcal{N}({\\bf x}; \\boldsymbol\\mu_1,\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1)$ by $p_{{\\bf x}_2}({\\bf x}) = \\mathcal{N}({\\bf x}; \\boldsymbol\\mu_2,\\sigma_2^2 {\\bf I})$. In order to do so, we have to compute the parameters of $p_{{\\bf x}_2}({\\bf x})$, $\\boldsymbol\\mu_2$ and $\\sigma_2^2$, that minimize the following Kullback-Leibler divergence,\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nD_{KL}(p_{{\\bf x}_1}\\| p_{{\\bf x}_2}) &=&\\int_{-\\infty}^{\\infty} p_{{\\bf x}_1}({\\bf x}) \\ln{\\frac{p_{{\\bf x}_1}({\\bf x})}{p_{{\\bf x}_2}({\\bf x})}}d{\\bf x} \\nonumber  \\\\\n&= &  \\frac{1}{2} \\{ -M + {\\sf Tr}(\\sigma_2^{-2} {\\bf I}\\cdot \\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1^{-1})  \\nonumber \\\\\n  & &  + (\\boldsymbol\\mu_2 - \\boldsymbol\\mu_1 )^T \\sigma^{-2}_2{\\bf I} (\\boldsymbol\\mu_2 - \\boldsymbol\\mu_1 )  \\nonumber \\\\\n & &   +  \\ln \\frac{{\\sigma_2^2}^M}{\\det\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1} \\}.  \n\\label{eq:divergence}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nUsing symmetry arguments, we obtain \n\\begin{equation}\n\\boldsymbol\\mu_2^{*} =\\arg \\displaystyle{  \\min_{\\boldsymbol\\mu_2}} \\{ D_{KL}(p_{{\\bf x}_1}\\| p_{{\\bf x}_2}) \\} = \\boldsymbol\\mu_1.\n\\end{equation}\nThen, \\eqref{eq:divergence} gets simplified into \n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nD_{KL}(p_{{\\bf x}_1}\\| p_{{\\bf x}_2}) = \\frac{1}{2}\\lbrace { -M + {\\sf Tr}(\\frac{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1}{\\sigma_2^{2}}) + \\ln \\frac{\\sigma_2^{2M}}{\\det\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1}}\\rbrace.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe variance $\\sigma_2^2$ is computed in order to minimize this Kullback-Leibler divergence as\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\sigma_2^{2*} &=& \\arg\\min_{\\sigma_2^2} D_{KL}(P_{x_1}\\| P_{x_2}) \\nonumber \\\\\n &=& \\arg\\min_{\\sigma_2^2}\\{ \\sigma_2^{-2}{\\sf Tr}\\{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1\\} + M\\ln \\sigma_2^{2} \\} .\n\\end{eqnarray}\nDeriving and making it equal zero leads to\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial \\sigma_2^2} \\left[ \\frac{{\\sf Tr}\\{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1\\}}{\\sigma_2^{2}} + M \\ln \\sigma_2^{2} \\right] = \\left. {\\frac{M}{\\sigma_2^{2}}-\\frac{{\\sf Tr}\\{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1\\}}{(\\sigma_2^{2})^2}}\\right|_{\\sigma_2^{2}=\\sigma_2^{2*}}\\left. =0 \\right. .\n\\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nFinally, since the divergence has a single extremum in $R_+$,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sigma_2^{2*} = \\frac{{\\sf Tr}\\{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1\\}}{M}.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\n\n\\end{appendices}\n\n\\vfill\n\\clearpage\n\n\\bibliographystyle{IEEEbib}\n", "answers": ["This research paper proposed an approach based on approximating the posterior distribution with an isotropic Gaussian distribution."], "length": 2556, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "394cb48c037481d97cdf1dbd7adef475061b9e77235842e2"}
{"input": "How many years has KSTP-FM 102.1 been on the air?", "context": "KSTP (1500 AM; SKOR North) is a commercial AM radio station licensed to Saint Paul, Minnesota. It is the flagship AM radio station of Hubbard Broadcasting, which also owns several other television and radio stations across the United States.  KSTP has a sports radio format and is the ESPN Radio Network affiliate for Minneapolis-St. Paul.  The radio studios are  on University Avenue in Minneapolis, shared with sister stations KSTP-FM, KSTP-TV, KTMY, and KSTC-TV. On weekdays, KSTP airs local sports shows from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. and carries ESPN programming weekday mornings, late nights and weekends. Some KSTP shows are simulcast on other sports radio stations in the region.\n\nKSTP runs the maximum power for AM stations, 50,000 watts.  It shares clear-channel, Class A status on 1500 AM with WFED in Washington, D.C.  KSTP broadcasts a directional signal at night, using a three-tower array, with its transmitter on U.S. Route 61 at Beam Avenue in Maplewood.  Programming is also heard on 250 watt FM translator K235BP at 94.9 MHz in Bemidji.\n\nHistory\n\nWAMD and KFOY\nKSTP's start in 1928 was the product of a merger between two pioneering Twin Cities stations: WAMD (\"Where All Minneapolis Dances\") in Minneapolis, first licensed on February 16, 1925 to Stanley E. Hubbard, and KFOY in St. Paul, first licensed on March 12, 1924 to the Beacon Radio Service in St. Paul.\n\nFollowing a few test transmissions, WAMD made its formal debut broadcast on February 22, 1925. (In later interviews Stanley Hubbard traced WAMD's start to April 1924.) It was located at the Marigold Dance Garden, and featured nightly \"Midnight Frolics\" broadcasts by the ballroom's orchestra. It is claimed that WAMD was the first radio station to be completely supported by running paid advertisements. Effective June 15, 1927, WAMD was assigned to 1330 kHz.\n\nOn November 11, 1927 WAMD's transmitter site at Oxboro Heath on Lyndale Avenue South burned down, two weeks after the station had been sold to the National Battery Company. An initial arrangement was made to carry WAMD's programs over WRHM (now WWTC), transmitting on WAMD's 1330 kHz frequency. Beginning on November 24, 1927 the WAMD broadcasts, still on 1330 kHz, were shifted to KFOY's facility in St. Paul. (At this time KFOY was assigned to 1050 kHz). The next day it was announced that National Battery had purchased KFOY, and as of December 1, 1927 both KFOY and WAMD were reassigned to 1350 kHz. WAMD continued making regular broadcasts until the end of March 1928, while KFOY, although it continued to be licensed for a few more months on a time-sharing basis with WAMD, ceased operations at this point.\n\nNational Battery Company\nIn mid-December 1927, the National Battery Company announced it had received permission from the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) to build a new station, with the call letters KSTP, operating from a transmitter site to be constructed three miles south of Wescott. The next month it was reported that the new station, still under construction, had been assigned to 1360 kHz. KSTP made its debut broadcast on March 29, 1928. Although technically it was a separate station from WAMD and KFOY, both of which were formally deleted on April 30, 1928, overall KSTP was treated as the direct successor to a consolidated WAMD and KFOY.\n\nHubbard became the merged station's general manager, acquiring controlling interest in 1941. A month after the merger, KSTP became an affiliate for the NBC Red Network.  It remained with NBC for 46 years. On November 11, 1928, under the provisions of the FRC's General Order 40, KSTP was assigned to a \"high-powered regional\" frequency of 1460 kHz. The only other station assigned to this frequency was WTFF in Mount Vernon Hills, Virginia (later WJSV, now WFED, Washington, D.C.). On February 7, 1933, the FRC authorized KSTP to increase its daytime power to 25 KW. In 1938 and 1939 KSTP also operated a high-fidelity AM \"experimental audio broadcasting station\" Apex station, W9XUP, originally on 25,950 kHz and later on 26,150 kHz. In 1941, as part of the implementation of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement, KSTP was assigned to its current \"clear channel\" frequency of 1500 kHz, with the provision that it and WJSV, as \"Class I-B\" stations, had to maintain directional antennas at night in order to mutually protect each other from interference. An FM station, KSTP-FM, was founded in 1946 but shut down in 1952.\n\nHubbard reportedly acquired an RCA TV camera in 1939, and started experimenting with television broadcasts.  But World War II put a hold on the development of television.  In 1948, with the war over, KSTP-TV became the first television station in Minnesota.  With KSTP 1500 already associated with NBC Radio, KSTP-TV became an NBC Television Network affiliate.  From 1946 to 1952, KSTP also had an FM counterpart.  KSTP-FM 102.1 was only on the air four years.  There were few radios equipped to receive FM signals in that era, and management decided to discontinue FM broadcasts.\n\nMOR and Top 40\nAs network programming moved from radio to television, KSTP programmed a full service Middle of the Road (MOR) radio format, in the shadow of its chief competitor, CBS Radio affiliate 830 WCCO. In 1965, a new FM station, reviving the KSTP-FM call sign, was put on the air, largely simulcasting the AM station.  But by the late 1960s, KSTP-FM began a separate format of beautiful music.  KSTP was the radio home of the Minnesota Vikings football team from 1970 to 1975. \n\nIn 1973, KSTP broke away from its longtime adult MOR sound and became one of four area stations at the time to program a Top 40 format. \"15 KSTP, The Music Station\" competed with Top 40 AM rivals WDGY, KDWB and later, WYOO. The competition would eventually shake itself out, with outrageous rocker WYOO dropping out after being sold in 1976, and then the staid WDGY switching to country music the following year.  As for uptempo hits station 15 KSTP, it went from a tight Top 40 format to leaning adult rock in 1978, to leaning adult contemporary in 1979, to evolving into adult contemporary/talk by 1980.  In 1982, it officially shifted to talk.  Most Top 40 rock music, by this time, had moved to the FM band.\n\nPast Personalities\n\nNotable hosts who have been on KSTP include John Hines, Jesse Ventura, Larry Carolla, Tom Barnard, Big Al Davis, Don Vogel, John MacDougall, Griff, Mike Edwards, Geoff Charles, Joe Soucheray, James Lileks, Leigh Kamman, Barbara Carlson, Peter Thiele, Tom Mischke, Jason Lewis, Chuck Knapp, Machine Gun Kelly, Charle Bush, Mark O'Connell and Paul Brand. These broadcasters were supported by producers such as Bruce Huff, Rob Pendleton, Alison Brown, Jean Bjorgen, David Elvin (who Vogel dubbed the \"Steven Spielberg of Talk Radio\"), Mitch Berg and others.\n\nThe station has, for the most part, emphasized local hosts over the years.  But in 1988, KSTP was one of Rush Limbaugh's first affiliates when his conservative talk show was rolled out for national syndication.  (Clear Channel-owned KTLK-FM took over rights to Limbaugh's show in January 2006). Other syndicated hosts previously heard on KSTP include Sean Hannity, Bruce Williams, Larry King, and Owen Spann.\n\nSports Radio\nKSTP switched to Sports Radio on February 15, 2010.  As the station had to wait for ESPN's contract with rival KFAN and its sister station KFXN to expire, it did not become an ESPN Radio affiliate until April 12, the same day that the Minnesota Twins were scheduled to play the first game in their new ball park, Target Field, against the Boston Red Sox.  As a result Coast to Coast AM and Live on Sunday Night, it's Bill Cunningham were retained during this period.  One ESPN Radio network program, The Herd with Colin Cowherd, was picked up by KSTP immediately following the format change.\n\nIn 2018, the station was approved for an FM translator on 94.1 FM, broadcasting from a transmitter atop the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis. The two-watt signal threw most of its power to the west, preventing interference to low powered FM stations on the same channel including WFNU-LP in St. Paul. With only two watts of power, however, the signal was limited to the immediate downtown area surrounding the IDS Center.  It later acquired a 250 watt translator, K235BP at 94.9 MHz.  The original translator was discontinued.\n\nOn January 15, 2019, KSTP rebranded as \"SKOR North\" (a reference to the Vikings team song/chant, \"Skol, Vikings\"), with local programming between 12 noon and 7 pm. About a year later, in May of 2020, KSTP suspended most of its local programming and laid off nearly all of its local staff. Station management cited the economic toll of the coronavirus for the changes. Sports broadcasting continues, primarily composed of ESPN radio network broadcasts.\n\nSports Teams\n\nKSTP-AM served as the radio flagship for the Minnesota Vikings football team from 1970 to 1975.\n\nOn August 1, 2006, the station announced that it would be the new flagship station for the Minnesota Twins baseball team, effective with the start of the 2007 season. The Twins had been on rival WCCO since arriving in Minnesota in 1961.  KSTP served as the flagship for the Twins until the end of the 2012 season, when games moved to 96.3 KTWN-FM (now KMWA).  The Twins have since returned to WCCO 830.\n\nThe switch to a fairly weak FM station caused dissent among some listeners, particularly in communities that had trouble picking up KSTP 1500.  Although KSTP is the state's second most powerful AM station, it must operate directionally at night, delivering a reduced signal to parts of the market. WCCO, by comparison, offers a signal with a wider coverage area during the day than KSTP does, with WCCO's non-directional 50,000 watt signal. In response, the Twins have expanded the number of affiliates.\n\nOn March 9, 2011, KSTP announced it would be the new flagship for the University of Minnesota Golden Gophers men's and women's basketball and men's ice hockey, ending a 68-year run on WCCO. The rights have since moved to KFXN-FM, which already aired Gopher football.\n\nOn March 2, 2017, KSTP announced it would be the first radio broadcaster for Minnesota United FC.  The move brings live soccer action to 1500 AM.\n\nPrevious logos\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nKSTP website\n\nFCC History Cards for KSTP (covering 1928-1980)\nRadiotapes.com Historic Minneapolis/St. Paul airchecks dating back to 1924 including KSTP and other Twin Cities radio stations.\nRick Burnett's TwinCitiesRadioAirchecks.com has additional airchecks of KSTP and other Twin Cities radio stations from the '60s and '70s, including Chuck Knapp's 2nd show on KSTP.\n\nHubbard Broadcasting\nESPN Radio stations\nPeabody Award winners\nRadio stations in Minneapolis–Saint Paul\nRadio stations established in 1925\n1925 establishments in Minnesota\nMinnesota Kicks\nSports radio stations in the United States\nClear-channel radio stations.", "answers": ["Four years."], "length": 1802, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "622b577978afc1346c315f98a18678c8e6d5ccbf82511f74"}
{"input": "Does DUO contain more instances per image than COCO?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\nUnderwater robot picking is to use the robot to automatically capture sea creatures like holothurian, echinus, scallop, or starfish in an open-sea farm where underwater object detection is the key technology for locating creatures. Until now, the datasets used in this community are released by the Underwater Robot Professional Contest (URPC$\\protect\\footnote{Underwater Robot Professional Contest: {\\bf http://en.cnurpc.org}.}$) beginning from 2017, in which URPC2017 and URPC2018 are most often used for research. Unfortunately, as the information listed in Table \\ref{Info}, URPC series datasets do not provide the annotation file of the test set and cannot be downloaded after the contest. \nTherefore, researchers \\cite{2020arXiv200511552C,2019arXiv191103029L} first have to divide the training data into two subsets, including a new subset of training data and a new subset of testing data, and then train their proposed method and other \\emph{SOTA} methods. On the one hand, training other methods results in a significant increase in workload. On the other hand, different researchers divide different datasets in different ways, \n\\begin{table}[t]\n\\renewcommand\\tabcolsep{3.5pt}\n\\caption{Information about all the collected datasets. * denotes the test set's annotations are not available. \\emph{3} in Class means three types of creatures are labeled, \\emph{i.e.,} holothurian, echinus, and scallop. \\emph{4} means four types of creatures are labeled (starfish added). Retention represents the proportion of images that retain after similar images have been removed.}\n\\centering \n\\begin{tabular}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nDataset&Train&Test&Class&Retention&Year \\\\ \n\\hline \nURPC2017&17,655&985*&3&15\\%&2017 \\\\\n\\hline\nURPC2018&2,901&800*&4&99\\%&2018 \\\\\n\\hline\nURPC2019&4,757&1,029*&4&86\\%&2019 \\\\\n\\hline\nURPC2020$_{ZJ}$&5,543&2,000*&4&82\\%&2020 \\\\\n\\hline\nURPC2020$_{DL}$&6,575&2,400*&4&80\\%&2020 \\\\\n\\hline\nUDD&1,827&400&3&84\\%&2020 \\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\end{tabular}\n\\label{Info}\n\\end{table}\n\\begin{figure*}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{example.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Examples in DUO, which show a variety of scenarios in underwater environments.}\n\\label{exam}\n\\end{figure*}\ncausing there is no unified benchmark to compare the performance of different algorithms.\nIn terms of the content of the dataset images, there are a large number of similar or duplicate images in the URPC datasets. URPC2017 only retains 15\\% images after removing similar images compared to other datasets. Thus the detector trained on URPC2017 is easy to overfit and cannot reflect the real performance.\nFor other URPC datasets, the latter also includes images from the former, \\emph{e.g.}, URPC2019 adds 2,000 new images compared to URPC2018; compared with URPC2019, URPC2020$_{ZJ}$ adds 800 new images. The URPC2020$_{DL}$ adds 1,000 new images compared to the URPC2020$_{ZJ}$. It is worth mentioning that the annotation of all datasets is incomplete; some datasets lack the starfish labels and it is easy to find error or missing labels. \\cite{DBLP:conf/iclr/ZhangBHRV17} pointed out that although the CNN model has a strong fitting ability for any dataset, the existence of dirty data will significantly weaken its robustness.\nTherefore, a reasonable dataset (containing a small number of similar images as well as an accurate annotation) and a corresponding recognized benchmark are urgently needed to promote community development.\n\n\nTo address these issues, we introduce a dataset called Detecting Underwater Objects (DUO) by collecting and re-annotating all the available underwater datasets. It contains 7,782 underwater images after deleting overly similar images and has a more accurate annotation with four types of classes (\\emph{i.e.,} holothurian, echinus, scallop, and starfish). \nBesides, based on the MMDetection$\\protect\\footnote{MMDetection is an open source object detection toolbox based on PyTorch. {\\bf https://github.com/open-mmlab/mmdetection}}$ \\cite{chen2019mmdetection} framework, we also provide a \\emph{SOTA} detector benchmark containing efficiency and accuracy indicators, providing a reference for both academic research and industrial applications. It is worth noting that JETSON AGX XAVIER$\\protect\\footnote{JETSON AGX XAVIER is an embedded development board produced by NVIDIA which could be deployed in an underwater robot. Please refer {\\bf https://developer.nvidia.com/embedded/jetson-agx-xavier-developer-kit} for more information.}$ was used to assess all the detectors in the efficiency test in order to simulate robot-embedded environment. DUO will be released in https://github.com/chongweiliu soon.\n\nIn summary, the contributions of this paper can be listed as follows.\n\n  $\\bullet$ By collecting and re-annotating all relevant datasets, we introduce a dataset called DUO with more reasonable annotations as well as a variety of underwater scenes.\n\n  $\\bullet$ We provide a corresponding benchmark of \\emph{SOTA} detectors on DUO including efficiency and accuracy indicators which could be a reference for both academic research and industrial applications. \n\n\n\\pagestyle{empty}\n\\section{Background}\nIn the year of 2017, underwater object detection for open-sea farming is first proposed in the target recognition track of Underwater Robot Picking Contest 2017$\\protect\\footnote{From 2020, the name has been changed into Underwater Robot Professional Contest which is also short for URPC.}$ (URPC2017) which aims to promote the development of theory, technology, and industry of the underwater agile robot and fill the blank of the grabbing task of the underwater agile robot. The competition sets up a target recognition track, a fixed-point grasping track, and an autonomous grasping track. The target recognition track concentrates on finding the {\\bf high accuracy and efficiency} algorithm which could be used in an underwater robot for automatically grasping.\n\nThe datasets we used to generate the DUO are listed below. The detailed information has been shown in Table \\ref{Info}.\n\n  {\\bf URPC2017}: It contains 17,655 images for training and 985 images for testing and the resolution of all the images is 720$\\times$405. All the images are taken from 6 videos at an interval of 10 frames. However, all the videos were filmed in an artificial simulated environment and pictures from the same video look almost identical. \n  \n   {\\bf URPC2018}: It contains 2,901 images for training and 800 images for testing and the resolutions of the images are 586$\\times$480, 704$\\times$576, 720$\\times$405, and 1,920$\\times$1,080. The test set's annotations are not available. Besides, some images were also collected from an artificial underwater environment.\n  \n  {\\bf URPC2019}: It contains 4,757 images for training and 1029 images for testing and the highest resolution of the images is 3,840$\\times$2,160 captured by a GOPro camera. The test set's annotations are also not available and it contains images from the former contests.\n  \n  {\\bf URPC2020$_{ZJ}$}: From 2020, the URPC will be held twice a year. It was held first in Zhanjiang, China, in April and then in Dalian, China, in August. URPC2020$_{ZJ}$ means the dataset released in the first URPC2020 and URPC2020$_{DL}$ means the dataset released in the second URPC2020. This dataset contains 5,543 images for training and 2,000 images for testing and the highest resolution of the images is 3,840$\\times$2,160. The test set's annotations are also not available.\n  \n  {\\bf URPC2020$_{DL}$}: This dataset contains 6,575 images for training and 2,400 images for testing and the highest resolution of the images is 3,840$\\times$2,160. The test set's annotations are also not available.\n  \n  {\\bf UDD \\cite{2020arXiv200301446W}}: This dataset contains 1,827 images for training and 400 images for testing and the highest resolution of the images is 3,840$\\times$2,160. All the images are captured by a diver and a robot in a real open-sea farm.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{pie.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{The proportion distribution of the objects in DUO.}\n\\label{pie}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\centering\n  \\subfigure[]{\\includegraphics[width=3.45in]{imagesize.pdf}}\n  \\subfigure[]{\\includegraphics[width=3.45in]{numInstance.pdf}}\n  \\caption{(a) The distribution of instance sizes for DUO; (b) The number of categories per image.}\n  \\label{sum}\n\\end{figure*}\n\\section{Proposed Dataset}\n\n\\subsection{Image Deduplicating}\nAs we explained in Section 1, there are a large number of similar or repeated images in the series of URPC datasets. Therefore, it is important to delete duplicate or overly similar images and keep a variety of underwater scenarios when we merge these datasets together. Here we employ the Perceptual Hash algorithm (PHash) to remove those images. PHash has the special property that the hash value is dependent on the image content, and it remains approximately the same if the content is not significantly modified. Thus we can easily distinguish different scenarios and delete duplicate images within one scenario. \n\nAfter deduplicating, we obtain 7,782 images (6,671 images for training; 1,111 for testing). The retention rate of the new dataset is 95\\%, which means that there are only a few similar images in the new dataset. Figure \\ref{exam} shows that our dataset also retains various underwater scenes.\n\n\\subsection{Image Re-annotation}\nDue to the small size of objects and the blur underwater environment, there are always missing or wrong labels in the existing annotation files. In addition, some test sets' annotation files are not available and some datasets do not have the starfish annotation. In order to address these issues, we follow the next process which combines a CNN model and manual annotation to re-annotate these images. Specifically, we first train a detector (\\emph{i.e.,} GFL \\cite{li2020generalized}) with the originally labeled images. After that, the trained detector predicts all the 7,782 images. We treat the prediction as the groundtruth and use it to train the GFL again. We get the final GFL prediction called {\\bf the coarse annotation}. Next, we use manual correction to get the final annotation called {\\bf the fine annotation}. Notably, we adopt the COCO \\cite{Belongie2014} annotation form as the final format.\n\\subsection{Dataset Statistics}\n{\\bf The proportion of classes}: The total number of objects is 74,515. Holothurian, echinus, scallop, and starfish are 7,887, 50,156, 1,924, and 14,548, respectively. Figure \\ref{pie} shows the proportion of each creatures where echinus accounts for 67.3\\% of the total. The whole data distribution shows an obvious long-tail distribution because the different economic benefits of different seafoods determine the different breed quantities.\n\n{\\bf The distribution of instance sizes}: Figure \\ref{sum}(a) shows an instance size distribution of DUO. \\emph{Percent of image size} represents the ratio of object area to image area, and \\emph{Percent of instance} represents the ratio of the corresponding number of objects to the total number of objects. Because of these small creatures and high-resolution images, the vast majority of objects occupy 0.3\\% to 1.5\\% of the image area.\n\n{\\bf The instance number per image}: Figure \\ref{sum}(b) illustrates the number of categories per image for DUO. \\emph{Number of instances} represents the number of objects one image has, and \\emph{ Percentage of images} represents the ratio of the corresponding number of images to the total number of images. Most images contain between 5 and 15 instances, with an average of 9.57 instances per image.\n\n{\\bf Summary}:\nIn general, smaller objects are harder to detect. For PASCAL VOC \\cite{Everingham2007The} or COCO \\cite{Belongie2014}, roughly 50\\% of all objects occupy no more than 10\\% of the image itself, and others evenly occupy from 10\\% to 100\\%. \nIn the aspect of instances number per image, COCO contains 7.7 instances per image and VOC contains 3. In comparison, DUO has 9.57 instances per image and most instances less than 1.5\\% of the image size.\nTherefore, DUO contains almost exclusively massive small instances and has the long-tail distribution at the same time, which means it is promising to design a detector to deal with massive small objects and stay high efficiency at the same time for underwater robot picking.\n\n\\section{Benchmark}\nBecause the aim of underwater object detection for robot picking is to find {\\bf the high accuracy and efficiency} algorithm, we consider both the accuracy and efficiency evaluations in the benchmark as shown in Table \\ref{ben}.\n\n\\subsection{Evaluation Metrics}\nHere we adopt the standard COCO metrics (mean average precision, \\emph{i.e.,} mAP) for the accuracy evaluation and also provide the mAP of each class due to the long-tail distribution.\n\n{\\bf AP} -- mAP at IoU=0.50:0.05:0.95.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{50}$} --  mAP at IoU=0.50.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{75}$} --  mAP at IoU=0.75. \n\n{\\bf AP$_{S}$} --   {\\bf AP} for small objects of area smaller than 32$^{2}$.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{M}$} --   {\\bf AP} for objects of area between 32$^{2}$ and 96$^{2}$.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{L}$} --   {\\bf AP} for large objects of area bigger than 96$^{2}$.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{Ho}$} --  {\\bf AP} in holothurian.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{Ec}$} --  {\\bf AP} in echinus.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{Sc}$} --  {\\bf AP} in scallop.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{St}$} --  {\\bf AP} in starfish.\n\n\nFor the efficiency evaluation, we provide three metrics:\n\n{\\bf Param.} --  The parameters of a detector.\n\n{\\bf FLOPs} --  Floating-point operations per second.\n\n{\\bf FPS} --  Frames per second.\n\nNotably, {\\bf FLOPs} is calculated under the 512$\\times$512 input image size and {\\bf FPS} is tested on a JETSON AGX XAVIER under MODE$\\_$30W$\\_$ALL. \n\n\\subsection{Standard Training Configuration}\nWe follow a widely used open-source toolbox, \\emph{i.e.,} MMDetection (V2.5.0) to produce up our benchmark. During the training, the standard configurations are as follows:\n\n  $\\bullet$ We initialize the backbone models (\\emph{e.g.,} ResNet50) with pre-trained parameters on ImageNet \\cite{Deng2009ImageNet}.\n\n  $\\bullet$ We resize each image into 512 $\\times$ 512 pixels both in training and testing. Each image is flipped horizontally with 0.5 probability during training.\n\n  $\\bullet$ We normalize RGB channels by subtracting 123.675, 116.28, 103.53 and dividing by 58.395, 57.12, 57.375, respectively.\n\n  $\\bullet$ SGD method is adopted to optimize the model. The initial learning rate is set to be 0.005 in a single GTX 1080Ti with batchsize 4 and is decreased by 0.1 at the 8th and 11th epoch, respectively. WarmUp \\cite{2019arXiv190307071L} is also employed in the first 500 iterations. Totally there are 12 training epochs.\n\n  $\\bullet$ Testing time augmentation (\\emph{i.e.,} flipping test or multi-scale testing) is not employed.\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Benchmark Analysis}\nTable \\ref{ben} shows the benchmark for the \\emph{SOTA} methods. Multi- and one- stage detectors with three kinds of backbones (\\emph{i.e.,} ResNet18, 50, 101) give a comprehensive assessment on DUO. We also deploy all the methods to AGX to assess efficiency.\n\nIn general, the multi-stage (Cascade R-CNN) detectors have high accuracy and low efficiency, while the one-stage (RetinaNet) detectors have low accuracy and high efficiency. However, due to recent studies \\cite{zhang2019bridging} on the allocation of more reasonable positive and negative samples in training, one-stage detectors (ATSS or GFL) can achieve both high accuracy and high efficiency.\n\n\\begin{table*}[htbp]\n\\renewcommand\\tabcolsep{3.0pt}\n\n\\begin{center}\n\\caption{Benchmark of \\emph{SOTA} detectors (single-model and single-scale results) on DUO. FPS is measured on the same machine with a JETSON AGX XAVIER under the same MMDetection framework, using a batch size of 1 whenever possible. R: ResNet.} \n\\label{ben}\n\\begin{tabular}{|l|l|c|c|c|ccc|ccc|cccc|}\n\\hline\nMethod&Backbone&Param.&FLOPs&FPS&AP&AP$_{50}$&AP$_{75}$&AP$_{S}$&AP$_{M}$&AP$_{L}$&AP$_{Ho}$&AP$_{Ec}$&AP$_{Sc}$&AP$_{St}$ \\\\ \n\\hline \n\\emph{multi-stage:} &&&&&&&&&&&&&& \\\\\n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{Faster R-CNN \\cite{Ren2015Faster}}\n&R-18&28.14M&49.75G&5.7&50.1&72.6&57.8&42.9&51.9&48.7&49.1&60.1&31.6&59.7\\\\\n&R-50&41.14M&63.26G&4.7&54.8&75.9&63.1&53.0&56.2&53.8&55.5&62.4&38.7&62.5\\\\\n&R-101&60.13M&82.74G&3.7&53.8&75.4&61.6&39.0&55.2&52.8&54.3&62.0&38.5&60.4\\\\\n\\hline\n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{Cascade R-CNN \\cite{Cai_2019}}\n&R-18&55.93M&77.54G&3.4&52.7&73.4&60.3&\\bf 49.0&54.7&50.9&51.4&62.3&34.9&62.3\\\\\n&R-50&68.94M&91.06G&3.0&55.6&75.5&63.8&44.9&57.4&54.4&56.8&63.6&38.7&63.5\\\\\n&R-101&87.93M&110.53G&2.6&56.0&76.1&63.6&51.2&57.5&54.7&56.2&63.9&41.3&62.6\\\\\n\\hline\n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{Grid R-CNN \\cite{lu2019grid}}\n&R-18&51.24M&163.15G&3.9&51.9&72.1&59.2&40.4&54.2&50.1&50.7&61.8&33.3&61.9\\\\\n&R-50&64.24M&176.67G&3.4&55.9&75.8&64.3&40.9&57.5&54.8&56.7&62.9&39.5&64.4\\\\\n&R-101&83.24M&196.14G&2.8&55.6&75.6&62.9&45.6&57.1&54.5&55.5&62.9&41.0&62.9\\\\\n\\hline\n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{RepPoints \\cite{yang2019reppoints}}\n&R-18&20.11M&\\bf 35.60G&5.6&51.7&76.9&57.8&43.8&54.0&49.7&50.8&63.3&33.6&59.2\\\\\n&R-50&36.60M&48.54G&4.8&56.0&80.2&63.1&40.8&58.5&53.7&56.7&65.7&39.3&62.3\\\\\n&R-101&55.60M&68.02G&3.8&55.4&79.0&62.6&42.2&57.3&53.9&56.0&65.8&39.0&60.9\\\\\n\\hline \n\\hline \n\\emph{one-stage:} &&&&&&&&&&&&&& \\\\\n\\multirow{3}{*}{RetinaNet \\cite{Lin2017Focal}}\n&R-18&19.68M&39.68G&7.1&44.7&66.3&50.7&29.3&47.6&42.5&46.9&54.2&23.9&53.8\\\\\n&R-50&36.17M&52.62G&5.9&49.3&70.3&55.4&36.5&51.9&47.6&54.4&56.6&27.8&58.3\\\\\n&R-101&55.16M&72.10G&4.5&50.4&71.7&57.3&34.6&52.8&49.0&54.6&57.0&33.7&56.3\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{FreeAnchor \\cite{2019arXiv190902466Z}}\n&R-18&19.68M&39.68G&6.8&49.0&71.9&55.3&38.6&51.7&46.7&47.2&62.8&28.6&57.6\\\\\n&R-50&36.17M&52.62G&5.8&54.4&76.6&62.5&38.1&55.7&53.4&55.3&65.2&35.3&61.8\\\\\n&R-101&55.16M&72.10G&4.4&54.6&76.9&62.9&36.5&56.5&52.9&54.0&65.1&38.4&60.7\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{FoveaBox \\cite{DBLP:journals/corr/abs-1904-03797}}\n&R-18&21.20M&44.75G&6.7&51.6&74.9&57.4&40.0&53.6&49.8&51.0&61.9&34.6&59.1\\\\\n&R-50&37.69M&57.69G&5.5&55.3&77.8&62.3&44.7&57.4&53.4&57.9&64.2&36.4&62.8\\\\\n&R-101&56.68M&77.16G&4.2&54.7&77.3&62.3&37.7&57.1&52.4&55.3&63.6&38.9&60.8\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{PAA \\cite{2020arXiv200708103K}}\n&R-18&\\bf 18.94M&38.84G&3.0&52.6&75.3&58.8&41.3&55.1&50.2&49.9&64.6&35.6&60.5\\\\\n&R-50&31.89M&51.55G&2.9&56.8&79.0&63.8&38.9&58.9&54.9&56.5&66.9&39.9&64.0\\\\\n&R-101&50.89M&71.03G&2.4&56.5&78.5&63.7&40.9&58.7&54.5&55.8&66.5&42.0&61.6\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{FSAF \\cite{zhu2019feature}}\n&R-18&19.53M&38.88G&\\bf 7.4&49.6&74.3&55.1&43.4&51.8&47.5&45.5&63.5&30.3&58.9\\\\\n&R-50&36.02M&51.82G&6.0&54.9&79.3&62.1&46.2&56.7&53.3&53.7&66.4&36.8&62.5\\\\\n&R-101&55.01M&55.01G&4.5&54.6&78.7&61.9&46.0&57.1&52.2&53.0&66.3&38.2&61.1\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{FCOS \\cite{DBLP:journals/corr/abs-1904-01355}}\n&R-18&\\bf 18.94M&38.84G&6.5&48.4&72.8&53.7&30.7&50.9&46.3&46.5&61.5&29.1&56.6\\\\\n&R-50&31.84M&50.34G&5.4&53.0&77.1&59.9&39.7&55.6&50.5&52.3&64.5&35.2&60.0\\\\\n&R-101&50.78M&69.81G&4.2&53.2&77.3&60.1&43.4&55.4&51.2&51.7&64.1&38.5&58.5\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{ATSS \\cite{zhang2019bridging}}\n&R-18&\\bf 18.94M&38.84G&6.0&54.0&76.5&60.9&44.1&56.6&51.4&52.6&65.5&35.8&61.9\\\\\n&R-50&31.89M&51.55G&5.2&58.2&\\bf 80.1&66.5&43.9&60.6&55.9&\\bf 58.6&67.6&41.8&64.6\\\\\n&R-101&50.89M&71.03G&3.8&57.6&79.4&65.3&46.5&60.3&55.0&57.7&67.2&42.6&62.9\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{GFL \\cite{li2020generalized}}\n&R-18&19.09M&39.63G&6.3&54.4&75.5&61.9&35.0&57.1&51.8&51.8&66.9&36.5&62.5\\\\\n&R-50&32.04M&52.35G&5.5&\\bf 58.6&79.3&\\bf 66.7&46.5&\\bf 61.6&55.6&\\bf 58.6&\\bf 69.1&41.3&\\bf 65.3\\\\\n&R-101&51.03M&71.82G&4.1&58.3&79.3&65.5&45.1&60.5&\\bf 56.3&57.0&\\bf 69.1&\\bf 43.0&64.0\\\\\n\n\n\\hline \n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{table*}\nTherefore, in terms of accuracy, the accuracy difference between the multi- and the one- stage methods in AP is not obvious, and the AP$_{S}$ of different methods is always the lowest among the three size AP. For class AP, AP$_{Sc}$ lags significantly behind the other three classes because it has the smallest number of instances. In terms of efficiency, large parameters and FLOPs result in low FPS on AGX, with a maximum FPS of 7.4, which is hardly deployable on underwater robot. Finally, we also found that ResNet101 was not significantly improved over ResNet50, which means that a very deep network may not be useful for detecting small creatures in underwater scenarios. \n\nConsequently, the design of high accuracy and high efficiency detector is still the main direction in this field and there is still large space to improve the performance.\nIn order to achieve this goal, a shallow backbone with strong multi-scale feature fusion ability can be proposed to extract the discriminant features of small scale aquatic organisms; a specially designed training strategy may overcome the DUO's long-tail distribution, such as a more reasonable positive/negative label sampling mechanism or a class-balanced image allocation strategy within a training batch.\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nIn this paper, we introduce a dataset (DUO) and a corresponding benchmark to fill in the gaps in the community. DUO contains a variety of underwater scenes and more reasonable annotations. Benchmark includes efficiency and accuracy indicators to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the \\emph{SOTA} decoders. The two contributions could serve as a reference for academic research and industrial applications, as well as promote community development.", "answers": ["Yes, DUO has 9.57 instances per image while COCO contains 7.7."], "length": 2619, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "dffb383ee06d8413ac40e2c1ec7bde5548ef07fc8f35ad2f"}
{"input": "When did the Tevatron Collider Run II start and when is it expected to end?", "context": "\\section{INTRODUCTION}\nThe Tevatron Collider Run II started in March 2002 and is expected\nto continue until the end of this decade. The Tevatron and the \ntwo detectors, CDF and D\\O, have been performing  well in 2004,\neach experiment is collecting data at the rate \nof $\\approx$10 pb$^{-1}$ per week.\nThe total  luminosity accumulated by August 2004 is $\\approx$500 pb$^{-1}$\nper detector.\nThe rich physics program includes the\nproduction and precision measurement of properties of  standard model (SM)\nobjects, as well as searches for phenomena beyond standard model.\nIn this brief review we focus on areas of most interest \nto the lattice community. We present\nnew results on the top quark mass\nand their implication for the mass of the SM Higgs boson, \non searches for the SM Higgs boson, on evidence for the $X(3872)$ state, \non searches for pentaquarks, and on $b$ hadron properties.\nAll Run II results presented here are preliminary. \n\n\\section{TOP QUARK MASS}\n\nThe experiments CDF and D\\O\\ published several direct  measurements of\nthe top quark pole mass, $\\ensuremath{M_{\\mathrm{top}}}$, \nbased on Run I data (1992-1996).\nThe ``lepton $+$ jets'' channel yields the most precise determination of\n$\\ensuremath{M_{\\mathrm{top}}}$. Recently, the\nD\\O\\ collaboration published a new measurement~\\cite{Mtop1-D0-l+j-new},\nbased on a powerful analysis technique yielding  greatly improved precision.\nThe differential probability \nthat the measured variables in any event correspond to the signal\nis calculated as a function of $\\ensuremath{M_{\\mathrm{top}}}$. \nThe maximum in the product of the individual event probabilities \nprovides the best estimate of $\\ensuremath{M_{\\mathrm{top}}}$.\nThe critical differences from previous analyses \nin the lepton $+$ jets decay channel lie in \nthe assignment of more \nweight to events that are well measured or more likely to correspond to  \n$t \\bar t$ signal, \nand  the handling of the combinations of final-state objects\n(lepton, jets, and imbalance in transverse momentum) \nand their identification with\ntop-quark decay products in an event. \nThe new combined value for the top-quark mass from Run I is \n$\\ensuremath{M_{\\mathrm{top}}}  =  178.0\\pm4.3~\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{ Ge\\kern -0.1em V }\\kern -0.2em /c^2 }$.\n\nIn Run II, both collaborations  have been exploring several different techniques \nfor $\\ensuremath{M_{\\mathrm{top}}}$\nmeasurements. The best single CDF result comes from a dynamic likelihood method\n(DLM). The method is similar to\nthe technique used in Ref.~\\cite{Mtop1-D0-l+j-new}.\nThe result is $\\ensuremath{M_{\\mathrm{top}}} = 177.8^{+4.5}_{-5.0} (stat) \\pm  6.2 (syst) ~\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{ Ge\\kern -0.1em V }\\kern -0.2em /c^2 }$.\nThe joint likelihood of the selected events is shown in Fig. ~\\ref{fig:cdf_tml}. \nThe Run II goal is a 1\\% uncertainty on $\\ensuremath{M_{\\mathrm{top}}}$. \n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\vspace*{-5mm}\n\\includegraphics[height=5.8cm,width=8.1cm]  {data_22ev_likelihood.eps}\n\\vspace*{-1.2cm}\n\\caption{The joint likelihood of top candidates(CDF).}\n\\label{fig:cdf_tml}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\\section{SEARCH FOR SM HIGGS BOSON}\n\n\nThe constraints on the SM Higgs ($H$)  boson  mass from\npublished  measurements, updated to include the new D\\O\\ top mass\nmeasurement~\\cite{Mtop1-D0-l+j-new}, are\n$M_H = 117 ^{+67}_{-45}~\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{ Ge\\kern -0.1em V }\\kern -0.2em /c^2 }$, $M_H < 251~\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{ Ge\\kern -0.1em V }\\kern -0.2em /c^2 }$ at 95\\% C.L.\nThe  new most likely  value of $M_H$\nis above the experimentally excluded range,\nand sufficiently low for $H$ to be observed at the Tevatron.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\vspace*{-5mm}\n\\includegraphics[height=7.5cm,width=7.8cm]  {d0_wbb_fig_3_err.eps}\n\\vspace*{-1.1cm}\n\\caption{Distribution of the dijet\ninvariant mass for $W+2 b$-tagged jets  events,\ncompared to the expectation (D\\O). \n}\n\\label{fig:d0_wbb_2tag}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\nD\\O\\  has conducted a search for $H$ at $M_H < 140~\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{ Ge\\kern -0.1em V }\\kern -0.2em /c^2 }$ \nin the production channel  \n$p \\bar{p} \\rightarrow WH \\rightarrow  e \\nu b \\bar{b}$. \nThe experimental signature of  $WH \\rightarrow e \\nu b \\bar{b}$\nis a final state with \none high $p_T$ electron, two  $b$ jets, and\nlarge missing transverse energy  resulting from\nthe undetected neutrino.\nThe dominant backgrounds to $WH$ production\nare  $W b \\bar{b}$, $t \\bar{t}$ and single-top production.\nThe distribution \nof the dijet mass for events with two $b$-tagged jets is shown in\nFig.~\\ref{fig:d0_wbb_2tag}. \nAlso shown is the  expected contribution ($0.06$ events)  \nfrom the $b \\bar{b}$ decay of a\nSM Higgs boson with $M_H =$ 115 $\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{ Ge\\kern -0.1em V }\\kern -0.2em /c^2 }$.\nNo events are observed in the  dijet mass window of 85--135  $\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{ Ge\\kern -0.1em V }\\kern -0.2em /c^2 }$.\nD\\O\\ sets a limit on the cross section\nfor $\\sigma( p\\bar{p} \\rightarrow WH) \\times B(H \\rightarrow b \\bar{b}) $\nof 9.0 pb at the 95\\% C.L.,  for a 115  $\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{ Ge\\kern -0.1em V }\\kern -0.2em /c^2 }$ Higgs boson.\nThe results for mass points 105, 125, and 135 $\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{ Ge\\kern -0.1em V }\\kern -0.2em /c^2 }$\n are 11.0, 9.1 and 12.2 pb,  respectively.\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\vspace*{-1.2cm}\n\\includegraphics[height=0.33\\textheight,width=8.0cm]{whww_aps04_bw.eps}\n\n\\vspace*{-1.2cm}\n\\caption{95\\% limits on the $H$ production (CDF).}\n\\label{fig:cdf_whww}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nCDF  has done  a similar search, allowing either an  electron or a muon  \nin the final state.  Both groups have also searched for $H$ produced in\ngluon-gluon fusion, with subsequent decay to a pair of $W$ bosons.\nThe CDF results for both channels  are shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:cdf_whww}. \n\n\n\n\\section{THE STATE X(3872)}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\n\\includegraphics[height=8.0cm,width=7.5cm]  {X3872cdfPRL1FullM.eps}\n\\vspace*{-1cm}\n\\caption{The $X(3872)$ signal (CDF).}\n\\label{fig:cdf_x}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n The existence of the $X(3872)$ state discovered by \nthe Belle Collaboration~\\cite{Belle-X}\n has been confirmed \n in $p \\bar{p}$ collisions by  CDF~\\cite{cdf-X} (see Fig.~\\ref{fig:cdf_x})\nand D\\O~\\cite{d0-X}.\n It is still unclear whether this particle is a $c\\bar{c}$ state,\n or a more complex object.  When the data are separated according to\nproduction and decay variables, D\\O\\  finds no significant\ndifferences between the $X(3872)$ and\nthe $c \\bar{c}$ state $\\psi(2S)$.\nCDF has analysed the ``lifetime'' distribution of the $X(3872)$ events in order to\nquantify what fraction of this state arises from decay of $B$ hadrons, as opposed to\nthose produced promptly. The authors find that for the selected samples\n28.3$\\pm$1.0$(stat)\\pm$0.7$(syst)$\\% of $\\psi(2S)$ candidates are from $b$ decays,\nwhereas 16.1$\\pm$4.9$(stat)\\pm$2.0$(syst)$\\% of $X$ mesons arise from such decays.\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{SEARCH FOR PENTAQUARKS}\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\n\\includegraphics[height=0.27\\textheight,width=7.6cm]  {mpks_1stminbias.eps}\n\\vspace*{-1.2cm}\n\n\\caption{Invariant mass distribution of an identified proton and a $K^0_s$ candidate. (CDF)\n}\n\\label{fig:pqtheta}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\n\\vspace*{-0.9cm}\n\\includegraphics[height=0.25\\textheight,width=8.0cm]  {CM_xicst_cc_1.eps}\n\\vspace*{-1.2cm}\n\\caption{Invariant mass distribution of the $(\\Xi^-,\\pi^+)$ system. (CDF) \n}\n\\label{fig:pqxi}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\vspace*{-0.9cm}\n\n\\includegraphics[height=0.25\\textheight,width=7.6cm]  {theta_note_dstp_dedx_pt.eps}\n\\vspace*{-1.2cm}\n\\caption{Mass of the ($D^{*+}\\bar p$) system. The arrow indicates the position of \nthe $\\Theta_c$ state (CDF).}\n\\label{fig:pqthetac}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\nFollowing reports of evidence for exotic\nbaryons containing five quarks (pentaquarks), CDF has analysed \nits data for evidence of the following pentaquarks:\n$\\Theta^+$ ($uud\\bar d \\bar s$), doubly strange states \n$\\Xi_{3/2}$, charmed states $\\Theta_c$, and, most recently, \na state $(udus\\bar b)$, dubbed $R^+_s$, through its weak decay to $(J/\\psi, p)$. \nWith its excellent particle indentification and mass resolution,\nCDF has a unique capability to search for  pentaquark states.\nThe signals of known states: $\\phi$, $\\Lambda$,\n$\\Lambda(1520)$, $K^*$, $\\Xi$, \ncompare favorably with those provided\nby the authors of  the pentaquark evidence.\nThe group finds no evidence for pentaquark states, see Figs \n~\\ref{fig:pqtheta},{\\ref{fig:pqxi},\\ref{fig:pqthetac}.\nThis can be interpreted as an indication that the pentaquark production \nin $p \\bar p$ collisions is heavily suppressed compared to the conventional\nhadron production, or as an evidence against the existence of pentaquarks.\n\n\\clearpage\n\n\\section{RECENT B PHYSICS RESULTS}\n\n\n\\subsection{Spectroscopy}\n\nCDF has measured the mass of $b$ hadrons in exclusive $J/\\psi$ channels.\nThe measurements of the $B_s$ and $\\Lambda_b$ (Fig. \\ref{fig:masslb})\nmasses are the current world's best.\\\\\n\n$m(B^+)$ = 5279.10$\\pm$0.41$(stat)\\pm$0.36$(syst)$,\n\n$m(B^0)$ = 5279.63$\\pm$0.53$(stat)\\pm$0.33$(syst)$,\n\n$m(B_s)$ = 5366.01$\\pm$0.73$(stat)\\pm$0.33$(syst)$,\n\n$m(\\Lambda_b)$ = 5619.7$\\pm$1.2$(stat)\\pm$1.2$(syst)$ MeV/$c^2$.\\\\\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\vspace*{-1mm}\n\\includegraphics[height=0.30\\textheight,width=7.5cm]  {lambdav1c.eps}\n\\vspace*{-1cm}\n\n\\caption{The mass spectrum of $\\Lambda_b$ candidates (CDF).}\n\\label{fig:masslb}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nD\\O\\ reports the first observation of the excited $B$ mesons \n$B_1$ and $B^*_2$ as two separate states in fully reconstructed\ndecays to $B^{(*)}\\pi$. The mass of $B_1$ is measured to be\n5724$\\pm$4$\\pm$7 MeV/c$^2$, and the mass difference $\\Delta M$ between\n$B^*_2$ and $B_1$ is 23.6$\\pm$7.7$\\pm$3.9 MeV/c$^2$\n(Fig.  \\ref{fig:d0_bexc}).\n\nD\\O\\ observes semileptonic $B$ decays to narrow $D^{**}$ states,\nthe orbitally excited states  of the $D$ meson\nseen as resonances in the $D^{*+}\\pi^-$ invariant mass spectrum.\nThe $D^*$ mesons are reconstructed through the decay sequence \n$D^{*+} \\rightarrow D^0\\pi^+$, $D^0\\rightarrow K^-\\pi^+$.\nThe invariant mass  of oppositely charged $(D^*,\\pi)$ pairs\nis shown in Fig.  \\ref{fig:d0_dstst}.\nThe mass peak between 2.4 and 2.5 GeV/$c^2$ can be interpreted as two merged \nnarrow $D^{**}$ states, $D^0_1(2420)$ and $D^0_2(2460)$.\nThe combined branching fraction is \n$ {\\cal B}(B\\rightarrow D^0_1,D^0_2)\\cdot {\\cal B}(D^0_1,D^0_2\\rightarrow D^{*+}\\pi^-)=(0.280\\pm0.021(stat)\\pm0.088(syst)$\\%. The systematic error includes the unknown phase between the\ntwo resonances. Work is in progress on extracting the two Breit-Wigner\namplitudes.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\vspace*{-2mm}\n\\hspace*{-3mm}\n\\includegraphics[height=0.28\\textheight,width=8.3cm]  {B08F02.eps}\n\n\\vspace*{-1cm}\n\\caption{Mass difference $\\Delta M = M(B\\pi)-M(B)$ for exclusive $B$ decays.\nThe background-subtracted signal is a sum of \n$B^*_1 \\rightarrow B^* \\pi$, $B^* \\rightarrow B \\gamma $ (open area)\nand $B^*_2 \\rightarrow B^*\\pi$ $B^*\\rightarrow B \\gamma$ (lower peak in the shaded area)\nand $B^*_2 \\rightarrow B \\pi$ (upper peak in the shaded area)  \n(D\\O).}\n\\label{fig:d0_bexc}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\includegraphics[height=0.25\\textheight,width=7.5cm]  {B05F03.eps}\n\n\\vspace*{-1cm}\n\\caption{The invariant mass distribution of\n$(D^*,\\pi)$ pairs, opposite sign (points) and same-sign (solid histogram).}\n\\label{fig:d0_dstst}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Lifetimes}\n\n\nCDF and D\\O\\ have measured  lifetimes of $b$ hadrons through the exclusively\nreconstructed decays $B^+ \\rightarrow J/\\psi K^+$, $B^0 \\rightarrow J/\\psi K^{*0}$,\n$B_s \\rightarrow J/\\psi \\phi$, \nand $\\Lambda_b \\rightarrow J/\\psi \\Lambda$\n(Fig. \\ref{fig:d0_lbctau}).\nThe latest results are:  \\\\\n\n\n\n $\\tau(B^+)$=1.65 $\\pm$ 0.08 $^{+0.096}_{-0.123}$  ps ~(D\\O\\ 2003),\n\n $\\tau(B^+)$=1.662 $\\pm$ 0.033  $\\pm$ 0.008  ps ~(CDF),\n\n $\\tau(B^0_d)$=1.473  $^{+0.052}_{-0.050}$ $\\pm$ 0.023    ps ~(D\\O).\n\n $\\tau(B^0_d)$=1.539 $\\pm$ 0.051  $\\pm$ 0.008  ps ~(CDF),\n\n $\\tau(B^0_s)$=1.444   $^{+0.098}_{-0.090}$ $\\pm$ 0.020   ps ~(D\\O),\n\n $\\tau(B^0_s)$=1.369 $\\pm$ 0.100 $\\pm$ $^{+0.008}_{0.010}$  ps ~(CDF),\n\n\n $\\tau(\\Lambda_b)$=1.221 $^{+0.217}_{-0.179}$ $\\pm$ 0.043  ps ~(D\\O),\n\n\n $\\tau(\\Lambda_b)$=1.25 $\\pm$ 0.26 $\\pm$ 0.10  ps ~(CDF 2003).\\\\\n\n\n\nThe measured lifetimes correspond to the following lifetime ratios:\\\\\n\n$\\tau(B^+)/\\tau(B^0_d)$   =  1.080$\\pm$0.042     ~(CDF),\n \n$\\tau(B^0_s)/\\tau(B^0_d)$ =  0.890$\\pm$0.072    ~(CDF),\n\n$\\tau(B^0_s)/\\tau(B^0_d)$ = 0.980$ ^{+0.075}_{-0.070}   \\pm$0.003    ~(D\\O),\n\n$\\tau(\\Lambda_b)/\\tau(B^0_d)$ =  0.874$ ^{+0.169}_{-0.142}   \\pm$0.028    ~(D\\O).\\\\\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\includegraphics[height=0.3\\textheight,width=8.2cm]  {d0_lbctau_B11F02.eps}\n\\vspace*{-1cm}\n\n\\caption{ Fit projection on  $c\\tau$ for the $\\Lambda_b$ candidates.  (D\\O)}\n\\label{fig:d0_lbctau}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nThe $B_s$ lifetime measurements listed above are results of\na single-lifetime fit to data, integrated over the decay angles.\nBecause  of the presence of  final\nstates  common to ${B_s^0}$\\ and its charge conjugate ${\\overline{B}_s^0}$,\nthe two meson states   are expected\nto mix in such a way that the two CP  eigenstates may have a relatively\nlarge lifetime difference.\nIt is possible to\nseparate the two CP components of ${B_s^0 \\rightarrow J/\\psi \\phi}$\\ and thus to measure the\nlifetime difference by studying the time evolution of the\npolarization states of the vector mesons in the final state.\nCDF has carried out a combined analysis of $B_s$ lifetimes \nand polarization amplitudes. The results for the lifetimes of the\nlow mass (CP even) and high mass (CP odd) eigenstates, and the relative \nwidth difference are:\\\\\n\n $\\tau_L = 1.05 ^{+0.16}_{-0.13} \\pm 0.02$ ~ps,\n \n $\\tau_H = 2.07 ^{+0.58}_{-0.46} \\pm 0.03$ ~ps,\n\n $\\Delta \\Gamma /\\overline \\Gamma   = 0.65 ^{+0.25}_{-0.33} \\pm 0.01$.\\\\\n\nFigure \\ref{fig:cdf_dg} shows  the scan of the likelihood function \nfor $\\Delta \\Gamma /\\overline \\Gamma$.\nPseudoexperiments tossed with $\\Delta \\Gamma /\\overline \\Gamma =0$\nyield the betting odds for observing the above results at\n1/315. For $\\Delta \\Gamma /\\overline \\Gamma = 0.12$ (SM prediction,\nwhich has recently been updated to 0.14$\\pm$0.05~\\cite{dg_un}) the betting odds are\n1/84.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\vspace*{-1mm}\n\\includegraphics[height=0.3\\textheight,width=8.2cm]  {cdf_scan-dg-un.eps}\n\n\\vspace*{-1cm}\n\\caption{Scan of the likelihood function \nfor $\\Delta \\Gamma /\\overline \\Gamma$ (CDF).\n}\n\\label{fig:cdf_dg}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\nD\\O\\ has used a novel technique to  measure the lifetime ratio\nof the charged and neutral $B$ mesons, exploiting the large\nsemileptonic sample. $B$ hadrons were reconstructed in the channels\n$B\\rightarrow \\mu^+ \\nu D^*(2010)^-X$, which are dominated by $B^0$ decays, \nand  $B\\rightarrow \\mu^+ \\nu D^0X$, which are dominated by $B^+$ decays.\nThe lifetime ratio was\nobtained from the variation of the ratio of the number of events in these two\nprocesses at different decay lengths.\nThe result is \\\\\n\n\n$\\tau(B^+)/\\tau(B^0_d)$   =  1.093$\\pm$0.021$\\pm$0.022.      ~(D\\O)\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Towards $B_s$ mixing}\n\nMeasurement of the $B_s$ oscillation frequency via ${B_s^0}$ -${\\overline{B}_s^0}$ ~mixing\nwill provide an important constraint on the CKM matrix. The oscillation\nfrequency is proportional to the mass difference between the mass eigenstates,\n$\\Delta m_s$, and is related to the CKM matrix through \n$\\Delta m_s \\propto |V_{tb}V_{ts}|$. When combined with the\n$B_d$ mass difference, $\\Delta m_d$ it helps in extraction of $|V_{td}|$,\nand thereby the CP violating phase. \n\nAs a benchmark for future $B_s$ oscillation measurement, both groups\nstudy  $B_d$ mixing, gaining an understanding of the different components\nof a $B$ mixing analysis (sample composition, flavor tagging, vertexing,\nasymmetry fitting). For a sample of partially reconstructed decays\n$B\\rightarrow D^*(2010)^+\\mu^-X$, D\\O\\ obtains \n$\\Delta m_d = 0.506 \\pm 0.055 (stat) \\pm  0.049 (syst))$ ps$^{-1}$ and\n$\\Delta m_d = 0.488 \\pm 0.066 (stat) \\pm  0.044 (syst))$ ps$^{-1}$\nwhen employing  opposite side muon tagging and the same side tagging,\nrespectively.\n\nThe CDF result for semileptonic channels is\n$\\Delta m_d = 0.536 \\pm 0.037 (stat) \\pm  0.009 (s.c.) \\pm 0.015 (syst)$ ps$^{-1}$.\nCDF also reports a result on $B$ oscillations using fully reconstructed\ndecays:\n$\\Delta m_d = 0.526 \\pm 0.056 (stat) \\pm  0.005 (syst))$ ps$^{-1}$.\n\nReconstructing $B_s$ decays into different final states is another\nimportant\n step in the ${B_s^0}$ -${\\overline{B}_s^0}$ ~mixing analysis.\nThanks to the  large muon and tracking coverage,   D\\O\\ is accumulating\na  high statistics sample of semileptonic $B_s$ decays.\nD\\O\\ reconstructs the $B_s \\rightarrow D^+_s \\mu^- X$ decays, with\n$D^+_s \\rightarrow \\phi \\pi^+ $ and\n$D^+_s \\rightarrow K^* K^+ $,\nat a rate of $\\approx$ 40(25) events per pb$^{-1}$,  respectively.\nFigure \\ref{fig:d0_bsdsphipi} shows the mass distribution of the\n$D^+_s \\rightarrow \\phi \\pi$ candidates.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\vspace*{-5mm}\n\\includegraphics[height=0.3\\textheight,width=8.0cm]  {blds-250.eps}\n\\vspace*{-1.2cm}\n\\caption{  $D^+_s \\rightarrow \\phi \\pi^+$  signal. (D\\O)}\n\\label{fig:d0_bsdsphipi}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\vspace*{-10mm}\n\\hspace*{-4mm}\n\\includegraphics[height=0.35\\textheight,width=7.9cm]  {cdf_Bs-DsPi-PhiPi.eps}\n\n\\vspace*{-1.0cm}\n\\caption{ $B_s \\rightarrow D_s \\pi$, $D_s \\rightarrow \\phi \\pi$  signal.  (CDF)}\n\\label{fig:cdf_bsdsphipi}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nCDF has clean signals for fully hadronic, flavor-specific  $B_s$ decays,\nproviding the best sensitivity to $B_s$ oscillations at high\n$\\Delta m_s$. Figure \\ref{fig:cdf_bsdsphipi} shows the signal for\nthe best channel, $B_s \\rightarrow D_s \\pi$, $D_s \\rightarrow \\phi \\pi$.\n\n\\clearpage\n\n\n\\subsection{Rare decays}\n\nThe purely leptonic decays $B_{d,s}^0 \\rightarrow \\mu^+\n\\mu^-$ are flavor-changing neutral current (FCNC) processes.\nIn the standard model, these decays are forbidden at the tree level and\nproceed at a very low rate through higher-order diagrams.\nThe latest SM prediction~\\cite{sm_ref3}\nis ${\\cal B}(B^0_s \\rightarrow \\mu^+ \\mu^-)=(3.42\\pm 0.54)\\times\n10^{-9}$, where the error is dominated by non-perturbative uncertainties. The\nleptonic branching fraction of the $B_d^0$ decay is suppressed by CKM matrix elements $|V_{td}/V_{ts}|^2$\nleading to a predicted SM branching fraction of $(1.00\\pm0.14)\\times 10^{-10}$.\nThe best published experimental bound (Fig.~\\ref{fig:cdf_bsmumu})\n for the branching fraction\nof $B^0_s$ $(B^0_d)$ is presently\n${\\cal B}(B^0_s \\, (B^0_d) \\rightarrow \\mu^+\\mu^-)<7.5\\times 10^{-7}\\, \n(1.9\\times 10^{-7})$ at the 95\\% C.L.~\\cite{cdfII}.\nThe decay amplitude of $B^0_{d,s} \\rightarrow \\mu^+ \\mu^-$ can be\nsignificantly enhanced in some extensions of the SM. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\includegraphics[height=8.3cm,width=7.9cm]  {cdfbsmumu_results_prl.eps}\n\n\\vspace*{-1cm}\n\\caption{Invariant mass for the events passing all requirements. (CDF)}\n\\label{fig:cdf_bsmumu}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nAssuming no contributions \nfrom the decay $B^0_d\\rightarrow \\mu^+\\mu^-$ in the signal region,\nD\\O\\  finds the conservative upper limit on the branching fraction \nto be ${\\cal B}(B^0_s \\rightarrow \\mu^+ \\mu^-) \\leq 4.6\\times 10^{-7}$ \nat the 95\\% C.L. (Fig.~\\ref{fig:d0_bsmumu}).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\includegraphics[height=5.0cm,width=8.0cm]  {B06F03.eps}\n\\vspace*{-1cm}\n\\caption{Invariant mass for the events  passing all requirements. (D\\O)}\n\\label{fig:d0_bsmumu}\n\\end{figure}\n\n", "answers": ["The Tevatron Collider Run II started in March 2002 and is expected to continue until the end of this decade."], "length": 2431, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "d70ca68d05af951cd8ff2052095597d1b4dca557bfb0b40b"}
{"input": "What molecule was the focus of the study?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\nSpectral line surveys have revealed that high-mass star-forming\nregions are rich reservoirs of molecules from simple diatomic species\nto complex and larger molecules (e.g.,\n\\citealt{schilke1997b,hatchell1998b,comito2005,bisschop2007}).\nHowever, there have been rarely studies undertaken to investigate the\nchemical evolution during massive star formation from the earliest\nevolutionary stages, i.e., from High-Mass Starless Cores (HMSCs) and\nHigh-Mass Cores with embedded low- to intermediate-mass protostars\ndestined to become massive stars, via High-Mass Protostellar Objects\n(HMPOs) to the final stars that are able to produce Ultracompact H{\\sc\n  ii} regions (UCH{\\sc ii}s, see \\citealt{beuther2006b} for a recent\ndescription of the evolutionary sequence). The first two evolutionary\nstages are found within so-called Infrared Dark Clouds (IRDCs).  While\nfor low-mass stars the chemical evolution from early molecular\nfreeze-out to more evolved protostellar cores is well studied (e.g.,\n\\citealt{bergin1997,dutrey1997,pavlyuchenkov2006,joergensen2007}),\nit is far from clear whether similar evolutionary patterns are present\nduring massive star formation.\n\nTo better understand the chemical evolution of high-mass star-forming\nregions we initiated a program to investigate the chemical properties\nfrom IRDCs to UCH{\\sc ii}s from an observational and theoretical\nperspective. We start with single-dish line surveys toward a large\nsample obtaining their basic characteristics, and then perform\ndetailed studies of selected sources using interferometers on smaller\nscales. These observations are accompanied by theoretical modeling of\nthe chemical processes.  Long-term goals are the chemical\ncharacterization of the evolutionary sequence in massive star\nformation, the development of chemical clocks, and the identification\nof molecules as astrophysical tools to study the physical processes\nduring different evolutionary stages. Here, we present an initial\nstudy of the reactive radical ethynyl (C$_2$H) combining single-dish\nand interferometer observations with chemical modeling.  Although\nC$_2$H was previously observed in low-mass cores and Photon Dominated\nRegions (e.g., \\citealt{millar1984,jansen1995}), so far it was not\nsystematically investigated in the framework of high-mass star\nformation.\n\n\\section{Observations}\n\\label{obs}\n\nThe 21 massive star-forming regions were observed with the Atacama\nPathfinder Experiment (APEX) in the 875\\,$\\mu$m window in fall 2006.\nWe observed 1\\,GHz from 338 to 339\\,GHz and 1\\,GHz in the image\nsideband from 349 to 350\\,GHz.  The spectral resolution was\n0.1\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$, but we smoothed the data to\n$\\sim$0.9\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$. The average system temperatures were around\n200\\,K, each source had on-source integration times between 5 and 16\nmin. The data were converted to main-beam temperatures with forward\nand beam efficiencies of 0.97 and 0.73, respectively\n\\citep{belloche2006}. The average $1\\sigma$ rms was 0.4\\,K.  The main\nspectral features of interest are the C$_2$H lines around 349.4\\,GHz\nwith upper level excitation energies $E_u/k$ of 42\\,K (line blends of\nC$_2$H$(4_{5,5}-3_{4,4})$ \\& C$_2$H$(4_{5,4}-3_{4,3})$ at\n349.338\\,GHz, and C$_2$H$(4_{4,4}-3_{3,3})$ \\&\nC$_2$H$(4_{4,3}-3_{3,2})$ at 349.399\\,GHz). The beam size was $\\sim\n18''$.\n\nThe original Submillimeter Array (SMA) C$_2$H data toward the\nHMPO\\,18089-1732 were first presented in \\citet{beuther2005c}. There\nwe used the compact and extended configurations resulting in good\nimages for all spectral lines except of C$_2$H. For this project, we\nre-worked on these data only using the compact configuration. Because\nthe C$_2$H emission is distributed on larger scales (see\n\\S\\ref{results}), we were now able to derive a C$_2$H image. The\nintegration range was from 32 to 35\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$, and the achieved\n$1\\sigma$ rms of the C$_2$H image was 450\\,mJy\\,beam$^{-1}$.  For more\ndetails on these observations see \\citet{beuther2005c}.\n\n\\section{Results}\n\\label{results}\n\nThe sources were selected to cover all evolutionary stages from IRDCs\nvia HMPOs to UCH{\\sc ii}s. We derived our target list from the samples\nof \\citet{klein2005,fontani2005,hill2005,beltran2006}.  Table\n\\ref{sample} lists the observed sources, their coordinates, distances,\nluminosities and a first order classification into the evolutionary\nsub-groups IRDCs, HMPOs and UCH{\\sc ii}s based on the previously\navailable data. Although this classification is only based on a\nlimited set of data, here we are just interested in general\nevolutionary trends. Hence, the division into the three main classes\nis sufficient.\n\nFigure \\ref{spectra} presents sample spectra toward one source of each\nevolutionary group. While we see several CH$_3$OH lines as well as\nSO$_2$ and H$_2$CS toward some of the HMPOs and UCH{\\sc ii}s but not\ntoward the IRDCs, the surprising result of this comparison is the\npresence of the C$_2$H lines around 349.4\\,GHz toward all source types\nfrom young IRDCs via the HMPOs to evolved UCH{\\sc ii}s.  Table\n\\ref{sample} lists the peak brightness temperatures, the integrated\nintensities and the FWHM line-widths of the C$_2$H line blend at\n349.399\\,GHz. The separation of the two lines of 1.375\\,MHz already\ncorresponds to a line-width of 1.2\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$. We have three C$_2$H\nnon-detections (2 IRDCs and 1 HMPO), however, with no clear trend with\nrespect to the distances or the luminosities (the latter comparison is\nonly possible for the HMPOs). While IRDCs are on average colder than\nmore evolved sources, and have lower brightness temperatures, the\nnon-detections are more probable due to the relatively low sensitivity\nof the short observations (\\S\\ref{obs}). Hence, the data indicate\nthat the C$_2$H lines are detected independent of the evolutionary\nstage of the sources in contrast to the situation with other\nmolecules.  When comparing the line-widths between the different\nsub-groups, one finds only a marginal difference between the IRDCs and\nthe HMPOs (the average $\\Delta v$ of the two groups are 2.8 and\n3.1\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$).  However, the UCH{\\sc ii}s exhibit significantly\nbroader line-widths with an average value of 5.5\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$.\n\nIntrigued by this finding, we wanted to understand the C$_2$H spatial\nstructure during the different evolutionary stages.  Therefore, we\nwent back to a dataset obtained with the Submillimeter Array toward\nthe hypercompact H{\\sc ii} region IRAS\\,18089-1732 with a much higher\nspatial resolution of $\\sim 1''$ \\citep{beuther2005c}.  Albeit this\nhypercompact H{\\sc ii} region belongs to the class of HMPOs, it is\nalready in a relatively evolved stage and has formed a hot core with a\nrich molecular spectrum.  \\citet{beuther2005c} showed the spectral\ndetection of the C$_2$H lines toward this source, but they did not\npresent any spatially resolved images. To recover large-scale\nstructure, we restricted the data to those from the compact SMA\nconfiguration (\\S\\ref{obs}). With this refinement, we were able to\nproduce a spatially resolved C$_2$H map of the line blend at\n349.338\\,GHz with an angular resolution of $2.9''\\times 1.4''$\n(corresponding to an average linear resolution of 7700\\,AU at the\ngiven distance of 3.6\\,kpc). Figure \\ref{18089} presents the\nintegrated C$_2$H emission with a contour overlay of the 860\\,$\\mu$m\ncontinuum source outlining the position of the massive protostar. In\ncontrast to almost all other molecular lines that peak along with the\ndust continuum \\citep{beuther2005c}, the C$_2$H emission surrounds the\ncontinuum peak in a shell-like fashion.\n\n\\section{Discussion and Conclusions}\n\nTo understand the observations, we conducted a simple chemical\nmodeling of massive star-forming regions. A 1D cloud model with a mass\nof 1200\\,M$_\\sun$, an outer radius of 0.36\\,pc and a power-law density\nprofile ($\\rho\\propto r^p$ with $p=-1.5$) is the initially assumed\nconfiguration. Three cases are studied: (1) a cold isothermal cloud\nwith $T=10$\\,K, (2) $T=50$\\,K, and (3) a warm model with a temperature\nprofile $T\\propto r^q$ with $q=-0.4$ and a temperature at the outer\nradius of 44\\,K. The cloud is illuminated by the interstellar UV\nradiation field (IRSF, \\citealt{draine1978}) and by cosmic ray\nparticles (CRP). The ISRF attenuation by single-sized $0.1\\mu$m\nsilicate grains at a given radius is calculated in a plane-parallel\ngeometry following \\citet{vandishoeck1988}. The CRP ionization rate is\nassumed to be $1.3\\times 10^{-17}$~s$^{-1}$ \\citep{spitzer1968}. The\ngas-grain chemical model by \\citet{vasyunin2008} with the desorption\nenergies and surface reactions from \\citet{garrod2006} is used.\nGas-phase reaction rates are taken from RATE\\,06 \\citep{woodall2007},\ninitial abundances, were adopted from the ``low metal'' set of\n\\citet{lee1998}.\n\nFigure \\ref{model} presents the C$_2$H abundances for the three models\nat two different time steps: (a) 100\\,yr, and (b) in a more evolved\nstage after $5\\times10^4$\\,yr. The C$_2$H abundance is high toward the\ncore center right from the beginning of the evolution, similar to\nprevious models (e.g., \\citealt{millar1985,herbst1986,turner1999}).\nDuring the evolution, the C$_2$H abundance stays approximately\nconstant at the outer core edges, whereas it decreases by more than\nthree orders of magnitude in the center, except for the cold $T=10$~K\nmodel.  The C$_2$H abundance profiles for all three models show\nsimilar behavior.\n\nThe chemical evolution of ethynyl is determined by relative removal\nrates of carbon and oxygen atoms or ions into molecules like CO, OH,\nH$_2$O. Light ionized hydrocarbons CH$^+_{\\rm n}$ (n=2..5) are quickly\nformed by radiative association of C$^+$ with H$_2$ and hydrogen\naddition reactions: C$^+$ $\\rightarrow$ CH$_2^+$ $\\rightarrow$\nCH$_3^+$ $\\rightarrow$ CH$_5^+$.  The protonated methane reacts with\nelectrons, CO, C, OH, and more complex species at later stage and\nforms methane.  The CH$_4$ molecules undergo reactive collisions with\nC$^+$, producing C$_2$H$_2^+$ and C$_2$H$_3^+$. An alternative way to\nproduce C$_2$H$_2^+$ is the dissociative recombination of CH$_5^+$\ninto CH$_3$ followed by reactions with C$^+$.  Finally, C$_2$H$_2^+$\nand C$_2$H$_3^+$ dissociatively recombine into CH, C$_2$H, and\nC$_2$H$_2$. The major removal for C$_2$H is either the direct\nneutral-neutral reaction with O that forms CO, or the same reaction\nbut with heavier carbon chain ions that are formed from C$_2$H by\nsubsequent insertion of carbon. At later times, depletion and\ngas-phase reactions with more complex species may enter into this\ncycle.  At the cloud edge the interstellar UV radiation\ninstantaneously dissociates CO despite its self-shielding,\nre-enriching the gas with elemental carbon.\n\nThe transformation of C$_2$H into CO and other species proceeds\nefficiently in dense regions, in particular in the ``warm'' model\nwhere endothermic reactions result in rich molecular complexity of the\ngas (see Fig.~\\ref{model}).  In contrast, in the ``cold'' 10\\,K model\ngas-grain interactions and surface reactions become important.  As a\nresult, a large fraction of oxygen is locked in water ice that is hard\nto desorb ($E_{\\rm des} \\sim 5500$~K), while half of the elemental\ncarbon goes to volatile methane ice ($E_{\\rm des} \\sim 1300$~K). Upon\nCRP heating of dust grains, this leads to much higher gas-phase\nabundance of C$_2$H in the cloud core for the cold model compared to\nthe warm model. The effect is not that strong for less dense regions\nat larger radii from the center.\n\nSince the C$_2$H emission is anti-correlated with the dust continuum\nemission in the case of IRAS\\,18089-1732 (Fig.\\,\\ref{18089}), we do\nnot have the H$_2$ column densities to quantitatively compare the\nabundance profiles of IRAS\\,18089-1732 with our model. However, data\nand model allow a qualitative comparison of the spatial structures.\nEstimating an exact evolutionary time for IRAS\\,18089-1732 is hardly\npossible, but based on the strong molecular line emission, its high\ncentral gas temperatures and the observed outflow-disk system\n\\citep{beuther2004a,beuther2004b,beuther2005c}, an approximate age of\n$5\\times10^4$\\,yr appears reasonable.  Although dynamical and chemical\ntimes are not necessarily exactly the same, in high-mass star\nformation they should not differ to much: Following the models by\n\\citet{mckee2003} or \\citet{krumholz2006b}, the luminosity rises\nstrongly right from the onset of collapse which can be considered as a\nstarting point for the chemical evolution. At the same time disks and\noutflows evolve, which should hence have similar time-scales.  The\ndiameter of the shell-like C$_2$H structure in IRAS\\,18089-1732 is\n$\\sim 5''$ (Fig.\\,\\ref{18089}), or $\\sim$9000\\,AU in radius at the\ngiven distance of 3.6\\,kpc.  This value is well matched by the modeled\nregion with decreased C$_2$H abundance (Fig.\\,\\ref{model}).  Although\nin principle optical depths and/or excitation effects could mimic the\nC$_2$H morphology, we consider this as unlikely because the other\nobserved molecules with many different transitions all peak toward the\ncentral submm continuum emission in IRAS\\,18089-1732\n\\citep{beuther2005c}. Since C$_2$H is the only exception in that rich\ndataset, chemical effects appear the more plausible explanation.\n\nThe fact that we see C$_2$H at the earliest and the later evolutionary\nstages can be explained by the reactive nature of C$_2$H: it is\nproduced quickly early on and gets replenished at the core edges by\nthe UV photodissociation of CO. The inner ``chemical'' hole observed\ntoward IRAS\\,18089-1732 can be explained by C$_2$H being consumed in\nthe chemical network forming CO and more complex molecules like larger\ncarbon-hydrogen complexes and/or depletion.\n\nThe data show that C$_2$H is not suited to investigate the central gas\ncores in more evolved sources, however, our analysis indicates that\nC$_2$H may be a suitable tracer of the earliest stages of (massive)\nstar formation, like N$_2$H$^+$ or NH$_3$ (e.g.,\n\\citealt{bergin2002,tafalla2004,beuther2005a,pillai2006}). While a\nspatial analysis of the line emission will give insights into the\nkinematics of the gas and also the evolutionary stage from chemical\nmodels, multiple C$_2$H lines will even allow a temperature\ncharacterization. With its lowest $J=1-0$ transitions around 87\\,GHz,\nC$_2$H has easily accessible spectral lines in several bands between\nthe 3\\,mm and 850\\,$\\mu$m.  Furthermore, even the 349\\,GHz lines\npresented here have still relatively low upper level excitation\nenergies ($E_u/k\\sim42$\\,K), hence allowing to study cold cores even\nat sub-millimeter wavelengths.  This prediction can further be proved\nvia high spectral and spatial resolution observations of different\nC$_2$H lines toward young IRDCs.\n\n\\acknowledgments{H.B. acknowledges financial support\n  by the Emmy-Noether-Programm of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft\n  (DFG, grant BE2578). }\n\n\n", "answers": ["The focus of the study was on the reactive radical ethynyl (C$_2$H)."], "length": 2115, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "b619fa683cbbeb8db3d575fc2e261940701a530452b14eef"}
{"input": "What were the vaccines trialed against?", "context": "A special tribute to Del Bigtree (pictured) and his team at ICAN for his stunning 88 page letter to the HHS regarding vaccine safety. As Del reported - in the latest edition of Highwire - the letter, in response to an earlier reply from the then acting Director National Vaccine Program Office, Melinda Wharton, took virtually a year to compile, and is a meticulous piece of research. Most sensationally they researched the HHS claim through US government archives that at least some pediatric vaccines had been trialed against genuine placebo, and came to a negative conclusion. Not only that, they established that none of the vaccines those vaccines had been trialed against had ever been trialed against genuine placebo either. At the end of the line the toxic products were only being compared with other toxic products, rather than against saline.\nLeave aside the sceptics, for any believer in the vaccine program as a necessary intervention in public health, this should be a devastating finding. Fundamentally, the research into the safety of any of the products before marketing was simply not there. The manufacturers apparently had no faith that their proto-products could withstand this scrutiny, and for the rest they just did not care: under the alleged imperative of protecting the population it seems anything went. So even before all the sham monitoring procedures and reviews which Del and his team dismantle in forensic detail we are left with the proposition that none of the present products being given to US children – and frequently other children across most of the developed world – have any meaningful pre-marketing safety data all. If you are believer in the program you have been let down: if you wanted a program with any pretensions to safety - supposing such a thing to be possible - it looks like you would have to start from scratch. The manufacturers did this: the governments, the politicians and the regulators (internationally) let it happen.\nThis damning document is published simultaneously with a demand in the UK from the Royal Society for Public Health (which I had never heard of) to shut down comment about vaccines on the web. It echoes calls from Seth Berkley of GAVI, Heidi Larson of the Vaccine Confidence Project and the European Parliament. The pamphlet airily dismisses concerns that vaccines have side effects or that you could possibly have too many. It is pure public relations, and if the RSPH claims to be \"independent\" it also admits that the publication was paid for by Merck, a detail which was reported by British Medical Journal and the Guardian, but not true to form by the BBC. We have, in truth, been building to this moment for two decades: as the evidence piles up that every single aspect of the program lacks integrity or is simply rotten to the core all the perpetrators can do is call for the silencing of their critics, and maintain the products are safe because they say so.\nPlease help give the ICAN letter the widest possible distribution, particularly to politicians.\n\"The outcome of disease always depends both on the virulence of the pathogen and the health of the individual immune system.\"\nNope. This makes no sense. Lots of people who seemed vibrant will get a very severe case of the same illness that a vulnerable baby overcomes in a day.\nAnd under the germ theory it doesn't matter how strong your immune system *was*. Once it's been overcome by the pathogen it is every bit as weak as anybody else's with that pathogen.\nWhat you say makes no sense. There's no reason for me to reply to you again.\n\"Why do you think that within a few years (not many) of the introduction of the vaccines for them, pertussis, measles, mumps, rubella, tetanus, diphtheria, Hib disease, and chickenpox (and others) almost entirely disappeared?\"\nWhy do you keep asking this question when I've already provided the answer hundreds of times? Why are you so desperate to believe the people who you already recognize are harming our children?\nWhy would Walter Reed be any more trustworthy than Paul Offit or Senator Pan? Why would Jenner or Pasteur?\nAnd you went no way to explaining my arguments against germ theory. If we are attacked by billions of viruses every day then if even a tiny fraction of them are pathogenic then we couldn't possibly survive. And even if we could, we would already be immune rendering every vaccine pointless. Once we had survived our first few days on earth, then we could never get sick again.\nIf that's wrong then we must conclude that precisely 0% of germs are pathogenic.\nPlus your comment about the immune system completely misunderstood my point. The immune system does not allow us to overcome our math problem. In fact, it makes it worse.\nYou did provide one solitary example of a patient with what are presumably yellow fever symptoms but you didn't say whether they had been given any toxic medical treatments.\nAnd like I said before, the whole \"incubation period\" is more than a little suspicious. Clearly they never found what they thought they would and just rigged the results to tell them what they want to hear.\nLike every other germ theorist/vaccine promoter in history.\nMany kinds of bacteria are constantly evolving and changing, like flu viruses. Others are more stable over time, like the yellow fever virus. Those that change develop new ways of infiltrating the cells of the organism being attacked (from our point of view, from its unconscious point of view, it's just carrying out its need to replicate, which it can only do inside the cells of its host). The changes which allow it to better infiltrate are more successful and result in more viruses with those traits.\nOur immune system is designed to detect and destroy potentially dangerous invading pathogens. Many bacteria are usually harmless and absolutely necessary. The minority are dangerous, and most people's immune systems do a good job of analyzing them and killing them, often with no signs of disease. Others experience a clinical infection, and the immune system usually mounts a successful attack on them.\nThe outcome of disease always depends both on the virulence of the pathogen and the health of the individual immune system. Vaccines are usually effective in giving immunity to the targeted diseases. They also have many dangers which everyone should be aware of, and vaccines should be avoided whenever possible. But in the case of the most dangerous diseases, everyone should learn about them and think about what he wants to do to protect himself and his children from them, considering all the factors involved. And no one can have 100% certainty that he has made the right decision, but that's life. But if you live in the Congo and many people around you are currently dying of yellow fever, then that means that you yourself are at risk of being bitten by a loaded mosquito and getting, often dying, of yellow fever. The yellow fever vaccine is very effective at preventing yellow fever. From there, each person must make a choice.\nAt the end of this stage there is a remission of two or three days. About 80% of those with clinical disease recover at this point, with permanent immunity. The other 20% enter the toxic stage, with a return of the fever, black vomit (coffee-ground emesis), diarrhea, a slowing of the pulse (Faget's sign), jaundice, yellow eyes, yellow skin, and failure of the kidneys, liver, and heart. The patient gets a strange hiccup (like with Ebola, a related disease), falls into a coma, and dies. About half of those patients who enter the toxic stage dies, even now, even with the best of hospital care. The Faget's sign can also occur at the end of the first stage.\nYou asked specifically about the symptoms of the Americans on Dr. Reed's team who got yellow fever in Cuba in 1900. I'll give the passage from The American Plague (162-5), which describes the course of Jesse Lazear's illness. \"In his logbook, Lazear wrote an unusual entry on September 13. In all cases before those, page after page of records, Lazear had used the soldier's name and simply the date he was bitten, with no other attention to the mosquito. A one-line entry with a name and a date. On that day, however, in his elegant hand, Lazear did not write the soldier's name, but instead wrote 'Guinea Pig No. 1.' He went on to write that this guinea pig had been bitten by a mosquito that developed from an egg laid by a mosquito that developed from an egg laid by a mosquito that fed on a number of yellow fever cases: Suarez, Hernández, De Long, Ferández. It was a precise, detailed history that proved beyond doubt that the mosquito was loaded with the virus when it bit a healthy soldier...(If he had entered his name, then his death would have been considered medical suicide by the insurance company, and his wife and two children would not have gotten any payment.) For the next few days, Lazear's life continued much as it had over the last few months in Cuba. He fed and cared for the mosquitoes in the lab. ..Then he began to lose his appetite. He skipped a few meals in the mess hall. He didn't mention it to anyone, nor did he ask to see one of the yellow fever doctors; instead, he worked hard in the lab trying to ignore the oncoming headache.\n\"On September 18, he complained of feeling 'out of sorts,' and stayed in his officer's quarters. His head pounded and L. decided to write a letter. ..(he wrote to his mother, and referred to his one-year old son Houston and the baby his wife Mabel was about to have: they were staying with his mother in the US). ..That night, L. started to feel chilled as the fever came on. He never went to sleep but worked at his desk all through the night, trying to get all the information about the mosquitoes organized. By morning, he showed all the signs of a severe attack of yellow fever. The camp doctors made the diagnosis, and L. agreed to go to the yellow fever ward. ..L. was carried by litter out of the two-room, white pine board house in which he had lived since he and Mabel first arrived in Cuba. ..(In the yellow fever ward, in a separate one-room building), Lena Warner (the immune nurse who had survived the yellow fever in 1878, when she was nine, and was found in her boarded-up house by a former slave who first thought she was dead, and carried her to safety) nursed J.L., recording his vitals. (I put up a link to his case record and vital signs last week. The surgeon general required that this record be made for every yellow fever patient.)... (On September 25,) Lena Warner braced L's arms with all of her weight, shouting for help. Still he bolted from the bed, darting around the small frame-wood room as wildly as a trapped insect beating against glass. Two soldiers ran into the ward, pinning L to his bed, tying restraints around his wrists and elbows. ..Warner sponged his body with iced whiskey and water. She recorded his temperature, which had held at 104 degrees for days, on the chart beside his bed. ..(Warner watched him sleep.) But the quiet did not last. L's body began to lurch, and black vomit rolled from his mouth; through the bar hanging above his hospital cot. He writhed in the bed, and his skin grew deep yellow. His 104 temperature slowly fell, leveling out 99 degrees, and JL died at 8:45 p.m. at the age of thirty-four.\"\nAs is obvious, there are many problems with vaccines. But, that being said, most of them usually work for a period of time to prevent the targeted diseases. The basic science behind vaccines is correct. Why do you think that within a few years (not many) of the introduction of the vaccines for them, pertussis, measles, mumps, rubella, tetanus, diphtheria, Hib disease, and chickenpox (and others) almost entirely disappeared? In the case of the routine childhood diseases, this was a bad thing, but it is a true thing.\nVaccines usually don't cause any obvious reactions. While they usually prevent the diseases, and that's why people continue to get them. With the increasing vaccination schedule, more and more are severely and permanently damaged, and it is immoral to mandate any vaccine for anyone for this reason. But it would also be immoral to prohibit vaccines for those who want them enough to take the risk.\nYour article said as though it had any probative value that 90% of those who get pertussis had been vaxxed. The old DPT vaccine was MUCH more effective at preventing pertussis, but it was so dangerous (again, not to most, but to many), that developed countries replaced it with the acellular version, DTaP. From the beginning about twenty years ago, it was clear that it was not very effective and that huge numbers of vaxxed people got pertussis anyway, including my daughter who got pertussis at eight month old after having gotten three DTaPs. The pertussis vaccine continues to be very dangerous, and I do not recommend that anyone get it. It used to be a killer disease, but evolved to become much milder, to the extent that the disease is very rarely dangerous (usually only to newborns under three months old), while the vaccine is very dangerous. And they're trying to see how they can go back to the old DPT. This does not show that vaccine science has collapsed, but rather that the vaccine they developed to replace the DPT turned out to be much less effective than they first thought, while continuing to be much more dangerous than they first thought.\nYour article extrapolated from that that modern medical science in general has collapsed, but that, again, is going too far. A older woman in Mexico City who is like my mother to me had a pacemaker inserted about two months ago to aid her failing heart, and it has restored her to optimism and energy, when she was despondent, weak, and close to death. I took my daughter to the dentist yesterday, who said she has three wisdom teeth coming in and that she said that the lower right one was sore. So, although I am cautious about X-rays, I made an appointment for a panoramic X-ray in a month to assess the wisdom teeth, and, if it seems appropriate, I'll take her to an oral surgeon to have one or more extracted under IV sedation, in his office, if possible (the dentist thought that it would be). And I am confident that there will be no serious problems, but this is thanks to technology and training in modern medicine that haven't been available for that long.\nI think that everyone should inform himself on all medical procedures before agreeing to anything, but I also think that he should have access to any medical procedure which is reasonable (and opinions can differ as to that).\nOne problem is that you have not said how you think people should protect themselves against tetanus, bacterial meningitis, and yellow fever in the relevant cases, for example. These are diseases which healthy, well-nourished people used to die from very readily.\nIf most people stopped vaxxing and the mortality from these diseases rose to something like pre-vaccine levels, do you think they should just accept dying from them?\nI put that in a separate paragraph because it is the crucial issue.\nbalinaheuchter Air Traffic Control You Tube - Colin Campbell example of - How to \"Fudge a Nudge\" -\"Deal\" or \"No Deal\" \"Not in a month of Sundays\" \"No exceptions/no compromise?\" -make a trade off -do an exception- everyone get's a good deal /good outcome!\nHans, you are right that we are looking at one of the biggest crimes in all history. When I read the story of that poor girl who was so healthy and is now confined to a wheelchair after getting her third Gardasil shot I could not believe that Merck could produce such a toxic vaccine and give it out to girls like it was something they absolutely had to have only to be mislead and made into cripples. Merck should be prosecuted for the damage they have done to so many girls who got the Gardasil vaccine and were physically debilitated for life. There is a place for the people who perpetrated this crime on young girls and women and it is called hell. They have destroyed people's lives and gotten away with it. My heart goes out to those who have suffered this damage for no damn good reason except to help make huge profits for Merck!\nHere is the reason that the germ theory is nonsense.\n1) Everyday we are bombarded with billions of germs. Presumably at least some of them are of the kind that germ theorists believe are dangerous (otherwise we would have to conclude that none of them are dangerous). So how do we survive?\n2) Let's just say that we ignore 1 and imagine that, by way of magic, none of the billions of viruses we get bombarded with are pathogenic but all those that are are tucked away somewhere. Ok. But presumably they reside in sick people right? So where are there lots of sick people? Doctor offices and hospitals! So everybody must be dying the moment they enter these places right?\n3) I love this one because I have never seen anybody else ever raise it. Under the germ theory there are no negative feedbacks. This makes a stable biological system by definition impossible. The immune system is *not* a negative feedback it is the opposite. It actually reinforces our math problem because the immune system will weaken as the number of pathogens increase.\nThere is no way of resolving this problem without a discontinuity. A Deus ex Machina as The Almighty Pill so beautifully put it. So the germ theory is quite literally, mathematically impossible.\nThere is as much chance of it being true as 2+2 = 5.\nThere are plenty of other massive problems with germ theory such as why did things like SARS and bird flu magically disappear? Why do we have the symptoms that we do? Is our body controlling the symptoms to help fight the germs and if so, why would suppressing the symptoms with antibiotics or Tamiflu be considered a good idea? If the virus is causing the symptoms then why would it cause these kinds of things?", "answers": ["Other toxic products."], "length": 3141, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "74334862b5d8e2a02deb3c24aa90d5339e443fbc412453b8"}
{"input": "What types of data did the authors use in their experiments?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:introduction}\n\nProbabilistic models have proven to be very useful in a lot of applications in signal processing where signal estimation is needed \\cite{rabiner1989tutorial,arulampalam2002tutorial,ji2008bayesian}. Some of their advantages are that 1) they force the designer to specify all the assumptions of the model, 2) they provide a clear separation between the model and the algorithm used to solve it, and 3) they usually provide some measure of uncertainty about the estimation.\n\nOn the other hand, adaptive filtering is a standard approach in estimation problems when the input is received as a stream of data that is potentially non-stationary. This approach is widely understood and applied to several problems such as echo cancellation \\cite{gilloire1992adaptive}, noise cancellation \\cite{nelson1991active}, and channel equalization \\cite{falconer2002frequency}.\n\nAlthough these two approaches share some underlying relations, there are very few connections in the literature. The first important attempt in the signal processing community to relate these two fields was the connection between a linear Gaussian state-space model (i.e. Kalman filter) and the RLS filter, by Sayed and Kailath \\cite{sayed1994state} and then by Haykin \\emph{et al.} \\cite{haykin1997adaptive}. The RLS adaptive filtering algorithm emerges naturally when one defines a particular state-space model (SSM) and then performs exact inference in that model. This approach was later exploited in \\cite{van2012kernel} to design a kernel RLS algorithm based on Gaussian processes.\n\nA first attempt to approximate the LMS filter from a probabilistic perspective was presented in \\cite{park2014probabilistic}, focusing on a kernel-based implementation. The algorithm of \\cite{park2014probabilistic} makes use of a Maximum a Posteriori (MAP) estimate as an approximation for the predictive step. However, this approximation does not preserve the estimate of the uncertainty in each step, therefore degrading the performance of the algorithm.\n\nIn this work, we provide a similar connection between state-space models and least-mean-squares (LMS). Our approach is based on approximating the posterior distribution with an isotropic Gaussian distribution. We show how the computation of this approximated posterior leads to a linear-complexity algorithm, comparable to the standard LMS. Similar approaches have already been developed for a variety of problems such as channel equalization using recurrent RBF neural networks \\cite{cid1994recurrent}, or Bayesian forecasting \\cite{harrison1999bayesian}. Here, we show the usefulness of this probabilistic approach for adaptive filtering.\n\nThe probabilistic perspective we adopt throughout this work presents two main advantages. Firstly, a novel LMS algorithm with adaptable step size emerges naturally with this approach, making it suitable for both stationary and non-stationary environments. The proposed algorithm has less free parameters than previous LMS algorithms with variable step size \\cite{kwong1992variable,aboulnasr1997robust,shin2004variable}, and its parameters are easier to be tuned w.r.t. these algorithms and standard LMS. Secondly, the use of a probabilistic model provides us with an estimate of the error variance, which is useful in many applications.\n\nExperiments with simulated and real data show the advantages of the presented approach with respect to previous works. However, we remark that the main contribution of this paper is that it opens the door to introduce more Bayesian machine learning techniques, such as variational inference and Monte Carlo sampling methods \\cite{barber2012bayesian}, to adaptive filtering.\\\\\n\n\n\\section{Probabilistic Model}\n\nThroughout this work, we assume the observation model to be linear-Gaussian with the following distribution,\n\n\\begin{equation}\np(y_k|{\\bf w}_k) = \\mathcal{N}(y_k;{\\bf x}_k^T {\\bf w}_k , \\sigma_n^2),\n\\label{eq:mess_eq}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere  $\\sigma_n^2$ is the variance of the observation noise, ${\\bf x}_k$ is the regression vector and ${\\bf w}_k$ is the parameter vector to be sequentially estimated, both $M$-dimensional column vectors.\n\n\nIn a non-stationary scenario, ${\\bf w}_k$ follows a dynamic process. In particular, we consider a diffusion process (random-walk model) with variance $\\sigma_d^2$ for this parameter vector:\n\n\n\\begin{equation}\np({\\bf w}_k|{\\bf w}_{k-1})= \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_k;{\\bf w}_{k-1}, \\sigma_d^2 {\\bf I}),\n\\label{eq:trans_eq}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\bf I$ denotes the identity matrix. In order to initiate the recursion, we assume the following prior distribution on ${\\bf w}_k$\n\n\\begin{equation}\np({\\bf w}_0)= \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_0;0, \\sigma_d^2{\\bf I}).\\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\section{Exact inference in this model: Revisiting the RLS filter}\n\nGiven the described probabilistic SSM, we would like to infer the posterior probability distribution $p({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k})$.\nSince all involved distributions are Gaussian, one can perform exact inference, leveraging the probability rules in a straightforward manner. The resulting probability distribution is\n\\begin{equation}\np({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k}) =  \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_k;{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k}, \\boldsymbol\\Sigma_{k}), \\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nin which the mean vector ${\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k}$ is given by\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_k = {\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k-1} + {\\bf K}_k (y_k - {\\bf x}_k^T {\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k-1}){\\bf x}_k, \\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nwhere we have introduced the auxiliary variable\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\bf K}_k = \\frac{ \\left(\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_{k-1} + \\sigma_d^2 {\\bf I}\\right)}{{\\bf x}_k^T  \\left(\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_{k-1} + \\sigma_d^2 {\\bf I}\\right)  {\\bf x}_k + \\sigma_n^2}, \\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nand the covariance matrix $\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k$ is obtained as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k = \\left( {\\bf I} -  {\\bf K}_k{\\bf x}_k {\\bf x}_k^T \\right) ( \\boldsymbol\\Sigma_{k-1} +\\sigma_d^2), \\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nNote that the mode of $p({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k})$, i.e. the maximum-a-posteriori estimate (MAP), coincides with the RLS adaptive rule\n\\begin{equation}\n{{\\bf w}}_k^{(RLS)} = {{\\bf w}}_{k-1}^{(RLS)} + {\\bf K}_k (y_k - {\\bf x}_k^T {{\\bf w}}_{k-1}^{(RLS)}){\\bf x}_k .\n\\label{eq:prob_rls}\n\\end{equation}\nThis rule is similar to the one introduced in \\cite{haykin1997adaptive}.\n\nFinally, note that the covariance matrix $\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k$ is a measure of the uncertainty of the estimate ${\\bf w}_k$ conditioned on the observed data $y_{1:k}$. Nevertheless, for many applications a single scalar summarizing the variance of the estimate could prove to be sufficiently useful. In the next section, we show how such a scalar is obtained naturally when $p({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k})$ is approximated with an isotropic Gaussian distribution. We also show that this approximation leads to an LMS-like estimation.\n \n\n\n\\section{Approximating the posterior distribution: LMS filter }\n\nThe proposed approach consists in approximating the posterior distribution $p({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k})$, in general a multivariate Gaussian distribution with a full covariance matrix, by an isotropic spherical Gaussian distribution \n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:aprox_post}\n\\hat{p}({\\bf w}_{k}|y_{1:k})=\\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_{k};{\\bf \\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k}, \\hat{\\sigma}_{k}^2 {\\bf I} ).\n\\end{equation}\n\nIn order to estimate the mean and covariance of the approximate distribution $\\hat{p}({\\bf w}_{k}|y_{1:k})$, we propose to select those that minimize the Kullback-Leibler divergence with respect to the original distribution, i.e., \n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\{\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}_k,\\hat{\\sigma}_k\\}=\\arg \\displaystyle{  \\min_{\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}_k,\\hat{\\sigma}_k}} \\{ D_{KL}\\left(p({\\bf w}_{k}|y_{1:k}))\\| \\hat{p}({\\bf w}_{k}|y_{1:k})\\right) \\}. \\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe derivation of the corresponding minimization problem can be found in Appendix A. In particular, the optimal mean and the covariance are found as\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k} = {\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k};~~~~~~ \\hat{\\sigma}_{k}^2 = \\frac{{\\sf Tr}\\{ \\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k\\} }{M}.\n\\label{eq:sigma_hat}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\nWe now show that by using \\eqref{eq:aprox_post} in the recursive predictive and filtering expressions we obtain an LMS-like adaptive rule. First, let us assume that we have an approximate posterior distribution at $k-1$, $\\hat{p}({\\bf w}_{k-1}|y_{1:k-1}) =  \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_{k-1};\\hat{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k-1}, \\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2 {\\bf I} )$. Since all involved distributions are Gaussian, the predictive distribution\nis obtained as %\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\hat{p}({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k-1}) &=& \\int p({\\bf w}_k|{\\bf w}_{k-1}) \\hat{p}({\\bf w}_{k-1}|y_{1:k-1}) d{\\bf w}_{k-1} \\nonumber\\\\\n&=& \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_k;{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k|k-1}, \\boldsymbol\\Sigma_{k|k-1}), \n\\label{eq:approx_pred}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the mean vector and covariance matrix are given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\hat{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k|k-1} &=& \\hat{\\bf\\boldsymbol\\mu}_{k-1} \\nonumber \\\\\n\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma}_{k|k-1} &=& (\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2 + \\sigma_d^2 ){\\bf I}\\nonumber.\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\nFrom \\eqref{eq:approx_pred}, the posterior distribution at time $k$ can be computed using Bayes' Theorem and standard Gaussian manipulations (see for instance \\cite[Ch. 4]{murphy2012machine}). Then, we approximate the posterior $p({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k})$ with an isotropic Gaussian,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\hat{p}({\\bf w}_k|y_{1:k}) =  \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_k ; {\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k}, \\hat{\\sigma}_k^2 {\\bf I} ),\\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nwhere \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k} &= & {\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k-1}+ \\frac{ (\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2+ \\sigma_d^2)  }{(\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2+ \\sigma_d^2)  \\|{\\bf x}_k\\|^2 + \\sigma_n^2} (y_k - {\\bf x}_k^T {\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k-1}){\\bf x}_k  \\nonumber  \\\\\n&=& {\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k-1}+ \\eta_k (y_k - {\\bf x}_k^T {\\hat{\\boldsymbol\\mu}}_{k-1}){\\bf x}_k . \n\\label{eq:prob_lms}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nNote that, instead of a gain matrix ${\\bf K}_k$ as in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:prob_rls}, we now have a scalar gain $\\eta_k$ that operates as a variable step size.\n\n\nFinally, to obtain the posterior variance, which is our measure of uncertainty, we apply \\eqref{eq:sigma_hat} and the trick ${\\sf Tr}\\{{\\bf x}_k{\\bf x}_k^T\\}= {\\bf x}_k^T{\\bf x}_k= \\|{\\bf x}_k \\|^2$,\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\hat{\\sigma}_k^2 &=& \\frac{{\\sf Tr}(\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k)}{M} \\\\\n&=& \\frac{1}{M}{\\sf Tr}\\left\\{ \\left( {\\bf I} -  \\eta_k {\\bf x}_k {\\bf x}_k^T \\right) (\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2 +\\sigma_d^2)\\right\\} \\\\\n&=& \\left(1 - \\frac{\\eta_k \\|{\\bf x}_k\\|^2}{M}\\right)(\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2 +\\sigma_d^2).\n\\label{eq:sig_k}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIf MAP estimation is performed, we obtain  an adaptable step-size LMS estimation\n\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\bf w}_{k}^{(LMS)} = {\\bf w}_{k-1}^{(LMS)} + \\eta_k (y_k - {\\bf x}_k^T {\\bf w}_{k-1}^{(LMS)}){\\bf x}_k, \t\n\\label{eq:lms}\n\\end{equation}\nwith\n\\begin{equation}\n\\eta_k = \\frac{ (\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2+ \\sigma_d^2)  }{(\\hat{\\sigma}_{k-1}^2+ \\sigma_d^2)  \\|{\\bf x}_k\\|^2 + \\sigma_n^2}.\\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nAt this point, several interesting remarks can be made:\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\n\\item The adaptive rule \\eqref{eq:lms} has linear complexity since it does not require us to compute the full matrix $\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_k$.\n\n\\item For a stationary model, we have $\\sigma_d^2=0$ in \\eqref{eq:prob_lms} and \\eqref{eq:sig_k}. In this case, the algorithm remains valid and both the step size and the error variance, $\\hat{\\sigma}_{k}$, vanish over time $k$. \n\n\\item Finally, the proposed adaptable step-size LMS has only two parameters, $\\sigma_d^2$ and $\\sigma_n^2$, (and only one, $\\sigma_n^2$, in stationary scenarios) in contrast to other variable step-size algorithms \\cite{kwong1992variable,aboulnasr1997robust,shin2004variable}. More interestingly, both $\\sigma_d^2$ and $\\sigma_n^2$ have a clear underlying physical meaning, and they can be estimated in many cases. We will comment more about this in the next section. \n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\n\\section{Experiments}\n\\label{sec:experiments}\n\nWe evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm in both stationary and tracking experiments. In the first experiment, we estimate a fixed vector ${\\bf w}^{o}$ of dimension $M=50$. The entries of the vector are independently and uniformly chosen in the range $[-1,1]$. Then, the vector is normalized so that $\\|{\\bf w}^o\\|=1$. Regressors $\\boldsymbol{x}_{k}$ are zero-mean Gaussian vectors with identity covariance matrix. The additive noise variance is such that the SNR is $20$ dB. We compare our algorithm with standard RLS and three other LMS-based algorithms: LMS, NLMS \\cite{sayed2008adaptive}, VSS-LMS \\cite{shin2004variable}.\\footnote{The used parameters for each algorithm are: for RLS $\\lambda=1$, $\\epsilon^{-1}=0.01$; for LMS $\\mu=0.01$; for NLMS $\\mu=0.5$; and for VSS-LMS $\\mu_{max}=1$, $\\alpha=0.95$, $C=1e-4$.} The probabilistic LMS algorithm in \\cite{park2014probabilistic} is not simulated because it is not suitable for stationary environments.\n\nIn stationary environments, the proposed algorithm has only one parameter, $\\sigma^2_n$. We simulate both the scenario where we have perfectly knowledge of the amount of noise (probLMS1) and the case where the value $\\sigma^2_n$ is $100$ times smaller than the actual value (probLMS2). The Mean-Square Deviation (${\\sf MSD} = {\\mathbb E} \\| {\\bf w}_0 - {\\bf w}_k \\|^2$), averaged out over $50$ independent simulations, is presented in Fig. \\ref{fig:msd_statationary}.\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\centering\n\\begin{minipage}[b]{\\linewidth}\n  \\centering\n  \\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{results_stationary_MSD}}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\caption{Performance in terms of MSD of probabilistic LMS with both optimal (probLMS1) and suboptimal (probLMS2) compared to LMS, NLMS, VS-LMS, and RLS.}\n\\label{fig:msd_statationary}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe performance of probabilistic LMS is close to RLS (obviously at a much lower computational cost) and largely outperforms previous variable step-size LMS algorithms proposed in the literature. Note that, when the model is stationary, i.e. $\\sigma^2_d=0$ in \\eqref{eq:trans_eq},  both the uncertainty $\\hat{\\sigma}^2_k$, and the adaptive step size $\\eta_k$, vanish over time. This implies that the error tends to zero when $k$ goes to infinity. Fig. \\ref{fig:msd_statationary} also shows that the proposed approach is not very sensitive to a bad choice of its only parameter, as demonstrated by the good results of probLMS2, which uses a $\\sigma^2_n$ that is $100$ times smaller than the optimal value. \n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\centering\n\\begin{minipage}[b]{\\linewidth}\n  \\centering\n  \\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{fig2_final}}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\caption{Real part of one coefficient of the measured and estimated channel in experiment two. The shaded area represents two standard deviations from the prediction {(the mean of the posterior distribution)}.}\n\\label{fig_2}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n\\begin{footnotesize}\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{2pt}\n\\def1.5mm{1.5mm}\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{|l@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|c@{\\hspace{1.5mm}}|}\n\\hline\nMethod &  LMS &  NLMS & LMS-2013 & VSSNLMS & probLMS & RLS \\\\\n\\hline\n\\hline\nMSD (dB) &-28.45 &-21.07 &-14.36 &-26.90 &-28.36 &-25.97\\\\\n\\hline                                                                     \n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Steady-state MSD of the different algorithms for the tracking of a real MISO channel.}\n\\label{tab:table_MSD}\n\\end{footnotesize}\n\n\\end{table}\n\\newpage\nIn a second experiment, we test the tracking capabilities of the proposed algorithm with {real} data of a wireless MISO channel acquired in a realistic indoor scenario. More details on the setup can be found in \\cite{gutierrez2011frequency}. Fig. \\ref{fig_2} shows the real part of one of the channels, and the estimate of the proposed algorithm. The shaded area represents the estimated uncertainty for each prediction, i.e. $\\hat{\\mu}_k\\pm2\\hat{\\sigma}_k$. Since the experimental setup does not allow us to obtain the optimal values for the parameters, we fix these parameters to their values that optimize the steady-state mean square deviation (MSD). \\hbox{Table \\ref{tab:table_MSD}} shows this steady-state MSD of the estimate of the MISO channel with different methods. As can be seen, the best tracking performance is obtained by standard LMS and the proposed method. \n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions and Opened Extensions}\n\\label{sec:conclusions}\n\n{We have presented a probabilistic interpretation of the least-mean-square filter. The resulting algorithm is an adaptable step-size LMS that performs well both in stationary and tracking scenarios. Moreover, it has fewer free parameters than previous approaches and these parameters have a clear physical meaning. Finally, as stated in the introduction, one of the advantages of having a probabilistic model is that it is easily extensible:}\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item If, instead of using an isotropic Gaussian distribution in the approximation, we used a Gaussian with diagonal covariance matrix, we would obtain a similar algorithm with different step sizes and measures of uncertainty, for each component of ${\\bf w}_k$. Although this model can be more descriptive, it needs more parameters to be tuned, and the parallelism with LMS vanishes.\n\\item Similarly, if we substitute the transition model of \\eqref{eq:trans_eq} by an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process, \n\n\\begin{equation}\np({\\bf w}_k|{\\bf w}_{k-1})= \\mathcal{N}({\\bf w}_k;\\lambda {\\bf w}_{k-1}, \\sigma_d^2), \\nonumber\n\\label{eq:trans_eq_lambda}\n\\end{equation}\na similar algorithm is obtained but with a forgetting factor $\\lambda$ multiplying ${\\bf w}_{k-1}^{(LMS)}$ in \\eqref{eq:lms}. This algorithm may have improved performance under such a kind of autoregresive dynamics of ${\\bf w}_{k}$, though, again, the connection with standard LMS becomes dimmer.\n\n\\item As in \\cite{park2014probabilistic}, the measurement model \\eqref{eq:mess_eq} can be changed to obtain similar adaptive algorithms for classification, ordinal regression, and Dirichlet regression for compositional data. \n\n\\item A similar approximation technique could be applied to more complex dynamical models, i.e. switching dynamical models \\cite{barber2010graphical}. The derivation of efficient adaptive algorithms that explicitly take into account a switch in the dynamics of the parameters of interest is a non-trivial and open problem, though the proposed approach could be useful.\n\n\\item Finally, like standard LMS, this algorithm can be kernelized for its application in estimation under non-linear scenarios.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\\begin{appendices}\n\n\\section{KL divergence between a general gaussian distribution and an isotropic gaussian}\n\\label{sec:kl}\n\n We want to approximate  $p_{{\\bf x}_1}(x) = \\mathcal{N}({\\bf x}; \\boldsymbol\\mu_1,\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1)$ by $p_{{\\bf x}_2}({\\bf x}) = \\mathcal{N}({\\bf x}; \\boldsymbol\\mu_2,\\sigma_2^2 {\\bf I})$. In order to do so, we have to compute the parameters of $p_{{\\bf x}_2}({\\bf x})$, $\\boldsymbol\\mu_2$ and $\\sigma_2^2$, that minimize the following Kullback-Leibler divergence,\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nD_{KL}(p_{{\\bf x}_1}\\| p_{{\\bf x}_2}) &=&\\int_{-\\infty}^{\\infty} p_{{\\bf x}_1}({\\bf x}) \\ln{\\frac{p_{{\\bf x}_1}({\\bf x})}{p_{{\\bf x}_2}({\\bf x})}}d{\\bf x} \\nonumber  \\\\\n&= &  \\frac{1}{2} \\{ -M + {\\sf Tr}(\\sigma_2^{-2} {\\bf I}\\cdot \\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1^{-1})  \\nonumber \\\\\n  & &  + (\\boldsymbol\\mu_2 - \\boldsymbol\\mu_1 )^T \\sigma^{-2}_2{\\bf I} (\\boldsymbol\\mu_2 - \\boldsymbol\\mu_1 )  \\nonumber \\\\\n & &   +  \\ln \\frac{{\\sigma_2^2}^M}{\\det\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1} \\}.  \n\\label{eq:divergence}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nUsing symmetry arguments, we obtain \n\\begin{equation}\n\\boldsymbol\\mu_2^{*} =\\arg \\displaystyle{  \\min_{\\boldsymbol\\mu_2}} \\{ D_{KL}(p_{{\\bf x}_1}\\| p_{{\\bf x}_2}) \\} = \\boldsymbol\\mu_1.\n\\end{equation}\nThen, \\eqref{eq:divergence} gets simplified into \n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nD_{KL}(p_{{\\bf x}_1}\\| p_{{\\bf x}_2}) = \\frac{1}{2}\\lbrace { -M + {\\sf Tr}(\\frac{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1}{\\sigma_2^{2}}) + \\ln \\frac{\\sigma_2^{2M}}{\\det\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1}}\\rbrace.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe variance $\\sigma_2^2$ is computed in order to minimize this Kullback-Leibler divergence as\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\sigma_2^{2*} &=& \\arg\\min_{\\sigma_2^2} D_{KL}(P_{x_1}\\| P_{x_2}) \\nonumber \\\\\n &=& \\arg\\min_{\\sigma_2^2}\\{ \\sigma_2^{-2}{\\sf Tr}\\{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1\\} + M\\ln \\sigma_2^{2} \\} .\n\\end{eqnarray}\nDeriving and making it equal zero leads to\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial \\sigma_2^2} \\left[ \\frac{{\\sf Tr}\\{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1\\}}{\\sigma_2^{2}} + M \\ln \\sigma_2^{2} \\right] = \\left. {\\frac{M}{\\sigma_2^{2}}-\\frac{{\\sf Tr}\\{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1\\}}{(\\sigma_2^{2})^2}}\\right|_{\\sigma_2^{2}=\\sigma_2^{2*}}\\left. =0 \\right. .\n\\nonumber\n\\end{equation}\nFinally, since the divergence has a single extremum in $R_+$,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sigma_2^{2*} = \\frac{{\\sf Tr}\\{\\boldsymbol\\Sigma_1\\}}{M}.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\n\n\\end{appendices}\n\n\\vfill\n\\clearpage\n\n\\bibliographystyle{IEEEbib}\n", "answers": ["The authors used simulated data and real data from a wireless MISO channel."], "length": 2554, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "1f3b1e37c3d2ead7ab4fe7dd9d5cddd55b2c76d28e6bfc86"}
{"input": "What is the future direction mentioned in the conclusion?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Is In-hospital Meta-information Useful for Abstractive Discharge Summary Generation?\nPublish Date: 10 Mar 2023\nAuthor List: Mamoru Komachi (from Tokyo Metropolitan University), Takashi Okumura (from Kitami Institute of Technology), Hiromasa Horiguchi (from National Hospital Organization), Yuji Matsumoto\n\nFigure\n\nFig. 1.Example of part of a discharge summary which is a dummy we created.\nFig. 2. Overview of our proposed method.A new feature embedding layer encoding hospital, physician, disease, and length of stay is added to the standard transformer architecture.The figure shows an example of hospital embedding.\nStatistics of our data for experiment.\nof summarization models with different meta-information.The best results are highlighted in bold.Each score is the average of three models with different seeds.The BS and BR indicate BERTScore and BLEURT, respectively.\nStatistics on the number of cases handled by physicians.C/P denotes Cases/Physician, which indicates how many cases an individual physician has.Method of Grouping Physician IDs A most naive method of mapping physician IDs to features is without any grouping process.The data contains 4,846 physicians, so |M | was set to 4,846.However it caused our model's training to be unstable.This might be due to the many physician IDs appearing for the first time in the test time.Table\n\nabstract\n\nDuring the patient's hospitalization, the physician must record daily observations of the patient and summarize them into a brief document called \"discharge summary\" when the patient is discharged. Automated generation of discharge summary can greatly relieve the physicians' burden, and has been addressed recently in the research community.\nMost previous studies of discharge summary generation using the sequenceto-sequence architecture focus on only inpatient notes for input. However, electric health records (EHR) also have rich structured metadata (e.g., hospital, physician, disease, length of stay, etc.) that might be useful. This paper investigates the effectiveness of medical meta-information for summarization tasks.\nWe obtain four types of meta-information from the EHR systems and encode each meta-information into a sequence-to-sequence model. Using Japanese EHRs, meta-information encoded models increased ROUGE-1 by up to 4.45 points and BERTScore by 3.77 points over the vanilla Longformer. Also, we found that the encoded meta-information improves the precisions of its related terms in the outputs.\nOur results showed the benefit of the use of medical meta-information.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nClinical notes are written daily by physicians from their consults and are used for their own decision-making or coordination of treatment. They contain a large amount of important data for machine learning, such as conditions, laboratory tests, diagnoses, procedures, and treatments. While invaluable to physicians and researchers, the paperwork is burdensome for physicians , .\nDischarge summaries, a subset of these, also play a crucial role in patient care, and are used to share information between hospitals and physicians (see an example in Figure ). It is created by the physician as a summary of notes during hospitalization at the time of the patient's discharge, which is known to be very time-consuming.\nResearchers have begun to apply automatic summarization techniques to address this problem - . Previous studies used extractive or abstractive summarization methods, but most of them focused on only progress notes for inputs. Properly summarizing an admission of a patient is a quite complex task, and requires various meta-information such as the patient's age, gender, vital signs, laboratory values and background to specific diseases.\nTherefore, discharge summary generation needs more medical meta-information, than similar but narrower tasks such as radiology report generation. However, what kind of meta-information is important for summarization has not been investigated, even though it is critical not only for future research on medical summarization but also for the policy of data collection infrastructure.\nIn this paper, we first reveal the effects of meta-information on neural abstractive summarization on admissions. Our model is based on an encoder-decoder transformer with an additional feature embedding layer in the encoder (Figure ). Hospital, physician, disease, and length of stay are used as meta-information, and each feature is embedded in the vector space.\nFor experiments, we collect progress notes, discharge summaries and coded information from the electronic health record system, which are managed by a largest multi-hospital organization in Japan. Our main contributions are as follows: • We found that a transformer encoding meta-information generates higher quality summaries than the vanilla one, and clarified the benefit of using meta-information for medical summarization tasks.\n• We found that a model encoding disease information can produce proper disease and symptom words following the source. In addition, we found that the model using physician and hospital information can generate symbols that are commonly written in the summary. • We are the first to apply the abstractive summarization method to generate Japanese discharge summaries.\nIn the studies of summarization of medical documents, it is common to retrieve key information such as disease, examination result, or medication from EHRs - . Other researchs more similar to our study targeted to help physicians get the point of medical documents quickly by generating a few key sentences - .\nStudies generating contextualized summaries can be categorized by the type of model inputs and architectures. Some studies produced a whole discharge summary using structured data for input - The sensitivity of the gram stain for bacterial meningitis is about 60%, and the sensitivity of the culture is not high either.\nAlso, the glucose in the cerebrospinal fluid would have been slightly lower. Although no definitive diagnosis could be made, bacterial meningitis was the most suspicious disease. The causative organism was assumed to be MRSA, and vancomycin and meropenem (meningitis dose) were used to cover a wide range of enteric bacteria.\na whole discharge summary from free-form inpatient records - . The free-form data is more challenging since it is noisier than structured data. In inputting of the free-form data, extractive summarization methods, which extract sentences from the source, are commonly used , - . On the other hands, an encoder-decoder model was used for abstractive summarization , , with a limited number of studies.\nThe various issues in the abstractive generation of discharge summary would be studied in the future. Studies using medical meta-information have long been conducted on a lot of tasks - . In abstractive summarization on discharge summary,  developed a model incorporating similarity of progress notes and information of the record author.\nThey presented an idea of integrating meta-information into the abstractive summarization model on medical documents, but did not reveal how meta-information would affect the quality of the summaries. Our method is based on the encoder-decoder transformer model. The transformer model is known for its high performance and has been widely used in recent studies, thus it is suitable for our purpose.\nAs shown in Figure , the standard input to a transformer's encoder is created by a token sequence T = [t 0 , t 1 , ..., t i ] and position sequence P = [p 0 , p 1 , ..., p i ], where i is the maximum input length. The token and position sequences are converted into token embeddings E T and positional embeddings E P by looking up the vocabulary tables.\nThe sum of E T and E P is input into the model. In this paper, we attempt to encode meta-information to feature embeddings. We follow the segment embeddings of BERT and the language embeddings of XLM , which provide additional information to the model. It is not a new idea but is suitable for our validation.\nOur method is formulated as follows: Let M be feature type, M ∈ {Vanilla, Hospital, Physician, Disease, Length of stay}, since we set five types of features. Feature embeddings E M is created by looking up the feature table where m j is featue value (e.g., pysician ID, disease code, etc.) and |M | is the maximum number of differences in a feature.\nIn our study, |M | is set to four different values depending on features. Specifically, they are as follows. a) Hospital: As shown in Table , the data includes five hospital records. They were obtained mechanically from the EHR system. b) Physician: Physicians are also managed by IDs in the EHR systems. We hashed the physician IDs into 485 groups containing 10 people each.\nSpecifically, as a naive strategy, we shuffled and listed the cases within each hospital, and hashed them into groups in the order of appearance of the physician IDs. So each group has the information about the relevance of the hospitals. The reason for employing a grouping strategy is described in Appendix A.\nc) Disease: Two types of disease information exist in our EHRs: disease names and disease codes called ICD-10 . We did not use any disease names in the inputs for our experiment. Instead, we encoded diseases with the first three letters of the ICD-10 code, because they represent well the higher level concept.\nThe initial three letters of the ICD-10 codes are arranged in the order of an alphabetic letter, a digit, and a digit, so there are a total of 2,600 ways to encode a disease. In our data, some ICD-10 codes were missing, although all disease names were systematically obtained from the EHR system. For such cases, we converted the disease names into ICD-10 codes using MeCab with the J-MeDic (MANBYO 201905) dictionary.\nAlso, diseases can be divided into primary and secondary diseases, but we only deal with the primary diseases. d) Length of stay: The length of stay can be obtained mechanically from the EHR system and the maximum value was set to 1,000 days. We set |M | for vanilla, hospital, physician, disease, and length of stay to 1, 5, 485, 2,600, and 1,000, respectively .\nThe vanilla embedding is prepared for the baseline in our experiment and to equalize the total number of parameters with the other models. The input to our model is the sum of E T , E P and E M . We also prepare an extra model with all features for our experiments. This takes all four feature embeddings (hospital, physician, disease, and length of stay) added to the encoder.\n\nDatasets and Metrics\n\nWe evaluated our proposed method on a subset of data from National Hospital Organization (NHO), the largest multiinstitutional organization in Japan. The statistics of our data are shown in Table  , which includes 24,630 cases collected from five hospitals. Each case includes a discharge summary and progress notes for the days of stay.\nThe data are randomly split into 22,630, 1,000, and 1,000 for train, validation, and test, respectively. Summarization performances are reported in ROUGE-1, ROUGE-2, ROUGE-L and BERTScore in terms of F1. In addition, we also employed BLEURT , which models human judgment.\n\nArchitectures and Hyperparameters\n\nDue to our hardware constraints we need a model that is computationally efficient, so we employed the Longformer instead of the conventional transformer. Longformer can  . In our model, number of layers, window size, dilation, input sequence length, output sequence length, batch size, learning rate and number of warmup steps are 8, 256, 1, 1024, 256, 4, 3e-5 and 1K, respectively.\nOther hyperparameters are the same as in the original Longformer, except for the maximum number of epochs is not fixed and the best epoch. It is selected for each training using the validation data based on ROUGE-1. Also, the original Longformer imports pretrained-BART parameters to initial values, but we do not use pre-trained Japanese BART in this study.\nWe used three GeForce RTX 2080 TI for our experiments. Our vocabulary for preparing input to Longformer is taken from UTH-BERT , which is pre-trained on the Japanese clinical records. Since the vocabulary of UTH-BERT is trained by WordPiece , we also tokenize our data with WordPiece. However, the vocabulary does not include white space and line breaks, which cannot be handled, so we add those two tokens to the vocabulary, resulting in a total size of 25,002.\nThe vocabulary has all tokens in full characters, so we normalized full-wdith characters by converting all alphanumeric and symbolic characters to half-width for byte fallback. , we found that all the models with encoded medical meta-information perform better in ROUGE-1, ROUGE-L and BLEURT than the vanilla Longformer.\nHowever, in BERTScore, only hospital and disease models outperform the vanilla. Specifically, disease information is most effective, improving ROUGE-1, ROUGE-2, ROUGE-L, BERTScore and BLEURT by 4.45, 0.73, 3.12, 3.77 and 0.21 points over the vanilla model, respectively. This seems to be because disease information and the ICD-10 ontology efficiently cluster groups with similar representations.\nIn contrast, in ROUGE-2 and ROUGE-L, the model with physician embedding is inferior to the vanilla model. This seems to be a negative effect of grouping physicians without any consideration of their relevance. It would be better to cluster them by department, physician attributes, similarity of progress notes, etc. Regarding low ROUGE-2 scores in all models, a previous study using the English data set also reported a low ROUGE-2 score of about 5%, which may indicate an inherent difficulty in discharge summary generation.\nIn BERTScore, the models with the physician and the length of stay did not reach the performance of the vanilla model, suggesting that the system's outputs are semantically inferior. The model with all features performed the lowest of all models in BERTScore. The reason for the low score of the model with all features seems to be that its number of parameters in feature embedding was four times larger than that of the model with the individual feature, and the amount of training data was insufficient.\nIn BLEURT, all models with meta-information outperform vanilla, which suggests that they are more natural to humans. To analyze the influence of encoded meta-information on the outputs, we evaluate the precisions of the generated text. Specifically, we measure the probability that the generated words are included in the gold summary to investigate if the proper words are generated.\nSome previous studies on faithfulness, which also analyze the output of summarization, have employed words or entities - . In this study, we focused on words, not entities, because we wanted to visualize expressions that are not only nouns. The words were segmented by MeCab with the J-MeDic. For each segmented word, the numeral and symbol labels were assigned as parts of speech by MeCab, the morphological analyzer, while the disease and symptom were assigned by the J-Medic dictionary.\nThe results, shown in Figure , indicate that the encoded disease information leads to generate more proper disease and symptom words. This indicates that the meta-information successfully learns disease-related expressions. The encoded hospital or physician information also improved the precision of symbols generation.\nThis suggests that different hospitals and physicians have different description habits (e.g., bullet points such as \"•\", \"*\" and \"-\", punctuation such as \"。\" and \".\", etc.), which can be grouped by meta-information. In this paper, we conducted a discharge summary generation experiment by adding four types of information to Longformer and verified the impact of the meta-information.\nThe results showed that all four types of information exceeded the performance of the vanilla Longformer model, with the highest performance achieved by encoding disease information. We found that meta-information is useful for abstractive summarization on discharge summaries. Our limitations are that we used Japanese EHR, the limited number of tested features and not performing human evaluations.\nAs for the efficacy of the meta-information, we believe that our results are applicable to non-Japanese, but it is left as Fig. . The precisions of words in the generated summaries. The vertical axis shows the probability that the words exist in the gold summary. a future work. Other meta-information may be worth verifying such as the patient's gender, age, race, religion and used EHR system, etc.\nIt is hard to collect a large amount of medical information and process it into meta-information, so we may need to develop a robust and flexible research infrastructure to conduct a more large scale cross-sectional study in the future. In the discharge summary generation task, which demands a high level of expertise, the human evaluation requires a lot of physicians' efforts and it is a very high cost which is unrealistic.\nThis is a general issue in tasks dealing with medical documents, and this study also could not perform human evaluations. On this research, informed consent and patient privacy are ensured in the following manner. Notices about their policy and the EHR data usage are posted at the hospitals. The patients who disagree with the policies can request opt-out and are excluded from the archive.\nIn case of minors and their parents, followed the same manner. In the case of minors and their parents are same. To conduct a research on the archive, researchers must submit their research proposals to the institutional review board. After the proposal is approved, the data is anonymized to build a dataset for analysis.\nThe data is accessible only in a secured room at the NHO headquarters, and only statistics are brought out of the secured room, for protection of patients' privacy. In the present research, the analysis was conducted under the IRB approval (IRB Approval No.: Wako3 2019-22) of the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research (RIKEN), Japan, which has a collaboration agreement with the National Hospital Organization.\nThis data is not publicly available due to privacy restrictions. shows the detailed number of cases handled by physicians. In all hospitals, there is a large difference between the median and the maximum of cases/physician. This indicates that a few physicians handle a large number of cases and many physicians handle fewer cases.\nIt is impossible to avoid physician IDs first seen at test time without some process that averages the number of cases a physician holds.", "answers": ["Verifying other meta-information such as patient's gender, age, race, etc."], "length": 2947, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "6caa98612cf0e2ddf58e1ba70daaf79a3ac616280fb48188"}
{"input": "What are the three subsets into which the parameter space V is divided?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: An CUSUM Test with Observation-Adjusted Control Limits in Change Detection\nPublish Date: March 9, 2023\nAuthor List: Fuquan Tang (from Department of Statistics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University), Dong Han (from Department of Statistics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University)\n\nFigure\n\nexp{−cg(µ)(θ − x Hv (θ) + o(1))} for 1 ≤ k ≤ ac − 1, bc ≤ n ≤ m, where Zi = −g ′ (µ)(Z i − µ)/a and Hv (θ) = ln hv (θ) + ( ac k − 1) ln ĥv (θ), ĥv (θ) = E v (e θ Zi ).\ni < cg(µ)(1 + o(1))) exp{−cg(µ)θ * v (1 + o(1))} (A. 5) for ac ≤ k ≤ bc − 1, bc ≤ n ≤ m,andP v (\ni + g ′ (µ)a −1 Tc(g)−1 i=Tc(g)−ac (Z i − µ)] −→ µas c → ∞.By the uniform integrability of {T c (g)/c} and using Theorem A.1.1 in Gut's book(1988), we haveE v (T c (g)) = (1 + o(1)) cg(µ) µfor a large c.This completes the proof of Theorem 2.Proof of Theorem 4. Since g(x) < 0 for x > a * , a * ≤ µ * and µ * ≥ 0, it follows thatP v m Ẑm < cg( Ẑm ), Ẑm > a * ≤ P v ( Ẑm < µ * )andP v (T c (g) > m) = P v n i=n−k+1 Z i < cg( Ẑn ), 1 ≤ k ≤ n, 1 ≤ n ≤ m ≤ P v m Ẑm < cg( Ẑm ) = P v m Ẑm < cg( Ẑm ), Ẑm ≤ a * + P v m Ẑm < cg( Ẑm ), Ẑm > a * ≤ 2P v ( Ẑm < µ * ).Furthermore,P v ( Ẑm < µ * ) = P v ( m i −Z i > −mµ * ) = P v ( m i (µ − Z i ) > m(µ − µ * )) = P v (e θ m i (µ−Z i ) > e θm(µ−µ * ) ) ≤ e −m[θ(µ−µ * )−ln M (θ)] ,whereM(θ) = E v (e θ(µ−Z 1 )) and the last inequality follows from Chebychev's inequality.Note thath(θ) = θ(µ − µ * ) − ln M(θ) attains its maximum value h(θ * ) = θ * (µ − µ * ) − ln M(θ * ) > 0 at θ = θ * > 0, where h ′ (θ * ) = 0. So, E v (T c (g)) = 1 + ∞ m=1 P v (T c (g) > m) ≤ 1 + m=1 −m[θ * (µ−µ * )−ln M (θ * )] = e θ * (µ−µ * )−ln M (θ * ) + 1 e θ * (µ−µ * )−ln M (θ * ) − Let k > 1.It follows that E vk (T c (g) − k + 1) + = ∞ m=1 P vk (T c (g) > m + k − 1, T c (g) > k − 1) ≤ (a 0 + 1)(k − 1)P 0 (T c (g) > k − 1) + ∞ m≥(a 0 +1)(k−1) P vk (T c (g) > m + k − 1).Similarly, we haveP vk (T c (g) > m + k − 1) = P vk n i=n−k+1 Z i < cg( Ẑn ), 1 ≤ k ≤ n, 1 ≤ n ≤ m + k − 1 ≤ 2P vk ( Ẑm+k−1 < µ * ) − Z i ) > m(µ − µ * ) + (k − 1)(µ 0 − µ * ) ≤ 2 exp{−m θ * (µ − µ * ) − ln M(θ * ) + k − 1 m [µ 0 − µ * − ln M 0 (θ * )] } ≤ e −mb for m ≥ (a 0 + 1)(k − 1), since θ * (µ − µ * ) − ln M(θ * ) + k − 1 m [µ 0 − µ * − ln M 0 (θ * )] ≥ b for m ≥ (a 0 + 1)(k−1).Thus, E vk (T c (g) − k + 1) + ≤ (a 0 + 1)(k − 1)P 0 (T c (g) ≥ k) + m≥(a 0 +1)(k−1) e −mb ≤ (a 0 + 1)(k − 1)P 0 (T c (g) >≥ k) + 2e −(a 0 +1)(k−1)b 1 − e −b .\nSimulation of E τ i ,v and J ACE for detecting two mean shifts v = 0.1, v = 1.The parameters for T * M are k1=1, k2=150, r 1 = 5.2 * 10 −5 , r 2 = 1.1 * 10 −5 , and the expectation and standard deviation in both cases are 1717.06with 13459.80 and 3918.33 with 16893.25,respectively.\n\nabstract\n\nIn this paper, we not only propose an new optimal sequential test of sum of logarithmic likelihood ratio (SLR) but also present the CUSUM sequential test (control chart, stopping time) with the observation-adjusted control limits (CUSUM-OAL) for monitoring quickly and adaptively the change in distribution of a sequential observations.\nTwo limiting relationships between the optimal test and a series of the CUSUM-OAL tests are established. Moreover, we give the estimation of the in-control and the out-of-control average run lengths (ARLs) of the CUSUM-OAL test. The theoretical results are illustrated by numerical simulations in detecting mean shifts of the observations sequence.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nIn order to quickly detect a change in distribution of observations sequence without exceeding a certain false alarm rate, a great variety of sequential tests have been proposed, developed and applied to various fields since proposed a control chart method, see, for example, , , One of popular used sequential tests is the following upper-sided CUSUM test which was proposed by .\nwhere c > 0 is a constant control limit, Z i = log[p v 1 (X i )/p v 0 (X i )], p v 0 (x) and p v 1 (x) are prechange and post-change probability density functions respectively for a sequence of mutually independent observations {X i , i ≥ 1}, that is, there is a unknown change-point τ ≥ 1 such that X 1 , ..., X τ −1 have the probability density function p v 0 , whereas, X τ , X τ +1 , ... have the probability density function p v 1 .\nBy the renewal property of the CUSUM test T C we have , where E 1 (T C ) is the out-of-control average run length (ARL 1 ), P k and E k denote the probability and expectation respectively when the change from p v 0 to p v 1 occurs at the change-point τ = k for k ≥ 1. Though we know that the CUSUM test is optimal under Lorden's measure (see Moustakides 1986 and Ritov 1990), the out-of-control ARL 1 of the CUSUM test is not small, especially in detecting small mean shifts ( see Table in Section 4).\nIn other words, the CUSUM test is insensitive in detecting small mean shifts. Then, how to increase the sensitivity of the CUSUM test ? Note that the control limit in the CUSUM test is a constant c which does not depend on the observation samples. Intuitively, if the control limit of the CUSUM test can become low as the samples mean of the observation sequence increases, then the alarm time of detecting the increasing mean shifts will be greatly shortened.\nBased on this idea, by selecting a decreasing function g(x) we may define the ( upper-sided ) CUSUM chart T C (cg) with the observation-adjusted control limits cg( Ẑn ) ( abbreviated to the CUSUM-OAL chart ) in the following where c > 0 is a constant and Ẑn = n i=1 Z i /n. In other words, the control limits cg( Ẑn ) of the CUSUM-OAL test can be adjusted adaptively according to the observation information { Ẑn }.\nNote that the control limits cg( Ẑn ) may be negative. In the special case, the CUSUM-OAL chart T C (cg) becomes into the conventional CUSUM chart T C (c) in (1) when g ≡ 1. Similarly, we can define a down-sided CUSUM-OAL test. In this paper, we consider only the upper-sided CUSUM-OAL test since the properties of the down-sided CUSUM-OAL test can be obtained by the similar method.\nThe main purpose of the present paper is to show the good detection performance of the CUSUM-OAL test and to give the estimation of its the in-control and out-of-control ARLs. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we first present an optimal SLR sequential test, then define two sequences of the CUSUM-OAL tests and prove that one of the two sequences of CUSUM-OAL tests converges to the optimal test, another sequences of CUSUM-OAL tests converges to a combination of the optimal test and the CUSUM test.\nThe estimation of the in-control and out-of-control ARLs of the CUSUM-OAL tests and their comparison are given in Section 3. The detection performances of the three CUSUM-OAL tests and the conventional CUSUM test are illustrated in Section 4 by comparing their numerical out-ofcontrol ARLs. Section 5 provides some concluding remarks.\nProofs of the theorems are given in the Appendix.\n\nAN OPTIMAL SLR TEST, TWO CUSUM-OAL TESTS AND THEIR LIMITING RELATIONSHIPS\n\nLet P 0 and E 0 denote the probability and the expectation respectively with the probability density p v 0 when there is no change for all the time. It is known that It follows from Proposition 2.38 in and (5.8)-(5.9) in Chow et al, P.108) that the following sequence test of sum of logarithmic likelihood ratio (SLR)\nfor B > 1, is optimal in the following sense min for P 0 (T SLR < ∞) = α, where c = log B and 0 < α < 1. In particular, if P 0 is the standard normal distribution with mean shift µ > 0 after changepoint, we have Z j − µ 0 = µX j , where µ 0 = −µ 2 /2. It follows from proposition 4 in that the SLR test T SLR in (4) is also optimal (minimal ARL 1 ) with the same false alarm probability P 0 (T < τ ).\nIt can be seen that the in-control average run length of T SLR is infinite, that is, ARL 0 = E 0 (T SLR ) = ∞. However, the minimal ARL 1 with finite ARL 0 is a widely used optimality criterion in statistical quality control (see ) and detection of abrupt changes (see . In order to get finite ARL 0 for T SLR , we replace the constant control limit c of T SLR in (3) or (4) with the dynamic control limit n(µ 0 − r) and obtain a modified SLR test T SLR (r) in the following\nfor r ≥ 0. For comparison, the in-control ARL 0 of all candidate sequential tests are constrained to be equal to the same desired level of type I error, the test with the lowest out-of-control ARL v has the highest power or the fastest monitoring (detection) speed. In the following example 1, the numerical simulations of the out-of-control ARLs of the CUSUM-OAL tests T C (cg u,0 ) in detecting the mean shifts of observations with normal distribution will be compared with that of the SLR tests T * (r) and T * (0), and that of the CUSUM-SLR test T C (c) ∧ T * (0) := min{T C (c), T * (0)} in the following Table .\nThese comparisons lead us to guess that there are some limiting relationships between T C (cg u,r ) and T * (r), and T C (c g u ) and T C (c) ∧ T * (0), respectively. Example 1. Let X 1 , X 2 , .... be mutually independent following the normal distribution N(0, 1) if there is no change. After the change-point τ = 1, the mean E µ (X k ) ( k ≥ 1 ) will change from v 0 = 0 to v = 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5, 3. Here, we let\n, where v 1 = 1 is a given reference value which for the CUSUM test is the magnitude of a shift in the process mean to be detected quickly. We conducted the numerical simulation based on 1,000,000 repetitions. The following Table lists the simulation results of the ARLs of the tests T C (c), T C (c g u ) for u = 1, 10, 10 2 , 10 3 , 10 4 , T * (0.0007), T C (c) ∧ T * (0) and T * (0) for detecting the mean shifts, where the mean shift 0.0 means that there is no change which corresponds to the in-control ARL 0 and all tests have the common ARL 0 ≈ 1000 except the test T * (0) which has ARL 0 = ∞.\nThe values in the parameters are the standard deviations of the tests. From the last row in Table , it's a little surprising that though the ARL 0 of T * (0) is infinite, that is, E 0 (T * (0)) = ∞, the detection speed of T * (0) is faster than that of the CUSUM chart T C for all mean shifts, in particular, for detecting the small mean shift 0.1, the speed of T * (0) is only 7.47 which is very faster than the speed, 439, of the CUSUM test.\nMoreover, both control charts T * (0.0007) and T C (11.9271) ∧ T * (0) not only have the nearly same detection performance as T * (0) but also can have the finite in-control ARL 0 . Note particularly that when the number u in g u is taken from 0 to 1, 10, 10 2 , 10 3 , 10 4 , the detection speed of T C (c g u ) is getting faster and faster, approaching to that of T C (c) ∧ T * (0).\nThis inspires us to prove the following theoretic results. Let τ = 1 and {X k , k ≥ 1} be an i.i.d. observations sequence with Theorem 2 shows that when the constant control limit c of the CUSUM test T C (c) is replaced with the observation-adjusted control limits {cg u,r ( Ẑn )} and {c g u ( Ẑn )} respectively, the corresponding two CUSUM-OAL tests {T C (cg u,r )} and {T C (c g u )} will converge to the optimal SLR test T * (r) and the CUSUM-SLR test T C (c) ∧ T * (0) as u → ∞, respectively.\nIn other words, the fastest alarm times that {T C (cg u,r )} and {T C (c g u )} can be reached are T * (r) and T C (c) ∧ T * (0), respectively. u ≥ 0} can be seen as two \"long bridges\" connecting T C (c) and T * (r), and T C (c) and T C (c) ∧ T * (0), respectively.\n\nESTIMATION AND COMPARISON OF ARL OF THE CUSUM-OAL TEST\n\nIn this section we will give an estimation of the ARLs of the following CUSUM-OAL test that can be written as where g(.) is a decreasing function, Ẑn (ac x] denotes the smallest integer greater than or equal to x. Here Ẑn (ac) is a sliding average of the statistics, Next we discuss on the the post-change probability distribution in order to estimate the ARLs of T C (cg).\nUsually we rarely know the post-change probability distribution P v of the observation process before it is detected. But the possible change domain and its boundary (including the size and form of the boundary) about v may be determined by engineering knowledge, practical experience or statistical data.\nSo we may assume that the region of parameter space V and a probability distribution Q on V are known. If we have no prior knowledge of the possible value of v after the change time τ , we may assume that v occurs equally on V , that is, the probability distribution Q is an equal probability distribution (or uniform distribution ) on V .\nFor example, let P v be the normal distribution and v = (µ, σ), where µ and σ denote the mean and standard deviation respectively, we can take the set V = {(µ, σ) : and Q is subject to the uniform distribution U(V ) on V if v occurs equally on V , where the numbers µ 1 , µ 2 , σ 1 and σ 2 are known. It means that we know the domain of the possible post-change distributions, P v , v ∈ V , i.e., the boundary ∂V of the parameter space V is known.\nNext we shall divide the parameter space V into three subsets V + , V 0 and V − by the Kullback-Leibler information distance. Let and are two Kullblak-Leibler information distances between P v , P v 0 and P v , P v 1 . Since I(p|q) = 0 if and only if p = q, where p and q are two probability measures, it follows that\n, it means that P v is closer to P v 0 than to P v 1 according to the Kullblak-Leibler information distance. There is a similar explanation for v ∈ V + or ∈ V 0 . Suppose the post-change distribution P v and the function g(x) satisfy the following conditions: (I) The probability P v is not a point mass at E v (Z 1 ) and P v (Z 1 > 0) > 0.\n(II) The moment-generating function h v (θ) = E v (e θZ 1 ) satisfies h v (θ) < ∞ for some θ > 0. (III) The function g(x) is decreasing, its second order derivative function g ′′ (x) is continuous and bounded, and there is a positive number x * such that g(x * ) = 0. ) and and therefore, Θ ′ (θ(u)) = −H(θ(u)) = −H(θ * v ) = 0, Θ ′ (θ(1/x)) > 0 for x > 1/u and Θ ′ (θ(1/x)) < 0 for x > 1/u.\nHence, there exists a positive number b defined in (??). It can be seen, the main part of ARL v (T c (g)) will be an exponential function, square function, and linear function of c when the process {Z k : k ≥ 0} has no change or a \"small change\", a \"medium change\" and a \"large change\" from P v 0 to P v , respectively.\nHere, the \"small change\" (v ∈ V − ) means that P v is closer to P v 0 than to P v 1 , i.e., I(P v |P v 0 ) < I(P v |P v 1 ), and the \"large change\" is just the opposite. The \"medium change\" (v ∈ V 0 ) corresponds to In this paper, we will use another method to prove Theorem 3 since Wald's identity and the martingale method do not hold or can not work for showing the ARLs estimation of the test T c (g) when g is not constant.\nNext we compare the detection performance of the CUSUM-OAL test (ARL v (T c ′ (g))) with that of the CUSUM test (ARL v (T C (c))) by using (??) in Theorem 4.1. ) when µ 0 < µ < 0 and for θ * v 0 > g(µ)/g(µ 0 ) when µ ≥ 0. This means that ARL v (T c (g)) can be smaller than ARL v (T C (c)) as long as g(µ)/g(µ 0 ) is small for all µ > µ 0 .\n\nNUMERICAL SIMULATION AND A REAL EX-AMPLE ILLUSTRATION\n\n4.1 Numerical Simulation of ARLs for τ ≥ 1 By the simulation results of ARLs in Table , we see that the detection performance of T * (r), T C (c)∧T * (0), T * (0) and T C (c g u ) for large u is much better than that of the conventional CUSUM test T C for τ = 1. The following Table illustrates the simulation values of E τ i ,v and J ACE of nine tests in detecting two mean shifts v = 0.1 and v = 1 after six change-points, τ i , 1 ≤ i ≤ 6 with ARL 0 (T ) = E 0 (T ) ≈ 500.\nNote that H v (θ) is a convex function and H ′ v (0) = µ < 0. This means that there is a unique positive number . It follows from (A.9) that for a large c. Taking θ ց θ * v and u ′ ց u, we have for a large c. Thus, by (A.11) we have as c → ∞. By the properties of exponential distribution, we have for a large c.\nTo prove the downward inequality of (A.10), let where b is defined in (??) and without loss of generality, we assume that b > a. Obviously, Let k = xcg(µ). By Chebyshev's inequality, we have Since Hv (θ) and H v (θ) are two convex functions and Let m = tcg(µ)θ * v /bc for t > 0. By (A.13), (A.14), (A.15) and Theorem 5.1 in Esary, Proschan and Walkup (1967) we have\nFinally, as c → +∞, where θ 0 > 0 satisfies h v (θ 0 ) = 1. Thus as c → ∞. This implies that for a large c. This completes the proof of (A.10). Let v ∈ V 0 . Let m 1 = (cg(0)) 2 /σ 2 . It follows that Note that for a large c, where A = |g ′ (0)|/a, and , where Φ(.) is the standard normal distribution. Let m 2 = (cg(0)) 2 /(8σ 2 ln c).\nNote that as c → ∞, where the third inequality comes from Theorem 5.1 in Esary, Proschan and Walkup (1967). Thus, we have Let v ∈ V + and let The uniform integrability of {T c (g)/c} for c ≥ 1, follows from the well-known uniform integrability of {T 0 /c} (see Gut (1988)).", "answers": ["The three subsets are V+, V0, and V-, determined by the Kullback-Leibler information distance."], "length": 3737, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "60c66572f28b071899547f0aa0b4a271969c3b153e96406b"}
{"input": "What are the stability conditions for a solution of $-\\Delta u = f(u)$?", "context": "\\section{Introduction and main results}\n\n\nIn this note we are interested in the existence versus non-existence of stable sub- and super-solutions of equations of the form\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq1}\n-div( \\omega_1(x) \\nabla u ) = \\omega_2(x) f(u) \\qquad \\mbox{in $ {\\mathbb{R}}^N$,}\n\\end{equation} where $f(u)$ is one of the following non-linearities: $e^u$,  $ u^p$ where $ p>1$ and $ -u^{-p}$ where $ p>0$.  We assume that $ \\omega_1(x)$ and $ \\omega_2(x)$, which we call \\emph{weights},  are smooth positive functions (we allow $ \\omega_2$ to be zero at say a point) and which satisfy various growth conditions at $ \\infty$.    Recall that we say that a solution $ u $ of $ -\\Delta u = f(u)$ in $ {\\mathbb{R}}^N$ is stable provided\n\\[ \\int f'(u) \\psi^2 \\le \\int | \\nabla \\psi|^2, \\qquad \\forall \\psi \\in C_c^2,\\] where $ C_c^2$ is the set of $ C^2$ functions defined on $ {\\mathbb{R}}^N$ with compact support.  Note that the stability of $u$ is just saying that the second variation at $u$ of the energy associated with the equation is non-negative.     In our setting this becomes:  We say a $C^2$ sub/super-solution $u$ of (\\ref{eq1}) is \\emph{stable} provided\n\\begin{equation} \\label{stable}\n\\int \\omega_2 f'(u) \\psi^2 \\le \\int \\omega_1 | \\nabla \\psi|^2 \\qquad \\forall \\psi \\in C_c^2.\n\\end{equation}\nOne should note that (\\ref{eq1}) can be re-written as\n\\begin{equation*}\n- \\Delta u  + \\nabla \\gamma(x) \\cdot \\nabla u ={ \\omega_2}/{\\omega_1}\\ f(u) \\qquad \\text{ in $ \\mathbb{R}^N$},\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere\n$\\gamma = - \\log( \\omega_1)$ and on occasion we shall take this point of view.\n\n\n\\begin{remark} \\label{triv} Note that  if $ \\omega_1$ has enough integrability then it is immediate that if $u$ is a stable solution  of (\\ref{eq1}) we have $ \\int \\omega_2 f'(u) =0 $  (provided $f$ is increasing).   To see this let $ 0 \\le \\psi \\le 1$ be supported in a ball of radius $2R$ centered at the origin ($B_{2R}$) with $ \\psi =1$ on $ B_R$ and such that $  | \\nabla \\psi | \\le \\frac{C}{R}$ where $ C>0$ is independent of $ R$.   Putting this $ \\psi$ into $ (\\ref{stable})$ one obtains\n\\[ \\int_{B_R} \\omega_2 f'(u) \\le \\frac{C}{R^2} \\int_{R < |x| <2R} \\omega_1,\\] and so if the right hand side goes to zero as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$ we have the desired result.\n\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\n\n\nThe existence versus non-existence of stable solutions of  $ -\\Delta u =  f(u)$ in $ {\\mathbb{R}}^N$ or $ -\\Delta u = g(x) f(u)$ in $ {\\mathbb{R}}^N$ is now quite well understood, see  \\cite{dancer1, farina1, egg, zz, f2, f3, wei, ces, e1, e2}.  We remark that some of these results are examining the case where $ \\Delta $ is replaced with $ \\Delta_p$ (the $p$-Laplacian) and also in many cases the authors are interested in finite Morse index solutions or solutions which are stable outside a compact set.\n  Much of the interest in these Liouville type theorems  stems from the fact that the non-existence of a stable solution is related to the existence of a priori estimates for stable solutions of a related equation on a bounded domain.\n\n\n\n\n       In \\cite{Ni}  equations similar to  $ -\\Delta u = |x|^\\alpha u^p$  where examined on the unit ball in $ {\\mathbb{R}}^N$ with zero Dirichlet boundary conditions.  There it was shown that for $ \\alpha >0$ that  one can obtain positive solutions for $ p $ supercritical with respect to Sobolev embedding and so one can view that the term $ |x|^\\alpha$ is restoring some compactness.      A similar feature happens for equations of the form\n\\[ -\\Delta u = |x|^\\alpha f(u) \\qquad \\mbox{in $ {\\mathbb{R}}^N$};\\]    the value of $ \\alpha$ can vastly alter the existence versus non-existence of a stable solution,  see \\cite{e1, ces, e2, zz, egg}.\n\nWe now come to our main results and for this we need to define a few quantities:\n\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\nI_G&:=& R^{-4t-2} \\int_{ R < |x|<2R} \\frac{ \\omega_1^{2t+1}}{\\omega_2^{2t}}dx , \\\\\n J_G&:=& R^{-2t-1} \\int_{R < |x| <2R} \\frac{| \\nabla \\omega_1|^{2t+1} }{\\omega_2^{2t}} dx  ,\\\\I_L&:=& R^\\frac{-2(2t+p-1)}{p-1}  \\int_{R<|x|<2R }{ \\left(   \\frac{w_1^{p+2t-1}}{w_2^{2t}}    \\right)^{\\frac{1}{p-1} }  }  dx,\\\\ J_L&:= &R^{-\\frac{p+2t-1}{p-1} }  \\int_{R<|x|<2R }{ \\left(   \\frac{|\\nabla w_1|^{p+2t-1}}{w_2^{2t}}     \\right)^{\\frac{1}{p-1} }  }  dx,\\\\\nI_M  &:=&   R^{-2\\frac{p+2t+1}{p+1} }  \\int_{R<|x|<2R }{ \\left(   \\frac{w_1^{p+2t+1}}{w_2^{2t}}    \\right)^{\\frac{1}{p+1} }  } \\ dx, \\\\\nJ_M  &:= &  R^{-\\frac{p+2t+1}{p+1} }  \\int_{R<|x|<2R }{ \\left(   \\frac{|\\nabla w_1|^{p+2t+1}}{w_2^{2t}}     \\right)^{\\frac{1}{p+1} }  }  dx.\n\\end{eqnarray*}\n\n\nThe three equations we examine are\n\\[ -div( \\omega_1 \\nabla u ) = \\omega_2 e^u \\qquad \\mbox{ in $ {\\mathbb{R}}^N$ } \\quad  (G), \\]\n\\[  -div( \\omega_1 \\nabla u ) = \\omega_2 u^p \\qquad \\mbox{ in $ {\\mathbb{R}}^N$ } \\quad  (L), \\]\n\\[ -div( \\omega_1 \\nabla u ) = - \\omega_2 u^{-p} \\qquad \\mbox{ in $ {\\mathbb{R}}^N$ } \\quad  (M),\\]  and where we restrict $(L)$ to the case $ p>1$ and $(M)$ to $ p>0$.    By solution we always mean a $C^2$ solution.   We now come to our main results in terms of abstract $ \\omega_1 $ and $ \\omega_2$.    We remark that our approach to non-existence of stable solutions is the approach due to Farina, see \\cite{f2,f3,farina1}.\n\n\\begin{thm} \\label{main_non_exist} \\begin{enumerate}\n\n\n\\item   There is no  stable sub-solution of $(G)$ if $ I_G, J_G \\rightarrow 0$ as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$   for some   $0<t<2$.\n \\item    There is no positive   stable sub-solution (super-solution) of $(L)$  if  $ I_L,J_L \\rightarrow 0$ as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$   for some   $p- \\sqrt{p(p-1)}   < t<p+\\sqrt{p(p-1)} $  ($0<t<\\frac{1}{2}$).\n\\item   There is no positive   stable super-solution of (M) if  $ I_M,J_M \\rightarrow 0$ as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$  for some $0<t<p+\\sqrt{p(p+1)}$.\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\end{thm}     If we assume that $ \\omega_1$ has some monotonicity we can do  better.   We will assume that the monotonicity conditions is satisfied for big $x$  but really all ones needs is for it to be satisfied on a suitable sequence of annuli.\n\n\\begin{thm} \\label{mono}  \\begin{enumerate} \\item There is no  stable sub-solution of $(G)$ with $  \\nabla \\omega_1(x) \\cdot  x \\le 0$ for big $x$ if  $ I_G \\rightarrow 0$ as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$   for some   $0<t<2$.\n\n\\item There is no positive  stable sub-solution of  $(L)$ provided  $  I_L \\rightarrow 0$ as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$ for either:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item  some $  1 \\le t < p + \\sqrt{p(p-1)}$ and $  \\nabla \\omega_1(x) \\cdot x \\le 0$ for big $x$,  or  \\\\\n\n\\item some $ p - \\sqrt{p(p-1)} < t \\le 1$ and $ \\nabla \\omega_1(x) \\cdot x \\ge 0$ for big $ x$.\n\\end{itemize}\n There is no positive super-solution of $(L)$ provided $ I_L \\rightarrow 0$ as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$ for some $ 0 < t < \\frac{1}{2}$ and $ \\nabla \\omega_1(x) \\cdot x \\le 0$ for big $x$.\n\n\n\n\\item  There is no positive stable super-solution of $(M)$ provided  $ I_M \\rightarrow 0$ as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$  for some  $0<t<p+\\sqrt{p(p+1)}$.\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\end{thm}\n\n\n\\begin{cor}  \\label{thing}  Suppose $ \\omega_1 \\le C  \\omega_2$  for big $ x$, $ \\omega_2 \\in L^\\infty$,  $ \\nabla \\omega_1(x) \\cdot  x \\le 0$ for big $ x$.\n\\begin{enumerate} \\item There is no stable sub-solution of $(G)$ if $ N \\le 9$.\n\n\\item  There is no positive stable sub-solution of $(L)$ if  $$N<2+\\frac{4}{p-1} \\left( p+\\sqrt{p(p-1)}  \\right).$$\n\n\\item  There is no positive stable super-solution of $(M)$ if $$N<2+\\frac{4}{p+1} \\left( p+\\sqrt{p(p+1)}  \\right).$$\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\end{cor}\n\n\nIf one takes $ \\omega_1=\\omega_2=1$ in the above corollary, the results obtained for $(G)$ and  $(L)$,  and for some values of $p$ in $(M)$, are optimal, see \\cite{f2,f3,zz}.\n\n\n\n\n\nWe now drop all monotonicity conditions on $ \\omega_1$.\n\n\\begin{cor} \\label{po} Suppose  $ \\omega_1 \\le C \\omega_2$ for big $x$, $ \\omega_2 \\in L^\\infty$, $ | \\nabla \\omega_1| \\le C \\omega_2$ for big $x$.\n\\begin{enumerate} \\item  There is no stable sub-solution of $(G)$ if $ N \\le 4$.\n\n\\item  There is no positive stable sub-solution of $(L)$ if $$N<1+\\frac{2}{p-1} \\left( p+\\sqrt{p(p-1)}  \\right).$$\n\n\\item There is no positive super-solution of $(M)$ if $$N<1+\\frac{2}{p+1} \\left( p+\\sqrt{p(p+1)}  \\right).$$\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\end{cor}\n\nSome of the conditions on $ \\omega_i$ in Corollary \\ref{po} seem somewhat artificial.  If we shift over to the advection equation (and we take $ \\omega_1=\\omega_2$  for simplicity)\n\\[ -\\Delta u + \\nabla \\gamma \\cdot \\nabla u = f(u), \\] the conditions on $ \\gamma$ become: $ \\gamma$ is bounded from below and has a bounded gradient.\n\n\n\nIn what follows we examine the case where $ \\omega_1(x) = (|x|^2 +1)^\\frac{\\alpha}{2}$ and $ \\omega_2(x)= g(x) (|x|^2 +1)^\\frac{\\beta}{2}$,  where $ g(x) $ is positive except at say a point, smooth and where $ \\lim_{|x| \\rightarrow \\infty} g(x) = C \\in (0,\\infty)$.     For this class of weights we can essentially obtain optimal results.\n\n\n\\begin{thm} \\label{alpha_beta}   Take $ \\omega_1 $ and $ \\omega_2$ as above.\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\n\\item If $ N+ \\alpha - 2 <0$ then there is no stable sub-solution for $(G)$, $(L)$ (here we require it to be positive) and in the case of $(M)$ there is no positive  stable  super-solution. This case is the trivial case, see Remark \\ref{triv}.  \\\\\n\n\n\n\\textbf{Assumption:} For the remaining cases we assume that $ N + \\alpha -2 > 0$.\n\n  \\item If  $N+\\alpha-2<4(\\beta-\\alpha+2)$ then there is no  stable sub-solution for $ (G)$.\n\n\\item If $N+\\alpha-2<\\frac{ 2(\\beta-\\alpha+2)   }{p-1} \\left( p+\\sqrt{p(p-1)}  \\right)$ then there is  no positive stable sub-solution of $(L)$.\n\n\\item If $N+\\alpha-2<\\frac{2(\\beta-\\alpha+2)   }{p+1} \\left( p+\\sqrt{p(p+1)}  \\right)$ then there is no positive stable super-solution of $(M)$.\n\n\\item Further more 2,3,4 are optimal in the sense if $ N + \\alpha -2 > 0$ and the remaining inequality is not satisfied (and in addition we assume we don't have equality in the inequality) then we can find a suitable function $ g(x)$ which satisfies the above properties and a stable sub/super-solution $u$ for the appropriate equation.\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\end{thm}\n\n\\begin{remark}  Many of the above results can be extended to the case of equality in either the $ N + \\alpha - 2 \\ge 0$ and also the other inequality which depends on the equation we are  examining.  We omit the details because one cannot prove the results in a unified way.\n\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nIn showing that an explicit solution is stable we will need the   weighted Hardy inequality given in \\cite{craig}.\n\\begin{lemma} \\label{Har}\nSuppose $ E>0$ is a smooth function.  Then one has\n\\[ (\\tau-\\frac{1}{2})^2 \\int E^{2\\tau-2} | \\nabla E|^2 \\phi^2 + (\\frac{1}{2}-\\tau) \\int (-\\Delta E) E^{2\\tau-1} \\phi^2 \\le \\int E^{2\\tau} | \\nabla \\phi|^2,\\] for all $ \\phi \\in C_c^\\infty({\\mathbb{R}}^N)$ and $ \\tau \\in {\\mathbb{R}}$.\n\\end{lemma}  By picking an appropriate function $E$ this gives,\n\n\\begin{cor} \\label{Hardy}\nFor all $ \\phi \\in C_c^\\infty$ and $ t , \\alpha \\in {\\mathbb{R}}$. We have\n  \\begin{eqnarray*}\n\\int (1+|x|^2)^\\frac{\\alpha}{2} |\\nabla\\phi|^2 &\\ge& (t+\\frac{\\alpha}{2})^2 \\int |x|^2 (1+|x|^2)^{-2+\\frac{\\alpha}{2}}\\phi^2\\\\\n&&+(t+\\frac{\\alpha}{2})\\int  (N-2(t+1)   \\frac{|x|^2}{1+|x|^2}) (1+|x|^2)^{-1+\\frac{\\alpha} {2}} \\phi^2.\n\\end{eqnarray*}\n \\end{cor}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Proof of main results}\n\n\\textbf{ Proof of Theorem \\ref{main_non_exist}.}   (1). Suppose $ u$ is a stable sub-solution of $(G)$ with $ I_G,J_G \\rightarrow 0$ as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$ and  let $ 0 \\le \\phi \\le 1$ denote a smooth compactly supported function.  Put $ \\psi:= e^{tu} \\phi$ into (\\ref{stable}), where $ 0 <t<2$, to arrive at\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n\\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1)u} \\phi^2 &\\le & t^2 \\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu} | \\nabla u|^2 \\phi^2 \\\\\n&& +\\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu}|\\nabla \\phi|^2 + 2 t \\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu} \\phi \\nabla u \\cdot \\nabla \\phi.\n\\end{eqnarray*}  Now multiply $(G)$ by $ e^{2tu} \\phi^2$ and integrate by parts to arrive at\n\\[ 2t \\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu} | \\nabla u|^2 \\phi^2 \\le \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1) u} \\phi^2 - 2 \\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu} \\phi \\nabla u \\cdot \\nabla \\phi,\\]\nand now if one equates like terms they arrive at\n\\begin{eqnarray} \\label{start}\n\\frac{(2-t)}{2} \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1) u} \\phi^2  & \\le & \\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu} \\left( | \\nabla \\phi |^2 - \\frac{ \\Delta \\phi}{2} \\right) dx \\nonumber \\\\\n&& - \\frac{1}{2} \\int e^{2tu} \\phi \\nabla \\omega_1 \\cdot \\nabla \\phi.\n\\end{eqnarray}   Now substitute $ \\phi^m$ into this inequality for $ \\phi$ where $ m $ is a big integer to obtain\n\\begin{eqnarray} \\label{start_1}\n\\frac{(2-t)}{2} \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1) u} \\phi^{2m}  & \\le & C_m \\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu} \\phi^{2m-2}  \\left( | \\nabla \\phi |^2 + \\phi |\\Delta \\phi|  \\right) dx \\nonumber \\\\\n&& - D_m \\int e^{2tu} \\phi^{2m-1} \\nabla \\omega_1 \\cdot \\nabla \\phi\n\\end{eqnarray} where $ C_m$ and $ D_m$ are positive constants just depending on $m$.   We now estimate the  terms on the right but we mention that when ones assume the appropriate monotonicity on $ \\omega_1$ it is the last integral on the right which one is able to drop.\n\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n\\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu} \\phi^{2m-2} | \\nabla \\phi|^2 & = & \\int \\omega_2^\\frac{2t}{2t+1} e^{2tu} \\phi^{2m-2}  \\frac{ \\omega_1 }{\\omega_2^\\frac{2t}{2t+1}} | \\nabla \\phi|^2  \\\\\n& \\le &  \\left( \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1) u} \\phi^{(2m-2) \\frac{(2t+1)}{2t}} dx \\right)^\\frac{2t}{2t+1}\\\\ &&\\left( \\int \\frac{ \\omega_1 ^{2t+1}}{\\omega_2^{2t}} | \\nabla \\phi |^{2(2t+1)} \\right)^\\frac{1}{2t+1}.\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nNow, for fixed $ 0 <t<2$ we can take $ m $ big enough so $ (2m-2) \\frac{(2t+1)}{2t} \\ge 2m $ and since $ 0 \\le \\phi \\le 1$ this allows us to replace the power on $ \\phi$ in the first term on the right with $2m$   and hence we obtain\n \\begin{equation} \\label{three}\n \\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu} \\phi^{2m-2} | \\nabla \\phi|^2  \\le \\left( \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1) u} \\phi^{2m} dx \\right)^\\frac{2t}{2t+1} \\left( \\int \\frac{ \\omega_1 ^{2t+1}}{\\omega_2^{2t}} | \\nabla \\phi |^{2(2t+1)} \\right)^\\frac{1}{2t+1}.\n \\end{equation}    We now take the test functions $ \\phi$ to be such that $ 0 \\le  \\phi \\le 1$ with $ \\phi $ supported in the ball $ B_{2R}$ with $ \\phi = 1 $ on $ B_R$ and $ | \\nabla \\phi | \\le \\frac{C}{R}$ where $ C>0$ is independent of $ R$.   Putting this choice of $ \\phi$ we obtain\n \\begin{equation} \\label{four}\n \\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu} \\phi^{2m-2} | \\nabla \\phi |^2 \\le \\left( \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1)u} \\phi^{2m} \\right)^\\frac{2t}{2t+1} I_G^\\frac{1}{2t+1}.\n \\end{equation}  One similarly shows that\n \\[ \\int \\omega_1 e^{2tu} \\phi^{2m-1} | \\Delta \\phi| \\le \\left( \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1)u} \\phi^{2m} \\right)^\\frac{2t}{2t+1} I_G^\\frac{1}{2t+1}.\\]\n So, combining the results we obtain\n\n \\begin{eqnarray} \\label{last} \\nonumber \\frac{(2-t)}{2} \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1) u} \\phi^{2m} &\\le& C_m \\left( \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1) u} \\phi^{2m} dx \\right)^\\frac{2t}{2t+1} I_G^\\frac{1}{2t+1}\\\\\n &&- D_m \\int e^{2tu} \\phi^{2m-1}  \\nabla \\omega_1 \\cdot \\nabla \\phi.\n \\end{eqnarray}\n We now estimate this last term.  A similar argument using H\\\"{o}lder's inequality shows that\n \\[ \\int e^{2tu} \\phi^{2m-1} | \\nabla \\omega_1| | \\nabla \\phi| \\le \\left(  \\int \\omega_2 \\phi^{2m} e^{(2t+1) u} dx \\right)^\\frac{2t}{2t+1} J_G^\\frac{1}{2t+1}. \\] Combining the results gives that\n\\begin{equation} \\label{last}\n(2-t) \\left( \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1) u} \\phi^{2m} dx \\right)^\\frac{1}{2t+1} \\le I_G^\\frac{1}{2t+1} + J_G^\\frac{1}{2t+1},\n\\end{equation} and now we send $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$ and use the fact that $ I_G, J_G \\rightarrow 0$ as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$ to see that\n\\[ \\int \\omega_2 e^{(2t+1) u} =0, \\] which is clearly a contradiction.   Hence there is no stable sub-solution of $(G)$.\n\n(2).   Suppose that $u >0$ is a stable sub-solution (super-solution) of $(L)$.  Then a similar calculation as in (1) shows that for  $ p - \\sqrt{p(p-1)} <t < p + \\sqrt{p(p-1)}$,  $( 0 <t<\\frac{1}{2})$ one has\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}   \\label{shit}\n(p  -\\frac{t^2}{2t-1}   )\\int \\omega_2 u^{2t+p-1} \\phi^{2m} & \\le & D_m \\int \\omega_1 u^{2t} \\phi^{2(m-1)} (|\\nabla\\phi|^2  +\\phi |\\Delta \\phi |) \\nonumber \\\\\n&& +C_m \\frac{(1-t)}{2(2t-1)} \\int u^{2t} \\phi^{2m-1}\\nabla \\omega_1 \\cdot  \\nabla \\phi.\n \\end{eqnarray}    One now applies H\\\"{o}lder's argument as in (1) but the terms $ I_L$ and $J_L$ will appear on the right hand side of the resulting\n equation.      This shift from a sub-solution to a super-solution depending on whether $ t >\\frac{1}{2}$ or $ t < \\frac{1}{2}$ is a result from the sign change of $ 2t-1$ at $ t = \\frac{1}{2}$.   We leave the details for the reader.\n\n\n(3).  This case is also similar to (1) and (2).\n\n\n\\hfill $ \\Box$\n\n \\textbf{Proof of Theorem \\ref{mono}.}   (1).  Again we suppose there is a stable sub-solution $u$ of $(G)$.  Our starting point  is (\\ref{start_1}) and we wish to be able to drop the term\n \\[ - D_m \\int e^{2tu} \\phi^{2m-1} \\nabla \\omega_1 \\cdot \\nabla \\phi, \\] from (\\ref{start_1}).    We can choose $ \\phi$ as in the proof of Theorem \\ref{main_non_exist} but also such that $ \\nabla \\phi(x) = - C(x) x$ where $ C(x) \\ge 0$.     So if we assume that $ \\nabla \\omega_1 \\cdot x \\le 0$ for big $x$ then we see that this last term is non-positive and hence we can drop the term.  The the proof is as before but now we only require that $ \\lim_{R \\rightarrow \\infty} I_G=0$.\n\n (2).     Suppose that $ u >0$ is a stable sub-solution of $(L)$  and so (\\ref{shit}) holds for all $  p - \\sqrt{p(p-1)} <t< p + \\sqrt{p(p-1)}$.   Now we wish to use monotonicity to drop the term from (\\ref{shit}) involving the term $ \\nabla \\omega_1 \\cdot \\nabla \\phi$.      $ \\phi$ is chosen the same as in (1)  but here one notes that the co-efficient for this term changes sign at $ t=1$ and hence by restriction $t$ to the appropriate side of 1 (along with the above condition on $t$ and $\\omega_1$) we can drop the last term depending on which monotonicity we have and hence to obtain a contraction we only require that $ \\lim_{R \\rightarrow \\infty} I_L =0$.   The result for the non-existence of a stable super-solution is similar be here one restricts $ 0 < t < \\frac{1}{2}$.\n\n\n(3).  The proof here is similar to (1) and (2) and we omit the details.\n\n\n\n\n \\hfill $\\Box$\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\textbf{Proof of Corollary \\ref{thing}.}   We suppose  that $ \\omega_1 \\le C  \\omega_2$  for big $ x$, $ \\omega_2 \\in L^\\infty$,  $ \\nabla \\omega_1(x) \\cdot  x \\le 0$ for big $ x$.     \\\\\n(1).    Since $ \\nabla \\omega_1 \\cdot x \\le 0$ for big $x$ we can apply Theorem \\ref{mono} to show the non-existence of a stable solution to $(G)$.   Note that  with the above assumptions on $ \\omega_i$ we have that\n\\[ I_G \\le \\frac{C R^N}{R^{4t+2}}.\\]  For $ N \\le 9$  we can take $ 0 <t<2$  but close enough to $2$ so the right hand side goes to zero as $ R \\rightarrow \\infty$.\n\nBoth (2) and (3) also follow directly from applying Theorem \\ref{mono}.   Note that one can say more about (2) by taking the multiple cases as listed in Theorem \\ref{mono} but we have choice to leave this to the reader.\n\n\n\\hfill $ \\Box$\n\n\n\\textbf{Proof of Corollary \\ref{po}.}   Since we have no monotonicity conditions now we will need both $I$ and $J$ to go to zero to show the non-existence of a stable solution.   Again the results are obtained immediately by applying Theorem \\ref{main_non_exist}  and we prefer to omit the details.\n\n\n\\hfill $\\Box$\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\textbf{Proof of Theorem \\ref{alpha_beta}.}  (1).  If $ N + \\alpha -2 <0$ then using Remark \\ref{triv}  one easily sees there is no stable sub-solution of $(G)$ and $(L)$ (positive for $(L)$) or a positive stable super-solution of $(M)$.   So we now assume that $ N + \\alpha -2 > 0$.     Note that the monotonicity of $ \\omega_1$ changes when $ \\alpha $ changes sign and hence one would think that we need to consider separate cases if we hope to utilize the monotonicity results.   But a computation shows that in fact $ I$ and $J$ are just multiples of each other in all three cases so it suffices to show, say, that $ \\lim_{R \\rightarrow \\infty} I =0$. \\\\\n(2).   Note that for $ R >1$ one has\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\nI_G & \\le  & \\frac{C}{R^{4t+2}} \\int_{R <|x| < 2R} |x|^{ \\alpha (2t+1) - 2t \\beta} \\\\\n& \\le  &  \\frac{C}{R^{4t+2}}  R^{N + \\alpha (2t+1) - 2t \\beta},\n\\end{eqnarray*} and so to show the non-existence we want to find some $ 0 <t<2$ such that\n$  4t+2 > N  + \\alpha(2t+1) - 2 t \\beta$,   which is equivalent to  $ 2t ( \\beta - \\alpha +2) > (N + \\alpha -2)$.    Now recall that we are assuming that $ 0 < N + \\alpha -2 < 4 ( \\beta - \\alpha +2) $ and hence we have the desired result by taking $  t <2$ but sufficiently close.\nThe proof of the non-existence results for\n(3) and (4) are similar and we omit the details.   \\\\\n(5).  We now assume that $N+\\alpha-2>0$.  In showing the existence of stable sub/super-solutions we need to consider  $ \\beta - \\alpha + 2 <0$ and $ \\beta - \\alpha +2 >0$ separately.\n\n\\begin{itemize} \\item $(\\beta - \\alpha + 2 <0)$  Here we take $ u(x)=0$ in the case of $(G)$ and $ u=1$ in the case of $(L)$ and $(M)$. In addition we take $ g(x)=\\E$.  It is clear that in all cases $u$ is the appropriate sub or super-solution.  The only thing one needs to check is the stability.    In all cases this reduces to trying to show that we have\n\\[ \\sigma \\int       (1+|x|^2)^{\\frac{\\alpha}{2}  -1}    \\phi^2 \\le \\int      (1+|x|^2)^{\\frac{\\alpha}{2}}   | \\nabla\\phi  |^2,\\]  for all $ \\phi \\in C_c^\\infty$ where  $ \\sigma $ is some small positive constant; its either $ \\E$ or $ p \\E$ depending on which equation were are examining.\nTo show this we use the result from Corollary \\ref{Hardy} and we drop a few positive terms to arrive at\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\int (1+|x|^2)^\\frac{\\alpha}{2} |\\nabla\\phi|^2\\ge (t+\\frac{\\alpha}{2})\\int \\left (N-2(t+1)   \\frac{|x|^2}{1+|x|^2}\\right) (1+|x|^2)^{-1+\\frac{\\alpha} {2}}\n\\end{equation*} which holds for all $ \\phi \\in C_c^\\infty$ and $ t,\\alpha \\in {\\mathbb{R}}$.\n  Now, since $N+\\alpha-2>0$, we can choose $t$ such that $-\\frac{\\alpha}{2}<t<\\frac{n-2}{2}$.  So, the integrand function in the right hand side is positive and since for small enough $\\sigma$ we have\n  \\begin{equation*}\n\\sigma \\le  (t+\\frac{\\alpha}{2})(N-2(t+1)   \\frac{|x|^2}{1+|x|^2})  \\ \\ \\ \\text {for all} \\ \\ x\\in \\mathbb{R}^N\n\\end{equation*}\n we get stability.\n\n\n\n\\item ($\\beta-\\alpha+2>0$) In the case of $(G)$ we take   $u(x)=-\\frac{\\beta-\\alpha+2}{2} \\ln(1+|x|^2)$ and $g(x):= (\\beta-\\alpha+2)(N+(\\alpha-2)\\frac{|x|^2}{1+|x|^2})$. By a computation one sees that $u$ is a sub-solution of $(G)$ and hence we need now to only show the stability, which amounts to showing that\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\int \\frac{g(x)\\psi^2}{(1+|x|^{2   })^{-\\frac{\\alpha}{2}+1}}\\le \\int\\frac{|\\nabla\\psi|^2}{    (1+|x|^2)^{-\\frac{\\alpha}{2}}     },\n\\end{equation*} for all $ \\psi \\in C_c^\\infty$.  To show this we use  Corollary \\ref{Hardy}.  So  we  need to choose an appropriate $t$ in   $-\\frac{\\alpha}{2}\\le t\\le\\frac{N-2}{2}$  such that for all $x\\in {\\mathbb{R}}^N$ we have\n \\begin{eqnarray*}\n (\\beta-\\alpha+2)\\left(    N+  (\\alpha-2)\\frac{|x|^2}{1+|x|^2}\\right)         &\\le& (t+\\frac{\\alpha}{2})^2 \\frac{ |x|^2 }{(1+|x|^2}\\\\\n&&+(t+\\frac{\\alpha}{2}) \\left(N-2(t+1)   \\frac{|x|^2}{1+|x|^2}\\right).\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nWith a  simple calculation one sees we need just to have\n   \\begin{eqnarray*}\n (\\beta-\\alpha+2)&\\le& (t+\\frac{\\alpha}{2}) \\\\\n  (\\beta-\\alpha+2)     \\left(    N+  \\alpha-2\\right)      &   \\le&  (t+\\frac{\\alpha}{2}) \\left(N-t-2+\\frac{\\alpha}{2}) \\right).\n \\end{eqnarray*}     If one takes $ t= \\frac{N-2}{2}$ in the case where $ N \\neq 2$ and $ t $ close to zero in the case for $ N=2$ one easily sees the above inequalities both hold, after considering all the constraints on $ \\alpha,\\beta$ and $N$.\n\n We now consider the case of $(L)$.  Here one takes $g(x):=\\frac {\\beta-\\alpha+2}{p-1}(    N+  (\\alpha-2-\\frac{\\beta-\\alpha+2}{p-1})\n\\frac{|x|^2}{1+|x|^2})$ and $ u(x)=(1+|x|^2)^{ -\\frac  {\\beta-\\alpha+2}{2(p-1)} }$.   Using essentially the same approach as in $(G)$ one shows that $u$ is a stable sub-solution of $(L)$ with this choice of $g$.   \\\\\nFor the case of $(M)$ we take   $u(x)=(1+|x|^2)^{ \\frac  {\\beta-\\alpha+2}{2(p+1)}   }$ and $g(x):=\\frac {\\beta-\\alpha+2}{p+1}(    N+  (\\alpha-2+\\frac{\\beta-\\alpha+2}{p+1})\n\\frac{|x|^2}{1+|x|^2})$.\n\n\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\\hfill  $  \\Box$\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "answers": ["$\\int f'(u) \\psi^2 \\le \\int | \\nabla \\psi|^2, \\forall \\psi \\in C_c^2$."], "length": 3743, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "135b82aecda3c83cfd73d1447e8f92a8a44de50ffdb09444"}
{"input": "How many massive star-forming regions were studied?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\nSpectral line surveys have revealed that high-mass star-forming\nregions are rich reservoirs of molecules from simple diatomic species\nto complex and larger molecules (e.g.,\n\\citealt{schilke1997b,hatchell1998b,comito2005,bisschop2007}).\nHowever, there have been rarely studies undertaken to investigate the\nchemical evolution during massive star formation from the earliest\nevolutionary stages, i.e., from High-Mass Starless Cores (HMSCs) and\nHigh-Mass Cores with embedded low- to intermediate-mass protostars\ndestined to become massive stars, via High-Mass Protostellar Objects\n(HMPOs) to the final stars that are able to produce Ultracompact H{\\sc\n  ii} regions (UCH{\\sc ii}s, see \\citealt{beuther2006b} for a recent\ndescription of the evolutionary sequence). The first two evolutionary\nstages are found within so-called Infrared Dark Clouds (IRDCs).  While\nfor low-mass stars the chemical evolution from early molecular\nfreeze-out to more evolved protostellar cores is well studied (e.g.,\n\\citealt{bergin1997,dutrey1997,pavlyuchenkov2006,joergensen2007}),\nit is far from clear whether similar evolutionary patterns are present\nduring massive star formation.\n\nTo better understand the chemical evolution of high-mass star-forming\nregions we initiated a program to investigate the chemical properties\nfrom IRDCs to UCH{\\sc ii}s from an observational and theoretical\nperspective. We start with single-dish line surveys toward a large\nsample obtaining their basic characteristics, and then perform\ndetailed studies of selected sources using interferometers on smaller\nscales. These observations are accompanied by theoretical modeling of\nthe chemical processes.  Long-term goals are the chemical\ncharacterization of the evolutionary sequence in massive star\nformation, the development of chemical clocks, and the identification\nof molecules as astrophysical tools to study the physical processes\nduring different evolutionary stages. Here, we present an initial\nstudy of the reactive radical ethynyl (C$_2$H) combining single-dish\nand interferometer observations with chemical modeling.  Although\nC$_2$H was previously observed in low-mass cores and Photon Dominated\nRegions (e.g., \\citealt{millar1984,jansen1995}), so far it was not\nsystematically investigated in the framework of high-mass star\nformation.\n\n\\section{Observations}\n\\label{obs}\n\nThe 21 massive star-forming regions were observed with the Atacama\nPathfinder Experiment (APEX) in the 875\\,$\\mu$m window in fall 2006.\nWe observed 1\\,GHz from 338 to 339\\,GHz and 1\\,GHz in the image\nsideband from 349 to 350\\,GHz.  The spectral resolution was\n0.1\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$, but we smoothed the data to\n$\\sim$0.9\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$. The average system temperatures were around\n200\\,K, each source had on-source integration times between 5 and 16\nmin. The data were converted to main-beam temperatures with forward\nand beam efficiencies of 0.97 and 0.73, respectively\n\\citep{belloche2006}. The average $1\\sigma$ rms was 0.4\\,K.  The main\nspectral features of interest are the C$_2$H lines around 349.4\\,GHz\nwith upper level excitation energies $E_u/k$ of 42\\,K (line blends of\nC$_2$H$(4_{5,5}-3_{4,4})$ \\& C$_2$H$(4_{5,4}-3_{4,3})$ at\n349.338\\,GHz, and C$_2$H$(4_{4,4}-3_{3,3})$ \\&\nC$_2$H$(4_{4,3}-3_{3,2})$ at 349.399\\,GHz). The beam size was $\\sim\n18''$.\n\nThe original Submillimeter Array (SMA) C$_2$H data toward the\nHMPO\\,18089-1732 were first presented in \\citet{beuther2005c}. There\nwe used the compact and extended configurations resulting in good\nimages for all spectral lines except of C$_2$H. For this project, we\nre-worked on these data only using the compact configuration. Because\nthe C$_2$H emission is distributed on larger scales (see\n\\S\\ref{results}), we were now able to derive a C$_2$H image. The\nintegration range was from 32 to 35\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$, and the achieved\n$1\\sigma$ rms of the C$_2$H image was 450\\,mJy\\,beam$^{-1}$.  For more\ndetails on these observations see \\citet{beuther2005c}.\n\n\\section{Results}\n\\label{results}\n\nThe sources were selected to cover all evolutionary stages from IRDCs\nvia HMPOs to UCH{\\sc ii}s. We derived our target list from the samples\nof \\citet{klein2005,fontani2005,hill2005,beltran2006}.  Table\n\\ref{sample} lists the observed sources, their coordinates, distances,\nluminosities and a first order classification into the evolutionary\nsub-groups IRDCs, HMPOs and UCH{\\sc ii}s based on the previously\navailable data. Although this classification is only based on a\nlimited set of data, here we are just interested in general\nevolutionary trends. Hence, the division into the three main classes\nis sufficient.\n\nFigure \\ref{spectra} presents sample spectra toward one source of each\nevolutionary group. While we see several CH$_3$OH lines as well as\nSO$_2$ and H$_2$CS toward some of the HMPOs and UCH{\\sc ii}s but not\ntoward the IRDCs, the surprising result of this comparison is the\npresence of the C$_2$H lines around 349.4\\,GHz toward all source types\nfrom young IRDCs via the HMPOs to evolved UCH{\\sc ii}s.  Table\n\\ref{sample} lists the peak brightness temperatures, the integrated\nintensities and the FWHM line-widths of the C$_2$H line blend at\n349.399\\,GHz. The separation of the two lines of 1.375\\,MHz already\ncorresponds to a line-width of 1.2\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$. We have three C$_2$H\nnon-detections (2 IRDCs and 1 HMPO), however, with no clear trend with\nrespect to the distances or the luminosities (the latter comparison is\nonly possible for the HMPOs). While IRDCs are on average colder than\nmore evolved sources, and have lower brightness temperatures, the\nnon-detections are more probable due to the relatively low sensitivity\nof the short observations (\\S\\ref{obs}). Hence, the data indicate\nthat the C$_2$H lines are detected independent of the evolutionary\nstage of the sources in contrast to the situation with other\nmolecules.  When comparing the line-widths between the different\nsub-groups, one finds only a marginal difference between the IRDCs and\nthe HMPOs (the average $\\Delta v$ of the two groups are 2.8 and\n3.1\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$).  However, the UCH{\\sc ii}s exhibit significantly\nbroader line-widths with an average value of 5.5\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$.\n\nIntrigued by this finding, we wanted to understand the C$_2$H spatial\nstructure during the different evolutionary stages.  Therefore, we\nwent back to a dataset obtained with the Submillimeter Array toward\nthe hypercompact H{\\sc ii} region IRAS\\,18089-1732 with a much higher\nspatial resolution of $\\sim 1''$ \\citep{beuther2005c}.  Albeit this\nhypercompact H{\\sc ii} region belongs to the class of HMPOs, it is\nalready in a relatively evolved stage and has formed a hot core with a\nrich molecular spectrum.  \\citet{beuther2005c} showed the spectral\ndetection of the C$_2$H lines toward this source, but they did not\npresent any spatially resolved images. To recover large-scale\nstructure, we restricted the data to those from the compact SMA\nconfiguration (\\S\\ref{obs}). With this refinement, we were able to\nproduce a spatially resolved C$_2$H map of the line blend at\n349.338\\,GHz with an angular resolution of $2.9''\\times 1.4''$\n(corresponding to an average linear resolution of 7700\\,AU at the\ngiven distance of 3.6\\,kpc). Figure \\ref{18089} presents the\nintegrated C$_2$H emission with a contour overlay of the 860\\,$\\mu$m\ncontinuum source outlining the position of the massive protostar. In\ncontrast to almost all other molecular lines that peak along with the\ndust continuum \\citep{beuther2005c}, the C$_2$H emission surrounds the\ncontinuum peak in a shell-like fashion.\n\n\\section{Discussion and Conclusions}\n\nTo understand the observations, we conducted a simple chemical\nmodeling of massive star-forming regions. A 1D cloud model with a mass\nof 1200\\,M$_\\sun$, an outer radius of 0.36\\,pc and a power-law density\nprofile ($\\rho\\propto r^p$ with $p=-1.5$) is the initially assumed\nconfiguration. Three cases are studied: (1) a cold isothermal cloud\nwith $T=10$\\,K, (2) $T=50$\\,K, and (3) a warm model with a temperature\nprofile $T\\propto r^q$ with $q=-0.4$ and a temperature at the outer\nradius of 44\\,K. The cloud is illuminated by the interstellar UV\nradiation field (IRSF, \\citealt{draine1978}) and by cosmic ray\nparticles (CRP). The ISRF attenuation by single-sized $0.1\\mu$m\nsilicate grains at a given radius is calculated in a plane-parallel\ngeometry following \\citet{vandishoeck1988}. The CRP ionization rate is\nassumed to be $1.3\\times 10^{-17}$~s$^{-1}$ \\citep{spitzer1968}. The\ngas-grain chemical model by \\citet{vasyunin2008} with the desorption\nenergies and surface reactions from \\citet{garrod2006} is used.\nGas-phase reaction rates are taken from RATE\\,06 \\citep{woodall2007},\ninitial abundances, were adopted from the ``low metal'' set of\n\\citet{lee1998}.\n\nFigure \\ref{model} presents the C$_2$H abundances for the three models\nat two different time steps: (a) 100\\,yr, and (b) in a more evolved\nstage after $5\\times10^4$\\,yr. The C$_2$H abundance is high toward the\ncore center right from the beginning of the evolution, similar to\nprevious models (e.g., \\citealt{millar1985,herbst1986,turner1999}).\nDuring the evolution, the C$_2$H abundance stays approximately\nconstant at the outer core edges, whereas it decreases by more than\nthree orders of magnitude in the center, except for the cold $T=10$~K\nmodel.  The C$_2$H abundance profiles for all three models show\nsimilar behavior.\n\nThe chemical evolution of ethynyl is determined by relative removal\nrates of carbon and oxygen atoms or ions into molecules like CO, OH,\nH$_2$O. Light ionized hydrocarbons CH$^+_{\\rm n}$ (n=2..5) are quickly\nformed by radiative association of C$^+$ with H$_2$ and hydrogen\naddition reactions: C$^+$ $\\rightarrow$ CH$_2^+$ $\\rightarrow$\nCH$_3^+$ $\\rightarrow$ CH$_5^+$.  The protonated methane reacts with\nelectrons, CO, C, OH, and more complex species at later stage and\nforms methane.  The CH$_4$ molecules undergo reactive collisions with\nC$^+$, producing C$_2$H$_2^+$ and C$_2$H$_3^+$. An alternative way to\nproduce C$_2$H$_2^+$ is the dissociative recombination of CH$_5^+$\ninto CH$_3$ followed by reactions with C$^+$.  Finally, C$_2$H$_2^+$\nand C$_2$H$_3^+$ dissociatively recombine into CH, C$_2$H, and\nC$_2$H$_2$. The major removal for C$_2$H is either the direct\nneutral-neutral reaction with O that forms CO, or the same reaction\nbut with heavier carbon chain ions that are formed from C$_2$H by\nsubsequent insertion of carbon. At later times, depletion and\ngas-phase reactions with more complex species may enter into this\ncycle.  At the cloud edge the interstellar UV radiation\ninstantaneously dissociates CO despite its self-shielding,\nre-enriching the gas with elemental carbon.\n\nThe transformation of C$_2$H into CO and other species proceeds\nefficiently in dense regions, in particular in the ``warm'' model\nwhere endothermic reactions result in rich molecular complexity of the\ngas (see Fig.~\\ref{model}).  In contrast, in the ``cold'' 10\\,K model\ngas-grain interactions and surface reactions become important.  As a\nresult, a large fraction of oxygen is locked in water ice that is hard\nto desorb ($E_{\\rm des} \\sim 5500$~K), while half of the elemental\ncarbon goes to volatile methane ice ($E_{\\rm des} \\sim 1300$~K). Upon\nCRP heating of dust grains, this leads to much higher gas-phase\nabundance of C$_2$H in the cloud core for the cold model compared to\nthe warm model. The effect is not that strong for less dense regions\nat larger radii from the center.\n\nSince the C$_2$H emission is anti-correlated with the dust continuum\nemission in the case of IRAS\\,18089-1732 (Fig.\\,\\ref{18089}), we do\nnot have the H$_2$ column densities to quantitatively compare the\nabundance profiles of IRAS\\,18089-1732 with our model. However, data\nand model allow a qualitative comparison of the spatial structures.\nEstimating an exact evolutionary time for IRAS\\,18089-1732 is hardly\npossible, but based on the strong molecular line emission, its high\ncentral gas temperatures and the observed outflow-disk system\n\\citep{beuther2004a,beuther2004b,beuther2005c}, an approximate age of\n$5\\times10^4$\\,yr appears reasonable.  Although dynamical and chemical\ntimes are not necessarily exactly the same, in high-mass star\nformation they should not differ to much: Following the models by\n\\citet{mckee2003} or \\citet{krumholz2006b}, the luminosity rises\nstrongly right from the onset of collapse which can be considered as a\nstarting point for the chemical evolution. At the same time disks and\noutflows evolve, which should hence have similar time-scales.  The\ndiameter of the shell-like C$_2$H structure in IRAS\\,18089-1732 is\n$\\sim 5''$ (Fig.\\,\\ref{18089}), or $\\sim$9000\\,AU in radius at the\ngiven distance of 3.6\\,kpc.  This value is well matched by the modeled\nregion with decreased C$_2$H abundance (Fig.\\,\\ref{model}).  Although\nin principle optical depths and/or excitation effects could mimic the\nC$_2$H morphology, we consider this as unlikely because the other\nobserved molecules with many different transitions all peak toward the\ncentral submm continuum emission in IRAS\\,18089-1732\n\\citep{beuther2005c}. Since C$_2$H is the only exception in that rich\ndataset, chemical effects appear the more plausible explanation.\n\nThe fact that we see C$_2$H at the earliest and the later evolutionary\nstages can be explained by the reactive nature of C$_2$H: it is\nproduced quickly early on and gets replenished at the core edges by\nthe UV photodissociation of CO. The inner ``chemical'' hole observed\ntoward IRAS\\,18089-1732 can be explained by C$_2$H being consumed in\nthe chemical network forming CO and more complex molecules like larger\ncarbon-hydrogen complexes and/or depletion.\n\nThe data show that C$_2$H is not suited to investigate the central gas\ncores in more evolved sources, however, our analysis indicates that\nC$_2$H may be a suitable tracer of the earliest stages of (massive)\nstar formation, like N$_2$H$^+$ or NH$_3$ (e.g.,\n\\citealt{bergin2002,tafalla2004,beuther2005a,pillai2006}). While a\nspatial analysis of the line emission will give insights into the\nkinematics of the gas and also the evolutionary stage from chemical\nmodels, multiple C$_2$H lines will even allow a temperature\ncharacterization. With its lowest $J=1-0$ transitions around 87\\,GHz,\nC$_2$H has easily accessible spectral lines in several bands between\nthe 3\\,mm and 850\\,$\\mu$m.  Furthermore, even the 349\\,GHz lines\npresented here have still relatively low upper level excitation\nenergies ($E_u/k\\sim42$\\,K), hence allowing to study cold cores even\nat sub-millimeter wavelengths.  This prediction can further be proved\nvia high spectral and spatial resolution observations of different\nC$_2$H lines toward young IRDCs.\n\n\\acknowledgments{H.B. acknowledges financial support\n  by the Emmy-Noether-Programm of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft\n  (DFG, grant BE2578). }\n\n\n", "answers": ["21."], "length": 2103, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "238c4efe738cecd8346abfdc57707996aef30f9b43d1a577"}
{"input": "对于PD3.0协议，FS312BH支持的最高诱骗电压是多少？", "context": "'无锡速芯微电子有限公司是一家集芯片 研发，销售和服务于一体的国家高新技 术企业，为客户提供高性能，高集成 度，极致体验的全协议快充芯片。 无锡速芯微电子有限公司 FastSOC Microelectronics Co.,Ltd. 销售联系方式： 联系人：顾先生 手机：1800 185 3071 邮箱：gpp@fastsoc.com 网址：www.fastsoc.com 地址：无锡市新吴区菱湖大道200号中国物联网国际创新园E-503室 顾工微信号 速芯微公众号 免责声明：本文所述方法、方案均供客户参考，用于提示或者展示芯片应用的一种或者多种方式，不作为最终产品的实际方案。文中所描述的功能和性能指标在实 验室环境下测试得到，部分可以提供第三方测试报告，但是不保证客户产品上能获得相同的数据。本文信息只作为芯片使用的指导，不授权用户使用本公司或者其 他公司的知识产权。本文信息只作为芯片使用的指导，不承担因为客户自身应用不当而造成的任何损失。 **文中信息仅供参考，详情请联系我司获取最新资料” 无锡速芯微电子有限公司 FastSOC Microelectronics Co.,Ltd. 产品手册 2023年 \n新品快览 FS312A：PD3.0 诱骗- FS312A支持PD2.0/PD3.0最高诱骗电压：20V - FS312AE支持PD2.0/PD3.0 最高诱骗电压：20V支持Emarker模拟功能 - 封装：SOT23-5 VBUS CC1 CC2 DM DP 用电电路 4.7K 0.47uF R C C 1 V D D F U N C C C 2F S 3 1 2 B D M D P EP GND 应用图 FS8628：A+C快充协议CC2 CC1 VBUS CC2 CC1 FS312A FUNC GND VDD 4.7K GND R 用电电路 1uF GND 应用图 多口极简方案 FS8611SP*2+CCM-8611SP-A+7533B-T 双C智能降功率方案 FS8611S USB-C AC-DC 双变压器 7533B-T CCM-8611SP-A FS8611S USB-C 采用2颗FS8611SP搭配CCM-8611SP-A （MCU），7533B-T配合工作 - 支持多种协议 - 支持I2C控制 - 任意单 C 的为 35W - 双 插 降 功 率 ， 三 档 功 率 智 能 配 置：27.4W+7.4W；17.4W+17.4W； 27.4W - BOM极简，成本低 FS312B：PD3.1 诱骗FS8611K*2+CCM-8611K-A+7550B-T 双C方案 - FS312BL支持PD2.0/PD3.0/PD3.1/第三方协议最高诱骗电压：20V - FS312BLE支持PD2.0/PD3.0/PD3.1/第三方协议最高诱骗电压：20V支持Emarker模拟功能 - FS312BH支持PD2.0/PD3.0/PD3.1/第三方协议最高诱骗电压：48V - FS312BHE支持PD2.0/PD3.0/PD3.1/第三方协议最高诱骗电压：48V 支持Emarker模拟功能 - 封装：DFN2x2-6L - 兼容兼容BC1.2、Apple2.4A、 QC2.0 Class A、QC3.0 Class A/B、 FCP、SCP、AFC、低压直充等 - 兼容Type-C PD2.0、Type-C PD3.0、 Type-C PD3.0 PPS、QC4.0协议 - 支持两路DP/DM - 支持CV/CC（分段CC）功能 - 支持定制PDO - 支持A+C双口工作，电压自动回5V - 支持FB/OPTO反馈 - 封装：QFN3x3-20L VPWR FB PowerSystem 100K GND R1 GND 19 VIN 17 FB FUNC1 FUNC2 20 15 18 13 PLUGIND VFB FS8628 QFN3x3-20L AGATE 47K 7.5K 47K 7.5K 1 16 8 7 3 4 5 6 10 9 11 CGATE CVBUS CC2 CC1 CDP CDM AVBUS DM DP ISP ISN 12 应用图 2 V3P3 100Ω 1u EP GND GND CVBUS TYPE- C CC2 CC1 CDP CDM CGND TYPE-A AVBUS DM DP 10n 200 AGND 5mΩ GND FS8611K USB-C AC-DC DC-DC 7550B-T CCM-8611K-A FS8611K USB-C 采用2颗FS8611K搭配CCM-8611K-A （MCU）工作，7550B-T配合工作 - 支持PD2.0/PD3.0/QC2.0/AFC/FCP - 支持PDO定制 - 任意单 C 的为 35W(可定制) - 双插18W（可定制15W/20W） - BOM极简，成本低 FS212C+ACM-212C-A+7550B-T 双C方案 FS212C USB-C AC-DC DC-DC 7550B-T ACM-212C-A FS8623B-A+C方案 AC-DC DC-DC FS8623B USB-A USB-C USB-A 采 用 1 颗 F S 2 1 2 C 搭 配 ACM-212C-A 工 作，7550B-T配合工作 - 支持PD2.0/PD3.0 - 支持PDO定制 - 任意单 C 的为20W - 双插7.5W回5V - BOM极简，成本低 采用一颗FS8623B实现A+C方案 - 兼容兼容Apple2.4A/低压直充 QC2.0 Class A/QC3.0 Class A/B/ FCP/SCP等 - 兼 容Type -C PD2.0 / PD3.0 / PD3.0PPS/QC4.0协议 - 支持PDO定制 - 双插回5V \n多口方案选型 产品选型 受电端芯片选型 速芯微现有多种多口的方案选择：A+C，C+C，C+C+A，C+C+C，C+C+A+A等方案。对于 A+C的方案，可使用1颗芯片实现，也可用多颗芯片来实现。 速芯微现有多种受电端诱骗芯片，客户可根据应用需求进行选择。 受电端诱骗芯片应用领域 筋膜枪 无线充 线材 无人机 产品型号 PD2.0 PD3.0 PD3.1 第三方协议 诱骗电压(V) 控制方式 内置Emarker 定制 封装 FS312A √ √ 5/9/12/15/20 电阻阻值 可变电压策略 SOT23-5 FS312AE √ √ 5/9/12/15/20 电阻阻值 √ (公头专用) 可变电压策略 SOT23-5 FS312BL √ √ √ √ 5/9/12/15/20 电阻阻值 可变电压策略 DFN2x2-6 FS312BLE √ √ √ √ 5/9/12/15/20 电阻阻值 √ (公头专用) 可变电压策略 DFN2x2-6 FS312BH √ √ √ √ 5/20/28/36/48 电阻阻值 可变电压策略 DFN2x2-6 FS312BHE √ √ √ √ 5/20/28/36/48 电阻阻值 √ (公头专用) 可变电压策略 DFN2x2-6 FS312LC √ √ √ 5/9/12 电阻阻值 可变第三方 协议 SSOP10 FS312HC √ √ √ 5/9/12/15/20 电阻阻值 可变第三方 协议 SSOP10 FS2711Q √ √ √ 任意设置 I2C √ QFN3x3-16 FS2711P √ √ √ 任意设置 I2C √ QFN3x3-16 FS2711PA √ √ 全协议 任意设置 I2C √ SSOP10 FS2711SW √ √ 全协议 SSOP10 FS512 √ √ 全协议 任意设置 I2C √ SSOP10 方案 类型 产品型号 单C 单A 双插 A+C方案 FS8623 20W（PPS）（可定制） A口全协议18w 5V共享3A FS8623B 20W（PPS）(可定制) A口全协议18w 5V共享3A FS8628 20W（PPS）(可定制) A口全协议18w 5V共享3A FS8611RPC+FS116DB 65W（PPS）(可定制) A口全协议18w A口：5V/2.4A C口：45W FS8628RC+FS116DB 35W(可定制) A口全协议18w A口：5V（BC1.2，Apple 2.4） C口：20W 方案类型 产品型号 单C1 单C2 C1/C2 C+C方案 FS8611RPB*2 30W(可定制) 30W(可定制) C1/C2：5V/3A(或5V/2.4A) FS8611GH*2 35W（可定制） 35W（可定制） C1/C2:18W（可定制） FS8628P*2 35W（可定制） 35W（可定制） C1/C2：17.4W可定制） FS8611KL*2 20W（可定制） 20W（可定制） C1/C2：5V/1.5 A FS8611PC*2 35W 35W C1/C2：18W FS8611BH*2 65W（可定制） 65W（可定制） C1：45W（可定制）C2：20W（可定制） FS8628RPC+FS8611RB 45W（可定制）） 36W （可定制）） C1：30W（可定制）C2：5V/1.5A（可定制） 方案类型 产品型号 单C1 单C2 单A C1+C2 C1/C2+A C1+C2+A C+C+A FS8611S*2+FS116DB 65W（可定制） 65W（ 可定制）） A口全协议18w 智能分配功率 45W+18W C1/C2：智能分配功率 A：18W（或5V1.5A） FS8612C+FS8628P 100W（可定制） 35W （可定制）） 20W C1：65W C2：20W C1+A：65W+20W C2+A：7.5W+7.5W C1：65W C2：7.5W A：7.5W 其他 \nSource-TYPE C协议芯片选型 Source-TYPE A协议芯片选型 速芯微现有多种TYPE-C的快充协议芯片，支持多种协议，支持客户定制，多样化，满 足客户对TYPE C的各种快充需求。 速芯微现有多种TYPE A快充协议芯片，支持全协议，支持定制，满足客户对A口协议的各种需 求。速芯微的TYPE-A快充协议芯片的协议丰富，FS112系列拥有多种的型号；FS116D 系列带插入指示，可搭配TYPE-C快充协议芯片，实现A+C，A+C+C，A+A+C+C等多口方 案，协议丰富，其中FS116A一般用于插入指示使用 Source-TYPE A协议芯片引脚封装图 D+ VSS FB 1 2 3 FS112 6 5 4 D- VDD FUNC GATE VIN FUNC FB LED/PLUG_IN 1 2 3 4 5 FS116D 10 DM 9 8 7 6 DP CSP CSN VSS速芯微的各TYPE-C快充协议芯片之间可搭配使用，实现多口方案，更多详情请咨 询我司工作人员。 多口降功率专用快充协议芯片：FS8611RB，FS8611RC，FS8611RPB，FS8611RPC， FS8612CP。 带I2C快充协议芯片：FS8611S，FS8611SP 产品型号 BC1.2 Apple 2.4 QC2.0 QC3.0 AFC FCP SCP HISCP 大电流直充 封装 FS112 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ SOT23-6 FS112H √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ SOT23-6 FS113 √ v √ √ √ √ √ √ √ SOT23-6 FS116DP √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ SSOP10 FS116DB √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ SSOP10 FS116E √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ SSOP10 FS116A √ √ SSOP10 其他 可定制 PD2.0 PD3.0 PD3.0 PPS 第三方协议 反馈方式 MOS CV/CC 定制 封装 FS212C √ √ FB √ SOT23-6 FS212CM √ √ FB PMOS(可省) √ SOT23-6 FS212D √ √ √ FB √ SOT23-6 FS212DH √ √ √ FB √ SOT23-6 FS212DP √ √ √ FB PMOS √ SOT23-6 FS212DG √ √ √ FB PMOS √ SOT23-6 FS8611G √ √ FB PMOS(可省) √ SOP-8 FS8611K √ √ QC2.0/AFC/FCP FB PMOS(可省) √ SOP8 FS8611J √ √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS(可省) √ SOP8 FS8611B √ √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS(可省) √ SSOP10 FS8611RB √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS √ SSOP10 FS8611RC √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS √ SSOP10 FS8611S √ √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS √ SSOP10 FS8611PP √ √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS √ SSOP10 FS8611BP √ √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS(可省) √ SSOP10 FS8611RPB √ √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS √ SSOP10 FS8611RPC √ √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS √ SSOP10 FS8611SP √ √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS(可省) SSOP10 FS8612 √ √ √ 全协议 OPTO PMOS √ √ SSOP16 FS8612B √ √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS √ √ SSOP16 FS8612BP √ √ √ 全协议 FB PMOS √ √ SSOP16 FS8612C √ √ √ 全协议 FB/OPTO PMOS √ √ QFN4x4-16 FS8612CP √ √ √ 全协议 FB/OPTO PMOS √ √ QFN4x4-16 \n'", "answers": ["48V."], "length": 898, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "910c9a02ee857c1019702818b6fa2d5c25ed432d08385ba8"}
{"input": "In which electorate was Simon English elected to the New Zealand Parliament?", "context": "Sir Simon William English  (born 30 December 1961) is a New Zealand former National Party politician who served as the 39th prime minister of New Zealand from 2016 to 2017. He had previously served as the 17th deputy prime minister of New Zealand and minister of finance from 2008 to 2016 under John Key and the Fifth National Government.\n\nA farmer and public servant before entering politics, English was elected to the New Zealand Parliament in  as the National Party's candidate in the Wallace electorate. He was elevated to Cabinet in 1996 and in 1999 was made minister of finance, although he served for less than a year due to his party's loss at the 1999 general election. In October 2001, English replaced Jenny Shipley as the leader of the National Party (and consequently as Leader of the Opposition). He led the party to its worst defeat at the 2002 general election, and as a consequence, in October 2003 he was replaced as leader by Don Brash.\n\nIn November 2006, after Brash's resignation, English became deputy leader under John Key. After National's victory at the 2008 general election, he became deputy prime minister and was also made minister of finance for the second time. Under English's direction New Zealand's economy maintained steady growth during National's three terms of government. He became a list-only MP after stepping down as an electorate MP at the 2014 general election.\n\nJohn Key resigned as leader of the National Party and prime minister in December 2016. English won the resulting leadership election unopposed and was sworn in as prime minister on 12 December 2016. His tenure was only ten months, and included a three-month election campaign. In the 2017 general election, National won the largest number of seats but fell short of a majority. The parties holding the balance of power declined to support the existing government, and English was subsequently replaced as prime minister by Jacinda Ardern, leader of the Labour Party. English initially continued on as Leader of the Opposition, but resigned as leader of the National Party on 27 February 2018 and left parliament two weeks later.\n\nEarly life\nEnglish was born on 30 December 1961 at Lumsden Maternity Centre in Lumsden. He is the eleventh of twelve children of Mervyn English and Norah (née O'Brien) English. His parents purchased Rosedale, a mixed sheep and cropping farm in Dipton, Southland from Mervyn's uncle, Vincent English, a bachelor, in 1944. English was born in the maternity unit at Lumsden.\n\nEnglish attended St Thomas's School in Winton, then boarded at St. Patrick's College in Upper Hutt, where he became head boy. He played in the first XV of the school's rugby team. English went on to study commerce at the University of Otago, where he was a resident at Selwyn College, and then completed an honours degree in English literature at Victoria University of Wellington.\n\nAfter finishing his studies, English returned to Dipton and farmed for a few years. From 1987 to 1989, he worked in Wellington as a policy analyst for the New Zealand Treasury, at a time when the free market policies favoured by Labour's finance minister Roger Douglas (known collectively as \"Rogernomics\") were being implemented.\n\nEnglish joined the National Party in 1980, while at Victoria University. He served for a period as chairman of the Southland branch of the Young Nationals, and became a member of the Wallace electorate committee. After moving to Wellington, he served for periods on the Island Bay and Miramar electorate committees, respectively.\n\nFourth National Government (1990–1999)\n\nAt the 1990 general election, English stood as the National candidate in Wallace, replacing the retiring Derek Angus, and was elected with a large majority. He would hold this seat, renamed Clutha-Southland in 1996, until 2014. He and three other newly elected National MPs (Tony Ryall, Nick Smith, and Roger Sowry) were soon identified as rising stars in New Zealand politics, and at various points were dubbed the \"brat pack\", the \"gang of four\", and the \"young Turks\". In his first term in parliament, English chaired a select committee into social services. He was made a parliamentary under-secretary in 1993, serving under the Minister of Health.\n\nFirst period in cabinet (1996–1999)\nIn early 1996, English was elevated to cabinet by Prime Minister Jim Bolger, becoming the Minister for Crown Health Enterprises and Associate Minister of Education (to Wyatt Creech). He was 34 at the time, becoming the cabinet's youngest member. After the 1996 general election, the National Party was forced into a coalition with New Zealand First to retain government. In the resulting cabinet reshuffle, English emerged as Minister of Health. However, as a condition of the coalition agreement, NZ First's Neil Kirton (a first-term MP) was made Associate Minister of Health, effectively becoming English's deputy. This arrangement was described in the press as a \"shotgun marriage\", and there were frequent differences of opinion between the two ministers. After their relationship became unworkable, Kirton was sacked from the role in August 1997, with the agreement of NZ First leader Winston Peters.\n\nAs Minister of Health, English was responsible for continuing the reforms to the public health system that National had begun after the 1990 general election. The reforms were unpopular, and health was perceived as one of the government's weaknesses, with the health portfolio consequently being viewed as a challenge. English believed that the unpopularity of the reforms was in part due to a failure in messaging, and encouraged his National colleagues to avoid bureaucratic and money-focused language (such as references to \"balance sheets\" and \"user charges\") and instead talk about the improvements to services the government's reforms would bring. He also rejected the idea that public hospitals could be run as commercial enterprises, a view which some of his colleagues had previously promoted.\n\nBy early 1997, as dissatisfaction with Bolger's leadership began to grow, English was being touted as a potential successor, along with Jenny Shipley and Doug Graham. His age (35) was viewed as the main impediment to a successful leadership run. National's leadership troubles were resolved in December 1997, when Bolger resigned and Shipley was elected to the leadership unopposed. English had been a supporter of Bolger as leader, but Shipley reappointed him Minister of Health in her new cabinet.\n\nEnglish was promoted to Minister of Finance in a reshuffle in January 1999, a position which was at the time subordinate to the Treasurer, Bill Birch. After a few months, the pair switched positions as part of Birch's transition to retirement, with English assuming the senior portfolio. In early interviews, he emphasised his wish to be seen as a pragmatist rather than an ideologue, and said that the initiatives of some of his predecessors (Roger Douglas's \"Rogernomics\" and Ruth Richardson's \"Ruthanasia\") had focused on \"fruitless, theoretical debates\" when \"people just want to see problems solved\".\n\nOpposition (1999–2008)\n\nAfter the National Party lost the 1999 election to Helen Clark's Labour Party, English continued on in the shadow cabinet as National's spokesperson for finance. He was elected deputy leader of the party in February 2001, following the resignation of Wyatt Creech, with Gerry Brownlee being his unsuccessful opponent.\n\nLeader of the Opposition\nIn October 2001, after months of speculation, Jenny Shipley resigned as leader of the National Party after being told she no longer had the support of the party caucus. English was elected as her replacement unopposed (with Roger Sowry as his deputy), and consequently became Leader of the Opposition. However, he did not openly organise against Shipley, and according to The Southland Times \"there was almost an element of 'aw, shucks, I'll do it then' about Mr English's ascension\".\n\nAged 39 when he was elected, English became the second-youngest leader in the National Party's history, after Jim McLay (who was 38 when elected in 1984). He also became only the third Southlander to lead a major New Zealand political party, after Joseph Ward and Adam Hamilton. However, English failed to improve the party's performance. In the 2002 election, National suffered its worst electoral defeat ever, gaining barely more than twenty percent of the vote. English described it as \"the worst day of my political life\". Both party insiders and the general public were split as to how much to blame him for the loss, but most of the party believed that English would be able to rebuild National's support.\n\nBy late 2003, however, National's performance in opinion polls remained poor. The party had briefly increased its popularity in the year following the election, but by October its support had fallen to levels only slightly better than what it achieved in the last ballot. English also appeared in a boxing match for a charity against entertainer Ted Clarke. This did not boost his polling or that of the National party either, with suggestions that it devalued his image as a serious politician. Don Brash, former governor of the Reserve Bank and a relative newcomer to politics, began to build up support to replace English. On 28 October, Brash gained sufficient backing in Caucus to defeat English in a leadership contest.\n\nShadow cabinet roles and deputy leader\nOn 2 November 2003, when Brash changed responsibilities for certain MPs, English became National's spokesman for education, ranked at fifth place in the party's parliamentary hierarchy. He remained in parliament after the 2005 election. In his new shadow education portfolio, English performed strongly, and remained a party favourite despite his election defeat as leader in 2002, eventually being returned to the finance portfolio in August 2004 as deputy spokesman (while still retaining responsibility for education).\n\nIn November 2006, Brash resigned as leader. English was considered as a potential replacement leader (running against John Key) or deputy leader (against incumbent Gerry Brownlee) in the ensuing leadership election. However, a contest was avoided when the MPs agreed a Key/English ticket would run unopposed in a display of party unity. English took over the deputy leadership and the finance portfolio in the Key shadow cabinet.\n\nFifth National Government (2008–2017)\n\nDeputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance (2008–2016)\n\nAt the 2008 election, English was re-elected by his electorate, winning by a margin of about 15,500 votes. He became Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand and Minister of Finance in the fifth National Government, being sworn into office on 19 November 2008 and continued to serve in those roles until becoming Prime Minister on 12 December 2014. He was also made Minister of Infrastructure in National's first term of government and Minister responsible for Housing New Zealand Corporation and minister responsible for the New Zealand flag consideration process in its third.\n\nHe was comfortably re-elected in Clutha-Southland in the 2011 election but opted to run as a party-list candidate in 2014. \n\nThe pairing of John Key as leader of the National Party and English as his deputy has been compared to that of Bob Hawke and Paul Keating (in Australia) and Tony Blair and Gordon Brown (in the UK).\n\nEnglish acceded to the role of Finance Minister in the continuing wake of the financial crisis. In response to New Zealand's rising debt, English made budget deficit-reduction his main priority. His first budget outlined three focuses in New Zealand's financial recovery: \"improving the business environment and removing roadblocks to growth; investment in productive infrastructure; and improving the way government works\". One of his first acts was creating the National Infrastructure Unit, charged with formulating a plan for infrastructure projects and investments. He commissioned a government-wide spending review, with an aim to reducing government expenditure—with the exceptions of a two-year stimulus package and long-term increases on infrastructure spending.\n\nIn April 2011, the Opposition criticised English for suggesting that New Zealand businesses could use New Zealand's low wages to help it compete with Australia. The National Government campaigned for re-election in 2011 on its economic record. The Government boasted growth for five consecutive quarters up to mid-2010, totalling 1.6% of real GDP.\n\nStrong growth resulted in a surplus of $473 million for the 2015/16 financial year, projected to rise to $8.5 billion by 2020/21. In his 2016 Economic and Fiscal Update address, English stated that reducing debt and tackling the costs of the 2016 Kaikōura earthquake were higher priorities than reducing rates of tax.\n\nAllowances issue\nIn 2009, the media, including TVNZ and TV3 revealed that English was receiving about NZ$900 a week as part of a living allowance for ministers, to live in his own NZ$1.2 million Wellington home. At the time, English also received $276,200 in his annual salary as Deputy Prime Minister. It was also revealed other ministers with homes in the capital city were also claiming accommodation allowances. On 3 August 2009, Prime Minister John Key started a review of the housing allowances claimed by cabinet ministers. English subsequently paid back $12,000 and only claimed about $24,000 a year in living allowances. The Auditor-General's office said in September 2009 that they were making \"preliminary enquiries\" into parliamentary housing expenses in response to a letter of complaint from Progressive party leader Jim Anderton. Two days later English stated that he would no longer take up any housing allowance and had paid back all the allowance he had received since the November 2008 election.\n\nPrime Minister (2016–2017)\n\nJohn Key resigned on 12 December, and endorsed English as his successor in the resulting leadership election. Following the drop-out of both Judith Collins and Jonathan Coleman from the leadership election, English was sworn in as the 39th Prime Minister of New Zealand on 12 December 2016.\n\nEnglish appointed his first cabinet on 18 December. In a reshuffle, he appointed Steven Joyce to succeed him as Finance Minister, while most ministerial portfolios remained the same.\n\nIn February 2017, English did not attend Waitangi Day commemorations at the historic treaty grounds, reportedly in response to the Ngāpuhi iwi's decision to stop the Prime Minister from speaking at the marae. Ngāpuhi have protested the Government's negotiation of the Trans Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPPA), which the iwi believe infringes upon Māori sovereignty, and thus does not adhere to the Treaty of Waitangi. English had been invited to attend in an official capacity; his non-attendance was criticised by a Ngāpuhi elder and Opposition leader Andrew Little.\n\nIn his first overseas trip as Prime Minister, English travelled to Europe to discuss trade ties, including a prospective New Zealand–European Union free trade agreement. He first travelled to London on 13 January 2017 to meet British Prime Minister Theresa May. Discussing trade relations, English said the two nations were \"natural partners\" and would \"continue to forge ties\" after the UK's withdrawal from the EU. He also arranged to meet with London Mayor Sadiq Khan, Belgian Prime Minister Charles Michel and German Chancellor Angela Merkel.  In a meeting with Merkel, English received crucial backing from Germany for a trade deal with the EU. On 16 January, English stated that his government would continue to promote TPPA, despite the United States' decision to withdraw from the agreement. He explained that Southeast Asian countries would now be treated as a priority in negotiations—he also asserted that the United States was ceding influence to China by its rejection of the trade pact.\n\nAt a press conference at the Beehive on 1 February 2017, English announced that the 2017 general election would be held on 23 September. The Prime Minister later confirmed that his party would approach ACT, United Future and the Māori Party if confidence and supply agreements were required to form a government following the election. In his second cabinet reshuffle on 24 April, English appointed Gerry Brownlee as his new Foreign Affairs Minister; he also promoted Nikki Kaye to the portfolio of Education Minister, and moved Mark Mitchell into the cabinet to become Defence Minister. The reshuffle was perceived as an election preparation.\n\nOn 13 February 2017, English welcomed Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull to Wellington. The two leaders reaffirmed their shared trade agenda, and discussed changes to the Australian citizenship pathway which will affect permanent residents originating from New Zealand.\n\nOn 19 June, it was reported that Todd Barclay, who succeeded English as MP for Clutha-Southland, had clandestinely recorded one of his employee's conversations the previous year, and that John Key's leaders' budget was used to pay a confidential settlement after the employee resigned. English admitted that he had been aware of the illegal recording and the settlement, and thus implicated in the scandal.\n\nDuring the 2017 National campaign launch, English introduced a $379 million social investment package including digital learning academies for high school students, more resources for mathematics, and boosting support for teaching second languages in schools, and maintaining National Standards in the school curriculum. Prime Minister English also sought to defend National's financial management and economic track record and claimed that the opposition Labour Party would raise taxes. Early opinion polling had forecast a poor showing in the election for the Labour Party, but in early August 37-year-old Jacinda Ardern took over as Labour leader and seemingly energised younger voters.\n\nAt the 2017 general election, National won the largest share of the party vote (44.4%) and the largest number of seats (56) in the House Representatives. However, National lacked enough seats to govern alone due to two of the party's support partners, the Māori Party and United Future, losing their parliamentary seats. In response, English stated that the party would be entering into talks to form a coalition with New Zealand First. Following talks with the two largest parties, New Zealand First entered a coalition arrangement with the Labour Party. English was succeeded as prime minister by Jacinda Ardern on 26 October.\n\nOpposition (2017–2018)\n\nLeader of the Opposition\nEnglish was re-elected as National Party leader on 24 October 2017. At the time of his re-election, English announced his intention to stay on as leader until the next general election. On 13 February 2018, however, he stood down as National Party leader due to personal reasons, and instructed the party to put into motion the processes to elect a new leader. He also retired from Parliament. English's resignation followed weeks of speculation that he would step aside for a new leader. On 27 February, he was succeeded as party leader by Simon Bridges as the result of the leadership election held that day.\n\nPost-premiership \nIn 2018, English joined the board of Australian conglomerate, Wesfarmers. English serves in Chairmanships of Mount Cook Alpine Salmon, Impact Lab Ltd and Manawanui Support Ltd. He is also a director of The Instillery, Centre for Independent Studies and The Todd Corporation Limited, and is a member of the Impact Advisory Group of Macquarie Infrastructure and Real Assets.\n\nPolitical and social views\n\nEnglish is regarded as more socially conservative than his predecessor, John Key. He has stated his opposition to voluntary euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, same-sex civil unions, and the decriminalisation of prostitution. As Prime Minister he opposed any \"liberalisation\" of abortion law.\n\nIn 2004, English voted against a bill to establish civil unions for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. In 2005, he voted for the Marriage (Gender Clarification) Amendment Bill, which would have amended the Marriage Act to define marriage as only between a man and a woman. English voted against the Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Bill, a bill that legalised same-sex marriage in New Zealand. However, in December 2016 he stated, \"I'd probably vote differently now on the gay marriage issue. I don't think that gay marriage is a threat to anyone else's marriage\".\n\nIn 2009, English voted against the Misuse of Drugs (Medicinal Cannabis) Amendment Bill, a bill aimed at amending the Misuse of Drugs Act so that cannabis could be used for medical purposes.\n\nPersonal life \nEnglish met his future wife, Mary Scanlon, at university. She was studying medicine at the time, and became a general practitioner. Both her parents were immigrants, her father being Samoan and her mother Italian, born on the island of Stromboli. They have six children: a daughter and five sons.\n\nEnglish is a practising Roman Catholic, but has stated that he considers his religious beliefs personal and thus separate from politics.\n\nIn June 2002, English took part in TV3's Fight For Life, a celebrity boxing fundraiser to raise money for the Yellow Ribbon anti-youth-suicide campaign, influenced by the death of a teenage nephew in 1997. He lost a split decision to former university colleague Ted Clarke.\n\nHonours\nIn the 2018 Queen's Birthday Honours, English was appointed a Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services of over 27 years to the State.\n\nSee also\n\nList of New Zealand governments\nPolitics of New Zealand\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nProfile at National Party \nProfile on Parliament.nz\nReleases and speeches at Beehive.govt.nz\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n1961 births\n21st-century New Zealand politicians\nCandidates in the 2017 New Zealand general election\nDeputy Prime Ministers of New Zealand\nLeaders of the Opposition (New Zealand)\nLiving people\nMembers of the Cabinet of New Zealand\nMembers of the New Zealand House of Representatives\nNew Zealand farmers\nNew Zealand finance ministers\nNew Zealand list MPs\nNew Zealand MPs for South Island electorates\nNew Zealand National Party MPs\nNew Zealand National Party leaders\nNew Zealand Roman Catholics\nNew Zealand people of Irish descent\nPeople educated at St. Patrick's College, Silverstream\nPeople from Dipton, New Zealand\nPeople from Lumsden, New Zealand\nPrime Ministers of New Zealand\nUniversity of Otago alumni\nVictoria University of Wellington alumni\nKnights Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit\nNew Zealand politicians awarded knighthoods", "answers": ["The Wallace electorate."], "length": 3597, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "462011b6f9beb976aaf7b38082bcf7d70a91c3c74d2c6e95"}
{"input": "When was the paper published?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Interpretable reduced-order modeling with time-scale separation Interpretable reduced-order modeling with time-scale separation\nPublish Date: 7 March 2023\nAuthor List: Sebastian Kaltenbach (from CSE-Lab, ETH Zurich, Harvard SEAS), Phaedon-Stelios Koutsourelakis (from CSE-Lab, ETH Zurich, Harvard SEAS), Petros Koumoutsakos (from CSE-Lab, ETH Zurich, Harvard SEAS), Harvard Seas (from CSE-Lab, ETH Zurich, Harvard SEAS)\n\nFigure\n\nFIG. 5. Comparison between the phase-space of the reference solution (left) and the phase-space of the predictions\nFIG. 7. Comparison between predictions and reference solutions for a new initial condition fort = 1.25, 3.75, 7.5, 12.5, 20, 30  (from left to right and top to down).We note that with longer prediction time the uncertainty bounds increases.Despite the chaotic nature of the KS equation, the predictive posterior mean is close to the reference solution for t ≤ 12.5\n\nabstract\n\nPartial Differential Equations (PDEs) with high dimensionality are commonly encountered in computational physics and engineering. However, finding solutions for these PDEs can be computationally expensive, making model-order reduction crucial. We propose such a data-driven scheme that automates the identification of the time-scales involved and, can produce stable predictions forward in time as well as under different initial conditions not included in the training data.\nTo this end, we combine a non-linear autoencoder architecture with a time-continuous model for the latent dynamics in the complex space. It readily allows for the inclusion of sparse and irregularly sampled training data. The learned, latent dynamics are interpretable and reveal the different temporal scales involved.\nWe show that this data-driven scheme can automatically learn the independent processes that decompose a system of linear ODEs along the eigenvectors of the system's matrix. Apart from this, we demonstrate the applicability of the proposed framework in a hidden Markov Model and the (discretized) Kuramoto-Shivashinsky (KS) equation.\nAdditionally, we propose a probabilistic version, which captures predictive uncertainties and further improves upon the results of the deterministic framework.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nHigh-fidelity simulations of critical phenomena such as ocean dynamics and epidemics have become essential for decision-making. They are based on physically-motivated PDEs expressing system dynamics that span multiple spatiotemporal scales and which necessitate cumbersome computations . In recent years there is increased attention to the development of data-driven models that can accelerate the solution of these PDEs as well as reveal salient, lower-dimensional features that control the long-term evolution.\nIn most cases, data-driven reduced-order models are not interpretable. In particular, models based on neural networks despite good predictive capabilities , they offer a black-box description of the system dynamics. A possible remedy is applying a symbolic regression to the learned neural network representation , but this adds additional computational cost due to the two-step procedure.\nA number of frameworks such as SINDy allows to learn interpretable dynamics but it relies on the a-priori availability of lower-dimensional descriptors and of time-derivatives which can be very noisy for both simulation and experimental data. Other frameworks are tailored to specific problems such as molecular dynamics .\nHere, we present a framework that only needs the value of the observables, and not their derivatives, as training data and is capable of identifying interpretable latent dynamics. The deployment of interpretable latent dynamics ensures that conservation of important properties of that are reflected in the reduced-order model .\nThe present method is related to approaches based on the Koopman-operator extended Dynamic Mode Decomposition (eDMD) but uses continuous complex-valued latent space dynamics and only requires one scalar variable per latent dimension to describe the latent space dynamics. Therefore we do not have to enforce any parametrizations on the Koopman matrix .\nThe time-continuous formulation moreover allows to incorporate sparse and irregularly sampled training data and fast generation of predictions after the training phase. By using a complex-valued latent space we can also incorporate harmonic effects and reduce the number of latent variables needed. Linear and non-linear autoencoders are used to map the observed, high-dimensional time-series to the lower-dimensional, latent representation and we identify simultaneously the autoencoder as well as the latent dynamics by optimizing a combined loss function.\nHence the to tasks of dimensionality reduction and discovery of the reduced dynamics are unified while other frameworks treat the two parts separately . Apart from using an architecture based on autoencoders to identify the latent space, projection-based methods could also be employed . We are also proposing a probabilistic version of our algorithm ) that makes use of probabilistic Slow Feature Analysis .\nThis allows for a latent representation that arart from being time-continuous, can quantify the predictive uncertainty and hierarchically decompose the dynamics into their pertinent scales while promoting the discovery of slow processes that control the system's evolution over long time horizons. The rest of the paper is structured as follows: We introduce the methodological framework as well as algorithmic details in section II.\nParticular focus is paid on the interpretability of the inferred lower-dimensional dynamics. In section III we present three numerical illustrations, i.e. a system of linear ODEs, a hidden Markov Model and the discretized KS-equation. We then present in section IV the probabilistic extension of the framework and apply it to the KS-equation.\nWe conclude with a summary and a short discussion about possible next steps. We introduce the autoencoders deployed in this work, followed by the interpretable latent space dynamic and discuss the training process. We consider data from high-dimensional time series x n ∈ R f with n = 1, ..., T . We remark that the intervals between the different states do not need to be uniformly spaced.\n\nAutoencoder\n\nA core assumption of the method is that each high-dimensional state x n can be compressed to a lower-dimensional representation z n ∈ C c with c << f . We identify this lower-dimensional representation by an autoencoder consisiting of a parameterized encoder and decoder. The encoder maps the high-dimensional representation to the latent space as:\nThe latent space is complex-valued. The decoder reconstructs the high-dimensional representation based on the latent variables as: We denote the parameters of the encoder as well as the decoder by θ. As discussed later in Section II C, both set of parameters are optimized simultaneously during training and therefore there is no need for differentiating them.\n\nInterpretable Latent Space Dynamics\n\nWe employ a propagator in the latent space to capture the reduced-order dynamics of the system. In contrast to other time-extended variational autoencoder frameworks, our representation uses complex valued latent variables. In addition the latent variables are treated independently. The latter feature enables us to have an interpretable latent dynamics as well as a model that is especially suitable for being trained in the Small Data regime due to the small number of required parameters.\nThis is in contrast to temporal propagators such as LSTMs . For each dimension i of the latent variable z we are using the following continuous ODE in the complex plane: By solving this ODE, we can define the operator: Interpretable reduced-order modeling with time-scale separation Here, λ is a vector containing all the individual λ's and ∆t n indicates the time-step between the latent states.\nThe symbol is used to indicate a component-wise multiplication. We remark that the latent variables and the parameter governing the temporal evolution are complex numbers and their role in describing the system dynamics is similar to that of an eigenvalue. The real part is associated with growth and decay whereas the imaginary part is representing the periodic component.\nThis approach has similarities with the Koopman-operator based methods and the extended dynamic mode decomposition . In contrast to the methods mentioned before we are using a continuous formulation in the latent space that allows us to incorporate scarce and irregularly sampled training data and directly rely on complex numbers in the latent space.\n\nTraining and Predictions\n\nWe optimize a loss function that combines both a reconstruction loss as well as a loss associated with the error of our learned propagator in the latent space: (5) We note that we could directly incorporate mini-batch training by only taking the summation over a subset of the N available training data.\nFor new predictions of unseen states, we use the encoder to generate a latent representations which is then advanced in time by the learned propagator. At a designated time step we are using the decoder to reconstruct the high-dimensional solution. We applied our algorithm to three systems. First, we show that the algorithm is capable of exactly reproducing the solution of a linear ODE and to identify its eigenvalues.\nAfterwards we are applying the framework to a high-dimensional process generated by a complex latent dynamics, which is correctly identified. As a final test case, we are applying the algorithm to a Kuramoto Shivashinski (KS) equation. Interpretable reduced-order modeling with time-scale separation\n\nLinear ODE\n\nWe are considering a two-dimensional ODE system for x = y 1 y 2 : Based on the obtained training data we run our algorithm using a linear encoder and decoder structure as well as two latent variables z. The loss function was optimized using the Adam algorithm . As we consider a linear ODE we can analytically compute the eigenvalues involved and compare it with the parameters λ identified by our algorithm.\nWe observe in Figure that the algorithm was able to recover the correct values, i.e. the eigenvalues 7 and 3 of the given linear ODE. The system does not have a periodic component and the two imaginary parts correctly go to zero, whereas the real parts converge to the reference value. Moreover we are also able to identify for the linear mapping between our latent variables z and the training data a matrix consisting of a multiple of the eigenvectors (1,1) and (1,-1) and thus the correct solution.\nThis example was chosen to show that the algorithm is able to quickly identify the exact solution of a linear ODE in terms of its linearly independent components.\n\nHidden multiscale dynamics\n\nWe consider eight-dimensional synthetic time series data produced by an underlying twodimensional complex valued process. In particular, the data points x are generated by first solving for the temporal evolution for the two complex-valued processes p 1 and p 2 and than mapping to the eight-dimensional space by using a randomly sampled linear mapping W .\nOne of the two processes used to generate the data is chosen to be much slower than the other one and both processes have a periodic component. dp 2 dt = (−0.9 + 1.5i)p 2 (8) As training data we consider 40 time series with 150 data points each, obtained by simulating the described processes for a maximum of t = 15 s and then sampling from the obtained data points.\nHence the training data consists of: • 40 time-series • with each consisting 150 observations of the x at a uniform time-step ∆t = 0.0025 The autoencoder obtained consists of one linear layer for both the decoder as well as the encoder. The model is trained for 5000 iterations using the Adam optimizer and a learning rate of 10 −3 .\nThe results for the convergence of the parameters λ 1 and λ 2 can be found in Figure . We note that the process which is slower decaying and thus more responsible for the long-term evolution of the system has a higher convergence rate than the faster process. With the obtained parameters λ as well as the trained autoencoder, we compute predictions based on the last time step used for training, i.e. we apply the encoder to obtain our latent representation and than use the latent dynamics to advance the latent representation in time.\nAfterwards, we employ the decoder to reconstruct the full high-dimensional system. The results can be found in Figure and show very good agreement between predictions and reference data. This example shows that our model is successfully able to carry out dimensionality reduction and moreover indicates that the convergence rate between latent processes can be different.\nThe latter is relevant when training models as for accurate predictions all latent processes and their dynamics should be converged.\n\nKuramoto-Sivashinsky\n\nFinally, we applied our algorithm to the KS equation and aim to identify a reduced-order model for the solution u(y, t): We employed periodic boundary conditions, µ = 1 and a domain size y ∈ [0, 22]. For this domain-size, the KS-equation exhibits a structurally stable chaotic attractor as discussed in The black lines divides the area for which training data was given from the area without raining data.\n; . The equation is discretized in space using a discretization step of 22 64 resulting in a state vector x of dimension 64 and a nonlinear system of coupled ODEs. This is solved using a stiff fourth-order solver  We employed a non-linear encoder and decoder with four fully-connected layers each and ReLU-activation functions as well as Dropout Layers between the fully-connected layers.\nWe trained the model for 200000 iterations using Adam and a learning rate of 5 • 10 4 and assuming a five-dimensional latent space. We obtained the λ's in Figure . Four latent variables have λ's close to zero and thus a slow temporal dynamic that is responsible for the long-term evolution whereas one latent variable is quickly decaying.\nBased on the obtained parameters, we do predictions based on an unseen initial condition not contained in the training data. We are able to reconstruct the correct phase space based on our predictions despite only using a very limited amount of training data. The results for the phase space can be seen in Figure .\nAlthough the small-scale fluctuations in the temporal dynamics are not well captured, the model identifies the correct manifold which has a good accuracy compared to the reference solution. All phase-spaces were obtained by using a finite-difference operator on the data or predictions. These results are in accordance Interpretable reduced-order modeling with time-scale separation with whose LSTM-based temporal dynamic model was also able to find the correct phase space but not to track the actual dynamics for long-term predictions.\nOur model is not able to account for noise in the temporal evolution and thus dealing with chaotic, small-scale fluctuations is challenging. We believe that a probabilistic version of our algorithm could be advantageous here. This section contains a fully probabilistic formulation for the deterministic model discussed before.\nWe replace the Autoencoder with a Variational Autoencoder and the ODE in the latent space with a SDE. The loss function which we optimize is the Evidence-Lower Bound (ELBO).\n\nModel Structure\n\nWe postulate the following relations for our probabilistic model using an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU) for each dimension i of the latent space and a Wiener process W t in the latent space: We again assume that the latent variables z t are complex-valued and a priori independent. Complex variables were chosen as their evolution includes a harmonic components which are observed in many physical systems.\nWe assume an initial conditions z 0,i ∼ CN (0, σ 2 0,i ). The total parameters associated with the latent space dynamics of our model are thus {σ 2 0,i , σ 2 i , λ i } c i=1 and will be denoted by θ together with all parameters responsible for the decoder mapping G (see next section). These parameters along with the state variables z t have to be inferred from the data x t .\nBased on probabilistic Slow Feature Analysis (SFA) , we set σ 2 i = 2; (λ j ) and σ 2 0,i = 1. As a consequence, a priori, the latent dynamics are stationary. A derivation and reasoning for this choice can be found in Appendix A. Hence the only independent parameters are the λ i , the imaginary part of which can account for periodic effects in the latent dynamics.\n\nVariational Autoencoder\n\nWe employ a variational autoencoder to account for a probabilistic mappings from the lower-dimensional representation z n to the high-dimensional system x n . In particular we are employing a probabilistic decoder The encoder is used to infer the state variables z based on the given data and thus defined in the inference and learning section.\n\nInference and Learning\n\nGiven the probabilistic relations , our goal is to infer the latent variables z 0:T as well as all model parameters θ. We follow a hybrid Bayesian approach in which the posterior of the state variables is approximated using amortized Variational Inference and Maximum-A-Posteriori (MAP) point-estimates for θ are computed.\nThe application of Bayes' rule for each data sequence x 0:T leads to the following posterior: where p(θ) denotes the prior on the model parameters. In the context of variational inference, we use the following factorization of the approximate posterior i.e. we infer only the mean µ and variance σ for each state variable based on the given data points.\nThis conditional density used for inference is the encoder-counterpart to the probabilistic decoder defined in the section before. It can be readily shown that the optimal parameter values are found by maximizing the Evidence Lower Bound (ELBO) F(q φ (z 0:T ), θ) which is derived in Appendix B. We compute Monte Carlo estimates of the gradient of the ELBO with respect to φ and θ with the help of the reparametrization trick and carry out stochastic optimization with the ADAM algorithm .\n\nResults for the probabilistic extension\n\nWe applied our probabilistic version to the KS-equation. We used the same settings as for the deterministic approach but considered up to 10 complex latent variables. The obtained λ's are in Figure . The probabilistic model allows us to quantify the uncertainty in predictions. In Figure predictions for various time-steps and the respective uncertainty bounds are shown for an unseen initial condition.\nDue to the chaotic nature of the KS-equation and the small amount of training data, the underlying linear dynamic of our model is only able to capture the full dynamics for a limited time horizon. Fortunately, due to the probabilistic approach the model is capable of capturing chaotic fluctuations with increasingly wide uncertainty bounds.\nWe also computed the phase space representation for the KS-equation based on the predictions obtained by our model and compare it with the reference solution. The probabilistic model identifies the correct manifold with a better accuracy than the deterministic model. As some of the small-scale fluctuations are accounted as noise, the resulting manifold is more concentrated at the origin and the obtained values are slightly smaller than the reference manifold although their shape is very similar.", "answers": ["The paper was published on 7 March 2023."], "length": 3080, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "46b15f1200c46251053ec3dfa806dbdf515eb34053a5e0d1"}
{"input": "When was Weep Not, Child first published?", "context": "Weep Not, Child is a 1964 novel by Kenyan author Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o. It was his first novel, published in 1964 under the name James Ngugi. It was among the African Writers Series. It was the first English language|English novel to be published by an East African. Thiong'o's works deal with the relationship between Africans and white settlers in colonial Kenya, and are heavily critical of colonial rule. Specifically, Weep Not, Child deals with the Mau Mau Uprising, and \"the bewildering dispossession of an entire people from their ancestral land.\" Ngũgĩ wrote the novel while he was a student at Makerere University.\n\nThe book is divided into two parts and eighteen chapters. Part one deals mostly with the education of Njoroge, while part two deals with the rising Mau Mau movement.\n\nPlot summary\n\nNjoroge, a little boy, is urged to attend school by his mother. He is the first one of his family able to go to school. His family lives on the land of Jacobo, an African made rich by his dealings with white settlers, namely Mr. Howlands, the most powerful land owner in the area. Njoroge's brother Kamau works as an apprentice to a carpenter, while Boro, the eldest living son, is troubled by his experiences while in forced service during World War II, including witnessing the death of his elder brother. Ngotho, Njoroge's father and a respected man in the surrounding area, tends Mr. Howlands' crops, but is motivated by his passion to preserve his ancestral land, rather than for any compensation or loyalty.\n\nOne day, black workers call for a strike to obtain higher wages. Ngotho is ambivalent about participating in the strike because he fears he will lose his job. However, he decides to go to the gathering, even though his two wives do not agree. At the demonstration, there are calls for higher wages. Suddenly, the white police inspector brings Jacobo to the gathering to pacify the native people. Jacobo tries to put an end to the strike. Ngotho attacks Jacobo, and the result is a riot where two people are killed. Jacobo survives and swears revenge. Ngotho loses his job and Njoroge’s family is forced to move. Njoroge’s brothers fund his education and seem to lose respect for their father.\n\nMwihaki, Jacobo's daughter and Njoroge's best friend, enters a girls' only boarding school, leaving Njoroge relatively alone. He reflects upon her leaving, and realizes that he was embarrassed by his father's actions towards Jacobo. For this reason, Njoroge is not upset by her exit and their separation. Njoroge switches to another school.\n\nFor a time, everyone's attention is focused on the upcoming trial of Jomo Kenyatta – a revered leader of the movement. Many blacks think that he is going to bring forth Kenya’s independence. But Jomo loses the trial and is imprisoned. This results in further protests and greater suppression of the black population.\n\nJacobo and a white landowner, Mr. Howlands, fight against the rising activities of the Mau Mau, an organization striving for Kenyan economic, political, and cultural independence. Jacobo accuses Ngotho of being the leader of the Mau Mau and tries to imprison the whole family. Meanwhile, the situation in the country is deteriorating. Six black men are taken out of their houses and executed in the woods.\n\nOne day Njoroge meets Mwihaki again, who has returned from boarding school. Although Njoroge had planned to avoid her due to the conflict between their fathers, their friendship is unaffected. Njoroge passes an important exam that allows him to advance to High School. His village is proud of him, and collects money to pay Njoroge's High School tuition.\n\nSeveral months later, Jacobo is murdered in his office by a member of the Mau Mau. Mr. Howlands has Njoroge removed from school for questioning. Both father and son are brutally beaten before release and Ngotho is left barely alive. Although there doesn't seem to be a connection between Njoroge's family and the murder, it is eventually revealed that Njoroge's brothers are behind the assassination, and that Boro is the real leader of the Mau Mau. Ngotho soon dies from his injuries and Njoroge finds out that his father was protecting his brothers. Kamau has been imprisoned for life. Only Njoroge and his two mothers remain free, and Njoroge is left as the sole provider of his two mothers. Njoroge fears that he cannot make ends meet; he gives up hope of continuing in school and loses faith in God.\n\nNjoroge asks Mwihaki's for support, but she is angry because of her father’s death. When he finally pledges his love to her, she refuses to leave with him, realizing her obligation to Kenya and her mother. Njoroge decides to leave town and makes an attempt at suicide; however, he fails when his mothers find him before he is able to hang himself. The novel closes with Njoroge feeling hopeless, and ashamed of cowardice.\n\nCharacters in Weep Not, Child\n Njoroge: the main character of the book whose main goal throughout the book is to become as educated as possible.\n Ngotho: Njoroge's father. He works for Mr.Howlands and is respected by him until he attacks Jacobo at a workers strike. He is fired and the family is forced to move to another section of the country. Over the course of the book his position as the central power of the family weakened, to the point where his self-realization that he has spent his whole life waiting for the prophecy (that proclaims the blacks will be returned their land) to come true rather than fighting for Kenyan independence, leads to his depression.\n Nyokabi and Njeri: the two wives of Ngotho. Njeri is Ngotho's first wife, and mother of Boro, Kamau, and Kori. Nyokabi is his second wife, and the mother of Njoroge and Mwangi.\n Njoroge has four brothers: Boro, Kamau, Kori and Mwangi (who is Njoroge's only full brother, who died in World War II).\n Boro: Son of Njeri who fights for the Allies in World War II. Upon returning his anger against the colonial government is compounded by their confiscation of the his land. Boro's anger and position as eldest son leads him to question and ridicule Ngotho, which eventually defeats their father's will (upon realizing his life was wasted waiting and not acting). It is eventually revealed that Boro is the leader of the Mau Mau (earlier alluded to as \"entering politics\") and murders Mr.Howlands. He is caught by police immediately after and is scheduled to be executed by the book's end. It is highly likely that it is also Boro who kills Jacobo.\n Mwihaki: Njoroge's best friend (and later develops into his love interest). Daughter of Jacobo. When it is revealed that his family killed Jacobo (most likely Boro), Mwihaki distances herself from Njoroge, asking for time to mourn her father and care for her mother.\n Jacobo: Mwihaki's father and an important landowner. Chief of the village.\n Mr. Howlands: A white settler who emigrated to colonial Kenya and now owns a farm made up of land that originally belonged to Ngotho's ancestors. Has three children: Peter who died in World War II before the book's beginning, a daughter who becomes a missionary, and Stephen who met Njoroge while the two were in high school.\n\nThemes and motifs\nWeep Not, Child integrates Gikuyu mythology and the ideology of nationalism that serves as catalyst for much of the novel's action. The novel explores the negative aspects of colonial rule over Kenya. Njoroge's aspiration to attend university is frustrated by both the violence of the Mau Mau rebels and the violent response of the colonial government. This disappointment leads to his alienation from his family and ultimately his suicide attempt.\n\nThe novel also ponders the role of saviours and salvation. The author notes in his The River Between: \"Salvation shall come from the hills. From the blood that flows in me, I say from the same tree, a son shall rise. And his duty shall be to lead and save the people.\" Jomo Kenyatta, the first prime minister of Kenya, is immortalised in Weep Not, Child. The author says, \"Jomo had been his (Ngotho's) hope. Ngotho had come to think that it was Jomo who would drive away the white man. To him, Jomo stood for custom and traditions purified by grace of learning and much travel.\" Njoroge comes to view Jomo as a messiah who will win the struggle against the colonial government.\n\nSee also\n\nThings Fall Apart\nDeath and the King's Horseman\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nOfficial homepage of Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o\nBBC profile of Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o\nWeep Not, Child at Google Books\n\nBritish Empire in fiction\nNovels set in colonial Africa\nHistorical novels\nKenyan English-language novels\nNovels by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o\nNovels set in Kenya\n1964 novels\nHeinemann (publisher) books\nPostcolonial novels\nAfrican Writers Series\n1964 debut novels", "answers": ["Weep Not, Child was first published in 1964."], "length": 1489, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "25ebcea4435f88495b4175446d1d7d6dacb1034a8f861ca5"}
{"input": "How is the vacuum processing system configured in terms of the arrangement of the vacuum processing apparatus?", "context": "PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED: To provide a vacuum processor which can suppress the rise of manufacture cost while coping with the enlargement of diameter of a sample, and besides is excellent in maintainability. SOLUTION: This vacuum processor comprises an air loader 1 which is equipped with a plurality of juxtaposed cassette stands 2a and 2b and a carrier 13 for carrying a wafer 20 from or to the cassette stands, a vacuum loader 7 which is equipped with etching treatment chambers 11 and 11b for processing the wafer and a vacuum carriage chamber 16 connected to them through gate valves 15a and 15b, and a lock device 6 consisting of a load lock chamber 6b and an unload lock chamber 6b equipped with gate valves 12a, 12b, 12c, and 12d for connecting the said carrier 13 with the vacuum carriage chamber 16. For the etching treatment chambers, two are provided only on the opposite side of the vacuum carriage chamber symmetrically about the axis line A passing the center, and besides the arrangement positions of the two etching treatment chambers are at an acute angle on the opposite side of the vacuum carriage chamber.\nエッチング，ＣＶＤ（化学的気相成長），スパッタリング，アッシング，リンサ（水洗）等の枚葉処理をするのに好適な真空処理装置とそれを用いて半導体デバイスを製造する半導体製造ラインに関するものである。 Those etching, CVD (chemical vapor deposition), sputtering, ashing, to rinser (water washing) suitable vacuum processing apparatus for single wafer processing, such as a semiconductor manufacturing line for manufacturing a semiconductor device using the same .\n【従来の技術】試料を処理する真空処理装置は、大別すると、カセットブロックと真空処理ブロックから構成されており、カセットブロックは、半導体製造ラインのベイ通路に面して長手方向に伸びるフロントを有し、試料用のカセットや試料のオリエンテーションを合わせるアライメントユニットと、大気ロボットがある。 BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Vacuum processing apparatus for processing a sample, the roughly is constituted by a cassette block and a vacuum processing block, the cassette block, a front extending in the longitudinal direction facing the bay aisle of a semiconductor manufacturing line a, an alignment unit for aligning the cassette and sample orientation for sample, there is an atmospheric robot. 真空処理ブロックには、ロード側ロードロック室，アンロード側ロードロック室，真空処理室，後真空処理室，真空ポンプ及び真空ロボット等が設けられている。 The vacuum processing block, the load-side load lock chamber, the unload side load lock chamber, the vacuum processing chamber, a rear vacuum processing chamber, a vacuum pump and a vacuum robot and the like.\n【０００３】これらの真空処理装置では、カセットブロックのカセットから取り出された試料が、大気ロボットにより真空処理ブロックのロードロック室まで搬送される。  In these vacuum processing apparatus, a sample taken from the cassette in the cassette block is transported to the load lock chamber in the vacuum processing block by the atmospheric robot. ロードロック室から真空ロボットによりさらに処理室に搬送され、電極構造体上にセットされた試料は、プラズマエッチング等の処理がなされる。 Is conveyed from the load lock chamber to the further processing chamber by the vacuum robot, the sample is set on an electrode structure, processing such as plasma etching is performed. その後、必要に応じて後真空処理室に搬送，処理される。 Thereafter, the conveyance to the rear vacuum processing chamber as necessary and processed. 処理済みの試料は、真空ロボット及び大気ロボットによりカセットブロックのカセットに搬送される。 Processed sample is conveyed to the cassette of the cassette block by the vacuum robot and the atmospheric robot.\n【０００４】試料をプラズマエッチング処理する真空処理装置の例としては、例えば特公昭61−8153号公報，特開昭63−133532号公報，特公平6−30369号公報，特開平  Examples of the sample vacuum processing apparatus for plasma etching treatment, for example Japanese Patent Publication 61-8153, JP-Sho 63-133532 and JP Kokoku 6-30369, JP-A No.\n6−314729号公報，特開平6−314730号公報，米国特許第 6-314729, JP-A No. 6-314730, JP-U.S. Patent No.\n5,314,509号明細書および5,784,799号明細書に記載されたようなものがある。 There are such as described in Pat and 5,784,799 Pat 5,314,509.\n509号明細書に記載された装置は、真空処理ブロックの中央付近に真空ロボット、その周囲に３個の処理室が同心状に配置され、真空ロボットとカセットブロックの間に、ロード側ロードロック室，アンロード側ロードロック室が設けられている。 Device described in 509 Pat are vacuum robot in the vicinity of the center of the vacuum processing block, three process chambers around it are arranged concentrically, between the vacuum robot and the cassette block, the load-side load-lock chamber , unload side load lock chamber is provided. これらの装置では、大気ロボットや真空ロボットの搬送アームの回転角度が大きく従って装置全体の必要床面積が大きいという問題がある。 In these devices, there is a problem that needs floor space for the entire rotation angle is large therefore device of the transfer arm of the atmospheric robot and the vacuum robot is large.\n【０００６】一方、真空処理装置の真空処理ブロック内の処理室や真空ポンプその他各種の配管機器については、定期，不定期に点検修理等のメンテナンスを行うことが必要である。  On the other hand, the processing chamber and the vacuum pump and other various piping components of the vacuum processing block of the vacuum processing apparatus, periodically, it is necessary to perform maintenance such as inspection and repair irregularly. そのため、一般に、真空処理ブロックの周囲には、扉が設けられており、この扉を開けることにより、ロードロック室，アンロードロック室，処理室，真空ロボット及び各種の配管機器の点検修理ができるようになっている。 Therefore, in general, around the vacuum processing block, the door is provided by opening the door, load lock chambers, unload lock chambers, processing chambers, the servicing of the vacuum robot and various piping devices It has become way.\nキャリアポッドが必要となるために、約３５０mm程度と大きくなり、複数のキャリアポッドを収納するカセットブロックの幅も大きくなる。 For carrier pod required, large as about 350 mm, the greater width of the cassette block for housing a plurality of carrier pods. この幅に合わせて真空処理ブロックの幅を決定すると、真空処理装置全体が大きなスペースを必要とすることになる。 When determining the width of the vacuum processing block in accordance with the this width, the entire vacuum processing apparatus requires a large space. 一例として、４個のキャリアポッドを収納するカセットブロックについて考えると、試料の直径ｄが８インチから１２インチになった場合、カセットの幅は少なくとも約４０cm以上大きくならざるを得ない。 As an example, considering the cassette block for accommodating four carriers pods, if the diameter d of the sample was a 12-inch 8 inch wide cassette inevitably increases at least about 40cm or more.\n【０００８】一方、試料に各種の処理を行いながら大量の処理を行うために、一般の半導体製造ラインでは、同じ処理を行う複数の真空処理装置を同じベイに集め、各ベイ間の搬送を自動またはマニュアルで行っている。 On the other hand, in order to perform a lot of processing while performing various processes in the sample, in a general semiconductor manufacturing lines, gathering a plurality of vacuum processing apparatus for performing the same processing in the same bay, automatic conveyance between the bays or it is carried out manually. このような半導体製造ラインは、高いクリーン度を必要とするため、半導体製造ライン全体が大きなクリーンルーム内に設置される。 Such a semiconductor manufacturing line, requires a high degree of cleanliness, the whole semiconductor manufacturing line is placed in a large clean room. 試料の大口径化に伴う真空処理装置の大型化は、クリーンルーム占有面積の大型化を伴うが、これはもともと建設コストの高いクリーンルームの建設コストを一層増加させることになる。 Size of the vacuum processing apparatus due to the large diameter of the sample is accompanied by a large clean room area occupied, which will be further increased construction costs of the high construction cost clean room originally. もし、同じ面積のクリーンルームに占有面積の大きな真空処理装置を設置するとすれば、真空処理装置の全体の台数を減らすか、あるいは各真空処理装置間の間隔を狭くせざるを得ない。 If, if the clean room of the same area to install a large vacuum processing apparatus of the occupied area, reduce the overall number of the vacuum processing apparatus, or interval narrower forced between the vacuum processing apparatus. 同じ面積のクリーンルームにおける真空処理装置の設置台数減少は、必然的に半導体の製造ラインの生産性の低下ひいては半導体の製造コストの上昇を伴う。 Installed base reduction in the vacuum processing apparatus in a clean room having the same area is accompanied inevitably rise of the semiconductor decrease and thus the semiconductor manufacturing cost of productivity of the production line. 他方、各真空処理装置間の間隔を狭くすることは、点検修理のためのメンテナンススペースが不足し、真空処理装置のメンテナンス性を著しく阻害する。 On the other hand, to reduce the distance between each of the vacuum processing apparatus, the maintenance space for inspection and repair is insufficient to significantly inhibit the maintenance of the vacuum processing apparatus.\n【０００９】本発明の目的は、試料の大口径化に対応しつつ、製造コストの上昇を抑えることのできる真空処理装置を提供することにある。 An object of the present invention, while corresponding to the large diameter of the sample, is to provide a vacuum processing apparatus capable of suppressing an increase in manufacturing cost.\n【００１０】本発明の他の目的は、試料の大口径化に対応しつつ、メンテナンス性に優れた真空処理装置を提供することにある。 Another object of the present invention, while corresponding to the large diameter of the sample is to provide a vacuum processing apparatus having excellent maintainability.\n【００１１】本発明の他の目的は、試料の大口径化に対応しつつ、真空処理装置の必要設置台数を確保して製造コストの上昇を抑え、かつ、メンテナンス性も損なわない半導体製造ラインを提供することにある。 Another object of the present invention, while corresponding to the large diameter of the sample, to ensure the necessary number of installed vacuum processing apparatus suppressing an increase in manufacturing cost, and a semiconductor manufacturing line is not impaired maintainability It is to provide.\n【課題を解決するための手段】本発明は、並設した複数のカセット台およびカセット台から、あるいはカセット台へウエハを搬送するための搬送装置を備えた大気ローダと、ウエハを処理するための真空処理室およびこれにゲート弁を介して連接された真空搬送室を備えた真空ローダと、前記搬送装置と前記真空搬送室とを連接するためのゲート弁を備えたロードロック室およびアンロードロック室からなるロック装置とを含んで構成される真空処理装置において、ウエハを処理するための真空処理室は、有磁場ＵＨＦ帯電磁波放射放電方式リアクタ（以下、ＵＨＦ−ＥＣＲリアクタという。）によって形成される真空処理室であり、該真空処理室には、分解可能な側壁インナーユニットおよびアンテナが設けられ、該真空処理室は、真空搬 The present invention SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION from a plurality of cassette tables and cassette stand juxtaposed, or the atmosphere loader having a conveying device for conveying the wafer to the cassette table, for processing a wafer the load lock chamber and the unload lock having a gate valve for connecting the vacuum loader vacuum processing chamber and having a vacuum transfer chamber which is connected via a gate valve to the said vacuum transfer chamber and the conveying device in the vacuum processing apparatus configured to include a lock device comprising a chamber, a vacuum processing chamber for processing a wafer it is formed by a magnetic field UHF band electromagnetic wave radiation discharge type reactor (hereinafter. referred UHF-ECR reactor) that a vacuum processing chamber, the vacuum processing chamber, degradable sidewall inner unit and an antenna are provided, the vacuum processing chamber, a vacuum transportable 室およびロック装置の中央を通る軸線に対して対称にして、かつ真空搬送室を中心にしてロック装置の反対側のみに２つ設けられ、かつ真空搬送室に対して前記２つの真空処理室の配置位置は鋭角をなしている真空処理装置を提供する。 And symmetrically with respect to the axis passing through the center of the chamber and the locking device, and the opposite side only two provided for to lock device around the vacuum transfer chamber, and the two vacuum processing chamber to the vacuum transfer chamber position is to provide a vacuum processing apparatus which forms an acute angle.\nＣＲリアクタによって形成される真空処理室であり、該真空処理室は、真空搬送室およびロック装置の中央を通る軸線に対して対称にして、かつ真空搬送室を中心にしてロック装置の反対側のみに２つ設けられ、かつ真空搬送室に対して前記２つの真空処理室の配置位置は鋭角をなしており、ＵＨＦ−ＥＣＲのアンテナは、前記軸線に対して平行で、かつ前記真空搬送室とは反対側に開放される真空処理装置を提供する。 A vacuum processing chamber formed by a CR reactor, vacuum processing chamber, and symmetrically with respect to the axis passing through the center of the vacuum transfer chamber and the locking device, and the opposite side of the locking device around the vacuum transfer chamber only two provided, and positions of the two vacuum processing chamber to the vacuum transfer chamber is an acute angle, the UHF-ECR antennas, and parallel, and the vacuum transfer chamber with respect to said axis to provides a vacuum processing apparatus is opened to the opposite side.\nかつ真空搬送室を中心にしてロック装置の反対側のみに２つ設けられ、かつ真空搬送室に対して前記２つの真空処理室の配置位置は鋭角をなしており、大気ローダ，真空ローダおよびロック装置はＴ字配置とされた真空処理方法を提供する。 And around the vacuum transfer chamber opposite only two provided a locking device, and positions of the two vacuum processing chamber to the vacuum transfer chamber is an acute angle, atmospheric loader, vacuum loader and locking apparatus to provide a vacuum processing method which is a T-arrangement.\n【００１５】本発明は、並設した複数のカセット台およびカセット台から、あるいはカセット台へウエハを搬送するための搬送装置を備えた大気ローダと、ウエハを処理するための真空処理室およびこれにゲート弁を介して連接された真空搬送室を備えた真空ローダと、前記搬送装置と前記真空搬送室とを連接するためのゲート弁を備えたロードロック室およびアンロードロック室からなるロック装置とを含んで構成される真空処理装置が平行に複数台並設された真空処理システムにおいて、ウエハを処理するための真空処理室は、ＵＨＦ−ＥＣＲリアクタによって形成される真空処理室であり、該真空処理室は、真空搬送室およびロック装置の中央を通る軸線に対して対称にして、かつ真空搬送室を中心にしてロック装置の反対側のみに２ The present invention, a plurality of cassette tables and cassette stand juxtaposed, or the atmosphere loader having a conveying device for conveying the wafer to the cassette base, the vacuum processing chamber for processing the wafer and to a vacuum loader having a vacuum transfer chamber which is connected via a gate valve, the locking consisting of the conveying device and the load lock chamber and the unload lock chamber with gate valves for connecting the said vacuum transfer chamber apparatus and in the vacuum processing system vacuum processing apparatus is constituted with a plurality Tainami set in parallel include vacuum processing chamber for processing a wafer is vacuum processing chamber formed by the UHF-ECR reactor, vacuum processing chamber, and symmetrically with respect to the axis passing through the center of the vacuum transfer chamber and the locking device, and 2 only on the opposite side of the locking device around the vacuum transfer chamber 設けられ、かつ真空搬送室に対して前記２つの真空処理室の配置位置は鋭角をなしており、並設された複数の真空処理装置のすべての真空処理室に一直線上に配列される真空処理システムを提供する。 Provided, and positions of the two vacuum processing chamber to the vacuum transfer chamber is an acute angle, a vacuum process that is arranged in alignment with all of the vacuum processing chamber of a plurality of vacuum processing apparatus are arranged in parallel to provide a system.\n【発明の実施の形態】以下、本発明にかかる一実施例を図面に基づいて説明する。 BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION Hereinafter, will be explained based on an embodiment according to the present invention with reference to the accompanying drawings.\n１０Ｂ，１０Ｃで示す。 10B, shown by 10C.\n【００１８】図１に示す真空処理システムを説明する前に、図２から図４に基づいて真空処理装置を説明する。  Before describing the vacuum processing system shown in FIG. 1, illustrating a vacuum processing apparatus on the basis of FIGS. 2-4.\n５ｂを介して連接された真空搬送室１６を備えた真空ローダ７と、前記搬送装置と前記真空搬送室とを連接するためのゲート弁を備えたロードロック室６ａおよびアンロードロック室６ｂからなるロック装置６とを含んで構成される。 5b a vacuum loader 7 having a vacuum transfer chamber 16 which is connected via consist load lock chamber 6a and the unload lock chamber 6b has a gate valve for connecting and said vacuum transfer chamber and the conveying device configured to include a locking device 6.\n平行形に配置され、その位置および姿勢を変えることなく、装置への導入／払出しが可能な位置、すなわち、カセット１ａないし１ｃを略水平の平面上で常に一定の位置に固定される。 Arranged parallel type, without changing its position and orientation, the introduction / dispensing of the locations of the device, i.e., always fixed to a constant position to free the cassette 1a 1c on a substantially horizontal plane. カセット台２ａおよび２ｂは、平行に隣合わせて配置してある。 Cassette tables 2a and 2b, are arranged side by side in parallel. カセット台２ｃは、最右端に配置してある。 Cassette table 2c is, are arranged on the top right edge. カセット１ａおよび１ｂは、処理を行うための末処理ウエハを収納したり、処理済みのウエハを回収するためのもので、複数枚（通常２５枚）の被処理基板であるウエハ２０が収納可能となっている。 Cassettes 1a and 1b, or storing the processed wafers end for processing, for recovering the processed wafer, the wafer 20 is a substrate to be processed in a plurality (25 pieces Normal) can be stored going on. カセット１ｃは、この場合、プラズマを用いたドライクリーニング（以下、「プラズマクリーニング」という。）を行うためのダミーウエハを収納したり、プラズマクリーニング後のダミーウエハを回収するためのもので、複数枚（通常２５枚）のダミーウエハ３０が収納可能となっている。 Cassette 1c in this case, dry cleaning using plasma (hereinafter, \"plasma cleaning\" hereinafter.) Or housing a dummy wafer for performing, for recovering the dummy wafers after plasma cleaning, a plurality (usually dummy wafer 30 of 25 sheets) has become can be stored.\nとカセット１ａ，１ｂとの間でウエハ２０を、そしてロードロック室６ａおよびアンロードロック室６ｂとカセット１ｃとの間でダミーウエハ３０を授受可能に動作する。 A cassette 1a, the wafer 20 with the 1b, and operates to allow exchanging dummy wafer 30 between the load lock chamber 6a and the unload lock chamber 6b and the cassette 1c.\nａ，１５ｂを介して真空処理室であるエッチング処理室１１ａ，１１ｂが設けてある。 a, etching chamber is a vacuum processing chamber through a 15b 11a, 11b are provided. 以下、エッチング処理室を例に取って説明する。 Hereinafter will be described taking the etching chamber as an example. 真空搬送室１６内には、ロードロック室６ａ，アンロード室６ｂおよびエッチング処理室１１ａ，１１ｂとの間でウエハ２０またはダミーウエハ３０を授受可能に動作する搬送装置１４が設けてある。 The vacuum transfer chamber 16, load lock chambers 6a, unload chamber 6b and etching chambers 11a, conveying device 14 is provided that operates to allow transferring the wafer 20 or dummy wafer 30 between 11b. 真空搬送室１６は、独立に真空排気可能な真空排気装置１７を装備している。 Vacuum transfer chamber 16 is equipped with a vacuum evacuable vacuum evacuation device 17 independently.\n【００２２】ＵＨＦ−ＥＣＲリアクタのエッチング処理室１１ａ，１１ｂは、この場合、同一の構成で対称配置とされてエッチング処理が行われるようになっている。 The UHF-ECR reactor etching chambers 11a, 11b is in this case are symmetrically arranged in the same configuration so that the etching process is performed.\nエッチング処理室１１ａを例に説明する。 The etching chamber 11a will be described as an example. エッチング処理室１１ａは、ウエハ２０を配置するための試料台を有し、試料台８ａの上部に放電部７ａを形成するように放電室が設けてある。 Etching chamber 11a has a sample stage for placing the wafer 20, the discharge chamber so as to form a discharge portion 7a at the top of the sample table 8a is provided. エッチング処理室１１ａは、放電部７ａへの処理ガス供給のためのガス導入装置１０ａを有するとともに、エッチング処理室１１ａ内を所定圧力に減圧排気する真空排気装置９ａを有し、放電部７ａの処理ガスをプラズマ化するための、この場合、ＵＨＦ波と磁場の発生手段を有している。 The etching chambers 11a, which has a gas introduction device 10a for processing the gas supply to the discharge portion 7a, having a vacuum exhaust device 9a for evacuating the etching chamber 11a to a predetermined pressure, the process of the discharge portion 7a for plasma gas, in this case, it has a generating means of the UHF wave and magnetic field.\n９は、センサ１８からの計測値を所定値と比較して、エッチング処理室内のクリーニング時期を判断する。 9, the measured value from the sensor 18 is compared with a predetermined value to determine the cleaning time of the etching chamber. また、制御装置１９は、真空搬送装置１３および１４を制御して、ダミーウエハ３０をカセット１ｃおよびエッチング処理室１１ａないし１１ｂの間で搬送制御する。 The control device 19 controls the vacuum transfer apparatus 13 and 14, to the dummy wafer 30 to the cassette 1c and the etching process chamber 11a carrying controlled between 11b.\nいずれかの方法によりウエハ処理またはプラズマクリーニングを実行する。 It executes the wafer processing or plasma cleaning by any method.\nによって、カセット１ａ内のウエハ２０を下から順にエッチング処理室１１ａ，１１ｂに搬入し、それぞれのウエハ２０をエッチング処理する。 Accordingly, the wafer 20 to an etching treatment chamber in order from the bottom 11a of the cassette 1a, and carried into 11b, and each of the wafer 20 is etched. 処理されたそれぞれのウエハ２０は、真空搬送装置１４および搬送装置１３によって、カセット１ａ内の元の位置に収納する。 Each wafer 20 processed by vacuum transfer apparatus 14 and the carrier 13 is housed in its original position in the cassette 1a. この場合、運転開始から終了に至る間、カセットの位置および姿勢を変えることなく未処理のウエハを取り出し、そして処理済みのウエハを未処理のウエハが収納されていた元の位置に戻して収納する。 In this case, while leading to completion of the start of the operation, it takes out an unprocessed wafer without changing the position and posture of the cassettes, and the processed wafer unprocessed wafer is accommodated back into position which is housed . このようにすることで、生産ラインの自動化への対応が容易で、且つ、ゴミの発生によるウエハの汚染を低減でき、高い生産効率と高い製品歩留まりを実現できる。 In this way, it is easy to respond to automation of production lines, and can reduce the contamination of the wafer due to the generation of dust can achieve high production efficiency and high product yield.\nの処理が全て終り次のカセットの内のウエハ処理に移る前でも良い。 Of the process is good, even before moving on to the wafer processing of all end next cassette.\n【００２７】プラズマクリーニングの実施にあたっては、次の順序で行われる。 The practice of plasma cleaning is performed in the following order. この場合、カセット１ｃに収納されたダミーウエハ３０（この", "answers": ["Multiple vacuum processing apparatuses are arranged in parallel."], "length": 2355, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "5a18017502d827b72fc74d91f13f6f14193b4964c3420e47"}
{"input": "How do the runtimes and iteration counts of NFPA and FPSA compare to GMRES and DSA in the numerical experiments?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\\label{sec1}\n\\setcounter{equation}{0} \n\nTransport problems with highly forward-peaked scattering are prevalent in a variety of areas, including astrophysics, medical physics, and plasma physics \\cite{HGK,aristova,multiphysics}.\nFor these problems, solutions of the transport equation converge slowly when using conventional methods such as source iteration (SI) \\cite{adamslarsen} and the generalized minimal residual method (GMRES) \\cite{gmres}.\nMoreover, diffusion-based acceleration techniques like diffusion synthetic acceleration (DSA) \\cite{alcouffe} and nonlinear diffusion acceleration (NDA) \\cite{smithetall} are generally inefficient when tackling these problems, as they only accelerate up to the first moment of the angular flux \\cite{JapanFPSA}.\nIn fact, higher-order moments carry important information in problems with highly forward-peaked scattering and can be used to further accelerate convergence \\cite{japanDiss}.\n\nThis paper focuses on solution methods for the monoenergetic, steady-state transport equation in homogeneous slab geometry.\nUnder these conditions, the transport equation is given by\n\\begin{subequations}\\label[pluraleq]{eq1}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{t1}\n\\mu\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x} \\psi(x,\\mu) + \\sigma_t \\psi(x,\\mu) = \\int_{-1}^{1} d\\mu' \\sigma_s(\\mu,\\mu') \\psi(x,\\mu') + Q(x, \\mu), \\,\\,\\, x\\in [0, X],-1\\leq\\mu\\leq 1  ,\\\\\n\\end{equation}\nwith boundary conditions\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{t2}\n\\psi(0,\\mu) &= \\psi_L(\\mu), \\quad \\mu > 0,\\\\\n\\label{t3}\n\\psi(X,\\mu) &= \\psi_R(\\mu), \\quad \\mu < 0.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nHere, $\\psi(x,\\mu)$ represents the angular flux at position $x$ and direction $\\mu$, $\\sigma_t$ is the macroscopic total cross section, $\\sigma_s(\\mu,\\mu')$ is the differential scattering cross section, and $Q$ is an internal source.\n\nNew innovations have paved the way to better solve this equation in systems with highly forward-peaked scattering.\nFor instance, work has been done on modified $P_L$ equations and modified scattering cross section moments to accelerate convergence of anisotropic neutron transport problems \\cite{khattab}.\nIn order to speed up the convergence of radiative transfer in clouds, a quasi-diffusion method has been developed \\cite{aristova}.\nIn addition, the DSA-multigrid method was developed to solve problems in electron transport more efficiently \\cite{trucksin}.\n\nOne of the most recent convergence methods developed is Fokker-Planck Synthetic Acceleration (FPSA) \\cite{JapanFPSA,japanDiss}.\nFPSA accelerates up to $N$ moments of the angular flux and has shown significant improvement in the convergence rate for the types of problems described above.\nThe method returns a speed-up of several orders of magnitude with respect to wall-clock time when compared to DSA  \\cite{JapanFPSA}.\n\nIn this paper, we introduce a new acceleration technique, called \\textit{Nonlinear Fokker-Planck Acceleration} (NFPA).\nThis  method  returns  a  modified  Fokker-Planck (FP) equation  that  preserves  the  angular moments of the flux given by the transport  equation.\nThis preservation of moments is particularly appealing for applications to multiphysics problems \\cite{multiphysics}, in which the coupling between the transport physics and the other physics can be done through the (lower-order) FP equation.\nTo our knowledge, this is the first implementation of a numerical method that returns a Fokker-Planck-like equation that is discretely consistent with the linear Boltzmann equation.\n\nThis paper is organized as follows.\n\\Cref{sec2} starts with a brief description of FPSA.\nThen, we derive the NFPA scheme.\nIn \\cref{sec3}, we discuss the discretization schemes used in this work and present numerical results.\nThese are compared against standard acceleration techniques.\nWe conclude with a discussion in \\cref{sec4}.\n\n\\section{Fokker-Planck Acceleration}\\label{sec2}\n\\setcounter{equation}{0} \nIn this section we briefly outline the theory behind FPSA, describe NFPA for monoenergetic, steady-state transport problems in slab geometry, and present the numerical methodology behind NFPA.\nThe theory given here can be easily extended to higher-dimensional problems.\nMoreover, extending the method to energy-dependence shall not lead to significant additional theoretical difficulties.\n\nTo solve the transport problem given by \\cref{eq1} we approximate the in-scattering term in \\cref{t1} with a Legendre moment expansion:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{transport1}\n\\mu\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x} \\psi(x,\\mu) + \\sigma_t \\psi(x,\\mu) = \\sum_{l=0}^L \\frac{(2l+1)}{2} P_l(\\mu) \\sigma_{s,l} \\phi_l(x) + Q(x, \\mu),\n\\end{equation}\nwith \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{transport2}\n\\phi_l(x) =  \\int_{-1}^{1} d\\mu P_l(\\mu) \\psi(x,\\mu).\n\\end{equation}\nHere, $\\phi_l$ is the $l^{th}$ Legendre moment of the angular flux, $ \\sigma_{s,l}$ is the $l^{th}$ Legendre coefficient of the differential scattering cross section,  and $P_l$ is the $l^{th}$-order Legendre polynomial.\nFor simplicity, we will drop the notation $(x,\\mu)$ in the remainder of this section.\n\nThe solution to \\cref{transport1} converges asymptotically to the solution of the following Fokker-Planck equation in the forward-peaked limit \\cite{pomraning1}:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{fp1}\n\\mu\\frac{\\partial \\psi}{\\partial x} + \\sigma_a \\psi = \\frac{\\sigma_{tr}}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial \\mu} (1-\\mu^2) \\frac{\\partial \\psi}{\\partial \\mu} + Q\\,,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\sigma_{tr}= \\sigma_{s,0} -\\sigma_{s,1}$ is the momentum transfer cross section and $\\sigma_a = \\sigma_t-\\sigma_{s,0}$ is the macroscopic absorption cross section.\n\nSource Iteration \\cite{adamslarsen} is generally used to solve \\cref{transport1}, which can be rewritten in operator notation:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{si1}\n\\mathcal{L} \\psi^{m+1} = \\mathcal{S} \\psi^{m} + Q\\,,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere \n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{L} = \\mu \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x} + \\sigma_t,\n   \\quad\n\\mathcal{S} = \\sum_{l=0}^L \\frac{(2l+1)}{2} P_l(\\mu) \\sigma_{s,l} \\int_{-1}^{1}d\\mu P_l(\\mu) ,\n\\label{trans1}\n\\end{equation}\nand $m$ is the iteration index.\nThis equation is solved iteratively until a tolerance criterion is met. The FP approximation shown in \\cref{fp1} can be used to accelerate the convergence of \\cref{transport1}.\n\n\\subsection{FPSA: Fokker-Planck Synthetic Acceleration}\\label{FPSA}\n\nIn the FPSA scheme \\cite{JapanFPSA,japanDiss}, the FP approximation is used as a preconditioner to synthetically accelerate convergence when solving \\cref{transport1} (cf. \\cite{adamslarsen} for a detailed description of synthetic acceleration).\nWhen solving \\cref{si1}, the angular flux at each iteration $m$ has an error associated with it.\nFPSA systematically follows a predict, correct, iterate scheme.\nA transport sweep, one iteration in \\cref{si1}, is made for a prediction.\nThe FP approximation is used to correct the error in the prediction, and this iteration is performed until a convergence criterion is met.\nThe equations used are:\n\\begin{subequations}\n\\label{fpsaeq}\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{predict}\n\\mathrm{Predict}&: \\mathcal{L} \\psi^{m+\\frac{1}{2}} = \\mathcal{S} \\psi^{m} + Q\\,,\\\\\n\\label{correct}\n\\mathrm{Correct}&: \\psi^{m+1} =  \\psi^{m+\\frac{1}{2}} + \\mathcal{P}^{-1} \\mathcal{S} \\left( \\psi^{m+\\frac{1}{2}} -  \\psi^{m}\\right),\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nwhere we define $\\mathcal{P}$ as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{FPSAsi1}\n\\mathcal{P} = \\mathcal{A}-\\mathcal{F} =\\underbrace{\\left(\\mu\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial x} + \\sigma_a\\right)}_\\mathcal{A} - \\underbrace{\\left(\\frac{\\sigma_{tr}}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial \\mu} (1-\\mu^2) \\frac{\\partial }{\\partial \\mu}\\right)}_\\mathcal{F},\n\\end{equation}\nIn this synthetic acceleration method, the FP approximation is used to correct the error in each iteration of the high-order (HO) equation (\\ref{predict}). \nTherefore, there is no consistency between the angular moments of the flux in the HO and low-order (LO) equations.\n\n\\subsection{NFPA: Nonlinear Fokker-Planck Acceleration}\\label{NFPA}\n\nSimilar to FPSA, NFPA uses the FP approximation to accelerate the convergence of the solution.\nWe introduce the additive term $\\hat{D}_F$ to \\cref{fp1}, obtaining the modified FP equation\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{mfp1}\n\\mu\\frac{\\partial \\psi}{\\partial x} + \\sigma_a \\psi = \\frac{\\sigma_{tr}}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial \\mu} (1-\\mu^2) \\frac{\\partial \\psi}{\\partial \\mu} + \\hat{D}_F + Q\\,.\n\\end{equation}\nThe role of $\\hat{D}_F$ is to force the transport and modified FP equations to be consistent.\nSubtracting \\cref{mfp1} from \\cref{transport1} and rearranging, we obtain the consistency term\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{dfp}\n\\hat{D}_F = \\sum_{l=0}^L \\frac{(2l+1)}{2} P_l \\sigma_l \\phi_l - \\frac{\\sigma_{tr}}{2}\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial \\mu} (1-\\mu^2) \\frac{\\partial \\psi}{\\partial \\mu} - \\sigma_{s,0} \\psi\\,.\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe NFPA method is given by the following equations:\n\\begin{subequations}\\label[pluraleq]{holocons}\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{HO1}\n\\text{HO}&: \\mu\\frac{\\partial \\psi_{HO}}{\\partial x} + \\sigma_t \\psi_{HO} = \\sum_{l=0}^L \\frac{(2l+1)}{2} P_l \\sigma_l \\phi_{l, LO} + Q\\,,\\\\\n\\label{LO11}\n\\text{LO}&: \\mu\\frac{\\partial \\psi_{LO}}{\\partial x} + \\sigma_a \\psi_{LO} = \\frac{\\sigma_{tr}}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial \\mu} (1-\\mu^2) \\frac{\\partial \\psi_{LO}}{\\partial \\mu} + \\hat{D}_F + Q\\,,\\\\\n\\label{con1}\n\\text{Consistency term}&: \\hat{D}_F = \\sum_{l=0}^L \\frac{(2l+1)}{2} P_l \\sigma_l \\phi_{l, HO}^m - \\frac{\\sigma_{tr}}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial \\mu} (1-\\mu^2) \\frac{\\partial \\psi_{HO}}{\\partial \\mu} - \\sigma_{s,0} \\psi_{HO}\\,,\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nwhere $\\psi_{HO}$ is the angular flux obtained from the HO equation and $\\psi_{LO}$ is the angular flux obtained from the LO equation.\nThe nonlinear HOLO-plus-consistency system given by \\cref{holocons} can be solved using any nonlinear solution technique \\cite{kelley}. Note that the NFPA scheme returns a FP equation that is consistent with HO transport. \nMoreover, this modified FP equation accounts for large-angle scattering which the standard FP equation does not. \nThe LO equation (\\ref{fp1}) can then be integrated into multiphysics models in a similar fashion to standard HOLO schemes \\cite{patelFBR}. To solve the HOLO-plus-consistency system above, we use Picard iteration \\cite{kelley}:\n\\begin{subequations}\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{H1}\n\\text{Transport Sweep for HO}&:\n\\mathcal{L} \\psi_{HO}^{k+1} = \\mathcal{S} \\psi_{LO}^{k} + Q, \\\\\n\\label{L1}\n\\text{Evaluate Consistency Term}&: \\hat{D}_F^{k+1} = \\left(\\mathcal{S} - \\mathcal{F} - \\sigma_{s,0}\\mathcal{I}\\right) \\psi_{HO}^{k+1}, \\\\\n\\label{c1}\n\\text{Solve LO Equation}&: \\psi_{LO}^{k+1} = \\mathcal{P}^{-1} \\left(\\hat{D}_F^{k+1} + Q\\right), \n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nwhere $\\mathcal{L}$ and $\\mathcal{S}$ are given in \\cref{trans1}, $\\mathcal{P}$ and $\\mathcal{F}$ are given in \\cref{FPSAsi1}, $\\mathcal{I}$ is the identity operator, and $k$ is the iteration index.\nIteration is done until a convergence criterion is met.\n\nThe main advantage of setting up the LO equation in this fashion is that the stiffness matrix for LO needs to be setup and inverted \\textit{only once}, just as with FPSA \\cite{JapanFPSA, japanDiss}. This has a large impact on the method's performance.\nA flowchart of this algorithm is shown in \\cref{Nalgorithm}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[H]\n\\centering\n\\begin{tikzpicture}[node distance = 3cm, auto]\n   \n    \\node [block] (init) {Initial guess of flux moments};\n    \\node [cloud_HO, right of=init, node distance=4cm] (HOm) {HO};\n    \\node [cloud_LO, below of=HOm, node distance=2cm] (LOm) {LO};\n    \\node [HO, below of=init] (transport) {One sweep in transport equation};\n    \\node [decision, below of=transport,node distance=4cm] (decide) {Flux moments converged?};\n    \\node [LO, left of=decide, node distance=4cm] (dterm) {Solve for consistency term};\n    \\node [LO, left of=dterm, node distance=3cm] (MFP) {Solve for FP angular flux};\n    \\node [LO, above of=MFP, node distance=4cm] (moments) {Convert angular flux to moments};\n    \\node [block, right of=decide, node distance=4cm] (stop) {Stop};\n   \n    \\path [line] (init) -- (transport);\n    \\path [line] (transport) -- (decide);\n    \\path [line] (decide) -- node {no} (dterm);\n    \\path [line] (dterm) -- (MFP);\n    \\path [line] (MFP) -- (moments);\n    \\path [line] (moments) -- (transport);\n    \\path [line] (decide) -- node {yes}(stop);\n\\end{tikzpicture}\n\\caption{NFPA algorithm}\n\\label{Nalgorithm}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{Numerical Experiments}\\label{sec3}\n\nIn \\cref{sec31} we describe the discretization methods used to implement the algorithms.\nIn \\cref{sec32} we provide numerical results for 2 different choices of source $Q$ and boundary conditions.\nFor each choice we solve the problem using 3 different scattering kernels, applying 3 different choices of parameters for each kernel.\nWe provide NFPA numerical results for these 18 cases and compare them against those obtained from FPSA and other standard methods.\n\nAll numerical experiments were performed using MATLAB.\nRuntime was tracked using the tic-toc functionality \\cite{matlab17}, with\nonly the solver runtime being taken into consideration in the comparisons.\nA 2017 MacBook Pro with a 2.8 GHz Quad-Core Intel Core i7 and 16 GB of RAM was used for all simulations.\n\n\n\\subsection{Discretization}\\label{sec31}\n\nThe Transport and FP equations were discretized using linear discontinuous finite element discretization in space \\cite{mpd1}, and discrete ordinates (S$_N$) in angle \\cite{landm}.\nThe Fokker-Planck operator $\\mathcal{F}$ was discretized using moment preserving discretization (MPD) \\cite{mpd1}.\nDetails of the derivation of the linear discontinuous finite element discretization can be seen in \\cite{japanDiss,martin}.\nThe finite element discretization for the  Fokker-Planck equation follows the same derivation.\n\nA brief review for the angular discretization used for the FP equation is given below.\nFirst, we use Gauss-Legendre quadrature to discretize the FP equation in angle:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mu_n\\frac{\\partial \\psi_n(x)}{\\partial x} + \\sigma_a \\psi_n(x) - \\frac{\\sigma_{tr}}{2}\\nabla^2_n \\psi_n(x) =  Q_n(x),\n\\end{equation}\nfor $n=1,..,N$.\nHere, $\\nabla^2_n$ term is the discrete form of the angular Laplacian operator evaluated at angle $n$.\n\nThe MPD scheme is then shown as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\nabla^2_n \\psi_n = M \\psi_n = V^{-1} L V \\psi_n,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $M$ is the MPD discretized operator defined by\n\\begin{subequations}\n\\begin{equation}\nV_{i,j} = P_{i-1}(\\mu_j)w_j,\n\\end{equation}\nand \n\\begin{equation}\nL_{i,j} = -i(i-1),\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{subequations}\nfor $i,j=1,...,N$.\nHere, $P_l(\\mu_j)$ are the Legendre polynomials evaluated at each angle $\\mu_j$ and $w_j$ are the respective weights.\n$M$ is defined as a (N x N) operator for a vector of $N$ angular fluxes $ \\psi(x)$, at spatial location $x$. \n\nIn summary, if we write the FP equation as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{H} \\frac{\\partial \\psi}{\\partial x}(x) + \\sigma_a \\psi(x) - \\mathcal{F} \\psi(x) =  Q(x),\n\\end{equation}\nthen $\\mathcal{H}$ is Diag$(\\mu_n)$ for $n=1,...,N$, $Q(x)$ is a vector of source terms $Q_n(x)$, and $\\mathcal{F}$ is represented by $\\frac{\\sigma_{tr}}{2}M$.\n\n\n\\subsection{Numerical Results}\\label{sec32}\n\nIt is shown that for slowly converging problems, typical convergence methods like $L_\\infty$ suffer from false convergence \\cite{adamslarsen}.\nTo work around this issue, the criterion is modified to use information about the current and previous iteration:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{falseconverge}\n\\frac{|| \\phi^{m}_0(x) - \\phi^{m-1}_0(x) ||_2}{1-\\frac{|| \\phi^{m+1}_0(x) - \\phi^{m}_0(x) ||_2}{|| \\phi^{m}_0(x) - \\phi^{m-1}_0(x) ||_2}} < 10^{-8}.\n\\end{equation}\n\nTwo problems were tested using 200 spatial cells, $X$ = 400, $\\sigma_a = 0$, $L$ = 15, and $N$ = 16.\nProblem 1 has vacuum boundaries and a homogeneous isotropic source $Q$ for $0 < x < X$.\nProblem 2 has no internal source and an incoming beam at the left boundary. The source and boundary conditions used are shown in \\cref{parameters}. \n\\begin{table}[H]\n\\begin{center}\n\\scalebox{0.9}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c | c | c} \\hline \n& Problem 1 & Problem 2 \\\\ \\hline \\hline\nQ(x) & 0.5 & 0 \\\\\n$\\psi_L$ & 0 & $\\delta(\\mu - \\mu_N)$  \\\\\n$\\psi_R$ & 0 & 0 \\\\\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Problem Parameters}\n\\label{parameters} \n\\end{table} \nWe consider three scattering kernels in this paper: Screened Rutherford \\cite{pomraning1}, Exponential \\cite{pomraning2}, and Henyey-Greenstein \\cite{HGK}.\nThree cases for each kernel were tested.\nThe results obtained with NFPA are compared with those obtained using GMRES, DSA, and FPSA with the MPD scheme.\n\n\\subsubsection{SRK: Screened Rutherford Kernel}\n\nThe Screened Rutherford Kernel \\cite{pomraning1, JapanFPSA} is a widely used scattering kernel for modeling scattering behavior of electrons \\cite{SRK}.\nThe kernel depends on the parameter $\\eta$, such that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sigma^{SRK}_{s,l} = \\sigma_s  \\int_{-1}^{1} d\\mu P_l(\\mu) \\frac{\\eta (\\eta+1)}{(1+2\\eta-\\mu)^2}.\n\\end{equation}\nThe SRK has a valid FP limit as $\\eta$ approaches 0 \\cite{patelFBR}. Three different values of $\\eta$ were used to generate the scattering kernels shown in \\cref{SRK}.\nGMRES, DSA, FPSA, and NFPA all converged to the same solution for problems 1 and 2. \\Cref{SRK_plots} shows the solutions for SRK with $\\eta = 10^{-7}$.\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\begin{center}\n  \\includegraphics[scale=0.1,angle=0]{SRK.jpg}\n  \\caption{Screened Rutherford Kernels}\n  \\label{SRK}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[H]\n    \\centering\n    \\subfloat[Problem 1]{{\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{s7_iso.jpg} }}\n    \\qquad\n    \\subfloat[Problem 2]{{\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{s7_beam.jpg} }}\n    \\caption{Results for SRK Problems with $\\eta = 10^{-7}$}\n    \\label{SRK_plots}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{table}[H]\n\\begin{center}\n\\scalebox{0.8}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c || c || c || c} \\hline \nParameter & Solver & Runtime (s) & Iterations \\\\ \\hline \\hline\n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\eta = 10^{-5}$} & GMRES & 98.8 & 12 \\\\\n& DSA & 2380 & 53585 \\\\\n& FPSA & 1.21 & 26 \\\\\n& NFPA & 1.39 & 26 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\eta = 10^{-6}$} & GMRES & 208 & 84 \\\\\n& DSA & 3040 & 69156 \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.747 & 16 \\\\\n& NFPA & 0.857 & 16 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\eta = 10^{-7}$} & GMRES & 174 & 124 \\\\\n& DSA & 3270 & 73940 \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.475 & 10 \\\\\n& NFPA & 0.542 & 10 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Runtime and Iteration Counts for Problem 1 with SRK}\n\\label{SRKresults1} \n\\end{table}\n\\begin{table}[H]\n\\begin{center}\n\\scalebox{0.8}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c || c || c || c} \\hline \nParameter & Solver & Runtime (s) & Iterations \\\\ \\hline \\hline\n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\eta = 10^{-5}$} & GMRES & 52.4 & 187 \\\\\n& DSA & 1107 & 25072 \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.953 & 20 \\\\\n& NFPA & 1.14 & 20 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\eta = 10^{-6}$} & GMRES & 108 & 71 \\\\\n& DSA & 1434 & 32562  \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.730 & 14 \\\\\n& NFPA & 0.857 & 14 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\eta = 10^{-7}$} & GMRES & 94.1 & 185 \\\\\n& DSA & 1470 & 33246 \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.438 & 8 \\\\\n& NFPA & 0.484 & 8 \\\\ \\hline  \n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Runtime and Iteration Counts for Problem 2 with SRK}\n\\label{SRKresults2} \n\\end{table}\n\nThe results of all solvers are shown in \\cref{SRKresults1,SRKresults2}.\nWe see that NFPA and FPSA tremendously outperform GMRES and DSA in runtime for all cases.\nFPSA is a simpler method than NFPA, requiring less calculations per iteration; therefore, it is expected that it outperforms NFPA in runtime.\nWe see a reduction in runtime and iterations for FPSA and NFPA as the FP limit is approached, with DSA and GMRES requiring many more iterations by comparison as $\\eta$ approaches 0.\n\nAn advantage that NFPA offers is that the angular moments of the flux in the LO equation will remain consistent with those of the transport equation even as a problem becomes less forward-peaked.\nOn the other hand, the moments found using only the FP equation and source iteration lose accuracy.\nTo illustrate this, Problem 1 was tested using different Screened Rutherford Kernels with increasing $\\eta$ parameters.\nThe percent errors (relative to the transport solution) for the scalar flux obtained with the LO equation and with the standard FP equation at the center of the slab are shown in \\cref{momcomp}.\nIt can be seen that the percent relative errors in the scalar flux of the FP solution is orders of magnitude larger than the error produced using the LO equation.\nThe same trend can be seen when using the exponential and Henyey-Greenstein kernels. \n\n\\begin{figure}[H]\n\\begin{center}\n  \\includegraphics[scale=0.15,angle=0]{relerrorlog.jpg}\n  \\caption{Log Scale of $\\%$ Relative Error vs $\\eta$ for Problem 1 at the Center of the Slab with SRK}\n  \\label{momcomp}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{EK: Exponential Kernel}\n\nThe exponential kernel \\cite{pomraning2, JapanFPSA} is a fictitious kernel made for problems that have a valid Fokker-Planck limit \\cite{pomraning1}.\nThe zero$^{\\text{th}}$ moment, $\\sigma^{EK}_{s,0}$, is chosen arbitrarily; we define $\\sigma^{EK}_{s,0}$ as the same zero$^{\\text{th}}$ moment from the SRK.\nThe $\\Delta$ parameter determines the kernel: the first and second moments are given by \n\\begin{subequations}\n\\begin{align}\n\\sigma^{EK}_{s,1} &= \\sigma^{EK}_{s,0} (1-\\Delta),\\\\\n\\sigma^{EK}_{s,2} &= \\sigma^{EK}_{s,0} (1-3\\Delta+3\\Delta^2),\n\\end{align}\nand the relationship for $l\\geq 3$ is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sigma^{EK}_{s,l} = \\sigma^{EK}_{s,l-2} - \\Delta(2l+1) \\sigma^{EK}_{s,l-1}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{subequations}\nAs $\\Delta$ is reduced, the scattering kernel becomes more forward-peaked.\n\nThe EK has a valid FP limit as $\\Delta$ approaches 0 \\cite{patelFBR}.\nThree different values of $\\Delta$ were used to generate the scattering kernels shown in \\cref{EXP}.\nThe generated scattering kernels are shown in \\cref{EXP}.\nGMRES, DSA, FPSA, and NFPA all converged to the same solution for problems 1 and 2.\n\\Cref{EK_plots} shows the solutions for EK with $\\Delta = 10^{-7}$.\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\begin{center}\n  \\includegraphics[scale=0.1,angle=0]{EXP.jpg}\n  \\caption{Exponential Kernels}\n  \\label{EXP}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[H]\n    \\centering\n    \\subfloat[Problem 1]{{\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{dta7_iso.jpg} }}\n    \\qquad\n    \\subfloat[Problem 2]{{\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{dta7_beam.jpg} }}\n    \\caption{Results for EK Problems with $\\Delta = 10^{-7}$}\n    \\label{EK_plots}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe runtimes and iterations for GMRES, DSA, FPSA, and NFPA are shown in \\cref{Expresults1,Expresults2}.\nWe see a similar trend with the EK as seen with SRK.\nSmaller $\\Delta$ values lead to a reduction in runtime and iterations for NFPA and FPSA, which greatly outperform DSA and GMRES in both categories.\n\n\\begin{table}[h]\n\\begin{center}\n\\scalebox{0.8}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c || c || c || c} \\hline \nParameter & Solver & Runtime (s) & Iterations \\\\ \\hline \\hline\n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\Delta = 10^{-5}$} & GMRES & 196 & 142 \\\\\n& DSA & 3110 & 70140 \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.514 & 11 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 0.630 & 11 \\\\\\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\Delta = 10^{-6}$} & GMRES & 156 & 132 \\\\\n& DSA & 3120 & 70758 \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.388 & 7 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 0.393 & 7 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\Delta = 10^{-7}$} & GMRES & 81 & 127 \\\\\n& DSA & 3120 & 70851  \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.292 & 6 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 0.318 & 6 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Runtime and Iteration Counts for Problem 1 with EK}\n\\label{Expresults1} \n\\end{table}\n\\begin{table}[h]\n\\begin{center}\n\\scalebox{0.8}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c || c || c || c} \\hline \nParameter & Solver & Runtime (s) & Iterations \\\\ \\hline \\hline\n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\Delta = 10^{-5}$} & GMRES & 110 & 73 \\\\\n& DSA & 1455 & 33033 \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.492 & 10 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 0.613 & 10 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\Delta = 10^{-6}$} & GMRES & 82.7 & 79 \\\\\n& DSA & 1470 & 33309 \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.358 & 7 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 0.431 & 7 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$\\Delta = 10^{-7}$} & GMRES & 56.8 & 90 \\\\\n& DSA & 1470 & 33339 \\\\\n& FPSA & 0.273 & 5 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 0.319 & 5 \\\\ \\hline  \n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Runtime and Iteration Counts for Problem 2 with EK}\n\\label{Expresults2} \n\\end{table}\n\n\\subsubsection{HGK: Henyey-Greenstein Kernel}\n\nThe Henyey-Greenstein Kernel \\cite{HGK,JapanFPSA} is most commonly used in light transport in clouds.\nIt relies on the anisotropy factor $g$, such that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sigma^{HGK}_{s,l} = \\sigma_s g^l.\n\\end{equation}\nAs $g$ goes from zero to unity, the scattering shifts from isotropic to highly anisotropic.\n\\begin{figure}[H]\n\\begin{center}\n  \\includegraphics[scale=0.1,angle=0]{HGK.jpg}\n  \\caption{Henyey-Greenstein Kernels}\n  \\label{HGK}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[H]\n    \\centering\n    \\subfloat[Problem 1]{{\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{g099_iso.jpg} }}\n    \\qquad\n    \\subfloat[Problem 2]{{\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{g099_beam.jpg} }}\n    \\caption{Results for HGK Problems with $g = 0.99$}\n    \\label{HGK_plots}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nThe HGK does not have a valid FP limit \\cite{patelFBR}.\nThe three kernels tested are shown in \\cref{HGK}.\nGMRES, DSA, FPSA, and NFPA all converged to the same solution for problems 1 and 2.\n\\Cref{HGK_plots} shows the solutions for HGK with $g = 0.99$.\nThe results of each solver are shown in \\cref{HGKresults1,HGKresults2}. \n\\begin{table}[h]\n\\begin{center}\n\\scalebox{0.8}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c || c || c || c} \\hline \nParameter & Solver & Runtime (s) & Iterations \\\\ \\hline \\hline\n\\multirow{4}{*}{$g=0.9$} & GMRES & 9.88 & 76 \\\\\n& DSA & 24.5 & 554 \\\\\n& FPSA & 1.50 & 32 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 1.39 & 27 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$g=0.95$} & GMRES & 12.2 & 131 \\\\\n& DSA & 47.7 & 1083 \\\\\n& FPSA & 1.75 & 38 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 1.83 & 35 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$g=0.99$} & GMRES & 40.0 & 27 \\\\\n& DSA & 243 & 5530  \\\\\n& FPSA & 3.38 & 74 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 3.93 & 73 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Runtime and Iteration Counts for Problem 1 with HGK}\n\\label{HGKresults1} \n\\end{table}\n\\begin{table}[h]\n\\begin{center}\n\\scalebox{0.8}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c || c || c || c} \\hline \nParameter & Solver & Runtime (s) & Iterations \\\\ \\hline \\hline\n\\multirow{4}{*}{$g=0.9$} & GMRES & 24.3 & 135 \\\\\n& DSA & 14.8 & 336  \\\\\n& FPSA & 1.15 & 23 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 1.35 & 24 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$g=0.95$} & GMRES & 31.3 & 107 \\\\\n& DSA & 29.7 & 675 \\\\\n& FPSA & 1.56 & 32 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 1.90 & 33 \\\\ \\hline \n\\multirow{4}{*}{$g=0.99$} & GMRES & 41.4 & 126 \\\\\n& DSA & 146 & 3345 \\\\\n& FPSA & 3.31 & 67 \\\\ \n& NFPA & 3.99 & 67 \\\\ \\hline  \n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Runtime and Iteration Counts for Problem 2 with HGK}\n\\label{HGKresults2} \n\\end{table}\n\nHere we see that NFPA and FPSA do not perform as well compared to their results for the SRK and EK.\nContrary to what happened in those cases, both solvers require more time and iterations as the problem becomes more anisotropic.\nThis is somewhat expected, due to HGK not having a valid Fokker-Planck limit.\nHowever, both NFPA and FPSA continue to greatly outperform GMRES and DSA.\nMoreover, NFPA outperforms FPSA in iteration count for problem 1.\n\n\n\\section{Discussion}\\label{sec4}\n\nThis paper introduced the Nonlinear Fokker-Planck Acceleration technique for steady-state, monoenergetic transport in homogeneous slab geometry.\nTo our knowledge, this is the first nonlinear HOLO method that accelerates \\textit{all $L$ moments} of the angular flux.\nUpon convergence, the LO and HO models are consistent; in other words, the (lower-order) modified Fokker-Planck equation \\textit{preserves the same angular moments} of the flux obtained with the (higher-order) transport equation.\n\nNFPA was tested on a homogeneous medium with an isotropic internal source with vacuum boundaries, and in a homogeneous medium with no internal source and an incoming beam boundary.\nFor both problems, three different scattering kernels were used.\nThe runtime and iterations of NFPA and FPSA were shown to be similar.\nThey both vastly outperformed DSA and GMRES for all cases by orders of magnitude.\nHowever, NFPA has the feature of preserving the angular moments of the flux in both the HO and LO equations, which offers the advantage of integrating the LO model into multiphysics models. \n\nIn the future, we intend to test NFPA capabilities for a variety of multiphysics problems and analyze its performance.\nTo apply NFPA to more realistic problems, it needs to be extended to include time and energy dependence. \nAdditionally, the method needs to be adapted to address geometries with higher-order spatial dimensions.\nFinally, for the NFPA method to become mathematically ``complete\", a full convergence examination using Fourier analysis must be performed.\nHowever, this is beyond the scope of this paper and must be left for future work.\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgements}\n\nThe authors acknowledge support under award number NRC-HQ-84-15-G-0024 from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.\nThe statements, findings, conclusions, and recommendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.\n\nJ.~K. Patel would like to thank Dr.~James Warsa for his wonderful transport class at UNM, as well as his synthetic acceleration codes.\nThe authors would also like to thank Dr.~Anil Prinja for discussions involving Fokker-Planck acceleration.\n\n\n\n", "answers": ["NFPA and FPSA greatly outperform GMRES and DSA."], "length": 3996, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "a40877e222497d3ff2efbeb1926e20600f8aac947820063c"}
{"input": "What genre did Margaret Way write in?", "context": "Margaret Way (b. Brisbane d. Cleveland, Queensland, Australia ) was an Australian writer of romance novels and women's fiction. A prolific author, Way wrote more than 120 novels since 1970, many through Mills & Boon, a romance imprint of British publisher Harlequin UK Ltd., owned by Harlequin Enterprises.\n\nBiography\nBefore her marriage, she was a well-known pianist, teacher, vocal coach and accompanist. She began writing when her son, Laurence Way, was born, a friend took a pile of Mills & Boon books to her, she read all and decided that she also could write these types of novels. She began to write and promote her country with her stories set in Australia. She sold her first novels in 1970. Margaret Way lives with her family in her native Brisbane. Beginning in 2013, Margaret began to self-publish, releasing her first \"e-book\" mid-July.\n\nMargaret died on the 10th of August 2022 in Cleveland, Queensland.\n\nBibliography\n\nSingle Novels\nKing Country (1970)\nBlaze of Silk (1970)\nThe Time of the Jacaranda (1970)\nBauhinia Junction (1971)\nMan from Bahl Bahla (1971)\nSummer Magic (1971)\nReturn to Belle Amber (1971)\nRing of Jade (1972)\nCopper Moon (1972)\nRainbow Bird (1972)\nMan Like Daintree (1972)\nNoonfire (1972)\nStorm Over Mandargi (1973)\nWind River (1973)\nLove Theme (1974)\nMcCabe's Kingdom (1974)\nSweet Sundown (1974)\nReeds of Honey (1975)\nStorm Flower (1975)\nLesson in Loving (1975)\nFlight into Yesterday (1976)\nRed Cliffs of Malpara (1976)\nMan on Half-moon (1976)\nSwan's Reach (1976)\nMutiny in Paradise (1977)\nOne Way Ticket (1977)\nPortrait of Jaime (1977)\nBlack Ingo (1977)\nAwakening Flame (1978)\nWild Swan (1978)\nRing of Fire (1978)\nWake the Sleeping Tiger (1978)\nValley of the Moon (1979)\nWhite Magnolia (1979)\nWinds of Heaven (1979)\nBlue Lotus (1979)\nButterfly and the Baron (1979)\nGolden Puma (1980)\nTemple of Fire (1980)\nLord of the High Valley (1980)\nFlamingo Park (1980)\nNorth of Capricorn (1981)\nSeason for Change (1981)\nShadow Dance (1981)\nMcIvor Affair (1981)\nHome to Morning Star (1981)\nBroken Rhapsody (1982)\nThe Silver Veil (1982)\nSpellbound (1982)\nHunter's Moon (1982)\nGirl at Cobalt Creek (1983)\nNo Alternative (1983)\nHouse of Memories (1983)\nAlmost a Stranger (1984)\nA place called Rambulara (1984)\nFallen Idol (1984)\nHunt the Sun (1985)\nEagle's Ridge (1985)\nThe Tiger's Cage (1986)\nInnocent in Eden (1986)\nDiamond Valley (1986)\nMorning Glory (1988)\nDevil Moon (1988)\nMowana Magic (1988)\nHungry Heart (1988)\nRise of an Eagle (1988)\nOne Fateful Summer (1993)\nThe Carradine Brand (1994)\nHolding on to Alex (1997)\nThe Australian Heiress (1997)\nClaiming His Child (1999)\nThe Cattleman's Bride (2000)\nThe Cattle Baron (2001)\nThe Husbands of the Outback (2001)\nSecrets of the Outback (2002)\nWith This Ring (2003)\nInnocent Mistress (2004)\nCattle Rancher, Convenient Wife (2007)\nOutback Marriages (2007)\nPromoted: Nanny to Wife (2007)\nCattle Rancher, Secret Son (2007)\nGenni's Dilemma (2008)\nBride At Briar Ridge (2009)\nOutback Heiress, Surprise Proposal (2009)\nCattle Baron, Nanny Needed (2009)\n\nLegends of the Outback Series\nMail Order Marriage (1999)\nThe Bridesmaid's Wedding (2000)\nThe English Bride (2000)\nA Wife at Kimbara (2000)\n\nKoomera Crossing Series\nSarah's Baby (2003)\nRunaway Wife (2003)\nOutback Bridegroom (2003)\nOutback Surrender (2003)\nHome to Eden (2004)\n\nMcIvor Sisters Series\nThe Outback Engagement (2005)\nMarriage at Murraree (2005)\n\nMen Of The Outback Series\nThe Cattleman (2006)\nThe Cattle Baron's Bride (2006)\nHer Outback Protector (2006)\nThe Horseman (2006)\n\nOutback Marriages Series\nOutback Man Seeks Wife (2007)\nCattle Rancher, Convenient Wife (2007)\n\nBarons of the Outback Series Multi-Author\nWedding At Wangaree Valley (2008)\nBride At Briar's Ridge (2008)\n\nFamily Ties Multi-Author\nOnce Burned (1995)\n\nHitched! Multi-Author\nA Faulkner Possession (1996)\n\nSimply the Best Multi-Author\nGeorgia and the Tycoon (1997)\n\nThe Big Event Multi-Author\nBeresford's Bride (1998)\n\nGuardian Angels Multi-Author\nGabriel's Mission (1998)\n\nAustralians Series Multi-Author\n7. Her Outback Man (1998)\n17. Master of Maramba (2001)\n19. Outback Fire (2001)\n22. Mistaken Mistress (2002)\n24. Outback Angel (2002)\n33. The Australian Tycoon's Proposal (2004)\n35. His Heiress Wife (2004)\n\nMarrying the Boss Series Multi-Author\nBoardroom Proposal (1999)\n\nContract Brides Series Multi-Author\nStrategy for Marriage (2002)\n\nEverlasting Love Series Multi-Author\nHidden Legacy (2008)\n\nDiamond Brides Series Multi-Author\nThe Australian's Society Bride (2008)\n\nCollections\nSummer Magic / Ring of Jade / Noonfire (1981)\nWife at Kimbara / Bridesmaid's Wedding (2005)\n\nOmnibus in Collaboration\nPretty Witch / Without Any Amazement / Storm Over Mandargi (1977) (with Lucy Gillen and Margaret Malcolm)\nDear Caliban / Heart of the Eagle / Swans' Reach (1978) (with Jane Donnelly and Elizabeth Graham)\nThe Bonds of Matrimony / Dragon Island / Reeds of Honey (1979) (with Elizabeth Hunter and Henrietta Reid)\nThe Man Outside / Castles in Spain / McCabe's Kingdom (1979) (with Jane Donnelly and Rebecca Stratton)\nWinds From The Sea / Island of Darkness / Wind River (1979) (with Margaret Pargeter and Rebecca Stratton)\nMoorland Magic / Tree of Idleness / Sweet Sundown (1980) (with Elizabeth Ashton and Elizabeth Hunter)\nThe Shifting Sands / Portrait of Jaime / Touched by Fire (1982) (with Jane Donnelly and Kay Thorpe)\nHead of Chancery / Wild Heart / One-Way Ticket (1986) (with Betty Beaty and Doris Smith)\nHeart of the Scorpion / The Winds of Heaven / Sweet Compulsion (1987) (with Janice Gray and Victoria Woolf)\nOne Brief Sweet Hour / Once More With Feeling / Blue Lotus (1990) (with Jane Arbor and Natalie Sparks)\nMarry Me Cowboy (1995) (with Janet Dailey, Susan Fox and Anne McAllister)\nHusbands on Horseback (1996) (with Diana Palmer)\nWedlocked (1999) (with Day Leclaire and Anne McAllister)\nMistletoe Magic (1999) (with Betty Neels and Rebecca Winters)\nThe Australians (2000) (with Helen Bianchin and Miranda Lee)\nWeddings Down Under (2001) (with Helen Bianchin and Jessica Hart)\nOutback Husbands (2002) (with Marion Lennox)\nThe Mother's Day Collection (2002) (with Helen Dickson and Kate Hoffmann)\nAustralian Nights (2003) (with Miranda Lee)\nOutback Weddings (2003) (with Barbara Hannay)\nAustralian Playboys (2003) (with Helen Bianchin and Marion Lennox)\nAustralian Tycoons (2004) (with Emma Darcy and Marion Lennox)\nA Mother's Day Gift (2004) (with Anne Ashley and Lucy Monroe)\nWhite Wedding (2004) (with Judy Christenberry and Jessica Steele)\nA Christmas Engagement (2004) (with Sara Craven and Jessica Matthews)\nA Very Special Mother's Day (2005) (with Anne Herries)\nAll I Want for Christmas... (2005) (with Betty Neels and Jessica Steele)\nThe Mills and Boon Collection (2006) (with Caroline Anderson and Penny Jordan)\nOutback Desire (2006) (with Emma Darcy and Carol Marinelli)\nTo Mum, with Love (2006) (with Rebecca Winters)\nAustralian Heroes (2007) (with Marion Lennox and Fiona McArthur)\nTall, Dark and Sexy (2008) (with Caroline Anderson and Helen Bianchin)\nThe Boss's Proposal (2008) (with Jessica Steele and Patricia Thayer)\nIsland Heat / Outback Man Seeks Wife / Prince's Forbidden Virgin / One Night Before Marriage / Their Lost-and-found Family / Single Dad's Marriage Wish (2008) (with Robyn Donald, Marion Lennox, Carol Marinelli, Sarah Mayberry and Anne Oliver)\nAustralian Billionaires (2009) (with Jennie Adams and Amy Andrews)\nCattle Baron : Nanny Needed / Bachelor Dad on Her Doorstep (2009) (with Michelle Douglas)\n\nExternal links\nMargaret Way at Harlequin Enterprises Ltd\n\nAustralian romantic fiction writers\nAustralian women novelists\nLiving people\nYear of birth missing (living people)\nWomen romantic fiction writers", "answers": ["Romance novels and women's fiction."], "length": 1193, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "fc1544761460f97af3a338bbf3e3c648c00ec27b8b297069"}
{"input": "What are the datasets used in this community for research?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\nUnderwater robot picking is to use the robot to automatically capture sea creatures like holothurian, echinus, scallop, or starfish in an open-sea farm where underwater object detection is the key technology for locating creatures. Until now, the datasets used in this community are released by the Underwater Robot Professional Contest (URPC$\\protect\\footnote{Underwater Robot Professional Contest: {\\bf http://en.cnurpc.org}.}$) beginning from 2017, in which URPC2017 and URPC2018 are most often used for research. Unfortunately, as the information listed in Table \\ref{Info}, URPC series datasets do not provide the annotation file of the test set and cannot be downloaded after the contest. \nTherefore, researchers \\cite{2020arXiv200511552C,2019arXiv191103029L} first have to divide the training data into two subsets, including a new subset of training data and a new subset of testing data, and then train their proposed method and other \\emph{SOTA} methods. On the one hand, training other methods results in a significant increase in workload. On the other hand, different researchers divide different datasets in different ways, \n\\begin{table}[t]\n\\renewcommand\\tabcolsep{3.5pt}\n\\caption{Information about all the collected datasets. * denotes the test set's annotations are not available. \\emph{3} in Class means three types of creatures are labeled, \\emph{i.e.,} holothurian, echinus, and scallop. \\emph{4} means four types of creatures are labeled (starfish added). Retention represents the proportion of images that retain after similar images have been removed.}\n\\centering \n\\begin{tabular}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nDataset&Train&Test&Class&Retention&Year \\\\ \n\\hline \nURPC2017&17,655&985*&3&15\\%&2017 \\\\\n\\hline\nURPC2018&2,901&800*&4&99\\%&2018 \\\\\n\\hline\nURPC2019&4,757&1,029*&4&86\\%&2019 \\\\\n\\hline\nURPC2020$_{ZJ}$&5,543&2,000*&4&82\\%&2020 \\\\\n\\hline\nURPC2020$_{DL}$&6,575&2,400*&4&80\\%&2020 \\\\\n\\hline\nUDD&1,827&400&3&84\\%&2020 \\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\end{tabular}\n\\label{Info}\n\\end{table}\n\\begin{figure*}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{example.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Examples in DUO, which show a variety of scenarios in underwater environments.}\n\\label{exam}\n\\end{figure*}\ncausing there is no unified benchmark to compare the performance of different algorithms.\nIn terms of the content of the dataset images, there are a large number of similar or duplicate images in the URPC datasets. URPC2017 only retains 15\\% images after removing similar images compared to other datasets. Thus the detector trained on URPC2017 is easy to overfit and cannot reflect the real performance.\nFor other URPC datasets, the latter also includes images from the former, \\emph{e.g.}, URPC2019 adds 2,000 new images compared to URPC2018; compared with URPC2019, URPC2020$_{ZJ}$ adds 800 new images. The URPC2020$_{DL}$ adds 1,000 new images compared to the URPC2020$_{ZJ}$. It is worth mentioning that the annotation of all datasets is incomplete; some datasets lack the starfish labels and it is easy to find error or missing labels. \\cite{DBLP:conf/iclr/ZhangBHRV17} pointed out that although the CNN model has a strong fitting ability for any dataset, the existence of dirty data will significantly weaken its robustness.\nTherefore, a reasonable dataset (containing a small number of similar images as well as an accurate annotation) and a corresponding recognized benchmark are urgently needed to promote community development.\n\n\nTo address these issues, we introduce a dataset called Detecting Underwater Objects (DUO) by collecting and re-annotating all the available underwater datasets. It contains 7,782 underwater images after deleting overly similar images and has a more accurate annotation with four types of classes (\\emph{i.e.,} holothurian, echinus, scallop, and starfish). \nBesides, based on the MMDetection$\\protect\\footnote{MMDetection is an open source object detection toolbox based on PyTorch. {\\bf https://github.com/open-mmlab/mmdetection}}$ \\cite{chen2019mmdetection} framework, we also provide a \\emph{SOTA} detector benchmark containing efficiency and accuracy indicators, providing a reference for both academic research and industrial applications. It is worth noting that JETSON AGX XAVIER$\\protect\\footnote{JETSON AGX XAVIER is an embedded development board produced by NVIDIA which could be deployed in an underwater robot. Please refer {\\bf https://developer.nvidia.com/embedded/jetson-agx-xavier-developer-kit} for more information.}$ was used to assess all the detectors in the efficiency test in order to simulate robot-embedded environment. DUO will be released in https://github.com/chongweiliu soon.\n\nIn summary, the contributions of this paper can be listed as follows.\n\n  $\\bullet$ By collecting and re-annotating all relevant datasets, we introduce a dataset called DUO with more reasonable annotations as well as a variety of underwater scenes.\n\n  $\\bullet$ We provide a corresponding benchmark of \\emph{SOTA} detectors on DUO including efficiency and accuracy indicators which could be a reference for both academic research and industrial applications. \n\n\n\\pagestyle{empty}\n\\section{Background}\nIn the year of 2017, underwater object detection for open-sea farming is first proposed in the target recognition track of Underwater Robot Picking Contest 2017$\\protect\\footnote{From 2020, the name has been changed into Underwater Robot Professional Contest which is also short for URPC.}$ (URPC2017) which aims to promote the development of theory, technology, and industry of the underwater agile robot and fill the blank of the grabbing task of the underwater agile robot. The competition sets up a target recognition track, a fixed-point grasping track, and an autonomous grasping track. The target recognition track concentrates on finding the {\\bf high accuracy and efficiency} algorithm which could be used in an underwater robot for automatically grasping.\n\nThe datasets we used to generate the DUO are listed below. The detailed information has been shown in Table \\ref{Info}.\n\n  {\\bf URPC2017}: It contains 17,655 images for training and 985 images for testing and the resolution of all the images is 720$\\times$405. All the images are taken from 6 videos at an interval of 10 frames. However, all the videos were filmed in an artificial simulated environment and pictures from the same video look almost identical. \n  \n   {\\bf URPC2018}: It contains 2,901 images for training and 800 images for testing and the resolutions of the images are 586$\\times$480, 704$\\times$576, 720$\\times$405, and 1,920$\\times$1,080. The test set's annotations are not available. Besides, some images were also collected from an artificial underwater environment.\n  \n  {\\bf URPC2019}: It contains 4,757 images for training and 1029 images for testing and the highest resolution of the images is 3,840$\\times$2,160 captured by a GOPro camera. The test set's annotations are also not available and it contains images from the former contests.\n  \n  {\\bf URPC2020$_{ZJ}$}: From 2020, the URPC will be held twice a year. It was held first in Zhanjiang, China, in April and then in Dalian, China, in August. URPC2020$_{ZJ}$ means the dataset released in the first URPC2020 and URPC2020$_{DL}$ means the dataset released in the second URPC2020. This dataset contains 5,543 images for training and 2,000 images for testing and the highest resolution of the images is 3,840$\\times$2,160. The test set's annotations are also not available.\n  \n  {\\bf URPC2020$_{DL}$}: This dataset contains 6,575 images for training and 2,400 images for testing and the highest resolution of the images is 3,840$\\times$2,160. The test set's annotations are also not available.\n  \n  {\\bf UDD \\cite{2020arXiv200301446W}}: This dataset contains 1,827 images for training and 400 images for testing and the highest resolution of the images is 3,840$\\times$2,160. All the images are captured by a diver and a robot in a real open-sea farm.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{pie.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{The proportion distribution of the objects in DUO.}\n\\label{pie}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\centering\n  \\subfigure[]{\\includegraphics[width=3.45in]{imagesize.pdf}}\n  \\subfigure[]{\\includegraphics[width=3.45in]{numInstance.pdf}}\n  \\caption{(a) The distribution of instance sizes for DUO; (b) The number of categories per image.}\n  \\label{sum}\n\\end{figure*}\n\\section{Proposed Dataset}\n\n\\subsection{Image Deduplicating}\nAs we explained in Section 1, there are a large number of similar or repeated images in the series of URPC datasets. Therefore, it is important to delete duplicate or overly similar images and keep a variety of underwater scenarios when we merge these datasets together. Here we employ the Perceptual Hash algorithm (PHash) to remove those images. PHash has the special property that the hash value is dependent on the image content, and it remains approximately the same if the content is not significantly modified. Thus we can easily distinguish different scenarios and delete duplicate images within one scenario. \n\nAfter deduplicating, we obtain 7,782 images (6,671 images for training; 1,111 for testing). The retention rate of the new dataset is 95\\%, which means that there are only a few similar images in the new dataset. Figure \\ref{exam} shows that our dataset also retains various underwater scenes.\n\n\\subsection{Image Re-annotation}\nDue to the small size of objects and the blur underwater environment, there are always missing or wrong labels in the existing annotation files. In addition, some test sets' annotation files are not available and some datasets do not have the starfish annotation. In order to address these issues, we follow the next process which combines a CNN model and manual annotation to re-annotate these images. Specifically, we first train a detector (\\emph{i.e.,} GFL \\cite{li2020generalized}) with the originally labeled images. After that, the trained detector predicts all the 7,782 images. We treat the prediction as the groundtruth and use it to train the GFL again. We get the final GFL prediction called {\\bf the coarse annotation}. Next, we use manual correction to get the final annotation called {\\bf the fine annotation}. Notably, we adopt the COCO \\cite{Belongie2014} annotation form as the final format.\n\\subsection{Dataset Statistics}\n{\\bf The proportion of classes}: The total number of objects is 74,515. Holothurian, echinus, scallop, and starfish are 7,887, 50,156, 1,924, and 14,548, respectively. Figure \\ref{pie} shows the proportion of each creatures where echinus accounts for 67.3\\% of the total. The whole data distribution shows an obvious long-tail distribution because the different economic benefits of different seafoods determine the different breed quantities.\n\n{\\bf The distribution of instance sizes}: Figure \\ref{sum}(a) shows an instance size distribution of DUO. \\emph{Percent of image size} represents the ratio of object area to image area, and \\emph{Percent of instance} represents the ratio of the corresponding number of objects to the total number of objects. Because of these small creatures and high-resolution images, the vast majority of objects occupy 0.3\\% to 1.5\\% of the image area.\n\n{\\bf The instance number per image}: Figure \\ref{sum}(b) illustrates the number of categories per image for DUO. \\emph{Number of instances} represents the number of objects one image has, and \\emph{ Percentage of images} represents the ratio of the corresponding number of images to the total number of images. Most images contain between 5 and 15 instances, with an average of 9.57 instances per image.\n\n{\\bf Summary}:\nIn general, smaller objects are harder to detect. For PASCAL VOC \\cite{Everingham2007The} or COCO \\cite{Belongie2014}, roughly 50\\% of all objects occupy no more than 10\\% of the image itself, and others evenly occupy from 10\\% to 100\\%. \nIn the aspect of instances number per image, COCO contains 7.7 instances per image and VOC contains 3. In comparison, DUO has 9.57 instances per image and most instances less than 1.5\\% of the image size.\nTherefore, DUO contains almost exclusively massive small instances and has the long-tail distribution at the same time, which means it is promising to design a detector to deal with massive small objects and stay high efficiency at the same time for underwater robot picking.\n\n\\section{Benchmark}\nBecause the aim of underwater object detection for robot picking is to find {\\bf the high accuracy and efficiency} algorithm, we consider both the accuracy and efficiency evaluations in the benchmark as shown in Table \\ref{ben}.\n\n\\subsection{Evaluation Metrics}\nHere we adopt the standard COCO metrics (mean average precision, \\emph{i.e.,} mAP) for the accuracy evaluation and also provide the mAP of each class due to the long-tail distribution.\n\n{\\bf AP} -- mAP at IoU=0.50:0.05:0.95.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{50}$} --  mAP at IoU=0.50.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{75}$} --  mAP at IoU=0.75. \n\n{\\bf AP$_{S}$} --   {\\bf AP} for small objects of area smaller than 32$^{2}$.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{M}$} --   {\\bf AP} for objects of area between 32$^{2}$ and 96$^{2}$.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{L}$} --   {\\bf AP} for large objects of area bigger than 96$^{2}$.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{Ho}$} --  {\\bf AP} in holothurian.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{Ec}$} --  {\\bf AP} in echinus.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{Sc}$} --  {\\bf AP} in scallop.\n\n{\\bf AP$_{St}$} --  {\\bf AP} in starfish.\n\n\nFor the efficiency evaluation, we provide three metrics:\n\n{\\bf Param.} --  The parameters of a detector.\n\n{\\bf FLOPs} --  Floating-point operations per second.\n\n{\\bf FPS} --  Frames per second.\n\nNotably, {\\bf FLOPs} is calculated under the 512$\\times$512 input image size and {\\bf FPS} is tested on a JETSON AGX XAVIER under MODE$\\_$30W$\\_$ALL. \n\n\\subsection{Standard Training Configuration}\nWe follow a widely used open-source toolbox, \\emph{i.e.,} MMDetection (V2.5.0) to produce up our benchmark. During the training, the standard configurations are as follows:\n\n  $\\bullet$ We initialize the backbone models (\\emph{e.g.,} ResNet50) with pre-trained parameters on ImageNet \\cite{Deng2009ImageNet}.\n\n  $\\bullet$ We resize each image into 512 $\\times$ 512 pixels both in training and testing. Each image is flipped horizontally with 0.5 probability during training.\n\n  $\\bullet$ We normalize RGB channels by subtracting 123.675, 116.28, 103.53 and dividing by 58.395, 57.12, 57.375, respectively.\n\n  $\\bullet$ SGD method is adopted to optimize the model. The initial learning rate is set to be 0.005 in a single GTX 1080Ti with batchsize 4 and is decreased by 0.1 at the 8th and 11th epoch, respectively. WarmUp \\cite{2019arXiv190307071L} is also employed in the first 500 iterations. Totally there are 12 training epochs.\n\n  $\\bullet$ Testing time augmentation (\\emph{i.e.,} flipping test or multi-scale testing) is not employed.\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Benchmark Analysis}\nTable \\ref{ben} shows the benchmark for the \\emph{SOTA} methods. Multi- and one- stage detectors with three kinds of backbones (\\emph{i.e.,} ResNet18, 50, 101) give a comprehensive assessment on DUO. We also deploy all the methods to AGX to assess efficiency.\n\nIn general, the multi-stage (Cascade R-CNN) detectors have high accuracy and low efficiency, while the one-stage (RetinaNet) detectors have low accuracy and high efficiency. However, due to recent studies \\cite{zhang2019bridging} on the allocation of more reasonable positive and negative samples in training, one-stage detectors (ATSS or GFL) can achieve both high accuracy and high efficiency.\n\n\\begin{table*}[htbp]\n\\renewcommand\\tabcolsep{3.0pt}\n\n\\begin{center}\n\\caption{Benchmark of \\emph{SOTA} detectors (single-model and single-scale results) on DUO. FPS is measured on the same machine with a JETSON AGX XAVIER under the same MMDetection framework, using a batch size of 1 whenever possible. R: ResNet.} \n\\label{ben}\n\\begin{tabular}{|l|l|c|c|c|ccc|ccc|cccc|}\n\\hline\nMethod&Backbone&Param.&FLOPs&FPS&AP&AP$_{50}$&AP$_{75}$&AP$_{S}$&AP$_{M}$&AP$_{L}$&AP$_{Ho}$&AP$_{Ec}$&AP$_{Sc}$&AP$_{St}$ \\\\ \n\\hline \n\\emph{multi-stage:} &&&&&&&&&&&&&& \\\\\n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{Faster R-CNN \\cite{Ren2015Faster}}\n&R-18&28.14M&49.75G&5.7&50.1&72.6&57.8&42.9&51.9&48.7&49.1&60.1&31.6&59.7\\\\\n&R-50&41.14M&63.26G&4.7&54.8&75.9&63.1&53.0&56.2&53.8&55.5&62.4&38.7&62.5\\\\\n&R-101&60.13M&82.74G&3.7&53.8&75.4&61.6&39.0&55.2&52.8&54.3&62.0&38.5&60.4\\\\\n\\hline\n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{Cascade R-CNN \\cite{Cai_2019}}\n&R-18&55.93M&77.54G&3.4&52.7&73.4&60.3&\\bf 49.0&54.7&50.9&51.4&62.3&34.9&62.3\\\\\n&R-50&68.94M&91.06G&3.0&55.6&75.5&63.8&44.9&57.4&54.4&56.8&63.6&38.7&63.5\\\\\n&R-101&87.93M&110.53G&2.6&56.0&76.1&63.6&51.2&57.5&54.7&56.2&63.9&41.3&62.6\\\\\n\\hline\n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{Grid R-CNN \\cite{lu2019grid}}\n&R-18&51.24M&163.15G&3.9&51.9&72.1&59.2&40.4&54.2&50.1&50.7&61.8&33.3&61.9\\\\\n&R-50&64.24M&176.67G&3.4&55.9&75.8&64.3&40.9&57.5&54.8&56.7&62.9&39.5&64.4\\\\\n&R-101&83.24M&196.14G&2.8&55.6&75.6&62.9&45.6&57.1&54.5&55.5&62.9&41.0&62.9\\\\\n\\hline\n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{RepPoints \\cite{yang2019reppoints}}\n&R-18&20.11M&\\bf 35.60G&5.6&51.7&76.9&57.8&43.8&54.0&49.7&50.8&63.3&33.6&59.2\\\\\n&R-50&36.60M&48.54G&4.8&56.0&80.2&63.1&40.8&58.5&53.7&56.7&65.7&39.3&62.3\\\\\n&R-101&55.60M&68.02G&3.8&55.4&79.0&62.6&42.2&57.3&53.9&56.0&65.8&39.0&60.9\\\\\n\\hline \n\\hline \n\\emph{one-stage:} &&&&&&&&&&&&&& \\\\\n\\multirow{3}{*}{RetinaNet \\cite{Lin2017Focal}}\n&R-18&19.68M&39.68G&7.1&44.7&66.3&50.7&29.3&47.6&42.5&46.9&54.2&23.9&53.8\\\\\n&R-50&36.17M&52.62G&5.9&49.3&70.3&55.4&36.5&51.9&47.6&54.4&56.6&27.8&58.3\\\\\n&R-101&55.16M&72.10G&4.5&50.4&71.7&57.3&34.6&52.8&49.0&54.6&57.0&33.7&56.3\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{FreeAnchor \\cite{2019arXiv190902466Z}}\n&R-18&19.68M&39.68G&6.8&49.0&71.9&55.3&38.6&51.7&46.7&47.2&62.8&28.6&57.6\\\\\n&R-50&36.17M&52.62G&5.8&54.4&76.6&62.5&38.1&55.7&53.4&55.3&65.2&35.3&61.8\\\\\n&R-101&55.16M&72.10G&4.4&54.6&76.9&62.9&36.5&56.5&52.9&54.0&65.1&38.4&60.7\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{FoveaBox \\cite{DBLP:journals/corr/abs-1904-03797}}\n&R-18&21.20M&44.75G&6.7&51.6&74.9&57.4&40.0&53.6&49.8&51.0&61.9&34.6&59.1\\\\\n&R-50&37.69M&57.69G&5.5&55.3&77.8&62.3&44.7&57.4&53.4&57.9&64.2&36.4&62.8\\\\\n&R-101&56.68M&77.16G&4.2&54.7&77.3&62.3&37.7&57.1&52.4&55.3&63.6&38.9&60.8\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{PAA \\cite{2020arXiv200708103K}}\n&R-18&\\bf 18.94M&38.84G&3.0&52.6&75.3&58.8&41.3&55.1&50.2&49.9&64.6&35.6&60.5\\\\\n&R-50&31.89M&51.55G&2.9&56.8&79.0&63.8&38.9&58.9&54.9&56.5&66.9&39.9&64.0\\\\\n&R-101&50.89M&71.03G&2.4&56.5&78.5&63.7&40.9&58.7&54.5&55.8&66.5&42.0&61.6\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{FSAF \\cite{zhu2019feature}}\n&R-18&19.53M&38.88G&\\bf 7.4&49.6&74.3&55.1&43.4&51.8&47.5&45.5&63.5&30.3&58.9\\\\\n&R-50&36.02M&51.82G&6.0&54.9&79.3&62.1&46.2&56.7&53.3&53.7&66.4&36.8&62.5\\\\\n&R-101&55.01M&55.01G&4.5&54.6&78.7&61.9&46.0&57.1&52.2&53.0&66.3&38.2&61.1\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{FCOS \\cite{DBLP:journals/corr/abs-1904-01355}}\n&R-18&\\bf 18.94M&38.84G&6.5&48.4&72.8&53.7&30.7&50.9&46.3&46.5&61.5&29.1&56.6\\\\\n&R-50&31.84M&50.34G&5.4&53.0&77.1&59.9&39.7&55.6&50.5&52.3&64.5&35.2&60.0\\\\\n&R-101&50.78M&69.81G&4.2&53.2&77.3&60.1&43.4&55.4&51.2&51.7&64.1&38.5&58.5\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{ATSS \\cite{zhang2019bridging}}\n&R-18&\\bf 18.94M&38.84G&6.0&54.0&76.5&60.9&44.1&56.6&51.4&52.6&65.5&35.8&61.9\\\\\n&R-50&31.89M&51.55G&5.2&58.2&\\bf 80.1&66.5&43.9&60.6&55.9&\\bf 58.6&67.6&41.8&64.6\\\\\n&R-101&50.89M&71.03G&3.8&57.6&79.4&65.3&46.5&60.3&55.0&57.7&67.2&42.6&62.9\\\\\n\\hline \n\n\\multirow{3}{*}{GFL \\cite{li2020generalized}}\n&R-18&19.09M&39.63G&6.3&54.4&75.5&61.9&35.0&57.1&51.8&51.8&66.9&36.5&62.5\\\\\n&R-50&32.04M&52.35G&5.5&\\bf 58.6&79.3&\\bf 66.7&46.5&\\bf 61.6&55.6&\\bf 58.6&\\bf 69.1&41.3&\\bf 65.3\\\\\n&R-101&51.03M&71.82G&4.1&58.3&79.3&65.5&45.1&60.5&\\bf 56.3&57.0&\\bf 69.1&\\bf 43.0&64.0\\\\\n\n\n\\hline \n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{table*}\nTherefore, in terms of accuracy, the accuracy difference between the multi- and the one- stage methods in AP is not obvious, and the AP$_{S}$ of different methods is always the lowest among the three size AP. For class AP, AP$_{Sc}$ lags significantly behind the other three classes because it has the smallest number of instances. In terms of efficiency, large parameters and FLOPs result in low FPS on AGX, with a maximum FPS of 7.4, which is hardly deployable on underwater robot. Finally, we also found that ResNet101 was not significantly improved over ResNet50, which means that a very deep network may not be useful for detecting small creatures in underwater scenarios. \n\nConsequently, the design of high accuracy and high efficiency detector is still the main direction in this field and there is still large space to improve the performance.\nIn order to achieve this goal, a shallow backbone with strong multi-scale feature fusion ability can be proposed to extract the discriminant features of small scale aquatic organisms; a specially designed training strategy may overcome the DUO's long-tail distribution, such as a more reasonable positive/negative label sampling mechanism or a class-balanced image allocation strategy within a training batch.\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nIn this paper, we introduce a dataset (DUO) and a corresponding benchmark to fill in the gaps in the community. DUO contains a variety of underwater scenes and more reasonable annotations. Benchmark includes efficiency and accuracy indicators to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the \\emph{SOTA} decoders. The two contributions could serve as a reference for academic research and industrial applications, as well as promote community development.\n\\bibliographystyle{IEEEbib}\n", "answers": ["URPC2017, URPC2018, URPC2019, URPC2020_ZJ and URPC2020_DL."], "length": 2616, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "b321c147c0e0a8a35ee8738ad89326ecad1509bf591b4233"}
{"input": "Is there any evidence of heaven and hell?", "context": "LOL Anonymous I'm here! & I did answer you back there.\nkl el kotb el qadema (tawrat + enjel + 9o7f ibrahem) 7orfat w t'3ayarat.. law ma 9ar hal shy chan ma 6ala3 ktab yded ye;3y elly gablah l7ad ma 6ala3 lna el quraan b norah elly allah 7f'6ah don ta7ref w tabdel ela yom el dein .. shlon tyeeb Joan shy ma5ooth 5erah?!\n1- Imagine you have two individuals. One truly believes in God but he is a bad husband and father who cheats on his wife and neglects his children. The other man is a nonbeliever; he accepts religion in theory and doctrine but simply does not have faith no matter how hard he tried. He is a good father and a good husband as well. When they stand before God at the Day of Judgment, would the nonbeliever be condemned to eternal hell only for that one flaw in him? Don't the other good traits in that person matter at all? Does being a nonbeliever equal being evil?\n2-God knows everything. However, why would He have created when He knows exactly what each person is going to do and where they will end up? For example, let us suppose that tomorrow I will murder someone. God knows that I will do that. And He knows that I will suffer in hell when the time comes. So why does He purposely inflict that pain on me? To teach me a lesson? He knows the outcome of everything and everyone He has created.\n3-Since you brought up science in the previous comments section, I am seriously curious (I am not trying to be glib) about dinosaurs and prehistoric humans. We have seen the evolution of humans and we have fossils and hard evidence of it. The science world has traced back \"Eve\" to Africa. The concept of Adam and Eve seems too mythological to be 100% factual. It has the same tone of Greek and Ancient Egyptian legends.\n-Note: I am not trying to corner you here, I just want to know your response to my queries and thoughts. Thanks.\n_ ولماذا نصلى ولمن نصلى .. انى لا ارى لصلاتكم هذه اى حكمه ولماذا كل تلك الحركات اما كان يكفى الخشوع..\nاعتقد ان المشكلة ليست كما ذكرت..فما ذكرته يعني ان هناك العديد من المسائل الفقهية المتصلة بالعصر الجديد دون حل. على العكس, فالحلال بين والحرام بين. اعتقد المشكلة تكمن بالمسلمين الذين اصابهم الوهن.\nYou'll be answerd personaly only if; you comment with your blogger's name/nick.\nI answered you before & there was no response from your behalf. Why would you think you're worth an answer from me since you can seek answers from good books?\nYour questions are very simple, with clean cut answers. Don't use the word corner; it indicates things you don't have the first alphabet for!\nReligion was established to calm our fears from the unknown. Freud did write about it in the father figure argument. Try to read it.\nI deleted my last comment because in the end of it I inserted some thing that may offend some people (if you read it, I gauss you know what I mean). Abraham did not believe in God until he saw the birds come to life. So, all what I want is a single prove similar to Abraham.\nI indeed busy doing my homework; I have to solve the energy equation and the continuity equation to come with another, hopefully, exact solution to the problem.\nDo you work? I mean do you have a job, it seems that you are always on line!!!???? It is amazing how some one would stick to the internet. Try to go out more often, play sport or find any other hobby. If you could not disattach yourself from the internet try and seek a professional help… :-). Honestly, I’m not making fun of you it is just an advice… sincere advice.\nI measure prosperity of a nation by the degree of its civilization in comparison to others of its time. Islamic civilization was at the peak during the Umayyad and Abbasid reigns, at the time when Moslems conquered other nations and dying civilizations, and mixed with them, and the new comers in Islam started researching for the truth. In their quest they translated Greek philosophy books and dug into ancient ones. Their search for truth led them to the emergence of chemistry, Algebra and other sciences And their findings excelled them in innovative inventions. The maps and astrolabes that Columbus used to sail on his quest to discover the West years later were taken from the Arabs. And in contrary to the scribbles of their holy book, Arabic books were the first that brought the roundedness of earth to world attention. Arabic language romanticized the rigid Latin, poetry and verse advanced. At one time, civilization was dubbed as Arabization in Andalusia and that was evident in Andalusia’s Christian and Jewish ancient books. Islamic Architecture and their aggregation systems portrayed marvels of their time. Islamic libraries were huge and rich for the European knowledge seekers.\nAnd history tells us that those were the times when Moslems were the furthest from the dogma of their religion, there societies were open to controlled prostitution in the name of dancimng Jawari, and alcohol was openly consumed. We also notice in these periods that struggle for power among them mounted, yet they were the most tolerant to other nations and beliefs. There was nothing Islamic about them at that time, only a name. After that time, the Islamic civilization collapsed and kept deteriorating as people clung more to the their religious beliefs that were diverted through different interpretations.\nAnd based on that; I believe that it’s not only Moslems who missread their religion, the problem stemmed from the core of the religion (Quran and tradition) for being vague and subject to different interpretations. If Quran was the true word of God, then it should have contained the miracle of not being subject to different interpretations, at least to keep Moslems united, and then, one would believe that Islam is suitable for every location and time.\nNothing can give a solid proof of the existence of heaven and hell, yet, nothing can disprove it either. Same goes to God. So the chance remain fifty-fifty. You either believe in it for the sake of taking a lesser risk if you don’t believe in blind faith, or discard it all together. Yet, the possibility is there until proved or disproved. As for now; these cases can only be understood through logic. So let’s reiterate your question and narrow it down to make it closer to something that can be measured.\nIs there any mention of the stories of prophets outside the holy books? Are there any archeological evidences of each prophet’s reign (and I stress prophet’s)? Are there any mention of each prophet in history books outside its holy book, or the books that were based on it’s holy books? Ok, that was too general, let’s narrow it down a bit since your knowledge of your religion, mashallah, especially in reciting Quran is superb.\nIs there any mention of the prophet Mohammad reign in non-Moslem history books other than those referenced to Moslem books? And if there were; did those stories mach? Did archeology of Mohammad’s time match those stories? Did ancient books of other nations confirm those stories? After all Mecca was an open, mid trade center for traders of the South and the North, and supposedly was exposed and open to other nations, and an emergence of a new religion would not have gone unnoticed in the ancient books of those nations.\nThat's why faith is called \"FAITH\" to believe in the unseen, you see.\nkeep in mind that every major religion has gone through various phases from emergence to growth to stagnation to depression and reformation. these are cycles that play out across centuries and i suspect islam is not immune to them.\nislam is unique in that it is truly the last 'great' religion and it is here to stay. the future should be one of consilience and consolidation between religions and peoples.\nat the end of the day - tolerance of thought will be the salvation of mankind.\nI've been asking your first question for as long as I can remember and nobody has given me a convincing answer yet. I also asked the second question verbatim when I was in my high school's Tarbiya Islamiya class, and the teacher had no answer. I kept hounding him until the students yelled at me to shut up and then he kicked me out!\nWe're all adults here, so why can't you answer Anon's query? I still find it amazing that you named yourself after Saint Joan. A Christian (gasp!) who will burn in hell according to some of the comments here.\nAll men are my brothers. I would have liked to have said it then, and I would like to say it now: all men are my brothers. But all men are not my brothers. Why? Because all women are my sisters. And the brother who denies the rights of his sister: that brother is not my brother. At the very best, he is my half-brother - by definition. Osama is not my brother.\nReligion is sensitive ground, as well it might be. Here we walk on eggshells. Because religion is itself an eggshell. Today, in the West, there are no good excuses for religious belief - unless we think that ignorance, reaction and sentimentality are good excuses. This is of course not so in the East, where, we acknowledge, almost every living citizen in many huge and populous countries is intimately defined by religious belief. The excuses, here, are very persuasive; and we duly accept that 'faith' - recently and almost endearingly defined as 'the desire for the approval of supernatural beings' - is a world-historical force and a world-historical actor. All religions, unsurprisingly, have their terrorists, Christian, Jewish, Hindu, even Buddhist. But we are not hearing from those religions. We are hearing from Islam.\nLet us make the position clear. We can begin by saying, not only that we respect Muhammad, but that no serious person could fail to respect Muhammad - a unique and luminous historical being. Judged by the continuities he was able to set in motion, he remains a titanic figure, and, for Muslims, all-answering: a revolutionary, a warrior, and a sovereign, a Christ and a Caesar, 'with a Koran in one hand', as Bagehot imagined him, 'and a sword in the other'. Muhammad has strong claims to being the most extraordinary man who ever lived. And always a man, as he always maintained, and not a god. Naturally we respect Muhammad. But we do not respect Muhammad Atta.\nUntil recently it was being said that what we are confronted with, here, is 'a civil war' within Islam. That's what all this was supposed to be: not a clash of civilisations or anything like that, but a civil war within Islam. Well, the civil war appears to be over. And Islamism won it. The loser, moderate Islam, is always deceptively well-represented on the level of the op-ed page and the public debate; elsewhere, it is supine and inaudible. We are not hearing from moderate Islam. Whereas Islamism, as a mover and shaper of world events, is pretty well all there is.\nSo, to repeat, we respect Islam - the donor of countless benefits to mankind, and the possessor of a thrilling history. But Islamism? No, we can hardly be asked to respect a creedal wave that calls for our own elimination. More, we regard the Great Leap Backwards as a tragic development in Islam's story, and now in ours. Naturally we respect Islam. But we do not respect Islamism, just as we respect Muhammad and do not respect Muhammad Atta.\nالمؤامرات على الأديان وجميع الانقلابات المخربة والثورات على القيم والمبادئ خرجت من هذا التراث .. وان كل معول هدم كان وراءه توجيه يهودي.\n•تذكروا أن الشعب الذي لا يهلك غيره يهلك نفسه.\n•يجب ان نخلق الجيل الذي لا يخجل من كشف عورته (ألا تفسر لنا هذه الجملة موجة العرى في الافلام والموضات التى تسود العالم الآن).\n.علينا ان نشعل حربا بين الشعوب ونضرب الدول بعضها ببعض فبهذا يصبح جميع المتحاربين في حاجة الى أموالنا فنفرض عليهم شروطنا.\n•الجماهير عمياء فاشتروها بالمال وسوقوها كالبهائم الى أهدافكم.\n•سيطروا على الانتخابات ووسائل الاعلام والصحافة (وهم قد سيطروا عليها بالمال والجنس والمرأة في الغرب الرأسمالي وبالحزب والسلطة في العالم الاشتراكي).\n•ادفعوا الجماهير العمياء الى الثورة وسلموهم مقاليد الحكم ليحكموا في غوغائية وغباء (وقد فعلوا هذه في الثورة الفرنسية) وحينئذ نأتي نحن ونعدمهم فنكون منقذين للعالم (وقد اعدموهم جميعاً من روبسبير الى ميرابوا).\n•ارفعوا شعار الحرية واهدموا بها الاخلاق والاسرة والقومية والوطنية.\n.ارفعوا شعار العلم واهدموا به الدين .. وهذا ما فعله كمال أتاتورك (حفيد مزاراحي) حينما اقام الدولة العلمانية في تركيا ووقف يخطب في البرلمان التركي عام 1923 ساخراً من القرآن.\nنحن الآن في القرن العشرين لا نستطيع ان نسير وراء كتاب تشريع يبحث عن التين والزيتون.\n•الذي يعرقل مؤامراتكم اوقعوه في فضائح ثم هددوه بكشفها (وقد فعلوها في ووترجيت) او في مآزق مالية ثم تقدموا لانقاذه (وقد فعلها دزرائيلي مع الخديو واستولى على القنال).. وإذ تعذر الامر سارعوا الى اغتياله (وقد فعلوها بكنيدي) ثم اقتلوا قاتله لتدفنوا اسرارنا معه الى الأبد (وقد فعلوها بقاتل كنيدي).\n•اقتلوا القوميات والوطنيات بالدعوة الى الاممية والمواطنة العالمية وقد فعلها ماركس في الشيوعية.\n•كل ما عدا اليهود حيوانات ناطقة سخرها الله في خدمة اليهود.\nواليهودية ترى ان الله واحد ولكنها تحتكره لنفسها فلا عمل لله الا الحفاظ على اسرائيل وتسخير جميع الشعوب لخدمتها.\nواللاهوت اليهودي لا يؤمن بآخرة، وقد شطبوا كل ما جاء عن الآخرة في التوراة .. والقيامة عندهم هي قيامة دولتهم في فلسطين والبعث بعثها والنشر نشرها .. ويوم الحساب هو اليوم الذي يحاسبون فيه كل الأمم يوم يعود المسيح ويباركهم ويختارهم نواباً له في حكم العالم وإقامة ملكوت الله على الأرض .. والعجيب انهم كفروا بالمسيح حينما جاء ثم أعلنوا إيمانهم بعودته وشرطوا هذه العودة بانها رجعة من المسيح ليختارهم رؤساء وحكاماً للعالم الى الأبد.\nوالفكر اليهودي يلقى غلالة من الأسرار والطلاسم والكتمان والغموض على كل شئ .. والكبالا والسحر وعلم الأعداد والحروف وتسخير الشياطين من علومهم التى شغفوا بها وروجوها ونشروها.\nوكانت وسيلتهم الى هدم الكتب السماوية هى تفسيرها بالتأويل وذلك برفض المعاني الظاهرة واختراع معان باطنة تهدم الغرض الديني وتفسد هدفه.\nونستطيع ان نرى اثر التوجيه الهودي في الفلسفات العبثية والدمية والمادية والفوضية والإباحية .. واحيانا نلمح اسماء يهودية خلفها مثل : سارتر – فرويد – ماركس – ماركوز.\nواذا فتحنا ملف الديانة البهائية فإننا نجد اثر التوجيه اليهودي واضحا في كتبها.\nعبد الهاء تأليف سليم قبعين القاهرة مطبعة العمران 1922.\nمفواضات عبد البهاء الطبعة الاولى 1928م. موعود كل الامم.\nجورج تاوزنه مطبوع بإذن من المحفل الروحاني لمصر والسودان.\n•اكثر فلاسفة اليونان تعلموا الحكمة من بنى اسرائيل.\n•رسالة عبد البهاء هي توحيد المسلمين والنصارى واليهود وجمعهم على أصل نواميس موسى.\n•عمل موسى لا يس", "answers": ["Unknown."], "length": 2490, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "b41aef2d0475f46a78a3168c6c8a614170975f82507cf2e4"}
{"input": "What position did Simon English hold in the 2008 general election?", "context": "Sir Simon William English  (born 30 December 1961) is a New Zealand former National Party politician who served as the 39th prime minister of New Zealand from 2016 to 2017. He had previously served as the 17th deputy prime minister of New Zealand and minister of finance from 2008 to 2016 under John Key and the Fifth National Government.\n\nA farmer and public servant before entering politics, English was elected to the New Zealand Parliament in  as the National Party's candidate in the Wallace electorate. He was elevated to Cabinet in 1996 and in 1999 was made minister of finance, although he served for less than a year due to his party's loss at the 1999 general election. In October 2001, English replaced Jenny Shipley as the leader of the National Party (and consequently as Leader of the Opposition). He led the party to its worst defeat at the 2002 general election, and as a consequence, in October 2003 he was replaced as leader by Don Brash.\n\nIn November 2006, after Brash's resignation, English became deputy leader under John Key. After National's victory at the 2008 general election, he became deputy prime minister and was also made minister of finance for the second time. Under English's direction New Zealand's economy maintained steady growth during National's three terms of government. He became a list-only MP after stepping down as an electorate MP at the 2014 general election.\n\nJohn Key resigned as leader of the National Party and prime minister in December 2016. English won the resulting leadership election unopposed and was sworn in as prime minister on 12 December 2016. His tenure was only ten months, and included a three-month election campaign. In the 2017 general election, National won the largest number of seats but fell short of a majority. The parties holding the balance of power declined to support the existing government, and English was subsequently replaced as prime minister by Jacinda Ardern, leader of the Labour Party. English initially continued on as Leader of the Opposition, but resigned as leader of the National Party on 27 February 2018 and left parliament two weeks later.\n\nEarly life\nEnglish was born on 30 December 1961 at Lumsden Maternity Centre in Lumsden. He is the eleventh of twelve children of Mervyn English and Norah (née O'Brien) English. His parents purchased Rosedale, a mixed sheep and cropping farm in Dipton, Southland from Mervyn's uncle, Vincent English, a bachelor, in 1944. English was born in the maternity unit at Lumsden.\n\nEnglish attended St Thomas's School in Winton, then boarded at St. Patrick's College in Upper Hutt, where he became head boy. He played in the first XV of the school's rugby team. English went on to study commerce at the University of Otago, where he was a resident at Selwyn College, and then completed an honours degree in English literature at Victoria University of Wellington.\n\nAfter finishing his studies, English returned to Dipton and farmed for a few years. From 1987 to 1989, he worked in Wellington as a policy analyst for the New Zealand Treasury, at a time when the free market policies favoured by Labour's finance minister Roger Douglas (known collectively as \"Rogernomics\") were being implemented.\n\nEnglish joined the National Party in 1980, while at Victoria University. He served for a period as chairman of the Southland branch of the Young Nationals, and became a member of the Wallace electorate committee. After moving to Wellington, he served for periods on the Island Bay and Miramar electorate committees, respectively.\n\nFourth National Government (1990–1999)\n\nAt the 1990 general election, English stood as the National candidate in Wallace, replacing the retiring Derek Angus, and was elected with a large majority. He would hold this seat, renamed Clutha-Southland in 1996, until 2014. He and three other newly elected National MPs (Tony Ryall, Nick Smith, and Roger Sowry) were soon identified as rising stars in New Zealand politics, and at various points were dubbed the \"brat pack\", the \"gang of four\", and the \"young Turks\". In his first term in parliament, English chaired a select committee into social services. He was made a parliamentary under-secretary in 1993, serving under the Minister of Health.\n\nFirst period in cabinet (1996–1999)\nIn early 1996, English was elevated to cabinet by Prime Minister Jim Bolger, becoming the Minister for Crown Health Enterprises and Associate Minister of Education (to Wyatt Creech). He was 34 at the time, becoming the cabinet's youngest member. After the 1996 general election, the National Party was forced into a coalition with New Zealand First to retain government. In the resulting cabinet reshuffle, English emerged as Minister of Health. However, as a condition of the coalition agreement, NZ First's Neil Kirton (a first-term MP) was made Associate Minister of Health, effectively becoming English's deputy. This arrangement was described in the press as a \"shotgun marriage\", and there were frequent differences of opinion between the two ministers. After their relationship became unworkable, Kirton was sacked from the role in August 1997, with the agreement of NZ First leader Winston Peters.\n\nAs Minister of Health, English was responsible for continuing the reforms to the public health system that National had begun after the 1990 general election. The reforms were unpopular, and health was perceived as one of the government's weaknesses, with the health portfolio consequently being viewed as a challenge. English believed that the unpopularity of the reforms was in part due to a failure in messaging, and encouraged his National colleagues to avoid bureaucratic and money-focused language (such as references to \"balance sheets\" and \"user charges\") and instead talk about the improvements to services the government's reforms would bring. He also rejected the idea that public hospitals could be run as commercial enterprises, a view which some of his colleagues had previously promoted.\n\nBy early 1997, as dissatisfaction with Bolger's leadership began to grow, English was being touted as a potential successor, along with Jenny Shipley and Doug Graham. His age (35) was viewed as the main impediment to a successful leadership run. National's leadership troubles were resolved in December 1997, when Bolger resigned and Shipley was elected to the leadership unopposed. English had been a supporter of Bolger as leader, but Shipley reappointed him Minister of Health in her new cabinet.\n\nEnglish was promoted to Minister of Finance in a reshuffle in January 1999, a position which was at the time subordinate to the Treasurer, Bill Birch. After a few months, the pair switched positions as part of Birch's transition to retirement, with English assuming the senior portfolio. In early interviews, he emphasised his wish to be seen as a pragmatist rather than an ideologue, and said that the initiatives of some of his predecessors (Roger Douglas's \"Rogernomics\" and Ruth Richardson's \"Ruthanasia\") had focused on \"fruitless, theoretical debates\" when \"people just want to see problems solved\".\n\nOpposition (1999–2008)\n\nAfter the National Party lost the 1999 election to Helen Clark's Labour Party, English continued on in the shadow cabinet as National's spokesperson for finance. He was elected deputy leader of the party in February 2001, following the resignation of Wyatt Creech, with Gerry Brownlee being his unsuccessful opponent.\n\nLeader of the Opposition\nIn October 2001, after months of speculation, Jenny Shipley resigned as leader of the National Party after being told she no longer had the support of the party caucus. English was elected as her replacement unopposed (with Roger Sowry as his deputy), and consequently became Leader of the Opposition. However, he did not openly organise against Shipley, and according to The Southland Times \"there was almost an element of 'aw, shucks, I'll do it then' about Mr English's ascension\".\n\nAged 39 when he was elected, English became the second-youngest leader in the National Party's history, after Jim McLay (who was 38 when elected in 1984). He also became only the third Southlander to lead a major New Zealand political party, after Joseph Ward and Adam Hamilton. However, English failed to improve the party's performance. In the 2002 election, National suffered its worst electoral defeat ever, gaining barely more than twenty percent of the vote. English described it as \"the worst day of my political life\". Both party insiders and the general public were split as to how much to blame him for the loss, but most of the party believed that English would be able to rebuild National's support.\n\nBy late 2003, however, National's performance in opinion polls remained poor. The party had briefly increased its popularity in the year following the election, but by October its support had fallen to levels only slightly better than what it achieved in the last ballot. English also appeared in a boxing match for a charity against entertainer Ted Clarke. This did not boost his polling or that of the National party either, with suggestions that it devalued his image as a serious politician. Don Brash, former governor of the Reserve Bank and a relative newcomer to politics, began to build up support to replace English. On 28 October, Brash gained sufficient backing in Caucus to defeat English in a leadership contest.\n\nShadow cabinet roles and deputy leader\nOn 2 November 2003, when Brash changed responsibilities for certain MPs, English became National's spokesman for education, ranked at fifth place in the party's parliamentary hierarchy. He remained in parliament after the 2005 election. In his new shadow education portfolio, English performed strongly, and remained a party favourite despite his election defeat as leader in 2002, eventually being returned to the finance portfolio in August 2004 as deputy spokesman (while still retaining responsibility for education).\n\nIn November 2006, Brash resigned as leader. English was considered as a potential replacement leader (running against John Key) or deputy leader (against incumbent Gerry Brownlee) in the ensuing leadership election. However, a contest was avoided when the MPs agreed a Key/English ticket would run unopposed in a display of party unity. English took over the deputy leadership and the finance portfolio in the Key shadow cabinet.\n\nFifth National Government (2008–2017)\n\nDeputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance (2008–2016)\n\nAt the 2008 election, English was re-elected by his electorate, winning by a margin of about 15,500 votes. He became Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand and Minister of Finance in the fifth National Government, being sworn into office on 19 November 2008 and continued to serve in those roles until becoming Prime Minister on 12 December 2014. He was also made Minister of Infrastructure in National's first term of government and Minister responsible for Housing New Zealand Corporation and minister responsible for the New Zealand flag consideration process in its third.\n\nHe was comfortably re-elected in Clutha-Southland in the 2011 election but opted to run as a party-list candidate in 2014. \n\nThe pairing of John Key as leader of the National Party and English as his deputy has been compared to that of Bob Hawke and Paul Keating (in Australia) and Tony Blair and Gordon Brown (in the UK).\n\nEnglish acceded to the role of Finance Minister in the continuing wake of the financial crisis. In response to New Zealand's rising debt, English made budget deficit-reduction his main priority. His first budget outlined three focuses in New Zealand's financial recovery: \"improving the business environment and removing roadblocks to growth; investment in productive infrastructure; and improving the way government works\". One of his first acts was creating the National Infrastructure Unit, charged with formulating a plan for infrastructure projects and investments. He commissioned a government-wide spending review, with an aim to reducing government expenditure—with the exceptions of a two-year stimulus package and long-term increases on infrastructure spending.\n\nIn April 2011, the Opposition criticised English for suggesting that New Zealand businesses could use New Zealand's low wages to help it compete with Australia. The National Government campaigned for re-election in 2011 on its economic record. The Government boasted growth for five consecutive quarters up to mid-2010, totalling 1.6% of real GDP.\n\nStrong growth resulted in a surplus of $473 million for the 2015/16 financial year, projected to rise to $8.5 billion by 2020/21. In his 2016 Economic and Fiscal Update address, English stated that reducing debt and tackling the costs of the 2016 Kaikōura earthquake were higher priorities than reducing rates of tax.\n\nAllowances issue\nIn 2009, the media, including TVNZ and TV3 revealed that English was receiving about NZ$900 a week as part of a living allowance for ministers, to live in his own NZ$1.2 million Wellington home. At the time, English also received $276,200 in his annual salary as Deputy Prime Minister. It was also revealed other ministers with homes in the capital city were also claiming accommodation allowances. On 3 August 2009, Prime Minister John Key started a review of the housing allowances claimed by cabinet ministers. English subsequently paid back $12,000 and only claimed about $24,000 a year in living allowances. The Auditor-General's office said in September 2009 that they were making \"preliminary enquiries\" into parliamentary housing expenses in response to a letter of complaint from Progressive party leader Jim Anderton. Two days later English stated that he would no longer take up any housing allowance and had paid back all the allowance he had received since the November 2008 election.\n\nPrime Minister (2016–2017)\n\nJohn Key resigned on 12 December, and endorsed English as his successor in the resulting leadership election. Following the drop-out of both Judith Collins and Jonathan Coleman from the leadership election, English was sworn in as the 39th Prime Minister of New Zealand on 12 December 2016.\n\nEnglish appointed his first cabinet on 18 December. In a reshuffle, he appointed Steven Joyce to succeed him as Finance Minister, while most ministerial portfolios remained the same.\n\nIn February 2017, English did not attend Waitangi Day commemorations at the historic treaty grounds, reportedly in response to the Ngāpuhi iwi's decision to stop the Prime Minister from speaking at the marae. Ngāpuhi have protested the Government's negotiation of the Trans Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPPA), which the iwi believe infringes upon Māori sovereignty, and thus does not adhere to the Treaty of Waitangi. English had been invited to attend in an official capacity; his non-attendance was criticised by a Ngāpuhi elder and Opposition leader Andrew Little.\n\nIn his first overseas trip as Prime Minister, English travelled to Europe to discuss trade ties, including a prospective New Zealand–European Union free trade agreement. He first travelled to London on 13 January 2017 to meet British Prime Minister Theresa May. Discussing trade relations, English said the two nations were \"natural partners\" and would \"continue to forge ties\" after the UK's withdrawal from the EU. He also arranged to meet with London Mayor Sadiq Khan, Belgian Prime Minister Charles Michel and German Chancellor Angela Merkel.  In a meeting with Merkel, English received crucial backing from Germany for a trade deal with the EU. On 16 January, English stated that his government would continue to promote TPPA, despite the United States' decision to withdraw from the agreement. He explained that Southeast Asian countries would now be treated as a priority in negotiations—he also asserted that the United States was ceding influence to China by its rejection of the trade pact.\n\nAt a press conference at the Beehive on 1 February 2017, English announced that the 2017 general election would be held on 23 September. The Prime Minister later confirmed that his party would approach ACT, United Future and the Māori Party if confidence and supply agreements were required to form a government following the election. In his second cabinet reshuffle on 24 April, English appointed Gerry Brownlee as his new Foreign Affairs Minister; he also promoted Nikki Kaye to the portfolio of Education Minister, and moved Mark Mitchell into the cabinet to become Defence Minister. The reshuffle was perceived as an election preparation.\n\nOn 13 February 2017, English welcomed Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull to Wellington. The two leaders reaffirmed their shared trade agenda, and discussed changes to the Australian citizenship pathway which will affect permanent residents originating from New Zealand.\n\nOn 19 June, it was reported that Todd Barclay, who succeeded English as MP for Clutha-Southland, had clandestinely recorded one of his employee's conversations the previous year, and that John Key's leaders' budget was used to pay a confidential settlement after the employee resigned. English admitted that he had been aware of the illegal recording and the settlement, and thus implicated in the scandal.\n\nDuring the 2017 National campaign launch, English introduced a $379 million social investment package including digital learning academies for high school students, more resources for mathematics, and boosting support for teaching second languages in schools, and maintaining National Standards in the school curriculum. Prime Minister English also sought to defend National's financial management and economic track record and claimed that the opposition Labour Party would raise taxes. Early opinion polling had forecast a poor showing in the election for the Labour Party, but in early August 37-year-old Jacinda Ardern took over as Labour leader and seemingly energised younger voters.\n\nAt the 2017 general election, National won the largest share of the party vote (44.4%) and the largest number of seats (56) in the House Representatives. However, National lacked enough seats to govern alone due to two of the party's support partners, the Māori Party and United Future, losing their parliamentary seats. In response, English stated that the party would be entering into talks to form a coalition with New Zealand First. Following talks with the two largest parties, New Zealand First entered a coalition arrangement with the Labour Party. English was succeeded as prime minister by Jacinda Ardern on 26 October.\n\nOpposition (2017–2018)\n\nLeader of the Opposition\nEnglish was re-elected as National Party leader on 24 October 2017. At the time of his re-election, English announced his intention to stay on as leader until the next general election. On 13 February 2018, however, he stood down as National Party leader due to personal reasons, and instructed the party to put into motion the processes to elect a new leader. He also retired from Parliament. English's resignation followed weeks of speculation that he would step aside for a new leader. On 27 February, he was succeeded as party leader by Simon Bridges as the result of the leadership election held that day.\n\nPost-premiership \nIn 2018, English joined the board of Australian conglomerate, Wesfarmers. English serves in Chairmanships of Mount Cook Alpine Salmon, Impact Lab Ltd and Manawanui Support Ltd. He is also a director of The Instillery, Centre for Independent Studies and The Todd Corporation Limited, and is a member of the Impact Advisory Group of Macquarie Infrastructure and Real Assets.\n\nPolitical and social views\n\nEnglish is regarded as more socially conservative than his predecessor, John Key. He has stated his opposition to voluntary euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, same-sex civil unions, and the decriminalisation of prostitution. As Prime Minister he opposed any \"liberalisation\" of abortion law.\n\nIn 2004, English voted against a bill to establish civil unions for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. In 2005, he voted for the Marriage (Gender Clarification) Amendment Bill, which would have amended the Marriage Act to define marriage as only between a man and a woman. English voted against the Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Bill, a bill that legalised same-sex marriage in New Zealand. However, in December 2016 he stated, \"I'd probably vote differently now on the gay marriage issue. I don't think that gay marriage is a threat to anyone else's marriage\".\n\nIn 2009, English voted against the Misuse of Drugs (Medicinal Cannabis) Amendment Bill, a bill aimed at amending the Misuse of Drugs Act so that cannabis could be used for medical purposes.\n\nPersonal life \nEnglish met his future wife, Mary Scanlon, at university. She was studying medicine at the time, and became a general practitioner. Both her parents were immigrants, her father being Samoan and her mother Italian, born on the island of Stromboli. They have six children: a daughter and five sons.\n\nEnglish is a practising Roman Catholic, but has stated that he considers his religious beliefs personal and thus separate from politics.\n\nIn June 2002, English took part in TV3's Fight For Life, a celebrity boxing fundraiser to raise money for the Yellow Ribbon anti-youth-suicide campaign, influenced by the death of a teenage nephew in 1997. He lost a split decision to former university colleague Ted Clarke.\n\nHonours\nIn the 2018 Queen's Birthday Honours, English was appointed a Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services of over 27 years to the State.\n\nSee also\n\nList of New Zealand governments\nPolitics of New Zealand\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nProfile at National Party \nProfile on Parliament.nz\nReleases and speeches at Beehive.govt.nz\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n1961 births\n21st-century New Zealand politicians\nCandidates in the 2017 New Zealand general election\nDeputy Prime Ministers of New Zealand\nLeaders of the Opposition (New Zealand)\nLiving people\nMembers of the Cabinet of New Zealand\nMembers of the New Zealand House of Representatives\nNew Zealand farmers\nNew Zealand finance ministers\nNew Zealand list MPs\nNew Zealand MPs for South Island electorates\nNew Zealand National Party MPs\nNew Zealand National Party leaders\nNew Zealand Roman Catholics\nNew Zealand people of Irish descent\nPeople educated at St. Patrick's College, Silverstream\nPeople from Dipton, New Zealand\nPeople from Lumsden, New Zealand\nPrime Ministers of New Zealand\nUniversity of Otago alumni\nVictoria University of Wellington alumni\nKnights Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit\nNew Zealand politicians awarded knighthoods", "answers": ["He became deputy prime minister and minister of finance."], "length": 3602, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "73debbba53d5848cdc1e726c047bb0b82c5730d747fa710c"}
{"input": "What is the name of the generative interactive model used in the method?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\nIn recent years, vehicular technology has attracted significant attention from the automotive and telecommunication industries, leading to the emergence of vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications for improving road safety, traffic management services and driving comfort.\nV2X supported by the sixth generation (6G) is envisioned to be a key enabler of future connected autonomous vehicles \\cite{9779322}. Although its transformative benefits for leveraging intelligent transportation systems, V2X still face several technical issues mainly related to performance and security.\n\nThe integration of sensing and communication (ISAC) has emerged very recently as a revolutionary element of 6G that could potentially help enabling adaptive learning and intelligent decision-making in future V2X applications.\nThe combination of sensing and communication allows vehicles to perceive their surroundings better, predict manoeuvres from nearby users and make intelligent decisions, thus paving the way toward a safer transportation system \\cite{9665433}.\nModernized vehicles are augmented with various types of sensors divided into exteroceptive to observe their surrounding environment and proprioceptive to observe their internal states.\nThe former like GPS, Lidar, and Cameras are conveyed to improve situational awareness, while latter sensors, such as steering, pedal, and wheel speed, convey to improve self-awareness. \n\nWhile sensing the environment, vehicles can exchange messages that assist in improving situational- and self-awareness and in coordinating maneuvers with other vehicles.\nThose messages like the basic safety (BSMs) and cooperative awareness messages (CAMs) are composed of transmitting vehicle's states such as position and velocity and other vehicles' states in the vicinity. Vehicles might use their sensors, such as cameras and Lidar, to detect road users (e.g., pedestrians), which can be communicated with other road users via the V2X messages to improve the overall performance. However, V2X communication links carrying those messages are inherently vulnerable to malicious attacks due to the open and shared nature of the wireless spectrum among vehicles and other cellular users \\cite{8336901}. For instance, a jammer in the vicinity might alter the information to be communicated to nearby vehicles/users or can intentionally disrupt communication between a platoon of vehicles making the legitimate signals unrecognizable for on-board units (OBUs) and/or road side units (RSUs) that endanger vehicular safety \n\\cite{8553649}.\n\nIn addition, the integrity of GPS signals and the correct acquisition of navigation data to compute position, velocity and time information is critical in V2X applications for their safe operation. However, since civil GPS receivers rely on unencrypted satellite signals, spoofers can easily replicate them by deceiving the GPS receiver to compute falsified positions \\cite{9226611}.\nAlso, the long distance between satellites and terrestrial GPS receivers leads to an extremely weak signal that can be easily drowned out by a spoofer. \nThus, GPS sensors' vulnerability to spoofing attacks poses a severe threat that might be causing vehicles to be out of control or even hijacked and endanger human life \\cite{9881548}.\nTherefore, GPS spoofing attacks and jamming interference needs to be controlled and detected in real-time to reach secured vehicular communications allowing vehicles to securely talk to each other and interact with the infrastructure (e.g., roadside terminals, base stations) \\cite{9860410}.\n\nExisting methods for GPS spoofing detection include GPS signal analysis methods and GPS message encryption methods \\cite{9845684}. However, the former requires the ground truth source during the detection process, which is not always possible to collect. In contrast, the latter involves support from a secured infrastructure and advanced computing resources on GPS receivers, which hinders their adoption in V2X applications. On the other hand, existing methods for jammer detection in vehicular networks are based on analysing the packet drop rate as in \\cite{9484071}, making it difficult to detect an advanced jammer manipulating the legitimate signal instead of disrupting it.\nIn this work, we propose a method to jointly detect GPS spoofing and jamming attacks in the V2X network. A coupled generalized dynamic Bayesian network (C-GDBN) is employed to learn the interaction between RF signals received by the RSU from multiple vehicles and their corresponding trajectories. This integration of vehicles' positional information with vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communications allows semantic learning while mapping RF signals with vehicles' trajectories and enables the RSU to jointly predict the RF signals it expects to receive from the vehicles from which it can anticipate the expected trajectories.\n\nThe main contributions of this paper can be summarized as follows: \\textit{i)} A joint GPS spoofing and jamming detection method is proposed for the V2X scenario, which is based on learning a generative interactive model as the C-GDBN. Such a model encodes the cross-correlation between the RF signals transmitted by multiple vehicles and their trajectories, where their semantic meaning is coupled stochastically at a high abstraction level. \\textit{ii)} A cognitive RSU equipped with the acquired C-GDBN can predict and estimate vehicle positions based on real-time RF signals. This allows RSU to evaluate whether both RF signals and vehicles' trajectories are evolving according to the dynamic rules encoded in the C-GDBN and, consequently, to identify the cause (i.e., a jammer attacking the V2I or a spoofer attacking the satellite link) of the abnormal behaviour that occurred in the V2X environment. \\textit{iii)} Extensive simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method accurately estimates the vehicles' trajectories from the predicted RF signals, effectively detect any abnormal behaviour and identify the type of abnormality occurring with high detection probabilities.\nTo our best knowledge, this is the first work that studies the joint detection of jamming and spoofing in V2X systems.\n\n\\section{System model and problem formulation}\nThe system model depicted in Fig.~\\ref{fig_SystemModel}, includes a single cell vehicular network consisting of a road side unit (RSU) located at $\\mathrm{p}_{R}=[{x}_{R},{y}_{R}]$, a road side jammer (RSJ) located at $\\mathrm{p}_{J}=[{x}_{J},{y}_{J}]$, a road side spoofer (RSS) located at $\\mathrm{p}_{s}=[{x}_{s},{y}_{s}]$ and $N$ vehicles moving along multi-lane road in an urban area. The time-varying positions of the $n$-th vehicle is given by $\\mathrm{p}_{n,t}=[{x}_{n,t},{y}_{n,t}]$ where $n \\in N$. Among the $K$ orthogonal subchannels available for the Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communications, RSU assigns one V2I link to each vehicle. Each vehicle exchanges messages composed of the vehicle's state (i.e., position and velocity) with RSU through the $k$-th V2I link by transmitting a signal $\\textrm{x}_{t,k}$ carrying those messages at each time instant $t$ where $k \\in K$. We consider a reactive RSJ that aims to attack the V2I link by injecting intentional interference to the communication link between vehicles and RSU to alter the transmitted signals by the vehicles. In contrast, the RSS purposes to mislead the vehicles by spoofing the GPS signal and so registering wrong GPS positions. RSU aims to detect both the spoofer on the satellite link and the jammer on multiple V2I links in order to take effective actions and protect the vehicular network. \nThe joint GPS spoofing and jamming detection problem can be formulated as the following ternary hypothesis test:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{cases}\n        \\mathcal{H}_{0}: \\mathrm{z}_{t,k} = \\mathrm{g}_{t,k}^{nR} \\mathrm{x}_{t,k} + \\mathrm{v}_{t,k}, \\\\\n        \\mathcal{H}_{1}: \\mathrm{z}_{t,k} = \\mathrm{g}_{t,k}^{nR} \\mathrm{x}_{t,k} + \\mathrm{g}_{t,k}^{JR} \\mathrm{x}_{t,k}^{j} + \\mathrm{v}_{t,k}, \\\\\n        \\mathcal{H}_{2}: \\mathrm{z}_{t,k} = \\mathrm{g}_{t,k}^{nR} \\mathrm{x}_{t,k}^{*} + \\mathrm{v}_{t,k},\n    \\end{cases}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{H}_{0}$, $\\mathcal{H}_{1}$ and $\\mathcal{H}_{2}$ denote three hypotheses corresponding to the absence of both jammer and spoofer, the presence of the jammer, and the presence of the spoofer, respectively. $\\textrm{z}_{t,k}$ is the received signal at the RSU at $t$ over the $k$-th V2I link, $\\textrm{g}_{t,k}^{nR}$ is the channel power gain from vehicle $n$ to the RSU formulated as: $\\textrm{g}_{t,k}^{nR} = \\alpha_{t,k}^{nR} \\mathrm{h}_{t,k}^{nR}$, where $\\alpha_{t,k}^{nR}$ is the large-scale fading including path-loss and shadowing modeled as \\cite{8723178}: $\\alpha_{t,k}^{nR}=G\\beta d_{t,nR}^{-\\gamma}$.\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[height=5.3cm]{Figures/SystemModel_V1.pdf}\n    \\caption{An illustration of the system model.}\n    \\label{fig_SystemModel}\n\\end{figure}\n$G$ is the pathloss constant, $\\beta$ is a log normal shadow fading random variable, $d_{t,nR}=\\sqrt{({x}_{n,t}-x_{R})^{2}+({y}_{n,t}-y_{R})^{2}}$ is the distance between the $n$-th vehicle and the RSU. $\\gamma$ is the power decay exponent and\n$\\mathrm{h}_{t,k}$ is the small-scale fading component distributed according to $\\mathcal{CN}(0,1)$. In addition, $\\mathrm{x}_{t,k}$ is the desired signal transmitted by the $n$-th vehicle, and $\\mathrm{v}_{t,k}$ is an additive white Gaussian noise with variance $\\sigma_{n}^{2}$. $\\mathrm{x}_{t,k}^{J}$ is the jamming signal, $\\mathrm{x}_{t,k}^{*}$ is the spoofed signal (i.e., the signal that carries the bits related to the wrong GPS positions), $\\mathrm{g}_{t,k}^{JR} = \\alpha_{t,k}^{JR} \\mathrm{h}_{t,k}^{JR}$ is the channel power gain from RSJ to RSU where $\\alpha_{t,k}^{JR}=G\\beta d_{t,JR}^{-\\gamma}$ such that $d_{t,JR}=\\sqrt{({x}_{J}-x_{R})^{2}+({y}_{J}-y_{R})^{2}}$.\nWe assume that the channel state information (CSI) of V2I links is known and can be estimated at the RSU as in \\cite{8345717}. \nThe RSU is equipped with an RF antenna which can track the vehicles' trajectories after decoding the received RF signals. RSU aims to learn the interaction between the RF signals received from multiple vehicles and their corresponding trajectories.\n\n\\section{Proposed method for joint detection of GPS spoofing and jamming}\n\n\\subsection{Environment Representation}\nThe RSU is receiving RF signals from each vehicle and tracking its trajectory (which we refer to as GPS signal) by decoding and demodulating the received RF signals. \nThe Generalized state-space model describing the $i$-th signal evolvement at multiple levels embodies the following equations: \n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq_discreteLevel}\n    \\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{t}}^{(i)} = \\mathrm{f}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{t-1}}^{(i)}) + \\mathrm{\\tilde{w}}_{t},\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq_continuousLevel}\n    \\mathrm{\\Tilde{X}_{t}}^{(i)} = \\mathrm{A} \\mathrm{\\Tilde{X}_{t-1}}^{(i)} + \\mathrm{B} \\mathrm{U}_{\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{t}}^{(i)}} + \\mathrm{\\tilde{w}}_{t},\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq_observationLevel}\n    \\mathrm{\\Tilde{Z}_{t}}^{(i)} = \\mathrm{H} \\mathrm{\\Tilde{X}_{t}}^{(i)} + \\mathrm{\\tilde{v}}_{t},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $i \\in \\{$RF, GPS$\\}$ indicates the type of signal received by the RSU. The transition system model defined in \\eqref{eq_discreteLevel} explains the evolution of the discrete random variables $\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{t}}^{(i)}$ representing the clusters of the RF (or GPS) signal dynamics, $\\mathrm{f}(.)$ is a non linear function of its argument and the additive term $\\mathrm{\\tilde{w}}_{t}$ denotes the process noise. The dynamic model defined in \\eqref{eq_continuousLevel} explains the RF signal dynamics evolution or the motion dynamics evolution of the $n$-th vehicle, where $\\mathrm{\\Tilde{X}_{t}}^{(i)}$ are hidden continuous variables generating sensory signals, $\\mathrm{A} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{2d}$ and $\\mathrm{B} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{2d}$ are the dynamic and control matrices, respectively, and $\\mathrm{U}_{\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{t}}^{(i)}}$ is the control vector representing the dynamic rules of how the signals evolve with time. The measurement model defined in \\eqref{eq_observationLevel} describes dependence of the sensory signals $\\mathrm{\\Tilde{Z}_{t}}^{(i)}$ on the hidden states $\\mathrm{\\Tilde{X}_{t}}^{(i)}$ that is parametrized by the measurement matrix $\\mathrm{B} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{2d}$ where $d$ stands for the data dimensionality and $\\mathrm{\\tilde{v}}_{t}$ is a random noise. \n\n\\subsection{Learning GDBN}\nThe hierarchical dynamic models defined in \\eqref{eq_discreteLevel}, \\eqref{eq_continuousLevel} and \\eqref{eq_observationLevel} are structured in a Generalized Dynamic Bayesian Network (GDBN) \\cite{9858012} as shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig_GDBN_CGDBN}-(a) that provides a probabilistic graphical model expressing the conditional dependencies among random hidden variables and observable states. The generative process explaining how sensory signals have been generated can be factorized as:\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq_generative_process}\n\\begin{split}\n    \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}, \\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}, \\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}) = \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{0}^{(i)}) \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{0}^{(i)}) \\\\ \\bigg[ \\prod_{t=1}^{\\mathrm{T}} \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}) \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t-1}^{(i)}, \\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}) \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t-1}^{(i)}) \\bigg],\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{0}^{(i)})$ and $\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{0}^{(i)})$ are initial prior distributions, $\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)})$ is the likelihood, $\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t-1}^{(i)}, \\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)})$ and $\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t-1}^{(i)})$ are the transition densities describing the temporal and hierarchical dynamics of the generalized state-space model.\nThe generative process defined in \\eqref{eq_generative_process} indicates the cause-effect relationships the model impose on the random variables $\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}$, $\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}$ and $\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}$ forming a chain of causality describing how one state contributes to the production of another state which is represented by the link $\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)} \\rightarrow \\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)} \\rightarrow \\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}$.\n\nThe RSU starts perceiving the environment using a static assumption about the environmental states evolution by assuming that sensory signals are only subject to random noise. Hence, RSU predicts the RF signal (or vehciles trajectory) using the following simplified model:\n$\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)} = \\mathrm{A} \\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t-1}^{(i)} + \\mathrm{\\tilde{w}}_{t}$, \nthat differs from \\eqref{eq_continuousLevel} in the control vector $\\mathrm{U}_{\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{t}}^{(i)}}$ which is supposed to be null, i.e., $\\mathrm{U}_{\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{t}}^{(i)}} = 0$ as the dynamic rules explaining how the environmental states evolve with time are not discovered yet.\nThose rules can be discovered by exploiting the generalized errors (GEs), i.e., the difference between predictions and observations. The GEs projected into the measurement space are calculated as:\n$\\tilde{\\varepsilon}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}}^{} = \\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)} - \\mathrm{H} \\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}$.\nProjecting $\\tilde{\\varepsilon}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_t}^{}$ back into the generalized state space can be done as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{GE_continuousLevel_initialModel}\n    \\tilde{\\varepsilon}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_t}^{(i)} = \\mathrm{H}^{-1}\\tilde{\\varepsilon}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}}^{}=\\mathrm{H}^{-1}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}-\\mathrm{H}\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}) = \\mathrm{H}^{-1}\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)} - \\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}.\n\\end{equation}\nThe GEs defined in \\eqref{GE_continuousLevel_initialModel} can be grouped into discrete clusters in an unsupervised manner by employing the Growing Neural Gas (GNG). The latter produces a set of discrete variables (clusters) denoted by:\n$\\mathbf{\\tilde{S}^{(i)}}=\\{\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{1}^{(i)},\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{2}^{(i)},\\dots,\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{M_{i}}^{(i)}\\}$,\nwhere $M_{i}$ is the total number of clusters and each cluster $\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{m}^{(i)} \\in \\mathbf{\\tilde{S}^{(i)}}$ follows a Gaussian distribution composed of GEs with homogeneous properties, such that $\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{m}^{(i)} \\sim \\mathcal{N}(\\tilde{\\mu}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{m}^{(i)}}=[\\mu_{\\tilde{S}_{m}^{(i)}}, \\Dot{\\mu}_{\\tilde{S}_{m}^{(i)}}], \\Sigma_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{m}^{(i)}})$.\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.40\\linewidth}\n        \\centering\n           \\includegraphics[width=2.5cm]{Figures/GDBN.pdf}\n        \\\\[-1.0mm]\n        {\\scriptsize (a)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.50\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=5.0cm]{Figures/C_GDBN.pdf}\n           \n            {\\scriptsize (b)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\caption{(a) The GDBN. (b) The coupled GDBN (C-GDBN) composed of two GDBNs representing the two signals received at the RSU where their discrete hidden variables are stochastically coupled.}\n        \\label{fig_GDBN_CGDBN}\n    \\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\nThe dynamic transitions of the sensory signals among the available clusters can be captured in a time-varying transition matrix ($\\Pi_{\\tau}$) by estimating the time-varying transition probabilities $\\pi_{ij}=\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}=i|\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t-1}^{(i)}=j, \\tau)$ where $\\tau$ is the time spent in $\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t-1}^{(i)}=j$ before transition to $\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}=i$.\n\n\\subsection{Learning Coupled GDBN (C-GDBN)}\nThe learning procedure described in the previous section can be executed for each signal type, i.e., RF and GPS. After learning a separated GDBN model for each signal type, we analyse the interaction behaviour between RF signal and GPS signal received at the RSU by tracking the cluster firing among $\\mathbf{\\tilde{S}^{(1)}}$ and $\\mathbf{\\tilde{S}^{(2)}}$ during a certain experience. Such an interaction can be encoded in a Coupled GDBN (C-GDBN) as shown in Fig.\\ref{fig_GDBN_CGDBN}-(b) composed of the two GDBNs representing the two signals where their hidden variables at the discrete level are stochastically coupled (in $\\mathrm{\\tilde{C}}_{t}{=}[\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(1)},\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(2)}]$) as those variables are uncorrelated but have coupled means.\nThe interactive matrix $\\Phi \\in \\mathbb{R}^{M_{1},M_{2}}$ encodes the firing cluster pattern allowing to predict the GPS signal from RF signal is defined as follows:\n\\begin{equation} \\label{interactiveTM_fromRFtoGPS}\n\\Phi = \n        \\begin{bmatrix} \n            \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{1}}^{(2)}|\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{1}}^{(1)}) & \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{2}}^{(2)}|\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{1}}^{(1)}) & \\dots & \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{M_{2}}}^{(2)}|\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{1}}^{(1)}) \\\\\n            \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{1}}^{(2)}|\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{2}}^{(1)}) & \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{2}}^{(2)}|\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{2}}^{(1)}) & \\dots & \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{M_{2}}}^{(2)}|\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{2}}^{(1)}) \\\\\n            \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n            \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{1}}^{(2)}|\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{M_{1}}}^{(1)}) & \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{2}}^{(2)}|\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{M_{1}}}^{(1)}) & \\dots & \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{M_{2}}}^{(2)}|\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{M_{1}}}^{(1)}) \n        \\end{bmatrix}.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\subsection{Joint Prediction and Perception}\nRSU starts predicting the RF signals it expects to receive from each vehicle based on a Modified Markov Jump Particle Filter (M-MJPF) \\cite{9858012} that combines Particle filter (PF) and Kalman filter (KF) to perform temporal and hierarchical predictions. Since the acquired C-GDBN allows predicting a certain signal's dynamic evolution based on another's evolution, it requires an interactive Bayesian filter capable of dealing with more complicated predictions. To this purpose, we propose to employ an Interactive M-MJPF (IM-MJPF) on the C-GDBN. The IM-MJPF consists of a PF that propagates a set of $L$ particles equally weighted, such that $\\{\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t,l}^{(1)}, \\mathrm{W}_{t,l}^{(1)}\\}{\\sim}\\{\\pi(\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(1)}), \\frac{1}{L}\\}$, where $\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t,l}^{(1)}$, $l \\in L$ and $(.^{(1)})$ is the RF signal type. In addition, RSU relies on $\\Phi$ defined in \\eqref{interactiveTM_fromRFtoGPS} to predict $\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(2)}$ realizing the discrete cluster of vehicle's trajectory starting from the predicted RF signal according to: $\\{\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(2)},\\mathrm{W}_{t,l}^{(2)}\\}{\\sim} \\{\\Phi(\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t,l}^{(1)}){=}\\mathrm{P}(.|\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t,l}^{(1)}), \\mathrm{W}_{t,l}^{(2)}\\}$. For each predicted discrete variable $\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t,l}^{(i)}$, a multiple KF is employed to predict multiple continuous variables which guided by the predictions at the higher level as declared in \\eqref{eq_continuousLevel} that can be represented probabilistically as $\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t-1}^{(i)}, \\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)})$. The posterior probability that is used to evaluate expectations is given by:\n\\begin{multline} \\label{piX}\n    \\pi(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)})=\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)},\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t-1}^{(i)})= \\\\ \\int \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t-1}^{(i)}, \\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}) \\lambda(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t-1}^{(i)})d\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t-1}^{(i)},\n\\end{multline}\nwhere $\\lambda(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t-1}^{(i)}){=}\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t-1}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t-1}^{(i)})$. \nThe posterior distribution can be updated (and so representing the updated belief) after having seen the new evidence $\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}$ by exploiting the diagnostic message $\\lambda(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)})$ in the following form: $\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}, \\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}) {=} \\pi(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)})\\lambda(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)})$. Likewise, belief in discrete hidden variables can be updated according to: $\\mathrm{W}_{t,l}^{(i)}{=}\\mathrm{W}_{t,l}^{(i)}\\lambda (\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)})$ where:\n$\\lambda (\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}) {=} \\lambda (\\mathrm{\\Tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)})\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)}) {=} \\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\Tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)})\\mathrm{P}(\\mathrm{\\Tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)}|\\mathrm{\\tilde{S}}_{t}^{(i)})$.\n\n\\subsection{Joint GPS spoofing and jamming detection}\nRSU can evaluate the current situation and identify if V2I is under attack, or the satellite link is under spoofing based on a multiple abnormality indicator produced by the IM-MJPF. The first indicator calculates the similarity between the predicted RF signal and the observed one, which is defined as:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq_CLA1}\n    \\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}} = -ln \\bigg( \\mathcal{BC} \\big(\\pi(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}),\\lambda(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}) \\big) \\bigg),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{BC}(.){=}\\int \\sqrt{\\pi(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}),\\lambda(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}})d\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}$ is the Bhattacharyya coefficient.\nThe second indicator calculates the similarity between the predicted GPS signal (from the RF signal) and the observed one after decoding the RF signal which is defined as:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq_CLA2}\n    \\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}} = -ln \\bigg( \\mathcal{BC} \\big(\\pi(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}),\\lambda(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}) \\big) \\bigg),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{BC}(.){=}\\int \\sqrt{\\pi(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}),\\lambda(\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}})d\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}$.\nDifferent hypotheses can be identified by the RSU to understand the current situation whether there is: a jammer attacking the V2I link, or a spoofer attacking the link between the satellite and the vehicle or both jammer and spoofer are absent according to:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{cases}\n        \\mathcal{H}_{0}: \\text{if} \\ \\ \\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}} < \\xi_{1} \\ \\text{and} \\ \\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}} < \\xi_{2}, \\\\\n        \\mathcal{H}_{1}: \\text{if} \\ \\ \\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}} \\geq \\xi_{1} \\ \\text{and} \\ \\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}} \\geq \\xi_{2}, \\\\\n        \\mathcal{H}_{2}: \\text{if} \\ \\ \\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}} < \\xi_{1} \\ \\text{and} \\ \\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}} \\geq \\xi_{2},\n    \\end{cases}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\xi_{1} = \\mathbb{E}[\\Bar{\\Upsilon}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}}] + 3\\sqrt{\\mathbb{V}[\\Bar{\\Upsilon}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}}]}$, and $\\xi_{2} = \\mathbb{E}[\\Bar{\\Upsilon}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}}] + 3\\sqrt{\\mathbb{V}[\\Bar{\\Upsilon}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}}]}$. In $\\xi_{1}$ and $\\xi_{2}$, $\\Bar{\\Upsilon}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}}$ and $\\Bar{\\Upsilon}_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}}$ stand for the abnormality signals during training (i.e., normal situation when jammer and spoofer are absent).\n\n\\subsection{Evaluation metrics}\nIn order to evaluate the performance of the proposed method to jointly detect jammer and GPS spoofer, we adopt the jammer detection probability ($\\mathrm{P}_{d}^{j}$) and the spoofer detection probability ($\\mathrm{P}_{d}^{s}$), respectively, which are defined as:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathrm{P}_{d}^{j} = \\mathrm{Pr}(\\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}}\\geq \\xi_{1}, \\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}} \\geq \\xi_{2}|\\mathcal{H}_{1}),\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathrm{P}_{d}^{s} = \\mathrm{Pr}(\\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(1)}}< \\xi_{1}, \\Upsilon_{\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(2)}} \\geq \\xi_{2}|\\mathcal{H}_{2}).\n\\end{equation}\nAlso, we evaluate the accuracy of the proposed method in predicting and estimating the vehicles' trajectories and the expected RF signals by adopting the root mean square error (RMSE) defined as:\n\\begin{equation}\n    RMSE = \\sqrt{ \\frac{1}{T} \\sum_{t=1}^{T}\\bigg( \\mathrm{\\tilde{Z}}_{t}^{(i)}-\\mathrm{\\tilde{X}}_{t}^{(i)} \\bigg)^{2} },\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $T$ is the total number of predictions.\n\n\\section{Simulation Results}\nIn this section, we evaluate the performance of the proposed method to jointly detect the jammer and the spoofer using extensive simulations. We consider $\\mathrm{N}=2$ vehicles interacting inside the environment and exchanging their states (i.e., position and velocity) with the RSU. The vehicles move along predefined trajectories performing various maneuvers which are picked from the \\textit{Lankershim} dataset proposed by \\cite{5206559}. The dataset depicts a four way intersection and includes about $19$ intersection maneuvers. RSU assigns one subchannel realizing the V2I link for each vehicle over which the vehicles' states are transmitted. The transmitted signal carrying the vehicle's state and the jamming signal are both QPSK modulated. \nThe simulation settings are: carrier frequency of $2$GHz, BW${=}1.4$MHz, cell radius of $500$m, RSU antenna height and gain is $25$m and $8$ dBi, receiver noise figure of $5$dB, vehicle antenna height and gain is $1.5$m and $3$dBi, vehicle speed is $40$Km/h, V2I transmit power is $23$dBm, jammer transmit power ranging from $20$dBm to $40$dBm, SNR of $20$dB, path loss model ($128.1{+}37.6log d$), Log-normal shadowing with $8$dB standard deviation and a fast fading channel following the Rayleigh distribution.\n\\begin{figure}[ht!]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.55\\linewidth}\n        \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=5.0cm]{Results/ObservedTrajectories_reference}\n        \\\\[-1.5mm]\n        {\\scriptsize (a)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.9cm]{Results/ObservedRFsignal_Veh1_reference}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (b)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.9cm]{Results/ObservedRFsignal_Veh2_reference}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (c)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\caption{An example visualizing the received RF signals from the two vehicles and the corresponding trajectories: (a) Vehicles' trajectories, (b) received RF signal from vehicle 1, (c) received RF signal from vehicle 2.}\n        \\label{fig_receivedRFsignalandTrajectory}\n    \\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n                \\includegraphics[width=4.5cm]{Results/clusters_trajectory_veh1}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (a)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n                \\includegraphics[width=4.5cm]{Results/clusters_trajectory_veh2}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (b)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{0.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.5cm]{Results/clusters_RFsignal_veh1}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (c)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{0.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.5cm]{Results/clusters_RFsignal_veh2}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (d)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n       \n        \\caption{GNG output after clustering the generalized errors obtained from different experiences: (a) clustered trajectory of vehicle 1, (b) clustered trajectory of vehicle 2, (c) clustered RF signal received from vehicle 1, (d) clustered RF signal received from vehicle 2.}\n        \\label{fig_GNG_of_receivedRFsignalandTrajectory}\n    \\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe RSU aims to learn multiple interactive models (i.e., C-GDBN models) encoding the cross relationship between the received RF signal from each vehicle and its corresponding trajectory. These models allow the RSU to predict the trajectory the vehicle will follow based on the received RF signal and evaluate whether the V2I is under jamming attacks or the satellite link is under spoofing. It is to note that the RSU is receiving only the RF signals from the two vehicles and obtaining their positions after decoding the RF signals. Thus, the RSU should be able to evaluate if the received RF signals are evolving according to the dynamic rules learned so far and if the vehicles are following the expected (right) trajectories to decide whether the V2I links are really under attack or whether the satellite link is under spoofing.\n\nFig.~\\ref{fig_receivedRFsignalandTrajectory}-(a) illustrates an example of the interaction between the two vehicles performing a particular manoeuvre, and Fig.~\\ref{fig_receivedRFsignalandTrajectory}-(b) shows the received RF signals by the RSU from the two vehicles. At the beginning of the learning process, RSU performs predictions according to the simplified model defined in \\eqref{eq_continuousLevel} where $\\mathrm{U}_{\\mathrm{\\Tilde{S}_{t}}^{(i)}} {=} 0$.\nAfter obtaining the generalized errors as pointed out in \\eqref{GE_continuousLevel_initialModel}, RUS clusters those errors using GNG to learn two GDBN models encoding the dynamic rules of how the RF signal and the GPS signal evolve with time, respectively, as showed in Fig.~\\ref{fig_GNG_of_receivedRFsignalandTrajectory} and Fig.~\\ref{fig_graphicalRep_transitionMatrices}. RSU can couple the two GDBNs by learning the interactive transition matrix that is encoded in a C-GDBN as shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig_interactiveMatrices}.\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n                \\includegraphics[width=4.5cm]{Results/graphTransition_Trajectory_veh1}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (a)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n                \\includegraphics[width=4.5cm]{Results/graphTransition_Trajectory_veh2}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (b)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{0.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.5cm]{Results/graphTransition_RFsignal_veh1}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (c)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{0.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.5cm]{Results/graphTransition_RFsignal_veh2}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (d)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\caption{Graphical representation of the transition matrices (TM): (a) TM related to the trajectory of vehicle 1, (b) TM related to the trajectory of vehicle 2, (c) TM related to the RF signal received from vehicle 1, (d) TM related to the RF signal received from vehicle 2.}\n        \\label{fig_graphicalRep_transitionMatrices}\n    \\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n                \\includegraphics[width=3.8cm]{Results/interactiveMatrix_RFtoGPS_Neu5_veh1}\n            \\\\[-1.0mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (a)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{0.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=3.8cm]{Results/interactiveMatrix_RFtoGPS_Neu25_veh1}\n            \\\\[-1.0mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (d)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n       \n        \\caption{Interactive transition matrix defined in \\eqref{interactiveTM_fromRFtoGPS} using different configurations: (a) $\\mathrm{M_{1}}=5$, $\\mathrm{M_{2}}=5$, (b) $\\mathrm{M_{1}}=25$, $\\mathrm{M_{2}}=25$.}\n        \\label{fig_interactiveMatrices}\n    \\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.49\\linewidth}\n        \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.9cm]{Results/RF_situation1_best_veh1}\n        \\\\[-1.5mm]\n        {\\scriptsize (a)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{0.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.9cm]{Results/RF_situation1_worst_veh1}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (b)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{0.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.9cm]{Results/RF_situation1_best_veh2}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (c)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{0.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.9cm]{Results/RF_situation1_worst_veh2}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (d)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\caption{An example visualizing the predicted and observed RF signals transmitted by the 2 vehicles using different configurations. Predicted RF signal from: (a) vehicle 1 using $\\mathrm{M_{1}}{=}5$, $\\mathrm{M_{2}}{=}5$, (b) vehicle 1 using $\\mathrm{M_{1}}{=}25$, $\\mathrm{M_{2}}{=}25$, (c) vehicle 2 using $\\mathrm{M_{1}}{=}5$, $\\mathrm{M_{2}}{=}5$, (d) vehicle 2 using $\\mathrm{M_{1}}{=}25$, $\\mathrm{M_{2}}{=}25$.}\n            \\label{fig_situation1_PredictedRF}\n    \\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.49\\linewidth}\n        \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.8cm]{Results/GPSfromRF_situation1_best}\n        \\\\[-1.0mm]\n        {\\scriptsize (a)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{0.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.8cm]{Results/GPSfromRF_situation1_worst}\n            \\\\[-1.0mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (b)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        %\n        \\caption{An example visualizing the predicted and observed trajectories of two vehicles interacting in the environment. (a) $\\mathrm{M_{1}}{=}5$, $\\mathrm{M_{2}}{=}5$, (b) $\\mathrm{M_{1}}{=}25$, $\\mathrm{M_{2}}{=}25$.}\n            \\label{fig_situation1_VehiclesTrajectories}\n    \\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht!]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.49\\linewidth}\n        \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.8cm]{Results/rmse_on_trajectory}\n        \\\\[-1.0mm]\n        {\\scriptsize (a)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{0.49\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[width=4.8cm]{Results/rmse_on_RFSignal}\n            \\\\[-1.0mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (b)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\caption{The average RMSE after testing different experiences and examples of: (a) trajectories and (b) RF signals.}\n            \\label{fig_rmse_onTraj_onSig}\n    \\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFig.~\\ref{fig_situation1_PredictedRF} illustrates an example comparing between predicted RF signals and observed ones based on two different configurations in learning the interactive matrix (as shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig_interactiveMatrices}). Also, Fig.~\\ref{fig_situation1_VehiclesTrajectories} illustrates an example comparing between the predicted and observed trajectories of the two vehicles using the two interactive matrices depicted in Fig.~\\ref{fig_interactiveMatrices}. From Fig.~\\ref{fig_situation1_PredictedRF} and Fig.~\\ref{fig_situation1_VehiclesTrajectories} we can see that using an interactive matrix with less clusters allows to perform better predictions compared to that with more clusters. This can be validated by observing Fig.~\\ref{fig_rmse_onTraj_onSig} that illustrates the RMSE values versus different number of clusters related to the two models representing the dynamics of the received RF signals and the vehicles' trajectories. It can be seen that as the number of clusters increases the RMSE error increases, since adding more clusters decreases the firing probability that explains the possibility to be in one of the $M_{2}$ clusters of the second model conditioned in being in a certain cluster of the first model.\n\nFig.~\\ref{fig_exNormal_Spoofed_JammedTrajectories} illustrates an example of vehicle's trajectory under normal situation (i.e., jammer and spoofer are absent), under jamming attacks and under spoofing attacks. Also the figure shows the predicted trajectory which should follow the same dynamic rules learned during a normal situation. After that, we implemented the IM-MJPF on the learned C-GDBN to perform multiple predictions, i.e., to predict the RF signal that the RSU is expecting to receive from a certain vehicle and the corresponding trajectory that the vehicle is supposed to follow. IM-MJPF through the comparison between multiple predictions and observations, produces multiple abnormality signals as defined in \\eqref{eq_CLA1} and \\eqref{eq_CLA2} which are used to detect the jammer and the spoofer.\n\nFig.~\\ref{fig_abnormalitySignals_JammerSpoofer} illustrates the multiple abnormality signals related to the example shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig_exNormal_Spoofed_JammedTrajectories}. We can observe that the abnormal signals related to both RF signal (Fig.~\\ref{fig_abnormalitySignals_JammerSpoofer}-(a)) and trajectory (Fig.~\\ref{fig_abnormalitySignals_JammerSpoofer}-(b)) are below the threshold under normal situations. This proves that RSU learned the correct dynamic rules of how RF signals and trajectories evolve when the jammer and spoofer are absent (i.e., under normal situations). Also, we can see that the RSU can notice a high deviation on both the RF signal and the corresponding trajectory due to a jamming interference from what it has learned so far by relying on the abnormality signals. In contrast, we can see that under spoofing attacks, RSU notice a deviation only on the trajectory and not on the RF signal since the spoofer has affected only the positions without manipulating the RF signal. In addition, it is obvious how the proposed method allows the RSU to identify the type of abnormality occurring and to explain the cause of the detected abnormality (i.e., understanding if it was because of a jammer attacking the V2I link or a spoofer attacking the satellite link).\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=6.5cm]{Results/trajectories_underJamming_andSpoofing}\n   \n    \\caption{Vehicle's trajectory under: normal situation, jamming and spoofing.}\n    \\label{fig_exNormal_Spoofed_JammedTrajectories}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.92\\linewidth}\n        \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[height=2.6cm]{Results/abnSignal_onRF}\n        \\\\[-1.5mm]\n        {\\scriptsize (a)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        \\begin{minipage}[b]{.92\\linewidth}\n            \\centering\n            \\includegraphics[height=2.6cm]{Results/abnSignal_onGPS}\n            \\\\[-1.5mm]\n            {\\scriptsize (b)}\n        \\end{minipage}\n        %\n        \\caption{Abnormality Signals related to the example shown in Fig.\\ref{fig_exNormal_Spoofed_JammedTrajectories}: (a) abnormality indicators related to the RF signal, (b) abnormality indicators related to the trajectory.}\n            \\label{fig_abnormalitySignals_JammerSpoofer}\n    \\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[height=3.2cm]{Results/Detection_Probability_RFfromGPS_versusPj}\n    \\caption{Detection probability ($\\mathrm{P_{d}}$) versus jammer's power ($\\mathrm{P_{J}}$) using different number of clusters $\\mathrm{M}_{2}$.}\n    \\label{fig_jammerDetectionProb}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[height=3.2cm]{Results/spoofingDetectionProbability_falseAlarm_versusM2}\n    \\caption{Spoofing detection probability ($\\mathrm{P}_{d}^{s}$) and spoofing false alarm ($\\mathrm{P}_{f}^{s}$) versus the number of clusters $\\mathrm{M}_{2}$.}\n    \\label{fig_spooferDetectionProb}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFig.~\\ref{fig_jammerDetectionProb} shows the overall performance of the proposed method in detecting the jammer by testing many situations and examples and by considering different jamming powers which ranges from $20$dBm to $40$dBm. It can be seen that the proposed method is able to detect the jammer with high probabilities (near $1$) and by considering low and high jamming powers. Also, the figure compares the performance in detecting the jammer by varying the number of clusters ($M_{2}$).\nFig.~\\ref{fig_spooferDetectionProb} shows the overall performance of the proposed method in detecting the spoofer by testing different different examples of driving maneuvers. It can be seen that the RSU is able to detect the spoofer with high detection probability and null false alarm versus different number of clusters.\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nA joint detection method of GPS spoofing and jamming attacks is proposed. The method is based on learning a dynamic interactive model encoding the cross-correlation between the received RF signals from multiple vehicles and their corresponding trajectories. Simulation results show the high effectiveness of the proposed approach in jointly detecting the GPS spoofer and jammer attacks. \nSubsequent work will extend the system model to consider more than two vehicles with different channel conditions and various modulation schemes to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed method.\n\n\\bibliographystyle{IEEEtran}\n", "answers": ["The generative interactive model used in the method is called the Coupled Generalized Dynamic Bayesian Network (C-GDBN)."], "length": 4482, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "2d0e8d88c8dcd187eb0590fb072f6a69bd774c9aa029246b"}
{"input": "How does a media application determine the context of an event?", "context": "2015-05-14 Assigned to ROVI GUIDES, INC. reassignment ROVI GUIDES, INC. MERGER (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: TV GUIDE, INC.\n2015-05-14 Assigned to UV CORP. reassignment UV CORP. MERGER (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: UNITED VIDEO PROPERTIES, INC.\n2015-05-14 Assigned to TV GUIDE, INC. reassignment TV GUIDE, INC. MERGER (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: UV CORP.\nMethods and systems are described herein for quickly and easily displaying supplemental information about an event occurring in a media asset. In some embodiments, a media application may use a content-recognition module to determine the context of an event and distribute itemized tasks to multiple entities in order to generate the supplemental information about the event.\nWhile viewing media assets (e.g., a television program), users may wish to learn more information about an event (e.g., a statement made by a person appearing in the media asset, the validity of a claim in an advertisement, etc.) occurring in the media asset. While some media assets allow a user to select additional options or added features (e.g., pop-up biographies about the cast and crew), when the added features appear and what topic the added features concern are determined by the content producer and not the user. Furthermore, as the added feature is derived from the content producer, the added feature may be biased or may present limited viewpoints about an event. Therefore, added features provided by a content producer may not provide the added information about an event that a user desires.\nIn order to gain the added information that a user desires, the user may use additional devices (e.g., a laptop computer) to search (e.g., using an Internet search engine) for more information about the event. However, without knowing the proper context (e.g., who said the statement, what was the tone of the statement, when was the statement said, etc.) of the event or what search terms to use to describe the context of the event (e.g., how to describe the tone of the statement), a user may not be able to determine (even using a search engine) more information about the event. Moreover, the use of general search terms may not provide the accuracy or precision needed by the user. Furthermore, even if a user may eventually determine the information, the effort and time required may distract the user from the media asset.\nAccordingly, methods and systems are described herein for quickly and easily displaying supplemental information about an event occurring in a media asset. In some embodiments, a media application may use a content-recognition module to determine the context of an event in a media asset and distribute itemized tasks to multiple users in order to generate the supplemental information about the event. The context-recognition module prevents the user from being distracted from the media asset (e.g., while the user attempts to describe the context of the event or search for information about the event). In addition, by distributing tasks to multiple entities (e.g., crowd-sourcing), the media application may collect large amounts of information in relatively short periods of time (or in real-time) and aggregate and/or filter the information to generate the supplemental information about the event based on multiple viewpoints and/or sources. By using multiple viewpoints and/or sources, the media application enhances the completeness (e.g., by providing unbiased information) and accuracy of the supplemental information.\nFor example, when a statement or action is made by a character or person appearing on a media asset (e.g., a television program), a user may request supplemental information about the statement or action. In response, the media application may determine the context of the statement (e.g., who said the statement and to what the statement was referring) or action (e.g., what was the reason for the action). After determining the context of the statement or action, the media application may itemize into tasks the additional information it requires in order to generate the supplemental information. The media application may then transmit requests including the tasks to a plurality of other users. Based on the responses from the plurality of other users, the media application may generate the supplemental information for display to the user.\nIn some embodiments, a media application may use multiple types of content-recognition modules and/or algorithms to determine the context of an event. For example, the media application may process data associated with the event in order to determine the context of an event. In some embodiments, processing the various types of data may include cross-referencing the data in a database indicating the different contexts the event may have.\nIn some embodiments, a media application may generate supplemental information about an event in a media asset in response to a user request. In order to generate the supplemental information, the media application may transmit, to multiple users, a request for additional information regarding a context of an event shown in a media asset. Upon receiving messages from the plurality of users that include the requested additional information, the media application may generate the supplemental information associated with the context of the event based on the messages.\nIt should be noted, the systems and/or methods described above may be applied to, or used in accordance with, other systems, methods and/or apparatuses.\nFIG. 9 is a flowchart of illustrative steps for generating supplemental information based on additional information provided by a plurality of users in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure.\nAccordingly, methods and systems are described herein for quickly and easily displaying supplemental information about an event occurring in a media asset. The methods and systems described herein alleviate the need for a user to determine the proper context (e.g., who said a statement, what was the tone of the statement, when was the statement said, etc.) of an event in a media asset, or the search terms to use to describe the event (e.g., the proper search terms to describe the tone of the statement), in order to determine more information about the event. In addition, the methods and systems increase the completeness and accuracy of the information compared to information gathered using traditional searching methods (e.g., an Internet search engine), without distracting the user from the media asset.\nIn some embodiments, a media application may receive a user input from a user device for supplemental information about the context of an event shown in a media asset. The media application may determine additional information required to generate the supplemental information about the context of the event shown in a media asset, and transmit requests for the additional information to one or more users. The media application may receive one or more messages, which include the requested additional information, from the one or more users and generate the supplemental information based on the one or more message. The media application may then instruct the user device to display the supplemental information.\nAs used herein, “supplemental information” refers to any information related to or associated with an event in a media asset. For example, supplemental information may include, but is not limited to, the verification of a statement or claim in a media asset, further descriptions and/or information about objects or entities shown and/or described in a media asset, and/or any other information, including, but not limited to, a video or audio segment, that may interest a user about an event in a media asset. In some embodiments, the media application may generate supplemental information based on one or more pieces of additional information.\nAs used herein, “additional information” refers to any information used to generate supplemental information. For example, in an embodiment in which supplement information is the verification of a statement made by a person displayed in a media asset, and a request for the additional information from the media application includes a request for a fact needed to verify the factual basis of the statement, the additional information may be the fact used to verify the statement. For example, if an advertisement claims to have the best product on the market, the media application may use additional information such as the name of the product in question, a list of all other products in the market, and the results of a comparison study of the product in question to all other products to determine whether or not the product is actually the “best” product on the market. Additionally or alternatively, the media application may request industry and/or user reviews related to the event (e.g., reviews indicating the quality of the product). The media application may then use the information in the reviews to generate the supplemental information.\nAs used herein, an “event” is any action (e.g., a verbal statement, opinion and/or physical movement), segment (e.g., a portion of a news broadcast featuring a particular topic), or other occurrence during a media asset that may be of particular interest to a user. For example, in some embodiments an event may be a statement or gesture made by a character or person in a media asset affirming or denying a claim.\nAs referred to herein, the terms “media asset” and “content” should be understood to mean an electronically consumable user asset, such as television programming, as well as pay-per-view programs, on-demand programs (as in video-on-demand (VOD) systems), Internet content (e.g., streaming content, downloadable content, Webcasts, etc.), video clips, audio, content information, pictures, rotating images, documents, playlists, websites, articles, books, electronic books, blogs, advertisements, chat sessions, social media, applications, games, and/or any other media or multimedia and/or combination of the same. Media applications also allow users to navigate among and locate content. As referred to herein, the term “multimedia” should be understood to mean content that utilizes at least two different content forms described above, for example, text, audio, images, video, or interactivity content forms. Content may be recorded, played, displayed or accessed by user equipment devices, but can also be part of a live performance.\nAs referred to herein, the phrase “user equipment device,” “user equipment,” “user device,” “electronic device,” “electronic equipment,” “media equipment device,” or “media device” should be understood to mean any device for accessing the content described above, such as a television, a Smart TV, a set-top box, an integrated receiver decoder (IRD) for handling satellite television, a digital storage device, a digital media receiver (DMR), a digital media adapter (DMA), a streaming media device, a DVD player, a DVD recorder, a connected DVD, a local media server, a BLU-RAY player, a BLU-RAY recorder, a personal computer (PC), a laptop computer, a tablet computer, a WebTV box, a personal computer television (PC/TV), a PC media server, a PC media center, a hand-held computer, a stationary telephone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a mobile telephone, a portable video player, a portable music player, a portable gaming machine, a smart phone, or any other television equipment, computing equipment, or wireless device, and/or combination of the same.\nIn some embodiments, the user equipment device may have a front facing screen and a rear facing screen, multiple front screens, or multiple angled screens. In some embodiments, the user equipment device may have a front facing camera and/or a rear facing camera. On these user equipment devices, users may be able to navigate among and locate the same content available through a television. Consequently, media may be available on these devices, as well. The media provided may be for content available only through a television, for content available only through one or more of other types of user equipment devices, or for content available both through a television and one or more of the other types of user equipment devices. The media applications may be provided as on-line applications (i.e., provided on a website), or as stand-alone applications or clients on user equipment devices. Various devices and platforms that may implement media applications are described in more detail below.\nIn some embodiments, a media application may transmit, to a plurality of users, a request for additional information regarding a context of an event shown in a media asset. As used herein, a “plurality of users” may include, but is not limited to any device, entity, or source of information that may process a request for additional information. For example, the plurality of users may include a person operating a user equipment device. In some embodiments, the person may receive (e.g., via e-mail, Internet posting, advertisement, or any other applicable information delivery method) the request from the media application for additional information, and in response generate a message (e.g., via a return e-mail, an answer to the Internet posting, a user input in the advertisement, or any other applicable method of transmitting information) that includes the additional information. It should be noted that in some embodiments, transmitting a request to a plurality of users may also include querying one or more databases (e.g., an Internet search engine or any other storage device, including, but not limited to, databases containing previously generated supplemental information and/or additional information) or consulting one or more data gathering services (e.g., a intelligent personal assistant application) for the additional information.\nIn some embodiments, a media application may use a content-recognition module or algorithm to determine the context of an event and distribute itemized tasks to multiple users in order to generate the supplemental information about the event. The content-recognition module may use object recognition techniques such as edge detection, pattern recognition, including, but not limited to, self-learning systems (e.g., neural networks), optical character recognition, on-line character recognition (including but not limited to, dynamic character recognition, real-time character recognition, intelligent character recognition), and/or any other suitable technique or method to determine the objects and/or characteristics in media assets. For example, the media application may receive media assets in the form of a video. The video may include a series of frames. For each frame of the video, the media application may use a content-recognition module or algorithm to determine the context (e.g., the person that is speaking or a facial gesture affirming or denying a statement) of an event occurring during the frame or series of frames.\nIn some embodiments, the content-recognition module or algorithm may also include speech recognition techniques, including but not limited to Hidden Markov Models, dynamic time warping, and/or neural networks (as described above) to translate spoken words into text. The content-recognition module may also use other techniques for processing audio and/or visual data. For example, the media application may monitor the volume of a statement in a media asset to determine the tone of the statement (e.g., a high volume may indicate an angry tone).\nIn addition, the media application may use multiple types of optical character recognition and/or fuzzy logic, for example, when determining the context of a keyword(s) retrieved from data (e.g., media data, translated audio data, subtitle data, user-generated data, etc.) associated with the media asset (or when cross-referencing various types of data with databases indicating the different contexts of events as described below). For example, the particular data field may be a textual data field. Using fuzzy logic, the system may determine two fields and/or values to be identical even though the substance of the data field or value (e.g., two different spellings) is not identical. In some embodiments, the system may analyze particular data fields of a data structure or media asset frame for particular values or text. The data fields could be associated with characteristics, additional information, and/or any other data required for the function of the embodiments described herein. Furthermore, the data fields could contain values (e.g., the data fields could be expressed in binary or any other suitable code or programming language).\nAs used herein, the “context” of an event refers to the set of circumstances or facts that surround a particular event that influence or affect the meaning of the event. For example, when determining the context of a written and/or spoken statement, the media application may determine who or what authored/stated the statement, the written and/or spoken words and/or other statements that preceded and/or followed the statement, the tone of the statement, and/or any other conditions that may alter the connotation of the statement.\nFIG. 1 shows an illustrative example of a media application that may be used to display supplemental information in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure. Display 100 illustrates a display on a user device displaying a media asset. Display 108 illustrates a display featuring supplemental information as described and/or generated in FIGS. 6-9. It should be noted that display 100 and display 108 may be presented on any of the devices shown in FIGS. 3-4. For example, in some embodiments, display 100 and display 108 may be displayed on user equipment 402, 404, and/or 406 (FIG. 4).\nIn FIG. 1, display 100 represents a display of a media asset (e.g., a streaming television program) on a user device (e.g., user equipment 402, 404, and/or 406 (FIG. 4)). Display 100 includes entity 102 and entity 104. In display 100, entity 104 is currently speaking as indicated by event 106. As shown in FIG. 1, event 106 is a statement (e.g., “We export a lot of coal”) by a person in the media asset.\nIn some embodiments, display 108 represents the continued display of the media asset on a user device, after a user has requested supplemental information about event 106. For example, a media application may have received a user input (e.g., via user input interface 310 (FIG. 3)) while entity 104 was speaking. Using the systems and methods described herein (e.g., FIGS. 6-9), the media application generated supplemental information 110. Supplemental information 110 represents more information about event 106.\nFor example, the media application (e.g., media application 206 (FIG. 2)) may have determined the context of event 106. Specifically, the media application may determine via a content-recognition module or algorithm the words spoken and/or actions by the person during the event. Additionally or alternatively, the media application may analyze the words and/or action during a predetermined amount of time (e.g., ten seconds) before and/or after the event (e.g., in order to better understand the context of the event). Furthermore, by cross-referencing the words and/or other information obtained by the content-recognition module (e.g., as discussed below in relation to FIG. 5) with a database, the content-recognition module determines that the term “we,” the person in the media asset refers to an organization or body. The content-recognition module or algorithm may also determine that the term “export” refers to shipping goods out of a country. The content-recognition module or algorithm may also determine that the term “a lot” refers to a particular numerical amount. Finally, the content-recognition module or algorithm may also determine that the term “coal” refers to a mineral of fossilized carbon.\nThe content-recognition module or algorithm may also determine the relationships between words and/or other information obtained by the content-recognition module. For example, by processing the relationship between the words, the media application determines that event 106 is a statement regarding a particular amount of a particular substance shipped out of a particular country. Therefore, the media application determines that the request for supplemental information is likely a request to determine the validity of the statement. The media application then generates the supplemental information.\nThe media application may also have stored supplemental information generated by previous requests (e.g., supplemental information generated in response to the same or different user viewing the media asset at an earlier date), and display the supplemental information again during the event (either in response to a user input requesting supplemental information or automatically without a user requesting supplemental information).\nFIG. 2 shows an illustrative example of a system that may be used to generate supplemental information (e.g., supplemental information 110 (FIG. 1)) based on additional information provided by a plurality of users in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure. For example, in some embodiments, system 200 may be used to generate supplemental information (e.g., supplemental information 110 (FIG. 1)) on a display (e.g., display 108 (FIG. 1)) of a user device (e.g., user equipment 402, 404, and/or 406 (FIG. 4)). It should be noted that in some embodiments, the devices shown in FIG. 2 may correspond to one or more devices in FIGS. 3-4.\nFIG. 2 shows system 200. In system 200, a user is currently accessing a media asset on display 202. In some embodiments, display 202 may correspond to display 100 (FIG. 1)). During an event (e.g., event 106 (FIG. 1)) a user may have requested supplemental information about an event (e.g., event 106 (FIG. 1)) in display 202 using user device 204. Media application 206, which in some embodiments, may be implemented on user device 204 or at a remote location (e.g., supplemental information source 418 (FIG. 4)), receives the request for supplemental information.\nMedia application 206 determines the context of the event (e.g., who said the statement making up the event and to what the statement was referring). After determining the context of the statement, the media application may itemize into one or more tasks, additional information (e.g., facts) it requires in order to generate the supplemental information (e.g., a verification or correction of the factual basis of the statement). For example, if the event is a statement about the amount of coal that is exported from the United States (e.g., as described in relation to FIG. 1 above), media application 206 may determine the fact required to generate the supplemental information is the exact numerical amount of coal that is exported from the United States. The media application may then transmit requests for the additional information (e.g., a request for the exact numerical amount of coal that is exported from the United States) to a plurality of other users.\nIn FIG. 2, users operating user device 208, user device 210, and user device 212 represent a plurality of users. Having determined the additional information it requires in order to generate the supplemental information, media application 206 requests the additional information from the plurality of users. In system 200, media application 206 has transmitted the same task (e.g., the same question) to each of the plurality of users. In some embodiments, one or more of the users may receive different tasks. For example, by breaking the additional information into small, independent tasks, media application 206 may increase the speed (e.g., multiple users may work concurrently to solve different parts of a problem) and accuracy (e.g., reducing the tasks to smaller, less complex problems reduces the chance of human error) of the additional information returned by the plurality of users.\nIn addition, by breaking the additional information into small, independent tasks, the plurality of users may not know to what they are contributing (enhancing the privacy of the user that requested the supplemental information), however, the plurality of users can still be effective in their individual tasks. In addition, by breaking the additional information into small, independent tasks, the media application may more easily outsource the requests for additional information. For example, one or more of the tasks used to generate the additional information may be the same as one or more of the tasks used to generate other additional information (e.g., additional information used to generate different supplemental information in response to a request for supplemental information about the same or a different event issued by the same or a different user). The response to each of the request and/or the additional information may be stored (e.g., on any of the devices accessible by communications network 414 (FIG. 4)) for subsequent retrieval.\nBased on the responses, transmitted as messages including the additional information, from the plurality of other users, media application 206 may generate the supplemental information (e.g., supplemental information 110 (FIG. 1)) for display to the user on the user device 204. For example, media application may aggregate, append, and/or compare the additional information in each of the messages received from the plurality of users. The supplemental information may then be generated based on the aggregated, appended, and/or compared additional information (e.g., as described in FIG. 9 below).\nIn some embodiments, the plurality of users may receive summary information about the event with the request for additional information. (e.g., a video clip of a portion or segment of the media asset, a textual description, etc.), which may help the plurality of users provide additional information. For example, in some embodiments, the media application may instead of (or in addition to) determining the context of an event, determine a particular portion of the event that would be needed for the plurality of users to provide additional information about the event.\nFor example, the media application may use progress information associated with the progress of the media asset (e.g., line 506 (FIG. 5)) to determine at what point during the progression of the media asset the event occurred, and in response, transmit a portion of the media asset beginning ten second before that point and ending ten seconds after that point. For example, if the event is a statement made by a character or person in a media asset, the media application may determine when the statement began (e.g., the point of progress of the media asset in which the statement began) and ended. The media application may then include the portion containing the entire statement (and the event) in the request for additional information sent to the plurality of users.\nThe selected portion may include any amount of summary information that the media application determines is necessary for the user or any one of the plurality of users to understand the main action sequence. This summary information (e.g., a portion of the media asset) may be included with the request for additional information (e.g., in a file transmitted with the request), or may be included with the generated supplemental information as a reference for the user. For example, the media application may select a segment of the play length of the media asset or a particular scene of the media asset, which includes the event, for to display to the plurality of users along with the request for additional information.\nFor example, if an event (e.g., a statement) was in response to a question, the media application may also determine when the question began and ended, and send the entire question (or the play length of the media asset corresponding to the question) to the plurality of users as well. After determining the portion to provide to the plurality of users (e.g., a segment including the ten seconds before and the ten seconds after the event), the media application may provide the summary information of the event and any other material needed by the plurality of users to understand the event and/or request for supplemental information from the user.\nIn some embodiments, a portion of the media asset containing the event, as selected by the media application, may also include any amount of the play length of the media asset, or any amount of scenes or segments from the media asset. In some embodiments, the portion may include segments of the play length of the media asset or scenes from the media asset that are not adjacent during the normal playback of the media asset. For example, in some embodiments, a portion of the media asset may include one or more sequences or scenes of interest to the plurality of users, even though the particular sequences or scenes are featured at different points in the play length of the media asset. The media application may determine the segments or scenes to include based on a content recognition file (e.g., data structure 500 (FIG. 5)) describing the media asset. For example, if a plot point or other information, which may be relevant to an event is displayed earlier in the media asset, the summary information may include a portion of the media asset displaying the plot point.\nIn some embodiments, the length of a portion may be determined based on the genre of the media asset. In some embodiments, the length of the portion may depend on a user profile for the user or for anyone of the plurality of users. For example, a user profile and/or a content recognition file (e.g., data structure 500 (FIG. 5)) may indicate that a particular user may require more or less additional content. For example, the user may be aware of particular characters or plot points in the media asset and, therefore, may not require the additional content to introduce those aspects.\nIn some embodiments, the plurality of users may receive a particular user interface, which organizes the data about the event (e.g., a clip of the actual event, summary information about the event, information about the request for supplemental information issued by the user, etc.). The interface may also include an automatic submission form, which may be used to generate a message, which is sent to the media application.\nIn some embodiments, the media application may also receive user input from the user requesting the supplemental information that further affects the generation of supplemental information by the media application. For example, the user may request the supplemental information includes particular information (e.g., the factual basis of a statement), may request a multimedia format of the supplemental information (e.g., textual description, a video clip, etc.), may request a form of the supplemental information (e.g., a short description about the event, an Internet link to other sources of information on the event, or a true or false designation about the event) by entering user inputs (e.g., via user input interface 310 (FIG. 3)).\nIt should be noted that any information or process referred to in this disclosure that is referred to as being in response to a user input may alternatively and/or additionally be performed automatically by the media application (e.g., via control circuitry 304 (FIG. 3)). For example, in some embodiments, a user may request a true or false designation (e.g., an on-screen pop-up box indicating whether an event was true or false). Additionally and/or alternatively, in some embodiments, the true or false designation may appear automatically based on predetermined settings indicating to the media application to display a true or false designation in response to detecting an event.\nIn some embodiments, an indicator that supplemental information has previously been generated or is currently ready to generate (e.g., a plurality of users are available) may be displayed to a user (e.g., on display 100 (FIG. 1) during the event). The indicator may also indicate the particular information, the multimedia format, and/or the form of supplemental information that is available. An indicator may also appear with the supplemental information (e.g., supplemental information 110 (FIG. 1)), which allows the user to request additional supplemental information or provide feedback/responses (e.g., rating the quality of the supplemental information) to the media application and/or plurality of users.\nIn some embodiments, a user may also access (e.g., via selection of an indicator and/or automatically upon the supplemental information being generated) summary information about the event. For example, in some embodiments (e.g., when the supplemental information is not generated in real-time), the media asset may have progressed to a different point by the time the supplemental information is ready for display. Therefore, the media application may need to provide a video clip of the event or other summary information, so that the user remembers about what or why the supplemental information was requested.\nFIG. 3 is a block diagram of an illustrative user equipment device in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure. It should be noted that the components shown in FIG. 3 may be used to store, receive, transmit, and/or display the media assets, additional information, and/or supplemental information as described herein. For example, media application 206 (FIG. 2) may be implemented on user equipment device 300, and may issue instructions (e.g., displaying supplemental information 110 (FIG. 1)) via control circuitry 304.\nUsers may access media assets and the media application (and its display screens described above and below) from one or more of their user equipment devices. FIG. 3 shows a generalized embodiment of illustrative user equipment device 300. More specific implementations of user equipment devices are discussed below in connection with FIG. 4. User equipment device 300 may receive content and data via input/output (hereinafter “I/O”) path 302. I/O path 302 may provide content (e.g., broadcast programming, on-demand programming, Internet content, content available over a local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN), and/or other content) and data to control circuitry 304, which includes processing circuitry 306 and storage 308. Control circuitry 304 may be used to send and receive commands, requests, and other suitable data using I/O path 302. I/O path 302 may connect control circuitry 304 (and specifically processing circuitry 306) to one or more communications paths (described below). I/O functions may be provided by one or more of these communications paths, but are shown as a single path in FIG. 3 to avoid overcomplicating the drawing.\nControl circuitry 304 may be based on any suitable processing circuitry such as processing circuitry 306. As referred to herein, processing circuitry should be understood to mean circuitry based on one or more microprocessors, microcontrollers, digital signal processors, programmable logic devices, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), etc., and may include a multi-core processor (e.g., dual-core, quad-core, hexa-core, or any suitable number of cores) or supercomputer. ", "answers": ["It uses a content-recognition module or algorithm."], "length": 5567, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "690d6407b1ef9f8d373370bbcb02f7ecf198379774101140"}
{"input": "How are smartphones and tablets different from a technical perspective?", "context": "The future of mobile CPUs, part 1: Today’s fork in the road | Ars Technica\n2013 may be a big year for the evolution of smartphones and tablets.\nMobile computing's rise from niche market to the mainstream is among the most significant technological trends in our lifetimes. And to a large extent, it's been driven by the bounty of Moore’s Law—the rule that transistor density doubles every 24 months. Initially, most mobile devices relied on highly specialized hardware to meet stringent power and size budgets. But with so many transistors available, devices inevitably grew general-purpose capabilities. Most likely, that wasn't even the real motivation. The initial desire was probably to reduce costs by creating a more flexible software ecosystem with better re-use and faster time to market. As such, the first smartphones were very much a novelty, and it took many years before the world realized the potential of such devices. Apple played a major role by creating innovative smartphones that consumers craved and quickly adopted.\nTo some extent, this is where we still stand today. Smartphones are still (relatively) expensive and primarily interesting to the developed world. But over the next 10 years, this too will change. As Moore’s Law rolls on, the cost of a low-end smartphone will decline. At some point, the incremental cost will be quite minimal and many feature phones of today will be supplanted by smartphones. A $650 unsubsidized phone is well beyond the reach of most of the world compared to a $20 feature phone, but a $30 to $40 smartphone would naturally be very popular.\nIn this grand progression, 2013 will certainly be a significant milestone for mobile devices, smartphones and beyond. It's likely to be the first year in which tablets out-ship notebooks in the US. And in the coming years, this will lead to a confluence of high-end tablets and ultra-mobile notebooks as the world figures out how these devices co-exist, blend, hybridize, and/or merge.\nAgainst this backdrop, in this two-part series, we'll explore the major trends and evolution for mobile SoCs. More importantly, we'll look to where the major vendors are likely going in the next several years.\nTablet and phone divergence\nWhile phones and tablets are mobile devices that often share a great deal of software, it's becoming increasingly clear the two are very different products. These two markets have started to diverge and will continue doing so over time.\nFrom a technical perspective, smartphones are far more compact and power constrained. Smartphone SoCs are limited to around 1W, both by batteries and by thermal dissipation. The raison d’etre of a smartphone is connectivity, so a cellular modem is an absolute necessity. For the cost sensitive-models that make up the vast majority of the market, the modem is integrated into the SoC itself. High-end designs favor discrete modems with a greater power budget instead. The main smartphone OSes today are iOS and Android, though Windows is beginning to make an appearance (perhaps with Linux or BlackBerry on the horizon). Just as importantly, phone vendors like HTC must pass government certification and win the approval of carriers. There is very much a walled-garden aspect, where carriers control which devices can be attached to their networks, and in some cases devices can only be sold through a certain carrier. The business model places consumers quite far removed from the actual hardware.\nIn contrast, tablets are far more akin to the PC both technically and economically. The power budget for tablet SoCs is much greater, up to 4W for a passively cooled device and as high as 7-8W for systems with fans. This alone means there is a much wider range of tablet designs than smartphones. Moreover, the default connectivity for tablets is Wi-Fi rather than a cellular modem. The vast majority of tablets do not have cellular modems, and even fewer customers actually purchase a wireless data plan. As a result, cellular modems are almost always optional discrete components of the platform. The software ecosystem is relatively similar, with Microsoft, Apple, and Google OSes available. Because tablets eschew cellular modems, the time to market is faster, and they are much more commonly sold directly to consumers rather than through carriers. In terms of usage models, tablets are much more PC-like, with reasonable-sized screens that make games and media more attractive.\nLooking forward, these distinctions will likely become more pronounced. Many tablets today use high-end smartphone SoCs, but the difference in power targets and expected performance is quite large. As the markets grow in volume, SoCs will inevitably bifurcate to focus on one market or the other. Even today, Apple is doing so, with the A6 for phones and the larger A6X for tablets. Other vendors may need to wait a few years to have the requisite volume, but eventually the two markets will be clearly separate.\nHorizontal business model evolution\nAnother aspect of the mobile device market that is currently in flux and likely to change in the coming years is the business model for the chip and system vendors. Currently, Apple is the only company truly pursuing a vertically integrated model, where all phones and tablets are based on Apple’s own SoC designs and iOS. The tight integration between hardware and software has been a huge boon for Apple, and it has yielded superb products.\nSamsung is one of the few others companies that takes a vertically integrated approach to phones and tablets, although in truth its strategy seems to be ambivalent on that point. Unlike Apple, Samsung’s SoCs are readily available to third parties, and some Samsung devices, such as the S7562 Galaxy S Duos, use SoCs from competitors. More recently though, there has been a trend of Samsung devices using Samsung SoCs, at least for the premier products. For the moment, Samsung’s approach is best characterized as a hybrid, particularly as the company lacks a bespoke OS.\nThe rest of the major SoC vendors (e.g., Intel, Qualcomm, Nvidia, TI, Mediatek, etc.) have stayed pretty far away from actual mobile devices. These companies tend to focus on horizontal business models that avoid competing with customers or suppliers.\nIn the long term, mobile devices are likely to evolve similarly to the PC and favor a horizontal business model. The real advantage is one of flexibility; as costs drop and the market expands, it will be increasingly necessary for vendors like HTC to offer a wide range of phones based on radically different SoCs. While a vertically integrated company like Apple can focus and maintain leadership in a specific (and highly lucrative) niche, it would be very difficult to expand in many growing areas of the market. The differences between an iPhone 6 and a $20 feature phone are tremendous and would be very difficult for a single company to bridge.\nHowever, SoC vendors will attempt to reap the benefits of vertical integration by providing complete reference platforms to OEMs. Conceptually, this is a form of \"optional\" system integration, where the phone vendor or carrier can get the entire platform from the SoC supplier. This has the principal advantages of reducing time to market while also providing a baseline quality and experience for consumers. Currently, this approach has mostly been tested in emerging markets, but it's likely to become more common over time. There is a crucial distinction between reference platforms and vertical integration. Namely, OEMs can always choose to customize a platform to differentiate, and the SoC vendor avoids dealing with consumers directly. Typically, most of the customization is in terms of software on top of a base operating system.\nQuote:Moreover, that will make the transition to a 10nm node even more difficult, as the foundries will have to move from 20nm interconnects to 10nm interconnects and skip a generation.The advances in technology lately allowing components on such a small scale to even be envisioned, much less planned for, are truly amazing.\nOff topic: show\nI present the first generation 'non-technical' rock:\nI don't think your horizontal market development theory is supported by facts. Samsung and Apple are more vertically oriented than their competition, for starters. I know this article is narrowly focused on the hardware, but MS and Intel getting into hardware, Amazon getting into hardware, Google buying Moto, this is all vertical integration. How can you support the idea that this trend will be reversed with no real justification? I'm sure mobile chips will continue to specialize, but I don't think this means what you think it means. Automobile companies started making their own engines and with rare exceptions, never went back to being more horizontal. Same with retail and their store brands. Same with cloud companies and their servers. Same with mobile companies and their OSs. The horizontal market of PCs created by long-lasting standards and loose hegemony is the exception, not the norm.\nWhy wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?\nI'm not so sure about several things:1- Moore's law's relevance. Moore's Law is about ICs. ICs are not as big a part of mobile computers as they are of desktops, even of laptops: screens, batteries, radios are a huge part of tablets' and phones' costs, as opposed to the bare SoC + RAM.2- The tablet vs phone dichotomy. For some reason (probably price insensitivity due to subsidies), Phones have a tendency to be more powerful than Tablets, ie phone SoCs are more than good enough for tablets. Since the OS and peripherals are the same, it makes more sense to design and build just one type of SoC, and just disable the phone-modem part of it (even the other radios are still required: BT, Wifi, GPS...), same as Intel disable cache and cores for their entry-level CPUs. Once you're fabbing a SoC, it makes more sense to make more of the same than to setup a separate run of a cut-down SoC on an older process, unless volumes are huge. We might still be getting previous-generation, well amortized SoCs in cheaper tablets, though.3- On the contrary, I see a tablet and phone convergence (the ugly phablet). I'm patiently waiting for the new 6\"+ phones to replace my Nook Color and Galaxy Note 1 with a single device.4- The advantage of diversity ? Software is becoming ever more important than hardware. Multiplying SoCs means multiplying product development costs, making support and updates more difficult... Again, unless volumes are huge, OEMs are probaly better off going the way of the car industry and using modular \"platforms\" housed in different chassis with various screen sizes, keyboards, radios, digitizers...I'm wondering why the \"single device\" trend does not figure in your analysis. Is it stillborn ? Does it have no impact nor dependency on/with SoCs ?\nSamsung has its own bespoke OS: Bada and it is used on an extensive line of devices. I think there are numbers somewhere that it outsold Windows Phone 7 for a time.\ngypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?First mover advantage.\nSoC? System on a Chip I guess?\nYou're way off on the Moore's Law/cost of smartphones point. The processors used in today's high-end smartphones are already cheap, around $25. And there are less expensive options if you want a lower end product. In fact, the hardware in the whole smartphone is relatively cheap. Analyst's estimate the Z10's materials cost around $160, the iPhone 5 around $140. They're using expensive glass and metals, then there's the battery, memory, etc. which means the processor is a small factor of the cost.And then there's the jump from $140 in materials to the unsubsidized costs. The reason these phones cost $650 is because of the high margins these companies are able to get and the high cost of hardware design and/or software development. But the point is that making the processors 4 times better/cheaper isn't going to change the economics of the smartphone. What will change the economics is commoditized designs and software and cheaper materials all around. Then you'll have a $50 smartphone that's decent.\nLast edited by ggeezz on Wed Feb 13, 2013 9:17 am\nbigterp wrote:SoC? System on a Chip I guess?Yup.\ngypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Money and momentum, the x86 market is a huge money maker for Intel so it is able to recoup its huge investments for advanced foundries.\nQuote:Currently, the only products using 3D integration are FPGAs from Xilinx,Doesn't Sony use it in the PS Vita? I thought I read somewhere that they had the CPU, main memory (2 dies) and video memory, so 4 dies in total, sitting on top of each other all on the same chip.\nrenoX wrote:gypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Money and momentum, the x86 market is a huge money maker for Intel so it is able to recoup its huge investments for advanced foundries.Exactly and I would clarify that it's all about margins, the difference between what it costs to make a chip and what it sells for. The margins for desktop and server processors is huge because a) the whole product is expensive so $200 to $1000 for the chip is acceptable, and b) Intel has huge advantages in that space and little competition.So Intel can afford to do the R&D to stay ahead of the curve and keep their position. When your smartphone chip sells for $25 you can't do the R&D to leapfrog a company that sells Xeons for $1000 and Core i5's for $200.\nI am happy to see Kanter here at Ars, I like his writing and he maintains Real World Tech, where Linus Torvalds often shows up to comment on CPU arch and other interesting topics.\nggeezz wrote:renoX wrote:gypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Money and momentum, the x86 market is a huge money maker for Intel so it is able to recoup its huge investments for advanced foundries.Exactly and I would clarify that it's all about margins, the difference between what it costs to make a chip and what it sells for. The margins for desktop and server processors is huge because a) the whole product is expensive so $200 to $1000 for the chip is acceptable, and b) Intel has huge advantages in that space and little competition.So Intel can afford to do the R&D to stay ahead of the curve and keep their position. When your smartphone chip sells for $25 you can't do the R&D to leapfrog a company that sells Xeons for $1000 and Core i5's for $200.Spot on.Intel are able to piggyback other development efforts off the highly lucrative mainstream x86 market which generates the huge sums of money to fund their amazing fab technology.The question for the future is how the economics will stack up when overall device costs fall significantly and there is a big downward pressure on SoC prices. In that situation, can Intel still justify bringing their A-game to a market where products are essentially commoditised and you have processors selling for a only a few dollars each?The lesson from their previous involvement in the DRAM market is that they probably won't want to be involved because there isn't enough money to be made to justify manufacturing phone SoCs on a cutting edge, or near cutting edge process. In that scenario, Intel may not totally abandon the market but they might just stick to manufacturing SoCs on nodes that are a step or two behind the state of the art.\nsolomonrex wrote:I don't think your horizontal market development theory is supported by facts. Samsung and Apple are more vertically oriented than their competition, for starters. I know this article is narrowly focused on the hardware, but MS and Intel getting into hardware, Amazon getting into hardware, Google buying Moto, this is all vertical integration. How can you support the idea that this trend will be reversed with no real justification? I'm sure mobile chips will continue to specialize, but I don't think this means what you think it means. Automobile companies started making their own engines and with rare exceptions, never went back to being more horizontal. Same with retail and their store brands. Same with cloud companies and their servers. Same with mobile companies and their OSs. The horizontal market of PCs created by long-lasting standards and loose hegemony is the exception, not the norm.Yea, each year Amazon, MS, Apple and Google look more and more the same.\nIntel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.\ngypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Intel's called Chipzilla for a reason up\nLagrange wrote:The question for the future is how the economics will stack up when overall device costs fall significantly and there is a big downward pressure on SoC prices. In that situation, can Intel still justify bringing their A-game to a market where products are essentially commoditised and you have processors selling for a only a few dollars each?The lesson from their previous involvement in the DRAM market is that they probably won't want to be involved because there isn't enough money to be made to justify manufacturing phone SoCs on a cutting edge, or near cutting edge process. In that scenario, Intel may not totally abandon the market but they might just stick to manufacturing SoCs on nodes that are a step or two behind the state of the art.I think the processing is a bigger advantage than many realize. If Intel can stay ahead in process design - which this article seems to indicate - they should have a major advantage. All else being equal a 14nm chip should be significantly faster and more efficient than the same chip at 22nm. Add in the fact that yields increase geometrically - you can fit a lot more 14nm chips on a given wafer size vs 22nm (or 32nm for the other manufacturers.) and you have a very appealing proposition. And then add in the fact that Intel actually has a pretty good graphics stack and IP. It's not a sure thing by any means, but I suspect ARM may have just prodded a sleeping giant.edit: Also worth noting, Intel, TSMC, and Samsung are the only manufacturers who are building out 450nm wafers. This will increase yields dramatically. Of course Samsung and TSMC will build ARM out, but it definitely puts quite a bit of pressure on all other manufacturers. As the article mentions Intel and Samsung are the only ones who control production top to bottom, and Samsung must share some of the benefits with ARM.\nAs someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy.The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago. Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST.The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it. Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then. The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP.\nLast edited by paul5ra on Wed Feb 13, 2013 11:06 am\nintroiboad wrote:I am happy to see Kanter here at Ars, I like his writing and he maintains Real World Tech, where Linus Torvalds often shows up to comment on CPU arch and other interesting topics.Indeed. Most tech writing in this area is atrocious. This piece is one of the few well informed articles I've read in a long time.\nggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.The word you're looking for is Haswell, as far as I know.\nMabsark\nggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.Actually, that trend will not simply keep increasing going forward. The reason desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing is due to the fact that most people already have one and therefore don't need to buy another one. The exact same thing will happen with tablets as well. Sales are increasing now because people without tablets are buying them. When most people already own a tablet, they won't be buying a new one every year and therefore sales will stagnate/decrease.The PC market is saturated and in a couple of years, the tablet market will be saturated too. Basically, in order to increase sales in a saturated market, you need to increase the population growth or decrease the longevity of the product.\ngypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Probably a mix of a lot of things. One big thing was during this recession, Intel was the ONLY fab company that didn't scale back their R&D. That alone gave Intel a large advantage.Intel has almost always been ahead. One of the reasons could be that Intel works with much higher margins than many of the commodity companies like Samsung and TSMC.Outside of the P4 flop and some of the monopolistic abuses, Intel has typically been selling to high end customers that are willing to pay a premium for \"the best\".Intel has a large benefit of having a relatively \"good name\" when it comes to CPUs, so they can effectively charge a brand-name premium.I'm sure there are other reasons, and probably better reasons, but these are the main ones that I think of.\nMabsark wrote:Actually, that trend will not simply keep increasing going forward. The reason desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing is due to the fact that most people already have one and therefore don't need to buy another one. The exact same thing will happen with tablets as well. Sales are increasing now because people without tablets are buying them. When most people already own a tablet, they won't be buying a new one every year and therefore sales will stagnate/decrease.The PC market is saturated and in a couple of years, the tablet market will be saturated too. Basically, in order to increase sales in a saturated market, you need to increase the population growth or decrease the longevity of the product.That's true as long as most people are still buying both a tablet and a laptop when each needs to be replaced. I think the assumption is that, as you say, the tablet market will saturate, with people just replacing existing ones, but the desktop/laptop market could decrease much farther than that, if most people stop replacing them at all. I'm not sure of the likelihood of that, but I think that's where this idea comes from.\nggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.The upcoming Haswell chip is showing to consume 1/3 the power of IvyBridge at peak, consumes 1/20th the power at idle, all the while maintaining Identical or better performance.This chip should actually compete with ARM CPUs on both power/performance and idle.I am expecting a large war.\nApple once again is dictating the performance in the mobile industry. Nice to see others being able to keep the pace, as well.\npaul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy.The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago. Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST.The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it. Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then.Yeah, and most of the innovation in the automobile industry came about before Henry Ford came into the business. Doesn't change the fact that cars would probably have been an asterisk in the history books under \"toys for rich people\" if it weren't for him.The same applies to to mobile computing for Apple, Samsung, et al.\nSheldonRoss wrote:Lagrange wrote:The question for the future is how the economics will stack up when overall device costs fall significantly and there is a big downward pressure on SoC prices. In that situation, can Intel still justify bringing their A-game to a market where products are essentially commoditised and you have processors selling for a only a few dollars each?The lesson from their previous involvement in the DRAM market is that they probably won't want to be involved because there isn't enough money to be made to justify manufacturing phone SoCs on a cutting edge, or near cutting edge process. In that scenario, Intel may not totally abandon the market but they might just stick to manufacturing SoCs on nodes that are a step or two behind the state of the art.I think the processing is a bigger advantage than many realize. If Intel can stay ahead in process design - which this article seems to indicate - they should have a major advantage. All else being equal a 14nm chip should be significantly faster and more efficient than the same chip at 22nm. Add in the fact that yields increase geometrically - you can fit a lot more 14nm chips on a given wafer size vs 22nm (or 32nm for the other manufacturers.) and you have a very appealing proposition. And then add in the fact that Intel actually has a pretty good graphics stack and IP. My point was that Intel might have a one or two process advantage over the rest of the industry at the cutting edge but that doesn't mean that they can afford to manufacture on those processes for very low margin parts. If the SoC market becomes increasingly commoditised, there isn't going to be the money to justify making them in a state of the art fab.Remember that one of the big selling points of Itanium was that it would make use of process advantages that were effectively paid for by the mainstream x86 market. That didn't quite work out in practice and Itanium processors were often well behind Xeons in process technology.\npaul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy.The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago. Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST.The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it. Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then. The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP.Just goes to show that people who have worked in an industry for a long time don't always understand what that industry is doing.You haven't been working in it long enough to seem to know that it was Acorn and Apple that invented the mobile ARM CPU in the first place. All those companies you've mentioned have just been working off Acorn and Apple's pioneering work. Now, Apple is back at it again, very successfully, and all the companies you mentioned that produce chips with ARM IP in them are licensing them from the company Acorn and Apple formed—ARM.\nLast edited by melgross on Wed Feb 13, 2013 11:13 am\nMark Havel wrote:ggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.The word you're looking for is Haswell, as far as I know.If tablets move into the $100-200 range, is there going to be room for Haswell?So long as there is a higher-end tablet market, then Haswell will be able to shine, but it's going to be a much more powerful and costly part than the sort of ARM based hardware that often runs tablets. If we see a race to the bottom where price is the dominant motivator behind purchases, then a high performance SoC will struggle to make its mark.\nmelgross wrote:paul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy.The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago. Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST.The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it. Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then. The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP.Just goes to show that people who have worked in an industry for a long time don't always understand what that industry is doing.You haven't been working in it long enough to seem to know that it was Acorn and Apple that invented the mobile ARM CPU in the first place. All those companies you've mentioned have just been working off Acorn and Apple's pioneering work. Now, Apple is back at it again, very successfully, and all the companies you mentioned that produce chips with ARM IP in them are licensing them from the company Acorn and Apple formed—ARM.Of course I realise ARM IP has indeed been a major driving factor too (though only one if several architectures before ARM became dominant), though I see ARM's influence on the mobile industry as having nothing to do with modern day Apple and only one small piece of the puzzle. My point is that the hard electrical engineering, mathematics, DSP, semiconductor physics/chemistry, RF engineering, analogue design, CAD etc. that make modern telecommunications possible has very little to do with the fashion companies who consumers (and unfortunately much of the tech media) associate with it and give the credit (though in this respect Samsung does deserve a bit more credit for their work on NAND flash and displays). The industry simply would not exist TODAY without the overwhelming horizontal integration that already dominates.\nQuote:In the long term, mobile devices are likely to evolve similarly to the PC and favor a horizontal business model. The real advantage is one of flexibility; as costs drop and the market expands, it will be increasingly necessary for vendors like HTC to offer a wide range of phones based on radically different SoCs. You don't mention in the article that each SoC necessarily requires a bit of parallel dev work unlike the PC. In the PC world there is a standard BIOS and HW architecture that allows for pluggable designs. On a highly integrated SoC this is untrue. HTC suffers because it has to support radically different SoCs, their drivers and boot loaders, etc. Quote:While a vertically integrated company like Apple can focus and maintain leadership in a specific (and highly lucrative) niche, it would be very difficult to expand in many growing areas of the market. The differences between an iPhone 6 and a $20 feature phone are tremendous and would be very difficult for a single company to bridge.It's only difficult because Apple chooses to ignore that market, not because they can't. If they can release a $99 Apple TV, they can surely cobble together a $20 feature phone if they chose to eschew 8GB of NAND, BT, WiFi, a specialized dock connector, LTE, and their specialized processors. In other words, build the equivalent of an iPod shuffle with a horrible screen and no OS to speak of.\npaul5ra wrote:melgross wrote:paul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy.The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago. Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST.The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it. Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then. The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP.Just goes to show that people who have worked in an industry for a long time don't always understand what that industry is doing.You haven't been working in it long enough to seem to know that it was Acorn and Apple that invented the mobile ARM CPU in the first place. All those companies you've mentioned have just been working off Acorn and Apple's pioneering work. Now, Apple is back at it again, very successfully, and all the companies you mentioned that produce chips with ARM IP in them are licensing them from the company Acorn and Apple formed—ARM.Of course I realise ARM IP has indeed been a major driving factor too (though only one if several architectures before ARM became dominant), though I see ARM's influence on the mobile industry as having nothing to do with modern day Apple and only one piece of the puzzle. My point is that the hard electrical engineering, mathematics, DSP, semiconductor physics/chemistry, RF engineering, analogue design,etc. that make modern telecommunications possible has very little to do with the fashion companies who consumers (and unfortunately much of the tech media) associate with it and give the credit (though in this respect Samsung does deserve a bit more credit for their work on NAND flash and displays). The industry simply would not exist TODAY without the overwhelming horizontal integration that already dominates.Yes the efforts of these companies getting cellular communications standardized were immense. And the technology matured. And then they didn't do much with it. It took some youngin's to look at the problem fresh and add the UI that make today's smartphones work. As we have all seen, the moment your technology has matured is the moment you are screwed because someone else now has the opportunity to look at it as a black box and make something new. Each of those manufacturers knew that smartphones would eventually be awesome, but none of them had the UI and software design to make a truly breakout product. Imagine if Motorola would have been smart enough to buy the Android guys instead of Google. Instead, Google bought a bunch of patents on that cellular black box to try to defend it's platform.And when you think about it, which consumes more man years of engineering effort per year at this point.... iterating that cellular black box or developing the OS, services and apps that power today's smartphones?\nIntel had better decide that they are competing in this space \"for real\", or they are screwed. They've already let the Atom languish for five years, during which ARM has completely caught up in performance.Just like Tim Cook said, if you don't cannibalize your own markets someone else will do it for you.Whether Intel will embrace that concept in time remains to be seen. Personally, I hope they don't; if Intel transforms into a chipless Fab company (like TSMC) everyone benefits.\nI still think Samsung has the advantage long term because they have both the SOC and the memory products. As mentioned in the article, TSV's (Through Silicon Via's) are going to be quite a disruption. Today, people normally stack an LPDDR2 package on top of their SOC package (POP or Package On Package). Within the LPDDR2 package, you could have a stack of DRAM die typically with wire bonding connecting the die within the package.Once you more to TSV's, you can have a LOT more connections between the SOC and its DRAM's. While this is being standardized through JEDEC (http://www.jedec.org/category/technolog ... a/3d-ics-0), Samsung has all the pieces in house to do whatever they want. You could see a 512 bit or higher bus from the SOC to the memory. The trick is that the memory and the SOC need to line up with each other when you stack them. This gives Samsung an inherent advantage.This isn't just going to impact mobile either. Take a look at that JEDEC link. It also lists High Bandwidth Memory (HBM). This is a 1024 bit bus that provides 128GBytes/s to 256GBytes/s of bandwidth to a stack of up to 8 DRAM's. Here is your processor that includes 8-16 cores and 4GBytes of really, really, fast DRAM... No DIMMs required. How many of them do you want in your server rack?If I was Intel or Apple, I would be thinking seriously about making some investments in Micron to guarantee they make some compelling DRAM's to integrate with their SOC's and processors... otherwise Samsung is going to blow them out of the water on bandwidth.\nGreat_Scott wrote:Intel had better decide that they are competing in this space \"for real\", or they are screwed. They've already let the Atom languish for five years, during which ARM has completely caught up in performance.Just like Tim Cook said, if you don't cannibalize your own markets someone else will do it for you.Whether Intel will embrace that concept in time remains to be seen. Personally, I hope they don't; if Intel transforms into a chipless Fab company (like TSMC) everyone benefits.It's true that Atom has stood still for too long, but honestly it's pretty amazing how Atom is still competitive with current ARM chips. The Z2760 is even 32nm vs 28nm of the latest Krait and A15 chips.But that's all changing with Atom moving to the tick tock schedule this year. It wouldn't even surprise me to see Apple move to Intel chips for IOS.And I don't see how Intel moving to a chipless Fab company would help everyone. It certainly wouldn't help Intel.\nMabsark wrote:ggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.Actually, that trend will not simply keep increasing going forward. The reason desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing is due to the fact that most people already have one and therefore don't need to buy another one. The exact same thing will happen with tablets as well. Sales are increasing now because people without tablets are buying them. When most people already own a tablet, they won't be buying a new one every year and therefore sales will stagnate/decrease.The PC market is saturated and in a couple of years, the tablet market will be saturated too. Basically, in order to increase sales in a saturated market, you need to increase the population growth or decrease the longevity of the product.Yes and no. I'm not sure the tablet market will saturate in a \"couple of years.\" It may be more like 5 years. But that's a quibble.Here's the real issue. Right now Apple wants you to own an iPhone AND iPad AND Macbook AND iWatch AND Apple TV. Microsoft, OTOH, is making the Surface so that you could ditch your laptop and just use a Surface. Not everyone, but some people.If 5 years from now, we're in a world where a significant number of people use a Surface-type device instead of a laptop, then the PC market is going to contract significantly. Maybe some of the tablet-like devices will use moderately expensive Intel chips, but some of them are going to use cheaper chips.\nGravyGraphics wrote:I still think Samsung has the advantage long term because they have both the SOC and the memory products. As mentioned in the article, TSV's (Through Silicon Via's) are going to be quite a disruption. Today, people normally stack an LPDDR2 package on top of their SOC package (POP or Package On Package). Within the LPDDR2 package, you could have a stack of DRAM die typically with wire bonding connecting the die within the package.Once you more to TSV's, you can have a LOT more connections between the SOC and its DRAM's. While this is being standardized through JEDEC (http://www.jedec.org/category/technolog ... a/3d-ics-0), Samsung has all the pieces in house to do whatever they want. You could see a 512 bit or higher bus from the SOC to the memory. The trick is that the memory and the SOC need to line up with each other when you stack them. This gives Samsung an inherent advantage.This isn't just going to impact mobile either. Take a look at that JEDEC link. It also lists High Bandwidth Memory (HBM). This is a 1024 bit bus that provides 128GBytes/s to 256GBytes/s of bandwidth to a stack of up to 8 DRAM's. Here is your processor that includes 8-16 cores and 4GBytes of really, really, fast DRAM... No DIMMs required. How many of them do you want in your server rack?If I was Intel or Apple, I would be thinking seriously about making some investments in Micron to guarantee they make some compelling DRAM's to integrate with their SOC's and processors... otherwise Samsung is going to blow them out of the water on bandwidth.Why not AMD? Last I checked they still made memory...and processors/GPUs.", "answers": ["Smartphones are more compact and power constrained."], "length": 7568, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "7d357dddfddb09bf71c6ce3d2c6780b3380d725f534d0b91"}
{"input": "What is the security parameter for the AES-256 block cipher?", "context": "\\section{Introduction\\label{sct::intro}}\nSymmetric, public-key (asymmetric) and hash-based cryptography constitute a fundamental pillar of modern cryptography. \nSymmetric cryptography includes symmetric-key encryption, where a shared secret key is used for both encryption and decryption. Cryptographic hash functions map arbitrarily long strings to strings of a fixed finite length. Currently deployed public-key schemes are\nused to establish a common secret key between two remote parties. They are based on factoring large numbers or solving the discrete logarithm problem over a finite group. For more details about modern cryptography the interested reader can consult one of the many excellent references on the topic, e.g.~\\cite{Katz:2007:IMC:1206501}.\n\nIn contrast to asymmetric schemes based on factoring or solving the discrete logarithm problem and which are completely broken by a quantum adversary via Shor's algorithm~\\cite{SJC.26.1484}, symmetric schemes and hash functions are less vulnerable to quantum attacks. The best known quantum attacks against them are based on Grover's quantum search algorithm~\\cite{PhysRevLett.79.325}, which offers a quadratic speedup compared to classical brute force searching. Given a search space of size $N$, Grover's algorithm finds, with high probability, an element $x$ for which a certain property such as $f(x)=1$ holds, for some function $f$ we know how to evaluate (assuming such a solution exists). The algorithm evaluates $f$ a total of $\\mathcal{O}(\\sqrt{N})$ times. It applies a simple operation in between the evaluations of $f$, so the $\\mathcal{O}(\\sqrt{N})$ evaluations of $f$ account for most of the complexity. In contrast, any classical algorithm that evaluates $f$ in a similar ``black-box'' way requires on the order of $N$ evaluations of $f$ to find such an element.\n\nAny quantum algorithm can be mapped to a quantum circuit, which can be implemented on a quantum computer. The quantum circuit represents what we call the ``logical layer\". Such a circuit can always be decomposed in a sequence of ``elementary \ngates\", such as Clifford gates (CNOT, Hadamard etc.~\\cite{NC00}) augmented by a non-Clifford gate such as the T gate.\n\nRunning a logical circuit on a full fault-tolerant quantum computer is highly non-trivial. The sequence of logical gates have to be mapped to \nsequences of surface code measurement cycles (see e.g.~\\cite{PhysRevA.86.032324} for extensive details). By far, the most resource-consuming (in \nterms of number of qubits required and time) is the T gate\\footnote{Clifford gates are ``cheap\", i.e. they require relatively small overhead for implementation in the surface code, but are not universals, hence a non-Clifford gate is required. One such gate is the T gate. There are other possible choices, however all of the non-Clifford gates require special techniques such as magic state distillation~\\cite{1367-2630-14-12-123011,PhysRevA.86.052329} and significant overhead (order of magnitudes higher than Clifford gates) to be implemented in the surface code. In fact, to a first order approximation, for the purpose of resource estimation, one can simply ignore the overhead introduced by the Clifford gates and simply focus only on the T gates.}. \nIn comparison with surface code defects and braiding techniques~\\cite{PhysRevA.86.032324}, novel lattice surgery \ntechniques~\\cite{2018arXiv180806709F,1808.02892,1367-2630-14-12-123011} reduce the spatial overhead required for implementing T gates via magic state distillation by approximately a factor of 5, while also modestly improving the running time. \n\nIn this paper we first analyze the security of symmetric schemes and hash functions against large-scale fault-tolerant quantum adversaries, using surface code defects and braiding techniques. We take into account the time-space trade-offs with parallelizing quantum search, down to the fault-tolerant layer. Naively, one might hope that $K$ quantum computers (or quantum ``processors'', as we will call them later in the paper) running in parallel reduce the number the circuit depth down to $\\mathcal{O}(\\sqrt{N})/K$ steps, similar to the classical case of distributing a search space across $K$ classical processors. However quantum searching does not parallelize so well, and the required number of steps\nfor parallel quantum searching is of the order $\\mathcal{O}(\\sqrt{N/K})$~\\cite{quantph.9711070}. This is a factor of $\\sqrt{K}$ larger than $\\mathcal{O}(\\sqrt{N})/K$ . As shown in~\\cite{quantph.9711070}, the optimal way of doing parallel quantum search is to partition the search space into $N/K$ parts, and to perform independent quantum searches on each part.\n\nSecondly, we investigate the security of public-key cryptographic schemes such as RSA and ECC against \nquantum attacks, using the latest developments in theory of fault-tolerant quantum error correction, i.e. novel lattice surgery \ntechniques~\\cite{2018arXiv180806709F,1808.02892,1367-2630-14-12-123011}.\n\nThe remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In Sec.~\\ref{sct::method}, we provide an overview of the methodology used in our analysis. In Sec.~\\ref{sct::ciphers} we investigate the security of the AES family of modern symmetric ciphers. In Sec.~\\ref{sct::hash} we analyze the security of the SHA family of hash functions. In Sec.~\\ref{sct::bitcoin} we investigate the security of Bitcoin's~\\cite{satoshi:bitcoin} proof-of-work consensus mechanism. We conclude our investigation of symmetric and hash-based cryptographic schemes in Sec.~\\ref{sct::intrinsic_parallel_grover}, where we evaluate the intrinsic cost of running the Grover algorithm with a trivial oracle (i.e., an oracle with a unit cost of 1 for each invocation).\n\nIn the subsequent sections  we analyze public-key cryptographic schemes. In Sec.~\\ref{sct::rsa} and Sec.~\\ref{sct::ecc} we examine the most common public-key establishment schemes, such as RSA and ECC, respectively. In the subsequent sections  we analyze public-key cryptographic schemes. In Sec.~\\ref{sct::rsa} and Sec.~\\ref{sct::ecc} we examine the most common public-key establishment schemes, such as RSA and ECC, respectively. Finally we summarize our findings and conclude in Sec.~\\ref{sct::conclusion}.\n\\section{Methodology\\label{sct::method}}\n\n\\subsection{Symmetric cryptography and hash functions\\label{sct::symmetric}}\nThe methodology, sketched in Fig.~\\ref{fgr:flowchart_lite} and Fig.~\\ref{fgr:full_algorithm}, follows the same lines as the one described in great detail in our earlier paper~\\cite{10.1007/978-3-319-69453-5_18}, which we refer the interested reader to for more details.\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\centering\n         \\includegraphics[width=0.35\\textwidth]{figures/flowchart_lite.pdf}\n         \\caption{Analyzing an attack against a symmetric cryptographic function with a fault-tolerant quantum adversary. Our resource estimation methodology takes into account several of the layers between the high level description of an algorithm and the physical hardware required for its execution. Our approach is modular should assumptions about any of these layers change, and hence it allows one to calculate the impact of improvements in any particular layer.}\n         \\label{fgr:flowchart_lite}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\centering\n\t \\includegraphics[width=0.46\\textwidth]{figures/grover_vertical.pdf}\n          \\caption{Grover searching with an oracle for $f : \\{0,1\\}^k \\rightarrow \\{0,1\\}^k$. The algorithm makes $\\lfloor \\frac{\\pi}{4} 2^{N/2}\\rfloor$ calls to\n$G$, the \\emph{Grover iteration}, or, if parallelized on $K$ processors, $\\lfloor \\frac{\\pi}{4} 2^{N/(2K)}\\rfloor$ calls to $G$. The Grover iteration has two\nsubroutines. The first, $U_g$, implements the predicate $g : \\{0,1\\}^k\n\\rightarrow \\{0,1\\}$ that maps $x$ to $1$ if and only if $f(x) = y$. Each call to $U_g$ involves two calls to a reversible implementation of $f$ and one call to a comparison circuit that checks whether $f(x) = y$.}\n          \\label{fgr:full_algorithm}\n\\end{figure}\n\nWe assume a surface-code based fault-tolerant architecture~\\cite{PhysRevA.86.032324}, using Reed-Muller distillation schemes~\\cite{Fowler:2013aa}. For each scheme we vary the possible physical error rates per gate from $10^{-4}$ to $10^{-7}$. We believe that this range of physical error rates is wide enough to cover both first generation quantum computers as well as more advanced future machines.\nIn comparison to surface code defects and braiding methods~\\cite{PhysRevA.86.032324}, lattice surgery \ntechniques~\\cite{2018arXiv180806709F,1808.02892,1367-2630-14-12-123011} mostly impact the physical footprint of the fault-tolerant layer required to run a specific quantum algorithm, reducing the distillation overhead by approximately a factor of 5. The temporal overhead (i.e. the number of surface code cycles) is reduced less drastically. For this reason, lattice surgery has less significant effects in estimating the security of symmetric schemes or hash functions, reducing the security parameter\\footnote{The security parameter is defined as the logarithm base two of the number of fundamental operations (in our case surface code cycles) required to break the scheme.} by at most 1 and decreasing the spatial overhead by at most a factor of 5. Therefore when estimating the security of symmetric and hash-based cryptographic schemes we use surface code defects and braiding techniques.\n\nFor each cryptographic primitive, we display four plots, in the following order:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item We plot the total number of surface code cycles per CPU (where a CPU is a quantum computer capable of executing a single instance of Grover's quantum search algorithm) as a function of the number of CPUs. We directly tie the quantum security parameter to the total number of surface code cycles (see~\\cite{10.1007/978-3-319-69453-5_18} for more details). We also add to the plot the theoretical lower bound achievable by quantum search in the cases of: a) considering the oracle a black box of unit cost (lower line), and b) considering the oracle as composed of ideal quantum gates, each of unit cost (upper line). Note that the difference between b) and a) represents the intrinsic cost of logical overhead (i.e. the overhead introduced by treating the oracle as a logical circuit and not a blackbox), whereas the difference between the upper lines and b) represents the intrinsic cost introduced by the fault-tolerant layer.\n\n\\item We plot the total wall-time per CPU (i.e. how long will the whole computation take on a parallel quantum architecture) as a function of the number of CPUs. The horizontal dashed line represents the one-year time line, i.e. the $x$ coordinate of the intersection point between the ``Total time per CPU'' line and the one-year time line provides the number of processors required to break the system within one year (in $\\log_2$ units).\n\n\\item We plot the total physical footprint (number of qubits) per CPU, as a function of the number of CPUs.\n\\item Finally we plot the total physical footprint (number of qubits) of all quantum search machines (CPUs) running in parallel.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nIn the following sections we proceed to analyze symmetric ciphers (AES, Sec.~\\ref{sct::ciphers}), hash functions (SHA-256, SHA3-256, Sec.~\\ref{sct::hash}, Bitcoin's hash function, Sec.~\\ref{sct::bitcoin}), and finally the minimal resources required for running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle~\\ref{sct::intrinsic_parallel_grover} (e.g. the identity gate) on search spaces of various sizes.\n\nNote that in some ranges of the plots from sections~\\ref{sct::ciphers},~\\ref{sct::hash},~\\ref{sct::intrinsic_parallel_grover} and~\\ref{sct::bitcoin} the total physical footprint increases slightly with the number of processors, which may seem counter-intuitive. This happens due to the fact that with more processors the required code distances decrease, and in some instances one can pipeline more magic states factories in parallel into the surface code, which in effect causes an increase in the overall physical footprint. Note that the total time per CPU is monotonically decreasing, as parallelizing distilleries does not increase the wall time. For more details see~\\cite{10.1007/978-3-319-69453-5_18}. \n\n\\subsection{Public-key cryptography\\label{sct::pk}}\n\nMost of the recent progress in quantum cryptanalysis is related to the fault-tolerant layer in Fig.~\\ref{fgr:flowchart_lite}. New methods and techniques\nbased on surface code lattice surgery~\\cite{2018arXiv180806709F,1808.02892,1367-2630-14-12-123011} allow a significant decrease of the overall \nfootprint (number of qubits, or space) taken by the quantum computation, and also a relatively modest decrease in time, in comparison with  methods based on surface code defects and braiding~\\cite{PhysRevA.86.032324,Fowler:2013aa}.\n\nWe consider the best up-to-date optimized logical quantum circuits for attacking RSA and ECC public-key \nschemes~\\cite{1706.06752,PhysRevA.52.3457,cuccaro04,Beauregard:2003:CSA:2011517.2011525} then perform a physical footprint resource estimation\nanalysis using lattice surgery techniques. We remark that the overall time required to run the algorithm depends on the level of parallelization \nfor the magic state factories\\footnote{Every T gate in the circuit must be implemented by a specialized magic state factory, each of which occupies a \nsignificant physical footprint. One can implement more magic states in parallel if one is willing to increase the physical footprint of the computation.}. \n\nFor each public-key cryptogrpric scheme, we analyze the space/time tradeoffs and plot the results on a double logarithmic scale. We fit the data using a third degree \npolynomial\\footnote{A third degree polynomial fits the data very precisely, providing a coefficient of determination $R^2$ greater than 0.997.} and obtain an analytical closed-form formula for the relation between the time and the number of qubits required to attack the scheme, in \nthe form\n\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn1}\ny(x) = \\alpha x^3 + \\beta x^2 + \\gamma x + \\delta,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $y$ represents logarithm base 2 of the number of qubits and $x$ represents the logarithm base 2 of the time (in seconds). For example,\nthe quantity \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn2}\ny\\left(\\log_2(24\\times 3600)\\right) \\approx y(16.3987)\n\\end{equation}\nrepresents how many qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours) for a fixed physical error rate per gate $p_g$, assuming a \nsurface code cycle time of 200ns. Note that the computation time scales linearly with the surface code cycle time, e.g. a 1000ns surface code cycle \ntime will result in a computation that is 5 times longer than a $200ns$ surface code cycle time. Therefore, for a specific cryptographic scheme for \nwhich we plotted the space/time tradeoffs using a surface code cycle time of $200ns$ and a fixed physical error rate per gate $p_g$, the number of \nqubits required to break a specific scheme in a time $t$ using an alternative surface code cycle time $t_c$ is given by\n\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn3}\ny\\left(\\log_2\\left(\\frac{200ns}{t_c}t\\right)\\right),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $t$ is expressed in seconds and $t_c$ is expressed in nanoseconds.\n\nWe assume a surface code cycle time of 200ns, in conformance with~\\cite{PhysRevA.86.032324}. For each scheme we analyze, we compare its security using the more conservative (and realistic in the short term) $p_g=10^{-3}$ and also the more optimistic  $p_g=10^{-5}$. Note that assuming the more optimistic assumption from a quantum computing perspective is the more conservative assumption from a cybersecurity perspective.\n\nFurthermore, in this analysis, we are reporting the full physical footprint, including the memory required for magic state distillation.\nUsing present-day techniques, the memory required for generating these generic input states accounts for a substantial fraction of the total memory cost and thus we are including these in the total cost estimate and will track the impact of improved methods.\n\n\\section{Symmetric ciphers\\label{sct::ciphers}}\nBelow we analyze the security of AES family of symmetric ciphers against large-scale fault-tolerant quantum adversaries. We used the highly optimized logical circuits produced in\n\\cite{10.1007/978-3-319-29360-8_3}. \n\n\\subsection{AES-128}\n\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-128_cycles.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{AES-128 block cipher. Required surface clock cycles per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). The bottom brown line (theoretical lower bound, black box) represents the minimal number of queries required\n\tby Grover's algorithm, the cost function being the total number of queries to a black-box oracle, each query assumed to have unit cost, and a completely error-free circuit. The purple line (ideal grover, non-black-box) takes into consideration the structure of the oracle, the cost function being the total number of gates in the circuit, each gate having unit cost; the quantum circuit is assumed error-free as well. Both brown and magenta lines are displayed only for comparisons; for both of them, the $y$ axis should be interpreted as number of logical queries (operations, respectively).\t\nThe curves above the purple line show the overhead introduced by fault tolerance (in terms of required surface code cycles, each surface code cycle assumed to have unit cost). More optimization at the logical layer will shift the purple line down, whereas more optimization at the fault-tolerant layer will move the upper curves closer to the purple line. Similar remarks to the above hold for the remaining plots in this manuscript.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_128_cycles}\n\t\n\tFor example, the plots in Fig.~\\ref{fgr:aes_128_cycles} tells us that if we have $2^{50}$ quantum computers running Grover's algorithm in parallel, with no physical errors, then it would take about $2^{63}$ gate calls (where the purple line intersects the vertical line at $50$), where we assume each gate to have unit cost. Still with no errors, a trivial cost for implementing the cryptographic function (oracle) would bring the cost down to about $2^{38}$ oracle calls per quantum computer. Keeping the actual function implementation, but adding the fault-tolerant layer with a physical error rate of $10^{-7}$ (with appropriate assumptions and using state-of-the-art quantum error correction) pushes the cost up to around $2^{76}$ surface code cycles per quantum computer (where now each code cycle is assumed to have unit cost). Similar remarks hold for the remaining plots in this manuscript.\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-128_time.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{AES-128 block cipher. Required time per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). The horizontal dotted line indicates one year. The $x$-axis is deliberately extended to show the necessary number of CPUs for a total time of one year. Thus the figure shows that it would take, with the stated assumptions, over $2^{80}$ parallel quantum searches to break AES-128 in a year. Similar remarks to the above hold for the remaining plots in this manuscript.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_128_time}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-128_phys.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{AES-128 block cipher. Physical footprint (physical qubits) per processor, as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_128_phys}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-128_phys_total.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{AES-128 block cipher. Total physical footprint (physical qubits), as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). Note that the qubits are not correlated across processors.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_128_phys_total}\n\n\\subsection{AES-192}\n\n\t\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-192_cycles.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{AES-192 block cipher. Required surface clock cycles per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_192_cycles}\n\t\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-192_time.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{AES-192 block cipher. Required time per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_192_time}\n\t\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-192_phys.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{AES-192 block cipher. Physical footprint (physical qubits) per processor, as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_192_phys}\n\t\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-192_phys_total.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{AES-192 block cipher. Total physical footprint (physical qubits), as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). Note that the qubits are not correlated across processors.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_192_phys_total}\n\n\n\\subsection{AES-256}\n\n\t\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-256_cycles.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{AES-256 block cipher. Required surface clock cycles per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_256_cycles}\n\t\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-256_time.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{AES-256 block cipher. Required time per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_256_time}\n\t\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-256_phys.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{AES-256 block cipher. Physical footprint (physical qubits) per processor, as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_256_phys}\n\t\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/AES-256_phys_total.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{AES-256 block cipher. Total physical footprint (physical qubits), as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). Note that the qubits are not correlated across processors.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:aes_256_phys_total}\n\n\\section{Hash functions\\label{sct::hash}}\nIn this section we study the effect of parallelized Grover attacks on the SHA-256~\\cite{SHA2} snd SHA3-256~\\cite{SHA3} family of hash functions. We used the highly optimized logical circuits produced in~\\cite{10.1007/978-3-319-69453-5_18}.\n\n\\subsection{SHA-256}\n\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA-256_cycles.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{SHA-256 cryptographic hash function. Required surface clock cycles per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha_256_cycles}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA-256_time.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{SHA-256 cryptographic hash function. Required time per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha_256_time}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA-256_phys.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{SHA-256 cryptographic hash function. Physical footprint (physical qubits) per processor, as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha_256_phys}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA-256_phys_total.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{SHA-256 cryptographic hash function. Total physical footprint (physical qubits), as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). Note that the qubits are not correlated across processors.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha_256_phys_total}\n\n\n\\subsection{SHA3-256}\n\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA3-256_cycles.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{SHA3-256 cryptographic hash function. Required surface clock cycles per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha3_256_cycles}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA3-256_time.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{SHA3-256 cryptographic hash function. Required time per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha3_256_time}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA3-256_phys.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{SHA3-256 cryptographic hash function. Physical footprint (physical qubits) per processor, as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha3_256_phys}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA3-256_phys_total.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{SHA3-256 cryptographic hash function. Total physical footprint (physical qubits), as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). Note that the qubits are not correlated across processors.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha3_256_phys_total}\n\\section{Bitcoin~\\label{sct::bitcoin}}\nIn this section we analyze the security of Bitcoin's~\\cite{satoshi:bitcoin} proof-of-work protocol, which is based on finding a hash\\footnote{The hash function being used by the protocol is H($x$) := SHA-256(SHA-256($x$).} pre-image which that starts\nwith a certain number of zeros. The latter is dynamically adjusted by the protocol so that the problem is on average solved by\nthe whole network in 10 minutes. Currently, it takes around $2^{75}$ classical hashing operations~\\cite{btc_difficulty} for finding a desired hash pre-image successfully via brute-force search with specialized hardware.\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA-256-Bitcoin_cycles.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{Bitcoin's cryptographic hash function H($x$) := SHA-256(SHA-256($x$)). Required surface clock cycles per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha_256_bitcoin_cycles}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA-256-Bitcoin_time.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{Bitcoin's cryptographic hash function H($x$) := SHA-256(SHA-256($x$)). Required time per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha_256_bitcoin_time}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA-256-Bitcoin_phys.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{Bitcoin's cryptographic hash function H($x$) := SHA-256(SHA-256($x$)). Physical footprint (physical qubits) per processor, as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha_256_bitcoin_phys}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/SHA-256-Bitcoin_phys_total.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{Bitcoin's cryptographic hash function H($x$) := SHA-256(SHA-256($x$)). Total physical footprint (physical qubits), as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). Note that the qubits are not correlated across processors.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:sha_256_bitcoin_phys_total}\n\n\n\\section{Intrinsic cost of parallelized Grover's algorithm\\label{sct::intrinsic_parallel_grover}}\n\nMore efficient quantum implementations of AES and SHA imply more efficient cryptanalysis. In this section, we aim to bound how much further optimized implementations of these cryptographic functions could help. We do so by assuming a trivial cost of $1$ for each function evaluation.\n\n\\subsection{Searching space of size $2^{56}$}\n\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover56bits_cycles.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{56}$. Required surface clock cycles per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_56_cycles}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover56bits_time.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{56}$. Required time per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). The dotted horizontal line indicates one year. }\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_56_time}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover56bits_phys.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{56}$. Physical footprint (physical qubits) per processor, as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_56_phys}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover56bits_phys_total.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{56}$. Total physical footprint (physical qubits), as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). Note that the qubits are not correlated across processors.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_56_phys_total}\n\n\\subsection{Searching space of size $2^{64}$}\n\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover64bits_cycles.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{64}$. Required surface clock cycles per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_64_cycles}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover64bits_time.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{64}$. Required time per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_64_time}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover64bits_phys.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{64}$. Physical footprint (physical qubits) per processor, as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_64_phys}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover64bits_phys_total.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{64}$. Total physical footprint (physical qubits), as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). Note that the qubits are not correlated across processors.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_64_phys_total}\n\n\\subsection{Searching space of size $2^{128}$}\n\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover128bits_cycles.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{128}$. Required surface clock cycles per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_128_cycles}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover128bits_time.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{128}$. Required time per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_128_time}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover128bits_phys.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{128}$. Physical footprint (physical qubits) per processor, as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_128_phys}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover128bits_phys_total.pdf}\n\t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{128}$. Total physical footprint (physical qubits), as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). Note that the qubits are not correlated across processors.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_128_phys_total}\n\n\n\\subsection{Searching space of size $2^{256}$}\n\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover256bits_cycles.pdf}\n      \t\\captionof{figure}{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{256}$. Required surface clock cycles per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_256_cycles}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover256bits_time.pdf}\n      \t\\caption{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{256}$. Required time per processor, as a function of the  number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_256_time}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover256bits_phys.pdf}\n\t\\caption{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{256}$. Physical footprint (physical qubits) per processor, as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale).}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_256_phys}\n        \\includegraphics[width=0.429\\textwidth]{figures/MinimalGrover256bits_phys_total.pdf}\n\t\\caption{Running Grover's algorithm with a trivial oracle, for a searching space of size $2^{256}$. Total physical footprint (physical qubits), as a function of the number of processors ($\\log_2$ scale). Note that the qubits are not correlated across processors.}\n      \t\\label{fgr:minimal_grover_256_phys_total}\n\n\n\\section{RSA schemes\\label{sct::rsa}}\nIn the following section we compute the space/time tradeoffs for attacking public-key cryptographic schemes based on factoring large numbers, \nnamely RSA-1024, RSA-2048, RSA-3072, RSA-4096, RSA-7680 and RSA-15360.\nFor each scheme, we plot the space/time tradeoff points then fit it with a third degree polynomial, for $p_g=10^{-3}$ and $p_g=10^{-5}$, respectively.\n\n\\subsection{RSA-1024}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/RSA1024.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-1024 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 3.01\\times 10^7$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $3.01\\times 10^{11}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 2050, and the total number of surface code cycles is $5.86\\times 10^{13}$. The quantity $R^2$ represents the coefficient of determination (closer to 1, better the fitting). The classical security parameter is approximately 80 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa1024a} \n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/RSA1024.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-1024 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 2.14\\times 10^6$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $3.01\\times 10^{11}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 2050, and the total number of surface code cycles is $2.93\\times 10^{13}$. The classical security parameter is approximately 80 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa1024b}\n\n\n\\subsection{RSA-2048}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/RSA2048.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-2048 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 1.72\\times 10^8$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $2.41\\times 10^{12}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 4098, and the total number of surface code cycles is $4.69\\times 10^{14}$. The classical security parameter is approximately 112 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa2048a}\n\n\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/RSA2048.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-2048 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 9.78\\times 10^6$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $2.41\\times 10^{12}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 4098, and the total number of surface code cycles is $2.35\\times 10^{14}$. The classical security parameter is approximately 112 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa2048b}\n\n\n\\subsection{RSA-3072}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/RSA3072.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-3072 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 6.41\\times 10^8$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $8.12\\times 10^{12}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 6146, and the total number of surface code cycles is $1.58\\times 10^{15}$. The classical security parameter is approximately 128 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa3072a}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/RSA3072.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-3072 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 2.55\\times 10^7$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $8.12\\times 10^{12}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 6146, and the total number of surface code cycles is $7.91\\times 10^{14}$. The classical security parameter is approximately 128 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa3072b}\n\n\n\\subsection{RSA-4096}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/RSA4096.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-4096 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 1.18\\times 10^9$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $1.92\\times 10^{13}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 8194, and the total number of surface code cycles is $3.75\\times 10^{15}$. The classical security parameter is approximatively approximately 156 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa4096a}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/RSA4096.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-4096 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 5.70\\times 10^7$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $1.92\\times 10^{13}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 8194, and the total number of surface code cycles is $1.88\\times 10^{15}$. The classical security parameter is approximatively approximately 156 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa4096b}\n\n\n\\subsection{RSA-7680}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/RSA7680.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-7680 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 7.70\\times 10^{10}$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $1.27\\times 10^{14}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 15362, and the total number of surface code cycles is $2.64\\times 10^{16}$. The classical security parameter is approximately 192 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa7680a}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/RSA7680.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-7680 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 7.41\\times 10^{9}$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $1.27\\times 10^{14}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 15362, and the total number of surface code cycles is $2.47\\times 10^{16}$. The classical security parameter is approximately 192 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa7680b}\n\n\n\\subsection{RSA-15360}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/RSA15360.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-15360 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 4.85\\times 10^{12}$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $1.01\\times 10^{15}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 30722, and the total number of surface code cycles is $2.24\\times 10^{17}$. The classical security parameter is approximately 256 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa15360a}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/RSA15360.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{RSA-15360 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 7.64\\times 10^{10}$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $1.01\\times 10^{15}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 30722, and the total number of surface code cycles is $1.98\\times 10^{17}$. The classical security parameter is approximately 256 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:rsa15360b}\n\n\n\\section{Elliptic curve schemes\\label{sct::ecc}}\nIn the following section we compute the space/time tradeoffs for attacking public-key cryptographic schemes based on solving the discrete logarithm \nproblem in finite groups generated over elliptic curves, namely NIST P-160, NIST P-192, NIST P-224, NIST P-256, NIST P-384 and NIST P-521. For \neach scheme, we plot the space/time tradeoff points then fit it with a third degree polynomial, for $p_g=10^{-3}$ and $p_g=10^{-5}$, respectively. We \nused the logical circuits from~\\cite{1706.06752}.\n\n\\subsection{NIST P-160}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/P160.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-160 elliptic curve space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 1.81\\times 10^7$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $2.08\\times 10^{11}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 1466, and the total number of surface code cycles is $4.05\\times 10^{13}$. The classical security parameter is 80 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p160a}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/P160.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-160 elliptic curve space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 1.38\\times 10^6$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $2.08\\times 10^{11}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 1466, and the total number of surface code cycles is $2.03\\times 10^{13}$. The classical security parameter is 80 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p160b}\n\n\n\\subsection{NIST P-192}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/P192.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-192 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 3.37\\times 10^7$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $3.71\\times 10^{11}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 1754, and the total number of surface code cycles is $7.23\\times 10^{13}$. The classical security parameter is 96 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p192a}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/P192.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-192 space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 2.18\\times 10^6$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $3.71\\times 10^{11}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 1754, and the total number of surface code cycles is $3.62\\times 10^{13}$. The classical security parameter is 96 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p192b}\n\n\n\\subsection{NIST P-224}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/P224.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-224 elliptic curve space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 4.91\\times 10^7$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $5.90\\times 10^{11}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 2042, and the total number of surface code cycles is $1.15\\times 10^{14}$. The classical security parameter is 112 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p224a}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/P224.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-224 elliptic curve space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 3.24\\times 10^6$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $5.90\\times 10^{11}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 2042, and the total number of surface code cycles is $5.75\\times 10^{13}$. The classical security parameter is 112 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p224b}\n\n\n\\subsection{NIST P-256}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/P256.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-256 elliptic curve space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 6.77\\times 10^7$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $8.82\\times 10^{11}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 2330, and the total number of surface code cycles is $1.72\\times 10^{14}$. The classical security parameter is 128 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p256a}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/P256.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-256 elliptic curve space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 4.64\\times 10^6$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $8.82\\times 10^{11}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 2330, and the total number of surface code cycles is $8.60\\times 10^{13}$. The classical security parameter is 128 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p256b}\n\n\n\\subsection{NIST P-384}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/P384.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-384 elliptic curve space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 2.27\\times 10^8$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $3.16\\times 10^{12}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 3484, and the total number of surface code cycles is $6.17\\times 10^{14}$. The classical security parameter is 192 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p384a}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/P384.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-384 elliptic curve space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 1.28\\times 10^7$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $3.16\\times 10^{12}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 3484, and the total number of surface code cycles is $3.08\\times 10^{14}$. The classical security parameter is 192 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p384b}\n\n\\subsection{NIST P-521}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus3/P521.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-521 elliptic curve space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 6.06\\times 10^8$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $7.98\\times 10^{12}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 4719, and the total number of surface code cycles is $1.56\\times 10^{15}$. The classical security parameter is 256 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p521a}\n\n\\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth]{figures/10minus5/P521.png}\n\\captionof{figure}{NIST P-521 elliptic curve space/time tradeoffs with physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-5}$. The scale is logarithmic (base 2). Approximately $y(16.3987) \\approx 2.30\\times 10^7$ physical qubits are required to break the scheme in one day (24 hours). The number of T gates in the circuit is $7.98\\times 10^{12}$, the corresponding number of logical qubits is 4719, and the total number of surface code cycles is $7.78\\times 10^{14}$. The classical security parameter is 256 bits.}\n\\label{fgr:p521b}\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Summary and conclusions}\\label{sct::conclusion}\nWe analyzed the security of several widely used symmetric ciphers and hash functions against parallelized quantum adversaries. We computed the security parameter, wall-time and physical footprint for each cryptographic primitive. Our attack model was based on a brute force searching via a parallelized version of Grover's algorithm, assuming a surface-code fault-tolerant architecture based on defects and braiding techniques.\n\nIt is worth noting that throughout we are assuming that brute-force search where we treat the cryptographic function as a black-box is essentially the optimal attack against SHA and AES, which is currently believed to be the case.\n\nSome symmetric key algorithms are susceptible in a model that permits ``superposition attacks''~\\cite{quantph.1602.05973}. In most realistic instances, these attacks are not practical, however they do shed light on the limitations of certain security proof methods in a quantum context, and remind us that we shouldn't take for granted that non-trivial attacks on symmetric key cryptography may be possible.\nFor example, very recently, there have been several cryptanalysis results~\\cite{1712.06239} and~\\cite{1802.03856} that attempt to reduce breaking some symmetric algorithms to solving a system of non-linear equations.  Solving these non-linear equations is then attacked using a modified version of the quantum linear equation solver algorithm~\\cite{PhysRevLett.103.150502}. The results are heavily dependent on the condition number of the non-linear system, which turns to be hard to compute (it is not known for most ciphers and hash functions such as AES or SHA). Provided the condition number is relatively small, then one may get an  advantage compared to brute-force Grover search. However at this time it is not clear whether this is indeed the case, and we do not have large-scale quantum computers to experiment with.\n\nThe quantum security parameter (based on our assumptions of using state-of-the-art algorithms and fault-tolerance methods) for symmetric and hash-based cryptographic schemes is summarized in Table~\\ref{tbl1}. For more details about space/time tradeoffs achievable via parallelization of Grover's algorithm please see the corresponding Sec.~\\ref{sct::ciphers}, Sec.~\\ref{sct::hash} and Sec.~\\ref{sct::bitcoin}, respectively.\n\\begin{table}[h!]\n\\begin{tabular}{ll}\n\\hline\nName    & qs  \\\\\n\\hline\nAES-128 & 106 \\\\\nAES-192 & 139 \\\\\nAES-256 & 172 \\\\\n\\hline\nSHA-256 & 166 \\\\\nSHA3-256\t &167 \\\\\nBitcoin's PoW & 75\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{Quantum security parameter ($qs$) for the AES family of ciphers, SHA family of hash functions, and Bitcoin, assuming a conservative physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-4}$.}\n\\label{tbl1}\n\\end{table}\n\nWe also analyzed the security of asymmetric (public-key) cryptography, in particular RSA and ECC, in the light of new improvements in fault-tolerant \nquantum error correction based on surface code lattice surgery techniques. We computed the space/time tradeoff required to attack \nevery scheme, using physical error rates of $10^{-3}$ and $10^{-5}$, respectively. We fitted the data with a third degree polynomial, which resulted in an analytical formula of the number of qubits required to break the \nscheme as a function of time.\n\nThe total number of physical qubits required to break the RSA schemes in 24 hours, together with the required number of $T$ gates, corresponding number of surface code cycles and corresponding classical security parameter is summarized in Table~\\ref{tbl2}. For more details about possible space/time tradeoffs please see the corresponding Section~\\ref{sct::rsa} of the manuscript.\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\begin{tabular}{lllll}\n\\hline\nName      & nq                    & Tc                    & scc           & s        \\\\\n\\hline\nRSA-1024  & $3.01 \\times 10^7$    & $3.01 \\times 10^{11}$ & $5.86 \\times 10^{13}$ & 80\\\\\nRSA-2048  & $1.72 \\times 10^8$    & $2.41 \\times 10^{12}$ & $4.69 \\times 10^{14}$ & 112\\\\\nRSA-3072  & $6.41 \\times 10^8$    & $8.12 \\times 10^{12}$ & $1.58 \\times 10^{15}$ & 128\\\\\nRSA-4096  & $1.18 \\times 10^9$    & $1.92 \\times 10^{13}$ & $3.75 \\times 10^{15}$ & 156\\\\\nRSA-7680  & $7.70 \\times 10^{10}$ & $1.27 \\times 10^{14}$ & $2.64 \\times 10^{16}$ & 192\\\\\nRSA-15360 & $4.85 \\times 10^{12}$ & $1.01 \\times 10^{15}$ & $2.24 \\times 10^{17}$ & 256\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{The total physical footprint ($nq$) required to break the RSA schemes in 24 hours, together with the required number of $T$ gates ($Tc$), the corresponding number of surface code cycles ($scc$), and the corresponding classical security parameter ($s$).\nWe assume a very conservative physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$, more likely to be achievable by the first generations of fault-tolerant quantum computers.}\n\\label{tbl2}\n\\end{table}\n\nThe total number of physical qubits required to break the ECC schemes in 24 hours, together with the required number of $T$ gates, corresponding number of surface code cycles and corresponding classical security parameter is summarized in in Table~\\ref{tbl3}. For more details about possible space/time tradeoffs please see the corresponding Section~\\ref{sct::ecc} of the manuscript. As observed before in~\\cite{1706.06752}, breaking RSA schemes demands more quantum resources in comparison with elliptic curve-based schemes, for the same level of classical security.\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\begin{tabular}{lllll}\n\\hline\nName  & nq                 & Tc                    & scc          & s          \\\\\n\\hline\nP-160 & $1.81 \\times 10^7$ & $2.08 \\times 10^{11}$ & $4.05 \\times 10^{13}$ & 80\\\\\nP-192 & $3.37 \\times 10^7$ & $3.71 \\times 10^{11}$ & $7.23 \\times 10^{13}$ & 96\\\\\nP-224 & $4.91 \\times 10^7$ & $5.90 \\times 10^{11}$ & $1.15 \\times 10^{14}$ & 112\\\\\nP-256 & $6.77 \\times 10^7$ & $8.82 \\times 10^{11}$ & $1.72 \\times 10^{14}$ & 128\\\\\nP-384 & $2.27 \\times 10^8$ & $3.16 \\times 10^{12}$ & $6.17 \\times 10^{14}$ & 192\\\\\nP-521 & $6.06 \\times 10^8$ & $7.92 \\times 10^{12}$ & $1.56 \\times 10^{15}$ & 260\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{The total physical footprint ($nq$) required to break the ECC schemes in 24 hours, together with the required number of $T$ gates ($Tc$), the corresponding number of surface code cycles ($scc$), and the corresponding classical security parameter ($s$). We assume a very conservative physical error rate per gate $p_g=10^{-3}$, more likely to be achievable by the first generations of fault-tolerant quantum computers.}\n\\label{tbl3}\n\\end{table}\n\nRecent developments in the theory of fault-tolerant quantum error correction have great impact on evaluating the effective strength of cryptographic\nschemes against quantum attacks, as the fault-tolerant layer of a quantum computation is the most resource-intensive part of running a quantum  \nalgorithm. Therefore, monitoring the advances in the theory of quantum error correction is of crucial importance when estimating the strength (or \nweakness) of a cryptographic scheme against a quantum adversary. This work serves as a benchmark against which the impact of future advances can be compared.\n\n\\begin{acknowledgments} \nMost of this work is based on research supported by the Global Risk Institute for its members.\nWe also acknowledge support from NSERC and CIFAR. IQC and the Perimeter Institute are supported in part by the \nGovernment of Canada and the Province of Ontario.  Vlad Gheorghiu thanks Austin Fowler for helpful discussions \nand clarifications regarding lattice surgery methods.\n\\end{acknowledgments}\n\n\\bibliographystyle{aipnum4-1}\n\n", "answers": ["172."], "length": 6956, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "2646315b4135b08675c4ab2110dc544058659b9b6aab4752"}
{"input": "What is the main methodology used in the research?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: On the Role of Emergent Communication for Social Learning in Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning\nPublish Date: Unkown\nAuthor List: Seth Karten, Siva Kailas, Huao Li, Katia Sycara\n\nFigure\n\nFigure1.By using contrastive learning, our method seeks similar representations between the state-message pair and future states while creating dissimilar representations with random states.Thus satisfying the utility objective of the information bottleneck.The depicted agents are blind and cannot see other cars.\nFigure 2.An example of two possible classes, person and horse, from a single observation in the Pascal VOC game.\nFigure 3. Blind Traffic Junction Left: Our method uses compositional complexity and contrastive utility to outperform other baselines in terms of performance and sample complexity.The legend provides the mean ± variance of the best performance.Right: Top: success, contrastive, and complexity losses for our method.Right, Bottom: success, autoencoder loss for ae-comm with supervised pretraining.\nFigure 4. Pascal VOC Game Representing compositional concepts from raw pixel data in images to communicate multiple concepts within a single image.Our method significantly outperforms ae-comm and no-comm due to our framework being able to learn composable, independent concepts.\nFigure 5. Blind Traffic Junction Social shadowing enables significantly lower sample complexity when compared to traditional online MARL.\nBeta ablation: Messages are naturally sparse in bits due to the complexity loss.Redundancy measures the capacity for a bijection between the size of the set of unique tokens and the enumerated observations and intents.Min redundancy is 1.0 (a bijection).Lower is better.\n\nabstract\n\nExplicit communication among humans is key to coordinating and learning. Social learning, which uses cues from experts, can greatly benefit from the usage of explicit communication to align heterogeneous policies, reduce sample complexity, and solve partially observable tasks. Emergent communication, a type of explicit communication, studies the creation of an artificial language to encode a high task-utility message directly from data.\nHowever, in most cases, emergent communication sends insufficiently compressed messages with little or null information, which also may not be understandable to a third-party listener. This paper proposes an unsupervised method based on the information bottleneck to capture both referential complexity and task-specific utility to adequately explore sparse social communication scenarios in multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL).\nWe show that our model is able to i) develop a natural-language-inspired lexicon of messages that is independently composed of a set of emergent concepts, which span the observations and intents with minimal bits, ii) develop communication to align the action policies of heterogeneous agents with dissimilar feature models, and iii) learn a communication policy from watching an expert's action policy, which we term 'social shadowing'.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nSocial learning agents analyze cues from direct observation of other agents (novice or expert) in the same environment to learn an action policy from others. However, observing expert actions may not be sufficient to coordinate with other agents. Rather, by learning to communicate, agents can better model the intent of other agents, leading to better coordination.\nIn humans, explicit communication for coordination assumes a common communication substrate to convey abstract concepts and beliefs directly , which may not be available for new partners. To align complex beliefs, heterogeneous agents must learn a message policy that translates from one theory of mind to another to synchronize coordination.\nEspecially when there is complex information to process and share, new agent partners need to learn to communicate to work with other agents. Emergent communication studies the creation of artificial language. Often phrased as a Lewis game, speakers and listeners learn a set of tokens to communicate complex observations .\nHowever, in multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL), agents suffer from partial observability and non-stationarity (due to unaligned value functions) , which aims to be solved with decentralized learning through communication. In the MARL setup, agents, as speakers and listeners, learn a set of tokens to communicate observations, intentions, coordination, or other experiences which help facilitate solving tasks .\nAgents learn to communicate effectively through a backpropagation signal from their task performance . This has been found useful for applications in human-agent teaming , multirobot navigation , and coordination in complex games such as StarCraft II . Communication quality has been shown to have a strong relationship with task performance , leading to a multitude of work attempting to increase the representational capacity by decreasing the convergence rates .\nYet these methods still create degenerate communication protocols , which are uninterpretable due to joined concepts or null (lack of) information, which causes performance degradation. In this work, we investigate the challenges of learning a arXiv:2302.14276v1 LG] 28 Feb 2023 messaging lexicon to prepare emergent communication for social learning (EC4SL) scenarios.\nWe study the following hypotheses: H1) EC4SL will learn faster through structured concepts in messages leading to higher-quality solutions, H2) EC4SL aligns the policies of expert heterogeneous agents, and H3) EC4SL enables social shadowing, where an agent learns a communication policy while only observing an expert agent's action policy.\nBy learning a communication policy, the agent is encouraged to develop a more structured understanding of intent, leading to better coordination. The setting is very realistic among humans and many computer vision and RL frameworks may develop rich feature spaces for a specific solo task, but have not yet interacted with other agents, which may lead to failure without alignment.\nWe enable a compositional emergent communication paradigm, which exhibits clustering and informativeness properties. We show theoretically and through empirical results that compositional language enables independence properties among tokens with respect to referential information. Additionally, when combined with contrastive learning, our method outperforms competing methods that only ground communication on referential information.\nWe show that contrastive learning is an optimal critic for communication, reducing sample complexity for the unsupervised emergent communication objective. In addition to the more human-like format, compositional communication is able to create variable-length messages, meaning that we are not limited to sending insufficiently compressed messages with little information, increasing the quality of each communication.\nIn order to test our hypotheses, we show the utility of our method in multi-agent settings with a focus on teams of agents, high-dimensional pixel data, and expansions to heterogeneous teams of agents of varying skill levels. Social learning requires agents to explore to observe and learn from expert cues.\nWe interpolate between this form of social learning and imitation learning, which learns action policies directly from examples. We introduce a 'social shadowing' learning approach where we use first-person observations, rather than third-person observations, to encourage the novice to learn latently or conceptually how to communicate and develop an understanding of intent for better coordination.\nThe social shadowing episodes are alternated with traditional MARL during training. Contrastive learning, which works best with positive examples, is apt for social shadowing. Originally derived to enable lower complexity emergent lexicons, we find that the contrastive learning objective is apt for agents to develop internal models and relationships of the task through social shadowing.\nThe idea is to enable a shared emergent communication substrate (with minimal bandwidth) to enable future coordi-nation with novel partners. Our contributions are deriving an optimal critic for a communication policy and showing that the information bottleneck helps extend communication to social learning scenarios.\nIn real-world tasks such as autonomous driving or robotics, humans do not necessarily learn from scratch. Rather they explore with conceptually guided information from expert mentors. In particular, having structured emergent messages reduces sample complexity, and contrastive learning can help novice agents learn from experts.\nEmergent communication can also align heterogeneous agents, a social task that has not been previously studied.\n\nMulti-Agent Signaling\n\nImplicit communication conveys information to other agents that is not intentionally communicated . Implicit signaling conveys information to other agents based on one's observable physical position . Implicit signaling may be a form of implicit communication such as through social cues or explicit communication such as encoded into the MDP through \"cheap talk\" .\nUnlike implicit signaling, explicit signaling is a form of positive signaling that seeks to directly influence the behavior of other agents in the hopes that the new information will lead to active listening. Multi-agent emergent communication is a type of explicit signaling which deliberately shares information.\nSymbolic communication, a subset of explicit communication, seeks to send a subset of pre-defined messages. However, these symbols must be defined by an expert and do not scale to particularly complex observations and a large number of agents. Emergent communication aims to directly influence other agents with a learned subset of information, which allows for scalability and interpretability by new agents.\n\nEmergent Communication\n\nSeveral methodologies currently exist to increase the informativeness of emergent communication. With discrete and clustered continuous communication, the number of observed distinct communication tokens is far below the number permissible . As an attempt to increase the emergent \"vocabulary\" and decrease the data required to converge to an informative communication \"language\", work has added a bias loss to emit distinct tokens in different situations .\nMore recent work has found that the sample efficiency can be further improved by grounding communication in observation space with a supervised reconstruction loss . Information-maximizing autoencoders aim to maximize the state reconstruction accuracy for each agent. How-ever, grounding communication in observations has been found to easily satisfy these input-based objectives while still requiring a myriad more samples to explore to find a task-specific communication space .\nThus, it is necessary to use task-specific information to communicate informatively. This will enable learned compression for task completion rather than pure compression for input recovery. Other work aims to use the information bottleneck to decrease the entropy of messages . In our work, we use contrastive learning to increase representation similarity with future goals, which we show optimally optimizes the Q-function for messages.\n\nNatural Language Inspiration\n\nThe properties of the tokens in emergent communication directly affect their informative ability. As a baseline, continuous communication tokens can represent maximum information but lack human-interpretable properties. Discrete 1-hot (binary vector) tokens allow for a finite vocabulary, but each token contains the same magnitude of information, with equal orthogonal distance to each other token.\nSimilar to word embeddings in natural language, discrete prototypes are an effort to cluster similar information together from continuous vectors . Building on the continuous word embedding properties, VQ-VIB , an information-theoretic observation grounding based on VQ-VAE properties , uses variational properties to provide word embedding properties for continuous emergent tokens.\nLike discrete prototypes, they exhibit a clustering property based on similar information but are more informative. However, each of these message types determines a single token for communication. Tokens are stringed together to create emergent \"sentences\".\n\nPreliminaries\n\nWe formulate our setup as a decentralized, partially observable Markov Decision Process with communication (Dec-POMDP-Comm). Formally, our problem is defined by the tuple, S, A, M, T , R, O, Ω, γ . We define S as the set of states, A i , i ∈ [1, N ] as the set of actions, which includes task-specific actions, and M i as the set of communications for N agents.\nT is the transition between states due to the multi-agent joint action space T : S × A 1 , ..., A N → S. Ω defines the set of observations in our partially observable setting. Partial observability requires communication to complete the tasks successfully. O i : M 1 , ..., M N × Ŝ → Ω maps the communications and local state, Ŝ, to a distribution of observations for each agent.\nR defines the reward function and γ defines the discount factor.\n\nArchitecture\n\nThe policy network is defined by three stages: Observation Encoding, Communication, and Action Decoding. The best observation encoding and action decoding architecture is task-dependent, i.e., using multi-layer perceptrons (MLPs), CNNs , GRUs , or transformer layers are best suited to different inputs.\nThe encoder transforms observation and any sequence or memory information into an encoding H. The on-policy reinforcement learning training uses RE-INFORCE or a decentralized version of MAPPO as specified by our experiments. Our work focuses on the communication stage, which can be divided into three substages: message encoding, message passing (often considered sparse communication), and message decoding.\nWe use the message passing from . For message decoding, we build on a multiheaded attention framework, which allows an agent to learn which messages are most important . Our compositional communication framework defines the message encoding, as described in section 4.\n\nObjective\n\nMutual information, denoted as I(X; Y ), looks to measure the relationship between random variables, which is often measured through Kullback-Leibler divergence , I(X; Y ) = D KL (p(x, y)||p(x) ⊗ p(y)). The message encoding substage can be defined as an information bottleneck problem, which defines a tradeoff between the complexity of information (compression, I(X, X)) and the preserved relevant information (utility, I( X, Y )).\nThe deep variational information bottleneck defines a trade-off between preserving useful information and compression . We assume that our observation and memory/sequence encoder provides an optimal representation H i suitable for sharing relevant observation and intent/coordination information. We hope to recover a representation Y i , which contains the sufficient desired outputs.\nIn our scenario, the information bottleneck is a trade-off between the complexity of information I(H i ; M i ) (representing the encoded information exactly) and representing the relevant information I(M j =i ; Y i ), which is signaled from our contrastive objective. In our setup, the relevant information flows from other agents through communication, signaling a combination of the information bottleneck and a Lewis game.\nWe additionally promote complexity through our compositional independence objective, This is formulated by the following Lagrangian, where the bounds on mutual information Î are defined in equations 1, 2, and 10. Overall, our objective is,\n\nComplexity through Compositional Communication\n\nWe aim to satisfy the complexity objective, I(H i , M i ), through compositional communication. In order to induce complexity in our communication, we want the messages to be as non-random as possible. That is, informative with respect to the input hidden state h. In addition, we want each token within the message to share as little information as possible with the preceding tokens.\nThus, each additional token adds only informative content. Each token has a fixed length in bits W . The total sequence is limited by a fixed limit, L l W l ≤ S, of S bits and a total of L tokens. We use a variational message generation setup, which maps the encoded hidden state h to a message m; that is, we are modeling the posterior, π i m (m l |h).\nWe limit the vocabulary size to K tokens, e j ∈ R D , j ∈ [1, K] ⊂ N, where each token has dimensionality D and l ∈ [1, L] ⊂ N. Each token m l is sampled from a categorical posterior distribution, 0 otherwise such that the message m l is mapped to the nearest neighbor e j . A set of these tokens makes a message m.\nTo satisfy the complexity objective, we want to use m i to well-represent h i and consist of independently informative m i l .\n\nIndependent Information\n\nWe derive an upper bound for the interaction information between all tokens. Proposition 4.1. For the interaction information between all tokens, the following upper bound holds: The proof is in Appendix A.1. Since we want the mutual information to be minimized in our objective, we minimize,\n\nInput-Oriented Information\n\nIn order to induce complexity in the compositional messages, we additionally want to minimize the mutual information I(H; M ) between the composed message m and the encoded information h. We derive an upper bound on the mutual information that we use as a Lagrangian term to minimize. Proposition 4.2. For the mutual information between the composed message and encoded information, the following upper bound holds:\nThe proof is in Appendix A.1. Thus, we have our Lagrangian term, Conditioning on the input or observation data is a decentralized training objective.\n\nSequence Length\n\nCompositional communication necessitates an adaptive limit on the total length of the sequence. Corollary 4.3. Repeat tokens, w, are redundant and can be removed. Suppose one predicts two arbitrary tokens, w k and w l . Given equation 1, it follows that there is low or near-zero mutual information between w k and w l .\nA trivial issue is that the message generator will predict every available token as to follow the unique token objective. Since the tokens are imbued with input-oriented information (equation 2), the predicted tokens will be based on relevant referential details. Thus, it follows that tokens containing irrelevant information will not be chosen.\nA nice optimization objective that follows from corollary 4.3 is that one can use self-supervised learning with an end-ofsequence (EOS) token to limit the variable total length of compositional message sequences. (3) Algorithm 1 Compositional Message Gen.(h t ) m i ∼ N ( ĥ; µ, σ) 9: end for 10: return m\n\nMessage Generation Architecture\n\nNow, we can define the pipeline for message generation. The idea is to create an architecture that can generate features to enable independent message tokens. We expand each compressed token into the space of the hidden state h (1-layer linear expansion) since each token has a natural embedding in R |h| .\nThen, we perform attention using a softmin to help minimize similarity with previous tokens and sample the new token from a variational distribution. See algorithm 1 for complete details. During execution, we can generate messages directly due to equation 1, resolving any computation time lost from sequential compositional message generation.\n\nUtility through Contrastive Learning\n\nFirst, note that our Markov Network is as follows: H j → M j → Y i ← H i . Continue to denote i as the agent identification and j as the agent ID such that j = i. We aim to satisfy the utility objective of the information bottleneck, I(M j ; Y i ), through contrastive learning as shown in figure 1. Proposition 5.1.\nUtility mutual information is lower bounded by the contrastive NCE-binary objective, The proof is in Appendix A.1. This result shows a need for gradient information to flow backward across agents along communication edge connections.\n\nExperiments and Results\n\nWe condition on inputs, especially rich information (such as pixel data), and task-specific information. When evaluating an artificial language in MARL, we are interested in referential tasks, in which communication is required to complete the task. With regard to intent-grounded communication, we study ordinal tasks, which require coordination information between agents to complete successfully.\nThus, we consider tasks with a team of agents to foster messaging that communicates coordination information that also includes their observations. To test H1, structuring emergent messages enables lower complexity, we test our methodology and analyze the input-oriented information and utility capabilities.\nNext, we analyze the ability of heterogeneous agents to understand differing communication policies (H2)). Finally, we consider the effect of social shadowing (H3), in which agents solely learn a communication policy from an expert agent's action policy. We additionally analyze the role of offline reinforcement learning for emergent communication in combination with online reinforcement learning to further learn emergent communication alongside an action policy.\nWe evaluate each scenario over 10 seeds.\n\nEnvironments\n\nBlind Traffic Junction We consider a benchmark that requires both referential and ordinal capabilities within a team of agents. The blind traffic junction environment requires multiple agents to navigate a junction without any observation of other agents. Rather, they only observe their own state location.\nTen agents must coordinate to traverse through the lanes without colliding into agents within their lane or in the junction. Our training uses REINFORCE . Pascal VOC Game We further evaluate the complexity of compositional communication with a Pascal VOC . This is a two-agent referential game similar to the Cifar game but requires the prediction of multiple classes.\nDuring each episode, each agent observes a random image from the Pascal VOC dataset containing exactly two unique labels. Each agent must encode information given only the raw pixels from the original image such that the other agent can recognize the two class labels in the original image. An agent receives a reward of 0.25 per correctly chosen class label and will receive a total reward of 1 if both agents guess all labels correctly.\nSee figure 2. Our training uses heterogeneous agents trained with PPO (modified from MAPPO repository). For simplicity of setup, we consider images with exactly two unique labels from a closed subset of size five labels of the original set of labels from the Pascal VOC data. Furthermore, these images must be of size 375 × 500 pixels.\nThus, the resultant dataset comprised 534 unique images from the Pascal VOC dataset.\n\nBaselines\n\nTo evaluate our methodology, we compare our method to the following baselines: (1) no-comm, where agents do not communicate; (2) rl-comm, which uses a baseline communication method learned solely through policy loss ; (3) ae-comm, which uses an autoencoder to ground communication in input observations ; (4) VQ-VIB, which uses a variational autoencoder to ground discrete communication in input observations and a mutual information objective to ensure low entropy communication .\nWe provide an ablation of the loss parameter β in table 1 in the blind traffic junction scenario. When β = 0, we use our compositional message paradigm without our derived loss terms. We find that higher complexity and independence losses increase sample complexity. When β = 1, the model was unable to converge.\nHowever, when there is no regularization loss, the model performs worse (with no guarantees about referential representation). We attribute this to the fact that our independence criteria learns a stronger causal relationship. There are fewer spurious features that may cause an agent to take an incorrect action.\nIn order to understand the effect of the independent concept representation, we analyze the emergent language's capacity for redundancy. A message token m l is redundant if there exists another token m k that represents the same information. With our methodology, the emergent 'language' converges to the exact number of observations and intents required to solve the task.\nWith a soft discrete threshold, the independent information loss naturally converges to a discrete number of tokens in the vocabulary. Our β ablation in table 1 yields a bijection between each token in the vocabulary and the possible emergent concepts, i.e., the enumerated observations and intents. Thus for β = 0.1, there is no redundancy.\nSparse Communication In corollary 4.3, we assume that there is no mutual information between tokens. In practice, the loss may only be near-zero. Our empirical results yield independence loss around 1e − 4. In table 1, the size of the messages is automatically compressed to the smallest size to represent the information.\nDespite a trivially small amount of mutual information between tokens, our compositional method is able to reduce the message size in bits by 2.3x using our derived regularization, for a total of an 8x reduction in message size over non-compositional methods such as ae-comm. Since the base unit for the token is a 32-bit float, we note that each token in the message may be further compressed.\nWe observe that each token uses three significant digits, which may further compress tokens to 10 bits each for a total message length of 20 bits.\n\nCommunication Utility Results\n\nDue to coordination in MARL, grounding communication in referential features is not enough. Finding the communication utility requires grounding messages in ordinal information. Overall, figure shows that our compositional, contrastive method outperforms all methods focused on solely input-oriented communication grounding.\nIn the blind traffic junction, our method yields a higher average task success rate and is able to achieve it with a lower sample complexity. Training with the contrastive update tends to spike to high success but not converge, often many episodes before convergence, which leaves area for training improvement.\nThat is, the contrastive update begins to find aligned latent spaces early in training, but it cannot adapt the methodology quickly enough to converge. The exploratory randomness of most of the early online data prevents exploitation of the high utility f + examples. This leaves further room for improvement for an adaptive contrastive loss term.\nRegularization loss convergence After convergence to high task performance, the autoencoder loss increases in order to represent the coordination information. This follows directly from the information bottleneck, where there exists a tradeoff between utility and complexity. However, communication, especially referential communication, should have an overlap between utility and complexity.\nThus, we should seek to make the complexity loss more convex. Our compositional communication complexity loss does not converge before task performance convergence. While the complexity loss tends to spike in the exploratory phase, the normalized value is very small. Interestingly, the method eventually converges as the complexity loss converges below a normal- ized 0.3.\nAdditionally, the contrastive loss tends to decrease monotonically and converges after the task performance converges, showing a very smooth decrease. The contrastive f − loss decreases during training, which may account for success spikes prior to convergence. The method is able to converge after only a moderate decrease in the f + loss.\nThis implies empirical evidence that the contrastive loss is an optimal critic for messaging. See figure 3.\n\nHeterogeneous Alignment Through Communication\n\nIn order to test the heterogeneous alignment ability of our methodology to learn higher-order concepts from highdimensional data, we analyze the performance on the Pascal VOC game. We compare our methodology against ae-comm to show that concepts should consist of independent information directly from task signal rather than compression to reconstruct inputs.\nThat is, we show an empirical result on pixel data to verify the premise of the information bottleneck. Our methodology significantly outperforms the observation-grounded ae-comm baseline, as demonstrated by figure 4. The ae-comm methodology, despite using autoencoders to learn observation-grounded communication, performs only slightly better than no-comm.\nOn the other hand, our methodology is able to outperform both baselines significantly. It is important to note that based on figure 4, our methodology is able to guess more than two of the four labels correctly across the two agents involved, while the baseline methodologies struggle to guess exactly two of thew four labels consistently.\nThis can be attributed to our framework being able to learn compositional concepts that are much more easily discriminated due to mutual independence.\n\nSocial Shadowing\n\nCritics of emergent communication may point to the increased sample complexity due to the dual communication and action policy learning. In the social shadowing scenario, heterogeneous agents can learn to generate a communication policy without learning the action policy of the watched expert agents. To enable social shadowing, the agent will alternate between a batch of traditional MARL (no expert) and (1st-person) shadowing an expert agent performing the task in its trajectory.\nThe agent only uses the contrastive objective to update its communication policy during shadowing. In figure , the agent that performs social shadowing is able to learn the action policy with almost half the sample complexity required by the online reinforcement learning agent. Our results show that the structured latent space of the emergent communication learns socially benevolent coordination.\nThis tests our hypothesis that by learning communication to understand the actions of other agents, one can enable lower sample complexity coordination. Thus, it mitigates the issues of solely observing actions.\n\nDiscussion\n\nBy using our framework to better understand the intent of others, agents can learn to communicate to align policies and coordinate. Any referential-based setup can be performed with a supervised loss, as indicated by the instant satisfaction of referential objectives. Even in the Pascal VOC game, which appears to be a purely referential objective, our results show that intelligent compression is not the only objective of referential communication.\nThe emergent communication paradigm must enable an easy-to-discriminate space for the game. In multi-agent settings, the harder challenge is to enable coordination through communication. Using contrastive communication as an optimal critic aims to satisfy this, and has shown solid improvements. Since contrastive learning benefits from good examples, this method is even more powerful when there is access to examples from expert agents.\nIn this setting, the communication may be bootstrapped, since our optimal critic has examples with strong signals from the 'social shadowing' episodes. Additionally, we show that the minimization of our independence objective enables tokens that contain minimal overlapping information with other tokens.\nPreventing trivial communication paradigms enables higher performance. Each of these objectives is complementary, so they are not trivially minimized during training, which is a substantial advantage over comparative baselines. Unlike prior work, this enables the benefits of training with reinforcement learning in multi-agent settings.\nIn addition to lower sample complexity, the mutual information regularization yields additional benefits, such as small messages, which enables the compression aspect of sparse communication. From a qualitative point of view, the independent information also yields discrete emergent concepts, which can be further made human-interpretable by a post-hoc analysis .\nThis is a step towards white-box machine learning in multi-agent settings. The interpretability of this learned white-box method could be useful in human-agent teaming as indicated by prior work . The work here will enable further results in decision-making from high-dimensional data with emergent concepts.\nThe social scenarios described are a step towards enabling a zero-shot communication policy. This work will serve as future inspiration for using emergent communication to enable ad-hoc teaming with both agents and humans.\n\nAppendix\n\nA.1. Proofs Proposition 4.1 For the interaction information between all tokens, the following upper bound holds: Proof. Starting with the independent information objective, we want to minimize the interaction information, which defines the conditional mutual information between each token and, Let π i m (m l |h) be a variational approximation of p(m l |h), which is defined by our message encoder network.\nGiven that each token should provide unique information, we assume independence between m l . Thus, it follows that our compositional message is a vector, m = [m 1 , . . . , m L ], and is jointly Gaussian. Moreover, we can define q( m|h) as a variational approximation to p(m|h) = p(m 1 ; . . . , m L |h).\nWe can model q with a network layer and define its loss as || m − m|| 2 . Thus, transforming equation 4 into variational form, we have, it follows that q( m|h) log q( m|h)d m ≥ q( m|h) log Thus, we can bound our interaction information, Proposition 4.2 For the mutual information between the composed message and encoded information, the following upper bound holds:\nProof. By definition of mutual information between the composed messages M and the encoded observations H, we have, Substituting q( m|h) for p( m|h), the same KL Divergence identity, and defining a Gaussian approximation z( m) of the marginal distribution p( m), it follows that, In expectation of equation 1, we have,\nThis implies that, for m = [m 1 , . . . , m L ], there is probabilistic independence between m j , m k , j = k. Thus, expanding, it follows that, where z(m l ) is a standard Gaussian. Proposition 5.1. Utility mutual information is lower bounded by the contrastive NCE-binary objective, Proof. We suppress the reliance on h since this is directly passed through.\nBy definition of mutual information, we have, Our network model learns π R + (y|m) from rolled-out trajectories, R + , using our policy. The prior of our network state, π R − (y), can be modeled from rolling out a random trajectory, R−. Unfortunately, it is intractable to model π R + (y|m) and π R − (y) directly during iterative learning, but we can sample y + ∼ π R + (y|m) and y − ∼ π R − (y) directly from our network during training.\nIt has been shown that log p(y|m) provides a bound on mutual information , with the expectation over l p(m l , y l ). However, we need a tractable understanding of the information Y . In the information bottleneck, Y represents the desired outcome. In our setup, y is coordination information that helps create the desired output, such as any action a − .\nThis implies, y =⇒ a − . Since the transition is known, it follows that a − =⇒ s − f , a random future state. Thus, we have, π This is similar to the proof for lemma A.5, but requires assumptions on messages m from the emergent language. We note that when m is random, the case defaults to lemma A.5. Thus, we assume we have at least input-oriented information in m given sufficiently satisfying equation 2. Given a sufficient emergent language, it follows that y =⇒ a + , where a + is an intention action based on m.\nSimilarly, since the transition is known, a + =⇒ s + f , a desired goal state along the trajectory. Thus, we have, π R + (y|m) = p(s = s + f |y, m). Recall the following (as shown in ), which we have adapted to our communication objective, Proposition A.3 (rewards → probabilities). The Q-function for the goal-conditioned reward function r g (s t , m t ) = (1 − γ)p(s = s g |y t ) is equivalent to the probability of state s g under the discounted state occupancy measure:\nand Lemma A.4. The critic function that optimizes equation 8 is a Q-function for the goal-conditioned reward function up to a multiplicative constant 1 The critic function f (s, m, s f ) = y enc(s f ) represents the similarity between the encoding y = enc(s, m) and the encoding of the future rollout s f .\nGiven lemmas A.5 A.6 A.8 and proposition A.7, it follows that equation 8 is the NCE-binary (InfoMAX ) objective, Î(M j , Y i ) = log σ(f (s, m, s + f )) + log 1 − σ(f (s, m, s − f )) which lower bounds the mutual information, I(M j , Y i ) ≥ Î(M j , Y i ). The critic function is unbounded, so we constrain it to [0, 1] with the sigmoid function, σ( * ).\nWe suppress the reliance on h since this is directly passed through. By definition of mutual information, we have, Our network model learns π R + (y|m) from rolled-out trajectories, R + , using our policy. The prior of our network state, π R − (y), can be modeled from rolling out a random trajectory, R−.\nUnfortunately, it is intractable to model π R + (y|m) and π R − (y) directly during iterative learning, but we can sample y + ∼ π R + (y|m) and y − ∼ π R − (y) directly from our network during training. It has been shown that log p(y|m) provides a bound on mutual information , with the expectation over l p(m l , y l ).\nHowever, we need a tractable understanding of the information Y . Lemma A.5. π R − (y) = p(s = s − f |y). In the information bottleneck, Y represents the desired outcome. In our setup, y is coordination information that helps create the desired output, such as any action a − . This implies, y =⇒ a − . Since the transition is known, it follows that a − =⇒ s − f , a random future state.\nThus, we have, π R − (y) = p(s = s − f |y). Lemma A.6. π R + (y|m) = p(s = s + f |y, m). This is similar to the proof for lemma A.5, but requires assumptions on messages m from the emergent language. We note that when m is random, the case defaults to lemma A.5. Thus, we assume we have at least input-oriented information in m given sufficiently satisfying equation 2. Given a sufficient emergent language, it follows that y =⇒ a + , where a + is an intention action based on m.\nSimilarly, since the transition is known, a + =⇒ s + f , a desired goal state along the trajectory. Thus, we have, π R + (y|m) = p(s = s + f |y, m). Recall the following (as shown in ), which we have adapted to our communication objective, Proposition A.7 (rewards → probabilities). The Q-function for the goal-conditioned reward function r g (s t , m t ) = (1 − γ)p(s = s g |y t ) is equivalent to the probability of state s g under the discounted state occupancy measure:\nand Lemma A.8. The critic function that optimizes equation 8 is a Q-function for the goal-conditioned reward function up to a multiplicative constant 1 p(s f ) : exp(f * (s, m, s f ) = 1 p(s f ) Q π s f (s, m). The critic function f (s, m, s f ) = y enc(s f ) represents the similarity between the encoding y = enc(s, m) and the encoding of the future rollout s f .\nGiven lemmas A.5 A.6 A.8 and proposition A.7, it follows that equation 8 is the NCE-binary (InfoMAX ) objective, which lower bounds the mutual information, I(M j , Y i ) ≥ Î(M j , Y i ). The critic function is unbounded, so we constrain it to [0, 1] with the sigmoid function, σ( * ).", "answers": ["An unsupervised method based on the information bottleneck and contrastive learning."], "length": 6235, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "120cb783c796fbedbc76f04cf9be3318e54a63cd642c4401"}
{"input": "What is the problem encountered when building the fuselage sides?", "context": "Probably one of the most frustrating things about building experimental aircraft, especially when starting with a minimum of pre-fabricated parts, is to start building and ending up with an unexpected result. Every builder starts a new project by wanting it to go \"perfectly.\" So when things aren't going well, especially at the beginning, the frustration can lead to an unfinished airplane.\nThis is the first article in a series dedicated to helping builders of the Rand Robinson KR series planes build a straight and true fuselage -- the first part of the construction process. Borrowing from modern boatbuliding techniques, focus will be on the KR-2S, but the principles apply to the entire lineup of KR-1 & KR-2 series planes.\nWhile building the KR-2(s) a common surprise is encountered by builders when the completed fuselage sides are laid into position to form the fuselage box section. With many hours spent building the sides flat, finding the once straight longerons that now bow up from the building surface, form a most dissatisfying \"banana\" shape. Especially when using the preformed fiberglass parts, this curve in the top longeron is not acceptable. The builder is left wondering what went wrong and no amount of clamping or brute force forming will solve the problem to any degree of satisfaction. The problem is not the builder's fault. The solution starts by understanding the three dimensional relationship of the assembled parts being built.\nFirst understand that the plans show the finished form of the plane. They show the \"projected\" form as you would expect to see it if viewing an actual plane from the top, ends and from the side. Since the sides are sloped (flared) outward, looking from the side, the distances given by measuring the profile drawing are \"foreshortened\" and don't give the proper shape for building the fuselage with a flat top longeron. What needs to be done is to \"develop\" the \"true\" distances and shape of the flat panel so that when it is curved into position, the longerons lay flat.\nSecond, understand that the dimensions called for in the plans put a twist in the sides that tends to work the panel in two directions of curvature. This twist makes the panel \"undevelopable\" meaning that that shape cannot be unrolled into an equivalent flat shape. This is important when laying out the side and bottom panels onto flat plywood. To illustrate this, try forming a piece of paper around a soda can. The paper can be formed flat around the can either straight or at a diagonal to it's length. It has only one direction of curvature and is by definition \"developable\". Now try to form the same piece of paper around a baseball. It won't lie flat on the surface without some deformation (folding, wrinkling or tearing) of the paper. The ball has curvature in more that one direction and is a \"compounded\" shape. Paper (or plywood) can only be readily formed in developable shapes as opposed to aluminum or other metal which can accept in plane deformation. A developable surface is needed to lay out a curved surface when the materials used can't be deformed with any degree of in-plane strain.\nInitially, the fuselage sides are laid out flat with reference to the top longeron measured to a straight chalk line. The bowing problem starts when the side panels are bent and sloped to form the fuselage box section. If the sides were not sloped (tumbled home), the section formed would be cylindrical and the longerons would lie flat. Since the sides are tumbled home, the section formed is now conical. When a conical shape is cut with a plane (building surface) not perpendicular to it's axis, the shape formed is elliptical -- exactly what happens with the top longeron. When it's built flat, bent to form a cylindrical section, and sloped to form a conical section, it takes on an elliptical shape firewall to tailstock.\nThis method borrows heavily from proven techniques used in the marine trades. It should be stressed at this point that although the layout procedure is not complicated, it is important to take your time. If the layout is not going well initially, start over! Better to erase layout errors now than to have them built it and cause surprises later.\nLayout to ensure a fair and true fuselage starts by drawing a reference line (baseline) on the building surface. Refer to figures 2 & 3 and use a wire guide to draw a very straight baseline. About 500 lbs. Of tension should be adequate. One could use a chalk line, but we're talking airplanes here, not house framing.\nThe main layout difference is that the baseline isn't used as a reference for the top longeron. The baseline references the mid point of the firewall for the developed (and true dimensioned) side panel. Although the baseline will still be the reference, the top and bottom longerons will be laid separately.\nLayout differences don't end there. Each of the stations (vertical members) will be laid out with a calculated separation so that when the panels are formed into position, they land on the spacing called for in the plans. Another major difference is that the bottom & side panels are applied after forming the fuselage box section. This is mainly to obtain the ability to \"fair\" the side and bottom surfaces and insure a straight and true shape.\nRefer to figure 1 for the layout of the new developed side panel. The firewall (station a) is layed out perpendicular to the baseline. Longitudinal (station) measurements are given along the length of the baseline from the firewall. Vertical dimensions are given to reference the angle and breadths of the station at the baseline.\nNotice that the top longeron is bowed outward and that the stations are spaced slightly greater than called out in the plans. When the panels are formed into the box frame section ,they will work into the dimensions specified in the plans.\nStrike a centerline, longer than is needed on the building surface using a wire guide. Draw off the firewall line perpendicular to the centerline at one end.\nUsing the distances listed in the balloons, mark them off on the centerline. Distances are measured to the nearest sixteenth of an inch. Take time to mark them off carefully. Don't mark off the distances in a cumulative fashion. Use the firewall as a common reference.\nUsing the angles listed at each station, mark off a station line longer than is needed. The angles are measured to the nearest hundredth of a degree. Take time to mark them off carefully.\nAt each station, start by marking off each short (bottom longeron) line distance from the centerline. Use your set of trammels or beam compass for doing this. Mark the intersection of the short line with the station line.\nAt each station, mark off each long (top longeron) line distance from the intersection of the short line distance and the station line. Again the trammels or beam compass is best for completing this step. Mark the intersection of the long line distance with the station line.\nUsing the longeron as a batten, trace out the inside and outside curves of the longeron. After the batten is secure, in between each station, fasten a keeper block inside and outside to preserve the shape of the longeron taking care to avoid potential future interference with the diagonal members to be installed later. The fairing blocks can be removed or left in place if they won't interfere with building. The vertical station members and their diagonals can now be measured and positioned. Remember to refer to the plans for the material thickness direction.\nAfter vertical and diagonal members are cut and fitted, take time to draw their outlines on the building surface to cut down on time and confusion when laying out the opposite side.\nFinishing the side panel is accomplished in a manner similar to that called for in the handbook with the exception that the side and bottom skin panels will be attached later.\nThe next article in the series will discuss jigging and building techniques to ensure alignment and straightness of the flat built side panels. Also covered will be building a \"strongback\" jig to assure alignment of the side panels when they are formed into their final shape.\nPart 3 in the series will cover assembly of the side panels using the jigs. Some joint details will be discussed that will ensure a stronger and more fair fuselage assembly. Also covered will be the layout & attachment of the side and bottom ply skins.\nU.S. Mail: Densmore Associates, inc.\nANSI \"D\" size, computer generated plots of all the layout drawings in this series are available from the author for $30 plus postage & handling. Full (true size) scale plots may be made available depending on demand.\n\"Scarfing\" is the practice of splicing plywood so that short pieces of plywood can be used to span long distances. On the KR, it is required on both the fuselage skins and spar webs. The angle of the splice should be 10 to 12 degrees to maintain strength across the joint. Also, joints should coincide with structural members, such as spar webs or fuselage truss members.\nThis scarfer is made by mating a regular plunge router (this one costs about $50) to a table saw. Obviously, you really only need a table saw to cut the chamfer, but it does make a nice heavy table for scarfing. You could just as easily use a large work table as the base.First, set the table saw for a 5.5 degree cut (for a 1:12 joint, or 6.5 degree cut for a 10:1 joint), and run a 1 x 6 through on edge to chamfer a corner on the board. Then drill the board for three router mounting holes (two are countersunk) and connect the assembly to the table saw with two 1/4 inch bolts. Use a long (2-3 inch) straight cutting bit to do the cutting. Adjust the bit so it doesn't interfere with your table top, and go to town. Keep pressure on the plywood to ensure contact with the table while you're scarfing. Make sure you feed your material from the same end as you would if you were sawing, or the router will take your plywood away from you and put a big dent in your garage door.\nIn the late 60's Ken Rand and Stuart Robinson were working as flight system engineers for Douglas Avionics. Ken was working as an electrical engineer, having previously worked for Sperry as an autopilots project engineer, while Stu's degree was in aeronautical engineering from Northrop University. They were two of the guys at the end of the DC-8,9, and 10 assembly lines responsible for correcting some of the nits and picks in various systems before delivery to the customer.\nThey both wanted to build a fast, inexpensive airplane which was also economical to maintain. Several designs were considered, and plans were bought first for the Jeanie's Teenie and then the Taylor Monoplane. The Monoplane was more to their liking, but would require some modification to fit their needs. A cooperative redesign effort ensued, with virtually no dimensions left untouched. Only the basic fuselage structure, airfoil, and powerplant were retained. The tail shape was Stu's, and came directly from the big DC-8s parked on the ramp outside his office window. The landing gear was designed by Ken, after seeing the gear on a Dewey Bird at Santa Paula airport.\nKen was killed in his KR2 a short time later while flying over Cajon Pass in what was apparently a bad weather / low fuel accident. Ken's wife Jeanette became owner of RR overnight, and stepped up to keep the plans and parts coming. Much of the engineering needs are handled by Bill Marcy of Denver, who's been helping out since early '79.\nTo date, almost 6000 KR1, 9200 KR2, and 760 KR2S plan sets have been sold. 1200 KR2s are estimated to be flying, with 5 KR2Ss now in the air. Much of the development work done on KR's is now done by the builders themselves. KR builders tend to be innovative, which leads to some interesting modifications. Some of the mods that work eventually creep into the plans. The KR2S is a case in point. Many builders who'd heard of the pitch sensitivity and tight cabin of the KR2 began to build an enlarged version, with the length determined by the most commonly available longeron material. The result is a KR2 that is stretched 2\" between firewall and main spar, and 14\" behind the main spar. Higher gross weights dictated more wing area, with the new standard becoming the Diehl wing skin. Those who plan to carry passengers commonly stretch the cabin width a few inches, although 1.5 inches is the limit if you still want to use RR's premolded parts.\nMike Stearns addresses the KR Forum crowd.\nThis year's KR Forum featured guest speakers Mike Stearns, Steve Trentman, and Bill Marcey. Mike Stearns spoke on several topics, including the many sources for KR and homebuilding information available on the Internet. He also mentioned KRNet, the list server devoted entirely to KR aircraft, as well as several notable World Wide Web home pages. He also brought a sample of the new Rand Robinson wing skins with him, and discussed their high temperature core prepreg construction. His KR2S will receive the first set, which is currently being installed at Hinson Composites.\nSteve Trentman spoke on his turbine installation. It uses a turbine engine which saw duty as an A7 attack jet starter engine. Total weight is about 85 pounds, while putting out around 90 horsepower. There is a small stockpile of these engines available from government surplus. sources. This engine can only be throttled back to 52% power, which leads to some pretty interesting landings. One inflight failure has been logged so far, with very little damage to the aircraft. More on this exciting development in next month's issue of KROnline.\nLes Palmer's KR2 N202LP won Best KR2, Best Engine Installation, and People's Choice awards at the 1995 KR Gathering at Columbia, TN. After researching the KR series, and reading Neil Bingham's \"A Critical Analysis of the KR2\" (Jan 88 Sport Aviation), Les decided to build his as a single seater, stretched 24\" in the tail, while maintaining a stock width firewall. His fuselage is made from Douglas fir, which weighs in at 4 lbs heavier than if constructed from spruce. It is skinned with 1/8\" birch plywood. Spars are covered with plywoood on both fore and aft sides, ala KR2S. Diehl wing skins provide the lift. Horizontal stabilizer and elevator were stretched 7\" longer on each side, while the vertical stabilizer and rudder were stretched 8\" taller. . The fuselage to cowling junction was made more graceful by adding 1.5 inches to the height of the firewall end of the fuselage sides.\nLes's canopy is a Dragonfly, using a four linkage system to swing forward when opening. The canopy frame fits snugly into a recess in the foward deck, providing an excellent wind and water seal. The fiberglass work is exemplary.\nSeating is luxurious for one.\nThe cowling is also a work of art, and uses NACA ducts for efficiency. Female molds were made for all the fiberglass parts on Les's plane, so he could proabably be persuaded to make more, if demand dictates. Les also machines a multitude of KR aluminum and steel parts which he now offers for sale.\nThe firewall was reinforced with aluminum brackets and angles bolted between the longerons in anticipation of the 200 lb Subaru EA-81 engine installation. His 100 HP Asian version is outfitted with an American Holley 5200 caburetor and manifold. It uses a PSRU of Les's own design, featuring two spur gears with a 1.69:1 reduction ratio and a toothed belt. Other than tapping the crank for larger bolts to mount the redrive, no other engine modifications were required. Also, this is probably the only air conditioned KR2 on the planet. The prop is a 60/63 Hegy.\nOriginally built as a taildragger, the fixed gear is made from 4130 steel tubing. Custom cast 6.00x6 aluminum wheels and steel rotors are mated with 6\" Cleveland calipers for braking. An early taxi test accident damaged the main gear, and prompted Les to change to tricycle gear. Again, he designed his own fiberglass main gear, and uses a Diehl nose wheel fork with a 4130 strut and 6\" wheel up front.\nEarly tests revealed cooling problems, which prompted a radiator move from the firewall to a lower cowling location.\nThe first flight was almost a disaster, as test pilot Randy Smith lost power right after takeoff. He managed a 180 with a safe downwind landing with only minor nosewheel pant damage. The culprit proved to be a spark plug with too much reach, which was quickly remedied. Subsequent flights have shown water temp to be about 210 degrees, oil temp is 220-230, and airspeed is about 180 mph.\nShopping for the Partially Built KR.\nThis story starts about twenty years ago when I first started looking at the KR-2 as the plane I'd like to build. The only problem at that time was a lack of money, lack of knowledge, and a lack of job stability. I liked the design, except for the low ground clearance of the retractable gear and that a KR was going to be a tight fit for me to fly.\nOver the past twenty years I've owned a number of planes, but still always wanted to build my own. I needed one that would fit me, my budget requirements, and have the speed and performance that I wanted. When \"KITPLANES\" published the article featuring Roy Marsh's new KR-2S, it was the first I had heard of any major modifications or improvements to the same old KR design. I believe that article and Roy Marsh's workmanship have probably been the greatest boon to Rand Robinson (RR) in the last twenty years. It certainly caught my eye! Here was the same design I had decided I wanted to build twenty years ago, with all of the improvements I wanted. It was sitting on fixed gear with some reasonable ground clearance. It had the capability to be built large enough to accommodate me. It has enough prefab parts available that it didn't have to be 100% scratch built if I decided to hurry the project along. And it had the speed I wanted. I knew that Roy's published speeds were probably not realistic expectations for the average KR, but after knocking around for the last three years in my Champ, anything over 90 mph seems pretty fast to me.\nAfter purchasing the info kit and the sales video from Rand Robinson, the next step after deciding for sure to build this plane was to order the KR-2 plans and the KR-2S addendum. I finally got my plans and was putting together my first order to start the plane, when my partner in the Champ pointed out that there was a partially completed KR-2S for sale in Trade-a-plane. My initial answer was \"No, I don't even want to look at it. I want to build my own from scratch.\" My partner insisted that for the advertised price and the fact that it wasn't too far away, I ought to at least give the guy a call and investigate it. \"No, I don't think I want to buy someone else's problems,\" I persisted. That night I went home and crunched up some numbers on the calculator and finally came to the conclusion that for the sake of my budget for the next several years, I really should give this guy a call.\nThree days later, I flew to his place about 400 miles away to take a look at his project. At this point I should probably mention that I consider myself to be fairly knowledgeable about airplane construction, although the vast majority of my experience is with tube and fabric. The rest of this article deals with what I looked for and more importantly what I missed and have had to repair in the last year since I purchased the project.\nWhen we went to the seller's house, I found that the left wing was built using the Dan Diehl wing skins and the right wing skins were leaning against the wall inside the house. Also the canopy was in the house with the canopy covered with paper and tape. I wanted to inspect the fuselage first, so off we went to the shop.\nThere I found a fuselage sitting on it's gear painted in primer gray. The first step was to inspect the quality of workmanship of what could be seen as it sat. The interior of the fuselage looked as if it had been built with a great deal of care. The fit and finish of all of the interior wood was very nice. Even the gussets looked like they had been painstakingly perfectly fitted. The glass work on the turtle back also looked very precise and clean. It was evenly faired into the vertical and horizontal stabs. The tail also appeared to be well built with the exception of a depression directly over the front and rear spars in the horizontal stabs. He explained that when he moved recently, that he had shot the plane with gray primer to protect it from the weather since he wouldn't have ready access to a shop to put it in right away. It ended up sitting out in the hot south Texas summer sun for a few weeks before he got a shop rented to work in. That caused the glass (or possibly the foam inside the horizontal stab) to swell, except that it held onto the spar, so it was slightly ballooned in front of and behind the spars. His recommendation was to fill it back smooth with micro.\nI also found a small linear crack in the lower left wing spar cap on the left wing stub. It appeared to be from over tightening the rear spar wing attach fitting bolts. His explanation was that the crack wasn't important because the rear spars only job is to keep the wings from folding back. I also noticed that the holes for attaching the outer wing to the wing stub were badly rounded out on the rear spar. He explained that the Diehl wing skins require the rear spar to be swept slightly more forward than the stock wings. This won't allow you to use the rear spar attach fittings from RR and that I would need to fabricate a new set of rear spar attach fittings.\nI also found that the aileron bellcranks were not built or installed as per plans, but found that they looked professional. I couldn't check for function since the right bellcrank and sheeve wasn't installed, the left wing also wasn't installed, and the right wing didn't exist yet.\nNext we pulled the inspection panels off of the fuselage and tail and looked at everything I could see with a good flashlight. I didn't find anything else that might be questionable about the fuselage except for a cracked elevator trim tab that was damaged when it fell off it's hanging place on the wall.\nNext we spent some time going over his builders log and builders photo album. I still hadn't seen anything that would dissuade me from buying this project.\nAt this point it was starting to get late and my ride down needed to get airborne for the flight home. I needed to make a decision about whether I wanted this project or not, but I hadn't inspected the wings and canopy yet. I took a cursory look at the left wing and saw lots on micro built up on it and some bubbles in the leading edge, but nothing that looked seriously wrong to my amateur eye. The right wing was only a set of spars in the shop and the Diehl wing skins in the house, so there wasn't much to look at there. The canopy was wrapped in paper and tape, so there wasn't much to look at there either. I decided that even if there were serious problems in the wing that was built, I would be money ahead to go ahead and buy the project. For the advertised price, I could build a new set of wings and still be way ahead financially. We negotiated a final price, shook hands, took my ride to the airport, and started off in search of a U-haul to haul the project home.\nNow, at this point, some of you are thinking about what I surely must have forgotten to inspect and why didn't I take a local A & P or EAA member along for the ride. First of all, I don't know any mechanics locally that have any experience with glass and our EAA chapter of which I am VP is woefully lacking in fiberglass knowledge. Secondly, as you will see, I missed plenty. Some by ignorance, some by just not looking close enough.\nNow for a list of the problems that I found over the last year and a few of the fixes that I came up with.\nI found that the lower set of rear spar attach fittings on the left rear spar were installed backwards with the longer spaced hole towards the fuselage. Since this is the same place that also had the cracked spar cap, it required a major change. Also in the same area he had drilled through the rear spar with a hole saw to create a place for the aileron cable to pass through and managed to cut out the second from the outside vertical brace in the spar. Then he chose to install the aileron bellcranks in front of the rear spar, and cut another hole through the rear spar for the aileron push rod. He also managed to cut out the outside vertical brace in the spar. Since the holes were already drilled through the spar, the choices were to either cut out that section of spar cap and scarf a new piece in, cut the whole rear spar carrythrough out of the fuselage including ruining the left lower wing skin, or do something else creative to reinforce the spar cap and install a custom built set of attach fittings.\nI also found that after I built and installed the right side wing stub ribs and skin that the aileron bellcrank setup would not work as installed. The cable that crosses between the two bellcranks had a sharp uphill from the sheeve to the bellcrank in the last 12 inches on either side. This combined with the radius that the bellcranks turn caused the cross cable to pull up tight when the ailerons were pushed to either end of their travel, but allowed the cables to go very slack when the ailerons were centered. Also the Aileron pushrods needed to pass directly through the lower set of rear wing attach fittings to attach to the aileron. This whole rear spar and aileron bellcrank setup was going to either have to be redesigned or cut out and built to plans. The bottom line is that the problems I observed when I inspected this part were much more serious than expected when I had to fix it.\nI decided that I had to remove the rear fittings from the left wing to be replaced with the new set that my neighborhood machinist was cutting out for me. When I put the wing on the work bench to start removing the rear fittings, I thought I had better take a closer look at the bubbles in the leading edge. I found that as I pushed on the leading edge, it delaminated between the glass lay-up on top and the upper and lower wing skin edges that were floxed together underneath. I concluded that that area had to come apart and took a belt sander to the leading edge. What I found was that the leading edge had been floxed together and glassed over, but the mold release had never been scrubbed off the leading edge of the wing. It peeled apart for rebuild quite easily.\nWhen I got back to removing the rear spar attach fittings, I noticed that the woodwork inside the wing looked awfully dull. The reason was that the wing had been closed up without varnishing any of the woodwork. This was rectified with a small hole saw, a number of extensions and a modified undercoating sprayer.\nI also found that the aluminum drain fitting in the bottom of the left wing tank had been glassed into place upside down. The tapered pipe threads were tapered the wrong way to install the draincock into the tank. Retapping the fitting the right direction seemed to be a good fix for that problem.\nWhen I finally got around to attaching the wing to the fuselage, I found that the front spar attach fittings were badly misaligned. Although they could be forced into alignment, I didn't think I needed that kind of preload on the main spar fittings. This problem was fixed by calling on my local neighborhood machinist to build me an aligning fixture and reaming the attach holes to the next larger size and ordering the new sized bolts.\nOn the fuselage I found that although it had new Cleveland wheels and brakes on it, one of the brakes had a severe wobble to it. I must complement the manufacturers for taking care of that problem. One call to the Cleveland factory and they shipped me a new set of wheels and brakes even though the receipt for this set was over four years old and in the original builders name. Their only concern was that this set had never been placed in service yet.\nI chose to sand the load of micro off the left wing to see what it was covering. When I got down to the glass, I found that there was no glass for the aft inch and a half of the underside of the wing in front of the aileron hinge. With the Diehl wing skins, you build the wings, then cut the ailerons out of trailing edge of the wing. He had mismeasured and cut too much material off the bottom side of the trailing edge in front of the aileron. It was filled by floxing a piece of spruce into the gap to fill the space between the back edge of the fiberglass and the aileron mount. I chose to wrap the trailing edge of that wing, and the other wing to match with a couple of lay-ups of glass.\nWhen I sanded the primer off the aforementioned damaged trim tab, I found that the hinge was floxed to the leading edge of the foam insides of the tab, but not the glass. I also chose to wrap the front of the trim tab with a lay-up of glass.\nI decided to pull the paper off the canopy and take a look at it before I'm ready to bolt it on and fly. The original builder had blown his own canopy and after some of the previous problems, I was beginning to have some concerns about not having looked it over closely enough. The canopy turned out to have been blow a little too large. It ended up with a little larger bubble for headroom, which I didn't object to. However, it had more headroom on the right side than the left. Yes, it was just a little bit lopsided. The main problem was that the canopy is stretched thin enough that it can be easily pushed in with one hand when the weather is warm.. My fear was that this is just thin enough that it may decide to lay on my head or in my lap when flying on a warm day. It will have to be replaced.\nI'm sure that many that are reading this could see several of the potential problems before I mentioned them, but some others may not have and I'm sure that there could have been many other problems that didn't but could have existed on this project. This is also not intended to be critical of the gentleman that started this project as many parts of it, especially the wood work are better than I could have done and much of his work is outstanding. I prefer to think that I'll end up with a better plane with his woodwork combined with my glasswork. This article is intended to feature some of the problems that you may run into in buying someone else's project.\nThe final question is, knowing what I have found over the past year, would I have still purchased this project. The answer is yes, but primarily because the price was right in that I am still money and work ahead of where I would be if I had started the project from scratch. There are a few things that I would have done differently, but nothing that I can't live with. Although I won't be able to say that I built it all from scratch, I have built and rebuild enough of the plane that I should have no problem qualifying under the 51% rule.\nYou can send comments directly to the author via e-mail at \"jscott@LANL.GOV\".\nHere is an brief explanation of how I built my turtledecks. The jig was constructed from scrap plywood and a few 1x4s that I ripped into stringers. I made two temporary bulkheads from the plywood, one for each end. Remember the forward bulkhead needs to be shaped in a way that will closely match the aft end of your canopy frame. Make an aft bulkhead by placing a straight edge at the top of your forward bulkhead and the trailing edge of your horizontal stabilizer. This will give you an idea of how tall your aft bulkhead needs to be. As far as location, I placed my aft bulkhead just forward of the lower/front of my vertical fin. I constructed the jig on the fuselage, it is glued together with automotive bondo.\nAfter the bulkheads were bondoed to the fuselage I used the stringers that I ripped from the 1x4s and bondoed them to the bulkheads. This gave me a male form to cover with thin plastic or posterboard. I stapled two layers of posterboard to the jig(thin plastic would work better). The posterboard wraps down two inches onto the fuselage. After I was satisfied with the way it looked, I then covered the entire thing with duct tape (fiberglass will not stick to duct tape) On top of this I wetout one layer of tri-ply cloth (22oz) that I had left over from an earlier project, and one layer of 8oz. bid. Remember to mask off your fuselage so you don't get epoxy on it. If you are not familiar with composite lay-ups, you should plan on razor cutting your lay-ups 4 to 6 hours after wetout while the lay-up is still soft enough to cut with a razorblade.\nAfter the lay-up cured (2 or 3 days) it was removed from the jig, and the jig was removed from the fuselage and discarded. (be careful, the bondo sticks very well to the spruce, you could splinter your wood during removal) I now have a fiberglass skin that tends to hold the shape of the jig but is still flexible enough to work with. I made two bulkheads out of 1/4 last-a-foam (AS&S) using the plywood formers from the jig as a guide. I covered these foam bulkheads with one 8oz layer of glass on each side, with a glass to glass edge on the bottom. After cure these bulkheads were bondoed into place (to the fuselage)and the fiberglass skin was pulled down tight and floxed to the bulkheads. When the flox cured the bondo joints were broken, again being careful not to harm the wood. The turtledeck was removed from the fuselage and 2 inch tapes added to the bulkheads inside and out.\nAt this point the turtledeck looked great and only weighed about 5lbs. but I noticed you could deform the skin by pushing hard on the outside. So I flipped the turtledeck over and from 1/4 inch last-a-foam, I cut two inch wide strips that would run the entire length, forward and aft inside the turtledeck. In effect these would act as composite stringers, I made enough of these two inch wide strips to make up three stringers. One down the center (sort of a backbone) and one on each side of the \"backbone\" half the distance to the edge of the turtledeck. I sanded the edge of the foam so that when covered with a layer of bid @ 45degrees there would be a nice transition from the turtledeck skin up onto the foam and then back onto the turtledeck I scuff sanded and glued the foam stringers in with micro. I covered the foam stringers with one layer of 8oz bid @ 45degrees.", "answers": ["The longerons bow up from the building surface, forming a \"banana\" shape."], "length": 6240, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "9ac60cf60d4bae1dc93b09f374b74b3dec8b1b333397d7cd"}
{"input": "What is the effect of accounting for path preference on the robot's belief update?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Incorporating Human Path Preferences in Robot Navigation with Minimal Interventions\nPublish Date: 16 Mar 2023\nAuthor List: Oriana Peltzer, Dylan Asmar, Mac Schwager, Mykel Kochenderfer\n\nFigure\n\nHyperplane arrangement of a twodimensional space containing two obstacles (colored in gray).The robot is located inside the pink polytope, surrounded by three adjacent obstacle-free polytopes.Each hyperplane on the boundary of the robot's polytope corresponds to one of the nonredundant constraints in eq.(4).(b)Graph derived from the hyperplane arrangement.The nodes on the graph designate polytopes, and edges designate transitions to adjacent polytopes.To estimate the human's preference, the robot updates a posterior over the goal and over which of the graph transitions φ 1 , φ 2 and φ 3 is preferred by the human.(c)Example preference defined over the graph.The location of the goal is indicated in yellow in the lower right polytope.For each node, the outgoing pink arrow designates the edge on the graph corresponding to the preferred transition between polytopes.\nSimple, 10 × 10, 8 polytopes.(b) Map 2: Office, 10 × 10, 56 polytopes.(c) Map 3: Classroom, 20 × 20, 73 polytopes.(d) Sampled observations and robot's executed trajectories.\nFig.5: Maps used for simulating the robot navigation problem with path preferences.In (d), the heading angles observed are indicated with arrows.The goal is indicated with a pink circle, and the orange robot corresponds to the starting location.The blue robot follows a policy that accounts for path preference, while the green robot does not.The opacity of the robots increases with time.\nMap 1 problem setup and example realizations for goal-only (green) and path preference (blue) solution methods.The robot starts at the lower left corner of the environment, and the goal of the task (pink circle) is in the upper left area.The robot does not know which goal, among 10 options (shown in light blue squares), is the correct goal.The human provides noisy observations, indicated by arrows, at each iteration.The green robot selects actions according to the goal-only baseline, and the blue robot uses our proposed method to infer path preferences.The polytopes composing G are drawn in blue.Probability of correct goal.WLPHVWHS +J (c) Entropy of goal distribution g.\nFig. 6: Probability of the correct goal, fig.6b, and entropy of the goal belief distribution P (g), fig.6c, for the same problem setup, fig.6a.In this problem instance, the human's preference is to go to the goal by passing on the right side of the obstacle.Results are averaged over 50 runs and the area filled represents one standard deviation above and below the mean value.The goal-only baseline shows an over-confident prediction (shown by the strong reduction in belief entropy) that the correct goal is less likely, making it more difficult to reach the correct goal compared to a method that accounts for path preference.\nSuccess rates in the simple environment (Map 1).The results are averaged over 6 randomly sampled problem instances (start location, goal location, and goal possibilities), and over 50 runs per problem instance.∆T is the number of time steps separating two consecutive human inputs.The robot's mission time is Tmax = 30 time steps.We selected γ h = 1.5, corresponding to relatively noisy human inputs and making the problem more difficult to solve for the robot.\nComputation times for Goal Only and Path Preference methods on Map 1 (fig.5a),Map 2 (fig.5b), and Map 3 (fig.5c),averaged over 100 runs with randomly sampled problem instances.The 95 % confidence interval is provided with the mean.We evaluate computation time at the first iteration of each run (where the search depth takes on its highest value Tmax).\n\nabstract\n\nRobots that can effectively understand human intentions from actions are crucial for successful human-robot collaboration. In this work, we address the challenge of a robot navigating towards an unknown goal while also accounting for a human's preference for a particular path in the presence of obstacles.\nThis problem is particularly challenging when both the goal and path preference are unknown a priori. To overcome this challenge, we propose a method for encoding and inferring path preference online using a partitioning of the space into polytopes. Our approach enables joint inference over the goal and path preference using a stochastic observation model for the human.\nWe evaluate our method on an unknown-goal navigation problem with sparse human interventions, and find that it outperforms baseline approaches as the human's inputs become increasingly sparse. We find that the time required to update the robot's belief does not increase with the complexity of the environment, which makes our method suitable for online applications.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nCollaboration between humans and robots has become increasingly important and one key aspect of this collaboration is the ability for robots to adapt to human decisions. In many scenarios, such as a robot navigating through a busy room to deliver an item, it is important for the robot to take into account human preferences.\nFor instance, humans may prefer a specific path that would allow their colleagues to notice the item being delivered, but this preference may change dynamically based on various factors such as changes in the environment or unforeseen circumstances. While some preferences can be incorporated into the path-planning process, accommodating dynamic user preferences in real-time remains challenging.\nIn this paper, we propose a way to enable robots to adapt to human preferences dynamically by leveraging real-time feedback to inform decision-making. In this work, we tackle the problem of robot navigation in which the robot cannot observe the goal or the preferred path to the goal, but must make navigation decisions that are influenced by humans through recommended actions.\nPrior work has explored how to adapt to a human's preference through feedback, but such approaches often require a high level of intervention, which can be time-consuming and impractical in real-world scenarios. To optimize the use of human input and quickly infer the human's preference, Fig. : An autonomous robot navigates in a simulated classroom towards a goal location (pink circle).\nAt the start of its mission, it receives direction indications (arrows) from a human that indicate which path it should take to get to the goal. In this scenario, the human wants the robot to go around the desks on the right side of the classroom. A robot that does not reason over path preferences (green) will take the shortest path to the goal regardless of the human's input.\nOur method (blue) infers the human's path preference from these indications and adapts to their recommendations. we propose an approach that leverages probabilistic representations of human preference and incorporates real-time feedback. Previous research by Bajcsy et al. considered an online adaptation problem in a manipulation task, where the person can apply forces to the robot to indicate their preferences.\nBy allowing the robot to continue its task while taking into account a probabilistic representation of human preference, their approach does not require frequent inputs. Building on this idea, we adopt a similar approach to adapt to a human's preference in the context of a robot autonomously navigating through a known environment, such as a cluttered office space.\nSpecifically, we focus on allowing the human to influence the robot's trajectory with respect to obstacles, by providing guidance on preferred routes or paths, while the robot continues to execute its task. Paths can be represented using homotopy classes . However, homotopies can pose computational challenges when used to encode and infer human preferences.\nWhen the robot maintains a belief over homotopy classes, the inference problem can become exponentially complex with the number of obstacles in the space. Additionally, when the goal is unknown, the number of variables increases with the number of candidate destinations. This complexity can render the decision-making problem intractable.\nOur solution is to encode path preference based on a partitioning of the environment into polytopes . This representation allows path preferences to be expressed as sets of preferred transitions between adjacent polytopes. Paths belonging to different homotopy classes correspond to different sequences of transitions.\nBy leveraging conditional independence assumptions, we can make the Bayesian inference problem tractable. These assumptions exploit the fact that human actions provide information about the path in a piece-wise manner. For example, indicating a preference for navigating around a particular obstacle only provides information about the local area and not the entire path.\nFinally, after updating its belief representation over the human's preference, the robot can adapt to indications by replanning online. Our contributions are as follows. • We formulate the human-robot collaboration problem as a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) where both the goal of the task and the human's path preference are unknown random variables.\n• We propose an encoding of a human's path preference using a partitioning of the environment into polytopes, along with conditional independence assumptions that make the Bayesian inference problem tractable to infer the task goal and path preference online. • Through simulations in two environments of different sizes and complexity, we show that our method is effective for solving problems where the robot must reach a goal that is unknown a-priori while simultaneously adapting to a human's indications.\nOur method shows higher success rates compared to baseline approaches when the human inputs are sparse. Our approach enables a robot to make effective navigation decisions in collaboration with a human, even when the goal and path preference are not known in advance, and with minimal human input. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in shared autonomy and interactive systems, where humans and robots work together to accomplish tasks.\nSeveral approaches have been proposed to address the challenge of enabling effective collaboration between human and robot agents while still achieving high task performance. Losey et al. and Jeon, Losey, and Sadigh propose a framework where a human operator is given control of a task-relevant latent action space while an autonomous system handles the rest.\nDragan and Srinivasa present a formalism for arbitrating between a user's input and a robot's policy when both human and robot share control of the same action space. Cognetti et al. [7] provide a method for real-time modifications of a path, . . . Fig. : We model the intent inference problem with the above diagram.\nAt each step in time, the robot receives an observation ot from the human conditioned on its current location st, the intended goal g, and the human's path preference θ. The robot updates its belief over g and θ and transitions to a next location st+1. while Hagenow et al. present a method that allows an outside agent to modify key robot state variables and blends the changes with the original control.\nHowever, a common challenge of these approaches is the high level of intervention required from humans. Best and Fitch propose a method for predicting an agent's intended trajectory from observations. Rather than maintaining a belief over the agent's future path, they infer the agent's intended goal among a set of candidate locations at the boundary of the space.\nThis approach provides information on where the agent is heading and generates a distribution of candidate future trajectories for the agent. Inferring the goal of the task among a discrete set of candidates is also relevant to the area of shared autonomy. Javdani, Srinivasa, and Bagnell propose a formalism for shared control of a robotic arm, where the robot must assist the human in picking up an object but needs to infer which object the human has chosen from joystick inputs.\nPlanning with homotopy class constraints is useful in problems where the robot's requirements are given with respect to obstacles, and Yi, Goodrich, and Seppi consider topological constraints provided by human operators. Bhattacharya propose an efficient algorithm for solving pathplanning problems under homotopic constraints.\nHowever, the number of homotopy classes for a given problem can be infinite, and as the robot changes location and updates its representation of the world, carrying out inference over homotopy classes in a dynamic environment requires recomputing the set of homotopies at every iteration, making the belief update challenging.\nPrior work has addressed the challenge of shared autonomy by considering how robots can infer a human's intended goal, or how they can infer the preferred path to a goal. However, we argue that inferring the goal and the path as separate problems can lead to over-confidence in incorrect beliefs about the user's preferences.\nTo illustrate this point, consider the following scenario: a robot and a human are collaborating to move an object from one end of a room to Fig. : Using the hyperplanes composing the H-representation of each obstacle, we construct a hyperplane arrangement of the obstacle-free space (a). We define the human's preference for the robot's one step action choices as the posterior distribution (given all human input up to that point) over transitions from the current to the neighboring polytopes, i.e. edges on the graph.\nEach time the robot transitions to a new polytope, the set of neighbor polytopes and the distribution over human preferences are updated. another, but there is an obstacle in the way. The human would like the robot to take a path around the obstacle on the left, even though the goal is on the right. If the robot only infers the goal from the human's inputs, it may incorrectly assume that the goal is on the right, and become over-confident in this belief.\nOn the other hand, if the robot only infers the preferred path, it may mistakenly assume that the goal is on the left, leading to a failure in completing the task. To overcome these challenges, our work proposes a joint inference approach that considers both the human's intended goal and their preferred path to that goal.\nSpecifically, we model the human's preference over different homotopy classes and leverage a conditional independence assumption to provide a tractable solution. In our approach, we assume that the human's inputs are noisily rational conditioned on both the goal and the preference. By jointly inferring the goal and path preference, we can avoid over-confidence in incorrect beliefs about the user's preferences, leading to improved system performance.\nWe consider the problem of robot navigation in a known environment to an unknown destination, where a human can intervene and provide a heading direction to the robot using a joystick or force cues. The human also has a preference on which path the robot should take with respect to obstacles, and our objective is for the robot to understand the human's intentions and execute the task with minimal interventions.\nLet g be a discrete random variable denoting the goal of the task, belonging to a set of candidates Ω g , and let θ be a discrete-valued random variable representing the human's path preference, belonging to a set of possible preferences Θ. The physical location of the robot at time index t is denoted by s t ∈ R 2 , and the robot's action at time index t, belonging to some action space A, is denoted by a t .\nThe transition model T (s t+1 | s t , a t ) is deterministic, meaning the robot has full control over its future location. At any time step, the human may provide an observation to the robot. When the human intervenes, the robot receives a direction (heading angle) that can be mapped to a future location in space.\nMore specifically, we map the direction to an intended location, which is the resulting robot location after advancing in the indicated direction for one time step. For simplicity, we consider that the robot directly makes an observation o t of the location indicated by the human. We assume that the robot has a stochastic observation model for the human P (o t | s t , g, θ) that is conditioned on both the goal of the task g and the human's preferred path θ.\nWe further assume that having chosen a goal and path preference, the human takes actions to noisily minimize a cost function C g,θ that measures the cost of moving from the robot's current location to the goal along the preferred path. For example, C g,θ (s t , o t ) can be the length of the shortest path from location s t to the goal g after taking a first step to o t , and constrained by path preference θ.\nWe use C g,θ to induce a probability distribution over observations, given by: where γ h is a hyperparameter that designates the rationality coefficient. This model assumes the human will pick the lowest cost action with the highest probability and the likelihood of an action decreases exponentially with the increase in cost .\nOur inclusion of the path preference θ sets our approach apart from . The model is shown in fig. represented as a Bayesian Network.\n\nInference\n\nAt each time step where the human provides an observation, the posterior P (g, θ) is given through the Bayesian update We note that the number of Bayesian updates required at each iteration to update the belief is equal to the cardinality of Ω g × Θ. In addition, each Bayesian update involves computing C g,θ ( .\n, . ) in eq. ( ), which involves solving an optimization problem (such as a shortest path problem). In section IV, we propose a specific encoding of preference θ for resolving eq. ( ), while ensuring the number of computations of the cost C g,θ (., .) per update does not grow exponentially with the number of obstacles.\n\nDecision Making\n\nWe consider a navigation problem where the robot receives reward according to the model R(s t , g, θ, a t ). We wish to find the optimal policy π that maximizes the expected discounted sum of future rewards, with discount factor γ. The above problem is a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) .\nIn this section, we propose an encoding of human's path preference θ for computing the posterior in eq. ( ). Devifrom the concept of homotopy classes, we define the preference according to a partitioning of the environment into polytopes, as shown in fig. , creating a hyperplane arrangement of the space.\nHyperplane arrangements have been used by Vincent and Schwager in the context of Neural Network verification. In our setting, we leverage this representation to define path preferences as preferred transitions between adjacent regions of the space.\n\nHyperplane Arrangement\n\nWe assume a two-dimensional environment composed of m polytopic obstacles, each defined by their half-space representation (H-representation) where A i ∈ R di×2 and b i ∈ R di , and where d i is the number of edges (hyperplanes) composing polytope i. Let n = i d i be the total number of hyperplanes. We leverage each obstacle's H-representation to construct a hyperplane arrangement of the environment as shown in fig.\n.e. a partitioning of the space into polytopes. More specifically, each location in space belongs to a polytope j for which we can write an H-representation of the form where α j i ∈ {−1, 1} di is a vector specific to polytope j and obstacle i corresponding to the relative position of any point in the set with respect to each hyperplane in O i .\nFig. : Intent inference model in a hyperplane arrangement of the obstacle free space. We spatially decompose the preference θ into a set of preferred neighboring polytopes per region of the space. Within each polytope j, the human preference pj is a discrete distribution over the preferred neighbor in N (j).\nWe assume that for a location st belonging to polytope j, and given goal g and preference pj, the observation ot and any other preference p i,i =j are conditionally independent. Concatenating elements from each obstacle's Hrepresentation, we can write polytope j's H-representation as where Some of the constraints in eq. ( ) (corresponding to rows of A, b and α j ) are redundant, i.e. the set P j does not change upon their removal.\nWe can further reduce the Hrepresentation of a polytope to include only non-redundant constraints. By removing the rows corresponding to redundant constraints, we obtain new matrices A j e , b j e and α j e such that we can write the polytope's reduced H-representation as The non-redundant constraints correspond to edges of the polytope.\nIn other words, as the robot continually moves in space, the first hyperplane that it will cross upon exiting the polytope will correspond to one of the polytope's nonredundant constraints. Vincent and Schwager outline an iterative method for removing redundant constraints by solving n linear programs.\nWe use this method in practice for computing α j e for each polytope. We can now characterize each polytope by a vector α j e ∈ {−1, 1} n j e , where n j e ≤ n is the number of essential constraints of the polytope. The polytopes P j partition the environment into a hyperplane arrangement.\n\nPath Preference\n\nIn this section, we provide a definition of preference θ according to a graphical representation of the environment based on the hyperplane arrangement. Under this representation, a path preference corresponds to a set of preferred transitions. In other words, for each polytope in the space, the human will have a preference to which neighboring polytope they wish to transition.\nLet G := (V, E) be an undirected graph, where vertices are obstacle-free polytopes, and edges connect two adjacent polytopes. Each polytope is described by a unique vector α j as defined in eq. ( ). Two polytopes are adjacent if they share non-redundant constraints (rows in eq. ( )) corresponding to the same hyperplane (i.e. they are on opposite sides of the hyperplane).\nLet N (v) be the set of neighbors of a vertex v. For each vertex, we denote p v the discrete-valued random variable describing which edge in N (v) the human intends to transition to. Using this formalism, we define a path preference as the set of preferred transitions over all nodes in the graph, Let m θ = v∈V |N (v)| be the cardinality of Θ, and m g = |Ω g | the number of possible goals.\nA priori, the number of Bayesian updates required to update the belief at every iteration should be m θ × m g . Now, let us assume the conditional independence relationships described by the new problem diagram in fig. . More specifically, we introduce the assumption that conditioned on a robot location s t , the goal g, and the preference for the corresponding vertex p v in the graph, the observation o t and the preference for any other vertex are conditionally independent.\nIn other words, the observations the human provides can be defined conditioned only on the robot location, the goal, and the human's preference for its current vertex p v . By introducing this assumption, each update step only requires updating the joint (p v , g), reducing the number of cost computations to |N (v)| × m g .\nWe can notice that by introducing this assumption, we removed the direct relationship between the number of polytopes in the environment and the complexity of the Bayesian update in eq. ( ). In practice, components of θ are not mutually independent. For example, if the human preference at a vertex v 1 is\n, it is unlikely that the human will also prefer p v2 = (v 2 , v 1 ) (turning back). We can improve our model by assuming a dependent relationship between preferences for adjacent edges, which does not significantly increase the complexity of the inference problem. An interesting property of our encoding is that any two paths that belong to different homotopy classes will cross different sequences of polytopes, i.e. they correspond to a different sequence of edges on G.\nThis can be proved by contradiction. Let us suppose that two continuous trajectories ξ 1 and ξ 2 , with the same start and end points and that do not intersect any obstacle, traverse the same regions in G in the same order. From the construction of the hyperplane arrangement, each polytope that the paths traverse through is obstacle-free.\nTherefore, within each polytope, there is no obstacle in the area located in between the portions of ξ 1 and ξ 2 that belong to the region. A smooth transformation of ξ 1 into ξ 2 can be obtained by transforming each portion of ξ 1 belonging to the polytopes it intersects into the corresponding portion of ξ 2 for the same polytopes, where the extremities of the trajectory portions are connected to one another along the polytope's edges (where the same edge is crossed by both paths).\nAlong this transformation, the paths do not intersect any obstacle, and therefore ξ 1 and ξ 2 belong to the same homotopy class.\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nWe evaluate our model on a simulated navigation task where the robot must reach a goal that is unknown a priori while respecting the path preferences indicated by a human. The robot navigates in a grid world containing obstacles. The transition model is deterministic: the robot selects an adjacent location on the grid to reach at the next time step.\nThe robot is also allowed to take diagonal actions. Each location s t in the map can be mapped to a vertex v t ∈ G. Therefore, the actions leading to locations mapped to different vertices correspond to edges on the graph. We note f (s t , a t ) the edge crossed by taking action a t from location s t .\nThe robot is given a mission time limit T max for reaching the goal. In this problem, we assume that the human selects actions to noisily minimize a cost function C g,θ , where θ is defined as per eq. ( ), corresponding to the length of the shortest path to the goal constrained by the preference (where the robot is only allowed to make transitions on G along preferred edges).\nMore specifically, where δ(s t , g | o t , p vt ) designates the length of the shortest path from s t to g passing by o t and constrained by preference p vt . This is a slight variant of the cost function proposed by Best and Fitch , where we add in a conditioning on the path preference. We compute costs by running the A path planning algorithm on the environment maps (grid worlds with diagonal actions) and impose preference constraints by pruning invalid transitions from the search tree.\nReward model. At each step in time, the robot receives a reward which is a sum of three components: a goal-specific reward a preference-specific reward or penalty We compute solutions to the POMDP defined in section III-B with the online solver POMCP , and with the particularity that within the rollouts, the robot does not expect to collect human inputs.\nEach time a solution is computed, the robot takes an action and may receive an observation. If it does, it updates its belief distribution over the unknown problem variables and resolves the POMDP over a receding horizon.\n\nBaselines\n\n• Goal only. The robot solves the POMDP while ignoring the effects of path preference. Similarly to , we assume the human is taking action to minimize a goaldependent cost C g (s t , o t ) = δ(s t , g | o t ), where the conditioning on the preference is removed. We also omit the path preference's contribution to the reward R pref .\n• Compliant. The robot complies with the human input, but does not take an initiative. If the user stops providing information, the robot continues in the last direction indicated for 5 time steps (conserving its momentum), then stops. • Blended. We designed an arbitration function to decide between our proposed policy (accounting for path preferences) and the user's recommendation when the robot receives inputs.\nOur metric to evaluate confidence in the robot's prediction for the purpose of arbitration is the entropy of the intention distribution H(g, p i ), where p i denotes the preferred neighbor for the current region. Because our representation of the world is discrete, the arbitration is given by a step function.\nDenoted by U , the action corresponding to the human's input, and P , the robot's prediction for the optimal action, we write the policy where we chose h = 1.6 as the confidence threshold.\n\nResults\n\nWhen evaluating the algorithm, we consider that a run is successful if the robot reached the goal within its allocated mission time T max and only made transitions between graph vertices corresponding to the human's preferences. We vary the time delay between human inputs, from constant guidance (∆ T = 1) to only a single observation (∆ T ≥ T max ).\nSuccess rates. Table I reports the success rates for experiments conducted over six randomly sampled problem instances and 50 runs per instance in Map 1 (fig. ). When the human provides inputs at every iteration, the compliant policy shows the highest success rates. However, as ∆ T increases, the compliant robot is not able to accomplish the task within the allotted time as it does not receive sufficient inputs to do so, and performance decreases compared to the autonomous baselines.\nWe find that in these runs, accounting for path preference consistently improves performance compared with the goal-only baseline. Results also show that blending the user's input with the robot's policy (Path Preference + Blend) when the human provides information leads to improved performance. Belief entropy.\nFigure shows a challenging problem instance where the directions the human provides do not align directly with the shortest path to the goal. By ignoring the effects of preferences in the problem model (goal only), the robot quickly infers from observations that the upper left goal is less likely than others (P (g) drops).\nThe strong decrease in entropy shows that the robot becomes overconfident in this prediction. Overconfidence in an incorrect goal will prevent the agent from finding the correct goal once the human's indications directly align with it, as it needs to correct for the wrong predictions, as shown in the path realization (fig.\n). In this realization, the goal-only method (green robot) fails to search the upper left area within the allotted time. By accounting for path preferences in its model, the blue robot's entropy over the goal distribution decreases more steadily, allowing for it to leverage the human's latest observations and reach the goal successfully.\nshows an over-confident prediction (shown by the strong reduction in belief entropy) that the correct goal is less likely, making it more difficult to reach the correct goal compared to a method that accounts for path preference. Computation time. In table II we provide the time required to solve the POMDP, and the time required to update the robot's belief as it receives new observations.\nWe compute solutions on three maps: a simple 10 × 10 grid world with 8 polytopes (fig. ), a 10 × 10 grid world with 56 polytopes (fig. ), and a 20×20 grid world with 73 polytopes (fig. ). The latter environment being larger, we increase the mission time and the depth of the search tree in POMCP from T max = 30 (Map 1 and Map 2) to T max = 60 (Map 3).\nWe do not notice an increase in the time required to update the robot's belief with an increase in problem complexity, which is consistent with our observation that the complexity of the Bayesian update should not increase with the number of obstacles or polytopes. On the contrary, the belief update time on Map 2 and Map 3, containing more obstacles, is reduced compared to the first map.\nMore obstacles result in fewer iterations when solving the constrained shortest path problem with A . Adding constraints due to the obstacles and polytopes reduces the size of the A search tree. C. Limitations Simulation environments. In our simulations, we hardcoded the preference policy over the maps (e.g. in Map 1, go around the table counter-clockwise).\nWe randomly sampled problem instances (start and goal locations, and goal options) to reduce the bias introduced by these preference choices. To best evaluate and compare the different approaches, it would be best to sample preferences among a distribution of preferences chosen by a human (for example, from benchmarks resulting from a collection of data).\nCreating such a benchmark is an interesting direction for future work. Hyperplane arrangement construction. The main limitation of our approach is that the size and geometry of each polytope depends strongly on the geometry of the obstacles, as seen in fig. . Because of this, the robot can make predictions over preferences that are too refined compared with the topology of the environment.\nA direct consequence is that when the size of the polytopes is small, the information provided by the human can be incorrectly interpreted as a preference on the robot's immediate action. Our method can be improved by changing the structure of the hyperplane arrangement so that it relies on the topology of the environment, but does not vary strongly with the geometry of the features in the environment.\nFor this purpose, topometric maps and region construction algorithms are promising directions. We presented an approach for encoding and inferring a human's path preference in an environment with obstacles. By leveraging a partitioning of the space into polytopes and a stochastic observation model, our method allows for joint inference over the goal and path preference even when both are unknown a-priori.\nOur experiments on an unknown-goal navigation problem with sparse human interventions demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach and its suitability for online applications. The time required to update the robot's belief does not increase with the complexity of the environment, which further highlights the practicality of our method.", "answers": ["The belief entropy decreases more steadily."], "length": 5655, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "f1b59c798ab323ea8409ba09709de506bd83699885ce61a5"}
{"input": "How can players skip dialogue on the quest map?", "context": "Hey folks! Here is the shiny new Changelog thread. We're including the archived patch notes from the old forums, so that they are preserved for anyone that would like to reference back to them. We will continue to update this thread with new notes as the patches are released.\nChat is now accessible from the quest board, upgrade screen, and many other menus.\nTapping on objects and menus may reveal helpful hints about that object.\nTeam PI is now colored red if lower than recommended for the quest.\nMany text fixes and consistency improvements.\n• A new Basic Catalyst found in Special Events is used in every recipe!\nSeveral heroes have received improvements to their base stats.\nThe abilities of all Champions have increased in effectiveness.\nA new Critical Boost buff has been introduced.\nIron Fist and Spiderman now have the ability to Armor Break with their Critical Hits.\nDeadpool’s ability to Regenerate is more powerful, but only triggers once per fight.\nScarlet Witch now has a chance to trigger Nullify off of any Critical Hit.\nJuggernaut and Rhino now have a layer of Armor.\nPunisher and Winter Solider now may also trigger Fury in addition to Bleed.\nColossus now further increases his base Armor with the Armor Up ability.\nThor and Ronan no longer Armor Break; instead, base stats and Stun durations have improved.\nWe reduced the effectiveness of the Revive items in order to give away more as rewards.\nA bonus of 50% for using ISO-8 matching your Champion’s Class can now be previewed on the Upgrade screen.\nIt’s now possible sell Champions in exchange for ISO-8 and Gold. The amount received increases proportionately to the Rank and Level of the sold Champion.\n-You can now skip dialogue on the quest map by pressing ‘SKIP’.\n-Added a ‘Quit’ button directly on the quest interface.\n-The Back button on the Top Bar now returns the player to the Home screen.\n-Various game balance and cosmetic improvements to the available quests.\n• PVP energy has been replaced with Hero Stamina. Each Hero has their own Stamina values, meaning the more Heroes you have the more you can play in PVP.\n• Each Hero has 1 Stamina and takes 2 hours to recharge.\nWe have removed the Next Quest button for a much more favorable and flavorful approach to teaching and informing people about Marvel : Contest of Champions. In the Main Menu(Bottom Right Corner) you will now see an image of the Collector showing you what the best or recommended actions that you should preform. This can be anything from opening Crystals, Continuing a Quest, Ranking Up Champions if the difficulty is too hard, Tips where to obtain items, and Playing Versus/Arenas.\n• Adjusted the PI calculation for Power Burn and Power Drain abilities to improve accuracy.\n• Significantly increased the Power Burn multiplier as well as the amount of Power burned. Prior to this change, Vision's Special Attack damage output was far below the curve. Vision's Special Damage is distinct from other heroes in that the dependency on opponents' Power levels cause the damage dealt to be highly variable, and sometimes quite low; however, when striking an opponent with high Power levels, Vision has the potential to deal very high amounts of direct, Armor-ignoring damage.\n• Slightly adjusted the Armor Break trigger to be less punishing to opponents with the Armor Up ability without sacrificing PI or damage output.\n• Slightly increased his base Health and, in turn, the amount of Health recovered by Regeneration. This improvement is reflected by an increase to PI of about 1%.\n• Slightly reduced the damage from Bleeding, but slightly increased the amount of Power drained by E.M.P. Arrow to compensate. This added utility strengthens the choice between whether to offensively Bleed the enemy or defensively drain their Power. These changes may modify PI by +/-1%.\n• Slightly reduced the frequency of Nullify for basic attacks, but slightly increased the chance a Special Attack is critical. Chaotic Bombardment no longer has a chance to critical, and instead has a 100% chance to Nullify the target. This is less punishing to opponents with beneficial effects, while providing a more reliable source of Nullify. Overall, her PI has decreased by about 2%.\n• Decreased base Health and Attack by 2% each to bring his PI in line with other Champions without compromising Special Attack effectiveness.\n• Slightly increased base Health by 2% to bring his PI in line with other Champions. This change may result in a PI increase of up to 1%.\n• Fixed a bug with her Bleed ability scaling incorrectly. This has no effect on PI.\n• User's on iPhone 4 devices will no longer encounter a progression blocker after fighting Iron Man in the tutorial.\n• Fixed an issue where player's Hero would disappear after using a special move.\n• Fixed an issue where very rarely a character would lose all functionality when dashing.\n• Added additional Network support to better diagnose disconnects. The game should resolve and recover much more gracefully than in previous updates.\n• Adjusted some of the touch sensitivity while fighting. Heroes moves should feel more responsive. This is something that is going to be an ongoing process. Please let us know how you think it feels.\n• Fixed various issues with Chat.\n• We have updated Open GL versions/drivers for iOS devices that support Open GL 3.0.\n• User's will no longer receive delayed Game Center notifications. This caused some weirdness to occur while opening Crystals in the Crystal Vault.\n• The Crystal Vault has received another polish pass and should now feel much more responsive, thank you for all your feedback on this feature!\n• Many more minor bug fixes were included in this update.\n• Special Attack 1 base damage increased by +25% Attack Rating.\n• Heavy Attack base Power gained reduced to 63 points.\nWe recently improved the functionality of Heavy Attacks, so they’re easier to use. Their base Power has been reduced to normal levels – previously, they generated Power at a higher rate to compensate for their difficult execution. Special Attacks have been adjusted to give the unlucky recipients more of a fighting chance. These changes bring these attacks in line with existing damage-to-power ratios.\n*NOTE: Special Attacks only generate Power for the target struck, not for the user; this prevents infinite loops and helps serve as a comeback mechanic.\nVersus Crystal prizes have been adjusted due to the Champion Stamina changes.\nArena Crystal prizes have been increased to help balance the adjustments to the Versus Crystal.\nPayouts have significantly increased when receiving a duplicate Champion with a Star rating of two or more. The boosted amount increases based on Star rating. We apologize for any inconvenience caused by delivering each reward individually, and are working to get a fix to you as soon as possible. In the meantime, using the “Skip” button avoids the inconvenience.\n• We fixed a bug where finding a new match could cost a player Units.\n• Spending Units to find a new opponent will now return opponents with lower ratings.\n• Chapters 3 and 4 of Act 2 Story Quests are now available. A mysterious opponent awaits you at the end of Act 2!\n*NOTE: This caused some players' progress to reset for a brief time, but that issue should now be corrected.\n• Event Quest difficulty has been adjusted to match Catalyst availability.\n• Rank-Up Recipes have been adjusted to be more accessible across all ranks.\n• Bosses for the Monday through Saturday Daily Events now have a small chance to drop a Class Catalyst. This is in addition to the drop chance from Chests.\n• Ambush Rates have been adjusted on all Event Quests.\n• Increased Catalyst drops for the Collector Free-For-All Event Quest.\n• Alpha Catalysts now have a chance to drop from Chests in Medium and Hard difficulties of The Collector Free-For-All event.\n• The unobtainable chest in Act 1, Chapter 1, Quest 6 has been removed from the Battlerealm.\nIncreased the amount of Gold awarded by the Arena Crystal.\nSlightly reduced the cost to level-up a 3-Star Champion at Rank 1 to cleanly align with ISO-8 chunk values.\nFixed a bug with Billion-Dollar Punch not triggering Armor Break.\n• Duplicate 2-Star, 3-Star, and 4-Star Champions now awaken a brand new ability unique to that Champion in addition to the rare ISO8 they currently give. Duplicates thereafter continue to level-up this ability to make it stronger. When a Champion is awakened, their Stars turn bright and glow, making them easy to identify (and look pretty cool too). These new abilities can be quite powerful, so please fight responsibly!\n• Various other improvements, including rank and level information for opponents, find match options in team select, and animation tuning.\n• There is now a chance to encounter the elusive Treasure Adaptoid, who divulges his hoard of ISO8 and Gold to those able to defeat him in battle.\n• Class Relationships can be viewed by tapping “Enemy Classes” before entering a quest, and preview the number of enemies in that quest for each class type.\n• You can also now see rewards for completion and exploration on the Edit Team screen.\n• Opponents are more aware of the distance between you and them, improving their interaction with knockback effects, such as that from Heavy Attacks.\nMutant Champions are now effective against Skill Champions.\n• The high Special Attack damage and regenerative abilities of Mutant Champions are effective against Skill Champions, which typically rely on Bleed damage from their weaponry. We think of this relationship as if the X-Gene grants Mutant Champions superpowers that evolved to be stronger than Champions that are merely “Skilled”.\nSkill Champions are now effective against Science Champions.\n• While scientists fiddle in their cute little laboratories to create flasks full of serums to turn even frail young men into super-soldiers, Skill Champions were just born that way baby. Often donning sharp weaponry to make their opponents Bleed, Skill Champions enjoy watching the high base attributes of Science Champions just melt away.\nCosmic Champions are now effective against Tech Champions.\n• Tech Champions construct durable robots and thick suits of Armor to outlast their opponents in battles of tank-the-nuke...which gives Cosmic Champions extra time to build up stacks of beneficial effects to overrun Tech Champions using their peculiar alien enhancements.\n• Tech Champions are still effective against Mutant Champions.\nTech Champions typically excel at Armor, Resistance, and Power manipulation, which is effective against the high Special Attack damage of Mutant Champions. Think of the robotic Sentinels adapting for tactical advantages in the war against Mutantkind!\nScience Champions are still effective against Mystic Champions.\n• Science Champions – a Class of behemoths like Hulk and super-soldiers like Captain America – typically have above average base attributes like Health, Attack, and Armor. These raw stats cannot be affected by pesky Mystics and their removal abilities: Nullify and Purge.\nMystic Champions are still effective against Cosmic Champions.\n• Cosmic Champions explore strange new beneficial effects to seek out new power and new abilities, to boldly take their attributes where no class has gone before. Well, not if Mystic Champions – who are fully capable of stripping Cosmic Champions of their beneficial effects – have anything to say about it! Maybe it’s the Mystic Agenda to protect the secrets of the universe?\nThese changes ensure that having a Class Bonus always gives you the advantage it promises, as it now also reflects ability trends for a particular Class. Please keep in mind that these are generalizations, and some Champions abilities may not always strictly align with these relationships. Learn more about Champions’ abilities by viewing their profiles and tapping on features for detailed information.\n• When you attack someone, you charge up their Power in addition to yours. This meant they would reach a full three bars while you only reached one and a half. We've reduced the amount defenders receive such that you'll be at two bars when they're at three. This change maintains the underdog functionality to give defenders a chance to comeback while being less punishing to players earning high Combos.\nNew damage types for attacks now play a larger role in the abilities of Champions. For example, some heroes power-up by successfully blocking magical damage, while others’ abilities may harm anyone that makes physical contact with them.\nNew Resistances and Immunities have found their way to the Battlerealm. Some heroes are completely immune to specific status effects based on either lore from the comics or logic. For example, the android Vision has no blood, and is therefore fully immune to Bleed conditions. We’ve also strengthened the effectiveness of certain status effects, so be careful who you choose to bring into battle! Could you guess who might be immune to the new “Poison” condition?\n• Poison: Inflicts damage over time and reduces healing and regeneration effectiveness.\n• Unstoppable: A buff to shrug off the impact from attacks, but still take the damage.\n• Weakness: A debuff that reduces Attack attributes.\n• Heal Block: Fully prevents the target from gaining health in any way.\n• Power Lock: Seals the target, preventing them from gaining any Power.\n• When fighting, you may notice that many status effects are now able to stack. This also changes how certain beneficial “buffs” and detrimental “debuffs” interact with one another. For example, it's now possible to have both Armor Up and Armor Break effects on you simultaneously. Let the tug-o-war begin, and may the strongest effects win!\n• Black Bolt's Corkscrew: +25% damage, but at the cost of minor recoil damage.\n• Punisher's “Wrath” has been replaced by \"Payback\". Payback deals additional damage based on the total damage dealt to Frank.\n• Colossus' “Unbreakable” now deal bonus damage based on his armor level at the time of activation.\n• All of Black Panther’s special attacks now deal bonus damage based on the number of Bleeds on the target.\n• Spider-Man’s Web-Slinger now has a chance to inflict Weakness.\n• Vision’s Physical Disruption: Added a minor Power Burn effect due to “his” use of his Infrared Beam. “He” also now purges all status effects while phasing through the ground.\n• Scarlet Witch: Increased the Critical Hit Chance for Hex Bolt and Hex Sphere.\n• Many knockback effects have been adjusted to improve consistency.\nWe’ve tested the Signature Abilities quite extensively before releasing them, but there have been a few abilities that we have been keeping an eye on. We’ve compared our notes with the feedback you’ve been sending us and are making some balance changes to them. Thanks for your feedback!\nSlightly reduced the frequency and duration of Juggernaut’s “Unstoppable” ability.\n• He was indeed a bit too...unstoppable. We’ve toned down the frequency this ability triggers, as well as reduced the duration it’s active for when it does trigger. We feel Juggernaut is still a powerful Champion despite these revisions. Take care!\nSlightly reduced the starting values of Wolverine's “Cellular Regeneration”.\n• We found that Cellular Regeneration was too strong at lower levels where fewer counters to Regeneration exist.\nRe-scaled Gamora's “Assassination” to start higher but scale slower.\n• At lower levels, Special Attacks were used too infrequently, giving this powerful ability little visibility. We’ve adjusted the scaling to better match Special Attack usage at all levels.\nIncreased the frequency that Black Bolt’s “Provocation” triggers.\n• Due to the varying Critical Hit rates across all Champions, in some cases Provocation would trigger rarely or not at all within a fight. We’ve increased the frequency to ensure you’ll see it every match – but especially so against opponents with high Critical Hit rates.\nWe’ll continue to follow the effect of these new abilities on gameplay. Please keep your feedback coming!\nHey everyone! We have been hard at work on improving the game and have prepared a big update inspired in part by your great community feedback. Please keep letting us know what you think!\n• Fixed many Dash, Medium, Heavy and Special Attacks missing or failing to execute.\n• Added Alliances and a new Alliance Crystal.\n• Rocket Raccoon and Unstoppable Colossus join The Contest.\n• Temporary Boosts to Attack, Health, and XP are now available from the Alliance Crystal.\n• Rewards for completing and exploring Chapters and Acts. Earn a guaranteed 3-Star hero crystal for each fully explored Act! This is retroactive, just complete any quest to claim them.\n• A new Fight Menu combines The Arenas, Story Quests and Event Quest menus.\n• Updated Summoner Profiles with new information. Inspect other players’ Profiles and brag about your achievements!\n• A list of blocked users has been added to Chat windows. The option to unblock these users is found in this new menu. The power is in your hands now!\n• We fixed Dash and Medium Attack issues for many heroes that sometimes missed or did not activate.\n• We fixed issues to Drax and Colossus Light and Medium Attacks where they would not connect.\n• Fixed an issue where the camera would stop moving after a level 3 special sequence.\n• Fixed an issue where the player’s heavy attack would get stuck in charge even after the player has released input.\n• Fixed a rare bug where Champions were still able to deal damage after they died, resulting in tied fights.\nForm Alliances with your Friends!\nWhat is better than playing? Playing with your friends! Create a new Alliance or join an existing one through the new Alliance Menu.\n• Invite other players to your Alliance.\n• Search for an Alliance by name or join a Recommended Alliance.\n• Receive rewards for entering your first Alliance.\n• Alliance News Feed. The news feed celebrates your Alliance member’s achievements.\n• Alliance Chat. Chat with other members of your Alliance in a private channel all to yourself.\n• Help Allies. Players can ask for help when out of Energy or Stamina. Alliance members help each other as much as they can to earn Loyalty Points. Loyalty points have a daily limit to how many can be earned.\n• Alliance Crystal. Access a new Alliance Crystal while part of any Alliance. Use new Loyalty Points for purchasing Alliance Crystals.\nHe may start out slow, but watch out for his immense power at high ranks!\n• Adjusted the range of many Heavy Attacks, including Hulk and Drax, to ensure they correctly connect with enemies.\n• Many Special Attacks, including those for Wolverine, Iron Fist, Winter Soldier, Punisher, Black Panther, and many others have had their range adjusted to ensure they correctly connect with enemies even if activated immediately after a combo that knocked the enemy back.\n• Payback and Unbreakable now display their maximum potential damage bonus.\n• Added detailed descriptions for Bleed Immunity and Poison Immunity.\n• Gamora: We’ve adjusted the scaling of her base Special Attack damage to ensure they scale up more similarly to other heroes. This also makes Gamora more reliant on her high Bleed damage, and improves the chances of opponents able to deal with her high Bleed.\nVital Strike and Jade Assassin damage decreased by 10%.\nGodslayer damage increased by 10%.\n• Magik: Rewind is a game-changer for Magik that allows her to go up against foes like Gamora and Rewind off big Critical Hits and Bleed damage; however, the frequency of Rewind triggering was too low to be there when she needed it.\nIncreased the likelihood Rewind triggers by +20% at all levels.\nRewind now heals over one second instead of instantly.\nFixed a bug allowing Magik to break out of an enemy combo using Rewind. It now only removes Status Effects.\n• Hulk: Given the riskiness of losing Health in certain game modes, Hulk’s anger-management provided too little help too late in the game. We’ve increased the Attack boost to ensure he’s appropriately scary in all game modes – as long as he’s angry!\nIncreased Hulk Rage by +20% Attack at all ability levels.\nArc Overload no longer causes Armor Break when it expires.\n• Vision: Added Poison Immunity to our robot friend.\nArena tuning is an ongoing process. The team is continually making adjustments to Arenas to improve the experience.\nUltron has infected The Contest!\nMany new Champions join the battle against Ultron.\nQuest through the new Ultron’s Assault Event.\nWield new power with Summoner Masteries.\nGrow your Friend’s List with the new Social Hub.\nTeam up with your Alliance in new Events, Arenas, and more!\nFilter and sort your Stash.\nFights have been optimized for performance improvements on all devices.\nUsers can now filter through the items in their Stash.\nFixed several issues where Hero Rating would fluctuate.\nFixed a bug with Rhino and Juggernaut having 11-20% more Armor than intended.\nFixed a bug with Rocket Raccoon’s Dash attack being slower than intended.\nAdded a confirmation popup when spending Units on stamina recharges and unlocking arenas.\nRegeneration no longer displays green Health values if you’re at full Health.\nSeveral new improvements to how status effects are displayed.\nAI opponents are no longer able to perform one unavoidable attack in response to a Special Attack 3.\nA new and improved look for all Health Potions in the Battlerealm.\nAll Revive Potions now revive your Champions with +10% more Health.\nWe’re adding so many new Champions, they could form their own Alliance!\nSome of your favourite heroes of the Marvel Cinematic Universe join The Contest!\nSummoner Mastery is on the horizon!\nMasteries provide beneficial effects for your Champions.\nAccess Masteries through your Summoner Profile.\nEarn Mastery Points when you level up.\nChoose your Masteries wisely and strategically customize your benefits.\nRecover your points to try a new specialization as often as you’d like.\nKeep an eye on in-game messaging for more information.\nThe daily loyalty limit has been set to refresh at 08:00UTC for all players.\nA timer has been added to show when the daily loyalty limit resets.\nLoyalty balance is now displayed in the Alliance menus.\nAsk for Versus help with a single tap on the ‘Help’ icon in Team Select.\nNew Alliance Events are coming very soon!\nWork together with your Alliance to complete objectives and receive rewards!\nMuster your might, Alliance Arenas will soon open their gates!\nCompeting in Alliance Arenas shares your points across your whole Alliance; work together to reach milestones and top ranks!\nWork together to amass a huge score, and defeat your competition in classic Arena combat! No slackers here either - if you don’t contribute to win the competition, you’re not eligible for the goods!\nAll social features (Chat, Mail, and Friends) can now be accessed through the new Social Hub.\nSearch for and add friends, and send private messages to Summoners on your Friends List.\nRedesigned chat and mail screens.\nTake on other Summoners’ top Champions for bragging rights and prizes in 1-on-1 Duels!\nA new series of special Ultron quests are available, starting with the first Chapter. Fight back against Ultron’s infection alongside the Summoner, and team up with some of Marvel’s finest! New quests unlock each week!\nThe Spider-Man Champion gate has been removed from Act 1, Chapter 1, Quest 5.\n• Fixed an issue where chat snapped to the most recent message.\n• Fixed several issues where Hero Rating would fluctuate.\n• Various improvements to the Summoner Mastery screens and descriptions.\n• Increased the ISO8 awarded by duplicate 2-Star Champions.\nQuest through the new single-player campaign, Ant-Man’s Adventure!\nIn addition to Ant-Man and Yellowjacket feuding throughout the Battlerealm, additional new Champions will be joining The Contest!\nAccess more Masteries in the new Utility Mastery tree!\nPlease note, these changes may result in a loss of Hero Rating as incorrect effects are restored back to normal levels.\nImproved and polished combat mechanics to reduce the amount of stutters and lost input.\nFixed and optimized rendering related issues with Metal enabled devices.\nTeam up with Ant-Man, and put a stop to Yellowjacket’s mysterious mission!\nAll Alliance Quests only last for a specified amount of time, defeat the boss with your Alliance before it expires!\nNew Prestige System - A dynamic difficulty and score setting that adjusts as you and your Alliance succeed in harder quests. The better you do and the tougher your Alliance is, the higher the prestige. The higher the prestige, the better the rewards!\nChoose your teams carefully as Champions within Alliance Quests cannot be used in other Story or Event Quests.\nAct 4 has been released! Play Chapter 1 now!\nSummoner level maximum has been increased to level 60!\n5-Star Champions are coΩming to The Contest! These are the most powerful Champions yet!\nAdditional improvements have been made to the UI, Versus Arenas, Synergy Bonuses, the Stash & Items Store.\nAct 4 - Chapter 1 released!\nNew challenges - more path variation and features to challenge the strongest Summoners!\nGreater challenge means greater rewards! Earn 4 Star Crystals and Mastery Points!\nThe Summoner Level cap has been increased by ten levels to level 60!\nChampion Items will be coming soon! These allow you to apply items and buffs to a specific Champion, keep an eye out for updates on these new Champion Items!\nSynergy Bonuses have updated iconography and the calculation has been updated to a distinct, additive bonus - What you see is what you get!\nAlliance class distribution is now displayed on team select - Choose the right class!\nYour Catalysts now have their own inventory, and will no longer appear in the Upgrade Item inventory.\nThe Stash is now separated into three tabs: Catalysts, Rewards and ISO, allowing you to sort and view your Stash much faster!\nThe UI flow for both Quests and Arenas have been greatly improved. You can now skip through fight victory and reward animations!\nHere is the rundown of patch 5.1.0, filled with various bug fixes and optimizations. The important ones to note are below.\nNew Champions, new theme, and a new arena!\nTo celebrate our one year anniversary AND the holidays, we’ll be running a special event quest! Battle through the history of The Contest, and test your mettle against familiar faces both old and new!\nA special reward will be available to those who master every quest!\nOur Anniversary Celebration will be happening very soon; stay tuned for more info!\nMore Act 4 quests are coming very soon!\nOpponents in Story Quests now have the ability to use their Special 3 attack! Note that we are not changing previous quest opponents to have this special attack (Act 1-3, Proving Grounds, Realm of Legends will not change); this will be in effect starting with the soon-to-be-released Act 4 content.\nAs with our previous major build releases (3.0’s Ultron, 4.0’s Ant Man, and 5.0’s Battlerealm), the Contest has been reskinned with a new theme!\nThe Road to Knowhere map is here! Fight in a new level inspired by Guardians of the Galaxy!\nA new button in your Alliance Chat to take you directly to Alliance Quests!\nYou can now collect Catalyst Fragments in Event Quests, Proving Grounds, and Alliance Quests; these can be pieced together into a Catalyst!\nSelling Items is now a thing! Sell any items in your inventory for gold!\nLevel 3 and Level 4 Health Potions have arrived! These are powerful instruments to help you tackle all the new Act 4 content!\nOver 400 bugs were fixed in this patch!\nThis patch is a fix for the missing Champions during the Special 3 animation on Android devices.\nThis issue occurred during our upload process to the Google Play Store. This was an odd edge case scenario that we could not have caught during our internal tests, as it began appearing once we uploaded to the Google Play Store. This hotfix will be out by tomorrow, and will put Android at version 6.0.1. As this issue does not occur on iOS devices, iOS will remain at version 6.0.\n3:30pm PST: We have started slow-rolling this patch out to Android devices, beginning with about 20% of users. We expect this to be available for 100% of users within the next 24 hours.\nWe have a few new Champions that you will see within the next couple of months (including one of my personal favorites)!\nOver 200 total bugs squashed in this patch!\nAn artifact left over from the early days of the contest was Black Panther’s ability to gain a Critical Hit Rate boost during Special 3 attacks. As many might know, Critical Hits aren’t possible during a Special 3 anymore, making this effect...unhelpful. We’ve switched it out with a new ability to stack up even more Bleed effects on the opponent based on how many Bleeds are already active.\nExample: The opponent has 4 stacks (instances) of Bleed on them when you launch a Special 3. With this new ability, you have a chance to add an additional 0 - 4 more stacks (instances) of Bleed.\nPreviously, a bug existed that allowed champions with Evade to continue to dodge Black Widow’s attacks, even if her Signature Ability was maxed out. This issue has been fixed.\nCaptain America WW2 has started to become outpaced by his non-WW2 counterpart and while we want the two to feel different and each have their own specific uses, we also want to ensure they are kept within range of each other in terms of balance. To accomplish this, we’ve given WW2 Cap the ability to Stun with his Special 1 and Special 3 attacks, but kept his Bleed on Special 2 the same, giving him options during combat against non-bleeding champions.\nA bug that prevented Daredevil from triggering Armor Breaks from Heavy Attacks has been fixed and is now working as intended.\nAgainst non-bleeding champions: Critical Hits have a chance to Armor Break on Special Attacks.\nIncrease range of Signature to 25% from 20%.\nMany players found Elektra’s signature ability lacked enough opportunities to use it. To remedy this, we’ve increased the range from 20% to 25%. Additionally, to help make Elektra unique from other skill champions, we’ve given her the ability to deal with naturally Bleed Immune champions. Note: This Armor Break only applies to champions naturally immune to bleed, such as Colossus and Ultron, and not to champions granted Bleed Immunity from Local or Link Nodes.\nGuillotine’s Bleed effect used to have a chance to activate from any given attack, meaning that it had to be kept quite weak to compensate for the frequency of triggers. We’ve made the switch to have her Bleed behave closer to existing champions, and in doing so have boosted the strength of the Bleed and have allowed it to stack.\nNorman Osborn overloads the Arc Reactor in his chest if Health drops below 10%, granting a large burst of power, with (18% - 48% ) Armor, Regeneration, and Power Gain. After that, his suit burns out and cannot trigger Armor Up, Armor Break or Stun and loses all base Armor.\nMany players didn’t like Iron Patriot’s old signature ability, feeling that due to the lack of Regeneration, it was considerably weaker than Iron Man’s. While we agreed, we didn’t want to just copy and paste his signature ability, but rather give him his own unique twist on the ability. This “all or nothing version” feels more like Norman Osborn, pushing his suit to the limit to get a larger boost but at the cost of damaging the suit. The addition of Power Gain allows Iron Patriot a large attack before the suit burns out, if timed correctly.\nHeavy Attacks: 90% chance to Stagger the enemy for 8 seconds. A Staggered enemy cannot gain their next beneficial effect.\nAll versions of Juggernaut, even those who haven’t been awakened, now gain the 2 second Unstoppable ability at the start of the fight when they hit Rank 2.\nWe wanted to add some new functionality to Juggernaut, while also keeping him true to his Mystic class assignment. To accomplish this, we added this “buff smasher” effect which keeps an opponent from gaining their next beneficial effect. Additionally, we wanted to make non-awakened versions of Juggernaut more fun to play, without adding more power to the awakened variations. As a result, we gave all versions of Juggernaut the ability to become Unstoppable at the start of the fight.\nWhile many players liked the new functionality of Star-Lord’s Element Gun effect, they found it to be a little too random, specifically when it would Heal Block a champion incapable of Healing. We’ve now added in some contingencies that will make Heal Block appear less unless the opposing champion shows that he / she can Heal during the fight. This includes both activated healing effects, such as Wolverine or Ultron’s Heal, or passive healing effects gained from Masteries, such as Salve or Willpower.\nIt’s been a bit weird that Bucky wasn’t friends with his most famous friend. Well, he is now. This affects 3 Star and above versions.\nWe’ve increased the overall speed of this attack, allowing quick players to use this ability after a four or five hit combo.\nIt seems the Marvel’s have gotten tired of their beams being dodged so easily and have decided to angle it a little better, increasing the overall range of the attack and making it harder to dodge away from. We’ve also increased the speed of both special attacks to allow them to better flow into combat.\nIn order to allow this attack to better flow in combat, we’ve shaved off a few frames from the beginning, allowing players to chain this attack into 4 and 5 hit combos.\nAlliance Wars have arrived! It’s Alliance versus Alliance in a war for Battlerealm supremacy!\nEnter the NEW Loyalty Store to buy Alliance Potions, Mastery items, or other EXCLUSIVE items.\nGain Power back from Special Attacks, enhance or defend against Special Attacks, OR gain a temporary Arena Point Boosts with hoards of new Summoner Boost items!\nAdditional changes and improvements are listed below.\nThis patch will be released February 24th.\nA new area of the Battlerealm has been opened! Compete with your Alliance-mates for pride, glory, and PRIZES!\nMatchmake to find a rival Alliance, then combine strategy and teamwork to dominate them.\nSetup the ultimate defensive team to fortify your Battlerealm, then take your offensive team on the assault!\nWatch your War Rating skyrocket as your Alliance works together to defeat rivals!\nLoad up on Crystal Shards, Loyalty, and brand new exclusive rewards!\nNote that this will be slow-rolled to Alliances in phases, similar to the introduction of Alliance Quests (to ensure server stability and gather your feedback on the new mode). Expect tuning changes throughout these phases, as well as into Season 1.\nUse Loyalty instead of Units to obtain items for Alliance Quests & Wars!\nItems will rotate daily, similar to how the Mastery cores in the current Store change.\nStore contents will be randomly chosen from a pool of categories/items; a select few items will be persistent and always be available for purchase.\nA 5-Star version of Unstoppable Colossus will be available in the Loyalty Store (keep in mind, this is an expensive Champion due to his exclusivity; this will require winning quite a few Alliance Wars and saving up!).\nThis is accessible from the “Store” section of the pop-down menu, and will be available at a later date after the initial 7.0 launch; there will be advance notice through forums and in-game before we release the Loyalty Store.\nNew Summoner Boosts have arrived in the Loyalty Store; NEW Boost types, purchasable with Loyalty Points.\nClass specific Boosts, such as Mystic Champions restoring power after using Special Attacks 2 and 3, or Skill Champions boosting their Special Attack Damage.\nDefensive Boosts, where your Champions take reduced incoming Special 3 Attack Damage.\nGain a temporary Arena Point boost with new Arena Boost items!\nFixed an issue where, after Parrying certain Champion’s Special Attacks, your Champion would be stuck in a blocking state until the Special Attack finished.\nFixed an issue where 90s Cyclops’ Armor Breaks would not remove Armor Ups.\nFixed an issue with Scarlet Witch’s Signature Ability proc rate (previously, the % chance displayed did not match in-game functionality; this is now fixed).\n(Netflix) Daredevil’s Heavy Attack now has a chance to apply 2 stacks of Armor Break, instead of the previous 1 stack.\nWhen spending Battlechips to enter an Arena (such as the Tier 4 Basic or Alpha Catalyst Arena), there is now a confirmation popup.\nThe Alliance Crystal now has a purchase limit that resets daily.\nPermanently increased the Alliance Crystal’s points in Summoner Advancement (from 30 to 300).\nUpdates to Champion Special Attack animations, flow, and timing.\n7.0.1 will be released within the next few days.\nA celebration message is sent to the War Room when an Alliance War battlegroup is cleared.\nPlayers can now tap directly on another node icon while the tile info popup is open (previously, the popup had to be closed before selecting another node).\nAlliance’s reward tier position is now highlighted in the Alliance War tier breakdown.\nIn Attack Phase, players can view the score breakdown for both the battlegroup and overall.\nThe “Place Your Defenders” text now disappears much faster after tapping on the screen.\nMail messages now display the date they were sent.\nIt should be much harder to accidentally tap the Units Store when closing a screen.\nPlayers can tap to skip the point animation in Versus mode again.\nResolved an issue with Class Masteries (specifically Mystic Dispersion) not functioning.\nThe Juggernaut issue with his linked nodes not appearing in Act 4, Chapter 3, Quest 3 (4.3.3) has been fixed.\nFixed a crash that occurs when a player who is not in an Alliance enters Alliance Wars through an outside link.\nFixed a text issue where Alliance War specific descriptions would appear on the Alliance Quest “Select a Battlegroup” screen.\nResolved ~20 various rare crashes and additional minor issues in different game modes.\nFixed and optimized performance on the new Samsung S7.\nFixed an Unknown Error that occurred rarely after a device was woken after going to sleep.\nImproved Performance(Frames Per Second) tracking per fight to help diagnose hitches/pauses/lag spikes during gameplay.\nImproved gesture tracking(Swipe, Tap, Hold) during low performance moments in combat.\nFixed a rare crash that would sometimes occur when receiving a phone call while in combat.\nTuned and updated many Champion Special Attack animations to improve timing and combat flow. Please see the expanded forum post HERE for a full list.\nFixed She-Hulk’s Special Attacks being marked as a projectile (allowing Daredevil to evade them).\nFixed an issue where the player would be stuck in place after parrying Captain America’s Special 1.\nFixed an issue where chaining 2 medium attacks into Old Man Logan’s Special 2 would cause the first 2 strikes to miss opponents.\nFixed an issue with Daredevil or Spider-man missing with a dash attack if Vision charges a heavy attack during the dash.\nFixed an issue where some hidden information in Alliance Wars was visible.\nFixed a display issue where Defender Placement percentage was not displaying all placed Alliance members.\nResolved minor issue with the total Alliance’s score being displayed on the War Progress widget (now only displays the score of the battlegroup being viewed).\nMultiple minor Alliance War issues have also been fixed in this patch.\nFixed a display issue where Shard amounts provided by defeating a boss displayed as double.\nFixed a display issue where opponent PI values would display differently between the map, prefight screen, and in combat.\nBoss power is now correctly displayed after removing Global and Linked boosts.\nFixed an issue where a player in Alliance Quests would lose input ability on the quest board after sleeping the device.\nFixed an issue where a player enters Alliance Quests and gets stuck after viewing the linked node or buff node tutorial.\nFixed an issue where sending an Alliance invite to a player would cause the “Add Friend” button to become greyed out.\nFixed a text issue that appears when viewing Featured Hero information from the Home Screen.\nJoin The Iron or fight for The Blue with new events, quests, Champions, and special Shards; inspired by Marvel’s Captain America: Civil War!\nSolo Events: constantly-evolving events that vary in length, requirements, and prizes!\nCompare statistics against other players and Alliances with the new Leaderboards!\n", "answers": ["Players can skip dialogue on the quest map by pressing the 'SKIP' button."], "length": 6743, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "c677827fc67e60c6396dceb5c4194aaba925aa1c61ad7115"}
{"input": "What was the reason given by Governor Rick Scott for not implementing a prescription drug monitoring database in Florida?", "context": "How Oxycontin, Florida and the Sackler Family Created the Opioid Crisis In America\nWhy are the Sacklers worth $13 billion today? Answer: “The Oxy Express Explained”\n(MASS TORT NEXUS MEDIA)\nA COMPARISON OF OXYCODONE PRESCRIBING\nIn the first six months of 2010, Ohio doctors and health care practitioners bought the second-largest number of oxycodone doses in the country at just under 1 million pills.\nFlorida doctors bought 40.8 million in the same period, the comparison is astounding, yet it flew under the DEA, Opioid Big Pharma and everyone elses radar for years and years.\nOf the country’s top 50 oxycodone-dispensing clinics, 49 were in Florida. From August 2008 to November 2009, a new pain clinic opened in Broward and Palm Beach counties on average of every three days.\nPharmacies and distributors are at fault as well, pharmacies ordered jaw-dropping numbers of pills from opioid drug distributors, the middlemen between manufacturers and pharmacies.\n90 of 100 of the nation’s top 100 oxy-buying doctors in 2010, were in Florida. 49 of 50 of the country’s top oxy-dispensing clinics were in Florida. For some reason this didn’t raise an alarm or cause anyone to look further at the time.\nPurdue Pharma New What Was Happening In Florida\nPurdue and the Sacklers chose to ignore Florida, because apparently nobody there sued them or complained. In 2007, in other states, the infamous drug maker and three of its executives pled guilty in federal court and paid out $634.5 million in fines for purposefully misleading regulators, doctors, and patients about the addictiveness of their opioid painkiller. Around the same time, Purdue was also sued by several states, including Washington, over similar allegations. Purdue agreed to a $19.5 million multi-state settlement. And in 2015, Purdue settled a case with Kentucky, agreeing to pay $24 million.\nAs part of the state settlements, Purdue was supposed to set up monitoring programs to make sure that its opioid drug didn’t wind up in the wrong hands. It was supposed to watch out for shady pharmacies, unusually large orders, or suspiciously frequent orders. But on this front, Everett alleges that Purdue once again put profits over people.\nObviously, this was ignored as the Florida based “Oxy Expres”; rolled on for years and years with np input, comment or oversight by Purdue Pharma and the Sackler family other than “show me the money” and enjoying a life of luxury on the misery created and managed in the Purdue Pharma boardroom. But, the Purdue boardroom isn’t the only guilty “Opioid Big Pharma” industry player who designed and supported the opioid prescribing crisis.\nFor the current status of efforts to make Opioid Big Pharma accept responsibility in litigation filed in federal and state courts across the country, see: https://www.masstortnexus.com/Briefcases/254/OPIOID-CRISIS-BRIEFCASE-INCLUDING-MDL-2804-OPIATE-PRESCRIPTION-LITIGATION\nWhy Distributors Are Liable\nCardinal Health, one of the nation’s biggest distributors, sold two CVS pharmacies in Sanford a combined 3 million doses of oxycodone, flooding the town of 54,000 with an average of 250,000 oxycodone pills every month.\nWest of Jupiter, a Walgreens drug distribution center sold 2.2 million tablets to a single Walgreens’ pharmacy in tiny Hudson, a roughly six-month supply for each of its 12,000 residents. It shipped more than 1.1 million pills to each of two Fort Pierce Walgreens pharmacies.\nFor 40 days starting in late 2010, the distribution center shipped 3,271 bottles of oxycodone — 327,100 doses of the drug — to a Port Richey Walgreens pharmacy, prompting a distribution manager to ask: “How can they even house this many bottles?”\nThere were 53 million oxycodone prescriptions filled in 2013 by US pharmacies, according to NIDA. This translates to approximately one bottle of this addictive drug for every 6 people in the country. How was this not noticed by those responsible for monitoring narcotics prescribing in the United States?\nCharts and Data On Florida’s Oxycontin Gold Mine\nhttps://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3936665-Purdue-Pharma-1-in-48-Study.html\nhttps://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3534759-uS-Atty-on-Purdue-Settle.html#document/p2/a384323\nA Boardroom Contrived Opioid Epidemic\nThis is the pain chart created by the “Opioid Big Pharma Industry” to support massive over-prescribing of opioids across the country to everyone who walked in to a medical treatment facility, this was an effort to increase narcotic prescribing practices in mainstream medical care–and it worked very very well! This chart became a standard treatment assessment protocol tool across the country.\nhttps://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3936646-DEA-NATL-DRUG-ASSESSMENT-2010.html#document/p51/a383739\nHOW WEST VIRGINIA WAS TARGETED\nIt-Was-Raining-Opiates-How-drug-companies-submerged-West-Virginia-in-opioids-for-years\nReliably red on the political map, Huntington is a West Virginia town with a 182-year-old university, a storied football team and more than 100 churches.\nIt’s where Will Lockwood graduated from high school. It’s where he enrolled at Marshall University. It’s where he first tried OxyContin. By the time Lockwood entered Marshall, Detroit dealers were trickling into Huntington, selling OxyContin and pills with OxyContin’s active ingredient, oxycodone.\nEven though Lockwood could step out his front door and get the drug, Detroit street dealers weren’t the preferred supplier, they were in Florida.\nIt may have been 1,000 miles away, but to Lockwood, getting OxyContin and oxycodone from Florida’s loosely regulated pain clinics “was legal, in a sense.”\nTwice a month, different “crews” from Huntington crowded into vans and headed south to Palm Beach and Broward counties, home to more than 200 pill mills, the pain clinics where anyone with a fake ache and hard cash could walk out with pills and prescriptions.\nAfter hitting a string of clinics, the Huntington crews drove back with “around 500 to 600 pills per person,” said Lockwood.\nBut it wasn’t just a few hundred pills. It was tens of thousands.\nAnd it wasn’t just Huntington, The West Virginia vans were part of a nationwide caravan heading to South Florida. Cars bearing tags from Kentucky, Tennessee, the Carolinas, Virginia and Ohio crowded into one clinic parking lot after another, loading up on pills and prescriptions.\nNews stories and law enforcement focused on those “parking lot” states in Appalachia, where dealers and addicts with a tank of gas or a cheap plane ticket traveled the “Oxy Express” to Palm Beach and Broward.\nBut Florida’s pill pipeline reached far beyond those roadways.\nBy 2010, Florida was the oxycodone drug dealer of choice for drug users and dealers in the Great Lakes, Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions as well as the Southeast, DEA records show, an area spanning virtually every state east of the Mississippi. It wasn’t just that Florida guaranteed a flow of cheap oxycodone. For 10 years, key lawmakers and agency heads repeatedly looked the other way as crooked doctors and bogus clinics flooded almost half the nation with the highly addictive drug.\nIn failing to crack down, Florida extended by years the amount of time highly addictive oxycodone would be available to both first-time experimenters and addicts. It gave criminals the raw materials for trafficking. It gave Will Lockwood the OxyContin needed to feed his growing habit, It paved the way for his eventual jump to heroin.\nJumping state lines\nTeenage high-school wrestling buddies in New Port Richey ran oxycodone into Tennessee; they were paid with cash hidden in teddy bears. A Hillsborough County man mailed 17,000 pills to Glen Fork, W.Va., a month’s supply for every man woman and child in the tiny town.\nA Boston Chinatown crime boss trafficked pills from Sunrise into Massachusetts, New York, Rhode Island and South Carolina. Wellington twins and pill mill kingpins Paul and Phil George, brothers who oversaw one of the largest operations in the country from their five Palm Beach and Broward clinics, pushing oxycodone into Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio and South Carolina.\nA husband and wife team operating out of a Forest Hill Boulevard clinic funneled pills to Delaware. At Palm Beach International Airport, two federal security agents accepted $500 a pop each time they waved through thousands of pillsbound for Connecticut and New York.\nA Palm Bay man’s Puerto Rican family bought local pills destined for the working class town of Holyoke, Mass. In Rhode Island, police pulled over a Lauderhill man caught speeding through Providence. They found 903 oxycodone tablets and 56 morphine pills in the car.\nSenior citizen and Tulane business graduate Joel Shumrak funneled more than 1 million pills into eastern Kentucky from his South Florida and Georgia clinics, much of it headed for street sales — an estimated 20 percent of the illicit oxycodone in the entire state.\nVan loads of pill-seekers organized by “VIP buyers” traveled from Columbus, Ohio, to three Jacksonville clinics, where armed guards handled crowd control (federal indictment) and doctors generated prescriptions totaling 3.2 million pills in six months. In Miami, Vinny Colangelo created 1,500 internet website names to entice drug users throughout the nation to one of his six South Florida pain clinics or pharmacies.\nEven the Mafia got in on the Florida oxy express action: A Bonanno crime family associate oversaw a local crew stocking up on Palm Beach and Broward pain clinic oxycodone, upstreaming profits to the New York family.\nAt times, it seemed almost no section of the country was free of Florida-supplied pills: When Olubenga Badamosi was arrested driving his Bentley Continental in Miami in 2011, the Oregon man was one of two traffickers overseeing a crew smuggling South Florida oxycodone to sell in Salt Lake City, Seattle and Denver as well as Oregon, Nevada, Texas and even Alaska.\nPharmacy delivers oxy ‘pot of gold’\nIt would be hard to overstate Florida’s role in feeding the country’s voracious appetite for oxycodone. Oxycodone 30-milligram tablets were favored by addicts. And in 2009 and 2010, roughly four of every 10 of those pills were sold in Florida. Small wonder: Of the nation’s top 100 oxycodone-buying doctors, 90 were in Florida.\nPharmacies, too, ordered jaw-dropping numbers of pills from drug distributors, the middlemen between manufacturers and pharmacies.\nWest of Jupiter, a Walgreens drug distribution center sold 2.2 million tablets to a single Walgreens’ pharmacy in tiny Hudson, a roughly six-month supply for each of its 12,000 residents. It shipped more than 1.1 million pills to each of two Fort Pierce Walgreens pharmacies. By contrast, a single Walgreens pharmacy in the Central Florida townOviedo bought 169,700 doses of oxycodone in 30 days.\nPeople on both sides of the counter knew what was going on: In a letter to the chief executive of Walgreens, Oviedo’s police chief warned that people were walking out of the town’s two Walgreens stores and selling their drugs on the spot, crushing and snorting them, or — still in the pharmacy’s parking lot — injecting them.\nWhy Pharmacies are LIABLE\nIn Fort Pierce, a Walgreens pharmacist accidentally provided an extra 120 oxycodone pills to a customer. When the druggist called to ask that the man return the pills, the customer’s girlfriend bluntly responded that he was an addict, that he sold oxycodone and the 120 pills were “a pot of gold,” DEA records show.\nThat was in September. The same man came back to the same Walgreens in December and January with a prescription in hand, and the pharmacy filled his prescriptions every time.\n‘Wild West of Oxycodone Prescribing’\nCincinnati-based Masters Pharmaceuticals Inc. was a middling-sized drug distributor selling oxycodone to Florida pharmacies.\nIt sold to other customers in other states. But mostly, it sold to Florida: Oxycodone made up more than 60 percent of its drug sales in 2009 and 2010, according to federal records. Of its top 55 oxycodone customers, 44 were in Florida.\nCompany CEO Dennis Smith worried that the Florida-bound oxycodone was getting in the wrong hands. A trip to Broward did nothing to ease his mind. “It was,” he later testified, “the Wild West of oxycodone prescribing.”\nBus and park benches touted pain clinics. When Smith picked up and thumbed through City Beat, a free magazine, he found pages of ads for pain clinics. “It would show young people sitting around a pool and it named the pain clinic and say (sic) ‘we dispense on site,’ and that really hit home hard.”\nSmith stopped selling to pain clinics. But the company continued to shovel millions of oxycodone pills to Florida pharmacies. Masters executives figured the pharmacies would keep an eye out for excessive prescriptions written by pill mill doctors. But not all pharmacies were worrying about doctors at pain clinics, many pharmacies were courting the pill mills prescribers.\nA Lake Worth Family Pharmacy\nIn 2009, the small pharmacy off Lucerne Avenue in Lake Worth had a history. It had been in business for 43 years. The owner and head pharmacist had been there for 32. It had shaded parking and a downtown location, a stone’s throw from the City Hall Annex.\nWhen a Masters inspector visited, he was alarmed to find Tru-Valu Drugs bustling with a long line of young, thin, tattooed customers arriving in groups of 10 to pick up pills. There were signs in the pharmacy warning of limits on the number of oxycodone pills handed out. Even Mallinckrodt Pharmaceuticals, an oxycodone manufacturer, was worried about the volume of its pill sales there.\nOf the 300,000 doses of all drugs the small pharmacy dispensed in December 2008, 192,000 were for oxycodone 30 mg, the dosage preferred by traffickers and users alike.\nThe huge oxycodone volume was no accident. The owner and head pharmacist, unidentified in DEA records, told a Masters inspector that the pharmacy “has pushed for this (narcotic) business with many of the area pain doctors.”\nAnd, despite the torrent of oxycodone going out the door, the pharmacy owner expressed frustration that drug distributors were limiting the amount of narcotics they would sell to his now-closed pharmacy.\nOhio to Florida and Back\nPharmacy after pharmacy benefited from the combination of Masters’ Ohio oxycodone business and Florida’s unregulated pill mills.\nIn Englewood, north of Fort Myers, the pharmacy owner filled prescriptions for six pain clinics — including clinics an hour’s drive away. A Masters inspector found cars from Tennessee and Kentucky in the parking lot and young men leaving the pharmacy carrying large trash bags.\nSuperior Pharmacy not only filled oxycodone prescriptions for pain clinics, it shared waiting room space with a pain clinic in a Temple Terrace strip mall outside Tampa. Neither Masters nor Superior had so much as Googled the background of pain clinic doctors writing those prescriptions, the DEA later said.\nHad they done so, the DEA dryly noted, they “would likely have come across a press release” announcing one of the doctors had been arrested and charged with trafficking in prescription drugs.\nHundreds of thousands of oxycodone pills were sent from Ohio distributors to Florida pharmacies. Unknown thousands of pills headed right back up to Ohio.\nWhen Ohio police burst into Christopher Thompson’s home outside Columbus, they found an assault rifle, $80,000 in cash and oxycodone from his Florida deals. A construction worker whose own pill habit started at age 14, Thompson oversaw a ring of 15 Ohio buyers who traveled to Florida to pick up oxycodone to resell in Central Ohio.\nTwo hours to the west in Martin’s Ferry, David L. Kidd orchestrated a ring of buyers traveling to West Palm Beach and Central Florida to pick up oxycodone for resale on the streets of eastern Ohio and West Virginia.\nDoctors and pharmacies from Florida were complicit with Kidd’s ring in fueling Ohio’s opioid epidemic, wrote the U.S. attorney for West Virginia after Kidd’s 2011 arrest: “The steady flow of pain pills into the Ohio Valley from Florida must stop.”\nDriving To Pick Up Death By Rx\nWith more drugs came more deaths, in January 2010, say police, Fort Lauderdale pathologist Dr. Lynn Averill started a seven-month oxycodone shopping spree, buying 437,880 oxycodone pills from drug distributors.\nThe same month, Matthew Koutouzis drove from Toms River, N.J., to see Averill in her Broward County pain clinic. The 26-year-old collected prescriptions for 390 pills and overdosed two days later. Brian Moore traveled 13 hours from his Laurel County, Ky., home to see Averill. He left with prescriptions for 600 pills and also overdosed within 48 hours.\nKenneth Hammond didn’t make it back to his Knoxville, Tenn., home. He had a seizure after picking up prescriptions for 540 pills and died in an Ocala gas station parking lot.\nKeith Konkol didn’t make it back to Tennessee, either. His body was dumped on the side of a remote South Carolina road after he overdosed in the back seat of a car the same day of his clinic visit. He had collected eight prescriptions totaling 720 doses of oxycodone, methadone, Soma and Xanax. Konkol had every reason to believe he would get those prescriptions: In three previous visits to the Plantation clinic, he had picked up prescriptions for 1,890 pills.\nAn estimated 60 percent of her patients were from out of state, a former medical assistant told the DEA. In 2015, Averill pleaded not guilty to eight manslaughter charges. She is awaiting trial in Broward County. Averill was just one doctor at just one clinic. In 2010, the year Averill’s patients overdosed, Florida received applications to open 1,026 more pain clinics.\nAn online message board advising drug users summed it up: “Just go anywhere in South Florida and look for a ‘pain management clinic.’ It shouldn’t be too hard; you can’t swing a dead cat without hitting one.” Complain about anything from a back injury to a hangnail, it advised, “and they’ll set you right up.”\nBy this time, Kentucky had reined in its pill mills. It didn’t matter, Ohio, Delaware, North Carolina, Connecticut acted as well, but other state’s efforts didn’t matter either, Florida continued ignoring the pill mills and rogue doctors feeding the nation’s oxycodone habit, the pills flowed.\n“There were folks down there, where if I had an opportunity to, get my hands around their throat, I would have wrung their neck,” said Huntington Mayor Steve Williams. On Florida’s inaction he stated, “There was total evidence as to what was happening. It lays at the foot, in my opinion, of the public officials there that allowed it to continue on.”\nGovernor Jeb Bush Backed A Solution\nOne of the first dinners Florida Gov. Jeb Bush hosted after moving into the governor’s mansion in 1999 was a small one. Among those sitting at the table with Bush were Lt. Gov. Toni Jennings, state Sen. Locke Burt and James McDonough, who would become the state’s hard-nosed drug czar. There was an urgent topic on the agenda that night: the explosion of prescription painkillers. For the state’s first family, it may have been personal. Bush had talked publicly about one of his children’s struggle with addiction.\nBy the time the meal ended, all had agreed on the need for establishing a prescription drug monitoring program that would collect information and track prescriptions written for controlled substances, such as oxycodone.\nAbsent a prescription drug monitoring database, there was no way to know whether someone was “doctor shopping,” going from doctor to doctor, getting more and more prescriptions to feed their habit.\nAnd there was no way to know whether a doctor was overprescribing, key to pinpointing whether a pill mill was operating, and where. Similar databases had been adopted by more than a dozen states. It was being described as a “silver bullet” to curb overprescribing. Soon enough, $2 million to get the database up and running would be on the table — but it came with a catch.\nFlorida Attorney General Misfires Against Purdue\nIn 2001, OxyContin-maker Purdue Pharma was fending off early criticism of its blockbuster painkiller. At issue was whether Purdue’s aggressive marketing campaign had misled doctors and patients alike. Purdue and three top executives later pleaded guilty to federal charges of illegally marketing the drug. Far from being safe and non-addictive, OxyContin carried the same addiction risk as morphine, and was every bit as potent.\nBut that was six years away. In 2001, towns in Maine reported an alarming uptick in crime tied to OxyContin. The first of several congressional hearings was ramping up. Critics and parents who lost children were piling on. Reporters were starting to write stories.\nIn November, Florida Attorney General Bob Butterworth appeared poised to take on the company. Calling OxyContin street sales “a major threat to public health,” Butterworth told a state Board of Medicine committee that Purdue should consider temporarily taking the drug off the market. It wasn’t only traffickers concerning Butterworth. It was the sales pitch.\nIn late 2001, Butterworth called a young assistant attorney general into his office and gave him a magazine article on OxyContin and an assignment: Look into Purdue marketing. Former Florida Attorney General Bob Butterworth and Palm Beach County State Attorney Dave Aronberg. The young lawyer, now-Palm Beach County State Attorney Dave Aronberg, said he knew nothing about OxyContin. But he didn’t like what he read.\nDuring the yearlong inquiry, 589 Floridians died after taking oxycodone. Nothing criminal was found, Aronberg later said. Instead, Butterworth and Purdue struck a settlement. As part of a $2 million deal, Purdue would pay to establish a prescription monitoring database, the same silver bullet sought by Bush. After Florida’s computerized system was up and running, the same system would be free to any other state. The entire country, not just Florida, would benefit.\nIt could have been a groundbreaking deal. There was one catch. State lawmakers had to vote to create the prescription monitoring program by 2004, or Purdue would keep its money.\nMarco Rubio Kills The Anti-Oxy Rx Bill\nA political gight killed the program. “And there was one person who was responsible,” said former state Sen. Burt, now an Ormond Beach insurance executive. “And it was Marco Rubio.”\nA rising state lawmaker in 2002, now-U.S. Sen. Marco Rubio had the clout to make or break the legislation. He had been one of two state House majority whips and was on the fast track to becoming House speaker.\nRubio didn’t kill the 2002 bill out of opposition to prescription monitoring—it was politics “as usual” yet nobody blamed Rubio for the resulting opioid crisis that seems to have started in his political backyard and flourished beyond belief..\nU.S. Sen. Marco Rubio, R-Fla., was a leader in the Florida House in 2002 when he blocked a vote on prescription monitoring. That year, Rubio favored a bill changing the Miami-Dade County charter, which failed to pass because of a single “no” vote in the Senate. Burt cast the vote.\nAngered by what he saw as Burt’s betrayal, Rubio killed the prescription drug monitoring bill. “When I found out he broke his word, it made the choice easy,” Rubio told The Miami Herald.\nIt’s not certain that the full Legislature would have passed the bill had it made it to a floor vote. Rubio was the first, not the last, in a line of state legislative leaders over years who would refuse to seriously consider the bill. Most cited privacy concerns.\nBut prescription monitoring databases in Florida and other states free to use Florida’s model would have pinpointed rogue doctors, would-be pill mills and doctor-shoppers across the country, just as all three were beginning to converge. In doing so, it could have curbed a national opioid epidemic when it was just an emerging problem, not the monster it would become.\nOnly weeks after the 2002 bill was killed, Bush suppressed a sob as he discussed his daughter’s arrest for forging a prescription. Court-ordered to drug treatment and then briefly to jail, Noelle Bush survived her pill addiction. The 2004 deadline for greenlighting a monitoring system passed. So did Purdue’s million-dollar obligation to pay for it.\nBetween 2002, the year Rubio killed the database that could have identified doctor-shoppers, and late 2011, when the database finally came online, more than 20,800 Floridians died after taking prescription opioids, including OxyContin, annual Florida Medical Examiners’ reports show. “Not getting that bill through the Legislature resulted in Florida becoming the pill mill capital of the United States,” said Burt.\n“There was heartache for thousands of families beyond measure and it didn’t have to happen.”\nFlorida Officials Were Told Of The Oxy Express\nThe East Kentucky hills and valleys of Greenup County suit Keith Cooper, a long-haired undercover cop-turned-sheriff: “It’s a backwater. I tell people all the time I am a hick sheriff from a hick location, and by 2011, the rural county and its sheriff had big city problems.\nGreenup is near the stretch of interstate highways that provided drug traffickers and users with a straight shot to Palm Beach and Broward pill mills. It’s less than an hour’s ride to Huntington Tri-State Airport, where a $27 flight to Fort Lauderdale was a popular draw for dealers hoping to stock up.\nArrests for Florida pills soon eclipsed local arrests for pot.\n“When we locked ’em up, we take all their pill bottles and all their paperwork, and we found maps to the doctors offices and everything,” recalled Cooper.\n“I called the (Florida) medical board and gave them a big list of doctors,” Cooper said. He called the state pharmacy board, too. He got no response.\n“So then I called the Attorney General’s Office and the Governor’s Office. I was calling them all, the whole state. Of course, I was talking to the state police the entire time. “I told them, all of the profits were down there. And all of the pain’s up here.” Nothing happened. Florida’s oxycodone pipeline continued to flow.\nOn the other side of the law in Greenup, Mikey Frazier was banking on it.\nThe Oxy Express\nFrazier was on a scholarship to play baseball at his junior college in Chicago when he suffered a torn rotator cuff. Doctors prescribed Percocet, a pill containing oxycodone, in 2002. When doctors cut him off, he bought it on the street. In 2006, he moved to OxyContin, nearly pure oxycodone. In 2007, he gave his friends money to go to Florida and bring him back pills.\n“My buddy had a minivan and he would actually go down one week and take two to three people with him, and then the following week I’d go,” said Frazier. He still remembers the route: “I’d take 64 East to 77 South to 95 South. And it’s just a straight shot.”\nOthers followed suit. “What got everyone started was because the doctors around here won’t write a strong enough prescription,” he recalled. OxyContin and generic oxycodone still could be had — just not in Kentucky, which had a prescription drug monitoring database.\nIn Florida, “there was none of that … stuff that they check and find out what doctor you’ve been to,” said Frazier.\n“And one person does it, and then they tell a friend, and then they go do it, and that’s how it all really got started here.”\nMEDICAID-MEDICAIRE PAID MILLIONS FOR OXY\nTallahassee wasn’t just ignoring the epidemic, It was financing it.\nBefore her office was raided by law enforcement in December 2001, Asuncion M. Luyao’s patients would wait in a line in the rain to get prescriptions from the Port St. Lucie internist and acupuncturist. She was one of the most prolific prescribers of OxyContin in the state.\nAnd hundreds of thousands of those pills were being paid for by Medicaid, Florida’s taxpayer-financed health program for the state’s poorest and sickest citizens. Between 1999 and 2001, Medicaid shelled out $935,634 for OxyContin prescriptions written by Luyao. That was just OxyContin. Luyao was prescribing an array of addictive drugs. In the 12 months leading up to the clinic raid, Medicaid paid roughly $1 million for 7,000 prescriptions, only about 17 percent of them for OxyContin.\nNor did the raid slow her down. Between the raid and her arrest on trafficking charges four months later, Luyao wrote another 282 OxyContin prescriptions billed to Medicaid. She was not an outlier. In 24 months, taxpayers footed the bill for more than 49 million doses of pills containing oxycodone, even though there were only 1.36 million Medicaid patients. Half were children.\nThe sheer volume of pills might have been a tipoff that the drugs were not all intended for legitimate use. So were arrest reports dating to 2001. One man had used his 7-year-old son’s Medicaid number to doctor-shop for OxyContin. A Miramar pharmacist who billed Medicaid $3.7 million for OxyContin pills was charged with paying Medicaid patients $150 each to use their IDs.\nMedicaid paid for more than $300,000 to fill Dr. James Graves’ OxyContin prescriptions. The Florida Panhandle physician was the first doctor in the nation convicted of killing patients by overprescribing OxyContin.\nAddiction risk for people taking high doses of oxycodone begins climbing after just three days, a recent study concluded. And most people on Florida Medicaid getting oxycodone prescriptions in 2011 were getting much more than a few days worth. They were getting an average of nine months worth of pills, state officials said.\nPill mill doctors prescribed 1 million of those pills:\nDoctors working for the George twins’ trafficking empire prescribed at least 102,081 oxycodone pills billed to Medicaid before the ring collapsed in 2010.\nWorking out of a Delray Beach pain clinic founded by a convicted drug smuggler, Zvi Harry Perper, son of the Broward County medical examiner, was arrested on trafficking charges, but not before he wrote prescriptions to Medicaid patients for 115,977 doses of oxycodone in 90 days.\nIn Lake Worth, Cesar Deleon was arrestedas part of a DEA pill mill sweep and charged with 55 counts of illegally distributing drugs. Deleon wrote orders for 20,302 oxycodone pills for Medicaid patients.\nMiami internist Dr. Selwyn Carrington authorized 32,411 doses of oxycodone for Medicaid patients in just two years. He was busted for signing his name to hundreds of prescriptions.\nFurther, Florida wasn’t in any hurry to stop doctors linked to pill mills.\nCarrington was arrested for overprescribing in March 2011. The state’s emergency order to suspend his license was signed months after he had pleaded guilty in 2012.\nPerper was busted at a Delray Beach pill mill operated by a former felon in 2011. The state did not act against his license until 2014.\nJoseph M. Hernandez was writing prescriptions from his car, a veritable pill mill on wheels, when he was busted in February 2010 on one count of trafficking in oxycodone.\n.Florida’s Department of Health didn’t file paperwork to restrict his license for almost 18 months.\nDuring that time, Hernandez wrote oxycodone prescriptions for Medicaid patients totaling 258,940 doses representing a taxpayer-footed bill of $130,165.\nPurdue Pharma’s Profits Before Patients Creed\nKelly Skidmore is exactly the type of person Purdue Pharma’s OxyContin marketing was intended to reach: Diagnosed with juvenile arthritis, the former state legislator’s struggle with chronic pain began at age 4.\nSkidmore was wary of opioid painkillers, though, one reason her willingness in 2009 to work with Purdue was surprising. But she did it to get Florida’s dormant drug monitoring database up and running.\nThen a state representative in a district straddling Palm Beach and Broward counties, Skidmore recalled that, “They came to me and said, ‘Could you help get it across the finish line?’ ”\nOxyContin and prescription opioids, a serious problem in 2002, had evolved into a full-blown crisis in the ensuing seven years. Broward alone had more pain clinics than it had McDonald’s. Deaths tied to oxycodone had exploded, up by 263 percent since the prescription monitoring database had first been proposed and killed. Overdoses from prescription opioids were claiming more than seven lives a day.\n“By God, if we had had seven dolphins a day dying and washing up on Florida beaches, we would have been appropriating money and solving it,” Skidmore said.\nSkidmore believed a database wasn’t going to resolve the underlying addiction crisis. Still, it was a start. Not a silver bullet, but “maybe silver buckshot,” she said. The database law passed with gaping loopholes. No health care professional would have to report opioid prescriptions or check the database before prescribing more, and the state refused to pay for it.\n“Just to get that one little piece … took nine years of filing bills and then it had no teeth,” Skidmore said. “And it should have been the easiest piece.”\nWhere Was The DEA and Everyone Else?\nThe DEA all but wrung its hands over Florida’s lethal inaction. The agency ticked off a devil’s brew of regulatory loopholes: Florida’s Health Department regulated health care professionals but not pain clinics. The state’s Agency for Health Care Administration regulated pain clinics that accepted insurance, but pill mills were most often on a cash-only basis. And the prescription monitoring database, mired in a vendor dispute, remained stalled.\nIn early 2011, when Gov. Rick Scott took office, just one drug — oxycodone — was tied to six fatal overdoses a day. Deaths tied to all drugs claimed 25 a day. In the handful of Appalachian states where traffickers were bringing back South Florida pills, it was worse.\nOhio’s death rate for oxycodone and similar opioids had doubled in 24 months, federal records show. Kentucky’s was up by more than 50 percent. And in West Virginia, home to hard-hit Huntington, death rates tied to pill mill drugs such as oxycodone and Opana had climbed by 341 percent.\nThe DEA formally pinpointed Palm Beach, Broward and Miami-Dade counties as the nation’s single biggest hub for trafficking pills across state lines. Within weeks of being sworn in, Scott abolished Florida’s Office of Drug Control, eliminating the state drug czar position, announced plans to drive a final stake in the heart of the database and rebuffed Purdue Pharma’s renewed offer to help pay for it.\nScott, a tea party conservative, cited privacy concerns, expressed skepticism the monitoring program would work and raised the possibility taxpayers would be left with a $500,000-a-year bill to operate it.\nAttorney General Pam Bondi had also ridden the tea party wave to her position. She shared many of Scott’s conservative convictions. Unlike Scott, the former prosecutor relentlessly lobbied to keep the database alive. Florida’s failure to adopt the drug monitoring database was so out of step with the rest of the country that it began spawning conspiracy theories on both sides of the law.\nEveryone knew prescription monitoring was going to kill the pill smuggling business, said a corrupt Florida Highway Patrol trooper as he drove a load of pills out of Florida, according to a federal lawsuit. Talking to the confidential informant in the seat next to him, the trooper speculated someone in Tallahassee must have a piece of the action, “because (Scott) was so adamant about not putting that system in place. Right?”\nIn Greenup, an infuriated Cooper told a reporter, “In my opinion, (Scott’s) getting money from somewhere. He has to be.” A few days later, recalled Cooper, “A lieutenant with the state police I’d been talking to down there called me, said, ‘Man, just a head’s up: I wouldn’t come to Florida.’” In states on the receiving end of the Florida pill pipeline and among federal officials, Scott’s resistance triggered outrage.\nIn Kentucky, where as much as 60 percent of the illicit oxycodone in that state flowed from Florida, Lt. Gov. Daniel Mongiardo proposed erecting billboards at the Florida line: “Welcome to the Oxy Tourism Capital of the World.”\nU.S. House Appropriations Chairman Hal Rogers, also from Kentucky, twice wrote Scott. “Canceling Florida’s prescription drug monitoring program is equal to firing firefighters while your house is ablaze,” he wrote.\nGil Kerlikowske, director of the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy, asked to meet with Scott. So did DEA Administrator Michele Leonhart.\nThree U.S. senators — New York’s Chuck Schumer, West Virginia’s Joe Manchin and Rhode Island’s Sheldon Whitehouse — joined Florida’s Bill Nelson in pointing out that the pills weren’t just a Florida problem: There were “serious ramifications for the rest of the country,” wrote Nelson of Scott’s reluctance to crack down. This is a perfect example of how political rhetoric, in-fighting and contrived agendas prevented an early stop to the emerging opioid crisis many years ago.\nWHY DIDN’T THE DEA, DRUG DISTRIBUTORS AND PHARMACIES TAKE NOTICE BEFORE THE OPIOID CRISIS SPREAD ACROSS THE COUNTRY LIKE WILDFIRE? WAS IT BECAUSE OF THE BILLIONS IN PROFITS, QUARTERLY BONUSES AND DIVIDENDS? STOCK OPTIONS CASHED IN BY BOARDROOMS AT EVERY OPIOID BIG PHARMA COMPANY? STAY TUNED FOR HOW “PROFITS BEFORE PATIENTS” BECAME THE NORM\n(article excerpts and quotes have been taken from publicly available media sources and court records)", "answers": ["Privacy concerns and skepticism about its effectiveness."], "length": 6048, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "e84f6371f23c95f766248ac4e52b781f325f52f09c6eb9ae"}
{"input": "How many experiments were demonstrated to test the capabilities of the controller?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Force Feedback Control For Dexterous Robotic Hands Using Conditional Postural Synergies\nPublish Date: Unkown\nAuthor List: Dimitrios Dimou, José Santos-Victor, Plinio Moreno\n\nFigure\n\nFig. 1.Example of modeling the contacts and friction during manipulation.\nFig. 2. Schematic representation of the proposed force controller.The input is the state (GRASP or RELEASE) and the force readings.Based on that the grasp size is adjusted by a value C and is given to the posture mapping function along with the desired grasp type.A finger configuration is then generated and commanded to the robot.\nFig. 3. Our control algorithm in Python-like pseudocode.\nFig. 4. Our first experiment.The robot picks up a bottle, transports it, and places down on the desk.In the bottom part of the figure, you can see the control signals during this task.\nFig. 5.The household objects used in our experiments.\nUnder the pictures of the execution you can see the signals recorded by the controller: the average normal force applied by all fingers (blue line), the thresholds f threshold high n .(purple dashed line) and f threshold low n.(yellow dashed line), the average tangential force (green), and the grasp size used in each time-step (red).The task is divided four stages: 1) (red part) the initial grasp of the object, in this stage the force controller closes the grasp until the applied normal\nFig.6.In the upper row of images, you can see our second experiment.The robot picks up the chips can, rotates it 90 degrees, and places back down.In the middle row, for our third experiment, the robot picks up the chips can, rotates it 90 degrees, and hands it over to a person.In the bottom row, for our forth experiment, the robot picks up a foam brick, rotates it 180 degrees, and hands it over to a person, using a pinch grasp.\n\nabstract\n\nWe present a force feedback controller for a dexterous robotic hand equipped with force sensors on its fingertips. Our controller uses the conditional postural synergies framework to generate the grasp postures, i.e. the finger configuration of the robot, at each time step based on forces measured on the robot's fingertips.\nUsing this framework we are able to control the hand during different grasp types using only one variable, the grasp size, which we define as the distance between the tip of the thumb and the index finger. Instead of controlling the finger limbs independently, our controller generates control signals for all the hand joints in a (lowdimensional) shared space (i.e.\nsynergy space). In addition, our approach is modular, which allows to execute various types of precision grips, by changing the synergy space according to the type of grasp. We show that our controller is able to lift objects of various weights and materials, adjust the grasp configuration during changes in the object's weight, and perform object placements and object handovers.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nTo perform complex manipulation tasks in unstructured environments, humans use tactile feedback from their fingers. This feedback is provided by tactile afferents located in the skin of the hand. Particularly, for handling small objects with precise movements, the afferents located in the fingertips are used, which have high density and adapt fast to pressure changes .\nThese afferents provide information about the characteristics of the exerted contact forces, such as the magnitude and the direction. For anthropomorphic robots to be able to perform dexterous tasks similar force feedback signals must be used to alleviate problems arising from uncertainty in measurements, and handle external perturbations.\nFor example, using open-loop position control to lift a heavy object may fail due to slip without any feedback mechanism to provide tactile information. Previous works have used tactile sensors to design force controllers that use slip prediction to update the desired normal forces applied by the fingertips.\nThe slip predictors are based on machine learning models such as neural networks and random forests to classify multi-modal signals from a tactile sensor. In all previous works, each finger was separately controlled by an independent force controller. In addition, they required labeled data to train the slip predictors and because each finger is controlled independently is not obvious how to implement different anthropomorphic grasp types.\nIn this work we develop a force controller that takes as input the force readings of the fingertips and computes the grasp size which is then used along with a grasp type label to generate a grasp posture with the desired characteristics. To avoid slippage the desired normal contact force is calculated to be proportional to the tangential contact forces.\nThe applied normal force is then controlled using the size of the grasp as a control variable. Larger grasp sizes mean less force is applied to the object. So the grasp size is calculated from the error between the desired normal force and the actual measured normal force. The grasp size is then given to the posture sampler that generates a grasp posture, i.e. the finger joint angles.\nThe posture sampler is modeled with a conditional Variational Auto-Encoder (cVAE) based on the framework proposed in . With this framework we abstract away the low-level control of the fingers and generate hand postures based on high-level properties such as the type and the size of the grasp. So it works as a mapping function that takes as input a low-dimensional vector and the grasp type and size as conditional variables and maps them to a set of joint angles.\nWe show that with our controller we can control a dexterous robotic hand to lift objects of different weights using three precision grasps. Our controller is also able to compensate and retain a stable grasp during changes in the objects' weight, for example when filling up a cup or emptying it. In addition we show how with the addition of the hand pose information we can use the controller to calculate if the tangential force is due to gravity or due to a support surface and use this information to perform handovers and place down objects on surfaces.\nWe perform several real-world experiments with a dexterous robotic hand to showcase the capabilities of our controller and support our design choices. To sum up our main contributions are • We develop a controller for a dexterous robotic hand that uses force feedback and the conditional synergies framework to perform dexterous manipulation tasks.\n• We show that with our controller we can easily use different precision grasp types, by changing only the grasp type variable which is given to the grasp posture mapping function. • We demonstrate by incorporating information about the world pose of the hand we can use our controller to perform additional tasks such as placing down and handing over objects.\nRoboticists have looked for inspiration in humans for developing methods for complex object manipulation . Neuroscientists have studied for a long time the processes that allow humans to use tactile feedback to perform complex manipulation tasks. Humans tend to adjust the grip force according to the object's weight, its friction and they use a safety margin to account for uncertainties .\nTo gather information about the tactile states they use multiple afferents that are located in the skin of the fingers . There are different afferents in different parts of the hand depending on their usage, e.g. fast adapting afferents in the fingertips for precise manipulation. Based on signals from these afferents, humans encode simple contact events into action phases, such as grasping, lifting or releasing, which they combine in order to perform more complex and long-horizon manipulation tasks .\nIn robotics tactile sensors have been used for object stabilization and slip prediction in a variety of settings. For example, in , a compliant anthropomorphic prosthetic hand was controlled using force sensing to maintain object stability and avoid slip. In , they develop a control approach that uses integrated force and spatial tactile signals to avoid slip with unknown objects in real world settings.\nIn , , grasp quality metrics are computed based on the tactile feedback from the robots fingertips. In these works, simple two or three fingered grippers were considered for simple grasping tasks. Force control with anthropomorphic robotic hands has also been explored in more recent works. In , they employ three slip prediction methods to estimate when slip starts and based on the force signals at that moment they calculate the friction coefficient value.\nBased on the calculated friction coefficient, they design a force controller that independently controls each finger to achieve a desired normal force. The desired normal contact force is set to be proportional to the tangential contact force and a safety margin based on the evidence found in . In , they train a random forest to classify the contact states into the classes: no contact, contact, slip.\nBased on this classification signal, when slip is detected they increase the desired normal contact force to avoid it. In they train a recurrent neural network to estimate slip and the object material from the readings of a Biotac sensor. The force controller is increasing the desired normal contact force when slip is detected.\nAll these works , , use tactile feedback sensors to predict slip. They collect labeled data, on which they train their models. This approach is based on complex and expensive tactile sensors, and the process of collecting data is cumbersome. In addition, the data do not cover all possible hand poses, which would be impractical.\nIn contrast, in our work we do not rely on slip prediction, we avoid slip by defining a tangential force gain and a safety margin that work for a large number of objects. Furthermore, instead of independently controlling each finger we use a synergistic framework to generate grasp postures, that is conditioned on two variables: the grasp type and the grasp size.\nThis way, instead of controlling the values of each joint of each finger, we control only the two conditional variables greatly simplifying the control pipeline. This also, gives us the ability to use different grasp types in our manipulation tasks by changing only the grasp type variable. In also a synergistic framework was used to prevent an object from slipping from a humanoid hand, but they modeled only one synergy for a tripod grasp and they used the forces on the robotic arm as feedback, while we use force feedback from the fingertips.\nOur control algorithm could also be applied to different hands as it does not depend on the hands configuration. Finally, in previous approaches only lifting tasks had been considered. In our work we demonstrate that our approach can be used to perform more complex tasks, such as placing objects on surfaces and performing handovers, which was not done in previous works.\nOur goal in this work is to design a control algorithm for an anthropomorphic robotic hand to perform dexterous manipulation skills such as lifting and placing down objects. Our control algorithm will use tactile feedback from the force sensors on the fingertips of the hand to decide the forces that need to be applied to the object in each step of the task.\nGiven the desired forces to be applied, the size of the grasp will be computed. Given the grasp size and a desired grasp type, the posture generator will generate a grasp posture, i.e. the hand configuration, such that the force constraints are satisfied. To model the contacts and friction we use Coulombs' law, which states that in order to avoid slip, the normal contact force f n to the contact surface of an object, times the fiction coefficient µ, has to be larger than the tangential force f t :\nµf n ≥ f t You can see an example in Figure , where an object is pressed against a wall by an applied normal force f n , and we have the tangential force f t = mg due to gravity. In order for the object to remain stable we need to apply a normal force: where µ is the friction coefficient between the object and the wall.\nIn the case of a dexterous hand manipulating an object, we want the normal forces applied by all fingers to be greater than the tangential force divided by the friction coefficient of the materials of the object and the fingertip. Since it is hard to accurately compute the friction coefficient between all possible object materials previous works have used multi-modal tactile sensors like the BioTac sensor, which provides information about the pressure, skin deformation, and temperature, to predict slip and based on that signal to increase the applied normal force.\nIn our work we use the FTS3 sensors which is a low-cost sensor that measures the 3D force applied in each fingertip. In addition, previous works gathered labeled datasets in order to train their slip prediction models which is time-consuming and limits the possible orientations of the hand, because gathering labeled data for all possible orientations is impractical.\nTo overcome this we experimentally selected the parameters that determine the value of the applied normal force such that we avoid slip for all objects in our dataset, from the lightest to the heaviest. In order to guarantee contact between the fingertip and the object, in the beginning of the grasping phase, we use an offset f of f set n as the minimum normal force applied by each finger.\nIn they also suggest that humans use an additional safety margin which is proportional to the tangential force, f margin n ∝ f t . So the final desired normal contact force becomes: where G is the gain that includes the friction coefficient and the additional safety margin. To alleviate the effects of noise in the sensors, the running average of the measured normal force f n and tangential force f t is used, as a low pass filter.\nSo for each force measurement we have the following relation: where α ∈ (0, 1) is a parameter that determines how much new measurements affect the value, and is experimentally selected. Given the measured normal force f n from the fingertip sensors we can compute the error f err n = f des n − f n . We use this error signal to control the grasp size variable g size , that we use as a conditional variable in our posture mapping function.\nThe grasp size represents the distance between the thumb and the index finger in a grasp posture. So a smaller grasp size will result in a tighter grasp and greater normal force applied to the surface of the object. We use a linear controller for the grasp size variable that is implemented as follows: where K is a parameter that controls the rate of decrease of the grasp size, and is experimentally selected.\nSo when the error between the desired normal force and the actual normal force is large the grasp size decreases so tighter grasp postures are generated in order to apply more normal force. In practice, in order to avoid oscillations in the grasp size we use the desired normal force as a high threshold that we want the measured normal force to be below:\nIf the normal force is below that threshold the grasp size does not change even if there are small oscillations in the measured tangential and normal forces. Also, in order to avoid the hand applying too much force that damages the hardware or the object we use a low threshold, that is: where w threshold is the width of the threshold in mN .\nIf the measured normal force is below the grasp size increases in order to apply less force. So the final grasp size variable for grasping is calculated as follows: where This is similar to the deadband control method , where instead of having a fixed reference point, an operating range is set. If the response is in this range, the controller does not exert any correction.\nIn our case, the operating range changes according to the force signals from the robot's fingertips. The grasp posture mapping function is based on the conditional postural synergies model presented in . It uses a conditional Variational Auto-Encoder model to generate grasps postures conditioned on additional variables such as the grasp size.\nIn this work we augment this model to also generate grasp postures conditioned on the grasp type. The model is trained on a set of labeled grasp samples acquired by teleoperating a robotic hand using a data-glove. Using this model we are able to abstract away the low-level control of each joint of each finger and generate grasps based on more general characteristics such as the type and the size of the grasp.\nIn this way we can control all the fingers jointly by a single value, the grasp size, thus greatly reducing the control parameters. In addition we are able to use the same control algorithm for different precision grasp types, by changing the grasp type conditional variable. Finally, we can modify our controller to release objects instead of grasping them.\nGiven the pose of the hand in the world coordinate frame, which we can acquire from the robotic arm that is attached to, we can use the forward kinematics of the hand to compute the poses of each fingertip. Then using the force readings of each fingertip we can calculate the global direction of the net tangential force.\nIf the angle between the direction of the net tangential force and the direction of gravity is less than 90 degrees, i.e. the net tangential force's direction is towards the ground, we assume that the tangential force is due to gravity pulling the object, so the force controller tries to grasp it. If the angle is more than 90 degrees, i.e. the net tangential force's direction is upward, it means that something is pushing (or pulling) the object upward, in which case we assume that the object is touching on a support surface or someone is pulling the object so the controller increases the grasp size given to the posture mapping function proportionally to the normal force measured thus slowly releasing the object.\nOpening the grasp is done by controlling the grasp size variable as follows: That way we can place objects on surfaces but also perform robot to human handovers, where the robot holds the object and the human grasps the object and slightly pushes or pulls it up, signaling to the robot that there is a support surface.\nThe robot then slowly releases the object by opening its grasp. We showcase these scenarios in the experiments' section. Based on these observations, we present our force controller in Figure . The hand starts in an open pre-grasp position, a latent point is sampled from the prior distribution of the posture mapping function, and given the desired grasp type and the grasp size a grasp posture, i.e. the joint angles of the fingers, is sampled.\nThe initial grasp size is set to the maximum value, and when the force controller comes into effect and depending on the state of the system and the forces on the fingertips grasp size changes by some value C, according to equations 1,2, until the desired normal force is achieved. To choose between grasping or releasing an object we use a finite state machine formulation.\nWhen the hand reaches the desired grasp pose, which we assume is provided, the GRASP state is activated, in which the controller tries to grasp the object. When the controller detects that the tangential force applied to the object is coming from a support surface the state changes to the RELEASE state, in which the controller releases the object by opening the grasp.\nYou can see the full algorithm in Python-like pseudocode in Figure . To summarize, the advantages of our controller compared with previous approaches are threefold: 1) instead of controlling each joint of each finger of the hand we use only two variables, the grasp size and the grasp type, which allows us to perform multiple grasp types by changing only one variable while the grasp size variable is common among all grasp types, that greatly reduces the complexity of the control process compared to independently controlling a 21 DoF hand to perform different grasp types, 2) we do not rely on slip prediction for controlling the desired normal force, which involves gathering labeled data and works only for the hand poses in the training dataset, and 3) we can use our controller to also release objects instead of only grasping them.\n\nExperimental Set-up.\n\nFor our experiments we used the Seed Robotics RH8D Hand , which is a robotic hand with 7 DoFs. The hand is equipped with the FTS-3 force sensors in each fingertip, which are high resolution tactile sensors that provide the 3D force applied in each fingertip. The sensor provides data at a rate of 50Hz. For the experiments the hand was mounted on a Kinova Gen3 7DoF robot.\nTo train the posture mapping function we used the CyberGlove to teleoperate the hand and collect 468 grasps belonging to three precision grasp  types: tripod, pinch, lateral tripod. The architecture of the cVAE model was the same as in , with the addition of the grasp type as a conditional variable, which was one-hot encoded.\nWe used 10 household objects shown in Figure . With the heaviest object weighing 380g and the lightest 1g. During the experiments the trajectories of the arm were prerecorded, while the hand was controlled online by our control algorithm.\n\nParameter tuning.\n\nTo select the values of the parameters in our controllers we conducted preliminary experiments where we tested lifting and releasing several objects, with different physical properties. To select the value of the normal offset force f of f set n , we used an empty plastic cup as our test object, and we choose a value such that the fingers do not deform the cup.\nThe final value of the parameter was set to -50 mN. To select the values of the gain G and the rate of decrease K, of the grasp size, we experimented with the heaviest object in our dataset, which is the mustard bottle and weighs 380g. The gain G was set to 2.0 such that the desired normal force would be enough to hold the object.\nThe rate of change of the grasp size was set to 100.0, based on the operating frequency of the force sensor and the range of values of the tangential force. For the tangential force averaging process we used a parameter value of α t = 0.7, because we want the controller to be sensitive to fast changes in its value, that can arise for example during lifting an object.\nFor the normal force averaging process we used a parameter value of α n = 0.5, as we do not want it to be affected by noise that could make the controller overconfident.\n\nExperiments.\n\nTo explore the capabilities of our controller, we demonstrate five experiments of increasing complexity: 1) we picked and placed a bottle using a tripod grasp, 2) we picked, rotated and placed a chips can on a box using a tripod grasp, 3) we picked, rotated and handed over the chips can to a person using a tripod grasp, 4) we picked, rotated and handed over a brown foam brick to a person using a pinch grasp, 5) a person handed over a plastic cup to the robot, filled it with coins to increase its weight, and the robot then handed it back to the person using a tripod grasp.\nYou can see the execution of the first experiment in  In the middle row, for our third experiment, the robot picks up the chips can, rotates it 90 degrees, and hands it over to a person. In the bottom row, for our forth experiment, the robot picks up a foam brick, rotates it 180 degrees, and hands it over to a person, using a pinch grasp.\nFig. . In our fifth experiment, a person hands over an empty plastic cup to the robot, throws coins in it to increase its weight while the robot adjusts its grip to stabilize the object, and then hand overs the cup back to the person. force is below the offset f of f set n , 2) (green part) the robot lifts the object, as it tries to lift the tangential force increases, increasing the threshold, so the grasp size decreases to apply more normal force, 3) (orange part) the robot transports the object, you can see, in point A in the Figure, a perturbation in the tangential force when the robot begins to move, the controller responds by decreasing the grasp thus stabilizing the object, and 4) (blue part) the robot enters the releasing phase, where it lowers the arm until it detects that the tangential force is due to a support surface, then it stops lowering the arm and increases the grasp size slowly releasing the object.\nIn point B in the Figure, you can see that there is noise in the tangential force, due to the arm moving to place the object on the table, that is also reflected in the desired normal force. Because we use the desired normal force as a threshold and not as a reference signal this noise is not manifested in the control of the grasp size.\nYou can see the execution of the second experiment in the upper part of Figure . This experiment demonstrates the ability of the controller to handle arbitrary hand poses. The experiment is divided in four parts: 1) the robot enters the GRASP phase and the force controller generates grasps to achieve a normal contact force below the f of f set n threshold, 2) the robot lifts the object and adjusts the grasp size to avoid the object falling, 3) the hand rotates to place the chips can on the horizontal position, and 4) the robot enters the RELEASE phase, and the arm lowers until the object touches the box, when the hand detects the supporting surface, it starts to slowly release the object.\nYou can see the execution of the third experiment in the middle part of Figure . This experiment demonstrates the ability of the controller to perform robot to human handovers. The experiment is divided in four parts: 1) the robot enters the GRASP phase and the force controller generates grasps to achieve a normal contact force below the f of f set n threshold, 2) the robot lifts the object and adjusts the grasp size to avoid the object falling, 3) the hand rotates to place the chips can on the vertical position, and 4) the robot enters the RELEASE phase, the arm stays still, the human grasps the object from the bottom and slightly pushes it up, the hand then detects that there is a supporting surface and starts to slowly release the object.\nYou can see the execution of the fourth experiment in the bottom part of Figure . This experiment is similar to previous one, but the grasp type that the robot uses is a pinch grasp, that involves only the thumb and the index finger. To perform this we only had to alter the grasp type conditional variable that was given to the posture mapping function.\nYou can see the execution of the fifth experiment in the bottom part of Figure . In the first part (blue) of the experiment the robot closes its grasp, by reducing the grasp size, until the normal force is below the force offset. In the next three parts (pink, green, red) the person throws coins in the cup to increase its weight.\nYou can see in the signal plots that each time coins are added the tangential force decreases so the normal force threshold decreases too. The grasp sizes then decreases as well in order to apply more normal force. This experiment demonstrates the ability of the controller to handle perturbations in the weight of the object during grasping.\n\nCONCLUSION\n\nIn summary, we presented a controller that uses force feedback integrated with conditional synergies to control a dexterous robotic hand to grasp and release objects. We demonstrated that our controller can lift objects of different weights and materials while avoiding slip, react online when the weight of the object changes, place them down on surfaces, and hand them over to humans.\nIn addition, the control architecture is modular, so the synergy grasp mapping component can be easily changed in order to control several precision grasp types. However, our experiments also revealed various limitations of our controller. For example our method fails to stabilize the object when rotational slip occurs.\nIn addition hardware limitations such as, slow update rates and noise in the force measurements can create problems that result in the object falling. In future work we plan to incorporate additional sensing modalities, such as vision to alleviate some of these issues.", "answers": ["5."], "length": 4837, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "daa4eb9d8b28a987b1c2c049200634cdc510636b19a64ccd"}
{"input": "What size chains were used in the benchmarking?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Compressed quantum error mitigation\nPublish Date: 10 May 2023\nAuthor List: Maurits Tepaske (from Physikalisches Institut, Universität Bonn), David Luitz (from Physikalisches Institut, Universität Bonn)\n\nFigure\n\nFIG.3.The out-of-time-ordered correlator C otoc i=L/2,j (t) as a function of the operator position j and time t, for the infinite temperature initial state, for a denoised second-order Trotter supercircuit with Trotter depth Mtrot = 32 and denoiser depth M = 2.We consider evolution times t = 0.5, 1, ..., 5, for the periodic L = 14 Heisenberg chain that is affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise with p = 0.01.\nFIG. 4. The complex eigenvalues λ of the noisy second-order Trotter supercircuit with Mtrot = 16 at time t = 1 (left), the corresponding optimized denoiser with M = 4 (center), and the denoised Trotter supercircuit (right).The Trotter circuit is for a L = 6 Heisenberg model with PBC, and all twoqubit channels are affected by depolarizing noise with p = 0.0046.The unit circle, on which unitary eigenvalues must lie, is shown in black, and the noiseless eigenvalues are shown as blue bars.It is evident that the denoiser recovers all the noiseless eigenvalues from the noisy circuit.\nFIG. 2. The complex eigenvalues λ of the noisy second-order Trotter supercircuit with Mtrot = 16 at time t = 1 (left), the corresponding optimized denoiser with M = 4 (center), and the denoised Trotter supercircuit (right).The Trotter circuit is for a L = 6 Heisenberg model with PBC, and all twoqubit channels are affected by depolarizing noise with p = 0.036.The unit circle, on which unitary eigenvalues must lie, is shown in black, and the noiseless eigenvalues are shown as blue bars.It is clear that the denoiser recovers with high accuracy the noiseless eigenvalues from the noisy circuit.\nFIG. 3. The half-chain channel entanglement entropy S at different two-qubit depolarizing noise strengths p, for a secondorder Trotter supercircuit with Mtrot = 16 and t = 2, for a M = 4 denoiser.The Trotter circuit is for a Heisenberg model with PBC of size L = 6.The different curves correspond to the different supercircuits, i.e. the noisy supercircuit, the denoiser, the corresponding denoised supercircuit, and the noiseless variant.\nFIG. 4. The out-of-time-ordered correlator C otoc i=L/2,j (t) as a function of the operator position j and stacked time t, for the infinite temperature initial state, for a denoised secondorder Trotter supercircuit with Trotter depth Mtrot = 32 and denoiser depth M = 2.It is optimized at t = 2 and stacked up to ten times.The calculations are for the periodic L = 14 Heisenberg chain that is affected by two-qubit depolarization with p = 0.01.The denoiser is affected by the same noise.\nFIG.6.The distribution of the ZZ angle α of M = 2 denoisers (top panels) and M = 8 denoisers (bottom panels), with the lightest color corresponding to the denoiser for the Trotter supercircuit with t = 0.5, and the darkest color with t = 5.As usual, we consider the Heisenberg model on a periodic chain, and second-order Trotter supercircuits with depths Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64, which together with the denoiser is affected by a two-qubit depolarizing noise with p = 0.01.The panels are arranged as Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 for top left, top right, bottom left, bottom right, respectively.\nFIG. 7. The sampling overhead γ of the optimized denoisers from Fig. 2 of the main text, with denoiser depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and Trotter depths Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 at times t = 0.5, 1, ..., 5, for the Heisenberg model on a chain with PBC affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise with p = 0.01.The panels are arranged as Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 for top left, top right, bottom left, bottom right, respectively.\nFIG.8.The domain wall magnetization Z dw after evolving a periodic density wall |dw |dw * with the denoised second-order Trotter supercircuits D C from Fig.2of the main text.These supercircuits have various Trotter depths Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64, denoiser depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and evolution times t = 0.5, 1, ..., 5, for the periodic L = 14 Heisenberg chain that is affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise of strength p = 0.01.The denoiser is affected by the same noise.The non-denoised results are labelled with M = 0 and the noiseless results with p = 0.The panels are arranged as Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 for top left, top right, bottom left, bottom right, respectively.We see that the denoiser allows us to recover the noiseless behavior.\n\nabstract\n\nWe introduce a quantum error mitigation technique based on probabilistic error cancellation to eliminate errors which have accumulated during the application of a quantum circuit. Our approach is based on applying an optimal \"denoiser\" after the action of a noisy circuit and can be performed with an arbitrary number of extra gates.\nThe denoiser is given by an ensemble of circuits distributed with a quasiprobability distribution. For a simple noise model, we show that efficient, local denoisers can be found, and we demonstrate their effectiveness for the digital quantum simulation of the time evolution of simple spin chains. Introduction.\n-Quantum information processing has been theoretically shown to hold great promises, and quantum algorithms were developed which can in principle achieve an exponential speed-up over their classical counterparts, both for general purpose computing and quantum simulation . However, present day quantum computing prototypes still suffer from significant noise processes which hinder the execution of many potentially groundbreaking quantum algorithms .\nNontrivial quantum algorithms typically require large sequences of quantum gates, each of which introduces dissipation and hence an overall loss of coherence, eventually rendering the results useless. Until quantum error correction becomes practical, quantum error mitigation seems to be more feasible to increase the accuracy of expectation values.\nHere the goal is to induce the (partial) cancellation of errors that stem from noisy quantum gates by extending the circuit corresponding to the desired algorithm with an ensemble of gates , sampled from a quasiprobability distribution. The traditional way to accomplish this is with the gatewise method from , where noise is mitigated by inverting the noise channel of each gate separately, i.e. the cancellation of errors is performed for each gate on its own.\nHere the local noise channel is approximated in a way such that it can be easily inverted analytically, e.g. using Pauli twirling . Gates are then sampled from the inverted noise channel by interpreting it as a quasiprobability distribution. Because in this gate-wise approach every noisy gate has to be modified separately, the sign problem is exponentially large in the number of gates, limiting the practicality of the mitigation.\nThe success of the gate-wise approach resulted in a large body of work concerning these methods , including extensions for simultaneous mitigation of multiple gates by Pauli-twirling entire layers or variationally constructing a mitigating matrix product operator . In principle, errors during the execution of a circuit can propagate and accumulate.\nThese propagated errors * david.luitz@uni-bonn.de ≈ C\n\nC\n\nFIG. 1. An example of the quantum error mitigation procedure used in this work for the time evolution of the wave function of a spin chain. The ideal second-order Trotter supercircuit C of depth Mtrot = 1 (light blue) is approximated by applying a denoiser D of depth M = 1 (red) to the noisy Trotter supercircuit C (dark blue).\nBecause the denoiser is applied after fully executing the noisy Trotter supercircuit, it represents an approximate inverse of the global noise channel with a precision tunable by the depth of the denoiser. can potentially blow up and lead to large errors for the circuit as a whole . Here we introduce a mitigation technique that takes into account the propagation of errors, can be performed with a tunable number of extra gates, and works for non-Clifford local noise channels since the inversion of the accumulated global noise channel is implicit.\nWe first execute the targeted noisy circuit completely, letting the noise propagate and accumulate, and only afterwards we apply an extra random circuit sampled from a quasiprobability distribution. We call the corresponding ensemble of random circuits a denoiser, and we construct it such that upon averaging the accumulated errors cancel.\nEssentially, the denoiser inverts a global noise channel. Since we will construct it as a local brickwall circuit, following the classical preprocessing approach from , we call this compressed quantum error mitigation. Method. -Due to the inevitable coupling of a quantum processor to its environment, every qubit operation is affected by noise.\nTherefore, the simplest technique to minimize the impact of the resulting noise is to minimize the number of operations when performing a quantum algorithm. In we showed that many-body time evolution operators can be efficiently compressed into brick-wall circuits with high fidelity per gate. In this Letter, we consider the noise explicitly by treating quantum operations as (generally non-unitary) quantum channels, corresponding to completely positive and trace preserving (CPTP) maps .\nFor example, instead of a noiseless two-qubit gate G, which acts on a quantum state |ρ in superoperator form as G|ρ = G⊗G * |ρ , we get the noisy channel G = N G, where the noise channel N implements the two-qubit noise . These channels are used to construct a \"supercircuit\" C = N G i=1 Gi , consisting of N G channels, which is affected by multi-qubit accumulated noise.\nThis supercircuit encodes an ensemble of circuits . For simplicity, we assume that the noisy channels Gi in each half brickwall layer are lattice inversion and translation invariant, such that we can construct a denoiser with these properties, limiting the number of variational parameters. The purpose of quantum error mitigation is to modify the ensemble of circuits described by C in a way that we can use it to obtain the noiseless expectation values.\nIn superoperator language, we do this by following the supercircuit C with a denoiser supercircuit D, such that D C is as close to the noiseless supercircuit C = C ⊗ C * as possible. Here C is the target unitary circuit. Because the noise channel N is non-unitary, hence making the supercircuit C non-unitary, we need to use a non-unitary denoiser to retrieve the unitary C.\nWe illustrate the mitigation procedure in Fig. , where a denoiser with one layer is used to mitigate errors for a second-order Trotter supercircuit with one layer. This circuit architecture is commonly used to simulate the time evolution of a quantum many-body system, until some time t, with controllable precision , and we will use it to benchmark the denoiser.\nIn practice, we cannot directly implement a supercircuit, and so we have to utilize its interpretation as an ensemble of circuits. Essentially, after executing a shot of the noisy circuit we sample the denoiser and apply it. The goal is to construct the denoiser in a way that averaging over many of its samples cancels the accumulated errors and gives us a good approximation of the noiseless expectation values.\nIt should be noted that our approach requires more gate applications on the quantum processor than with the gate-wise scheme, since there each sample from the mitigation quasiprobability distribution can be absorbed into the original circuit, whereas our approach increases the circuit depth. We take this into account by imposing the same noise on the denoiser.\nFurthermore, within our scheme, the dimensionality of the quasiprobabilistic mitigating ensemble can be controlled, in contrast to the gate-wise approach where it is equal to the gate count. To facilitate the stochastic interpretation we parameterize each two-qubit denoiser channel G i as a sum of CPTP maps, such that we can sample the terms in this sum and execute the sampled gate on the quantum processor.\nConcretely, we use a trace preserv-ing sum of a unitary and a non-unitary channel. For the unitary part we take a two-qubit unitary channel U( φ i ) = U ( φ i ) ⊗ U * ( φ i ), with U ( φ i ) a two-qubit unitary gate parameterized by φ i . For this we take the two-qubit ZZ rotation exp(−iα(σ z ⊗ σ z )) with angle α, which can be obtained from native gates on current hardware , and dress it with four general one-qubit unitaries, only two of which are independent if we want a circuit that is space inversion symmetric around every bond.\nThe resulting gate has 7 real parameters φ i . For the non-unitary part, which is essential because D has to cancel the non-unitary accumulated noise to obtain the noiseless unitary circuit, we use a general onequbit measurement followed by conditional preparation channel M( , with V a general one-qubit unitary and each κ i a 3-dimensional vector, resulting in a real 9-dimensional ζ i .\nThis yields the two-qubit correlated measurement M( With these parts we construct the parameterization with coefficients η i ∈ R that satisfy η 0 + η 1 = 1 because G i is trace preserving. Note that here the tensor product symbol corresponds to combining two one-qubit channels to make a two-qubit channel, whereas in most of the paper it is used to link the column and row indices of a density matrix.\nWe construct the denoiser from the noisy channels Gi = N G i . With this parameterization one denoiser channel has 17 independent real parameters, such that a denoiser of depth M , i.e. consisting of M brickwall layers, has 34M real parameters (we use one unique channel per half brickwall layer). For reference, a general channel has 544M parameters.\nTo determine the mitigated expectation values we use the full expression where |ρ 0 is the initial state and |1 is the vectorized identity operator on the full Hilbert space. To evaluate this on a quantum processor, we use the stochastic interpretation of (1) to resample . In particular, from each channel (1) we get a unitary with probability p 0 = |η 0 |/γ and a measurement followed by conditional preparation with probability p 1 = |η 1 |/γ.\nHere γ = |η 0 | + |η 1 | is the sampling overhead, which characterizes the magnitude of the sign problem from negative η i . For quasiprobability distributions, i.e. with γ > 1, every denoiser sample has an extra sign sgn(η) = N G g=1 sgn(η g ), 2. The normalized distance between the denoised Trotter supercircuit D C and the noiseless Trotter supercircuit C (top panels), at evolution times t = 0.5, 1, ..., 5, and the twopoint z-spin correlator C zz i=L/2,j=L/2 (t) of a spin on the middle site at times 0 and t (bottom panels), for the infinite temperature initial state.\nWe consider denoisers with depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and second-order Trotter circuits with depths Mtrot = 16, 32, 64. In the top panels we use a Heisenberg chain with L = 8, and in the bottom panels with L = 14, both with periodic boundary conditions. All gates are affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise with p = 0.01.\nThe non-denoised results are labelled with M = 0, and the noiseless values with p = 0. where sgn(η g ) is the sign of the sampled coefficient of the gth channel. γ = 1 means that all signs are positive. Observables Ô p=0 for the noiseless circuit are then approximated by resampling the observables from the denoiser ensemble\nwhere γ = N G g=1 γ g is the overall sampling overhead, with γ g the overhead of the gth gate. Clearly, a large γ implies a large variance of Ô p=0 for a given number of samples, with accurate estimation requiring the cancellation of large signed terms. The number of samples required to resolve this cancellation of signs is bounded by Hoeffding's inequality, which states that a sufficient number of samples to estimate Ô p=0 with error δ at probability 1 − ω is bounded by (2γ 2 /δ 2 ) ln(2/ω) .\nSince γ scales exponentially in γ g , it is clear that a denoiser with large M and γ 1 will require many samples. We observed that decompositions with γ > 1 are crucial for an accurate denoiser. Restricting to γ = 1 leads to large infidelity and no improvement upon increasing the number of terms in or the depth M of the denoiser.\nSimply put, probabilistic error cancellation of gate noise introduces a sign problem and it is crucial to find optimal parameterizations (1) which minimize γ to make the approach scalable. This issue arises in all high performance error mitigation schemes , because the inverse of a physical noise channel is unphysical and cannot be represented as a positive sum over CPTP maps.\nThis is clearly visible in the spectra of the denoiser, which lies outside the unit circle (cf. Fig. ). This makes the tunability of the number of gates in each denoiser sample a crucial ingredient, which allows control over the sign problem, because we can freely choose the η i in . For the parametrization (1) of denoiser channels, we try to find a set of parameters for error mitigation by minimizing the normalized Frobenius distance between the noiseless and denoised supercircuits\nwhich bounds the distance of output density matrices and becomes zero for perfect denoising. We carry out the minimization of on a classical processor, using gradient descent with the differential programming algorithm from . Instead of explicitly calculating the accumulated global noise channel and subsequently inverting it, we approximate the noiseless supercircuit C with the denoised supercircuit D C, effectively yielding a circuit representation D of the inverse noise channel.\nResults. -To benchmark the denoiser we apply it to the second-order Trotter circuits of the spin-1/2 Heisenberg chain with periodic boundary conditions (PBC) where is the Pauli algebra acting on the local Hilbert space of site i. A second-order Trotter circuit for evolution time t with depth M trot consists of M trot − 1 half brickwall layers with time step t/M trot and two layers with half time step .\nWe consider circuits that are affected by uniform depolarizing noise with probability p for simplicity, but our approach can be used for any non-Clifford noise. The two-qubit noise channel is which acts on neighboring qubits i and i + 1 and is applied to each Trotter and denoiser gate, and p = 0.01 unless stated otherwise.\nWe study circuits with depths M trot = 16, 32, 64 for evolution times t = 0.5, 1, ..., 5, and denoisers D with depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8. In the top panels of Fig. we show (4) for a chain of size L = 8 as a function of time t. Here it can be seen that even for M trot = 32 a denoiser with M = 1 already improves by roughly an order of magnitude at all considered t.\nDepending on M trot and t, further increasing M lowers , with the biggest improvements occurring for high precision Trotter circuits with large depth M trot = 64 and short time t = 0.5, where the Trotter gates are closer to the identity than in the other cases. At the other extreme, for M trot = 16 the improvements are relatively small upon increasing M > 2. In all cases the denoiser works better at early times than at late times, again indicating that it is easier to denoise Trotter gates that are relatively close to the identity.\nTo probe the accuracy of the denoiser on quantities that do not enter the optimization, as a first test we consider the two-point correlator between spins at different times where we have chosen the infinite temperature initial state, and C(t) is the Trotter supercircuit for time t. In the bottom panels of Fig. we show C zz i=L/2,j=L/2 (t) for the supercircuits from the upper panels, now for a L = 14 chain.\nHere we see that at M trot = 16 we can retrieve the noiseless values already with M = 1, but that increasing M trot makes this more difficult. At M trot = 64 we see larger deviations, and improvement upon increasing M is less stable, but nonetheless we are able to mitigate errors to a large extent. As a further test, we compute the out-of-time-ordered correlator (OTOC) ]\nIn Fig. we show the results for i = L/2, for a Trotter circuit with depth M trot = 32 and a denoiser with depth M = 2. Here we see that a denoiser with M M trot is able to recover the light-cone of correlations, which are otherwise buried by the noise. In the Supplementary Material we consider how the denoiser performs at different noise levels p, and how the denoised supercircuits perform under stacking.\nThere we also calculate domain wall magnetization dynamics, and show the distribution of the optimized denoiser parameters and the sampling overhead associated to the denoiser as a whole. In Fig. we show the eigenvalues of the noisy supercircuits for a noisy second-order Trotter supercircuit with M trot = 16 at t = 1 (left), the corresponding optimized denoiser with M = 4 (center), and the denoised supercircuit (right).\nThe eigenvalues λ of a unitary supercircuit lie on the unit circle, and in the presence of dissipation they are pushed to the center. We see that the spectrum of the denoiser lies outside the unit circle, making it an unphysical channel which cures the effect of the noise on the circuit, such that the spectrum of the denoised circuit is pushed back to the unit circle.\nThe noiseless eigenvalues are shown as blue bars, making it clear that the denoiser is able to recover the noiseless eigenvalues from the noisy circuit. In the Supplementary Material we show the spectra for a p = 0.036 denoiser, where we observe a clustering of eigenvalues reminiscent of Refs. . There we also investigate the channel entropy of the various supercircuits .\nConclusion. -We have introduced a probabilistic error cancellation scheme, where a classically determined denoiser mitigates the accumulated noise of a (generally non-Clifford) local noise channel. The required number of mitigation gates, i.e. the dimensionality of the corresponding quasiprobability distribution, is tunable and the parameterization of the corresponding channels provides control over the sign problem that is inherent to probabilistic error cancellation.\nWe have shown that a denoiser with one layer can already significantly mitigate errors for second-order Trotter circuits with up to 64 layers. This effectiveness of low-depth compressed circuits for denoising, in contrast with the noiseless time evolution operator compression from , can be understood from the non-unitarity of the denoiser channels.\nIn particu-lar, measurements can have non-local effects, since the measurement of a single qubit can reduce some highly entangled state (e.g. a GHZ state) to a product state, whereas in unitary circuits the spreading of correlations forms a light-cone. To optimize a denoiser with convenience at L > 8, the optimization can be formulated in terms of matrix product operators or channels , which is convenient because the circuit calculations leading to the normalized distance and its gradient are easily formulated in terms of tensor contractions and singular value decompositions .\nThis provides one route to a practical denoiser, which is relevant because the targeted noiseless circuit and the accompanying noisy variant in (4) need to be simulated classically, confining the optimization procedure to limited system sizes with an exact treatment or limited entanglement with tensor networks.\nNonetheless, we can use e.g. matrix product operators to calculate (4) for some relatively small t, such that the noiseless and denoised supercircuits in (4) have relatively small entanglement, and then stack the final denoised supercircuit on a quantum processor to generate classically intractable states.\nAnalogously, we can optimize the channels exactly at some classically tractable size and then execute them on a quantum processor with larger size. Both approaches are limited by the light-cone of many-body correlations, as visualized in Fig. , because finite-size effects appear when the light-cone width becomes comparable with system size.\n1. The normalized distance (left) and z spin correlator C zz i=L/2,j=L/2 (right), for a second-order Trotter supercircuit of depth Mtrot = 16 for time t = 1, affected by various twoqubit depolarizing errors p. We compare the values obtained with and without a denoiser, i.e. M > 0 and M = 0, to the noiseless values (p = 0).\nThe denoiser is affected by the same noise as the Trotter circuit. We consider denoisers with depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and we use a L = 8 Heisenberg chain with PBC for the normalized distance, while for the correlator we use L = 14. * david.luitz@uni-bonn.de to observe that even for larger noise strength p, the local observable C zz improves significantly even with denoisers of depth M = 1.\nFor large noise strengths, we generally see that the optimization of the denoiser becomes difficult, leading to nonmonotonic behavior as a function of p, presumably because we do not find the global optimum of the denoiser. It is interesting to analyze the spectra of the supercircuits considered in this work.\nAs mentioned in the main text, the spectrum of the ideal, unitary supercircuit C lies on the unit circle. The comparison to this case is therefore instructive. In the main text, we showed an example of the spectra in Fig. for moderate noise strength. Here, we show additional data for stronger noise p = 0.036 in Fig. for a denoiser with M = 4 layers, optimized to mitigate errors for a second-order Trotter supercircuit with M trot = 16 layers at time t = 1.\nThe eigenvalues λ of the noisy supercircuit C are clustered close to zero, far away from the unit circle (except for λ = 1), showing that the circuit is strongly affected by the noise. To mitigate the impact of the noise, the denoiser consequently has to renormalize the spectrum strongly. If it accurately represents the inverse of the global noise channel, its spectrum has to lie far outside the unit circle, which is the case.\nInterestingly, we observe a clustering of eigenvalues which is reminiscent to the spectra found in . By comparison to these works, we suspect that this is due to the local nature of the denoiser, and warrants further investigation. The right panel of Fig. shows the result of the denoiser, pushing the eigenvalues back to the unit circle, nearly with the exact same distribution along the circle as the noiseless eigenvalues (blue bars).\nDue to the strong noise, this is not achieved perfectly, and it is clear that this cannot work in principle if the global noise channel has a zero eigenvalue. The complexity of an operator can be quantified by its operator entanglement entropy . Here we calculate the half-chain channel entanglement entropy S of the noiseless C, noisy C, denoiser D, and denoised D C supercircuits.\nWe define S as the entanglement entropy of the state that is related to a supercircuit C via the Choi-Jamio lkowski isomorphism, i.e. ψ C = χ C /N , where the process matrix χ ab,cd C = C ac,bd is simply a reshaped supercircuit and N ensures normalization. Then we have S = −Tr [ψ C ln ψ C ]. This entropy measure is a particular instance of the \"exchange entropy\", which characterizes the information exchange between a quantum system and its environment .\nIn Fig. we plot the various S for a second-order Trotter circuit with M trot = 16 at t = 2, for a denoiser with M = 4, both affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise with p ∈ [10 −3 , 10 −1 ]. The Trotter circuit is for a Heisenberg model with L = 6 and PBC. We see that at large p, the noise destroys entanglement in the noisy supercircuit, and that the denoiser S increases to correct for this, such that the denoised supercircuit recovers the noiseless S.\nHere we investigate how denoised supercircuits perform upon repeated application. We optimize the denoiser for a Trotter supercircuit for a fixed evolution time t. Then, to reach later times, we stack the denoised supercircuit n times to approximate the evolution up to time nt: In Fig. we stack a denoised t = 1 supercircuit up to n = 20 times and calculate the correlation function, defined in the main text, for the middle site.\nWe consider Trotter depths M trot = 8, 16, 32, 64 and denoiser depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, for a L = 14 Heisenberg chain with p = 0.01 depolarizing two-qubit noise. The noisy results correspond to M = 0 and the noiseless results to p = 0. In Fig. we calculate the OTOC, defined in the main text, with stacked time evolution for a denoised t = 2 supercircuit with M trot = 32 and M = 2, stacked up to ten times.\nWe see that the stacked supercircuit performs very well, and the additional precision obtained by using deep denoisers (M = 8) pays off for long evolution times, where we see convergence to the exact result (black dashed lines in Fig. ) as a function of M . FIG. . The two-point z-spin correlator C zz i=L/2,j=L/2 (t) of a spin on the middle site at times 0 and t, for the infinite temperature initial state, for denoised second-order Trotter supercircuits that are optimized at evolution time t = 1 and then stacked up to twenty times.\nWe use Trotter depths Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 and denoiser depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8. The calculations were performed for a periodic Heisenberg model with L = 14 and PBC, affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise with strength p = 0.01, which also affects the denoiser. The non-denoised results are labelled with M = 0, and the noiseless results with p = 0.\nThe panels are arranged as Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 for top left, top right, bottom left, bottom right, respectively. The costliest and most noise-susceptible operation is the two-qubit ZZ rotation with angle α, which is the foundation of the unitary piece in our channel parameterization, defined in the main text.\nFor completeness, we here present the α angles of the optimized denoisers. The results are shown in Fig. , which contains histograms for the channel count N G versus α. The histograms are stacked, with the lightest color corresponding to the angles of the denoiser at t = 0.5 and the darkest at t = 5. The top four panels are for a denoiser with M = 2 and the bottom four with M = 8.\nWe consider M trot = 8, 16, 32, 64. We see that in both cases the distribution widens upon increasing M trot , indicating that the unitary channels start deviating more from the identity. Moreover, while the M = 2 denoisers in all cases except M trot = 64 have ZZ contributions close to the identity, this is clearly not the case for M = 8.\nFor simplicity, we did not focus on obtaining denoisers with the smallest sampling overhead γ, which is required to minimize the sign problem and hence ease the sampling of mitigated quantities. Instead, we let the optimization freely choose the η i in the denoiser parameterization, as defined in the main text.\nIn Fig. we show the sampling overhead of the denoisers from Fig. of the main text. We see that for M = 1 and M = 2 the sampling overhead is relatively small and uniform across the different t, whereas for M > 2 the optimization sometimes yields a denoiser with large γ and other times with small γ. This could be related to the difference in α distributions from Fig. .\nThe large fluctuations of γ appears to stem from the difficulty in finding optimal deep denoisers, and our optimization procedure likely only finds a local minimum in these cases. Here C(t) is the Trotter supercircuit for time t. In Fig. we show Z dw for the circuits from Fig.", "answers": ["L = 8 and L = 14."], "length": 5385, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "e568cc6d77a0a433937ab4bcf62e49b36a5cf7b3faa0d3ab"}
{"input": "What experimental techniques were used to study the quantum dot structures in this research?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\nDespite the rise of graphene and other 2D materials, semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT) are still regarded as strong candidates for the next generation of high-performance ultrascaled transistors~\\cite{Cao_IBM_2015,IBM_2017,3D_CNT_FET} as well as for opto-electronic devices~\\cite{Review_Avouris,CNT_photonics} such as chip-scale electronic-photonic platforms~\\cite{Pernice_2016} or low-threshold near-infrared tunable micro-lasers~\\cite{Graf_2017}. \nEngineering a quantum dot (QD) along a (suspended) semiconducting SWNT foreshadows promising opportunities in the field of quantum information processing and sensing through recently proposed schemes such as detection and manipulation of single spins via coupling to vibrational motion~\\cite{Palyi_2012}, optomechanical cooling~\\cite{Wilson_Rae_2012} as well as all optical manipulation of electron spins~\\cite{Galland_all_optical_2008}. Furthermore, the quasi one-dimensional geometry of SWNTs allows for defining tunable p-n junctions induced by electrostatic doping through local gates~\\cite{Buchs_JAP,tunable_pn_2011}. Combining a well-defined QD within such a p-n junction structure could constitute a crucial building-block for the realization of highly desirable electrically driven, on-demand single photon emitters operating at telecom wavelength, based $e.g.$ on a turnstile device architecture~\\cite{turnstile_1994,turnstile_1999}.\nIn practice, QDs in carbon nanotubes have been reported predominantly for two different confinement structures: i) Engineered tunneling barriers at metal-nanotube contacts~\\cite{Pablo04nat} and/or by gate electrodes, used \\emph{e.g.} to manipulate single electron spins~\\cite{Laird:2015}, ii) Unintentional localization potentials stemming from environmental disorder~\\cite{Hofmann_2016}, allowing for single-photon emission mediated by localization of band-edge excitons to QD states~\\cite{CNT_photonics,Hoegele_2008,Walden_Newman_2012,Hofmann_2013,Pernice_2016_2}. Both types of structures are usually operated at cryogenic temperature due to small energy scales ranging from a few to few tens of millielectronvolts.\n\\\\\n\\indent Another technique for achieving confinement in SWNTs makes use of artificial defects such as covalently bound oxygen or aryl functionalization groups on the side walls of semiconducting SWNTs, inducing deep exciton trap states allowing for single-photon emission at room temperature~\\cite{Htoon_2015,tunable_QD_defects}. Also, carrier confinement between defect pairs acting as strong scattering centers has been reported for mechanically induced defects~\\cite{Postma_SET} as well as for ion-induced defects with reported level spacings up to 200 meV in metallic SWNTs~\\cite{Buchs_PRL}. The latter technique, combined with recent progress in controlling defects structure and localization~\\cite{Robertson_2012,Yoon_2016,Laser_writing_2017} offers a high potential for engineering a broad set of SWNT-based quantum devices operating at room temperature. \n\\\\\n\\indent Here, we demonstrate confinement of electrons and holes in sub-10 nm QD structures defined by ion-induced defect pairs along the axis of semiconducting SWNTs. Using low temperature scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy (STM/STS), bound states with level spacings of the order of 100 meV and larger are resolved in energy and space. By solving the one-dimensional Schr\\\"odinger equation over a piecewise constant potential model, the effects of asymmetric defect scattering strength as well as the influence of the Au(111) substrate such as terrace edges on the bound states structure are remarkably well reproduced. By means of ab-initio calculations based on density functional theory and Green's functions, we find that single (SV) and double vacancies (DV) as well as chemisorbed nitrogen ad-atoms are good candidates to produce QDs with the experimentally observed features. These simulations also allow to study the scattering profile as a function of energy for different defect combinations.\n\n\\section{Experimental section}\n\nThe experiments have been performed in a commercial (Omicron) low temperature STM setup operating at $\\sim5$~K in ultra high vacuum. Topography images have been recorded in constant current mode with a grounded sample, using mechanically cut Pt/Ir tips. Differential conductance $dI/dV$ spectra, proportional in first approximation to the local density of states (LDOS)~\\cite{Tersoff85} have been recorded using a lock-in amplifier technique. The LDOS spatial evolution along a nanotube axis is obtained by $dI/dV(x,V)$ maps built by a series of equidistant $dI/dV$ spectra. Spatial extent mismatches between topography images and consecutive $dI/dV(x,V)$ maps have been systematically corrected~\\cite{Buchs_Ar}, and the metallic nature of the tip has been systematically checked on the gold substrate to prevent any tip artefacts before recording STM or/and STS data sets. \n\\\\\n\\indent Nanotube samples were made of extremely pure high-pressure CO conversion (HiPCo) SWNTs~\\cite{Smalley01} with a diameter distribution centered around 1 nm, FWHM $\\sim$ 0.3 nm~\\cite{Buchs_conf}. The measured intrinsic defect density was below one defect every 200 nm. SWNTs were deposited on atomically flat Au(111) surfaces from a 1,2-dichloroethane suspension, followed by an in-situ annealing process~\\cite{Buchs_APL_07,Buchs_Ar}.\n\\\\\n\\indent Local defects in SWNTs have been created in-situ by exposure to: (i) Medium energy $\\sim$ 200 eV argon ions (Ar$^{+}$) produced by an ion gun \\cite{Buchs_Ar,Buchs_PRL}, (ii) Low energy (few eV's) nitrogen ions (N$^{+}$) produced by a 2.45 GHz ECR plasma source~\\cite{Buchs_APL_07,Buchs_NJP_07}. In both cases, the exposure parameters have been calibrated to reach an average defect separation along the SWNTs of about 10 nm~\\cite{Buchs_Ar,Buchs_APL_07}.\n\n\\section{Results and discussion}\n\\subsection{Experimental LDOS patterns}\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=8cm]{Figure_1.pdf}\n  \\caption{\\label{exp_data_1} (a)-(b) 3D topography images (processed with WSXM~\\cite{WSXM}) of SWNT I with Ar$^{+}$ ions-induced defects, with sample-tip bias voltage ($V_\\mathrm{S}$) 1 V and tunneling current $I_\\mathrm{S}$ 0.1 nA. (c) Corresponding $dI/dV(x,V)$ map recorded along the horizontal dashed lines in (b), with $V_\\mathrm{S}=1$ V, $I_\\mathrm{S}=0.2$ nA. Spatial resolution $\\sim$ 0.3 nm. (d) 3D topography image of SWNT II with N$^{+}$ ions-induced defects, with $V_\\mathrm{S}=1$ V, $I_\\mathrm{S}=128$ pA. (e) Corresponding $dI/dV(x,V)$ map recorded along the horizontal dashed lines in (d), with $V_\\mathrm{S}=1.5$ V, $I_\\mathrm{S}=0.3$ nA. Spatial resolution $\\sim$ 0.2 nm.}\n\\end{figure}\nIn Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_1} (a) and (b), we show 3D STM images of the same semiconducting SWNT (referred as SWNT I in the following) with Ar$^{+}$ ions-induced defect sites labeled $d1-d5$ . Panel (d) shows a 3D STM image of a second semiconducting SWNT (referred as SWNT II) with N$^{+}$ ions-induced defect sites labeled $d6-d7$. In both cases, defect sites typically appear as hillock-like protrusions with an apparent height ranging from 0.5~{\\AA} to 4~{\\AA} and an apparent lateral extension varying between 5~{\\AA} and 30~{\\AA}~\\cite{Buchs_NJP_07,Buchs_Ar,Thesis_Buchs}. \n\\\\\n\\indent The resulting $dI/dV(x,V)$ maps recorded along the horizontal dashed line drawn in the STM images (b) and (d) are displayed in panels (c) and (e) in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_1}, respectively. Defect signatures in the LDOS in both cases are characterized by deep in-gap states at the defects positions. This is consistent with the expected defect structures, $i.e.$ mainly SVs, DVs and combinations thereof for collisions with Ar$^{+}$ ions~\\cite{Buchs_Ar} and bridgelike N ad-atom for collisions with N$^{+}$ ions~\\cite{Thesis_Buchs,Nitrogen_prb_07}. Note that gap states at energy levels $\\sim$~0.2 eV and $\\sim$~0.05 eV in panels (c) and (e), respectively, are shifted to the right from $d3$ by about 1 nm and to the right from $d6$ by about 2 nm. This indicates the presence of intrinsic or ion-induced defects on the lateral or bottom side wall of the SWNTs~\\cite{Kra01prb}, not visible in the topographic images. These defects are labelled $d3'$ and $d6'$, respectively.  \n\\\\\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=12cm]{Figure_2.pdf}\n  \\caption{\\label{exp_data_Ar} (a)-(b) QD I detailed $dI/dV(x,V)$ maps in conduction and valence bands. Lower subpanels contain QD states linecut profiles and stationary wave-like fits in left and right QD parts. Right subpanels contain experimental energy dispersion relation data sets $k_\\mathrm{n}(E_\\mathrm{n})$ and tight-binding calculations. (c)-(d) Resulting LDOS calculated from a one-dimensional piecewise constant potential model featuring potential barriers and a potential step (gray area), with position of the potential step: 5.09 nm from the right barrier's center, potential step heigth: $U_\\mathrm{C}=V_\\mathrm{L}-V_\\mathrm{R}=60$ meV, barrier heights: $V_\\mathrm{d3'}=1$ eV, $V_\\mathrm{d4}=0.85$ eV, barrier widths: $a_\\mathrm{d3'}=a_\\mathrm{d4}=3.4$ nm.  Valence band: $V_\\mathrm{d3'}=-0.4$ eV, $a_\\mathrm{d3'}=a_\\mathrm{d4}=2.5$ nm, $V_\\mathrm{d4}=-0.4$ eV. $E_\\mathrm{g}$ stands for bandgap energy.}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=12cm]{Figure_3.pdf}\n  \\caption{\\label{exp_data_N} (a) QD II detailed $dI/dV(x,V)$ map. Lower subpanels contain QD states linecut profiles and stationary wave-like fits in the left and right QD parts. Right subpanel contains experimental energy dispersion relation data sets $k_\\mathrm{n}(E_\\mathrm{n})$ and tight-binding calculations. (b) Resulting LDOS calculated from a one-dimensional piecewise constant potential model featuring potential barriers and a potential step (gray area) with position of the potential step: 4.7 nm from the right barrier's center, potential step heigth: $U_\\mathrm{C}=V_\\mathrm{L}-V_\\mathrm{R}=60$ meV, barrier heights: $V_\\mathrm{d6'}=0.6$ eV, $V_\\mathrm{d7}=0.6$ eV, barrier widths: $a_\\mathrm{d6'}=1.5$ nm, $a_\\mathrm{d7}=2.6$ nm.}\n\\end{figure}\n\\indent Remarkably, the $dI/dV(x,V)$ maps in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_1} exhibit several broad discrete states in the conduction bands of SWNT I, II (white dashed boxes in panel (c) and (e), respectively) and in the valence band of SWNT I (white dashed box in panel (c)), characterized by a modulation of the $dI/dV$ signals in the spatial direction between pairs of consecutive defect sites $d3'-d4$ and $d6'-d7$. Enlarged plots of these boxed regions are displayed in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_Ar}(a)-(b) and Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_N}(a) for SWNTs I and II, respectively. In the conduction bands, cross-sectional curves recorded along the black horizontal dashed lines labelled m1--m3 in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_Ar}(a) and m1--m4 in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_N}(a) are plotted below the LDOS panels. These clearly reveal one to three and respectively one to four spatially equidistant maxima. The number of maxima increases for increasing $\\left|V_\\mathrm{bias}\\right|$ and the measured level spacings between consecutive discrete states is of the order of 100 meV and larger for both cases. This indicates that defect sites $d3'-d4$ and $d6'-d7$, respectively separated by 12.1 nm and 11.2 nm, act as strong scattering centers able to confine carriers in semiconducting SWNTs~\\cite{Buchs_PRL,Bercioux_prb_2011}. Such intrananotube QD structures will be referred as QD I (in SWNT I) and QD II (in SWNT II) in the following. We estimated the level spacings in the conduction band of QD I to 98 meV (m1-m2) and 116 meV (m2-m3). For QD II, we measured 122 meV (m1-m2), 185 meV (m2-m3) and 210 meV (m3-m4).\n\\\\\n\\indent In the valence band of SWNT I, discrete states with level spacings of the order of 80-90 meV, with one clear maximum at the level m-1, can also be distinguished between defect sites $d3'-d4$ in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_Ar}(b). The discretization of the states indicates that this QD structure also confines holes. Discrete states starting from m-2 and lower show less well defined structures compared to the conduction band states. In the case of SWNT II, no clear discrete states are observed in the valence band (see supplementary information). These observations are most probably the result of an energy dependent scattering strength of the defects, respectively $d3'$-$d4$ and $d6'$-$d7$, leading here to a weaker confinement in the valence band. Such energy dependence is well known for metallic SWNTs~\\cite{Chico96,vac_2007,mayrhofer:2011,Bockrath_Science01} and is corroborated by our ab-initio calculations. Note that mixing effects with defect states and substrate-induced effects~\\cite{substrate_effects} cannot be ruled out.\n\\\\\n\\indent Another remarkable feature in the LDOS is the strong spatial asymmetry of the lowest energy states m1 and m-1 in QD I and m1 in QD II. In QD I, m1 is shifted to the right side of the dot while m-1 is shifted to the left side. Higher states m2 and m3 show more symmetry in terms of position of the maxima relative to the center of the QD. In QD II, m1 is shifted to the right side of the QD. We attribute the observed lowest energy states asymmetry (for electrons as well as for holes) in part to their strong sensitivity to weak potential modulations within the QD structure (as we will show in section \\ref{1D}). For QD I, this assertion is supported by the observation of a 0.25 nm high Au(111) terrace edge located around the center of the QD, leading to a supported-suspended interface (see white dashed lines in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_1}(b) and more topographic details in Fig.~S2(a)-(d) in supplementary information). Such configurations have been reported to induce a rigid shift in the SWNT bands~\\cite{Clair_2011}, for instance here a down-shift in the right side of QD I corresponding to the \"suspended\" portion between two terraces. In QD II, we attribute the spatial shift of m1 to a potential modulation induced by a layer of disordered impurities, most probably residua from the 1,2-dichloroethane suspension, lying between the gold substrate and the SWNT (see Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_1}(d) and Fig.~S2(e)-(h) in supplementary information). \n\\\\\n\\indent Also, the LDOS in QD I and II (Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_Ar}(a) and Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_N}(a), respectively) reveals asymmetric patterns with curved stripes oriented from top left to bottom right for QD I and from bottom left to top right for QD II. These are characteristic signatures for defect pairs with different scattering strengths~\\cite{Bercioux_prb_2011,Buchs_PRL}. For instance here, the left defect in QD I ($d3'$) has a larger scattering strength than the right one ($d4$), while the right defect in QD II ($d7$) has a larger scattering strength than the left one ($d6'$). \n\\\\\n\\indent The exact atomic structure of the defects could in principle be determined from a comparison of $dI/dV$ spectra with simulated first-principle LDOS signatures of expected defect types. In reality, this is hampered by the large number of possible geometries to simulate, including complex multiple defect structures~\\cite{Buchs_Ar}, together with the large unit cells of the semiconducting chiral SWNTs studied here.\n\\\\\n\\subsection{1D piecewise constant potential model}\n\\label{1D}\nTo better understand the physical origins of the non-trivial signatures of the quantized states, we model the experimental $dI/dV$ maps by solving the time independent one-dimensional Schr\\\"odinger equation over a piecewise constant potential model of QD I and QD II. The scattering centers are approximated by semi-transparent rectangular tunneling barriers leading to a square confinement potential~\\cite{Laird:2015}. This is supported by previous results on defect-induced confinement in metallic SWNTs using the same experimental conditions~\\cite{Buchs_PRL} and is consistent with ab-initio simulations presented later in this work. The potential modulation within the QD is approximated by a potential step. The resulting potential geometries are illustrated with gray shaded areas in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_Ar} (c) and (d) and Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_N}(b). Dispersion relations $E(k)$ can be extracted experimentally from the quantized states wavefunctions by measuring the energy and corresponding momenta in the left and right sides of the QDs. The wavevectors $k$ are determined using stationary wave-like fitting functions~\\cite{Buchs_PRL} displayed with dashed red curves in Figs.~\\ref{exp_data_Ar}(a)-(b) and ~\\ref{exp_data_N}(a)). From this procedure, the potential step height and position can be estimated (see supplementary information). The experimental data sets $E(k)$ are plotted in the right panels of Figs.~\\ref{exp_data_Ar}(a) and \\ref{exp_data_N}(a) together with dispersion relations from a third-nearest neighbor tight-binding calculation closely approximating ab-initio results~\\cite{Reich_TB_2002}. These chirality-dependent tight-binding dispersion relations, calculated within an extended Brillouin zone resulting from the defect-induced breaking of the translation invariance~\\cite{Bercioux_prb_2011}, are used in the Hamiltonian of our one-dimensional model. Taking into account the measured chiral angle, diameter distribution~\\cite{Buchs_conf} and measured bandgaps, we find the best match with chiralities $(7,6)$ for QD I and $(11,1)$ for QD II (see supplementary information). \n\\\\\n\\indent Once chiralities together with potential step heights and positions are optimized, one can fit the height and width of the rectangular tunneling barriers in order to reproduce the experimental level spacings and general LDOS patterns. On a qualitative ground, a symmetric double barrier system results in the formation of spatially symmetric discrete bound states. Increasing both barrier heights simultaneously shifts the bound state energy levels and level spacings up. This leads to sharper bound states as the confinement in the QD is made stronger thus increasing the lifetime of the confined electrons. Increasing the barrier thickness with constant inner edge separation does not affect much the level spacings but further sharpens the bound states. Any asymmetry introduced by a change in the width or height of one single barrier leads to broader bound states. The presence of a potential step modifies the LDOS in lifting the levels of the bound states, with a more pronounced effect on the lower states. In QD I and II, the center of each barrier is aligned with the center of the gap states ($d3'$-$d4$ for QD I and $d6'$-$d7$ in QD II) and the width ratio is kept proportional to the ratio of the spatial extent of the gap states. Thus, by increasing the width of the barriers, we decrease the length of the QD leading to higher level spacings, and vice versa. The experimental level spacings can then be approximated by tuning both barrier widths in the same ratio and the heights individually, knowing that the scattering strength of $d3'$ ($d7$) is larger than $d4$ ($d6'$) according to the observed asymmetry in the LDOS described above \\footnote{The transmission probability through a rectangular tunneling barrier is given by $T=\\left( 1+\\frac{V^{2}\\sinh^{2}\\left( a \\cdot \\sqrt{2m^{*}(V-E)}/\\hbar \\right)}{4E(V-E)} \\right)^{-1}$, where $V$ and $a$ are respectively the barrier height and width. For the argument in the $\\sinh$ sufficiently small such that $\\sinh(x)\\simeq x$, it can be shown that $a$ and $V$ can be coupled such that the transmission probability becomes a function of the area under the barrier $A=a\\cdot V$, with $T=\\left( 1+ \\frac{m^{*}A^{2}}{2\\hbar^{2}E} \\right)^{-1}$. In our case, this condition is not satisfied and thus the barrier geometries are tuned empirically to fit the experimental level spacings.}. \n\\\\\n\\indent For QD I, we find a good match in the conduction band for the barrier heights $V_\\mathrm{d3'}=1$ eV and $V_\\mathrm{d4}=0.85$ eV, widths $a_\\mathrm{d3'}=a_\\mathrm{d4}=$ 3.4 nm,  and potential step $V_\\mathrm{L}-V_\\mathrm{R}=60$ meV. With these parameters, the spatial profile of the obtained quantized states (see lower subpanels in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_Ar}(a) and (c)) reproduces the experimental modulation features remarkably well. Also, the simulated LDOS displays a pattern with curved stripes oriented from top left to bottom right, as observed experimentally, due to a left barrier with a larger scattering strength. In the valence band, although modes m-2 and lower do not show a well defined structure in the spatial direction, thinner barriers with dimensions $a_\\mathrm{d3'/d4}=2.5$ nm, $V_\\mathrm{d3'/d4}=-0.4$ eV, leading to a slightly longer QD length (9.6 nm compared to 8.7 nm in the conduction band) can reproduce the measured level spacings very well. \n\\\\\n\\indent For QD II, we observed that the measured energy levels are overestimated by a factor $\\alpha\\sim1.29$, presumably due to a voltage division effect induced by the impurity layer mentioned above (see details in supplementary information). We find a good agreement with the experimental LDOS with the parameters: $V_{d3'}=V_{d4}\\simeq$ 0.47 eV, $a_\\mathrm{d6'}=1.5$ nm, $a_\\mathrm{d7}=2.6$ nm and $U_\\mathrm{C}=V_\\mathrm{L}-V_\\mathrm{R}\\simeq 47$ meV. Note that in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_N}(b) the barrier and potential heights are multiplied by $\\alpha$ to allow a direct comparison with the experimental LDOS. The simulated LDOS shows a pattern with curved stripes oriented from bottom left to top right, as observed experimentally, due to a right barrier exhibiting a larger scattering strength. Also, the spatial profile of the obtained bound states (see lower subpanels in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_N}(a) and (b)) reproduces the experimental features quite well. Note also that one can distinguish an isolated state in the experimental LDOS at an energy level between m1 and m2, about in the middle of the QD. This state that prevented an accurate fit of the state m2 in the right QD part is attributed to a spatial feature visible in the STM topography image in Fig.~\\ref{exp_data_Ar}(d) (see also supplementary information, Fig.S2(f)), probably a physisorbed impurity which does not affect the LDOS significantly.\n\\\\\n\\subsection{Ab-initio calculations}\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=16cm]{Figure_4.pdf}\n  \\caption{\\label{num_data} (a)-(c) LDOS ab-initio simulations of a semiconducting $(16,0)$ SWNT with combinations of vacancies defects separated by 11.1 nm. Subpanels display QD state linecut profiles. (d) Tight-binding (black curve) and ab-initio dispersion relations (green circles) for a pristine $(16,0)$ SWNT with $E_\\mathrm{n}(k_\\mathrm{n})$ data sets extracted from (a)-(c). (e)-(g) LDOS ab-initio simulations of a semiconducting $(17,0)$ SWNT with combinations of N ad-atoms and vacancies defects separated by 10.7 nm. (h) Tight-binding (black curve) and ab-initio dispersion relations (green circles) for a pristine $(17,0)$ SWNT with $E_\\mathrm{n}(k_\\mathrm{n})$ data sets extracted from (e)-(g).}\n\\end{figure}\nIn order to elucidate the physical nature of the electron/hole confining scattering centers, we performed ab-initio simulations based on a combination of density functional theory~\\cite{pbe,paw,vasp_paw,VASP2}, maximally localized Wannier orbitals~\\cite{transportwannier90} and Green's functions (see supplementary information). Without loss of generality, we have simulated short unit cell semiconducting zigzag SWNTs with different combinations of the most probable defect structures. Results for vacancy defects likely being induced by 200 eV Ar$^{+}$ ions, separated by about 11 nm in a $(16,0)$ SWNT are shown in Fig.~\\ref{num_data}(a)-(c) with DV-DV, DV-SV and SV-SV pairs, respectively. The LDOS displays midgap states at the defect positions as expected as well as defect states in the valence band~\\cite{Buchs_Ar}. Most importantly, clear quantized states with a number of maxima increasing with energy are observed between the defects in the conduction band, emphasizing the ability of SVs and DVs to confine carriers. For the asymmetric configuration DV-SV, one can distinguish faint curved stripe patterns oriented from top left to bottom right, indicating a larger scattering strength for DVs compared to SVs. This is consistent with observations in transport experiments~\\cite{Gomez05nm}. On the other hand, the patterns in the valence band strongly depend on the defect types. Discrete states can be distinguished for the DV-DV case, with m-2 being mixed with defect states. For the DV-SV case, clear curved stripe patterns oriented from bottom left to top right indicate again a stronger scattering strength for DV. Also, broader states are observed, indicating that the scattering strength of DVs and SVs is weaker in the valence band compared to the conduction band.\n\\\\\n\\indent More insight on the energy dependent scattering strength for each defect pair configuration can be obtained by extracting the wavevector $k_\\mathrm{n}(E_\\mathrm{n})$ for each resonant state. This data set is plotted in Fig.~\\ref{num_data}(d) for the conduction and valence bands together with the $(16,0)$ dispersion relations calculated from the third-nearest neighbor TB model and from the ab-initio calculation for the pristine nanotube. A first observation is the excellent agreement between TB and ab-initio results, further validating the method used in Figs.~\\ref{exp_data_Ar}(a)-(b) and ~\\ref{exp_data_N}(a). The vertical dashed lines indicate the limiting $k_\\mathrm{n,\\infty}=\\frac{\\pi \\cdot n}{L}$ values corresponding to the closed system (infinite hard walls potential) with $L=11.1$ nm being the defect-defect distance. In the conduction band, we find that $k_\\mathrm{n}(E_\\mathrm{n})=\\frac{\\pi \\cdot n}{L_\\mathrm{eff}(n)} < k_\\mathrm{n,\\infty}$, indicating that the effective lengths $L_\\mathrm{eff}(n)$ of the QD are larger than $L$ ($i.e.$ the resonant states wavefunctions are characterized by penetrating evanescent modes inside the defect scattering potential), as expected for an open system. The shortest $L_\\mathrm{eff}(n)$ are obtained for the DV-DV configuration with 12.1 nm (m1), 13.1 nm (m2) and 12.9 nm (m3), which we attribute to wider scattering potential profiles for DVs compared to SVs. In the valence band, we find that $k_\\mathrm{n}(E_\\mathrm{n})=\\frac{\\pi \\cdot n}{L_\\mathrm{eff}(n)} > k_\\mathrm{n,\\infty}$, with $L_\\mathrm{eff}(n)$ values between 7.9 nm (DV-DV, m-1) and 9.66 nm (DV-SV, m-2). We attribute this pronounced QD shortening to wider scattering potential profiles of both DVs and SVs in the valence band, probably due to mixing with wide spread defect states in the valence band.\n\\\\\n\\indent Ab-initio calculations for different defect pairs combinations containing at least one N ad-atom, $i.e.$ N-DV, N-SV and N-N, are presented in Fig.~\\ref{num_data}(e)-(h) for a $(17,0)$ SWNT, along with details on the defects geometries. Remarkably, clear QD states are generated for all three configurations, underlining the potential of N ad-atoms to confine carriers in semiconducting SWNTs and thus to generate intrananotube QDs. \n\\\\\n\\indent In order to demonstrate the scattering strengths of the different defects, we calculated the energy dependent conductance in addition to the LDOS for the different combinations of the QD defining scattering defects on the $(16,0)$ and $(17,0)$ SWNTs, see supplementary information. Generally we can observe strong conductance modulation of the order of 30-40\\% with regard to the pristine CNT for all three tested defects (double vacancies DV, single vacancies SV and chemisorbed C-N) with the DVs having the largest scattering strength in the CB and VB.  \n\\\\\n\\indent Note that the choice of the zigzag SWNT chiralities in the two different ab-initio scenarios is motivated by the different effective masses of both chiralities ($m^{*}_{(17,0)}>m^{*}_{(16,0)}$) which is typical for chirality families $(3n-1,0)$ and $(3n-2,0)$~\\cite{ZZ_families}. Taking advantage of recent reports on SWNT chirality control~\\cite{chirality_control_EMPA,chirality_control_chinese,chirality_chemistry}, this property could be used in practice to design QDs with different level spacings for the same QD length. From an application point of view, however, QDs generated by DVs will have far superior stability at room temperature due to their high migration barrier above 5 eV ($\\sim$~1 eV for single vacancy)~\\cite{Kra06vm}. This value drops down by at least 2 eV for N ad-atoms depending on their chemisorption configuration~\\cite{Nitrogen_prb_07,Yma05nitr}.\n\\\\\n\\indent Our ab-initio simulations do not take into account any substrate effect. In the experimental case, the carriers can decay through the substrate, thus limiting their lifetime. This leads to state broadening, measured between about 60 meV up to 120 meV in QD I and II, while the quantized states widths in ab-initio simulations vary between about 5 meV and 45 meV. This suggests that a better contrast of the experimental quantized states, especially in the valence band, could be achieved by lowering the nanotubes-substrate interaction through $e.g.$ the insertion of atomically thin insulating NaCl films~\\cite{Ruffieux_Nature_2016}. This would allow to gain more insight on the electronic structure of the QDs as well as in the associated scattering physics at the confining defects~\\cite{Buchs_PRL}. \n\n\\section{Conclusions and outlook}\nIn summary, using low-temperature STM/STS measurements supported by an analytical model and ab-initio simulations, we have demonstrated that intrananotube quantum dots with confined electron and hole states characterized by energy level spacings well above thermal broadening at room temperature can be generated in semiconducting SWNTs by structural defects such as vacancies and di-vacancies, as well as nitrogen ad-atoms. These results, combined with recent progresses in type and spatial control in the formation of defects~\\cite{Robertson_2012,Yoon_2016,Laser_writing_2017} as well as chirality control~\\cite{tunable_QD_defects}, hold a high potential for applications in the design of SWNT based quantum devices. These include $e.g.$ electrically driven single-photon emitters operating at room temperature and telecom wavelength. In this context, the observation of quantum confinement effects in the emitted light of cut, sub-10 nm, semiconducting SWNTs~\\cite{Dai_2008} shall be seen as an additional motivation for investigating the optical properties of our \"QD with leads\" building-blocks. These would include $e.g.$ studying optical transitions selection rules for different types and configurations of defect pairs~\\cite{sel_rules_2006} associated with experimental studies such as photoluminescence~\\cite{Lefebvre06} combined to $g^{(2)}$ correlation measurements~\\cite{Hofmann_2013} in suspended SWNT devices as well as photocurrent imaging~\\cite{Buchs_Nat_comm} and spectroscopy~\\cite{Gabor_2009}.\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgements}\nThe authors thank Ethan Minot, Lee Aspitarte, Jhon Gonzalez, Andres Ayuela, Omjoti Dutta and Arkady Krasheninnikov for fruitful discussions.\nThe work of DB is supported by Spanish Ministerio de Econom\\'ia y Competitividad (MINECO) through the project  FIS2014-55987-P and by the (LTC) QuantumChemPhys. LM acknowledges support from the BMBF-project WireControl (FKZ16ES0294) and computing time for the supercomputers JUROPA and JURECA at the J\\\"ulich Supercomputer Centre (JSC).\n\n\n\\clearpage\n\n\\section*{References}\n\n\n", "answers": ["Low temperature scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy (STM/STS)."], "length": 4297, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "5b978c8d5792b07ad99da0fc2639c6046051e9c29825ad25"}
{"input": "How many people attend the 233rd ACS national meeting?", "context": "The major actions taken by the board of directors and council during the national meeting in Chicago were reported in C&EN, April 30 (page 32).\nThe Society Committee on Budget & Finance met on Saturday, March 24, to review the society's 2006 financial performance. The society ended 2006 with a net contribution from operations of $12.2 million, on revenues of $424.0 million and expenses of $411.8 million. This was $7.8 million favorable to the approved budget.\nAfter including the results of the Member Insurance Program and new ventures, the society's overall net contribution for 2006 was $11.5 million, which was $7.4 million favorable to the approved budget. The favorable variance was primarily attributable to higher than budgeted electronic services revenue and investment income, as well as expense savings from lower than budgeted health care costs and reduced IT spending. In addition, the society ended the year in compliance with the board-established financial guidelines.\nThe Society Committee on Education (SOCED) received an update from President Catherine Hunt on the thematic programming featured in Chicago focusing on the sustainability of energy, food, and water. President-Elect Bruce Bursten solicited input from the committee pertaining to the central role of education in his agenda. SOCED received a presentation from the Membership Affairs Committee on its white paper on membership requirements.\nCommittee members strongly support the proposal to include undergraduates as members of the society, but they requested that financial arrangements be clearly spelled out in the petition to ensure that the highly successful Student Affiliates program remains intact. The committee discussed the Education Division programs that were reviewed in 2006 and those that will be reviewed in 2007, under the auspices of the Program Review Advisory Group. SOCED received an update from the Committee on Professional Training regarding the draft ACS guidelines for approval of bachelor's degree programs in chemistry.\nCommittee members discussed the report prepared by the Globalization Task Force, focusing on those sections relevant to education. The committee suggested initiatives related to the new ACS strategic plan, including a potential program that would engage retired chemists in the K-12 classroom. SOCED created a task force to consider the role of online, or \"virtual,\" simulations in the chemistry laboratory, recognizing the value of online/virtual experiences as a supplement to, but not a replacement for, hands-on laboratory experiments.\nThe committee ratified two interim actions taken since the Dec. 3, 2006, meeting: to remove the financial restriction of the ACS Petroleum Research Fund (ACS PRF) Supplement for Underrepresented Minority Research Programs (SUMR) and to contact nominators whose nominations for the Volunteer Service Award had expired and to invite them to reactivate their nomination packet for the 2008 Volunteer Service Award.\nActing under delegated authority, the committee voted to accept the recommendations of the ACS Petroleum Research Fund Advisory Board (February 2007 meeting) for funding grants totaling $5.2 million; voted to recommend to the board a screened list of six nominees (due to a two-way tie for fifth place) for the 2008 Priestley Medal; voted to recommend to the board a screened list of five nominees for the 2008 Award for Volunteer Service to ACS; on the recommendation of the ACS Committee on Frasch Foundation Grants, voted to recommend to the board that it recommend to the trustee (US Trust) of the Frasch Foundation 12 grants for research in agricultural chemistry for the period of 2007–12; voted to recommend to the ACS Board of Directors that a new national award be established, the \"ACS Award for Affordable Green Chemistry,\" sponsored by Rohm and Haas; and voted to recommend to the ACS Board of Directors that a new endowment be established, the \"Affordable Green Chemistry Endowment Fund,\" to support the award.\nThe committee also reviewed the final report from the Special Board Task Force on the Review of the ACS National Awards Program, chaired by Ronald Breslow; established a Canvassing & Selection Subcommittee; and reviewed a list of external awards for which ACS may want to nominate candidates. The committee agreed to include the list of significant external awards in the awards locator database that is being developed.\nThe committee was updated on efforts to reconcile ACS's technical divisions' desires to leverage national meeting content using the Internet with our journal editors' concerns about prior publication issues. A conference call on this issue was scheduled for April 21, 2007.\nThe committee received a presentation on the recent actions of the ACS Board of Directors International Strategy Group (ISG). The group's charge is to develop recommendations for a short- and long-term international strategy for the society.\nThe committee was updated on the status of the activities of the Board Oversight Group on Leadership Development (BOG). Potential solutions for the unexpectedly high cost of facilitator training and transitioning from the current Leaders Conference format to the newly designed curriculum were presented to the committee.\nThe committee reviewed plans for conducting the 2007 Membership Satisfaction Survey. Preliminary results are expected in May or June with a final report to be delivered to the board at the 2007 Boston national meeting.\nThe committee received a briefing on the status of the MORE Project: Multidisciplinary Opportunities though Resource Enhancement. Twenty-eight proposals were received, and a decision on which proposals to support will be made in early May.\nThe chair led a discussion on draft 2007 committee goals, and committee members offered several suggestions related to successfully meeting them. One suggestion was to modify a communications goal to make it more completely reflect the duties of the committee outlined in the board regulations. The chair and committee members will examine the suggestion and revisit the question after the board retreat where board committee duties will be examined.\nACS President Hunt discussed her 2007-08 Presidential Task Force on Enhancing Science & Technology, which is charged with developing advocacy best practices that can enhance ACS's attainment of its public policy priorities. The task force is composed of a diverse set of ACS members as well as former U.S. Representative and chairman of the House Science Committee, Sherwood Boehlert, who will cochair the task force.\n• Results of the 2007 Public Policy Priorities Survey, which resulted in a four-tiered ranking of ACS's 2007 public policies. The ranking will help focus staff resources in conducting outreach and advocacy on behalf of ACS members.\n• The hiring of a communications consulting firm for 2007 to assist ACS in implementing the initial phase of the ACS Strategic Communications Plan.\n• Creation of a pilot ACS state government affairs advocacy program. Committee members agreed to the creation of a pilot, and staff will propose an initial list of states, policy focus, and a budget to carry out the program.\nThe committee met in executive session on March 23 and in open session jointly with the Joint Board-Council Committee on Publications and the Division of Chemical Information on March 26.\nThe committee heard from Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) management on a range of issues including a report on continuing database building efforts, product enhancements, and CAS's centennial celebration plans.\nThe Committee on Chemical Safety (CCS) provides advice on the handling of chemicals and seeks to ensure safe facilities, designs, and operations by calling attention to potential hazards and stimulating education in safe practices.\nCCS has several publications (many downloadable), including the flagship publication, \"Safety in Academic Chemistry Labs\" (SACL). Work has recently started on the translation of SACL into Arabic. This is in addition to the online Spanish version of SACL. Also online are the \"Student Lab Code of Conduct for Secondary Science Programs\" and a security vulnerability analysis checklist. A K-12 restricted hazardous substances list is under development. The third edition of the \"Chemical Safety Manual for Small Businesses\" will be ready soon.\nThe committee's Task Force on Laboratory Environment, Health & Safety is working on a new edition of \"Laboratory Waste Management.\" Task force members also commented on the recent Environmental Protection Agency Proposed Rule for Hazardous Waste in Academic Laboratories. Our Video Safety Resources Task Force is developing video resources to be distributed over the Web.\nCCS has been involved in collaborations for the updating of publications like \"Prudent Practices in the Laboratory\" and \"ACS Guidelines for the Teaching of High School Chemistry.\" Along with other ACS units, CCS is exploring participating in the EPA's School Chemicals Cleanout Campaign.\nThe Committee on Chemists with Disabilities (CWD) met at the 233rd ACS national meeting, Chicago, on Monday, March 26. Judy Summers-Gates reported on the Joint Subcommittee on Diversity meeting. This subcommittee is made up of representatives of the five committees that support people in chemistry (as opposed to a category of the profession): CWD, Committee on Minority Affairs, Committee on Technician Affairs, Women Chemists Committee, and Younger Chemists Committee, and its goal is to develop ways to coordinate the efforts of the five groups.\nThe CWD Ambassador Program that was announced at CWD's 25th anniversary celebration at the Washington, D.C., meeting was discussed. Zelda Wasserman reported on the status of the letter from CWD to the ACS Board regarding captioning of ACS video materials. Janelle Kasper-Wolf, of ACS staff, discussed adding new questions to the ACS annual employment salary survey to obtain information for the committee.\nAt the Chicago national meeting, the Committee on Community Activities (CCA) partnered with the ACS Education Division and the Office of the President to host \"Chemistry In Action—It's Easy Being Green\" at the Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum on Saturday, March 24. More than 250 children participated in the hands-on activities focused on recycling. ACS President Hunt presented a Salutes to Excellence plaque to the museum for its dedication to community outreach.\nThe Chemists Celebrate Earth Day celebration occurred in 120 local sections with 138 coordinators leading the efforts within their communities. This represents an increase of more than 30% in local section and coordinator participation from 2006.\nCCA was featured in C&EN's April 16th issue on page 53. A shortcut to CCA's homepage was created: chemistry.org/committees/cca.html.\nDuring the Boston national meeting, CCA and the Office of Community Activities will celebrate National Chemistry Week's 20th Anniversary and its theme, \"The Many Faces of Chemistry.\" A special outreach event is being planned for Sunday, Aug. 19. Hands-on activities will focus on health and wellness.\nThe Committee on Corporation Associates (CCA) advises and influences ACS to ensure that its products and services are of value to industrial members and their companies. CCA vice chair, Roslyn White (SC Johnson), provided an overview of recent interactions between Corporation Associates and the U.K.-based Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).\nCCA gave feedback to a recommendations report from the ACS Board Committee on Professional & Member Relations Task Force on Globalization. Presentations were also received from the ACS Green Chemistry Institute and SCI.\nStaff reported on the Department of Industry Member Programs' activities since the San Francisco meeting. The report covered the Regional Industrial Innovation Awards, the World Congress on Industrial Biotechnology, the Analytical Pavilion sponsored by C&EN, and the ACS/Pharma Leaders Meeting.\nThe Awards/Finance & Grants Subcommittee reported that CCA received two funding proposals that total $7,500. Funding was provided to the following: The Committee on Economic & Professional Affairs at $3,000 for the Chicago symposium on \"Benefits Trends for the Chemical Workforce\" and the Office of Graduate Education and the Department of Career Development & Management at $4,500 for a workshop on \"Preparing for Life after Graduate School,\" to be held in conjunction with the 39th Central Regional Meeting.\nThe subcommittee also requested that ACS staff provide CCA with an official annual statement of Corporation Associates' financial reserves as of Jan. 1 of each year.\nThe Programs Subcommittee reported on planned programming activities in 2007 and beyond between CCA and SCI. The subcommittee gave an update on a Boston symposium cosponsored by Corporation Associates and the Medicinal Chemistry Division featuring past ACS Heroes of Chemistry from the pharmaceutical industry.\nBy request of the subcommittee, representatives from Chemical Abstracts Service gave an overview on AnaVist—a tool with potential applications for CCA's efforts to provide member companies with industry-relevant information and reports. The subcommittee also requested that CCA earmark approximately $20,000 of Corporation Associates funds in 2008 for its activities.\nThe Educational Outreach Subcommittee reported on its decision to collaborate with the Graduate Student Symposium Programming Committee of the Chemical Education Division on a graduate student industry roundtable program in Boston.\nThe subcommittee requested $5,000 in support of this effort. The subcommittee also discussed a request for corporate executive support of an American Association of Physics Teachers initiative to promote undergraduate research.\nThe Committee on Environmental Improvement (CEI) continues to be focused on the sustainability of the chemical enterprise. In Chicago, the committee introduced a multiyear effort to make ACS meetings more sustainable. This effort is designed to take advantage of the large size and diverse programs of the society to lead in the sustainability arena by \"walking the talk.\"\nThe committee held a dialogue with representatives of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency who are trying to \"green\" federal conferences and work with the travel and tourism industry to change practices and shrink the environmental footprint of meetings. The committee also used advertising and student volunteers to engage individual meeting participants in a campaign to increase recycling by asking \"Are you sustainable?\" Moving forward, CEI looks forward to working closely with the Committee on Meetings & Expositions to advance this agenda.\nCEI was also pleased to participate in the meeting theme on sustainability through the ACS presidential programming. CEI cohosted the Monday presidential luncheon to discuss sustainability issues with the Committee on Science and is leading the follow-up to that luncheon, which will include recommendations on advancing sustainability in the three focal areas of the meeting—energy, food, and water.\nThe committee also continued its dialogue with the Committee on Corporation Associates about a collaborative workshop. This activity, tentatively slated for the New Orleans meeting, will seek additional insights from chemical and allied products companies about public policy barriers that limit adoption of more sustainable products and practices as well as policy incentives that would lead to increased sustainability in the chemical enterprise.\nAt its Chicago meeting, the committee welcomed the president of the Jordanian Chemical Society and the past-president of the Arab Union of Chemists.\nThe committee was briefed on Pittcon 2007, where, with financial support from the Society of Analytical Chemists of Pittsburgh, ACS coordinated participation of a scientific delegation from Adriatic nations.\nThe committee heard reports on the 2007 Frontiers of Chemical Science III: Research & Education in the Middle East meeting; the 2007 Transatlantic Frontiers of Chemistry meeting, which was jointly sponsored by ACS, the German Chemical Society, and the Royal Society of Chemistry; planned workshops to engage U.S. and Chinese early-career scientists in chemical biology, supramolecular, and new materials chemistry; and ACS Discovery Corps U.S./Brazil Research Collaboration Project in Biomass Conversion to Biofuels, Biomaterials & Chemicals.\nThe committee discussed Latin American engagement opportunities created through Puerto Rico's involvement in three key chemical science events there: the 2009 ACS Southeast Regional Meeting, the 2008 Federation of Latin American Chemical Associations (FLAQ) meeting, and the proposed IUPAC 2011 Congress & General Assembly.\nThe committee heard reports on letter-writing efforts by the ACS president to government officials in Libya and Mexico expressing concerns about challenges to the scientific freedom and human rights of scientists there.\nThe Committee on Minority Affairs (CMA) approved new vision, mission, and values statements at the Chicago national meeting. The mission of CMA is to increase the participation of minority chemical scientists and influence policy on behalf of minorities in ACS and the chemical enterprise.\nAn aggressive new strategic plan was approved by CMA to guide its activities over the next three years. By the end of 2009, CMA will increase the number of ACS Scholars that graduate to 100 per year, add 100 new minorities to leadership positions in ACS, engage in several collaborations, and increase the number of minority members of ACS by 5,000. CMA will focus initially on increasing minorities in ACS leadership. In working toward this goal, CMA began work on two new leadership-development programs for minority chemists.\nCMA continues to support the work of the Joint Subcommittee on Diversity (JSD) in developing programs, products, and services to ensure full participation of all members in ACS. In Chicago, JSD premiered a diversity booth at the meeting exposition hall and cosponsored symposia.\nThe Committee on Patents & Related Matters (CPRM) discussed proposed legislative and regulatory changes to the U.S. patent system as well as open-access legislation and the potential effects such matters might have on industry and academia as well as on ACS.\nCPRM also continued its work on several new educational tools to assist and inform members on patent issues and other intellectual property matters important to a successful career in the chemical enterprise. Many of these tools are now available on the committee's expanded website, membership.acs.org/C/CPRM/.\nAt the March 2007 meeting, the Committee on Professional Training (CPT) reviewed 42 new and additional information reports from ACS-approved chemistry programs. CPT held conferences with four schools seeking approval, discussed three updates and five site visit reports, and approved three new schools. The total number of ACS-approved chemistry programs is now 642.\nThe committee released the full draft of the ACS guidelines for review and comment. Copies of the draft were distributed to the department chairs at all ACS-approved schools, the chairs of all ACS committees, and the chairs of all ACS technical divisions.\nSeveral CPT members met with the ACS technical divisions during the Chicago meeting to present an overview of the draft and obtain feedback. The draft guidelines document is available on the CPT website, and the committee invites any comments to be sent to cpt@acs.org.\nIn other business, the committee continued development of the two workshops with minority-serving institutions that will be held in 2007. The committee reviewed the editorial policies for the 2007 edition of the ACS Directory of Graduate Research, which is using a new protocol for retrieving research publication titles in an effort to improve the accuracy of the directory.\nC&EN finished 2006 with an exceptionally strong editorial package. The first months of 2007 are proving to be equally successful in fulfilling the magazine's mission of keeping its readers informed. On the advertising side, revenues in 2006 increased for the second year in a row, and the early months of 2007 show continuing positive signs. The most significant editorial achievement was the successful launch of the redesign of the print edition of C&EN with the Oct. 16, 2006, issue.\nThe Subcommittee on Copyright has successfully updated the Copyright Module on the ACS Publications website. The subcommittee is looking into the possibility of conducting copyright programs at future ACS national and regional meetings.\nThe final monitoring reports for Chemistry of Materials, Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry, and Molecular Pharmaceutics were presented and accepted by the committee. Journal of Chemical Information & Modeling, Organic Letters, Accounts of Chemical Research, and the Journal of Chemical Theory & Computation will be monitored next.\n3. Examining the scientific basis of public policies related to the chemical sciences and making recommendations to the appropriate ACS units.\nIn the first of these areas, ComSci partnered with President Hunt and the Committee on Environmental Improvement in planning and hosting a sustainability luncheon that featured roundtable discussions centering on a key sustainability question. At the Boston national meeting, ComSci will deliver a full-day program on the subject of \"Partnerships in Innovation & Competitiveness.\"\nRegarding the second thrust, ComSci will present two programs in Boston: a box lunch that will feature two speakers taking opposing sides on the subject of \"Genetic Screening & Diagnostic Testing: Do You Really Want to Know?\" and a symposium titled \"Creating & Sustaining International Research Collaborations.\"\nIn support of the last thrust, ComSci is planning two events for 2008: \"Balancing Security & Openness\" will gather data to determine if the recent emphasis on security is hindering scientific progress and \"Transitioning Chemical Science to Commercially Successful Products.\"\nThe Women Chemists Committee (WCC) hosted more than 70 attendees at its open meeting recently in Chicago, where representatives from Iota Sigma Pi, Women in Science & Engineering, the Association of Women in Science, and the Chicago local section helped WCC celebrate the committee's 80th anniversary.\nThe Women in Industry Breakfast was also highly successful with a new format of speed networking. More than 100 participants had the opportunity to practice their elevator speeches and make several professional connections. A related workshop will be offered by WCC in Boston.\nIn Chicago, WCC sponsored two symposia, \"Women Achieving Success: The ACS as a Platform in Leadership Development\" in honor of Madeleine Joullié's 80th birthday and the ACS Award for Encouraging Women into Careers in the Chemical Sciences: Symposium in Honor of Bojan H. Jennings.\nMore than 225 ACS meeting attendees were present for the biannual WCC Luncheon and heard the keynote speaker Laura Kiessling, 2007 Francis P. Garvan-John Olin Medal Recipient. Twelve women presented their research at this meeting with funding by the WCC/Eli Lilly Travel Grant Award. WCC members also spent time educating expo attendees on programs offered by the ACS Office of Diversity Programs at its new booth.\nIn Chicago, the Younger Chemists Committee (YCC) welcomed its new committee members with an information session centered on YCC's charter as well as on its strategic plan: to make ACS relevant to younger chemists, to involve younger chemists in all levels of the society, and to integrate younger chemists into the profession.\nIn January, YCC again hosted a Leadership Development Workshop during the ACS Leaders Conference. There were more than 80 applications for the 15 awards, which covered travel and registration for the conference. YCC plans to again fund the travel awards and provide leadership training for young chemists in 2008. YCC also solicited applications and selected a new graduate student representative on the Graduate Education Advisory Board.\nDuring the Chicago meeting, YCC programs included \"Starting a Successful Research Program at a Predominantly Undergraduate Institution,\" \"Career Experiences at the Interface of Chemistry & Biology,\" and \"Chemistry Pedagogy 101.\"\nIn addition to these programs, YCC cosponsored five programs with various committees and divisions. YCC continues to reach out to ACS committees and divisions and has initiated liaisonships with 11 technical divisions to encourage technical programming that highlights the contributions of younger chemists. Looking forward to Boston, YCC is planning symposia including \"The Many Faces of Chemistry: International Opportunities for Chemists\"; \"Being a Responsible Chemist: Ethics, Politics & Policy\"; and \"Changing Landscapes of the Bio-Pharma Industry.\"\nThe Committee on Committees (ConC) conducted its annual training session for new national committee chairs at the ACS Leaders Conference in January 2007. ConC's interactive session for committee chairs in Chicago served as an opportune follow-on and a forum for informative interchange among seasoned and new chairs.\nConC began developing its recommendations for the 2008 committee chair appointments for consideration by the president-elect and chair of the board. ConC continues to focus efforts to identify members with the skills and expertise specified by the committee chairs using the councilor preference form.\nThe form will be sent to councilors in May. ConC also seeks the names of noncouncilor members for consideration for service on council-related committees, especially those with no prior appointment.\nAs part of ongoing activities with the joint CPC-Board Governance Review Task Force, ConC has collected data on committee liaisons to other committees. This information will be distributed to committee chairs. The number of liaisons indicates that unofficial but strong communication channels exist within the ACS committee structure.\nOn Sunday evening, the Committee on Nominations & Elections (N&E) sponsored its fifth successful Town Hall Meeting for President-Elect Nominees. An estimated 200 people attended this session. This forum facilitated communication among the 2008 president-elect nominees, councilors, and other members. N&E will hold another Town Hall Meeting featuring the candidates for director-at-large at the fall meeting in Boston.\nNow that voting over the Internet has become an accepted procedure for ACS national elections, the ACS technical divisions and local sections have expressed strong interest in using this method for their elections. N&E has developed protocols for elections for local sections and divisions. This document will be forwarded to the appropriate committees for their review and distribution.\nN&E is responsible for reviewing annually the distribution of member populations within the six electoral districts to ensure that the districts have equitable representation. According to bylaw V, section 4(a), the member population of each electoral district must be within 10% of the result of dividing by six the number of members whose addresses lie within these districts. The committee is happy to report that the six electoral districts are in compliance.\nThe committee has developed a petition on election procedures for president-elect and district director. The proposed election mechanism provides for a preferential (ranked) ballot and an \"instant runoff.\" N&E continues to address the areas of campaigning and the timing of our national election process. Between the Chicago and Boston meetings, the committee plans to sponsor online forums for input from councilors and other interested members on these issues.\nIn response to member concerns regarding the collection of signatures for petition candidates, N&E reviewed the society's bylaws. The bylaws state that an endorsement is required, but does not stipulate the method of endorsement. N&E has determined that original or electronic signatures are acceptable and will establish appropriate procedures for receipt of electronic signatures.\nThe Committee on Constitution & Bylaws (C&B), acting for the council, issued new certified bylaws to the Corning Section, the Portland Section, the Division of Colloid & Surface Chemistry, and the Division of Chemical Education. The committee reviewed new proposed amendments for the Division of Medicinal Chemistry, the Columbus Section, the Detroit Section, and the Southern Arizona Section.\nThree petitions were presented to council for action at this meeting. Regarding the \"Petition on Election Procedures 2006,\" a motion to separate the petition was approved, and the petition was divided. Provisions affecting bylaw V, sec. 2d, bylaw V, sec. 3c, and bylaw V, sec. 4f, which deal with election procedures and the timing of run-off elections, were approved by council and will become effective following confirmation by the board of directors.\nThe second part of the petition regarding bylaw V, sec. 2c, and bylaw V, sec. 3b, which deal with signature requirements for petition candidates for president-elect and director-at-large respectively, was recommitted to the Committee on Nominations & Elections, which has primary substantive responsibility for the petition.\nThe Committee on Nominations & Elections was asked to reconsider the signature requirements, procedures for acceptance of electronic signatures, and recommendations from the Governance Review Task Force on election procedures.\nThe second petition presented to council for action was the \"Petition on Rules for Nominating Members of N&E for National Offices.\" This petition was not approved by council. The third petition, the \"Petition on Multiyear Dues,\" was amended by incidental motion on the council floor, calling for the petition to become effective when technical components are instituted to track payments, but no later than Jan. 1, 2010. Council approved the incidental motion and then approved the petition.\nThe committee reviewed one petition for consideration, the \"Petition on Local Section Affiliations,\" which will be submitted to council for action at the fall 2007 meeting in Boston.\nThe committee met with representatives of the Committee on Membership Affairs and the Governance Review Task Force to continue discussions on proposals currently being formulated on membership requirements and student membership. In addition, the committee discussed election issues of concern to the Southern California Section.\nWe hope you enjoyed the presidential and division thematic program, \"Sustainability of Energy, Food & Water\" in Chicago. A small, dedicated group of volunteers and staff labored tirelessly to create and coordinate this programming; to them the Committee on Divisional Activities (DAC) offers sincere thanks.\nDAC has committed to transfer the process of choosing and organizing future national meeting themes to a body that represents all divisions. We made substantial progress in Chicago, where division, secretariat, and committee representatives convened to discuss national meeting program concepts. They proposed themes for the 2008 Philadelphia national meeting as well as a framework for a future national programming group.\nDivisions have successfully served their members fortunate enough to attend national meetings. To maximize benefits to division members, DAC encourages divisions to consider extending the reach of the content they deliver at national meetings through Internet-based distribution channels and will support worthy efforts in this direction via Innovative Program Grants.\nThe committee voted in Chicago to propose modifications to the division funding formula that will more greatly reward interdisciplinary programming. The new formula will also be simpler and more transparent to divisions. DAC will present the revised plan to council for action in Boston.\nThe Committee on Economic & Professional Affairs (CEPA), working with ACS staff in the Departments of Career Management & Development and Member Research & Technology, continues to update and implement its strategic plan to address the career needs of society members.\nSpecifically, the committee reviewed and revised existing workshops and materials to help ACS members get jobs. CEPA is developing new programs to address the needs of mid- and late-career chemists to ensure their continued competitiveness in the workplace and to ease their career transitions. New initiatives in these areas include the development of workshops, online training, surveys to assess member needs, suggested changes to public policies, and updates to professional and ethical workplace guidelines. As a result of discussions at the Public Policy Roundtable, which was held in San Francisco, a background paper is being developed on trends in health care issues.\nThe newly revised \"Chemical Professional's Code of Conduct\" was presented to council, which approved it. The Standards & Ethics Subcommittee is preparing a revision of the \"Academic Professional Guidelines\" to be presented to council for consideration in Boston.\nCEPA reviewed the Globalization Task Force Report. As our science diffuses around the globe, we want to make sure that our members are aware of the economic and professional challenges they will face and that they have the tools they need to succeed. Therefore, CEPA made a commitment to work with other committees, divisions, and ACS staff to develop programs and policies that position our membership to compete in the global workforce.\nCEPA heard and discussed a presentation on the proposal from the Membership Affairs Committee on broadening the requirements of membership. CEPA supports the spirit of this proposal and encourages further detailed studies to assess financial impacts on local sections and student affiliates chapters.\nThe Local Section Activities Committee (LSAC) recognized local sections celebrating significant anniversaries in 2007, including Savannah River (50 years), Northeast Tennessee (75 years), and the St. Louis and Syracuse local sections (both celebrating 100 years).\nLSAC hosted the local section leaders track in conjunction with the ACS Leaders Conference in Baltimore on Jan. 26–28. A total of 135 delegates from 124 local sections participated in the weekend leadership conference.\nLSAC also hosted a Local Section Summit on March 2–4 in Arlington, Va. The summit focused on practical operational issues that will support local sections' long-term success. Specific areas that were discussed include the development of a multiyear plan to expand or develop programming for local sections, opportunities to encourage innovation and experimentation within and among local sections, and capitalizing on existing opportunities to facilitate partnerships between local sections and other ACS groups.\nFollowing the San Francisco national meeting, LSAC launched a local section Science Café minigrant program. Fifty-five local sections accepted LSAC invitation to host Science Cafés in 2007.\nA DVD entitled \"ACS Close to Home: Local Sections Connecting Chemistry & the Community\" was released earlier this year. The video provides a seven-minute overview of the many outreach and educational programs sponsored by local sections and the critical role they play in positively influencing the public's perception of chemistry and its practitioners. Copies of the DVD were sent to all local section officers.\nThe Committee on Meetings & Expositions (M&E) reported that the 233rd ACS national meeting hosted 14,520 attendees. This included 7,152 chemical scientists, 5,059 students, 1,283 exhibitors, 119 precollege teachers, 573 exposition visitors, and 453 guests. The exposition had 424 booths with 268 companies.\nThe 10 2006 regional meetings set a new standard for excellence with attendance exceeding 8,000, a 30% increase in average meeting attendance compared to the 2005 meetings. A total of 4,717 abstracts were submitted. A region summit was held in February at which the final report of the ReACT study group was reviewed.\nThe practice of tracking the number of presenter no-shows continues. M&E will collaborate with the Committee on Divisional Activities to study options for addressing this problem. Suggestions will be presented at the Boston meeting for implementation in 2008.\nIt is the intent of M&E to pursue the goal of making our meetings \"greener.\" We will communicate with staff and governance units to identify actions for both the short and long term.\nThe American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) and ACS will hold their 2008 spring meetings simultaneously in New Orleans. An ad hoc working group consisting of members from M&E, DAC, and AIChE are actively exploring joint programming opportunities for this meeting.\nThe Committee on Membership Affairs (MAC) met in executive session on Saturday and Sunday in Chicago and reported that the ACS closed 2006 with 160,491 members, our highest year-end membership count since 2002. Of the 17,857 applications processed in 2006, more than 1,000 came from the Member-Get-a-Member campaign in which many councilors participated. The society's retention rate in 2006 remained strong at 92%. The committee also reported that recruitment for the first two months of 2007 netted 2,844 new applications—729 more than for the same time period last year.\nMAC continues to work with deliberate speed on the proposed new bylaw language for members, student members, and society affiliates-the three ways to connect to the society. The committee received input from the Governance Review Task Force and its action teams, the Council Policy Committee, the board of directors, the Committee on Constitution & Bylaws, and several other committees between the San Francisco and Chicago meetings. These interactions have resulted in the current bylaw change recommendations.\nIn Chicago, representatives from MAC attended several committee meetings and all seven councilor caucuses to summarize the current proposal for membership changes, answer questions, and seek input. In addition, all committee chairs were invited to have their respective committees review these bylaw changes and respond to MAC—if possible—before council met on Wednesday. MAC received 11 responses: eight supported the proposed changes as is, and three supported the proposed language with specified changes or considerations.\nThe comprehensive petition will likely represent the most significant and voluminous change in the ACS bylaws that has occurred in decades, and MAC is proud to be among the leaders in its development and in efforts to get it right the first time. Hundreds of individuals have contributed to this major effort, since MAC began such discussions at the spring 2004 national meeting.\nThe Committee on Ethics met in Chicago and discussed the possibility of organizing and scheduling a committee retreat in the near future to enable the committee to move from the current stage of exploring the needs and interests of ACS members to setting priorities for the next few years.\nThe Project SEED program offers summer research opportunities for high school students from economically disadvantaged families. Since its inception in 1968, the program has had a significant impact on the lives of more than 8,400 students. At the selection meeting in March, the committee approved research projects for 340 SEED I students and 98 SEED II students for this summer in more than 100 institutions.\nThe 2006 annual assessment surveys from 300 students indicate that 78% of the Project SEED participants are planning to major in a chemistry-related science, and 66% aspire to continue to graduate education. This program is made possible by contributions from industry, academia, local sections, ACS friends and members, the ACS Petroleum Research Fund, and the Project SEED Endowment.\nThe committee formally submitted a request to ConC to amend the Project SEED acronym and the committee duties described in the Supplementary Information of the \"ACS Charter, Constitution, Bylaws & Regulations.\"\nIn Chicago, the committee's agenda focused on the ACS Strategic Plan and how Project SEED fits into it, the Program Review Advisory Group (PRAG) review of the Project SEED program, the committee's review of an online application form, and planning of the 40th anniversary celebration to be held at the Philadelphia meeting in the fall of 2008. The committee selected a task force to review the criteria for selection of the Project SEED ChemLuminary Award.\n3. Making ACS relevant to technicians.\nLast year, CTA, along with the Division of Chemical Technicians, the Committee on Economic & Professional Affairs, and ChemTechLinks, started the Equipping the 2015 Chemical Technology Workforce initiative. This year, the initiative awarded six $500 minigrants to activities and programs that support the educational and professional development of chemical technicians.\nWe are pleased to announce that the winners of the minigrants are the ACS Division of Environmental Chemistry; the Chemical Technician Program Chair for the 39th ACS Central Regional Meeting in Covington, Ky.; Delta College, University Center, Mich.; Grand Rapids Community College, in Michigan; Mount San Antonio College, Walnut, Calif.; and Southwestern College in Chula Vista, Calif.\nThe winners are collaborating with industry, academia, and ACS local sections on such activities as chemical technology career fairs for high school students, discussion panels on employability skills for technicians, and technical programming at regional and national meetings on the vital role technicians have in the chemical enterprise.\nBecause of the enthusiastic response to the minigrants, Equipping the 2015 Chemical Technology Workforce will be supporting another round of minigrants to be distributed in the fall. Details will be available on the website. For more information, go to www.ChemTechLinks.org and click on \"Equipping the 2015 Chemical Technology Workforce.\"\nCTA has also joined with the Joint Subcommittee on Diversity, formerly known as the Collaboration of Committees Working Group. Because this group is focused on increasing diversity in ACS and the chemical enterprise, we believe that this is an opportunity to raise awareness of the value of technicians. CTA looks forward to collaborating on the promotion of traditionally underrepresented chemical professionals.\nIn 2007, CTA will be placing renewed focus on distribution of the ACS Chemical Technology Student Recognition Award. The award recognizes academic excellence in students preparing for careers as chemical technicians. For more information on the award, please visit the CTA website at chemistry.org/committees/cta.", "answers": ["There are 14,520 attendees, including 7,152 chemical scientists, 5,059 students, 1,283 exhibitors, 119 precollege teachers, 573 exposition visitors, and 453 guests."], "length": 6444, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "ddfed65e5495d0257b22a9537993c3453d8590cc94b8e0d6"}
{"input": "Is the ISR necessary for transgene reactivation?", "context": "Current address: Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.\nIn a variety of species, reduced food intake, and in particular protein or amino acid (AA) restriction, extends lifespan and healthspan. However, the underlying epigenetic and/or transcriptional mechanisms are largely unknown, and dissection of specific pathways in cultured cells may contribute to filling this gap. We have previously shown that, in mammalian cells, deprivation of essential AAs (methionine/cysteine or tyrosine) leads to the transcriptional reactivation of integrated silenced transgenes, including plasmid and retroviral vectors and latent HIV-1 provirus, by a process involving epigenetic chromatic remodeling and histone acetylation. Here we show that the deprivation of methionine/cysteine also leads to the transcriptional upregulation of endogenous retroviruses, suggesting that essential AA starvation affects the expression not only of exogenous non-native DNA sequences, but also of endogenous anciently-integrated and silenced parasitic elements of the genome. Moreover, we show that the transgene reactivation response is highly conserved in different mammalian cell types, and it is reproducible with deprivation of most essential AAs. The General Control Non-derepressible 2 (GCN2) kinase and the downstream integrated stress response represent the best candidates mediating this process; however, by pharmacological approaches, RNA interference and genomic editing, we demonstrate that they are not implicated. Instead, the response requires MEK/ERK and/or JNK activity and is reproduced by ribosomal inhibitors, suggesting that it is triggered by a novel nutrient-sensing and signaling pathway, initiated by translational block at the ribosome, and independent of mTOR and GCN2. Overall, these findings point to a general transcriptional response to essential AA deprivation, which affects the expression of non-native genomic sequences, with relevant implications for the epigenetic/transcriptional effects of AA restriction in health and disease.\nCopyright: © 2018 De Vito et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.\nData Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. RNAseq data are available in the ArrayExpress database under the accession number E-MTAB-6452.\nFunding: This study was funded by the Ajinomoto Innovation Alliance Program, (AIAP; https://www.ajinomoto.com/en/rd/AIAP/index.html#aiap) (to M.V.S and D.G), which is a joint research initiative of Ajinomoto Co., Inc., Japan. One of the authors [M.B.] is an employee of Ajinomoto Co., and his specific roles are articulated in the ‘author contributions’ section. The commercial funder provided support in the form of salary for author [M.B.] and some of the necessary research materials (medium for cell culture), but did not have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, or preparation of the manuscript, and the authors had unrestricted access to the data. Due to a confidentiality agreement, the commercial funder participated only in the decision to publish the data obtained during the study, without any restriction.\nCompeting interests: This study was funded by Ajinomoto Co., Inc., Japan and one of the authors [M.B.] is an employee of this commercial funder. No other employment or consultancy relationships exist with the commercial funder, and no patents, products in development, or marketed products result from this study. The authors declare that no competing interests exist and that the commercial affiliation of one of the authors does not alter the adherence of authors to all PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.\nIn animals, excessive, insufficient, or imbalanced nutrient availability is known to strongly impact on phenotype and health, both short and long-term, and across generations [1, 2]. In particular, studies in yeast, animal models and humans have shown that reduced food intake, reducing either overall calories, or only sugars, proteins, or even single amino acids (AA), such as Methionine (Met), may extend lifespan and healthspan, and reduce the risk of cancer and other age-related diseases [3–9]. In addition, fasting or specific AA deprivation have shown potential therapeutic applications, owing to their ability to directly reduce the growth of some tumor types [10, 11], sensitize cancer cells to chemo- or immunotherapy [12, 13], and allow efficient hematopoietic stem cell engraftment . However, little is known about the specific processes and molecular mechanisms mediating the roles of nutrient restriction in human health and longevity.\nA properly balanced diet in metazoans contains optimal amounts of a subset of AA, which cannot be synthetized de novo and are therefore named essential amino acids (EAAs). In humans these include Met, Histidine (His), Isoleucine (Ile), Leucine (Leu), Lysine (Lys), Phenylalanine (Phe), Threonine (Thr), Tryptophan (Trp), and Valine (Val), while a few others are considered as semi-essential, such as Glutamine (Gln) and Tyrosine (Tyr) [15, 16]. Consistently, EAA deprivation triggers a cell-autonomous adaptive response, characterized by extensive metabolic and gene expression modifications, implementing biosynthetic, catabolic, and plasma membrane transport processes, aimed at reconstituting the full AA complement [17, 18]. The best known and conserved pathways responding to AA deprivation are triggered by mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1) and General amino acid Control Non-derepressible 2 (GCN2) protein kinases [15, 19, 20]. Activation of mTORC1 requires in particular the presence of Gln, Arg and Leu, but also Met , which activate the kinase through sensors mainly acting upstream of Rag GTPases at lysosomal membranes . In turn, mTORC1 promotes cell growth, proliferation and anabolism upon activation, and translational attenuation and autophagy upon inhibition [19, 20].\nBy contrast, GCN2 is activated by deprivation of any individual EAA, by means of its histidyl-tRNA synthetase-related domain, which binds uncharged tRNAs accumulating during AA limitation [23, 24]. Upon activation, GCN2 phosphorylates and inhibits its only known downstream target, namely the eukaryotic Initiation Factor 2 α (eIF2α), thereby initiating the Integrated Stress Response (ISR). This leads to attenuation of general translation, and induction of a transcriptional/translational program, aimed at increasing stress resistance and restoring cell homeostasis, by upregulating a specific subset of genes, including Activating Transcription Factor 4 (ATF4) and C/EBP-Homologous Protein (CHOP) [25–27]. Thus, inhibition of mTORC1 and activation of GCN2 by AA restriction cooperate to attenuate general translation at the initiation step, increase catabolism and turnover, and enhance stress resistance to promote adaptation . However, how these processes eventually induce protective mechanisms against the alterations associated with aging, which include pervasive epigenetic and transcriptional changes [28, 29], remains largely unknown.\nWe previously reported the unexpected observation that prolonged deprivation of either Tyr, or of both Methionine and Cysteine (Met/Cys), triggers the selective and reversible reactivation of exogenous transcriptional units, including plasmids, retroviral vectors and proviruses, integrated into the genome and transcriptionally repressed by defensive mechanisms against non-native DNA sequences [30, 31]. This phenomenon was observed both in HeLa epithelial and ACH-2 lymphocytic human cells, and was independent of the transgene or provirus (Ocular Albinism type 1, OA1; Green Fluorescent Protein, GFP; Lysosomal-Associated Membrane Protein 1, LAMP1; Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1, HIV-1), or of the exogenous promoter driving their transcription, either viral (cytomegalovirus, CMV; Long Terminal Repeat, LTR) or human (Phospho-Glycerate Kinase 1, PGK1; Elongation Factor-1α, EF-1α) . Furthermore, this transgene reactivation response was not reproduced by serum starvation, activation of p38, or pharmacological inhibitors of mTOR (PP242 or rapamycin), sirtuins and DNA methylation. By contrast, it was induced by pan histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, and by selective inhibitors of class II HDACs . Consistently, we found that the mechanism responsible involves epigenetic modifications at the transgene promoter, including reduced nucleosome occupancy and increased histone acetylation, and is mediated in part by reduced expression of a class II HDAC, namely HDAC4 .\nThese findings indicate that AA deprivation induces a specific epigenetic and transcriptional response, affecting the expression of newly-integrated exogenous transgenes and proviruses, and suggesting that endogenous sequences sharing similar structural and functional features may represent a transcriptional target as well [30, 31]. In particular, transposable elements, such as LTR-retrotransposons (or endogenous retroviruses, ERVs), are genomic “parasites” anciently-integrated into the genome, and silenced by epigenetic mechanisms of mammalian cells against the spreading of mobile elements, eventually becoming \"endogenized\" during evolution [32, 33]. This raises the question of whether their expression is also sensitive to AA restriction. In addition, it remains unclear whether or not the transgene reactivation response is related to specific AA deprivations, and most importantly which is the AA sensing/signaling pathway involved, in particular whether the GCN2 kinase is implicated. Thus, here we used the reactivation of silenced transgenes in cultured cells, as a model to investigate a novel molecular pathway induced by imbalanced EAA starvation, implicated in the epigenetic/transcriptional regulation of exogenous non-native DNA sequences and possibly of other endogenous anciently-integrated genomic elements.\nHeLa human epithelial carcinoma, HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma and C2C12 mouse skeletal muscle cells were maintained in DMEM containing glutaMAX (Invitrogen) and supplemented with 10% FBS (Sigma), 100 U/ml penicillin G (Invitrogen), 100 mg/ml streptomycin (Invitrogen), at 37°C in a 5% CO2 humidified atmosphere. Cell lines carrying integrated and partially silenced transgenes were also maintained in 600–1000 μg/ml G418.\nThe C2C12 cell line was provided by ATCC. HeLa and HepG2 cells were obtained by Drs. F. Blasi and G. Tonon at San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy, respectively, and were authenticated by Short Tandem Repeat (STR) profiling, using the Cell ID System kit (Promega), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, STR-based multiplex PCR was carried out in a final volume of 25 μL/reaction, including 5 μL Cell ID Enzyme Mix 5X, 2.5 μL Cell ID Primer Mix 10X and 3 ng of template DNA. The thermal cycling conditions were: 1 cycle at 96°C for 2 min, followed by 32 cycles at 94°C for 30 sec, 62°C for 90 sec, and 72°C for 90 sec, and 1 cycle at 60°C for 45 sec. The following STR loci were amplified: AMEL, CSF1PO, D13S317, D16S539, D21S11, D5S818, D7S820, TH01, TPOX, vWA. Fragment length analysis of STR-PCR products was performed by Eurofins Genomics, using standard procedures of capillary electrophoresis on the Applied Biosystems 3130 XL sequencing machine, and assessment of the STR profile was performed at the online STR matching analysis service provided at http://www.dsmz.de/fp/cgi-bin/str.html.\nStable cell clones, expressing myc-tagged human OA1 (GPR143) or GFP transcripts, were generated using pcDNA3.1/OA1myc-His or pcDNA3.1/EGFP vectors . Briefly, HeLa, HepG2 and C2C12 cells were transfected using FuGENE 6 (Roche) and selected with 800, 1000, and 650 μg/ml of G418 (Sigma), respectively, which was maintained thereafter to avoid loss of plasmid integration. G418-resistant clones were isolated and analyzed for protein expression by epifluorescence and/or immunoblotting.\nFull DMEM-based medium, carrying the entire AA complement, and media deprived of Met/Cys (both AAs), Met (only), Cys (only), Alanine (Ala), Thr, Gln, Val, Leu, Tyr, Trp, Lys and His were prepared using the Nutrition free DMEM (cat.#09077–05, from Nacalai Tesque, Inc., Kyoto, Japan), by adding Glucose, NaHCO3, and either all 20 AAs (for full medium) or 18–19 AAs only (for deprivations of two-one AAs). Single AAs, Glucose, and NaHCO3 were from Sigma. Further details and amounts utilized are indicated in S1 Table. All media were supplemented with 10% dialyzed FBS (Invitrogen), 100 U/ml penicillin G (Invitrogen), 100 mg/ml streptomycin (Invitrogen), and G418 as required. HBSS was from Invitrogen. Cells were seeded at 10–30% of confluency; cells to be starved for 48 h were plated 2–3 times more confluent compared to the control. The following day, cells were washed and cultured in the appropriate medium, with or without EAA, for 24–48 h.\nL-Histidinol (HisOH), PP242, Integrated Stress Response Inhibitor (ISRIB), SP600125, Cycloheximide (CHX) were from Sigma; Salubrinal was from Tocris Bioscience; U0126 was from Promega. Drugs were used at the following final concentrations: HisOH at 4–16 mM; PP242 at 1–3 μM; ISRIB at 100 nM; SP600125 at 20 μM in HepG2 cells and 50 μM in HeLa cells; Cycloheximide (CHX) at 50 ug/ml in HepG2 cells and 100 ug/ml in HeLa cells; Salubrinal at 75 μM; U0126 at 50 μM. Vehicle was used as mock control. Treatments with drugs to be tested for their ability to inhibit transgene reactivation (ISRIB, SP600125 and U0126) were initiated 1h before the subsequent addition of L-Histidinol (ISRIB) or the subsequent depletion of Met/Cys (SP600125 and U0126).\nTotal RNA was purified using the RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen), according to manufacturer’s instructions. RNA concentration was determined by Nanodrop 8000 Spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific). Equal amount (1 μg) of RNA from HeLa, HepG2 and C2C12 cells was reverse transcribed using the SuperScript First-Strand Synthesis System for RT-PCR (Invitrogen) using oligo-dT as primers, and diluted to 5 ng/μl. The cDNA (2 μl) was amplified by real-time PCR using SYBR green Master Mix on a Light Cycler 480 (Roche), according to manufacturer’s instructions. The thermal cycling conditions were: 1 cycle at 95°C for 5 min, followed by 40–45 cycles at 95° for 20 sec, 56° for 20 sec and 72° for 20 sec. The sequences, efficiencies and annealing temperatures of the primers are provided in S2 Table. Data were analyzed with Microsoft Excel using the formula EtargetΔct target (control-sample) /EreferenceΔct reference (control-sample) . Reference genes for normalizations were ARPC2 (actin-related protein 2/3 complex, subunit 2) for HeLa and HepG2 cells; and Actb (actin beta) for C2C12 cells, unless otherwise indicated.\nsiRNA (Mission esiRNA, 200 ng/μL; Sigma) against ATF4 and GCN2 were designed against the targeted sequences NM_001675 and NM_001013703, respectively. Cells seeded in 6-well plates were transfected with 1 μg of siRNAs and 5 μL of Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen), following manufacturer’s instructions, at day 1 post-plating for ATF4 and at day 1 and 2 post-plating for GCN2. At day 2 (ATF4) or 3 (GCN2) post-plating, cells were washed and cultured in medium in the absence or presence of HisOH 4 mM for 6 h. siRNAs against RLuc (Sigma), targeting Renilla Luciferase, were used as negative control. For CRISPR/Cas9 experiments, we used the “all-in-one Cas9-reporter” vector, expressing GFP (Sigma), which is characterized by a single vector format including the Cas9 protein expression cassette and gRNA (guide RNA). GFP is co-expressed from the same mRNA as the Cas9 protein, enabling tracking of transfection efficiency and enrichment of transfected cells by fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS). The human U6 promoter drives gRNA expression, and the CMV promoter drives Cas9 and GFP expression. The oligonucleotide sequences for the three gRNAs targeting GCN2 exon 1 or 6 are listed in S2 Table. We transfected HeLa and HepG2 cells with these plasmids individually (one plasmid one guide) and sorted the GFP-positive, transfected cells by FACS. Screening GCN2-KO clones was performed by western blotting. In the case of HepG2-OA1 cells, two rounds of selection were necessary to obtain three GCN2-KO clones by using a guide RNA against exon 1. Compared to the original HepG2-OA1 cell line and to the clone resulting from the first round of selection (185#27), the selected clones E23, F22 and F27 showed a very low amount—if any—of residual GCN2 protein (see results).\nGenomic DNA of HeLa and HepG2 cells was purified using DNeasy Blood and Tissue kit (Qiagen), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. DNA concentration was determined by Nanodrop 8000 Spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific). PCR conditions for amplification of GCN2 exon 1 and 6 were as follows: 1 cycle at 94°C for 5 min, followed by 35 cycles at 94°C for 40 sec, 56°C for 40 sec, and 72°C for 40 sec; and a final extension step of 5 min at 72°C. The primer sequences are provided in S2 Table.\nFor OA1, western immunoblotting was carried out as described . For GCN2, cells were lysed in RIPA buffer, boiled at 95°C for 5 min and resolved on a 7.5% polyacrylamide gel; immunoblotting was then performed following standard procedures. Primary Abs were as follows: anti-human OA1, previously developed by our group in rabbits ; anti-GCN2 (Cell Signaling, Cat. #3302).\nStatistical analyses were performed using Microsoft Excel for Mac (version 15.32, Microsoft) for Student’s t-test; or GraphPad Prism (version 5.0d for Mac, GraphPad Software, Inc.) for one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Dunnett’s or Tukey’s multiple comparisons post-tests. T-test was used when only two means, typically sample versus control, were compared, as specified in the figure legends. One way ANOVA was used for multiple comparisons, followed by either a Dunnett’s (to compare every mean to a control mean), or a Tukey’s (to compare every mean with every other mean) post-test, by setting the significance level at 0.05 (95% confidence intervals). Both tests compare the difference between means to the amount of scatter, quantified using information from all the groups. Specifically, Prism computes the Tukey-Kramer test, allowing unequal sample sizes. P values in Figures are generally referred to comparison between a sample and the control (full medium/mock), and are indicated as follows: *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001. Comparisons not involving the control are similarly indicated, by a horizontal line at the top of the graphs, encompassing the two samples under analysis. Additional details regarding the specific experiments are reported in the Figure Legends.\nTo examine the expression behavior of genomic repeats upon AA starvation, we performed a transcriptomic analysis taking advantage of an intramural sequencing facility. HeLa-OA1 cells were cultured in normal medium (for 6-30-120 hours) or in absence of Met/Cys (for 6-15-30-72-120 hours). Total RNA was prepared using Trizol (Sigma) to preserve transcripts of both small and long sizes (from Alu, of about 0.3 kb, to Long Interspersed Nuclear Elements, LINEs, and ERVs, up to 6–8 kb long), DNase treated to avoid contamination of genomic DNA, and processed for NGS sequencing by Ovation RNA-Seq System V2 protocol and HiSeq 2000 apparatus. Raw sequence data (10–20 M reads/sample) were aligned to the human genome (build hg19) with SOAPSplice . Read counts over repeated regions, defined by RepeatMasker track from UCSC genome browser , were obtained using bedtools suite . Normalization factors and read dispersion (d) were estimated with edgeR , variation of abundance during time was analyzed using maSigPro package , fitting with a negative binomial distribution (Θ = 1/d, Q = 0.01), with a cutoff on stepwise regression fit r2 = 0.7. Read counts were transformed to RPKM for visualization purposes. The expression of the OA1 transgene and HDAC4, which are progressively up- and down-regulated during starvation, respectively , were used as internal controls.\nFor genomic repeat analysis, reads belonging to repetitive elements were classified according to RepeatMasker and assigned to repeat classes (total number in the genome = 21), families (total number in the genome = 56) and finally subfamilies (total number in the genome = 1396), each including a variable number of genomic loci (from a few hundred for endogenous retroviruses, up to several thousand for Alu). Repeat subfamilies were then clustered according to their expression pattern in starved vs control cells, by maSigPro using default parameters, and repeats classes or families that are significantly enriched in each cluster, compared to all genomic repeats, were identified by applying a Fisher Exact test (using scipy.stats, a statistical module of Python). Alternatively, differentially expressed repeat subfamilies were identified by averaging three time points of starvation (15-30-72 h) and controls. Repeats significantly up- or downregulated (104 and 77, respectively) were selected based on a P value <0.05 (unpaired two-tailed Student’s t-test, assuming equal variance), and analyzed for their class enrichment by a Fisher Exact test as described above.\nFor gene set enrichment analysis of Met/Cys deprived vs control HeLa cells, differentially expressed genes were selected considering three time points of starvation (15-30-72 h) and controls, based on a P value <0.05 (unpaired two-tailed Student’s t-test, assuming equal variance) and a fold change >2. This led to a total of 2033 differentially expressed genes, 996 upregulated and 1037 downregulated. The enrichment analysis was performed separately for up and down regulated genes, or with all differentially expressed genes together (both), using the KEGG database. The analysis was performed with correction for the background of all expressed genes (about 13600 genes showing an average expression over 3 starvation and 3 control samples of at least 5 counts) and by using default parameters (adjusted P value and q-value cut-off of <0.05 and 0.2, respectively). Differentially expressed genes were also selected considering all starvation time points, as with genomic repeats, by maSigPro using default parameters, and a fold change of at least 1.5, leading to similar enrichment results (not shown). RNAseq gene expression data are available in the ArrayExpress database under the accession number E-MTAB-6452.\nTo provide proof-of-principle that AA starvation may affect the expression of transposable elements, we performed an RNAseq analysis of the previously described HeLa-OA1 cells, carrying an integrated and partially silenced OA1 transgene . Since the reactivation of the transgene by starvation is a progressive phenomenon , we performed a time-course experiment, where each time point represents one biological sample, rather than a biological triplicate of a single time point. To this aim, cells were cultured either in normal medium, or in absence of Met/Cys for different time points (6-15-30-72-120 hours), resulting in the progressive upregulation of the OA1 transgene during starvation (Fig 1A and 1B), consistent with previously published results . The expression of genomic repeats was determined according to RepeatMasker annotation and classification into classes, families, and subfamilies. Repeat species were then subjected to differential expression and enrichment analyses in starved vs control conditions. Out of 1396 annotated repeat subfamilies, 172 species displayed a differential expression profile during starvation.\nFig 1. Exogenous transgene and endogenous retroviruses are upregulated in Met/Cys-deprived HeLa cells.\n(A,B) Exogenous integrated transgene (OA1) mRNA abundance in HeLa-OA1 cells, cultured in Met/Cys-deprived medium for the indicated time points, and analyzed by RNAseq (A), or RT-qPCR (B), compared to full medium. Data represent RPKM (A), or mean ± SD of 2 technical replicates, expressed as fold change vs. control (full medium at 6 h = 1) (B). (C) Clustering of 172 genomic repeat subfamilies, differentially expressed upon starvation, according to their expression profile. (D) Class distribution of repeat subfamilies belonging to differential expression clusters, compared to all genomic repeat subfamilies (first column). Class DNA includes DNA transposons; SINE includes Alu; LINE includes L1 an L2; LTR includes endogenous retroviruses and solitary LTRs; Satellite includes centromeric acrosomal and telomeric satellites; Others includes SVA, simple repeats, snRNA, and tRNAs. LTR-retroelements are significantly enriched among repeats that are upregulated upon starvation, while LINEs are significantly enriched among repeats that are downregulated. *P<0.05, ***P<0.001 (Fisher exact test).\nAs shown in Fig 1C, the clustering of differentially expressed repeats, according to their expression pattern, reveals profiles comparable to the behavior of the transgene in the same conditions, i.e. upregulation upon starvation and no change in regular medium (Cluster 1 and 2). In particular, Cluster 1 contains sequences that, similarly to the OA1 transgene, are progressively upregulated upon starvation (Fig 1A and 1C) , while Cluster 2 contains sequences that are upregulated at early time points. Interestingly, repeat families that are significantly enriched in these two clusters belong mostly to the group of LTR-retrotransposons, including ERV1, ERVK, ERVL, ERVL-MaLR and other LTR sequences (Fig 1D; S1A and S2A Figs). By contrast, DNA transposons (such as TcMar-Tigger) and L1 non-LTR retrotransposons are enriched among repeats that are downregulated during starvation, particularly at late time points (Clusters 3 and 4) (Fig 1D; S1A and S2A Figs). Consistent results were obtained by selecting significantly up- or downregulated genomic repeats (overall 181 species), based on their average expression out of three time points of starvation (15-30-72 h, when the transgene upregulation is more homogeneous) and controls, and on a P value <0.05 (S1B and S2B Figs). These findings suggest that EAA starvation induces genome-wide effects involving repetitive elements, and that—among major repeat classes—it upregulates in particular the expression of ERVs.\nIn addition, to obtain a general overview of main gene pathways changing their expression together with the transgene during AA starvation, we performed gene expression and enrichment analyses of regular genes, by considering three time points of starvation (15-30-72 h) and controls. Differentially expressed genes were selected based on a P value <0.05 and a fold change between means of at least 2, and analyzed with the EnrichR tool . As shown in Fig 2 and S1 File, enrichment analyses against the KEGG and Reactome databases reveals a predominance of downregulated pathways, namely ribosome and translation, proteasome, AA metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation and other pathways related to mitochondrial functions, which are affected in Huntington, Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases (http://www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html). In particular, a large fraction of ribosomal protein mRNAs is downregulated upon Met/Cys starvation (Fig 2A and 2C; S1 File), consistent with the notion that their genes–despite being scattered throughout the genome—are coordinately expressed in a variety of conditions . This reduced expression may depend on multiple pathways that control ribosome biogenesis in response to external stimuli, including the downregulation of Myc activity , the downregulation of mTORC1 [42, 44], or possibly the activation of the ISR, as described in yeast . By contrast, upregulated genes show a significant enrichment for transcription and gene expression (Fig 2B). Similar results were obtained by the Gene Ontology Biological Process (GO-BP) database (S1 File), overall indicating a general downregulation of translation and metabolism, and upregulation of transcription, during the time interval of Met/Cys starvation corresponding to the transgene upregulation.\nFig 2. Gene set enrichment analysis of Met/Cys-deprived HeLa cells.\nDifferentially expressed genes between three time points of starvation (15-30-72 h) and controls were selected based on a P value <0.05 and a fold change of at least 2, leading to a total of 996 upregulated, and 1037 downregulated genes. The enrichment analysis was performed separately for up and down regulated genes, using the EnrichR tool and the KEGG (A) and REACTOME (B, C) databases. Ranking is based on the combined score provided by EnrichR, and categories are displayed up to 20 items with an Adjusted P value <0.05. No significant categories were found with upregulated genes against the KEGG database. All data are shown in S1 File. The enrichment analysis using all differentially expressed genes together did not reveal any additional enriched process.\nTo characterize the pathway leading to the reactivation of silenced transgenes, we used HeLa-OA1 and HeLa-GFP cells, as described . In addition, to test cell types relevant for AA metabolism, such as liver and muscle, we generated clones of HepG2 human hepatoma and C2C12 mouse skeletal muscle cells, stably transfected with plasmids for OA1 and GFP transgenes, respectively (HepG2-OA1 and C2C12-GFP cells; endogenous OA1 is not expressed in any of these cell types). In all cases, the integrated transgenes are under the control of the CMV promoter in the context of a pcDNA3.1 plasmid, are partially silenced, and can be efficiently upregulated by HDAC inhibitors (trichostatin A, TSA; ref.  and S3A, S3B and S4A Figs), indicating that their expression is controlled at least in part by epigenetic mechanisms, as previously described .\nTo establish whether the reactivation response results from the shortage of specific AAs only, such as Met/Cys, or it is triggered by any AA deprivations, we cultured HeLa-OA1, HeLa-GFP, HepG2-OA1 and C2C12-GFP cells for 24–48 hours with a battery of media deprived of EAAs or semi-EAAs, including Met/Cys, Thr, Gln, Val, Leu, Tyr, Trp, Lys, and His. As negative controls, cells were cultured in full medium, carrying the entire AA complement, and in a medium deprived of Ala, a non-essential AA. The expression of the transgene transcript was then evaluated by RT-qPCR. As shown in Fig 3, and in S3C and S4B Figs, most EAA-deficiencies induced reactivation of the OA1 or GFP transgenes in all four cell lines, with the notable exception of Trp deprivation, which consistently resulted in no or minimal reactivation of the transgenes. Indeed, despite some variability, Met/Cys deficiency, but also Thr, Val, Tyr, and His deprivation always gave an efficient response, while Leu, Gln and Lys elicited evident responses in some cases, but not in others. Depletion of Phe gave results comparable to Tyr deprivation, however it significantly altered multiple reference genes used for normalization and therefore was eventually omitted from the analysis (not shown). Finally, in the above experiments we used a combined Met/Cys deficiency, to avoid the potential sparing of Met by Cys  and for consistency with our previous studies . Nevertheless, the analysis of single Met or Cys starvation, both at the protein and transcript levels, revealed an exclusive role of Met deprivation in transgene reactivation, consistent with the notion that Cys is not an EAA (S3D and S3E Fig).\nFig 3. EAA deprivation induces reactivation of silent transgenes in HeLa and HepG2 cells.\nRelative transgene (OA1) and CHOP mRNA abundance in HeLa-OA1 (A) and HepG2-OA1 (B) cells, cultured in various AA-deprived media for 48 h and 24 h, respectively, compared to full medium. Mean ± SEM of 3 independent experiments. Data are expressed as fold change vs. control (full medium = 1). *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001 (one way ANOVA, followed by Dunnett’s post-test vs. full medium).\nCollectively, these results indicate that transgene reactivation by EAA starvation is reproducible with most EAAs, shared by different cell types (epithelium, liver, and skeletal muscle), and conserved in different mammalian species (human, mouse).\nmTORC1 inhibition and GCN2 activation trigger the best-known signaling pathways responding to AA starvation . We previously showed that inhibition of mTORC1 is not sufficient to reproduce transgene reactivation in HeLa cells . By contrast, the involvement of GCN2 and the ISR, including the downstream effectors ATF4 and CHOP, has never been tested. In addition, this pathway has been typically assessed in transient assays, lasting for a few hours, which may not be comparable with the prolonged starvation conditions necessary to reactivate the transgene expression (at least 15–24 h). Thus, we tested whether CHOP expression was upregulated upon incubation of HeLa-OA1, HepG2-OA1 and C2C12-GFP cells in media deprived of different EAAs for 24–48 h.\nAs shown in Fig 3 and S4B Fig, we found that CHOP expression is increased in all EAA-starvation conditions, but not in the absence of Ala, in all tested cell lines. Similar, yet less pronounced, results were obtained with ATF4, consistent with the notion that activation of this transcription factor is mainly mediated by translational upregulation (not shown) [15, 26]. However, the upregulation of CHOP does not parallel quantitatively that of the transgene, neither appears sufficient to induce it. In fact, CHOP is highly upregulated even upon Trp starvation, which consistently results in no or minimal reactivation of the transgenes (compare CHOP with OA1 or GFP expression; Fig 3 and S4B Fig). Thus, while the ISR appears widely activated upon EAA starvation, the upregulation of its downstream effector CHOP only partly correlates with transgene reactivation and may not be sufficient to induce it.\nThe activation of the ISR upon AA starvation suggests that GCN2 may be involved in the transgene reactivation response. Therefore, we tested whether direct pharmacological activation of this kinase is sufficient to trigger the transgene reactivation similarly to starvation. In addition, we used pharmacological inhibitors of mTOR to corroborate previous negative results in HeLa cells  in the other cell lines under study. To this aim, HeLa-OA1 or GFP, HepG2-OA1 and C2C12-GFP cells were cultured in the presence of different concentrations of PP242 (mTOR inhibitor) or L-Histidinol (GCN2 activator, inhibiting tRNAHis charging by histidyl-tRNA synthetase), either alone or in combination for 24 h, compared to Met/Cys-deprived and full medium. As shown in Fig 4 and S5 Fig, while inhibition of mTORC1 consistently leads to minor or no effects, in agreement with previous findings , treatment with L-Histidinol results in efficient reactivation of the transgene in HepG2-OA1 and C2C12-GFP cells, but not in HeLa cells.\nFig 4. mTOR inhibition and GCN2 activation differently affect transgene expression in HeLa and HepG2 cells.\nRelative transgene (OA1) and CHOP mRNA abundance in HeLa-OA1 (A) and HepG2-OA1 (B) cells, cultured in Met/Cys-deprived medium, or in the presence of PP242 (mTOR inhibitor; 1–3 μM) or L-Histidinol (HisOH, GCN2 activator; 4–16 mM), either alone or in combination for 24–48 h, compared to full medium. Mean ± SEM of 4 (A) or 3 (B) independent experiments. Data are expressed as fold change vs. control (full medium = 1). *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001 (one way ANOVA, followed by Dunnett’s post-test vs. full medium). PP-1 and PP-3, PP242 at 1 and 3 μM, respectively; HisOH-4 and HisOH-16, L-Histidinol at 4 and 16 mM, respectively.\nSpecifically, L-Histidinol is not effective in HeLa-OA1 and HeLa-GFP cells, either alone or in combination with PP242 (Fig 4A and S5A Fig), or by using different concentrations of the drug, with or without serum (not shown). In these cells, L-Histidinol appears also unable to trigger the ISR, as indicated by lack of CHOP upregulation, possibly due to their different sensitivity to the drug. These findings are consistent with previous reports, describing the use of L-Histidinol in HeLa cells in conditions of low His concentration in the culture medium , which would resemble AA starvation in our system and therefore may not be applicable. Thus, even though the amount of the amino alcohol was adapted to exceed 20 to 80 times that of the amino acid, as described , HeLa cells may be resistant or able to compensate.\nIn contrast, in other cell types, L-Histidinol has been utilized in regular DMEM, to mimic the AA response triggered by DMEM lacking His [48, 49]. Consistently, in HepG2-OA1 cells, L-Histidinol is sufficient to elicit extremely high levels of transgene reactivation, and its combination with PP242 results in additive or even synergistic effects, possibly due to an indirect effect of mTOR inhibition on GCN2 activity (Fig 4B) [50, 51]. Similarly, C2C12-GFP cells efficiently reactivate the transgene upon treatment with L-Histidinol, but not PP242 (S5B Fig). However, differently from HepG2-OA1 cells, simultaneous treatment of C2C12-GFP cells with L-Histidinol and PP242 does not lead to synergistic effects. Consistent with stimulation of the ISR, CHOP and to a minor extent ATF4 are upregulated by L-Histidinol in both cell lines, yet their expression levels show only an incomplete correlation with those of the transgene (Fig 4B, S5B Fig, and not shown).\nThe finding that GCN2 activation by L-Histidinol is sufficient to reactivate the transgenes in both HepG2-OA1 and C2C12-GFP cells pointed to this kinase, and to the downstream ISR, as the pathway possibly involved in the EAA starvation response. Thus, we investigated whether the ISR is sufficient to trigger upregulation of the OA1 transgene in HepG2-OA1 cells by pharmacological means. As CHOP expression does not correspond quantitatively and is not sufficient to induce transgene reactivation, we tested the role of the core upstream event of the ISR, namely the phosphorylation of eIF2α , which can be induced by pharmacological treatments, independent of GCN2 (Fig 5A). To this aim, we used Salubrinal, a specific phosphatase inhibitor that blocks both constitutive and ER stress-induced phosphatase complexes against eIF2α, thereby increasing its phosphorylation . We found that, while the ISR is activated upon Salubrinal treatment, as shown by increased CHOP expression, it does not induce OA1 transgene reactivation (Fig 5B).\nFig 5. The ISR is neither sufficient nor necessary to induce transgene reactivation in HepG2 cells.\n(A) Schematic representation of GCN2 activation by AA starvation, resulting in phosphorylation of eIF2a and initiation of the downstream ISR. In addition to GCN2, the ISR may be activated by other eIF2a kinases (PKR, HRI and PERK; not shown in the picture). (B) Relative transgene (OA1) and CHOP mRNA abundance in HepG2-OA1 cells treated for 24 h with Salubrinal (a drug that induces the ISR by inhibiting the dephosphorylation of eIF2α; 75 μM), compared to full medium. Mean ± range of two experiments. Data are expressed as fold change vs. control (DMEM = 1). *P<0.05 (paired two-tailed Student’s t-test vs. control). (C) Relative transgene (OA1) and CHOP mRNA abundance in HepG2-OA1 cells treated for 6 h with L-Histidinol (HisOH, GCN2 activator; 4 mM), in the absence or presence of ISRIB (a drug that bypasses the phosphorylation of eIF2α, inhibiting triggering of the ISR; 100 nM). Mean ± range of two experiments. Data are expressed as fold change vs. control (DMEM = 1). **P<0.01, ***P<0.001 (one way ANOVA, followed by Tukey’s post-test; P values refer to comparisons vs. control, unless otherwise indicated). (D) Relative transgene (OA1) and ATF4 mRNA abundance in HepG2-OA1 cells transfected with control (CTRL) or anti-ATF4 siRNAs, and incubated in the presence or absence of L-Histidinol (HisOH, GCN2 activator; 4 mM) for 6 h. Mean ± range of two experiments. Data are expressed as fold change vs. control (w/o HisOH = 1, top; control siRNA = 1, bottom). *P<0.05 (one way ANOVA, followed by Tukey’s post-test; P values refer to comparisons vs. control, unless otherwise indicated).\nTo test whether the ISR is necessary to trigger the transgene response to L-Histidinol, we used the chemical compound ISRIB, which inhibits the activation of the ISR, even in the presence of phosphorylated eIF2α, likely by boosting the activity of the guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for eIF2α, namely eIF2B [53, 54]. HepG2-OA1 cells were stimulated with L-Histidinol, either in the presence or absence of ISRIB. As shown in Fig 5C, while the expression of CHOP is inhibited by ISRIB, as expected, the reactivation of the OA1 transgene is not affected. In addition, knockdown of the closest eIF2α downstream effector ATF4 by siRNAs does not interfere with the reactivation of the OA1 transgene by L-Histidinol (Fig 5D). Together, these data suggest that eIF2α phosphorylation and the downstream ISR pathway are neither sufficient nor necessary to induce transgene reactivation.\nTo definitively establish if GCN2 is necessary to trigger the transgene reactivation response to EAA starvation, we directly suppressed its expression by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knock-out (KO). We generated three independent GCN2-KO clones from the parental HeLa-OA1 cell line, by using three different guide RNAs, two against exon 1 (clones 183#11 and 185#5), and one against exon 6 (clone 239#1) of the GCN2 gene. Genomic characterization confirmed the presence of mutations on both alleles of exon 1 of the GCN2 gene in clone 183#11, and on both alleles of exon 6 in clone 239#1; by contrast, clone 185#5 showed multiple alleles in exon 1, consistent with the presence of two cell populations, and was not characterized further at the genomic level (S6 Fig). None of these clones express GCN2 at the protein level, as shown by immunoblotting (Fig 6A). To test the GCN2-KO cells for their ability to respond to EAA starvation, parental HeLa-OA1 cells and the three GCN2-KO clones were cultured in media deprived of Met/Cys or Thr (corresponding to the most effective treatments in this cell line; see Fig 3A) for 24–48 h and transgene expression was assessed by RT-qPCR. We found that the reactivation of the OA1 transgene is neither abolished, nor reduced by KO of GCN2, thus excluding that this kinase is necessary for the response to EAA starvation in HeLa-OA1 cells (Fig 6B and 6C).\nFig 6. GCN2 knockout does not interfere with transgene reactivation in HeLa cells.\n(A) Immunoblotting of protein extracts from the HeLa-OA1 parental cell line and GCN2-KO clones 183#11, 185#5 and 239#1, immunodecorated with anti-GCN2 antibody. Arrow, GCN2 specific band. Ponceau staining was used as loading control. (B, C) Relative transgene (OA1) mRNA abundance in HeLa-OA1 cells and GCN2-KO clones, cultured in Met/Cys (B) or Thr (C) deprived medium for 24 h or 48 h, respectively, compared to full medium. Mean ± SD of 3 technical replicates from 1 experiment. Data are expressed as fold change vs. control (full medium = 1). Since independent clones may display variable reactivation responses (e.g. due to different levels of transgene expression in basal conditions), the results are not shown as means of the three clones, but as separate replicates.\nSimilarly, we generated GCN2-KO clones from the parental HepG2-OA1 cell line by the same strategy. By using a guide RNA against exon 1 of the GCN2 gene, we obtained three independent GCN2-KO clones, namely E23, F22 and F27. Genomic characterization confirmed the presence of mutations on both alleles of exon 1 of the GCN2 gene in clone F27 (S7 Fig) and all three clones showed a very low amount—if any—of residual GCN2 protein, compared to the original HepG2-OA1 cell line (Fig 7A). To assess the ability of GCN2-KO cells to reactivate the transgene upon starvation, we cultured parental HepG2-OA1 cells and the three GCN2-KO clones in media deprived of Met/Cys or His (corresponding to the most effective treatments in this cell line; see Fig 3B) for 24 h, and evaluated the transgene expression by RT-qPCR. As shown in Fig 7B and 7C, we found that the reactivation of the OA1 transgene is neither abolished, nor reduced by KO of GCN2, as in HeLa cells. To further confirm this result, we knocked-down GCN2 by RNA interference (RNAi), and incubated the cells with or without L-Histidinol for 6 h. As shown in Fig 8, treatment of HepG2-OA1 cells with L-Histidinol results in efficient transgene reactivation, even upon significant GCN2 downregulation, both at the mRNA and protein levels. Taken together, these data strongly support the conclusion that GCN2 is not necessary for transgene reactivation in response to EAA starvation, either in HeLa or in HepG2 cells.\nFig 7. GCN2 knockout does not interfere with transgene reactivation in HepG2 cells.\n(A) Immunoblotting of protein extracts from the HepG2-OA1 parental cell line and GCN2-KO clones 185#27, E23, F22, F27, immunodecorated with anti-GCN2 antibody. Clone 185#27 results from the first round of selection, and was used to generate clones E23, F22, F27. Arrow, GCN2 specific band. For GCN2 protein quantification, Ponceau staining was used as loading control and data are expressed as fold change vs. parental cell line (= 1). (B, C) Relative transgene (OA1) mRNA abundance in HepG2-OA1 cells and GCN2-KO clones, cultured in Met/Cys (B) or His (C) deprived medium for 24 h, compared to full medium. Mean ± SD of 3 technical replicates from 1 experiment.", "answers": ["No, it is not necessary."], "length": 6900, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "1d46294ee8fcc0a64828778b04198fcbe4f75841775e1205"}
{"input": "What type of distribution do the tail distributions of price returns follow?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Age and market capitalization drive large price variations of cryptocurrencies\nPublish Date: 23 Feb 2023\nAuthor List: \n\nFigure\n\nFigure 3. Illustration of different effects of age and market capitalization on power-law exponents of cryptocurrencies.(a) Posterior probability distributions of the linear coefficients associated with the effects of age [p(A)] and (b) the effects of market capitalization [p(C)] on power-law exponents related to large positive returns.Panels (c) and (d) show the analogous distributions for the association with power-law exponents related to large negative returns.In all panels, the different curves show the distributions for each of the top 20 cryptoassets by market capitalization.Cryptocurrencies significantly affected by age or market capitalization are highlighted in boldface, and the numbers between brackets show their positions in the market capitalization rank.\nFigure S5.There is more probability mass in the positive tail than in the negative tail of price returns.(a) Probability distributions of the lower cut-offs (r min ) obtained by applying the Clauset-Shalizi-Newman method to positive (blue) and negative (red) returns.The vertical dashed lines indicate the median values of r min for positive and negative returns.(b) Probability distributions of 90th percentiles (r 90 ) estimated from the power-law models adjusted to positive (blue) and negative (red) returns.The vertical dashed lines indicate the median values of r 90 for positive and negative returns.(c) Probability distributions of the fraction of weeks that r 90 estimated from positive returns (r + 90 ) is larger than r 90 estimated from negative returns (r − 90 ).This fraction is calculated only for weeks in which the power-law hypothesis is not rejected for both tails.The percentage of cryptoassets for which r + 90 > r − 90 is shown in the panels.The first column of panels depicts the results when considering data from all cryptocurrencies, while the second and third columns present the results for the top 2000 and top 200 cryptocurrencies by market capitalization, respectively.\nFigure S7.Robustness of the results of Fig. 2(b)-(d) against considering only cryptocurrencies with fraction of rejection f r < 0.1.Panels (a) and (b) show the same distributions of Fig. S4 but after filtering out all time series of cryptocurrencies with fraction of rejections f r ≥ 0.1.As in the case related to sampling issues, we observe that these distributions barely change when considering only cryptocurrencies with f r < 0.1.Indeed, the distributions in this figure are not significantly distinguishable from their counterparts in Fig. S4 (two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, p > 0.05).\n\nabstract\n\nCryptocurrencies are considered the latest innovation in finance with considerable impact across social, technological, and economic dimensions. This new class of financial assets has also motivated a myriad of scientific investigations focused on understanding their statistical properties, such as the distribution of price returns.\nHowever, research so far has only considered Bitcoin or at most a few cryptocurrencies, whilst ignoring that price returns might depend on cryptocurrency age or be influenced by market capitalization. Here, we therefore present a comprehensive investigation of large price variations for more than seven thousand digital currencies and explore whether price returns change with the coming-of-age and growth of the cryptocurrency market.\nWe find that tail distributions of price returns follow power-law functions over the entire history of the considered cryptocurrency portfolio, with typical exponents implying the absence of characteristic scales for price variations in about half of them. Moreover, these tail distributions are asymmetric as positive returns more often display smaller exponents, indicating that large positive price variations are more likely than negative ones.\nOur results further reveal that changes in the tail exponents are very often simultaneously related to cryptocurrency age and market capitalization or only to age, with only a minority of cryptoassets being affected just by market capitalization or neither of the two quantities. Lastly, we find that the trends in power-law exponents usually point to mixed directions, and that large price variations are likely to become less frequent only in about 28% of the cryptocurrencies as they age and grow in market capitalization.\nSince the creation of Bitcoin in 2008 , various different cryptoassets have been developed and are now considered to be at the cutting edge of innovation in finance . These digital financial assets are vastly diverse in design characteristics and intended purposes, ranging from peer-to-peer networks with underlying cash-like digital currencies (e.g.\nBitcoin) to general-purpose blockchains transacting in commodity-like digital assets (e.g. Ethereum), and even to cryptoassets that intend to replicate the price of conventional assets such as the US dollar or gold (e.g. Tether and Tether Gold) . With more than nine thousand cryptoassets as of 2022 , the total market value of cryptocurrencies has grown massively to a staggering $2 trillion peak in 2021 .\nDespite long-standing debates over the intrinsic value and legality of cryptoassets , or perhaps even precisely due to such controversies, it is undeniable that cryptocurrencies are increasingly attracting the attention of academics, investors, and central banks, around the world . Moreover, these digital assets have been at the forefront of sizable financial gains and losses in recent years , they have been recognized as the main drivers of the brand-new phenomena of cryptoart and NFTs , but also as facilitators of illegal activities, such as money laundering and dark trade .\nFinancial research dedicated Our results are based on daily price time series of 7111 cryptocurrencies that comprise a significant part of all currently available cryptoassets (see Methods for details). From these price series, we have estimated their logarithmic returns 2/16 Log-return, r ). The black horizontal arrow represents a given position of the expanding time window (at t = 2004 days) used to sample the return series over the entire history of Bitcoin.\nThis time window expands in weekly steps (seven time series observations), and for each position, we separate the positive (blue) from the negative (red) price returns. The gray line illustrates observations that will be included in future positions of the expanding time window (t > 2004). (b) Survival functions or the complementary cumulative distributions of positive (blue) and negative (red) price returns within the expanding time window for t = 2004 days and above the lower bound of the power-law regime estimated from the Clauset-Shalizi-Newman method .\nThe dashed lines show the adjusted power-law functions, p(r) ∼ r −α , with α = 4.5 for positive returns and α = 3.0 for negative returns. (c) Time series of the power-law exponents α t for the positive (blue) and negative (red) return distributions obtained by expanding the time window from the hundredth observation (t = 100) to the latest available price return of Bitcoin.\nThe circular markers represent the values for the window position at t = 2004 days and the dashed lines indicate the median of the power-law exponents ( α+ = 4.50 for positive returns and α− = 2.99 for negative returns). (d) Time series of the p-values related to the power-law hypothesis of positive (blue) and negative (red) price returns for every position of the expanding time window.\nThe dashed line indicates the threshold (p = 0.1) above which the power-law hypothesis cannot be rejected. For Bitcoin, the power-law hypothesis is never rejected for positive returns (fraction of rejection f r = 0) and rejected in only 4% of the expanding time window positions (fraction of rejection f r = 0.04).\nwhere x t represents the price of a given cryptocurrency at day t. All return time series in our analysis have at least 200 observations (see Supplementary Figure for the length distribution). Figure (a) illustrates Bitcoin's series of daily returns. To investigate whether and how returns have changed over the aging and growing processes of all cryptocurrencies, we sample all time series of log-returns using a time window that expands in weekly steps (seven time series observations), starting from the hundredth observation to the latest return observation.\nIn each step, we separate the positive from the negative return values and estimate their power-law behavior using the Clauset-Shalizi-Newman method . Figure (a) further illustrates this procedure, where the vertical dashed line represents a given position of the time window (t = 2004 days), the blue and red lines indicate positive and negative returns, respectively, and the gray lines show the return observations that will be included in the expanding time window in future steps.\nMoreover, Fig. (b) shows the corresponding survival functions (or complementary cumulative distributions) for the positive (blue) and negative (red) returns of Bitcoin within the time window highlighted in Fig. (a). These survival functions correspond to return values above the lower bound of the power-law regime (r min ) and dashed lines in Fig. (b) show the power-law functions adjusted to data, that is,\nwith α = 4.5 for the positive returns and α = 3.0 for the negative returns in this particular position of the time window (t = 2004 days). We have further verified the goodness of the power-law fits using the approach proposed by Clauset et al. (see also Preis et al. ). As detailed in the Methods section, this approach consists in generating several synthetic samples under the power-law hypothesis, adjusting these simulated samples, and estimating the fraction of times the Kolmogorov-Smirnov distance between the adjusted power-law and the synthetic samples is larger than the value calculated from the empirical data.\nThis fraction defines a p-value and allows us to reject or not the power-law hypothesis of the return distributions under a given confidence level. Following Refs. we consider the more conservative 90% confidence level (instead of the more lenient and commonly used 95% confidence level), rejecting the power-law hypothesis when p-value ≤ 0.1.\nFor the particular examples in Fig. (b), the p-values are respectively 1.00 and 0.17 for the positive and negative returns, and thus we cannot reject the power-law hypotheses. After sampling the entire price return series, we obtain time series for the power-law exponents (α t ) associated with positive and negative returns as well as the corresponding p-values time series for each step t of the expanding time window.\nThese time series allow us to reconstruct the aging process of the return distributions over the entire history of each cryptoasset and probe possible time-dependent patterns. Figures ) and 1(d) show the power-law exponents and p-values time series for the case of Bitcoin. The power-law hypothesis is never rejected for positive returns and rarely rejected for negative returns (about 4% of times).\nMoreover, the power-law exponents exhibit large fluctuations at the beginning of the time series and become more stable as Bitcoin matures as a financial asset (a similar tendency as reported by Begušić et al. ). The time evolution of these exponents further shows that the asymmetry between positive and negative returns observed in Fig. ) is not an incidental feature of a particular moment in Bitcoin's history.\nIndeed, the power-law exponent for positive returns is almost always larger than the exponent for negative returns, implying that large negative price returns have been more likely to occur than their positive counterparts over nearly the entire history of Bitcoin covered by our data. However, while the difference between positive and negative exponents has approached a constant value, both exponents exhibit an increasing trend, indicating that large price variations are becoming less frequent with the coming-of-age of Bitcoin.\nThe previous analysis motivates us to ask whether the entire cryptocurrency market behaves similarly to Bitcoin and what other common patterns digital currencies tend to follow. To start answering this question, we have considered the p-values series of all cryptocurrencies to verify if the power-law hypothesis holds in general.\nFigure (a) shows the percentage of cryptoassets rejecting the power-law hypothesis in at most a given fraction of the weekly positions of the expanding time window ( f r ). Remarkably, the hypothesis that large price movements (positive or negative) follow a power-law distribution is never rejected over the entire history of about 70% of all digital currencies in our dataset.\nThis analysis also shows that only ≈2% of cryptocurrencies reject the power-law hypothesis in more than half of the positions of the expanding time window ( f r ≥ 0.5). For instance, considering a 10% threshold as a criterion ( f r ≤ 0.1), we find that about 85% of cryptocurrencies have return distributions adequately modeled by power laws.\nIncreasing this threshold to a more lenient 20% threshold ( f r ≤ 0.2), we find large price movements to be power-law distributed for about 91% of cryptocurrencies. These results thus provide strong evidence that cryptoassets, fairly generally, present large price movements quite well described by power-law distributions.\nMoreover, this conclusion is robust when starting the expanding window with a greater . Large price movements are power-law distributed over the entire history of most cryptocurrencies with median values typically smaller than those found for traditional assets. (a) Percentage of cryptoassets rejecting the power-law hypothesis for large positive (blue) or negative (red) price returns in at most a given fraction of the weekly positions of the expanding time window ( f r ) used to sample the return series.\nRemarkably, 68% of all 7111 digital currencies are compatible with the power-law hypothesis over their entire history, and about 91% of them reject the power-law hypothesis in less than 20% of the positions of the expanding time window ( f r ≤ 0.2). (b) Probability distributions obtained via kernel density estimation of the median values of the power-law exponents along the history of each digital currency.\nThe blue curve shows the distribution of the median exponents related to positive returns ( α+ ) and the red curve does the same for negative returns ( α− ). The medians of α+ and α− are indicated by vertical dashed lines. Panels (c) and (d) show the distributions of these median exponents when considering the top 2000 and the top 200 cryptocurrencies by market capitalization, respectively.\nWe observe that the distributions of α+ and α− tend to shift toward larger values when considering the largest cryptoassets. number of return observations (between 100 and 300 days) and filtering out cryptoassets with missing observations (Supplementary Figures ). Still, it is worth noticing the existence of a few cryptoassets (9 of them) with relatively small market capitalization (ranking below the top 1000) for which the power-law hypothesis is always rejected (Supplementary Table ).\nHaving verified that large price movements in the cryptocurrency market are generally well-described by powerlaw distributions, we now focus on the power-law exponents that typically characterize each cryptoasset. To do so, we select all exponent estimates over the entire history of each digital asset for which the power-law hypothesis is not rejected and calculate their median values for both the positive ( α+ ) and negative ( α− ) returns.\nThe dashed lines in Fig. ) show these median values for Bitcoin where α+ = 4.50 and α− = 2.99. It is worth noticing that the variance of large price movements σ 2 is finite only for α > 3, as the integral σ 2 ∼ ∞ r min r 2 p(r)dr diverges outside this interval. Thus, while the typical variance of large positive returns is finite for Bitcoin, negative returns are at the limit of not having a typical scale and are thus susceptible to much larger variations.\nFigure shows the probability distribution for the median power-law exponents of all cryptoassets grouped by large positive and negative returns. We note that the distribution of typical power-law exponents associated with large positive returns is shifted to smaller values when compared with the distribution of exponents related to large negative returns.\nThe medians of these typical exponents are respectively 2.78 and 3.11 for positive and negative returns. This result suggests that the asymmetry in large price movements we have observed for Bitcoin is an overall feature of the cryptocurrency market. By calculating the difference between the typical exponents related to positive and negative large returns (∆α = α+ − α− ) for each digital currency, we find that about 2/3 of cryptocurrencies have α+ < α− (see Supplementary Figure for the probability distribution of ∆α).\nThus, unlike Bitcoin, most cryptocurrencies have been more susceptible to large positive price variations than negative ones. While this asymmetry in the return distributions indicates that extremely large price variations tend to be positive, it does not necessarily imply positive price variations are more common for any threshold in the return values.\nThis happens because the fraction of events in each tail is also related to the lower bound of the power-law regime (r min ). However, we have found the distribution of r min to be similar among the positive and negative returns [Supplementary Figure ]. The distribution of high percentile scores (such as the 90th percentile) is also shifted to larger values for positive returns [Supplementary Figure ].\nMoreover, this asymmetry in high percentile scores related to positive and negative returns is systematic along the evolution of the power-law exponents [Supplementary Figure ]. These results thus indicate that there is indeed more probability mass in the positive tails than in the negative ones, a feature that likely reflects the current expansion of the cryptocurrency market as a whole.\nThe distributions in Fig. ) also show that large price variations do not have a finite variance for a significant part of cryptoassets, that is, α+ ≤ 3 for 62% of cryptocurrencies and α− ≤ 3 for 44% of cryptocurrencies. A significant part of the cryptocurrency market is thus prone to price variations with no typical scale.\nIntriguingly, we further note the existence of a minority group of cryptoassets with α+ ≤ 2 (7%) or α− ≤ 2 (3%). These cryptocurrencies, whose representative members are Counos X (CCXX, rank 216) with α − = 1.96 and α + = 1.84 and Chainbing (CBG, rank 236) with α + = 1.87, are even more susceptible to extreme price variations as one cannot even define the average value µ for large price returns, as the integral µ ∼ ∞ r min rp(r)dr diverges for α ≤ 2. We have also replicated the previous analysis when considering cryptocurrencies in the top 2000 and top 200 rankings of market capitalization (as of July 2022).\nFigures ) and 2(d) show the probability distribution for the median power-law exponents of these two groups. We observe that these distributions are more localized (particularly for the top 200) than the equivalent distributions for all cryptocurrencies. The fraction of cryptocurrencies with no typical scale for large price returns ( α+ ≤ 3 and α− ≤ 3) is significantly lower in these two groups compared to all cryptocurrencies.\nIn the top 2000 cryptocurrencies, 51% have α+ ≤ 3 and 26% have α− ≤ 3. These fractions are even smaller among the top 200 cryptocurrencies, with only 44% and 15% not presenting a typical scale for large positive and negative price returns, respectively. We further observe a decrease in the fraction of cryptoassets for which the average value for large price returns is not even finite, as only 2% and 1% of top 2000 cryptoassets have α+ ≤ 2 and α− ≤ 2. This reduction is more impressive among the top 200 cryptocurrencies as only the cryptoasset Fei USD (FEI, rank 78) has α+ = 1.97 and none is characterized by α− ≤ 2. The medians of α+ and α− also increase from 2.78 and 3.11 for all cryptocurrencies to 2.98 and 3.35 for the top 2000 and to 3.08 and 3.58 for the top 200 cryptocurrencies.\nConversely, the asymmetry between positive and negative large price returns does not differ much among the three groups, with the condition α+ < α− holding only for a slightly larger fraction of top 2000 (69.1%) and top 200 (70.6%) cryptoassets compared to all cryptocurrencies (66.4%). Moreover, all these patterns are robust when filtering out time series with sampling issues or when considering only cryptoassets that stay compatible with the power-law hypothesis in more than 90% of the positions of the expanding time window (Supplementary Figures ).\nWe also investigate whether the patterns related to the median of the power-law exponents differ among groups of cryptocurrencies with different designs and purposes. To do so, we group digital assets using the 50 most common tags in our dataset (e.g. \"bnb-chain\", \"defi\", and \"collectibles-nfts\") and estimate the probability distributions of the median exponents α+ and α− (Supplementary Figures ).\nThese results show that design and purpose affect the dynamics of large price variations in the cryptocurrency market as the medians of typical exponents range from 2.4 to 3.7 among the groups. The lowest values occur for cryptocurrencies tagged as \"doggone-doggerel\" (medians of α+ and α− are 2.38 and 2.83), \"memes\" (2.41 and 2.87), and \"stablecoin\" (2.65 and 2.79).\nDigital currencies belonging to the first two tags overlap a lot and have Dogecoin (DOGE, rank 9) and Shiba Inu (SHIB, rank 13) as the most important representatives. Cryptoassets with these tags usually have humorous characteristics (such as an Internet meme) and several have been considered as a form of pump-and-dump scheme , a type of financial fraud in which false statements artificially inflate asset prices so the scheme operators sell their overvalued cryptoassets.\nConversely, cryptoassets tagged as \"stablecoin\" represent a class of cryptocurrencies designed to have a fixed exchange rate to a reference asset (such as a national currency or precious metal) . While the price of stablecoins tends to stay around the target values, their price series are also marked by sharp variations, which in turn are responsible for their typically small power-law exponents.\nThis type of cryptoasset has been shown to be prone to failures , such as the recent examples of TerraUSD (UST) and Tron's USDD (USDD) that lost their pegs to the US Dollar producing large variations in their price series. The asymmetry between positive and negative large returns also emerges when grouping the cryptocurrencies using their tags.\nAll 50 tags have distributions of α+ shifted to smaller values when compared with the distributions of α− , with differences between their medians ranging from −0.74 (\"okex-blockdream-ventures-portfolio\") to −0.14 (\"stablecoin\"). Indeed, only four ('stablecoin\", \"scrypt\", \"fantom-ecosystem\" and \"alameda-research-portfolio\") out of the fifty groupings have both distributions indistinguishable under a two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (p-value > 0.05).\nFocusing now on the evolution of the power-law exponents quantified by the time series α t for positive and negative returns, we ask whether these exponents present particular time trends. For Bitcoin [Fig. )], α t seems to increase with time for both positive and negative returns. At the same time, the results of Fig. also suggest that market capitalization affects these power-law exponents.\nTo verify these possibilities, we assume the power-law exponents (α t ) to be linearly associated with the cryptocurrency's age (y t , measured in years) and the logarithm of market capitalization (log c t ). As detailed in the Methods section, we frame this problem using a hierarchical Bayesian model.\nThis approach assumes that the linear coefficients associated with the effects of age (A) and market capitalization (C) of each digital currency are drawn from distributions with means µ A and µ C and standard deviations σ A and σ C , which are in turn distributed according to global distributions representing the overall impact of these quantities on the cryptocurrency market.\nThe Bayesian inference process consists of estimating the posterior probability distributions of the linear coefficients for each cryptocurrency as well as the posterior distributions of µ A , µ C , σ A , and σ C , allowing us to simultaneously probe asset-specific tendencies and overall market characteristics.\nMoreover, we restrict this analysis to the 2140 digital currencies having more than 50 observations of market capitalization concomitantly to the time series of the power-law exponents in order to have enough data points for detecting possible trends. When considering the overall market characteristics, we find that the 94% highest density intervals for µ A ([-0.01, 0.06] for positive and [-0.02, 0.03] for negative returns) and µ C ([-0.02, 0.03] for positive and [-0.001, 0.04] for negative returns) include the zero (see Supplementary Figure for their distributions).\nThus, there is no evidence of a unique overall pattern for the association between the power-law exponents and age or market capitalization followed by a significant part of the cryptocurrency market. Indeed, the 94% highest density intervals for σ A ([0.87, 0.93] for positive and [0.63, 0.70] for negative returns) and σ C ([0.57, 0.61] for positive and [0.49, 0.52] for negative returns) indicate that the cryptocurrency market is highly heterogeneous regarding the evolution of power-law exponents associated with large price variations (see Supplementary Figure for the distributions of σ A and σ C ). Figure illustrates these heterogeneous behaviors by plotting the posterior probability distributions for the linear coefficients associated with the effects of age (A) and market capitalization (C) for the top 20 digital assets, where cryptocurrencies which are significantly affected (that is, the 94% highest density intervals for A or C do not include the zero) by these quantities are highlighted in boldface.\nEven this small selection of digital  currencies already presents a myriad of patterns. First, we observe that the power-law exponents of a few top 20 cryptocurrencies are neither correlated with age nor market capitalization. That is the case of Shiba Inu (SHIB, rank 13) and Dai (DAI, rank 11) for both positive and negative returns, UNUS SED LEO (LEO, rank 18) and Polkadot (DOT, rank 12) for the positive returns, and USDCoin (USDC, rank 4) and Solana (SOL, rank 9) for negative returns.\nThere are also cryptocurrencies with exponents positively or negatively correlated only with market capitalization. Examples include Tether (USDT, rank 3) and Dogecoin (DOGE, rank 10), for which the power-law exponents associated with positive returns increase with market capitalization, and Binance USD (BUSD, rank 6), for which power-law exponents associated with positive and negative returns decrease with market capitalization.\nWe also observe cryptocurrencies for which age and market capitalization simultaneously affect the power-law exponents. Polygon (MATIC, rank 14) is an example where the power-law exponents associated with positive returns tend to increase with age and decrease with market capitalization. Finally, there are also cryptocurrencies with power-law exponents only associated with age.\nThat is the case of Bitcoin (BTC, rank 1), Ethereum (ETH, rank 2), and Cardano (ADA, rank 8), for which the power-law exponents related to positive and negative returns increase with age, but also the case of Uniswap (UNI, rank 19), for which the exponents decrease with age. Figure systematically extends the observations made for the top 20 cryptoassets to all 2140 digital currencies for which we have modeled the changes in the power-law exponents as a function of age and market capitalization.\nFirst, we note that only 10% of cryptocurrencies have power-law exponents not significantly affected by age and market capitalization. The vast majority (90%) displays some relationship with these quantities. However, these associations are as varied as the ones we have observed for the top 20 cryptoassets.\nAbout 52% of cryptocurrencies have power-law exponents simultaneously affected by age and market capitalization. In this group, these quantities simultaneously impact the exponents related to positive and negative returns of 34% of cryptoassets, whereas the remainder is affected only in the positive tail (9%) or only in the negative tail (9%).\nMoving back in the hierarchy, we find that the power-law exponents of 32% of cryptocurrencies are affected only by age while a much minor fraction (6%) is affected only by market capitalization. Within the group only affected by age, we observe that the effects are slightly more frequent only on the exponents related to negative returns (12%), compared to cases where effects are restricted only to positive returns (10%) or simultaneously affect both tails (10%).\nFinally, within the minor group only affected by market capitalization, we note that associations more frequently involve only exponents related to negative returns (3%) compared to the other two cases (2% only positive returns and 1% for both positive and negative returns). Beyond the previous discussion about whether positive or negative returns are simultaneously or individually affected by age and market capitalization, we have also categorized the direction of the trend imposed by these two quantities on the power-law exponents.\nBlue rectangles in Fig. represent the fraction of relationships for which increasing age or market capitalization (or both) is associated with a raise in the power-law exponents. About 28% of all cryptocurrencies exhibit this pattern in which large price variations are expected to occur less frequently as they grow and age.\nConversely, the red rectangles in Fig. depict the fraction of relationships for which increasing age or market capitalization (or both) is associated with a reduction in the power-law exponents. This case comprises about 25% of all cryptocurrencies for which large price variations are likely to become more frequent as they grow in market capitalization and age.\nStill, the majority of associations represented by green rectangles refer to the case where the effects of age and market capitalization point in different directions (e.g. exponents increasing with age while decreasing with market capitalization). About 36% of cryptocurrencies fit this condition which in turn contributes to consolidating the cumbersome hierarchical structure of patterns displayed by cryptocurrencies regarding the dynamics of large price variations.\nThis complex picture is not much different when considering only cryptocurrencies in the top 200 market capitalization rank (Supplementary Figure ). However, we do observe an increased prevalence of patterns characterized by exponents that rise with age and market capitalization (37%), suggesting that large price variations are becoming less frequent among the top 200 cryptocurrencies than in the overall market.\n). Each of the previous three levels is further classified regarding whether both positive and negative returns are simultaneously affected or whether the effect involves only positive or only negative returns. Finally, the former levels are classified regarding whether the power-law exponents increase, decrease or have a mixed trend with the predictive variables.\nOverall, 36% of the associations are classified as mixed trends (green rectangles), 28% are increasing trends (blue rectangles), and 26% are decreasing trends (red rectangles). We have studied the distributions of large price variations of a significant part of the digital assets that currently comprise the entirety of the cryptocurrency market.\nUnlike previous work, we have estimated these distributions for entire historical price records of each digital currency, and we have identified the patterns under which the return distributions change as cryptoassets age and grow in market capitalization. Similarly to conventional financial assets , our findings show that the return distributions of the vast majority of cryptoassets have tails that are described well by power-law functions along their entire history.\nThe typical power-law exponents of cryptocurrencies (α ∼ 3) are, however, significantly smaller than those reported for conventional assets (α ∼ 4) . This feature corroborates the widespread belief that cryptoassets are indeed considerably more risky for investments than stocks or other more traditional financial assets.\nIndeed, we have found that about half of the cryptocurrencies in our analysis do not have a characteristic scale for price variations, and are thus prone to much higher price variations than those typically observed in stock markets. On the upside, we have also identified an asymmetry in the power-law exponents for positive and negative returns in about 2/3 of all considered cryptocurrencies, such that these exponents are smaller for positive than they are for negative returns.\nThis means that sizable positive price variations have generally been more likely to occur than equally sizable negative price variations, which in turn may also reflect the recent overall expansion of the cryptocurrency market. Using a hierarchical Bayesian linear model, we have also simultaneously investigated the overall market characteristics and asset-specific tendencies regarding the effects of age and market capitalization on the power-law exponents.\nWe have found that the cryptocurrency market is highly heterogeneous regarding the trends exhibited by each cryptocurrency; however, only a small fraction of cryptocurrencies (10%) have power-law exponents neither correlated with age nor market capitalization. These associations have been mostly ignored by the current literature and are probably related to the still-early developmental stage of the cryptocurrency market as a whole.\nOverall, 36% of cryptocurrencies present trends that do not systematically contribute to increasing or decreasing their power-law exponents as they age and grow in market capitalization. On the other hand, for 26% of cryptocurrencies, aging and growing market capitalization are both associated with a reduction in their power-law exponents, thus contributing to the rise in the frequency of large price variations in their dynamics.\nOnly about 28% of cryptocurrencies present trends in which the power-law exponents increase with age and market capitalization, favoring thus large price variations to become less likely. These results somehow juxtapose with findings about the increasing informational efficiency of the cryptocurrency market .\nIn fact, if on the one hand the cryptocurrency market is becoming more informationally efficient, then on the other our findings indicate that there is no clear trend toward decreasing the risks of sizable variations in the prices of most considered cryptoassets. In other words, risk and efficiency thus appear to be moving towards different directions in the cryptocurrency market.\nTo conclude, we hope that our findings will contribute significantly to the better understanding of the dynamics of large price variations in the cryptocurrency market as a whole, and not just for a small subset of selected digital assets, which is especially relevant due to the diminishing concentration of market capitalization among the top digital currencies, and also because of the considerable impact these new assets may have in our increasingly digital economy.\nOur results are based on time series of the daily closing prices (in USD) for all cryptoassets listed on CoinMar-ketCap (coinmarketcap.com) as of 25 July 2022 [see Supplementary Figure (a) for a visualization of the increasing number cryptoassets listed on CoinMarketCap since 2013]. These time series were automatically gathered using the cryptoCMD Python package and other information such as the tags associated with each cryptoasset were obtained via the CoinMarketCap API .\nIn addition, we have also obtained the daily market capitalization time series (in USD) from all cryptoassets which had this information available at the time. Earliest records available from CoinMarketCap date from 29 April 2013 and the latest records used in our analysis correspond to 25 July 2022. Out of 9943 cryptocurrencies, we have restricted our analysis to the 7111 with at least 200 price-return observations.\nThe median length of these time series is 446 observations [see the distribution of series length in Supplementary Figure . We have estimated the power-law behavior of the return distributions by applying the Clauset-Shalizi-Newman method to the return time series r t . In particular, we have sampled each of these time series using an expanding time window that starts at the hundredth observation and grows in weekly steps (seven data points each step).\nFor each position of the expanding time window, we have separated the positive returns from the negative ones and applied the Clauset-Shalizi-Newman method to each set. This approach consists of obtaining the maximum likelihood estimate for the power-law exponent, α = 1 + n/ (∑ n t=1 ln r t /r min ) , where r min is the lower bound of the power-law regime and n is the number of (positive or negative) return observations in the power-law regime for a given position of the expanding time window.\nThe value r min is estimated from data by minimizing the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic between the empirical distribution and the power-law model. The Clauset-Shalizi-Newman method yields an unbiased and consistent estimator , in a sense that as the sample increases indefinitely, the estimated power-law exponent converges in distribution to the actual value.\nMoreover, we have used the implementation available on the powerlaw Python package . In addition to obtaining the power-law exponents, we have also verified the adequacy of the power-law hypothesis using the procedure originally proposed by Clauset et al. as adapted by Preis et al. . This procedure consists of generating synthetic samples under the power-law hypothesis with the same properties of the empirical data under analysis (that is, same length and parameters α and r min ), adjusting the simulated data with the power-law model via the Clauset-Shalizi-Newman method, and calculating the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic (κ syn ) between the distributions obtained from the simulated samples and the adjusted power-law model.\nNext, the values of κ syn are compared to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic calculated between empirical data and the power-law model (κ). Finally, a p-value is defined by calculating the fraction of times for which κ syn > κ. We have used one thousand synthetic samples for each position of the expanding time window and the more conservative 90% confidence level (instead of the more lenient and commonly used 95% confidence level), such that the power-law hypothesis is rejected whenever p-value ≤ 0.1.\nWe have estimated the effects of age and market capitalization on the power-law exponents associated with positive or negative returns of a given cryptocurrency using the linear model where α t represents the power-law exponent, log c t is the logarithm of the market capitalization, and y t is the age (in years) of the cryptocurrency at t-th observation.\nMoreover, K is the intercept of the association, while C and A are linear coefficients quantifying the effects of market capitalization and age, respectively. Finally, N (µ, σ ) stands for the normal distribution with mean µ and standard deviation σ , such that the parameter ε accounts for the unobserved determinants in the dynamics of the power-law exponents.\nWe have framed this problem using the hierarchical Bayesian approach such that each power-law exponent α t is nested within a cryptocurrency with model parameters considered as random variables normally distributed with parameters that are also random variables. Mathematically, for each cryptocurrency, we have\n12/16 where µ K , σ K , µ C , σ C , µ A , and σ A are hyperparameters. These hyperparameters are assumed to be distributed according to distributions that quantify the overall impact of age and market capitalization on the cryptocurrency market as a whole. We have performed this Bayesian regression for exponents related to positive and negative returns separately, and used noninformative prior and hyperprior distributions in order not to bias the posterior estimation .\nSpecifically, we have considered and ε ∼ U (0, 10 2 ) , where U (a, b) stands for the uniform distribution in the interval [a, b] and Inv−Γ(θ , γ) represents the inverse gamma distribution with shape and scale parameters θ and γ, respectively. For the numerical implementation, we have relied on the PyMC Python package and sampled the posterior distributions via the gradient-based Hamiltonian Monte Carlo no-U-Turn-sampler method.\nWe have run four parallel chains with 2500 iterations each (1000 burn-in samples) to allow good mixing and estimated the Gelman-Rubin convergence statistic (R-hat) to ensure the convergence of the sampling approach (R-hat was always close to one). In addition, we have also verified that models describing the power-law exponents as a function of only age (C → 0 in Eq. 3) or only market capitalization (A → 0 in Eq. 3) yield significantly worse descriptions of our data as quantified by the Widely Applicable Information Criterion (WAIC) and the Pareto Smoothed Importance Sampling Leave-One-Out cross-validation (PSIS-LOO) (see Supplementary Table ). ) is larger than r 90 estimated from negative returns (r − 90 ).\nThis fraction is calculated only for weeks in which the power-law hypothesis is not rejected for both tails. The percentage of cryptoassets for which r + 90 > r − 90 is shown in the panels. The first column of panels depicts the results when considering data from all cryptocurrencies, while the second and third columns present the results for the top 2000 and top 200 cryptocurrencies by market capitalization, respectively.\nSampling issues refer to missing data and problems caused by prices of cryptoassets decreasing to zero. We note that these distributions barely change when considering only cryptocurrencies without any sampling issue. Indeed, the distributions in this figure are not significantly distinguishable from their counterparts in Fig. (two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, p > 0.05).\n). Each of the previous three levels is further classified regarding whether both positive and negative returns are simultaneously affected or whether the effect involves only positive or only negative returns. Finally, the former levels are classified regarding whether the power-law exponents increase, decrease or have a mixed trend with the predictive variables.\nOverall, 35% of the associations are classified as mixed trends (green rectangles), 37% are increasing trends (blue rectangles), and 18% are decreasing trends (red rectangles).", "answers": ["Power-law functions."], "length": 6766, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "b16c38bf627891a3bf60ee57f9f3c2f5730f4ea3a0f44b0e"}
{"input": "What is the main topic of the text?", "context": "Ann's Mega Dub: 12/19/10 - 12/26/10\nGot o have a penis to be an expert\nThursday on NPR's Fresh Air, Terry Gross wanted to talk film and music. Since women don't know a thing about either and aren't interested in either, Terry had to find men who were 'experts.'This is C.I.'s \" Iraq snapshot Friday, December 24, 2010. Chaos and violence continue, Nouri's incomplete Cabinet continues to receive criticism, a father offers an 'excuse' for killing his own daughter, and more.Marci Stone (US Headlines Examiner) reports, \"Friday afternoon, Santa is currently in Baghdad, Iraq and on his next stop is Moscow, Russia, according to the 2010 NORAD Santa Tracker. The North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) has been tracking Santa as he makes his annual journey throughout the world.\" Gerald Skoning (Palm Beach Post) quotes Santa saying, \"We send our special wishes for peace and goodwill to all. That includes the people of Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran and North Korea.\" Please note that this is Santa's seventh trip to Iraq since the start of the Iraq War and, as usual, his journey was known in advance. No waiting until he hit the ground to announce he was going to Iraq -- the way George The Bully Boy Bush had to and the way US President Barack Obama still has to. In the lead up to Santa's yearly visit, many 'authorities' in Iraq began insisting that Christmas couldn't be celebrated publicly, that even Santa was banned. Gabriel Gatehouse (BBC News) quotes Shemmi Hanna stating, \"I wasn't hurt but I wish that I had been killed. I wish I had become a martyr for this church, but God kept me alive for my daughters.\" Shemmi Hanna was in Our Lady of Salvation Church in Baghdad when it was assaulted October 31st and she lost her husband, her son, her daughter-in-law and her infant grandson in the attack. The October 31st attack marks the latest wave of violence targeting Iraqi Christians. The violence has led many to flee to northern Iraq (KRG) or to other countries. Zvi Bar'el (Haaretz) notes, \"This week the Iraqi legislature discussed the Christians' situation and passed a resolution in principle to help families who fled. However, the parliament does not know where the Christians are, how many are still in Iraq, in their homes, and how many have found asylum in Iraqi Kurdistan.\" John Leland (New York Times) reports:The congregants on Friday night were fewer than 100, in a sanctuary built for four or five times as many. But they were determined. This year, even more than in the past, Iraqi's dwindling Christian minority had reasons to stay home for Christmas. \"Yes, we are threatened, but we will not stop praying,\" the Rev. Meyassr al-Qaspotros told the Christmas Eve crowd at the Sacred Church of Jesus, a Chaldean Catholic church. \"We do not want to leave the country because we will leave an empty space.\" Raheem Salman (Los Angeles Times) reports, \"Rimon Metti's family will go to Christian services on Christmas Day, but his relatives will be praying for their own survival and wondering whether this is their last holiday season in Baghdad. If they had any grounds for optimism about the future of their faith in Iraq, it vanished this year amid repeated attacks on fellow believers.\" Shahsank Bengali (McClatchy Newspapers) adds, \"Nearly two months after a shocking assault by Islamist militants, Our Lady of Salvation Catholic Church will commemorate Christmas quietly, with daytime mass and prayers for the dead, under security fit more for a prison than a house of worship. It is the same at Christian churches across Baghdad and northern Iraq, where what's left of one of the world's oldest Christian communities prepares to mark perhaps the most somber Christmas since the start of the Iraq war.\"Meanwhile Taylor Luck (Jordan Times) reports on Iraqi refugees in Jordan:Although the calendar will say December 25, for Theresa, Saturday will not be Christmas. There will be no cinnamon klecha cooling on the dining room table, no outdoor ceramic nativity scene, no readings of hymns with relatives. The 63-year-old Iraqi woman has even refused to put up Christmas lights in the crowded two-room Amman hotel apartment she has called home since fleeing Baghdad last month.\"There is no holiday spirit. All we have is fear,\" she said.This holiday will instead mark another year without news from her 46-year-old son, who was kidnapped outside Baghdad in late 2006.From Turkey, Sebnem Arsu (New York Times -- link has text and video) notes the increase in Iraq refugees to the country since October 31st and quotes Father Emlek stating, \"I've never seen as many people coming here as I have in the last few weeks. They also go to Lebanon, Jordan and Syria but it seems that Turkey is the most popular despite the fact that they do not speak the language.\" Jeff Karoub (AP) reports on the small number of Iraqi refugees who have made it to the US and how some of them \"struggle with insomnia, depression and anxiety.\"One group in Iraq who can openly celebrate Christmas are US service members who elect to. Barbara Surk (AP) reports that tomorrow Chief Warrant Officer Archie Morgan will celebrate his fourth Christmas in Iraq and Captain Diana Crane is celebrating her second Christmas in Iraq: \"Crane was among several dozen troops attending a Christmas Eve mass in a chapel in Camp Victory, an American military base just outside Baghdad.\" Marc Hansen (Des Moines Reigster) speaks with six service members from Iowa who are stationed in Iraq. Sgt 1st Class Dennis Crosser tells Hansen, \"I certainly understand from reading the paper what's going on in Afghanistan and the attention definitely needs to be on the troops there. But everyone serving here in Operation New Dawn appreciates a little bit of attention as we finish this up.\"Today Jiang Yu, China's Foreign Minister, issued the following statement, \"We welcome and congratulate Iraq on forming a new government. We hope that the Iraqi Government unite all its people, stabilize the security situation, accelerate economic reconstruction and make new progress in building its country.\" James Cogan (WSWS) reports:US State Department official Philip Crowley declared on Wednesday that Washington had not \"dictated the terms of the government\". In reality, constant American pressure was applied to Maliki, Allawi, Kurdish leaders and other prominent Iraqi politicians throughout the entire nine-month process to form a cabinet. The US intervention included numerous personal phone calls and visits to Baghdad by both President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden.The key objective of the Obama administration has been to ensure that the next Iraqi government will \"request\" a long-term military partnership with the US when the current Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) expires at the end of 2011. The SOFA is the legal basis upon which some 50,000 American troops remain in Iraq, operating from large strategic air bases such as Balad and Tallil and Al Asad. US imperialism spent billions of dollars establishing these advanced bases as part of its wider strategic plans and has no intention of abandoning them.Cogan's only the second person to include the SOFA in his report. Some are impressed with the 'feat' of taking nearly ten months to form a government, stringing the country along for ten months while no decisions could go through. The editorial board of the Washington Post, for example, was full of praise yesterday. Today they're joined by Iran's Ambassador to Iraq, Hassan Danaiifar. The Tehran Times reports that Danaiifar was full of praise today hailing the \"positive and final step which ended the 10-month political limbo in Iraq.\" However, Danaiifar was less pie-in-the-sky than the Post editorial board because he can foresee future problems as evidenced by his statement, \"We may witness the emergence of some problems after one and half of a year -- for example, some ministers may be impeached.\" Of course, there are already many clouds on the horizon, even if Iranian diplomats and Post editorial boards can't suss them out. For example, Ben Bendig (Epoch Times) noted the objection of Iraq's female politicians to Nouri al-Maliki's decision to nominate only one woman (so far) to his Cabinet: \"Some 50 female lawmakers went to the country's top leadership, the United Nations and the Arab League to voice their concern and desire for increased representation.\" BNO notes that protest and also that a group of Iraqi MPs are alleging that Iraqiya bought seats in the Cabinet via money exchanged in Jordan. UPI adds, \"Maliki, a Shiite who has a long history of working with Tehran, has named himself acting minister of defense, interior and national security, three most powerful and sensitive posts in the government he is stitching together. Although Maliki appears to be bending over backward to accommodate rivals among Iraq's Shiite majority as well as minority Sunnis and Kurds in his administration in a spirit of reconciliation, he is unlikely to relinquish those ministries that dominate the security sector.\" DPA reports, \"Sheikh Abdel-Mahdi al-Karbalaei, a confident of influential Shiite spiritual leader Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, said that the new cabinet is 'below the standards' Iraqi citizens had hoped for and suggested it could prove to be weaker than the previous government.\" Ranj Alaaldin (Guardian) also spots clouds on the horizon:Lasting peace and stability depends on resolving outstanding disputes with the Kurds on oil, revenue-sharing, security and the disputed territories (Kirkuk in particular). The Kurds, rather than exploiting their kingmaker position to take a stronger proportion of ministries in Baghdad (they are taking just one major portfolio – the foreign ministry), are instead banking on guarantees from Maliki to implement their list of 19 demands that includes resolving the above disputes in their favour.They may have been naive, though. With their historical and federalist partners, the Islamic supreme council of Iraq in decline, the Kurds may be isolated in the new government – a government dominated by the nationalistic and centrist characteristics of the INM, the Sadrists and indeed State of Law.Maliki may, therefore, turn out to be unable to grant concessions even if he wanted to and could use Osama Nujayfi, the new ultra-nationalist speaker of parliament and Kurdish foe, to absorb the Kurdish criticism and insulate himself from any attacks.AP reports that Iraqi police sought out a 19-year-old woman because of rumors that she was working with al Qaida in Mesopotamia only to be greeted with the news that her father allegedly killed her and the father showed the police where he buried the woman . . . last month. The story begs for more than it offers. The most obvious observation is: what does it say that a woman's allegedly killed by her father and no one says a word for over a month? After that, it should probably be noted that there are many men in Iraq killing women who, no doubt, would love to also be able to pin the blame on al Qaida. In other violence, Reuters notes a house bombing in Haswa which claimed the life of Mohammed al-Karrafi, \"his wife, two sons and a nephew\" -- as well as injuring four more people, and a Samarra roadside bombing which claimed the lives of 2 police officers. DPA notes it was two homes bombed in Haswa and that the Samarra roadside bombing also injured four Iraqi soldiers. Jomana Karadsheh (CNN) reports, \"Another policeman was wounded in Baghdad Friday night when a roadside bomb detonated by a police patrol, an Interior Ministry official told CNN.\"And we'll close with this from Peace Mom Cindy Sheehan's latest Al Jazeera column:The recent repeal of the US military policy of \"Don't ask, don't tell\" is far from being the human rights advancement some are touting it to be. I find it intellectually dishonest, in fact, illogical on any level to associate human rights with any military, let alone one that is currently dehumanising two populations as well as numerous other victims of it's clandestine \"security\" policies.Placing this major contention aside, the enactment of the bill might be an institutional step forward in the fight for \"equality\"; however institutions rarely reflect reality.Do we really think that the US congress vote to repeal the act and Obama signing the bill is going to stop the current systemic harassment of gays in the military?While I am a staunch advocate for equality of marriage and same-sex partnership, I cannot - as a peace activist - rejoice in the fact that now homosexuals can openly serve next to heterosexuals in one of the least socially responsible organisations that currently exists on earth: The US military.It is an organisation tainted with a history of intolerance towards anyone who isn't a Caucasian male from the Mid-West. Even then I'm sure plenty fitting that description have faced the terror and torment enshrined into an institution that transforms the pride and enthusiasm of youth into a narrow zeal for dominating power relations.And we'll close with this from Francis A. Boyle's \"2011: Prospects for Humanity?\" (Global Research):Historically, this latest eruption of American militarism at the start of the 21st Century is akin to that of America opening the 20th Century by means of the U.S.-instigated Spanish-American War in 1898. Then the Republican administration of President William McKinley stole their colonial empire from Spain in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines; inflicted a near genocidal war against the Filipino people; while at the same time illegally annexing the Kingdom of Hawaii and subjecting the Native Hawaiian people (who call themselves the Kanaka Maoli) to near genocidal conditions. Additionally, McKinley's military and colonial expansion into the Pacific was also designed to secure America's economic exploitation of China pursuant to the euphemistic rubric of the \"open door\" policy. But over the next four decades America's aggressive presence, policies, and practices in the \"Pacific\" would ineluctably pave the way for Japan's attack at Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 194l, and thus America's precipitation into the ongoing Second World War. Today a century later the serial imperial aggressions launched and menaced by the Republican Bush Jr. administration and now the Democratic Obama administration are threatening to set off World War III. By shamelessly exploiting the terrible tragedy of 11 September 2001, the Bush Jr. administration set forth to steal a hydrocarbon empire from the Muslim states and peoples living in Central Asia and the Persian Gulf under the bogus pretexts of (1) fighting a war against international terrorism; and/or (2) eliminating weapons of mass destruction; and/or (3) the promotion of democracy; and/or (4) self-styled \"humanitarian intervention.\" Only this time the geopolitical stakes are infinitely greater than they were a century ago: control and domination of two-thirds of the world's hydrocarbon resources and thus the very fundament and energizer of the global economic system – oil and gas. The Bush Jr./ Obama administrations have already targeted the remaining hydrocarbon reserves of Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia for further conquest or domination, together with the strategic choke-points at sea and on land required for their transportation. In this regard, the Bush Jr. administration announced the establishment of the U.S. Pentagon's Africa Command (AFRICOM) in order to better control, dominate, and exploit both the natural resources and the variegated peoples of the continent of Africa, the very cradle of our human species. This current bout of U.S. imperialism is what Hans Morgenthau denominated \"unlimited imperialism\" in his seminal work Politics Among Nations (4th ed. 1968, at 52-53): The outstanding historic examples of unlimited imperialism are the expansionist policies of Alexander the Great, Rome, the Arabs in the seventh and eighth centuries, Napoleon I, and Hitler. They all have in common an urge toward expansion which knows no rational limits, feeds on its own successes and, if not stopped by a superior force, will go on to the confines of the political world. This urge will not be satisfied so long as there remains anywhere a possible object of domination--a politically organized group of men which by its very independence challenges the conqueror's lust for power. It is, as we shall see, exactly the lack of moderation, the aspiration to conquer all that lends itself to conquest, characteristic of unlimited imperialism, which in the past has been the undoing of the imperialistic policies of this kind…. On 10 November 1979 I visited with Hans Morgenthau at his home in Manhattan. It proved to be our last conversation before he died on 19 July 1980. Given his weakened physical but not mental condition and his serious heart problem, at the end of our necessarily abbreviated one-hour meeting I purposefully asked him what he thought about the future of international relations. iraqbbc newsgabriel gatehousethe new york timesjohn lelandhaaretzzvi bar'elthe jordan timestaylor luckthe associated pressjeff karoubthe los angeles timesraheem salmancnnjomana karadsheh\nTerry thinks she's a man\nYesterday on NPR's Fresh Air the hour went to a male TV critic. It's always a man with Terry. Always. And somebody tell her that a snotty, snooty TV critic really doesn't make for good programming.This is C.I.'s \"Iraq snapshot:\" Thursday, December 23, 2010. Chaos and violence continue, Iraqi women make clear their displeasure over the Cabinet make up, Daniel Ellsberg and Veterans for Peace get some recognition, and more. Last Thursday a protest held outside the White House. One of the organizers was Veterans for Peace and Pentagon Papers whistle blower Daniel Ellsberg participated and spoke. Juana Bordas (Washington Post) advocates for both of them to be named persons of the year: Veterans for Peace and Daniel Ellsberg should be this year's person of the year because of their courage and bravery to stand up for all of us who believe that \"war is not the answer.\" Moreover in a time of economic recession, the war machine is bankrupting our country. As John Amidon, a Marine Corps veteran from Albany asked at the White House protest, \"How is the war economy working for you?\"While unemployment rates hover near 10 percent, there is no doubt that the U.S. economy and quality of life is faltering. Worldwide we are 14th in education, 37th in the World Health Organization's ranking on medical systems, and 23rd in the U.N. Environmental Sustainability Index on being most livable and greenest benefits. There is one place we take the undeniable world lead. The US military spending accounts for a whopping 46.5 percent of world military spending--the next ten countries combined come in at only 20.7 percent. Linda Pershing (Truthout) reports, \"Responding to a call from the leaders of Stop These Wars(1) - a new coalition of Veterans for Peace and other activists - participants came together in a large-scale performance of civil resistance. A group of veterans under the leadership of Veterans for Peace members Tarak Kauff, Will Covert and Elaine Brower, mother of a Marine who has served three tours of duty in Iraq, sponsored the event with the explicit purpose of putting their bodies on the line. Many participants were Vietnam War veterans; others ranged from Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans in their 20s and 30s to World War II vets in their 80s and older. They were predominately white; men outnumbered women by at least three to one. After a short rally in Lafayette Park, they formed a single-file procession, walking across Pennsylvania Avenue to the solemn beat of a drum. As they reached the police barricade (erected to prevent them from chaining themselves to the gate, a plan they announced on their web site), the activists stood shoulder to shoulder, their bodies forming a human link across the 'picture postcard' tableau in front of the White House.\" Maria Chutchian (Arlington Advocate) quotes, participant Nate Goldshlag (Vietnam veteran) stating, \"\"There was a silent, single file march around Lafayette Park to a drum beat. Then we went in front of the White House,. There were barricades set up in front of white house fence. So when we got there, we jumped over barricades and were able to get right next to the White House fence.\" Participant Linda LeTendre (Daily Gazette) reports: At the end of the rally, before the silent, solemn procession to the White House fence, in honor of those killed in Iraq and Afghan wars of lies and deceptions, the VFP played taps and folded an American flag that had been left behind at a recent funeral for the veteran of one of those wars. Two attendees in full dress uniform held and folded the flag. I had the image of all of the people who stood along the roads and bridges when the bodies of the two local men, Benjamin Osborn and David Miller, were returned to the Capital District. I thought if all of those people were here now or spoke out against war these two fine young men might still be with us.I was blessed enough to be held in custody with one of those in uniform; a wonderful young man who had to move from his hometown in Georgia because no one understood why as a veteran he was against these wars. Even his family did not understand. (He remains in my prayers.)Our plan was to attach ourselves to the White House fence until President Obama came out and talked to us or until we were arrested and dragged away. I don't have to tell you how it ended.Mr. Ellsberg was one of 139 people arrested at that action. We've noted the protest in pretty much every snapshot since last Thursday. If something else comes out that's worth noting on the protest, we'll include it. We will not include people who don't have their facts and it's really sad when they link to, for example, Guardian articles and the links don't even back them up. It's real sad, for example, when they're trashing Hillary (big strong men that they are) and ripping her apart and yet Barack? \"Obama's inaccurate statements\"??? What the hell is that? You're inferring he lied, say so. Don't be such a little chicken s**t. It's especially embarrasing when you're grandstanding on 'truth.' Especially when you're the little s**t that clogged up the public e-mail account here in the summer of 2008 whining that you were holding Barack to a standard, then admitting that you weren't, then whining that if you did people would be mean to you. Oh, that's sooooooo sad. Someone might say something bad about you. The horror. You must suffer more than all the people in Iraq and Afghanistan combined. While the action took place in DC, actions also took place in other cities. We've already noted NYC's action this week, Doug Kaufmann (Party for Socialism & Liberation) reports on the Los Angeles action: Despite heavy rain, over 100 people gathered in Los Angeles on the corner of Hollywood and Highland to demand an end to the U.S. wars on Afghanistan and Iraq. People came from as far as Riverside to protest, braving what Southern California media outlets have dubbed the \"storm of the decade.\" The demonstration, initiated and led by the ANSWER Coalition, broke the routine of holiday shopping and garnered support from activists and even passers by, who joined in chanting \"Money for jobs and education -- not for war and occupation!\" and \"Occupation is a crime -- Iraq, Afghanistan, Palestine!\" Protesters held banners reading, \"U.S./NATO Out of Afghanistan!\" and \"Yes to jobs, housing and education -- no to war, racism and occupation!\"Speakers at the demonstration included representatives of Korean Americans for Peace, ANSWER Coalition, KmB Pro-People Youth, Veterans for Peace, Party for Socialism and Liberation and National Lawyers Guild. Tuesday, Nouri al-Maliki managed to put away the political stalemate thanks to a lot of Scotch -- tape to hold the deal together and booze to keep your eyes so crossed you don't question how someone can claim to have formed a Cabinet when they've left over ten positions to be filled at a later date. One group speaking out is women. Bushra Juhi and Qassmi Abdul-Zahra (AP) report, \"Iraq's female lawmakers are furious that only one member of the country's new Cabinet is a woman and are demanding better representation in a government that otherwise has been praised by the international community for bringing together the country's religious sects and political parties.\" As noted Tuesday, though represenation in Parliament is addressed in Iraq's Constitution, there is nothing to address women serving in the Cabinet. Aseel Kami (Reuters) notes one of the most damning aspects of Nouri's chosen men -- a man is heaing the Ministry of Women's Affairs. Iraqiya's spokesperson Maysoon Damluji states, \"There are really good women who could do wel . . . they cannot be neglected and marginalized.\" Al-Amal's Hanaa Edwar states, \"They call it a national (power) sharing government. So where is the sharing? Do they want to take us back to the era of the harem? Do they want to take us back to the dark ages, when women were used only for pleasure.\" Deborah Amos (NPR's All Things Considered) reports that a struggle is going on between secular impulses and fundamentalist ones. Gallery owner Qasim Sabti states, \"We know it's fighting between the religious foolish man and the civilization man. We know we are fighting like Gandhi, and this is a new language in Iraqi life. We have no guns. We do not believe in this kind of fighting.\" Deborah Amos is the author of Eclipse of the Sunnis: Power, Exile, and Upheaval in the Middle East. Meanwhile Nizar Latif (The National) reports that distrust is a common reaction to the new government in Baghdad and quotes high school teacher Hussein Abed Mohammad stating, \"Promises were made that trustworthy, competent people would be ministers this time around, but it looks as if everything has just been divided out according to sectarian itnerests. No attention has been paid to forming a functioning government, it is just a political settlement of vested interests. I'm sure al Maliki will have the same problems in his next four years as he had in the last four years.\" Days away from the ten months mark, Nouri managed to finally end the stalemate. Some try to make sense of it and that must have been some office party that the editorial board of the Washington Post is still coming down from judging by \"A good year in Iraq.\" First up, meet the new Iraqi Body Count -- an organization that provides cover for the war and allows supporters of the illegal war to point to it and insist/slur \"Things aren't so bad!\" Sure enough, the editorial board of the Post does just that noting the laughable \"civilian deaths\" count at iCasualities. As we noted -- long, long before we walked away from that crap ass website, they're not doing a civilian count. They're noting how many deaths Reuters reports.", "answers": ["The main topic of the text is Iraq's politics and current situation."], "length": 4468, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "40a85211345155859f3d2f7268da928f516a65ac6f8c6e08"}
{"input": "What is the main advantage of a horizontal business model for mobile devices?", "context": "The future of mobile CPUs, part 1: Today’s fork in the road | Ars Technica\n2013 may be a big year for the evolution of smartphones and tablets.\nMobile computing's rise from niche market to the mainstream is among the most significant technological trends in our lifetimes. And to a large extent, it's been driven by the bounty of Moore’s Law—the rule that transistor density doubles every 24 months. Initially, most mobile devices relied on highly specialized hardware to meet stringent power and size budgets. But with so many transistors available, devices inevitably grew general-purpose capabilities. Most likely, that wasn't even the real motivation. The initial desire was probably to reduce costs by creating a more flexible software ecosystem with better re-use and faster time to market. As such, the first smartphones were very much a novelty, and it took many years before the world realized the potential of such devices. Apple played a major role by creating innovative smartphones that consumers craved and quickly adopted.\nTo some extent, this is where we still stand today. Smartphones are still (relatively) expensive and primarily interesting to the developed world. But over the next 10 years, this too will change. As Moore’s Law rolls on, the cost of a low-end smartphone will decline. At some point, the incremental cost will be quite minimal and many feature phones of today will be supplanted by smartphones. A $650 unsubsidized phone is well beyond the reach of most of the world compared to a $20 feature phone, but a $30 to $40 smartphone would naturally be very popular.\nIn this grand progression, 2013 will certainly be a significant milestone for mobile devices, smartphones and beyond. It's likely to be the first year in which tablets out-ship notebooks in the US. And in the coming years, this will lead to a confluence of high-end tablets and ultra-mobile notebooks as the world figures out how these devices co-exist, blend, hybridize, and/or merge.\nAgainst this backdrop, in this two-part series, we'll explore the major trends and evolution for mobile SoCs. More importantly, we'll look to where the major vendors are likely going in the next several years.\nTablet and phone divergence\nWhile phones and tablets are mobile devices that often share a great deal of software, it's becoming increasingly clear the two are very different products. These two markets have started to diverge and will continue doing so over time.\nFrom a technical perspective, smartphones are far more compact and power constrained. Smartphone SoCs are limited to around 1W, both by batteries and by thermal dissipation. The raison d’etre of a smartphone is connectivity, so a cellular modem is an absolute necessity. For the cost sensitive-models that make up the vast majority of the market, the modem is integrated into the SoC itself. High-end designs favor discrete modems with a greater power budget instead. The main smartphone OSes today are iOS and Android, though Windows is beginning to make an appearance (perhaps with Linux or BlackBerry on the horizon). Just as importantly, phone vendors like HTC must pass government certification and win the approval of carriers. There is very much a walled-garden aspect, where carriers control which devices can be attached to their networks, and in some cases devices can only be sold through a certain carrier. The business model places consumers quite far removed from the actual hardware.\nIn contrast, tablets are far more akin to the PC both technically and economically. The power budget for tablet SoCs is much greater, up to 4W for a passively cooled device and as high as 7-8W for systems with fans. This alone means there is a much wider range of tablet designs than smartphones. Moreover, the default connectivity for tablets is Wi-Fi rather than a cellular modem. The vast majority of tablets do not have cellular modems, and even fewer customers actually purchase a wireless data plan. As a result, cellular modems are almost always optional discrete components of the platform. The software ecosystem is relatively similar, with Microsoft, Apple, and Google OSes available. Because tablets eschew cellular modems, the time to market is faster, and they are much more commonly sold directly to consumers rather than through carriers. In terms of usage models, tablets are much more PC-like, with reasonable-sized screens that make games and media more attractive.\nLooking forward, these distinctions will likely become more pronounced. Many tablets today use high-end smartphone SoCs, but the difference in power targets and expected performance is quite large. As the markets grow in volume, SoCs will inevitably bifurcate to focus on one market or the other. Even today, Apple is doing so, with the A6 for phones and the larger A6X for tablets. Other vendors may need to wait a few years to have the requisite volume, but eventually the two markets will be clearly separate.\nHorizontal business model evolution\nAnother aspect of the mobile device market that is currently in flux and likely to change in the coming years is the business model for the chip and system vendors. Currently, Apple is the only company truly pursuing a vertically integrated model, where all phones and tablets are based on Apple’s own SoC designs and iOS. The tight integration between hardware and software has been a huge boon for Apple, and it has yielded superb products.\nSamsung is one of the few others companies that takes a vertically integrated approach to phones and tablets, although in truth its strategy seems to be ambivalent on that point. Unlike Apple, Samsung’s SoCs are readily available to third parties, and some Samsung devices, such as the S7562 Galaxy S Duos, use SoCs from competitors. More recently though, there has been a trend of Samsung devices using Samsung SoCs, at least for the premier products. For the moment, Samsung’s approach is best characterized as a hybrid, particularly as the company lacks a bespoke OS.\nThe rest of the major SoC vendors (e.g., Intel, Qualcomm, Nvidia, TI, Mediatek, etc.) have stayed pretty far away from actual mobile devices. These companies tend to focus on horizontal business models that avoid competing with customers or suppliers.\nIn the long term, mobile devices are likely to evolve similarly to the PC and favor a horizontal business model. The real advantage is one of flexibility; as costs drop and the market expands, it will be increasingly necessary for vendors like HTC to offer a wide range of phones based on radically different SoCs. While a vertically integrated company like Apple can focus and maintain leadership in a specific (and highly lucrative) niche, it would be very difficult to expand in many growing areas of the market. The differences between an iPhone 6 and a $20 feature phone are tremendous and would be very difficult for a single company to bridge.\nHowever, SoC vendors will attempt to reap the benefits of vertical integration by providing complete reference platforms to OEMs. Conceptually, this is a form of \"optional\" system integration, where the phone vendor or carrier can get the entire platform from the SoC supplier. This has the principal advantages of reducing time to market while also providing a baseline quality and experience for consumers. Currently, this approach has mostly been tested in emerging markets, but it's likely to become more common over time. There is a crucial distinction between reference platforms and vertical integration. Namely, OEMs can always choose to customize a platform to differentiate, and the SoC vendor avoids dealing with consumers directly. Typically, most of the customization is in terms of software on top of a base operating system.\nQuote:Moreover, that will make the transition to a 10nm node even more difficult, as the foundries will have to move from 20nm interconnects to 10nm interconnects and skip a generation.The advances in technology lately allowing components on such a small scale to even be envisioned, much less planned for, are truly amazing.\nOff topic: show\nI present the first generation 'non-technical' rock:\nI don't think your horizontal market development theory is supported by facts. Samsung and Apple are more vertically oriented than their competition, for starters. I know this article is narrowly focused on the hardware, but MS and Intel getting into hardware, Amazon getting into hardware, Google buying Moto, this is all vertical integration. How can you support the idea that this trend will be reversed with no real justification? I'm sure mobile chips will continue to specialize, but I don't think this means what you think it means. Automobile companies started making their own engines and with rare exceptions, never went back to being more horizontal. Same with retail and their store brands. Same with cloud companies and their servers. Same with mobile companies and their OSs. The horizontal market of PCs created by long-lasting standards and loose hegemony is the exception, not the norm.\nWhy wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?\nI'm not so sure about several things:1- Moore's law's relevance. Moore's Law is about ICs. ICs are not as big a part of mobile computers as they are of desktops, even of laptops: screens, batteries, radios are a huge part of tablets' and phones' costs, as opposed to the bare SoC + RAM.2- The tablet vs phone dichotomy. For some reason (probably price insensitivity due to subsidies), Phones have a tendency to be more powerful than Tablets, ie phone SoCs are more than good enough for tablets. Since the OS and peripherals are the same, it makes more sense to design and build just one type of SoC, and just disable the phone-modem part of it (even the other radios are still required: BT, Wifi, GPS...), same as Intel disable cache and cores for their entry-level CPUs. Once you're fabbing a SoC, it makes more sense to make more of the same than to setup a separate run of a cut-down SoC on an older process, unless volumes are huge. We might still be getting previous-generation, well amortized SoCs in cheaper tablets, though.3- On the contrary, I see a tablet and phone convergence (the ugly phablet). I'm patiently waiting for the new 6\"+ phones to replace my Nook Color and Galaxy Note 1 with a single device.4- The advantage of diversity ? Software is becoming ever more important than hardware. Multiplying SoCs means multiplying product development costs, making support and updates more difficult... Again, unless volumes are huge, OEMs are probaly better off going the way of the car industry and using modular \"platforms\" housed in different chassis with various screen sizes, keyboards, radios, digitizers...I'm wondering why the \"single device\" trend does not figure in your analysis. Is it stillborn ? Does it have no impact nor dependency on/with SoCs ?\nSamsung has its own bespoke OS: Bada and it is used on an extensive line of devices. I think there are numbers somewhere that it outsold Windows Phone 7 for a time.\ngypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?First mover advantage.\nSoC? System on a Chip I guess?\nYou're way off on the Moore's Law/cost of smartphones point. The processors used in today's high-end smartphones are already cheap, around $25. And there are less expensive options if you want a lower end product. In fact, the hardware in the whole smartphone is relatively cheap. Analyst's estimate the Z10's materials cost around $160, the iPhone 5 around $140. They're using expensive glass and metals, then there's the battery, memory, etc. which means the processor is a small factor of the cost.And then there's the jump from $140 in materials to the unsubsidized costs. The reason these phones cost $650 is because of the high margins these companies are able to get and the high cost of hardware design and/or software development. But the point is that making the processors 4 times better/cheaper isn't going to change the economics of the smartphone. What will change the economics is commoditized designs and software and cheaper materials all around. Then you'll have a $50 smartphone that's decent.\nLast edited by ggeezz on Wed Feb 13, 2013 9:17 am\nbigterp wrote:SoC? System on a Chip I guess?Yup.\ngypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Money and momentum, the x86 market is a huge money maker for Intel so it is able to recoup its huge investments for advanced foundries.\nQuote:Currently, the only products using 3D integration are FPGAs from Xilinx,Doesn't Sony use it in the PS Vita? I thought I read somewhere that they had the CPU, main memory (2 dies) and video memory, so 4 dies in total, sitting on top of each other all on the same chip.\nrenoX wrote:gypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Money and momentum, the x86 market is a huge money maker for Intel so it is able to recoup its huge investments for advanced foundries.Exactly and I would clarify that it's all about margins, the difference between what it costs to make a chip and what it sells for. The margins for desktop and server processors is huge because a) the whole product is expensive so $200 to $1000 for the chip is acceptable, and b) Intel has huge advantages in that space and little competition.So Intel can afford to do the R&D to stay ahead of the curve and keep their position. When your smartphone chip sells for $25 you can't do the R&D to leapfrog a company that sells Xeons for $1000 and Core i5's for $200.\nI am happy to see Kanter here at Ars, I like his writing and he maintains Real World Tech, where Linus Torvalds often shows up to comment on CPU arch and other interesting topics.\nggeezz wrote:renoX wrote:gypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Money and momentum, the x86 market is a huge money maker for Intel so it is able to recoup its huge investments for advanced foundries.Exactly and I would clarify that it's all about margins, the difference between what it costs to make a chip and what it sells for. The margins for desktop and server processors is huge because a) the whole product is expensive so $200 to $1000 for the chip is acceptable, and b) Intel has huge advantages in that space and little competition.So Intel can afford to do the R&D to stay ahead of the curve and keep their position. When your smartphone chip sells for $25 you can't do the R&D to leapfrog a company that sells Xeons for $1000 and Core i5's for $200.Spot on.Intel are able to piggyback other development efforts off the highly lucrative mainstream x86 market which generates the huge sums of money to fund their amazing fab technology.The question for the future is how the economics will stack up when overall device costs fall significantly and there is a big downward pressure on SoC prices. In that situation, can Intel still justify bringing their A-game to a market where products are essentially commoditised and you have processors selling for a only a few dollars each?The lesson from their previous involvement in the DRAM market is that they probably won't want to be involved because there isn't enough money to be made to justify manufacturing phone SoCs on a cutting edge, or near cutting edge process. In that scenario, Intel may not totally abandon the market but they might just stick to manufacturing SoCs on nodes that are a step or two behind the state of the art.\nsolomonrex wrote:I don't think your horizontal market development theory is supported by facts. Samsung and Apple are more vertically oriented than their competition, for starters. I know this article is narrowly focused on the hardware, but MS and Intel getting into hardware, Amazon getting into hardware, Google buying Moto, this is all vertical integration. How can you support the idea that this trend will be reversed with no real justification? I'm sure mobile chips will continue to specialize, but I don't think this means what you think it means. Automobile companies started making their own engines and with rare exceptions, never went back to being more horizontal. Same with retail and their store brands. Same with cloud companies and their servers. Same with mobile companies and their OSs. The horizontal market of PCs created by long-lasting standards and loose hegemony is the exception, not the norm.Yea, each year Amazon, MS, Apple and Google look more and more the same.\nIntel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.\ngypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Intel's called Chipzilla for a reason up\nLagrange wrote:The question for the future is how the economics will stack up when overall device costs fall significantly and there is a big downward pressure on SoC prices. In that situation, can Intel still justify bringing their A-game to a market where products are essentially commoditised and you have processors selling for a only a few dollars each?The lesson from their previous involvement in the DRAM market is that they probably won't want to be involved because there isn't enough money to be made to justify manufacturing phone SoCs on a cutting edge, or near cutting edge process. In that scenario, Intel may not totally abandon the market but they might just stick to manufacturing SoCs on nodes that are a step or two behind the state of the art.I think the processing is a bigger advantage than many realize. If Intel can stay ahead in process design - which this article seems to indicate - they should have a major advantage. All else being equal a 14nm chip should be significantly faster and more efficient than the same chip at 22nm. Add in the fact that yields increase geometrically - you can fit a lot more 14nm chips on a given wafer size vs 22nm (or 32nm for the other manufacturers.) and you have a very appealing proposition. And then add in the fact that Intel actually has a pretty good graphics stack and IP. It's not a sure thing by any means, but I suspect ARM may have just prodded a sleeping giant.edit: Also worth noting, Intel, TSMC, and Samsung are the only manufacturers who are building out 450nm wafers. This will increase yields dramatically. Of course Samsung and TSMC will build ARM out, but it definitely puts quite a bit of pressure on all other manufacturers. As the article mentions Intel and Samsung are the only ones who control production top to bottom, and Samsung must share some of the benefits with ARM.\nAs someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy.The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago. Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST.The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it. Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then. The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP.\nLast edited by paul5ra on Wed Feb 13, 2013 11:06 am\nintroiboad wrote:I am happy to see Kanter here at Ars, I like his writing and he maintains Real World Tech, where Linus Torvalds often shows up to comment on CPU arch and other interesting topics.Indeed. Most tech writing in this area is atrocious. This piece is one of the few well informed articles I've read in a long time.\nggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.The word you're looking for is Haswell, as far as I know.\nMabsark\nggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.Actually, that trend will not simply keep increasing going forward. The reason desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing is due to the fact that most people already have one and therefore don't need to buy another one. The exact same thing will happen with tablets as well. Sales are increasing now because people without tablets are buying them. When most people already own a tablet, they won't be buying a new one every year and therefore sales will stagnate/decrease.The PC market is saturated and in a couple of years, the tablet market will be saturated too. Basically, in order to increase sales in a saturated market, you need to increase the population growth or decrease the longevity of the product.\ngypsumfantastic wrote:Why wouldn't the foundries be able close the process gap with Intel? Is it a matter of money? Scale?Probably a mix of a lot of things. One big thing was during this recession, Intel was the ONLY fab company that didn't scale back their R&D. That alone gave Intel a large advantage.Intel has almost always been ahead. One of the reasons could be that Intel works with much higher margins than many of the commodity companies like Samsung and TSMC.Outside of the P4 flop and some of the monopolistic abuses, Intel has typically been selling to high end customers that are willing to pay a premium for \"the best\".Intel has a large benefit of having a relatively \"good name\" when it comes to CPUs, so they can effectively charge a brand-name premium.I'm sure there are other reasons, and probably better reasons, but these are the main ones that I think of.\nMabsark wrote:Actually, that trend will not simply keep increasing going forward. The reason desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing is due to the fact that most people already have one and therefore don't need to buy another one. The exact same thing will happen with tablets as well. Sales are increasing now because people without tablets are buying them. When most people already own a tablet, they won't be buying a new one every year and therefore sales will stagnate/decrease.The PC market is saturated and in a couple of years, the tablet market will be saturated too. Basically, in order to increase sales in a saturated market, you need to increase the population growth or decrease the longevity of the product.That's true as long as most people are still buying both a tablet and a laptop when each needs to be replaced. I think the assumption is that, as you say, the tablet market will saturate, with people just replacing existing ones, but the desktop/laptop market could decrease much farther than that, if most people stop replacing them at all. I'm not sure of the likelihood of that, but I think that's where this idea comes from.\nggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.The upcoming Haswell chip is showing to consume 1/3 the power of IvyBridge at peak, consumes 1/20th the power at idle, all the while maintaining Identical or better performance.This chip should actually compete with ARM CPUs on both power/performance and idle.I am expecting a large war.\nApple once again is dictating the performance in the mobile industry. Nice to see others being able to keep the pace, as well.\npaul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy.The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago. Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST.The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it. Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then.Yeah, and most of the innovation in the automobile industry came about before Henry Ford came into the business. Doesn't change the fact that cars would probably have been an asterisk in the history books under \"toys for rich people\" if it weren't for him.The same applies to to mobile computing for Apple, Samsung, et al.\nSheldonRoss wrote:Lagrange wrote:The question for the future is how the economics will stack up when overall device costs fall significantly and there is a big downward pressure on SoC prices. In that situation, can Intel still justify bringing their A-game to a market where products are essentially commoditised and you have processors selling for a only a few dollars each?The lesson from their previous involvement in the DRAM market is that they probably won't want to be involved because there isn't enough money to be made to justify manufacturing phone SoCs on a cutting edge, or near cutting edge process. In that scenario, Intel may not totally abandon the market but they might just stick to manufacturing SoCs on nodes that are a step or two behind the state of the art.I think the processing is a bigger advantage than many realize. If Intel can stay ahead in process design - which this article seems to indicate - they should have a major advantage. All else being equal a 14nm chip should be significantly faster and more efficient than the same chip at 22nm. Add in the fact that yields increase geometrically - you can fit a lot more 14nm chips on a given wafer size vs 22nm (or 32nm for the other manufacturers.) and you have a very appealing proposition. And then add in the fact that Intel actually has a pretty good graphics stack and IP. My point was that Intel might have a one or two process advantage over the rest of the industry at the cutting edge but that doesn't mean that they can afford to manufacture on those processes for very low margin parts. If the SoC market becomes increasingly commoditised, there isn't going to be the money to justify making them in a state of the art fab.Remember that one of the big selling points of Itanium was that it would make use of process advantages that were effectively paid for by the mainstream x86 market. That didn't quite work out in practice and Itanium processors were often well behind Xeons in process technology.\npaul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy.The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago. Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST.The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it. Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then. The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP.Just goes to show that people who have worked in an industry for a long time don't always understand what that industry is doing.You haven't been working in it long enough to seem to know that it was Acorn and Apple that invented the mobile ARM CPU in the first place. All those companies you've mentioned have just been working off Acorn and Apple's pioneering work. Now, Apple is back at it again, very successfully, and all the companies you mentioned that produce chips with ARM IP in them are licensing them from the company Acorn and Apple formed—ARM.\nLast edited by melgross on Wed Feb 13, 2013 11:13 am\nMark Havel wrote:ggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.The word you're looking for is Haswell, as far as I know.If tablets move into the $100-200 range, is there going to be room for Haswell?So long as there is a higher-end tablet market, then Haswell will be able to shine, but it's going to be a much more powerful and costly part than the sort of ARM based hardware that often runs tablets. If we see a race to the bottom where price is the dominant motivator behind purchases, then a high performance SoC will struggle to make its mark.\nmelgross wrote:paul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy.The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago. Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST.The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it. Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then. The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP.Just goes to show that people who have worked in an industry for a long time don't always understand what that industry is doing.You haven't been working in it long enough to seem to know that it was Acorn and Apple that invented the mobile ARM CPU in the first place. All those companies you've mentioned have just been working off Acorn and Apple's pioneering work. Now, Apple is back at it again, very successfully, and all the companies you mentioned that produce chips with ARM IP in them are licensing them from the company Acorn and Apple formed—ARM.Of course I realise ARM IP has indeed been a major driving factor too (though only one if several architectures before ARM became dominant), though I see ARM's influence on the mobile industry as having nothing to do with modern day Apple and only one small piece of the puzzle. My point is that the hard electrical engineering, mathematics, DSP, semiconductor physics/chemistry, RF engineering, analogue design, CAD etc. that make modern telecommunications possible has very little to do with the fashion companies who consumers (and unfortunately much of the tech media) associate with it and give the credit (though in this respect Samsung does deserve a bit more credit for their work on NAND flash and displays). The industry simply would not exist TODAY without the overwhelming horizontal integration that already dominates.\nQuote:In the long term, mobile devices are likely to evolve similarly to the PC and favor a horizontal business model. The real advantage is one of flexibility; as costs drop and the market expands, it will be increasingly necessary for vendors like HTC to offer a wide range of phones based on radically different SoCs. You don't mention in the article that each SoC necessarily requires a bit of parallel dev work unlike the PC. In the PC world there is a standard BIOS and HW architecture that allows for pluggable designs. On a highly integrated SoC this is untrue. HTC suffers because it has to support radically different SoCs, their drivers and boot loaders, etc. Quote:While a vertically integrated company like Apple can focus and maintain leadership in a specific (and highly lucrative) niche, it would be very difficult to expand in many growing areas of the market. The differences between an iPhone 6 and a $20 feature phone are tremendous and would be very difficult for a single company to bridge.It's only difficult because Apple chooses to ignore that market, not because they can't. If they can release a $99 Apple TV, they can surely cobble together a $20 feature phone if they chose to eschew 8GB of NAND, BT, WiFi, a specialized dock connector, LTE, and their specialized processors. In other words, build the equivalent of an iPod shuffle with a horrible screen and no OS to speak of.\npaul5ra wrote:melgross wrote:paul5ra wrote:As someone who has worked in the semiconductor industry for longer than contemporary fanboys have existed, I'm getting a bit fed-up seeing many of these articles which rewrite history with analyses distorted by the lens of the contemporary Apple or Samsung fanboy.The mobile industry moved to horizontal integration a long time ago. Better indicators than these odd contemporary obsessions with the relatively non-innovative Samsung and Apple where when Motorola spun out its semiconductor division as Freescale, Nokia stopped making it's own custom designs with TI and ST, and Ericsson spun out it's Ericsson Mobile Platforms division and formed ST-Ericsson with ST.The true innovation in the mobile market was done a decade or more ago mainly by Moto/Nokia/Ericsson/TI/Qualcomm, and Samsung and Apple had little to do with it. Under the hood most stuff has been on a simple linear evolutionary path by the SoC providers since then. The phone manufacturers have then mainly been simply sticking these off-the-shelf SoCs (and their included low-level software stacks) in a box, a job made all the easier with the SoC manufacturer collaboration providing the bulk of the work for the AOSP.Just goes to show that people who have worked in an industry for a long time don't always understand what that industry is doing.You haven't been working in it long enough to seem to know that it was Acorn and Apple that invented the mobile ARM CPU in the first place. All those companies you've mentioned have just been working off Acorn and Apple's pioneering work. Now, Apple is back at it again, very successfully, and all the companies you mentioned that produce chips with ARM IP in them are licensing them from the company Acorn and Apple formed—ARM.Of course I realise ARM IP has indeed been a major driving factor too (though only one if several architectures before ARM became dominant), though I see ARM's influence on the mobile industry as having nothing to do with modern day Apple and only one piece of the puzzle. My point is that the hard electrical engineering, mathematics, DSP, semiconductor physics/chemistry, RF engineering, analogue design,etc. that make modern telecommunications possible has very little to do with the fashion companies who consumers (and unfortunately much of the tech media) associate with it and give the credit (though in this respect Samsung does deserve a bit more credit for their work on NAND flash and displays). The industry simply would not exist TODAY without the overwhelming horizontal integration that already dominates.Yes the efforts of these companies getting cellular communications standardized were immense. And the technology matured. And then they didn't do much with it. It took some youngin's to look at the problem fresh and add the UI that make today's smartphones work. As we have all seen, the moment your technology has matured is the moment you are screwed because someone else now has the opportunity to look at it as a black box and make something new. Each of those manufacturers knew that smartphones would eventually be awesome, but none of them had the UI and software design to make a truly breakout product. Imagine if Motorola would have been smart enough to buy the Android guys instead of Google. Instead, Google bought a bunch of patents on that cellular black box to try to defend it's platform.And when you think about it, which consumes more man years of engineering effort per year at this point.... iterating that cellular black box or developing the OS, services and apps that power today's smartphones?\nIntel had better decide that they are competing in this space \"for real\", or they are screwed. They've already let the Atom languish for five years, during which ARM has completely caught up in performance.Just like Tim Cook said, if you don't cannibalize your own markets someone else will do it for you.Whether Intel will embrace that concept in time remains to be seen. Personally, I hope they don't; if Intel transforms into a chipless Fab company (like TSMC) everyone benefits.\nI still think Samsung has the advantage long term because they have both the SOC and the memory products. As mentioned in the article, TSV's (Through Silicon Via's) are going to be quite a disruption. Today, people normally stack an LPDDR2 package on top of their SOC package (POP or Package On Package). Within the LPDDR2 package, you could have a stack of DRAM die typically with wire bonding connecting the die within the package.Once you more to TSV's, you can have a LOT more connections between the SOC and its DRAM's. While this is being standardized through JEDEC (http://www.jedec.org/category/technolog ... a/3d-ics-0), Samsung has all the pieces in house to do whatever they want. You could see a 512 bit or higher bus from the SOC to the memory. The trick is that the memory and the SOC need to line up with each other when you stack them. This gives Samsung an inherent advantage.This isn't just going to impact mobile either. Take a look at that JEDEC link. It also lists High Bandwidth Memory (HBM). This is a 1024 bit bus that provides 128GBytes/s to 256GBytes/s of bandwidth to a stack of up to 8 DRAM's. Here is your processor that includes 8-16 cores and 4GBytes of really, really, fast DRAM... No DIMMs required. How many of them do you want in your server rack?If I was Intel or Apple, I would be thinking seriously about making some investments in Micron to guarantee they make some compelling DRAM's to integrate with their SOC's and processors... otherwise Samsung is going to blow them out of the water on bandwidth.\nGreat_Scott wrote:Intel had better decide that they are competing in this space \"for real\", or they are screwed. They've already let the Atom languish for five years, during which ARM has completely caught up in performance.Just like Tim Cook said, if you don't cannibalize your own markets someone else will do it for you.Whether Intel will embrace that concept in time remains to be seen. Personally, I hope they don't; if Intel transforms into a chipless Fab company (like TSMC) everyone benefits.It's true that Atom has stood still for too long, but honestly it's pretty amazing how Atom is still competitive with current ARM chips. The Z2760 is even 32nm vs 28nm of the latest Krait and A15 chips.But that's all changing with Atom moving to the tick tock schedule this year. It wouldn't even surprise me to see Apple move to Intel chips for IOS.And I don't see how Intel moving to a chipless Fab company would help everyone. It certainly wouldn't help Intel.\nMabsark wrote:ggeezz wrote:Intel cannot abandon the phone/tablet market. Desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing and phones/tablets are on the rise. This trend is only going to increase going forward.But you're right, they're going to have use their fabs that are a step or two behind the cutting the edge. But they're going to have to up their game in the tablet space to even be able to do that.Actually, that trend will not simply keep increasing going forward. The reason desktop/laptop sales are stagnating/decreasing is due to the fact that most people already have one and therefore don't need to buy another one. The exact same thing will happen with tablets as well. Sales are increasing now because people without tablets are buying them. When most people already own a tablet, they won't be buying a new one every year and therefore sales will stagnate/decrease.The PC market is saturated and in a couple of years, the tablet market will be saturated too. Basically, in order to increase sales in a saturated market, you need to increase the population growth or decrease the longevity of the product.Yes and no. I'm not sure the tablet market will saturate in a \"couple of years.\" It may be more like 5 years. But that's a quibble.Here's the real issue. Right now Apple wants you to own an iPhone AND iPad AND Macbook AND iWatch AND Apple TV. Microsoft, OTOH, is making the Surface so that you could ditch your laptop and just use a Surface. Not everyone, but some people.If 5 years from now, we're in a world where a significant number of people use a Surface-type device instead of a laptop, then the PC market is going to contract significantly. Maybe some of the tablet-like devices will use moderately expensive Intel chips, but some of them are going to use cheaper chips.\nGravyGraphics wrote:I still think Samsung has the advantage long term because they have both the SOC and the memory products. As mentioned in the article, TSV's (Through Silicon Via's) are going to be quite a disruption. Today, people normally stack an LPDDR2 package on top of their SOC package (POP or Package On Package). Within the LPDDR2 package, you could have a stack of DRAM die typically with wire bonding connecting the die within the package.Once you more to TSV's, you can have a LOT more connections between the SOC and its DRAM's. While this is being standardized through JEDEC (http://www.jedec.org/category/technolog ... a/3d-ics-0), Samsung has all the pieces in house to do whatever they want. You could see a 512 bit or higher bus from the SOC to the memory. The trick is that the memory and the SOC need to line up with each other when you stack them. This gives Samsung an inherent advantage.This isn't just going to impact mobile either. Take a look at that JEDEC link. It also lists High Bandwidth Memory (HBM). This is a 1024 bit bus that provides 128GBytes/s to 256GBytes/s of bandwidth to a stack of up to 8 DRAM's. Here is your processor that includes 8-16 cores and 4GBytes of really, really, fast DRAM... No DIMMs required. How many of them do you want in your server rack?If I was Intel or Apple, I would be thinking seriously about making some investments in Micron to guarantee they make some compelling DRAM's to integrate with their SOC's and processors... otherwise Samsung is going to blow them out of the water on bandwidth.Why not AMD? Last I checked they still made memory...and processors/GPUs.", "answers": ["Flexibility."], "length": 7565, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "04b588ff2dea15f4a9c4fdbaabc55aaad1ba3446114d6741"}
{"input": "What are the three synthetic types of vitamin K?", "context": "Vitamin K - Wikipedia\n(Redirected from Vitamin k)\nThis article needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2015)\nThis article is about the family of vitamers. For vitamin K1 the form usually used as a supplement, see Phytomenadione.\nVitamin K structures. MK-4 and MK-7 are both subtypes of K2.\nVitamin K deficiency, Warfarin overdose\nVitamin K is a group of structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamins the human body requires for complete synthesis of certain proteins that are prerequisites for blood coagulation and which the body also needs for controlling binding of calcium in bones and other tissues. The vitamin K-related modification of the proteins allows them to bind calcium ions, which they cannot do otherwise. Without vitamin K, blood coagulation is seriously impaired, and uncontrolled bleeding occurs. Low levels of vitamin K also weaken bones and promote calcification of arteries and other soft tissues[citation needed].\nChemically, the vitamin K family comprises 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (3-) derivatives. Vitamin K includes two natural vitamers: vitamin K1 and vitamin K2.[1] Vitamin K2, in turn, consists of a number of related chemical subtypes, with differing lengths of carbon side chains made of isoprenoid groups of atoms.\nVitamin K1, also known as phylloquinone, is made by plants, and is found in highest amounts in green leafy vegetables because it is directly involved in photosynthesis. It may be thought of as the plant form of vitamin K. It is active as a vitamin in animals and performs the classic functions of vitamin K, including its activity in the production of blood-clotting proteins. Animals may also convert it to vitamin K2.\nBacteria in the gut flora can also convert K1 into vitamin K2. In addition, bacteria typically lengthen the isoprenoid side chain of vitamin K2 to produce a range of vitamin K2 forms, most notably the MK-7 to MK-11 homologues of vitamin K2. All forms of K2 other than MK-4 can only be produced by bacteria, which use these forms in anaerobic respiration. The MK-7 and other bacterially derived forms of vitamin K2 exhibit vitamin K activity in animals, but MK-7's extra utility over MK-4, if any, is unclear and is a matter of investigation.\nThree synthetic types of vitamin K are known: vitamins K3, K4, and K5. Although the natural K1 and all K2 homologues and synthetic K4 and K5 have proven nontoxic, the synthetic form K3 (menadione) has shown toxicity.[2]\n1.2 Cardiovascular health\n1.4 Coumarin poisoning\n4.1 Conversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2\n4.2 Vitamin K2\n6 Absorption and dietary need\n7 Dietary reference intake\n10 Biochemistry\n10.1 Function in animals\n10.2 Gamma-carboxyglutamate proteins\n10.3 Methods of assessment\n10.4 Function in bacteria\n11 Injection in newborns\n11.3 Controversy\nA review of 2014 concluded that there is positive evidence that monotherapy using MK-4, one of the forms of Vitamin K2, reduces fracture incidence in post-menopausal women with osteoporosis, and suggested further research on the combined use of MK-4 with bisphosphonates. In contrast, an earlier review article of 2013 concluded that there is no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation helps prevent osteoporosis or fractures in postmenopausal women.[3]\nA Cochrane systematic review of 2006 suggested that supplementation with Vitamin K1 and with MK4 reduces bone loss; in particular, a strong effect of MK-4 on incident fractures among Japanese patients was emphasized.[4]\nA review article of 2016 suggested to consider, as one of several measures for bone health, increasing the intake of foods rich in vitamins K1 and K2.[5]\nCardiovascular health[edit]\nAdequate intake of vitamin K is associated with the inhibition of arterial calcification and stiffening,[6] but there have been few interventional studies and no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation is of any benefit in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease.[7]\nOne 10-year population study, the Rotterdam Study, did show a clear and significant inverse relationship between the highest intake levels of menaquinone (mainly MK-4 from eggs and meat, and MK-8 and MK-9 from cheese) and cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in older men and women.[8]\nVitamin K has been promoted in supplement form with claims it can slow tumor growth; there is however no good medical evidence that supports such claims.[9]\nCoumarin poisoning[edit]\nVitamin K is part of the suggested treatment regime for poisoning by rodenticide (coumarin poisoning).[10]\nAlthough allergic reaction from supplementation is possible, no known toxicity is associated with high doses of the phylloquinone (vitamin K1) or menaquinone (vitamin K2) forms of vitamin K, so no tolerable upper intake level (UL) has been set.[11]\nBlood clotting (coagulation) studies in humans using 45 mg per day of vitamin K2 (as MK-4)[12] and even up to 135 mg per day (45 mg three times daily) of K2 (as MK-4),[13] showed no increase in blood clot risk. Even doses in rats as high as 250 mg/kg, body weight did not alter the tendency for blood-clot formation to occur.[14]\nUnlike the safe natural forms of vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 and their various isomers, a synthetic form of vitamin K, vitamin K3 (menadione), is demonstrably toxic at high levels. The U.S. FDA has banned this form from over-the-counter sale in the United States because large doses have been shown to cause allergic reactions, hemolytic anemia, and cytotoxicity in liver cells.[2]\nPhylloquinone (K1)[15][16] or menaquinone (K2) are capable of reversing the anticoagulant activity of the anticoagulant warfarin (tradename Coumadin). Warfarin works by blocking recycling of vitamin K, so that the body and tissues have lower levels of active vitamin K, and thus a deficiency of vitamin K.\nSupplemental vitamin K (for which oral dosing is often more active than injectable dosing in human adults) reverses the vitamin K deficiency caused by warfarin, and therefore reduces the intended anticoagulant action of warfarin and related drugs.[17] Sometimes small amounts of vitamin K are given orally to patients taking warfarin so that the action of the drug is more predictable.[17] The proper anticoagulant action of the drug is a function of vitamin K intake and drug dose, and due to differing absorption must be individualized for each patient.[citation needed] The action of warfarin and vitamin K both require two to five days after dosing to have maximum effect, and neither warfarin or vitamin K shows much effect in the first 24 hours after they are given.[18]\nThe newer anticoagulants dabigatran and rivaroxaban have different mechanisms of action that do not interact with vitamin K, and may be taken with supplemental vitamin K.[19][20]\nVitamin K2 (menaquinone). In menaquinone, the side chain is composed of a varying number of isoprenoid residues. The most common number of these residues is four, since animal enzymes normally produce menaquinone-4 from plant phylloquinone.\nA sample of phytomenadione for injection, also called phylloquinone\nThe three synthetic forms of vitamin K are vitamins K3 (menadione), K4, and K5, which are used in many areas, including the pet food industry (vitamin K3) and to inhibit fungal growth (vitamin K5).[21]\nConversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2[edit]\nVitamin K1 (phylloquinone) – both forms of the vitamin contain a functional naphthoquinone ring and an aliphatic side chain. Phylloquinone has a phytyl side chain.\nThe MK-4 form of vitamin K2 is produced by conversion of vitamin K1 in the testes, pancreas, and arterial walls.[22] While major questions still surround the biochemical pathway for this transformation, the conversion is not dependent on gut bacteria, as it occurs in germ-free rats[23][24] and in parenterally-administered K1 in rats.[25][26] In fact, tissues that accumulate high amounts of MK-4 have a remarkable capacity to convert up to 90% of the available K1 into MK-4.[27][28] There is evidence that the conversion proceeds by removal of the phytyl tail of K1 to produce menadione as an intermediate, which is then condensed with an activated geranylgeranyl moiety (see also prenylation) to produce vitamin K2 in the MK-4 (menatetrione) form.[29]\nVitamin K2[edit]\nMain article: Vitamin K2\nVitamin K2 (menaquinone) includes several subtypes. The two subtypes most studied are menaquinone-4 (menatetrenone, MK-4) and menaquinone-7 (MK-7).\nVitamin K1, the precursor of most vitamin K in nature, is a stereoisomer of phylloquinone, an important chemical in green plants, where it functions as an electron acceptor in photosystem I during photosynthesis. For this reason, vitamin K1 is found in large quantities in the photosynthetic tissues of plants (green leaves, and dark green leafy vegetables such as romaine lettuce, kale and spinach), but it occurs in far smaller quantities in other plant tissues (roots, fruits, etc.). Iceberg lettuce contains relatively little. The function of phylloquinone in plants appears to have no resemblance to its later metabolic and biochemical function (as \"vitamin K\") in animals, where it performs a completely different biochemical reaction.\nVitamin K (in animals) is involved in the carboxylation of certain glutamate residues in proteins to form gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residues. The modified residues are often (but not always) situated within specific protein domains called Gla domains. Gla residues are usually involved in binding calcium, and are essential for the biological activity of all known Gla proteins.[30]\nAt this time[update], 17 human proteins with Gla domains have been discovered, and they play key roles in the regulation of three physiological processes:\nBlood coagulation: prothrombin (factor II), factors VII, IX, and X, and proteins C, S, and Z[31]\nBone metabolism: osteocalcin, also called bone Gla protein (BGP), matrix Gla protein (MGP),[32] periostin,[33] and the recently discovered Gla-rich protein (GRP).[34][35]\nVascular biology: growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6)[36]\nUnknown function: proline-rich γ-carboxyglutamyl proteins (PRGPs) 1 and 2, and transmembrane γ-carboxy glutamyl proteins (TMGs) 3 and 4.[37]\nLike other lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D and E), vitamin K is stored in the fatty tissue of the human body.\nAbsorption and dietary need[edit]\nPrevious theory held that dietary deficiency is extremely rare unless the small intestine was heavily damaged, resulting in malabsorption of the molecule. Another at-risk group for deficiency were those subject to decreased production of K2 by normal intestinal microbiota, as seen in broad spectrum antibiotic use.[38] Taking broad-spectrum antibiotics can reduce vitamin K production in the gut by nearly 74% in people compared with those not taking these antibiotics.[39] Diets low in vitamin K also decrease the body's vitamin K concentration.[40] Those with chronic kidney disease are at risk for vitamin K deficiency, as well as vitamin D deficiency, and particularly those with the apoE4 genotype.[41] Additionally, in the elderly there is a reduction in vitamin K2 production.[42]\nThe National Academy of Medicine (NAM) updated an estimate of what constitutes an adequate intake (AI) for vitamin K in 2001. The NAM does not distinguish between K1 and K2 – both are counted as vitamin K. At that time there was not sufficient evidence to set the more rigorous estimated average requirement (EAR) or recommended dietary allowance (RDA) given for most of the essential vitamins and minerals. The current daily AIs for vitamin K for adult women and men are 90 μg and 120 μg respectively. The AI for pregnancy and lactation is 90 μg. For infants up to 12 months the AI is 2–2.5 μg, and for children aged 1 to 18 years the AI increases with age from 30 to 75 μg. As for safety, the FNB also sets tolerable upper intake levels (known as ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of vitamin K no UL is set, as evidence for adverse effects is not sufficient. Collectively EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as dietary reference intakes.[43] The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and did not set an UL.[44]\nFor U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percentage of daily value (%DV). For vitamin K labeling purposes the daily value was 80 μg, but as of May 2016 it has been revised upwards to 120 μg. A table of the pre-change adult daily values is provided at reference daily intake. Food and supplement companies have until 28 July 2018 to comply with the change.\nSee also: Vitamin K2 § Dietary sources\nK1 (μg)[45]\nKale, cooked\nCollards, cooked\nCollards, raw\nSwiss chard, cooked\nSwiss chard, raw\nTurnip greens, raw\nRomaine lettuce, raw\nTable from \"Important information to know when you are taking: Warfarin (Coumadin) and Vitamin K\", Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health Drug Nutrient Interaction Task Force.[46]\nVitamin K1 is found chiefly in leafy green vegetables such as dandelion greens (which contain 778.4 μg per 100 g, or 741% of the recommended daily amount), spinach, swiss chard, lettuce and Brassica vegetables (such as cabbage, kale, cauliflower, broccoli, and brussels sprouts) and often the absorption is greater when accompanied by fats such as butter or oils; some fruits, such as avocados, kiwifruit and grapes, are also high in vitamin K. By way of reference, two tablespoons of parsley contains 153% of the recommended daily amount of vitamin K.[47] Some vegetable oils, notably soybean oil, contain vitamin K, but at levels that would require relatively large calorie consumption to meet the USDA-recommended levels.[48] colonic bacteria synthesize a significant portion of humans' vitamin K needs; newborns often receive a vitamin K shot at birth to tide them over until their colons become colonized at five to seven days of age from the consumption of breast milk.\nThe tight binding of vitamin K1 to thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts makes it less bioavailable. For example, cooked spinach has a 5% bioavailability of phylloquinone, however, fat added to it increases bioavailability to 13% due to the increased solubility of vitamin K in fat.[49]\nMain article: Vitamin K deficiency\nAverage diets are usually not lacking in vitamin K, and primary deficiency is rare in healthy adults. Newborn infants are at an increased risk of deficiency. Other populations with an increased prevalence of vitamin K deficiency include those who suffer from liver damage or disease (e.g. alcoholics), cystic fibrosis, or inflammatory bowel diseases, or have recently had abdominal surgeries. Secondary vitamin K deficiency can occur in people with bulimia, those on stringent diets, and those taking anticoagulants. Other drugs associated with vitamin K deficiency include salicylates, barbiturates, and cefamandole, although the mechanisms are still unknown. Vitamin K1 deficiency can result in coagulopathy, a bleeding disorder.[50]Symptoms of K1 deficiency include anemia, bruising, nosebleeds and bleeding of the gums in both sexes, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women.\nOsteoporosis[51][52] and coronary heart disease[53][54] are strongly associated with lower levels of K2 (menaquinone). Vitamin K2 (as menaquinones MK-4 through MK-10) intake level is inversely related to severe aortic calcification and all-cause mortality.[8]\nFunction in animals[edit]\nMechanism of action of vitamin K1.\nThe function of vitamin K2 in the animal cell is to add a carboxylic acid functional group to a glutamate (Glu) amino acid residue in a protein, to form a gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residue. This is a somewhat uncommon posttranslational modification of the protein, which is then known as a \"Gla protein\". The presence of two −COOH (carboxylic acid) groups on the same carbon in the gamma-carboxyglutamate residue allows it to chelate calcium ions. The binding of calcium ions in this way very often triggers the function or binding of Gla-protein enzymes, such as the so-called vitamin K-dependent clotting factors discussed below.\nWithin the cell, vitamin K undergoes electron reduction to a reduced form called vitamin K hydroquinone, catalyzed by the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR).[55] Another enzyme then oxidizes vitamin K hydroquinone to allow carboxylation of Glu to Gla; this enzyme is called gamma-glutamyl carboxylase[56][57] or the vitamin K-dependent carboxylase. The carboxylation reaction only proceeds if the carboxylase enzyme is able to oxidize vitamin K hydroquinone to vitamin K epoxide at the same time. The carboxylation and epoxidation reactions are said to be coupled. Vitamin K epoxide is then reconverted to vitamin K by VKOR. The reduction and subsequent reoxidation of vitamin K coupled with carboxylation of Glu is called the vitamin K cycle.[58] Humans are rarely deficient in vitamin K1 because, in part, vitamin K1 is continuously recycled in cells.[59]\nWarfarin and other 4-hydroxycoumarins block the action of VKOR.[60] This results in decreased concentrations of vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone in tissues, such that the carboxylation reaction catalyzed by the glutamyl carboxylase is inefficient. This results in the production of clotting factors with inadequate Gla. Without Gla on the amino termini of these factors, they no longer bind stably to the blood vessel endothelium and cannot activate clotting to allow formation of a clot during tissue injury. As it is impossible to predict what dose of warfarin will give the desired degree of clotting suppression, warfarin treatment must be carefully monitored to avoid overdose.\nGamma-carboxyglutamate proteins[edit]\nMain article: Gla domain\nThe following human Gla-containing proteins (\"Gla proteins\") have been characterized to the level of primary structure: blood coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII, IX, and X, anticoagulant proteins C and S, and the factor X-targeting protein Z. The bone Gla protein osteocalcin, the calcification-inhibiting matrix Gla protein (MGP), the cell growth regulating growth arrest specific gene 6 protein (Gas6), and the four transmembrane Gla proteins (TMGPs), the function of which is at present unknown. Gas6 can function as a growth factor to activate the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase and stimulate cell proliferation or prevent apoptosis in some cells. In all cases in which their function was known, the presence of the Gla residues in these proteins turned out to be essential for functional activity.\nGla proteins are known to occur in a wide variety of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. The venom of a number of Australian snakes acts by activating the human blood-clotting system. In some cases, activation is accomplished by snake Gla-containing enzymes that bind to the endothelium of human blood vessels and catalyze the conversion of procoagulant clotting factors into activated ones, leading to unwanted and potentially deadly clotting.\nAnother interesting class of invertebrate Gla-containing proteins is synthesized by the fish-hunting snail Conus geographus.[61] These snails produce a venom containing hundreds of neuroactive peptides, or conotoxins, which is sufficiently toxic to kill an adult human. Several of the conotoxins contain two to five Gla residues.[62]\nMethods of assessment[edit]\nVitamin K status can be assessed by:\nThe prothrombin time (PT) test measures the time required for blood to clot. A blood sample is mixed with citric acid and put in a fibrometer; delayed clot formation indicates a deficiency. This test is insensitive to mild deficiency, as the values do not change until the concentration of prothrombin in the blood has declined by at least 50%.[63]\nUndercarboxylated prothrombin (PIVKA-II); in a study of 53 newborns, found \"PT (prothrombin time) is a less sensitive marker than PIVKA II\",[64] and as indicated above, PT is unable to detect subclinical deficiencies that can be detected with PIVKA-II testing.\nPlasma phylloquinone was found to be positively correlated with phylloquinone intake in elderly British women, but not men,[65] but an article by Schurgers et al. reported no correlation between FFQ[further explanation needed] and plasma phylloquinone.[66]\nUrinary γ-carboxyglutamic acid responds to changes in dietary vitamin K intake. Several days are required before any change can be observed. In a study by Booth et al., increases of phylloquinone intakes from 100 μg to between 377 and 417 μg for five days did not induce a significant change. Response may be age-specific.[67]\nUndercarboxylated osteocalcin (UcOc) levels have been inversely correlated with stores of vitamin K[68] and bone strength in developing rat tibiae. Another study following 78 post-menopausal Korean women found a supplement regimen of vitamins K and D, and calcium, but not a regimen of vitamin D and calcium, was inversely correlated with reduced UcOc levels.[69]\nFunction in bacteria[edit]\nMany bacteria, such as Escherichia coli found in the large intestine, can synthesize vitamin K2 (menaquinone-7 or MK-7, up to MK-11),[70] but not vitamin K1 (phylloquinone). In these bacteria, menaquinone transfers two electrons between two different small molecules, during oxygen-independent metabolic energy production processes (anaerobic respiration).[71] For example, a small molecule with an excess of electrons (also called an electron donor) such as lactate, formate, or NADH, with the help of an enzyme, passes two electrons to menaquinone. The menaquinone, with the help of another enzyme, then transfers these two electrons to a suitable oxidant, such fumarate or nitrate (also called an electron acceptor). Adding two electrons to fumarate or nitrate converts the molecule to succinate or nitrite plus water, respectively.\nSome of these reactions generate a cellular energy source, ATP, in a manner similar to eukaryotic cell aerobic respiration, except the final electron acceptor is not molecular oxygen, but fumarate or nitrate. In aerobic respiration, the final oxidant is molecular oxygen (O2), which accepts four electrons from an electron donor such as NADH to be converted to water. E. coli, as facultative anaerobes, can carry out both aerobic respiration and menaquinone-mediated anaerobic respiration.\nInjection in newborns[edit]\nThe blood clotting factors of newborn babies are roughly 30–60% that of adult values; this may be due to the reduced synthesis of precursor proteins and the sterility of their guts. Human milk contains 1–4 μg/L of vitamin K1, while formula-derived milk can contain up to 100 μg/L in supplemented formulas. Vitamin K2 concentrations in human milk appear to be much lower than those of vitamin K1. Occurrence of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the first week of the infant's life is estimated at 0.25–1.7%, with a prevalence of 2–10 cases per 100,000 births.[72] Premature babies have even lower levels of the vitamin, so they are at a higher risk from this deficiency.\nBleeding in infants due to vitamin K deficiency can be severe, leading to hospitalization, blood transfusions, brain damage, and death. Supplementation can prevent most cases of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the newborn. Intramuscular administration is more effective in preventing late vitamin K deficiency bleeding than oral administration.[73][74]\nAs a result of the occurrences of vitamin K deficiency bleeding, the Committee on Nutrition of the American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended 0.5–1 mg of vitamin K1 be administered to all newborns shortly after birth.[74]\nIn the UK vitamin K supplementation is recommended for all newborns within the first 24 hours.[75] This is usually given as a single intramuscular injection of 1 mg shortly after birth but as a second-line option can be given by three oral doses over the first month.[76]\nControversy arose in the early 1990s regarding this practice, when two studies suggested a relationship between parenteral administration of vitamin K and childhood cancer,[77] however, poor methods and small sample sizes led to the discrediting of these studies, and a review of the evidence published in 2000 by Ross and Davies found no link between the two.[78] Doctors reported emerging concerns in 2013,[79] after treating children for serious bleeding problems. They cited lack-of newborn vitamin K administration, as the reason that the problems occurred, and recommended that breastfed babies could have an increased risk unless they receive a preventative dose.\nIn the early 1930s, Danish scientist Henrik Dam investigated the role of cholesterol by feeding chickens a cholesterol-depleted diet.[80] He initially replicated experiments reported by scientists at the Ontario Agricultural College (OAC).[81] McFarlane, Graham and Richardson, working on the chick feed program at OAC, had used chloroform to remove all fat from chick chow. They noticed that chicks fed only fat-depleted chow developed hemorrhages and started bleeding from tag sites.[82] Dam found that these defects could not be restored by adding purified cholesterol to the diet. It appeared that – together with the cholesterol – a second compound had been extracted from the food, and this compound was called the coagulation vitamin. The new vitamin received the letter K because the initial discoveries were reported in a German journal, in which it was designated as Koagulationsvitamin. Edward Adelbert Doisy of Saint Louis University did much of the research that led to the discovery of the structure and chemical nature of vitamin K.[83] Dam and Doisy shared the 1943 Nobel Prize for medicine for their work on vitamin K (K1 and K2) published in 1939. Several laboratories synthesized the compound(s) in 1939.[84]\nFor several decades, the vitamin K-deficient chick model was the only method of quantifying vitamin K in various foods: the chicks were made vitamin K-deficient and subsequently fed with known amounts of vitamin K-containing food. The extent to which blood coagulation was restored by the diet was taken as a measure for its vitamin K content. Three groups of physicians independently found this: Biochemical Institute, University of Copenhagen (Dam and Johannes Glavind), University of Iowa Department of Pathology (Emory Warner, Kenneth Brinkhous, and Harry Pratt Smith), and the Mayo Clinic (Hugh Butt, Albert Snell, and Arnold Osterberg).[85]\nThe first published report of successful treatment with vitamin K of life-threatening hemorrhage in a jaundiced patient with prothrombin deficiency was made in 1938 by Smith, Warner, and Brinkhous.[86]\nThe precise function of vitamin K was not discovered until 1974, when three laboratories (Stenflo et al.,[87] Nelsestuen et al.,[88] and Magnusson et al.[89]) isolated the vitamin K-dependent coagulation factor prothrombin (factor II) from cows that received a high dose of a vitamin K antagonist, warfarin. It was shown that, while warfarin-treated cows had a form of prothrombin that contained 10 glutamate (Glu) amino acid residues near the amino terminus of this protein, the normal (untreated) cows contained 10 unusual residues that were chemically identified as γ-carboxyglutamate (Gla). The extra carboxyl group in Gla made clear that vitamin K plays a role in a carboxylation reaction during which Glu is converted into Gla.\nThe biochemistry of how vitamin K is used to convert Glu to Gla has been elucidated over the past thirty years in academic laboratories throughout the world.\n^ \"Vitamin K Overview\". University of Maryland Medical Center. ^ a b Higdon, Jane (Feb 2008). \"Vitamin K\". Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. Retrieved 12 Apr 2008. ^ Hamidi, M. S.; Gajic-Veljanoski, O.; Cheung, A. M. (2013). \"Vitamin K and bone health\". Journal of Clinical Densitometry (Review). 16 (4): 409–413. doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2013.08.017. PMID 24090644. ^ Cockayne, S.; Adamson, J.; Lanham-New, S.; Shearer, M. J.; Gilbody, S; Torgerson, D. J. (Jun 2006). \"Vitamin K and the prevention of fractures: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials\". Archives of Internal Medicine (Review). 166 (12): 1256–1261. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.12.1256. PMID 16801507. ^ O'Keefe, J. H.; Bergman, N.; Carrera Bastos, P.; Fontes Villalba, M.; Di Nicolantonio, J. J.; Cordain, L. (2016). \"Nutritional strategies for skeletal and cardiovascular health: hard bones, soft arteries, rather than vice versa\". Open Heart (Review). 3 (1): e000325. doi:10.1136/openhrt-2015-000325. PMC 4809188. PMID 27042317. ^ Maresz, K. (Feb 2015). \"Proper Calcium Use: Vitamin K2 as a Promoter of Bone and Cardiovascular Health\". Integrative Medicine (Review). 14 (1): 34–39. PMC 4566462. PMID 26770129. ^ Hartley, L.; Clar, C.; Ghannam, O.; Flowers, N.; Stranges, S.; Rees, K. (Sep 2015). \"Vitamin K for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease\". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Systematic review). 9 (9): CD011148. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011148.pub2. PMID 26389791. ^ a b Geleijnse, J. M.; Vermeer, C.; Grobbee, D. E.; Schurgers, L. J.; Knapen, M. H.; van der Meer, I. M.; Hofman, A.; Witteman, J. C. (Nov 2004). \"Dietary intake of menaquinone is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: the Rotterdam Study\". Journal of Nutrition. 134 (11): 3100–3105. PMID 15514282. ^ Ades, T. B., ed. (2009). \"Vitamin K\". American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies (2nd ed.). American Cancer Society. pp. 558–563. ISBN 978-0-944235-71-3. ^ Lung, D. (Dec 2015). Tarabar, A., ed. \"Rodenticide Toxicity Treatment & Management\". Medscape. WebMD. ^ Rasmussen, S. E.; Andersen, N. L.; Dragsted, L. O.; Larsen, J. C. (Mar 2006). \"A safe strategy for addition of vitamins and minerals to foods\". European Journal of Nutrition. 45 (3): 123–135. doi:10.1007/s00394-005-0580-9. PMID 16200467. ^ Ushiroyama, T.; Ikeda, A.; Ueki, M (Mar 2002). \"Effect of continuous combined therapy with vitamin K2 and vitamin D3 on bone mineral density and coagulofibrinolysis function in postmenopausal women\". Maturitas. 41 (3): 211–221. doi:10.1016/S0378-5122(01)00275-4. PMID 11886767. ^ Asakura, H.; Myou, S.; Ontachi, Y.; Mizutani, T.; Kato, M.; Saito, M.; Morishita, E.; Yamazaki, M.; Nakao, S. (Dec 2001). \"Vitamin K administration to elderly patients with osteoporosis induces no hemostatic activation, even in those with suspected vitamin K deficiency\". Osteoporosis International. 12 (12): 996–1000. doi:10.1007/s001980170007. PMID 11846334. ^ Ronden, J. E.; Groenen-van Dooren, M. M.; Hornstra, G.; Vermeer, C. (Jul 1997). \"Modulation of arterial thrombosis tendency in rats by vitamin K and its side chains\". Atherosclerosis. 132 (1): 61–67. doi:10.1016/S0021-9150(97)00087-7. PMID 9247360. ^ Ansell, J.; Hirsh, J.; Poller, L.; Bussey, H.; Jacobson, A.; Hylek, E (Sep 2004). \"The pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy\". Chest. 126 (3 Suppl.): 204S–233S. doi:10.1378/chest.126.3_suppl.204S. PMID 15383473. ^ Crowther, M. A.; Douketis, J. D.; Schnurr, T.; Steidl, L.; Mera, V.; Ultori, C.; Venco, A.; Ageno, W. (Aug 2002). \"Oral vitamin K lowers the international normalized ratio more rapidly than subcutaneous vitamin K in the treatment of warfarin-associated coagulopathy. A randomized, controlled trial\". Annals of Internal Medicine. 137 (4): 251–254. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-137-4-200208200-00009. PMID 12186515. ^ a b \"Important Information to Know When You Are Taking: Warfarin (Coumadin) and Vitamin K\" (PDF). National Institute of Health Clinical Center Drug-Nutrient Interaction Task Force. 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(1998). \"Neonatal vitamin K administration and childhood cancer in the north of England: retrospective case-control study\". BMJ (Clinical Research Edition). 316 (7126): 189–193. doi:10.1136/bmj.316.7126.189. PMC 2665412. PMID 9468683. ^ McMillan, D. D. (1997). \"Routine administration of vitamin K to newborns\". Paediatric Child Health. 2 (6): 429–431. ^ \"Newborns get rare disorder after parents refused shots\". Having four cases since February just at Vanderbilt was a little bit concerning to me ^ Dam, C. P. H. (1935). \"The Antihaemorrhagic Vitamin of the Chick: Occurrence And Chemical Nature\". Nature. 135 (3417): 652–653. doi:10.1038/135652b0. ^ Dam, C. P. H. (1941). \"The discovery of vitamin K, its biological functions and therapeutical application\" (PDF). Nobel Prize Laureate Lecture. ^ McAlister, V. C. (2006). \"Control of coagulation: a gift of Canadian agriculture\" (PDF). Clinical and Investigative Medicine. 29 (6): 373–377. ^ MacCorquodale, D. W.; Binkley, S. B.; Thayer, S. A.; Doisy, E. A. (1939). \"On the constitution of Vitamin K1\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 61 (7): 1928–1929. doi:10.1021/ja01876a510. ^ Fieser, L. F. (1939). \"Synthesis of Vitamin K1\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 61 (12): 3467–3475. doi:10.1021/ja01267a072. ^ Dam, C. P. H. (12 Dec 1946). \"The discovery of vitamin K, its biological functions and therapeutical application\" (PDF). Nobel Prize lecture. ^ Warner, E. D.; Brinkhous, K. M.; Smith, H. P. (1938). \"Bleeding Tendency of Obstructive Jaundice\". Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine. 37 (4): 628–630. doi:10.3181/00379727-37-9668P. ^ Stenflo, J; Fernlund, P.; Egan, W.; Roepstorff, P. (Jul 1974). \"Vitamin K dependent modifications of glutamic acid residues in prothrombin\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (7): 2730–2733. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.7.2730. PMC 388542. PMID 4528109. ^ Nelsestuen, G. L.; Zytkovicz, T. H.; Howard, J. B. (Oct 1974). \"The mode of action of vitamin K. Identification of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid as a component of prothrombin\" (PDF). Journal of Biological Chemistry. 249 (19): 6347–6350. PMID 4214105. ^ Magnusson, S.; Sottrup-Jensen, L.; Petersen, T. E.; Morris, H. R.; Dell, A. (Aug 1974). \"Primary structure of the vitamin K-dependent part of prothrombin\". FEBS Letters. 44 (2): 189–193. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(74)80723-4. PMID 4472513. Bibliography[edit]\nRhéaume-Bleue, Kate (2012). Vitamin K2 and the Calcium Paradox. John Wiley & Sons, Canada. ISBN 1-118-06572-7. External links[edit]\n\"Vitamin K: Another Reason to Eat Your Greens\". v\nTPP / ThDP (B1)\nFMN, FAD (B2)\nNAD+, NADH, NADP+, NADPH (B3)\nCoenzyme A (B5)\nPLP / P5P (B6)\nTHFA / H4FA, DHFA / H2FA, MTHF (B9)\nAdoCbl, MeCbl (B12)\nPhylloquinone (K1), Menaquinone (K2)\nnon-vitamins\nCoenzyme B\nHeme / Haem (A, B, C, O)\nMolybdopterin/Molybdenum cofactor\nTHMPT / H4MPT\nFe2+, Fe3+\nvitamins: see vitamins\nAntihemorrhagics (B02)\n(coagulation)\nPhytomenadione (K1)\nMenadione (K3)\nintrinsic: IX/Nonacog alfa\nVIII/Moroctocog alfa/Turoctocog alfa\nextrinsic: VII/Eptacog alfa\ncommon: X\nII/Thrombin\nI/Fibrinogen\nXIII/Catridecacog\ncombinations: Prothrombin complex concentrate (II, VII, IX, X, protein C and S)\nCarbazochrome\nthrombopoietin receptor agonist (Romiplostim\nEltrombopag)\nTetragalacturonic acid hydroxymethylester\nEpinephrine/Adrenalone\namino acids (Aminocaproic acid\nAminomethylbenzoic acid)\nserpins (Aprotinin\nAlfa1 antitrypsin\nCamostat).", "answers": ["Vitamins K3, K4, and K5."], "length": 7133, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "c7ad556387e8215bae3f8ccd30ba35e0093218fe48168718"}
{"input": "How are the relationships between catch per set and fishing behavior variables different for different measures of catch per unit effort (CPUE)?", "context": "Overfishing is a major threat to the survival of shark species, primarily driven by international trade in high-value fins, as well as meat, liver oil, skin and cartilage. The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) aims to ensure that commercial trade does not threaten wild species, and several shark species have recently been listed on CITES as part of international efforts to ensure that trade does not threaten their survival. However, as international trade regulations alone will be insufficient to reduce overexploitation of sharks, they must be accompanied by practical fisheries management measures to reduce fishing mortality. To examine which management measures might be practical in the context of a targeted shark fishery, we collected data from 52 vessels across 595 fishing trips from January 2014 to December 2015 at Tanjung Luar fishing port in East Lombok, Indonesia. We recorded 11,920 landed individuals across 42 species, a high proportion of which were threatened and regulated species. Catch per unit effort depended primarily on the number of hooks and type of fishing gear used, and to a lesser degree on month, boat engine power, number of sets and fishing ground. The most significant factors influencing the likelihood of catching threatened and regulated species were month, fishing ground, engine power and hook number. We observed significant negative relationships between standardised catch per unit effort and several indicators of fishing effort, suggesting diminishing returns above relatively low levels of fishing effort. Our results suggest that management measures focusing on fishing effort controls, gear restrictions and modifications and spatiotemporal closures could have significant benefits for the conservation of shark species, and may help to improve the overall sustainability of the Tanjung Luar shark fishery. These management measures may also be applicable to shark fisheries in other parts of Indonesia and beyond, as sharks increasingly become the focus of global conservation efforts.\nCopyright: © 2018 Yulianto et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.\nFunding: Data collection of this study was funded by the Darwin Initiative (grant number 2805). The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.\nOverfishing is the greatest global threat to marine fish stocks [1–5]. Several shark species (Selachimorpha) are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation due to their conservative life history strategies, large body sizes and the high economic value of their preserved body parts [6–8]. With increasing fishing pressure in recent decades, primarily driven by international demand for a range of consumer goods (including fins, liver oil, skin, cartilage and meat), it is estimated that annual fishing mortality now exceeds the intrinsic rebound potential of most commercially exploited species [5, 9, 10]. This fishing pressure is taking its toll, with an estimated one in four Chondrichthyan species now threatened with extinction, making sharks amongst the most threatened species groups in the world .\nIt is also increasingly acknowledged that sharks play a critical role in maintaining functional and productive ocean ecosystems , as well as providing an important source of food and income for many coastal communities . Recognising both the plight and importance of shark populations, there is growing professional and public interest to improve shark conservation, and the management of shark fisheries and trade . This is reflected in several recent policy decisions to afford new international regulations for 12 species of sharks across seven genera under the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This is a promising step for shark conservation; however, in order to create tangible outcomes for species conservation CITES must be implemented through domestic measures that are adapted to national and local contexts.\nIndonesia is the world’s largest shark fishing nation [9, 14], and a global priority for shark conservation . Until recently Indonesia’s shark fishery has largely functioned as de facto open-access [12, 16]. However, in the past five years the Indonesian government has demonstrated a clear commitment to shark conservation and resource management, with domestic measures put in place to implement international obligations under CITES . Exploitation of all CITES-listed species is now regulated, either through full species protection or export controls (these species are hereafter referred to as ‘regulated’ species). However, CITES only affords protection to a small number of Indonesia’s 112 known shark species , of which 83 are threatened with extinction according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (i.e. Vulnerable (VU), Endangered (EN) or Critically Endangered (CR) , these species are hereafter referred to as ‘threatened’ species), many of which continue to be landed throughout the country . Further, these policy measures predominantly regulate trade at the point of export, but do not necessarily influence fisher behaviour or local demand at the point of catch, such that the ‘trickle-down’ impacts on species mortality are unknown. In addition, effectively implementing species-specific shark mortality controls remains challenging due to the non-selectivity of fishing gears, and practical and cultural barriers to changing fisher preferences for certain gear-types and fishing methods. As such, existing regulations alone (e.g. Indonesian Law on Fisheries 31/2004 and its derivative regulations) will likely be insufficient to curb mortality of threatened and regulated species, as fishers must be both willing and able to change their fishing behaviour . Moreover, most of Indonesia’s shark fisheries are small-scale, and in relatively poor coastal communities where there are often no legal, sustainable marine-based alternatives to shark fishing that offer similar financial returns [22, 23]. It is therefore imperative to consider the ethical and socioeconomic impacts of shark trade controls. Most shark species listed under CITES are listed on Appendix II, which is designed for sustainable use. International trade is permitted for CITES Appendix II species provided it is non-detrimental to wild populations of the species, as proven through a scientific non-detriment finding (NDF) report and implemented through a system of export permits. However, in Indonesia there is currently a lack of species-specific trade data for conducting NDFs and setting sustainable export quotas, such that the Indonesian government has to introduce trade bans for these species in order to meet CITES obligations. With new CITES-listings for thresher sharks (Alopias spp.) and silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) recently coming into force, this is likely to have huge implications for Indonesia’s economically important shark industry, and the coastal communities depending on it. In order to balance conservation and socioeconomic objectives, robust management systems must be put in place that ensure and allow sustainable fishing and trade. This necessitates the identification of practical management measures that can reduce mortality of threatened and regulated species at the point of catch, and provide realistic options for fishers to effectively and measurably improve the sustainability of their fishing practices.\nThis study analyses two years of qualitative and quantitative data from one of Indonesia’s targeted shark fisheries in Tanjung Luar, West Nusa Tenggara Province. We outline the key characteristics of the fishery, including fishing behaviour and overall catch volumes and composition. We analyse the impacts of different fishing techniques, and present factors influencing overall catch per unit effort (CPUE) of individual shark fishing trips, as well as factors influencing the likelihood of catching threatened and regulated species. Finally, we discuss the implications of our findings, and provide practical recommendations for fisheries management measures, which can support CITES implementation for sharks and reduce the catch of threatened and regulated species, in Indonesia and beyond.\nThis work was conducted under a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) and Technical Cooperation Agreement (TCA) between the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MoEF), Ministry Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) and the Marine and Fisheries Agency (MFA) of West Nusa Tenggara Province. These documents were approved and signed by Sonny Partono (Director General of Conservation of Natural Resources and Ecosystem MoEF), Sjarief Widjaja (Secretary General MMAF), and Djoko Suprianto (Acting Head of MFA of West Nusa Tenggara Province). Due to this MoU and TCA no specific research permit was required. We collected data by measuring sharks that were already caught, dead, and landed by fishers in Tanjung Luar, with no incentives, compensation or specific requests for killing sharks for this study. WCS participates in the Conservation Initiative on Human Rights and the rules and guidelines of our Internal Review Board ensures that any research protects the rights of human subjects. We did not apply for an IRB permit for this study because our study design focused on collecting fish and fisheries data as opposed to personal socio-economic data. The FDGs and interviews were conducted to obtain early scoping information about fishing practices, and to establish protocols for more detailed fisheries data collection (as used in this study), and socio-economic data collection (as used in a later study (Lestari et al ), which underwent further ethical review due to the specific focus on human subjects).\nTanjung Luar, located in East Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia (Fig 1), is a landing site for one of Indonesia’s most well-known targeted shark fisheries. Tanjung Luar serves at least 1,000 vessels, and the majority of these are less than 10 gross tonnes (GT) in size . A group of specialised fishers operating from Tanjung Luar village and a neighbouring island, Gili Maringkik, specifically target sharks. Shark catch is landed in a dedicated auction facility at the Tanjung Luar port. The shark industry is well established in Tanjung Luar, with product processing facilities and trade connections to local, national and international markets. Research by Lestari et al.  indicates that the shark industry is significantly more profitable than non-shark fisheries in Tanjung Luar, particularly for boat owners. Strong patron-client relationships exist between boat owners and fishers, with shark fishers exhibiting high dependency on shark fishing, limited occupational diversity and low adaptive capacity for shifting into other fisheries .\nFig 1. Sharks landing monitoring site and fishing grounds of shark fishers that land at Tanjung Luar.\nIn January 2014 we conducted preliminary scoping research to better understand the operational and socioeconomic characteristics of Tanjung Luar’s shark fishery. During a three-week scoping visit a team of four trained Indonesian enumerators conducted semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions (FDGs) with fishers, boat owners and traders, alongside naturalistic observation in the field. Respondents were selected through purposive sampling, since the research was exploratory in nature and a priori sampling decisions were not possible . We conducted a total of 34 semi-structured interviews (S1 File) and four FDGs, which were attended by a total of 30 individuals. All interviews and discussions took place in Indonesian, with the help of a local enumerator who was fluent in the Tanjung Luar local dialect. Interviews took approximately 30 minutes, with no remuneration for participating. All respondents gave their full prior and informed consent before contributing to the research. During the interviews and FDGs we gathered information on number of boats, fishing gears used, fishing grounds, fishery operational characteristics, and shark supply chain, including estimated volumes and value of shark catch relative to other fisheries. We improved the accuracy of information on shark fishery characteristics and fishing behaviour through informal daily interactions and discussions with 131 shark fishers during our daily landings data collection and community engagement activities. More detailed socioeconomic data were collected in a full household survey in 2016, as outlined in Lestari et al. .\nShark landings data were collected by three experienced enumerators, who were trained in species identification and data collection methods during a two-day workshop and three weeks of field mentoring to ensure the accuracy of the data collected. Landings were recorded every morning at the Tanjung Luar shark auction facility where shark fishers usually landed dead sharks, from 5am to 10am from January 2014 to December 2015. The enumerators recorded data on catch composition and fishing behaviour (Table 1) from 52 different vessels across a total of 595 fishing trips. The enumerators also measured the weight of selected sharks to calculate biomass and length-weight relationship.\nTable 1. Types of data collected on fishing behaviour and catch composition during daily landings data collection at Tanjung Luar.\nFrom fishing behaviour and catch data we calculated the overall species composition of catch. We calculated catch per unit effort (CPUE) by number of individuals using both catch per set (hereafter CPUE per set) and catch per 100 hooks per set (hereafter standardised CPUE) [25,26]. This was deemed necessary since different vessels and gear-types systematically deploy different numbers of hooks, and standardised CPUE allows for a more meaningful comparison.\nTo understand factors influencing overall CPUE we log transformed CPUE per trip to fit a normal distribution, and fitted linear models (LMs) of CPUE per trip to fishing behaviour variables (Table 1). We considered all variables and used minimum AIC values with stepwise analysis of variance to identify the best fit and most significant influencing variables.\nTo inform the development of practical fisheries management measures (e.g. gear restrictions), we also specifically analysed differences in CPUE for surface and bottom longline gears employed in the fishery, using two-way ANOVAs.\nFactors affecting catch of threatened and regulated species.\nTo identify variables influencing the catch of threatened and regulated species we conducted a two-step process. In the first step, we identified factors influencing the likelihood of catching any threatened/regulated species during a given fishing trip, by creating binary response variables for whether a threatened species had been caught during a trip (yes = 1, no = 0), and separately for whether a regulated species had been caught during a trip (yes = 1, no = 0). We then fitted generalised linear models (GLMs) with binomial errors to the binary response variables, separately for catch of threatened species and catch of regulated species. In the second step we identified variables that significantly influenced the CPUE of threatened species and the CPUE of regulated species, given that any were caught. We removed all records in which no threatened or regulated species were caught, log transformed standardised CPUE of threatened and regulated species, and fitted linear models (LMs) of standardised CPUE of threatened species and standardised CPUE to regulated species to fishing behaviour variables. Again, we considered all meaningful models and used minimum AIC values with stepwise analysis of variance to identify the best fit  and most significant influencing variables. This approach was necessary since catch of threatened and regulated species is zero-inflated, and creating binary response variables with a binomial error structure allowed for a simpler and more powerful statistical analysis. Note that we conducted two separate analyses, one for threatened species only and one for regulated species only, but used the same methods and process, as outlined above, for each analysis. We did not group threatened and protected species together, since although some species are both threatened and protected, this is not the case for all shark species landed in Tanjung Luar.\nA total of 52 shark fishing vessels operate from Tanjung Luar, all of which are classified as small-scale according to the Indonesian Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) vessel categorisation system, with <7GT capacity. These vessels are operated by approximately 150 highly-specialised shark fishers, from Tanjung Luar village and Gili Maringkik, who make up roughly 5% of the local fisher population. The shark industry is more profitable than non-shark fisheries, and shark fishers report high household dependency on shark resources, low occupational diversity, and limited capacity and aspirations to move into other fisheries or industries.\nSurface and bottom longlines are used as the primary fishing gears to target sharks, with pelagic fish (e.g. Euthynnus spp., Rastrellinger spp.) used as bait. Surface and bottom longlines systematically vary in length, depth deployed, number of sets, number of hooks used, and soak times (Table 2). Gear types are typically associated with certain vessel types, and fishers–captain and crew—tend to exhibit preferences for specific gear types. Shark fishers also use gillnets and troll lines as secondary gears, to catch bait and opportunistically target other species, such as grouper, snapper, skipjack and mackerel tuna.\nTable 2. Characteristics of surface and bottom longlines.\nThe shark fishing vessels can be divided into two broad categories according to fishing behaviour: larger vessels (≥14 m) with higher horsepower (HP) engines spend more time at sea than smaller vessels (≤12m) (p<0.001), and reach fishing grounds outside of West Nusa Tenggara. These vessels primarily fish in southern Sumbawa and Sumba Islands, however, they also reach as far as eastern Flores, Timor Island, and the Java Sea (Fig 1). Larger, higher HP vessels also tend to employ surface longlines (p<0.001), and since they spend more time at sea, have a higher number of sets per trip than smaller vessels (p<0.001). Smaller vessels (≤12 m) with smaller engines tend to remain in waters around West Nusa Tenggara only, carrying out shorter fishing trips using bottom longlines (Table 3).\nTable 3. Characterisation of the different fishing vessels used to target sharks in Tanjung Luar.\nDuring the study period we recorded shark catch from a total of 595 fishing trips. We recorded 11,678 individual sharks, with an average total catch of 963 individuals per month (SD ± 434) and 19.7 individuals per trip (SD ± 15.6). Standardised CPUE (per 100 hooks per set) ranged from 0.05 to 22.13 individuals, with an average of 0.96 and a mode of 0.20. Catch consisted of 42 different species from 18 families (Table 4). 22% of all landings were classified as threatened species (i.e. VU, EN, CR) according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, and 73% were near threatened. Almost half (46.3%) of landings were regulated (i.e. CITES-listed) species. The most commonly caught species were silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis), black tip shark (Carcharhinus limbatus) and scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini).\nTable 4. Sharks species landed in Tanjung Luar from January 2014 –December 2015 (VU = Vulnerable, EN = Endangered, NT = Near Threatened, LC = Least Concern, NE = Not Evaluated (VU and EN classified as ‘threatened’ in this study); II = CITES Appendix II, N = Not CITES-listed (II species classified as ‘regulated’ in this study)).\nMeasures of CPUE for the Tanjung Luar shark fishery vary spatially and temporally, and with several aspects of fishing effort including gear type, hook number, engine power and number of sets. An initial comparison of average catch per trip and catch per set of the two major gear types, surface longline and bottom longline, indicates that CPUE of surface longlines was significantly higher than that of bottom longlines (ANOVA, p<0.001). CPUE (individuals per set) was also positively associated with number of hooks, engine power, and number of sets (Fig 2). However, these relationships are for unstandardised CPUE i.e. without controlling for number of hooks.\nPlots of CPUE: Number of individuals per set (A) and number of individuals per 100 hooks per set (standardised CPUE) (B) by gear type (1), number of hooks (2), number of sets (3) and engine horsepower (4).\nWhen controlling for hook number using standardised CPUE (individuals per 100 hooks per set) the relationships were reversed, with standardised CPUE of bottom longlines significantly higher than that of surface longlines (ANOVA, p<0.001; Fig 2). A similar pattern was observed when comparing relationships between CPUE (individuals per set) and standardised CPUE for other measures of fishing effort, including numbers of hooks, engine power and number of sets (Fig 2). There was a positive relationship between unstandardised CPUE (individuals per set) and number of hooks, number of sets and engine power, but a negative relationship between CPUE and these fishing behaviour variables when CPUE was standardised by hook number (individuals per 100 hooks per set).\nThe best fit LM of standardised CPUE indicated that the most significant factors influencing standardised CPUE were fishing gear and number of hooks (p<0.001). Month, engine power, number of sets and fishing ground were also identified as significant variables (Table 5), although there was considerable covariance between these factors. Standardised CPUE was significantly lower in January, and decreased with higher numbers of hooks, despite a higher total catch per trip and set (Fig 2).\nTable 5. Analysis of variance for linear model of standardised CPUE (individuals per 100 hooks per set) data from Tanjung Luar; significant values (p<0.05) are given in bold.\nBest fit GLMs indicated that the most significant factors influencing the likelihood of catching threatened species were month (January and November were significantly lower: p<0.001 and p<0.05, respectively) and fishing ground (Other (i.e. fishing grounds outside of WNTP and ENTP) was significantly higher: p<0.01). Significant factors associated with standardised CPUE of threatened species were number of hooks (p<0.001), fishing ground (other: p<0.001, ENTP p<0.05), engine power (p<0.001) and trip length (p<0.001) (Table 6 and Fig 3).\nPlots of most significant factors affecting standardised CPUE (number of individuals per 100 hooks per set) of threatened species: a) hook number, b) fishing ground, c) engine power and d) trip length.\nAnalysis of variance for the best fit models of factors affecting: a) the likelihood of catching and the standardised CPUE of threatened species b) the likelihood of catching and the standardised CPUE of regulated species.\nThe most significant factors influencing the likelihood of catching regulated species were month (January was significantly lower: p<0.001), number of hooks (p<0.001) and engine power (<0.01). Significant factors associated with standardised CPUE of regulated species were number of hooks (p<0.001), fishing gear (<0.001), number of sets (p<0.001), engine power (p<0.01) and month (November and January: p<0.05) (Table 5 and Fig 4).\nPlots of most significant factors affecting standardised CPUE (number of individuals per 100 hooks per set) of regulated species: a) hook number, b) gear type, c) number of sets.\nAlthough Tanjung Luar’s targeted shark fishery is small in scale, considerable numbers of shark are landed, including a large proportion of threatened and regulated species. A key finding is that measures of CPUE, for all sharks and for threatened and regulated species, vary spatially and temporally, and with several aspects of fishing effort including gear type, hook number, engine power and number of sets. Moreover, the relationships between CPUE and fishing behaviour variables are different for different measures of CPUE (CPUE per trip, CPUE per set, CPUE per 100 hooks per set). This highlights the importance of using appropriate standardisation for meaningful comparisons of CPUE across different gears and vessel types, and has important implications for fisheries management.\nUnstandardised CPUE (individuals per set) was significantly lower in January. This is during the west monsoon season, which is characterised by high rainfall and adverse conditions at sea for fishing. Unstandardised CPUE was also significantly lower in West Nusa Tenggara Province (WNTP) than East Nusa Tenggara Province (ENTP) and other provinces, suggesting a lower abundance of sharks in this area. Engine power had a significant positive influence on unstandardised CPUE, and was also associated with longer trips and more sets, which was likely due to the ability of vessels with larger engines to travel longer distances, over longer time periods, and with higher numbers of sets, to favoured fishing grounds. Unstandardised CPUE was also significantly higher for surface longlines than bottom longlines. However, when standardising CPUE for the number of hooks (i.e. individuals per 100 hooks per set) this relationship was reversed. Bottom longlines exhibit a higher standardised CPUE, with negative relationships between catch per 100 hooks per set and number of hooks and frequency of sets. Vessels with moderate engine horsepower (50-59hp) also had the highest standardised CPUE. Since surface longlines systematically employ significantly more hooks than bottom longlines (400–600 vs 25–200 hooks), and tend to be associated with larger boats, longer trips and more sets, these findings suggest that although increasing fishing effort increased total catch for these gears and trips, there were diminishing returns of this increased effort above low to moderate levels.\nA large proportion of Tanjung Luar’s shark catch consisted of threatened (22%) and regulated species (46%). Month is a significant factor in explaining standardised CPUE of both threatened and regulated species, which could indicate seasonal variation in the abundance of these species in the Tanjung Luar fishing grounds, or seasonal impacts on CPUE due to poor weather conditions. Fishing ground was a significant factor in explaining the catch of threatened species but not the catch in regulated species. This may be due to differences in range, distribution and relative abundance of species within these groups. Threatened species make up a relatively small proportion of Tanjung Luar’s catch in comparison to regulated species, which make up almost half of the catch (46%). As such, regulated species may generally be more abundant and spatially diffuse than threatened species, and therefore caught more uniformly across fishing grounds. For example, regulated species catch is dominated by silky sharks (Carcharhinus falciformis), which are circum-tropical and coastal-pelagic, and exhibit limited site-fidelity or aggregation behaviour, while threatened species catch is dominated by scalloped hammerheads (Sphyrna lewini), which are known to aggregate in schools. These schools of scalloped hammerheads may be more restricted to specific aggregation sites outside of WNTP and ENTP waters, while silky sharks are found in uniform abundance throughout fishing grounds.\nAs with CPUE of all catch, there was a positive relationship between unstandardised CPUE (catch per set) of threatened and regulated species and number of hooks, but a significant negative relationship between standardised CPUE (catch per 100 hooks per set). This was likely due to diminishing returns of adding additional hooks, and indicates that the effort for threatened and regulated species was exceeding maximum sustainable yield effort, such that increases in effort (e.g. hook number) were leading to decreases in catch [28–30].\nDue to the profitability of the shark industry in Tanjung Luar, and limited adaptive capacity and willingness of shark fishers to move into other industries, it is necessary to identify practical and ethical management interventions that can improve the sustainability of the fishery whilst also mitigating the negative socio-economic consequences for coastal communities. Our findings indicate that spatiotemporal closures and restrictions on fishing effort could improve the overall catch per unit effort and sustainability of the Tanjung Luar shark fishery, and lead to positive conservation outcomes for priority species.\nSince the location of shark fishing grounds plays a significant role in determining the likelihood of catching threatened species and their associated CPUE, improved marine spatial planning, with the identification of marine protected areas (MPAs) that protect critical shark habitat and shark populations, could reduce catch of species of conservation concern [31–33] and increase abundance of sharks [34, 35]. Provincial governments in West Papua and West Nusa Tenggara have already established ‘shark sanctuary’ MPAs, which protect critical shark habitat and ban shark fishing within their boundaries [16, 36], and monitoring data indicates positive impacts of shark-specific closures on shark abundance [37, 38]. Strengthening Indonesia’s existing MPA network for shark conservation, such as making all MPAs no-take zones for sharks and expanding spatial protection to critical shark habitat, including aggregation sites or pupping and nursery grounds for species of conservation concern, could have considerable conservation benefits. It should be noted, however, that MPAs may only be effective for certain species, such as those with small ranges or site-fidelity . More research is required to identify critical shark habitat and life history stages. For Tanjung Luar these efforts could focus on better understanding scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini) aggregation sites. Well-targeted spatial closures for this species could significantly reduce catch of threatened species in this fishery.\nThe relationships between gear type, several aspects of fishing effort (i.e. hook number, engine power, number of sets, trip length), standardised CPUE of all shark species and standardised CPUE of threatened and regulated species suggest that there is an optimal effort that could increase overall CPUE of the fishery and significantly reduce fishing mortality of species of conservation concern. For example, our data suggest that CPUE peaks with low to intermediate trip lengths and gear sets, intermediate engine power and hook numbers of less than 75 per set longline. Although standardised CPUE of threatened and regulated species is also higher when fewer hooks are deployed, the catch per set and overall mortality is significantly lower. Regulations that control the number of hooks in combination with incentives for shark fishers to tightly manage the number of hooks they deploy could significantly reduce mortality of threatened and endangered species, maximise the overall CPUE of the fishery, and reduce operational costs for fishers, making shark fishing in Tanjung Luar more sustainable and more cost effective [39–41].\nAcknowledging that almost half of Tanjung Luar’s shark catch consists of CITES-listed species, developing measures that ensure both the sustainability of the fishery, and full traceability and control of onward trade, will be crucial for implementing CITES . The Indonesian government has demonstrated a strong commitment to regulating shark trade and implementing CITES [17–18], as demonstrated through several policy decisions to confer full and partial protection to CITES-listed shark and ray species (Marine Affairs and Fisheries Ministerial Decree No 4./KEPMEN-KP/2014, Regulation No. 48/PERMEN-KP/2016). This includes zero quotas/export bans for hammerhead and oceanic whitetip sharks. However, these export bans should be considered intermediate policy measures as monitoring systems and data availability are improved, and sustainable quotas are established. This will be challenging, as shark products are often traded in large volumes of fresh and/or preserved body parts, with high morphological similarity between products from regulated species and non-regulated species. To guarantee that trade is not detrimental to the survival of species, sustainable fisheries management will need to be complemented with species-specific trade quotas. This will require catch documentation systems which trace shark products from point of catch to point of export and rapid, low-cost species identification methods.\nAs baseline data on shark population health are limited, and there is no standardised, fisheries-independent system for monitoring long-term changes in shark populations, indirect bio-indicators (e.g. endo- and ectoparasites, [43–45]) could help to elucidate the impact of management measures on fisheries and populations of wild species. In the future, shark conservation and fisheries management could benefit from long-term monitoring of agreed indices of population abundance and health status.\nThese lessons may also apply to shark fisheries in other parts of the world. As sharks increasingly become the focus of global conservation efforts it should be acknowledged that species protection alone will not be enough to reduce mortality of priority species. More needs to be done to identify practical fisheries management measures that can reduce pressure on the most vulnerable species and populations, but also support sustainable use of species that are less susceptible to overfishing. Shark fishing forms an integral part of the livelihood strategies of many coastal communities [22, 23], and prohibiting catches will not necessarily lead to positive conservation outcomes [21, 46]. Management interventions must take into account local context and the motivations and well-being of fisher communities in order to be ethical, feasible and impactful.\nS1 Dataset. Data of landed sharks at Tanjung Luar auction that had been used for this study.\nS1 File. Questionnaires have been used to interview shark fishers, collector, traders, and processors.\nWe wish to acknowledge the support provided by fishers in Tanjung Luar for their great cooperation during fieldwork. We also thank I Made Dharma Aryawan, Muhsin, Abdul Kohar, and Abdurrafik for their assistance during field research, Benaya M Simeon, Peni Lestari, and Siska Agustina for helping with data processing, Ken Kassem for carefully reading the manuscript and providing useful inputs, and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.\n3. Hutchings JA, Reynolds JD. Marine fish population collapses: consequences for recovery and extinction risk. AIBS Bulletin. 2004 Apr;54(4):297–309.\n4. Costello C, Ovando D, Clavelle T, Strauss CK, Hilborn R, Melnychuk MC, et al. Global fishery prospects under contrasting management regimes. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences. 2016 May 3;113(18):5125–9.\n5. Davidson LN, Krawchuk MA, Dulvy NK. Why have global shark and ray landings declined: improved management or overfishing?. Fish and Fisheries. 2016 Jun 1;17(2):438–58.\n6. Stevens JD, Bonfil R, Dulvy NK, Walker PA. 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The Global Sharks and Rays Initiative; 2015. 27p.\n16. Satria A, Matsuda Y. Decentralization of fisheries management in Indonesia. Marine Policy. 2004 Sep 30;28(5):437–50.\n17. Dharmadi , Fahmi , Satria F. Fisheries management and conservation of sharks in Indonesia. African journal of marine science. 2015 Apr 3;37(2):249–58.\n20. Sembiring A, Pertiwi NP, Mahardini A, Wulandari R, Kurniasih EM, Kuncoro AW, Cahyani ND, Anggoro AW, Ulfa M, Madduppa H, Carpenter KE. DNA barcoding reveals targeted fisheries for endangered sharks in Indonesia. Fisheries Research. 2015 Apr 30;164:130–4.\n21. Clarke S. Re-examining the shark trade as a tool for conservation. SPC Fisheries Newsletter. 2014:49–56.\n22. Jaiteh VF, Loneragan NR, Warren C. The end of shark finning? Impacts of declining catches and fin demand on coastal community livelihoods. Marine Policy. 2017 Mar 24.\n24. Cohen D, Crabtree B. Qualitative research guidelines project. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Princeton. 2006 Available from: http://www.qualres.org/index.html Cited in August 2016.\n25. Skud BE. Manipulation of fixed gear and the effect on catch-per-unit effort. FAO Fisheries Report (FAO). 1984.\n26. Damalas D, Megalofonou P, Apostolopoulou M. Environmental, spatial, temporal and operational effects on swordfish (Xiphias gladius) catch rates of eastern Mediterranean Sea longline fisheries. Fisheries Research. 2007 Apr 30;84(2):233–46.\n27. Burnham KP, Anderson DR. Model selection and multimodel inference: a practical information-theoretic approach. Springer Science & Business Media; 2003 Dec 4.\n28. Schaefer MB. Some aspects of the dynamics of populations important to the management of the commercial marine fisheries. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission Bulletin. 1954;1(2):23–56.\n29. Fox WW Jr. An exponential surplus-yield model for optimizing exploited fish populations. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 1970 Jan 1;99(1):80–8.\n30. Purwanto P, Nugroho D, Suwarso S. Potential production of the five predominant small pelagic fish species groups in the Java Sea. Indonesian Fisheries Research Journal. 2014 Dec 1;20(2):59–67.\n31. Barker MJ, Schluessel V. Managing global shark fisheries: suggestions for prioritizing management strategies. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 2005 Jul 1;15(4):325–47.\n34. Ward-Paige CA, Worm B. Global evaluation of shark sanctuaries. Global Environmental Change. 2017 Nov 30;47:174–89.\n35. Speed CW, Cappo M, Meekan MG. Evidence for rapid recovery of shark populations within a coral reef marine protected area. Biological Conservation. 2018 Apr 30;220:308–19.\n36. West Nusa Tenggara Provincial Government. 2017. [Management and zoning plan of Lunyuk Marine Protected Area]. Mataram: West Nusa Tenggara Provincial Government; 2017. Indonesian.\n37. Jaiteh VF, Lindfield SJ, Mangubhai S, Warren C, Fitzpatrick B, Loneragan NR. Higher abundance of marine predators and changes in fishers' behavior following spatial protection within the world's biggest shark fishery. Frontiers in Marine Science. 2016 Apr 7;3:43.\n39. Kumoru L. The shark longline fishery in Papua New Guinea. InReport prepared for Billfish and bycatch research group, at the 176th meeting of the standing committee on Tuna and Billfish, Mooloolaba, Australia, 9th-16th July 2003 2003 Jul.\n40. Cartamil D, Santana-Morales O, Escobedo-Olvera M, Kacev D, Castillo-Geniz L, Graham JB, Rubin RD, Sosa-Nishizaki O. The artisanal elasmobranch fishery of the Pacific coast of Baja California, Mexico. Fisheries Research. 2011 Mar 31;108(2):393–403.\n42. Vincent AC, Sadovy de Mitcheson YJ, Fowler SL, Lieberman S. The role of CITES in the conservation of marine fishes subject to international trade. Fish and Fisheries. 2014 Dec 1;15(4):563–92.\n43. Palm HW. Fish parasites as biological indicators in a changing world: can we monitor environmental impact and climate change?. InProgress in Parasitology 2011 (pp. 223–250). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.\n44. Palm HW, Yulianto I, Piatkowski U. Trypanorhynch Assemblages Indicate Ecological and Phylogenetical Attributes of Their Elasmobranch Final Hosts. Fishes. 2017 Jun 17;2(2):8.\n46. Booth H. Using the case of illegal manta ray trade in Indonesia to evaluate the impact of wildlife trade policy (Master Thesis, Imperial College London).\n47. White WT, Last PR, Stevens JD, Yearsley GK. Economically important sharks & rays of Indonesia. Austr-alian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR); 2006.", "answers": ["The relationships between catch per set and fishing behavior variables differ when comparing unstandardized CPUE and standardized CPUE."], "length": 6133, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "cd0ecda68ad8031330b971fbfdd3794916e815109f004d3b"}
{"input": "How does the transition probability of the environment affect the learning rate in the static agent?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Environmental variability and network structure determine the optimal plasticity mechanisms in embodied agents\nPublish Date: Unkown\nAuthor List: Sina Khajehabdollahi (from Department of Computer Science, University of Tübingen)\n\nFigure\n\nFigure2: An outline of the network controlling the foraging agent.The sensor layer receives inputs at each time step (the ingredients of the nearest food), which are processed by the plastic layer in the same way as the static sensory network, Fig.1.The output of that network is given as input to the motor network, along with the distance d and angle α to the nearest food, the current velocity v, and energy E of the agent.These signals are processed through two hidden layers to the final output of motor commands as the linear and angular acceleration of the agent\nFigure4: The evolved parameters θ = (θ 1 , . . ., θ 8 ) of the plasticity rule for the reward prediction (a.) and the decision (b.) tasks, for a variety of parameters (p tr = 0.01, d e ∈ 0, 0.1, . . ., 1, and σ ∈ 0, 0.1, . . ., 1 in all 100 combinations).Despite the relatively small difference between the tasks, the evolved learning rules differ considerably.For visual guidance, the lines connect θs from the same run.\nFigure5: a.The trajectory of an agent (blue line) in the 2D environment.A well-trained agent will approach and consume food with positive values (green dots) and avoid negative food (red dots).b.The learning rate of the plastic sensory network eta p grows with the distance between environments d e c. and decreases with the frequency of environmental change.d.The fitness of an agent (measured as the total food consumed over its lifetime) increases over generations of the EA for both the scalar and binary readouts in the sensory network.e.The Pearson correlation coefficient of an evolved agent's weights with the ingredient value vector of the current environment (E 1 -blue, E 2 -red).In this example, the agent's weights are anti-correlated with its environment, which is not an issue for performance since the motor network can interpret the inverted signs of food.\n\nabstract\n\nThe evolutionary balance between innate and learned behaviors is highly intricate, and different organisms have found different solutions to this problem. We hypothesize that the emergence and exact form of learning behaviors is naturally connected with the statistics of environmental fluctuations and tasks an organism needs to solve.\nHere, we study how different aspects of simulated environments shape an evolved synaptic plasticity rule in static and moving artificial agents. We demonstrate that environmental fluctuation and uncertainty control the reliance of artificial organisms on plasticity. Interestingly, the form of the emerging plasticity rule is additionally determined by the details of the task the artificial organisms are aiming to solve.\nMoreover, we show that coevolution between static connectivity and interacting plasticity mechanisms in distinct sub-networks changes the function and form of the emerging plasticity rules in embodied agents performing a foraging task. One of the defining features of living organisms is their ability to adapt to their environment and incorporate new information to modify their behavior.\nIt is unclear how the ability to learn first evolved , but its utility appears evident. Natural environments are too complex for all the necessary information to be hardcoded genetically and more importantly, they keep changing during an organism's lifetime in ways that cannot be anticipated ; . The link between learning and environmental uncertainty and fluctuation has been extensively demonstrated in both natural ; , and artificial environments .\nNevertheless, the ability to learn does not come without costs. For the capacity to learn to be beneficial in evolutionary terms, a costly nurturing period is often required, a phenomenon observed in both biological , and artificial organisms . Additionally, it has been shown that in some complex environments, hardcoded behaviors may be superior to learned ones given limits in the agent's lifetime and envi-ronmental uncertainty ; ; .\nThe theoretical investigation of the optimal balance between learned and innate behaviors in natural and artificial systems goes back several decades. However, it has recently found also a wide range of applications in applied AI systems ; . Most AI systems are trained for specific tasks, and have no need for modification after their training has been completed.\nStill, technological advances and the necessity to solve broad families of tasks make discussions about life-like AI systems relevant to a wide range of potential application areas. Thus the idea of open-ended AI agents that can continually interact with and adapt to changing environments has become particularly appealing.\nMany different approaches for introducing lifelong learning in artificial agents have been proposed. Some of them draw direct inspiration from actual biological systems ; . Among them, the most biologically plausible solution is to equip artificial neural networks with some local neural plasticity , similar to the large variety of synaptic plasticity mechanisms ; ; that performs the bulk of the learning in the brains of living organisms .\nThe artificial plasticity mechanisms can be optimized to modify the connectivity of the artificial neural networks toward solving a particular task. The optimization can use a variety of approaches, most commonly evolutionary computation. The idea of meta-learning or optimizing synaptic plasticity rules to perform specific functions has been recently established as an engineering tool that can compete with stateof-the-art machine learning algorithms on various complex tasks ; ; Pedersen and Risi (2021); .\nAdditionally, it can be used to reverse engineer actual plasticity mechanisms found in biological neural networks and uncover their functions ; . Here, we study the effect that different factors (environ-arXiv:2303.06734v1 [q-bio.NC] 12 Mar 2023 mental fluctuation and reliability, task complexity) have on the form of evolved functional reward-modulated plasticity rules.\nWe investigate the evolution of plasticity rules in static, single-layer simple networks. Then we increase the complexity by switching to moving agents performing a complex foraging task. In both cases, we study the impact of different environmental parameters on the form of the evolved plasticity mechanisms and the interaction of learned and static network connectivity.\nInterestingly, we find that different environmental conditions and different combinations of static and plastic connectivity have a very large impact on the resulting plasticity rules. We imagine an agent who must forage to survive in an environment presenting various types of complex food particles. Each food particle is composed of various amounts and combinations of N ingredients that can have positive (food) or negative (poison) values.\nThe value of a food particle is a weighted sum of its ingredients. To predict the reward value of a given resource, the agent must learn the values of these ingredients by interacting with the environment. The priors could be generated by genetic memory, but the exact values are subject to change. To introduce environmental variability, we stochastically change the values of the ingredients.\nMore precisely, we define two ingredient-value distributions E 1 and E 2 and switch between them, with probability p tr for every time step. We control how (dis)similar the environments are by parametrically setting E 2 = (1 − 2d e )E 1 , with d e ∈ [0, 1] serving as a distance proxy for the environments; when d e = 0, the environment remains unchanged, and when d e = 1 the value of each ingredient fully reverses when the environmental transition happens.\nFor simplicity, we take values of the ingredients in E 1 equally spaced between -1 and 1 (for the visualization, see Fig. ). The static agent receives passively presented food as a vector of ingredients and can assess its compound value using the linear summation of its sensors with the (learned or evolved) weights, see Fig. .\nThe network consists of N sensory neurons that are projecting to a single post-synaptic neuron. At each time step, an input X t = (x 1 , . . . , x N ) is presented, were the value x i , i ∈ {1, . . . , N } represents the quantity of the ingredient i. We draw x i independently form a uniform distribution on the [0, 1] interval (x i ∼ U (0, 1)).\nThe value of each ingredient w c i is determined by the environment (E 1 or E 2 ). The postsynaptic neuron outputs a prediction of the food X t value as y t = g(W X T t ). Throughout the paper, g will be either the identity function, in which case the prediction neuron is linear, or a step-function; however, it could be any other nonlinearity, such as a sigmoid or ReLU.\nAfter outputting the prediction, the neuron receives feedback in the form of the real value of the input R t . The real value is computed as R t = W c X T t + ξ, where W c = (w c 1 , . . . , w c N ) is the actual value of the ingredients, and ξ is a term summarizing the noise of reward and sensing system ξ ∼ N (0, σ).\nFigure : An outline of the static agent's network. The sensor layer receives inputs representing the quantity of each ingredient of a given food at each time step. The agent computes the prediction of the food's value y t and is then given the true value R t ; it finally uses this information in the plasticity rule to update the weight matrix.\nFor the evolutionary adjustment of the agent's parameters, the loss of the static agent is the sum of the mean squared errors (MSE) between its prediction y t and the reward R t over the lifetime of the agent. The agent's initial weights are set to the average of the two ingredient value distributions, which is the optimal initial value for the case of symmetric switching of environments that we consider here.\nAs a next step, we incorporate the sensory network of static agents into embodied agents that can move around in an environment scattered with food. To this end, we merge the static agent's network with a second, non-plastic motor network that is responsible for controlling the motion of the agent in the environment.\nSpecifically, the original plastic network now provides the agent with information about the value of the nearest food. The embodied agent has additional sensors for the distance from the nearest food, the angle between the current velocity and the nearest food direction, its own velocity, and its own energy level (sum of consumed food values).\nThese inputs are processed by two hidden layers (of 30 and 15 neurons) with tanh activation. The network's outputs are angular and linear acceleration, Fig. . The embodied agents spawn in a 2D space with periodic boundary conditions along with a number of food particles that are selected such that the mean of the food value distribution is ∼ 0. An agent can eat food by approaching it sufficiently closely, and each time a food particle is eaten, it is The sensor layer receives inputs at each time step (the ingredients of the nearest food), which are processed by the plastic layer in the same way as the static sensory network, Fig. .\nThe output of that network is given as input to the motor network, along with the distance d and angle α to the nearest food, the current velocity v, and energy E of the agent. These signals are processed through two hidden layers to the final output of motor commands as the linear and angular acceleration of the agent re-spawned with the same value somewhere randomly on the grid (following the setup of ).\nAfter 5000 time steps, the cumulative reward of the agent (the sum of the values of all the food it consumed) is taken as its fitness. During the evolutionary optimization, the parameters for both the motor network (connections) and plastic network (learning rule parameters) are co-evolved, and so agents must simultaneously learn to move and discriminate good/bad food.\nReward-modulated plasticity is one of the most promising explanations for biological credit assignment . In our network, the plasticity rule that updates the weights of the linear sensor network is a rewardmodulated rule which is parameterized as a linear combination of the input, the output, and the reward at each time step:\nAdditionally, after each plasticity step, the weights are normalized by mean subtraction, an important step for the stabilization of Hebbian-like plasticity rules . We use a genetic algorithm to optimize the learning rate η p and amplitudes of different terms θ = (θ 1 , . . . , θ 8 ). The successful plasticity rule after many food presentations must converge to a weight vector that predicts the correct food values (or allows the agent to correctly decide whether to eat a food or avoid it).\nTo have comparable results, we divide θ = (θ 1 , . . . , θ 8 ) by We then multiply the learning rate η p with θ max to maintain the rule's evolved form unchanged, η norm p = η p • θ max . In the following, we always use normalized η p and θ, omitting norm . To evolve the plasticity rule and the moving agents' motor networks, we use a simple genetic algorithm with elitism .\nThe agents' parameters are initialized at random (drawn from a Gaussian distribution), then the sensory network is trained by the plasticity rule and finally, the agents are evaluated. After each generation, the bestperforming agents (top 10 % of the population size) are selected and copied into the next generation.\nThe remaining 90 % of the generation is repopulated with mutated copies of the best-performing agents. We mutate agents by adding independent Gaussian noise (σ = 0.1) to its parameters. To start with, we consider a static agent whose goal is to identify the value of presented food correctly. The static reward-prediction network quickly evolves the parameters of the learning rule, successfully solving the prediction task.\nWe first look at the evolved learning rate η p , which determines how fast (if at all) the network's weight vector is updated during the lifetime of the agents. We identify three factors that control the learning rate parameter the EA converges to: the distance between the environments, the noisiness of the reward, and the rate of environmental transition.\nThe first natural factor is the distance d e between the two environments, with a larger distance requiring a higher learning rate, Fig. . This is an expected result since the convergence time to the \"correct\" weights is highly dependent on the initial conditions. If an agent is born at a point very close to optimality, which naturally happens if the environments are similar, the distance it needs to traverse on the fitness landscape is small.\nTherefore it can afford to have a small learning rate, which leads to a more stable convergence and is not affected by noise. A second parameter that impacts the learning rate is the variance of the rewards. The reward an agent receives for the plasticity step contains a noise term ξ that is drawn from a zero mean Gaussian distribution with standard deviation σ.\nThis parameter controls the unreliability of the agent's sensory system, i.e., higher σ means that the information the agent gets about the value of the foods it consumes cannot be fully trusted to reflect the actual value of the foods. As σ increases, the learning rate η p decreases, which means that the more unreliable an environment becomes, the less an agent relies on plasticity to update its weights, Fig. .\nIndeed for some combinations of relatively small distance d e and high reward variance σ, the EA converges to a learning rate of η p ≈ 0. This means that the agent opts to have no adaptation during its lifetime and remain at the mean of the two environments. It is an optimal solution when the expected loss due to ignoring the environmental transitions is, on average, lower than the loss the plastic network will incur by learning via the (often misleading because of the high σ) environmental cues.\nA final factor that affects the learning rate the EA will converge to is the frequency of environmental change during an agent's lifetime. Since the environmental change is modeled as a simple, two-state Markov process (Fig. ), the control parameter is the transition probability p tr . When keeping everything else the same, the learning rate rapidly rises as we increase the transition probability from 0, and after reaching a peak, it begins to decline slowly, eventually reaching zero (Fig. ).\nThis means that when environmental transition is very rare, agents opt for a very low learning rate, allowing a slow and stable convergence to an environment-appropriate weight vector that leads to very low losses while the agent remains in that environment. As the rate of environmental transition increases, faster learning is required to speed up convergence in order to exploit the (comparatively shorter) stays in each environment.\nFinally, as the environmental transition becomes too fast, the agents opt for slower or even no learning, which keeps them ) and the decision (b.) tasks, for a variety of parameters (p tr = 0.01, d e ∈ 0, 0.1, . . . , 1, and σ ∈ 0, 0.1, . . . , 1 in all 100 combinations). Despite the relatively small difference between the tasks, the evolved learning rules differ considerably.\nFor visual guidance, the lines connect θs from the same run. near the middle of the two environments, ensuring that the average loss of the two environments is minimal (Fig. ). The form of the evolved learning rule depends on the task: Decision vs. Prediction The plasticity parameters θ = (θ 1 , . . . , θ 8 ) for the rewardprediction task converge on approximately the same point, regardless of the environmental parameters (Fig. ).\nIn particular, θ 3 → 1, θ 5 → −1, θ i → 0 for all other i, and thus the learning rule converges to: Since by definition y t = g(W t X T t ) = W t X T t (g(x) = x in this experiment) and R t = W c X T t + ξ we get: Thus the distribution of ∆W t converges to a distribution with mean 0 and variance depending on η p and σ and W converges to W c .\nSo this learning rule will match the agent's weight vector with the vector of ingredient values in the environment. We examine the robustness of the learning rule the EA discovers by considering a slight modification of our task. Instead of predicting the expected food value, the agent now needs to decide whether to eat the presented food or not.\nThis is done by introducing a step-function nonlinearity (g(x) = 1 if x ≥ 1 and 0 otherwise). Then the output y(t) is computed as: Instead of the MSE loss between prediction and actual value, the fitness of the agent is now defined as the sum of the food values it chose to consume (by giving y t = 1). Besides these two changes, the setup of the experiments remains exactly the same.\nThe qualitative relation between η p and parameters of environment d e , σ and p tr is preserved in the changed experiment. However, the resulting learning rule is significantly different (Fig. ). The evolution converges to the following learning rule: In both cases, the rule has the form ∆W t = η p X t [α y R t + β y ].\nThus, the ∆W t is positive or negative depending on whether the reward R t is above or below a threshold (γ = −β y /α y ) that depends on the output decision of the network (y t = 0 or 1). Both learning rules (for the reward-prediction and decision tasks) have a clear Hebbian form (coordination of preand post-synaptic activity) and use the incoming reward signal as a threshold.\nThese similarities indicate some common organizing principles of reward-modulated learning rules, but their significant differences highlight the sensitivity of the optimization process to task details. We now turn to the moving embodied agents in the 2D environment. To optimize these agents, both the motor network's connections and the sensory network's plasticity parameters evolve simultaneously.\nSince the motor network is initially random and the agent has to move to find food, the number of interactions an agent experiences in its lifetime can be small, slowing down the learning. However, having the larger motor network also has benefits for evolution because it allows the output of the plastic network to be read out and transformed in different ways, resulting in a broad set of solutions.\nThe fitness of an agent (measured as the total food consumed over its lifetime) increases over generations of the EA for both the scalar and binary readouts in the sensory network. e. The Pearson correlation coefficient of an evolved agent's weights with the ingredient value vector of the current environment (E 1 -blue, E 2 -red).\nIn this example, the agent's weights are anti-correlated with its environment, which is not an issue for performance since the motor network can interpret the inverted signs of food. The agents can solve the task effectively by evolving a functional motor network and a plasticity rule that converges to interpretable weights (Fig. ).\nAfter ∼ 100 evolutionary steps (Fig. ), the agents can learn the ingredient value distribution using the plastic network and reliably move towards foods with positive values while avoiding the ones with negative values. We compare the dependence of the moving and the static agents on the parameters of the environment: d e and the state transition probability p tr .\nAt first, in order to simplify the experiment, we set the transition probability to 0, but fixed the initial weights to be the average of E 1 and E 2 , while the real state is E 2 . In this experiment, the distance between states d e indicates twice the distance between the agent's initial weights and the optimal weights (the environment's ingredient values) since the agent is initialized at the mean of the two environment distributions.\nSame as for the static agent, the learning rate increases with the distance d e (Fig. ). Then, we examine the effect of the environmental transition probability p tr on the evolved learning rate η p . In order for an agent to get sufficient exposure to each environment, we scale down the probability p tr from the equivalent experiment for the static agents.\nWe find that as the probability of transition increases, the evolved learning rate η p decreases (Fig. ). This fits with the larger trend for the static agent, although there is a clear difference when it comes to the increase for very small transition probabil-ities that were clearly identifiable in the static but not the moving agents.\nThis could be due to much sparser data and possibly the insufficiently long lifetime of the moving agent (the necessity of scaling makes direct comparisons difficult). Nevertheless, overall we see that the associations observed in the static agents between environmental distance d e and transition probability p tr and the evolved learning rate η p are largely maintained in the moving agents.\nStill, more data would be needed to make any conclusive assertions about the exact effect of these environmental parameters on the emerging plasticity mechanisms. A crucial difference between the static and the moving agents is the function the plasticity has to perform. While in the static agents, the plasticity has to effectively identify the exact value distribution of the environment in order to produce accurate predictions, in the embodied agents, the plasticity has to merely produce a representation of the environment that the motor network can evolve to interpret adequately enough to make decisions about which food to consume.\nTo illustrate the difference, we plot the Pearson correlation coefficient between an agent's weights and the ingredient values of the environment it is moving in (Fig. ). We use the correlation instead of the MSE loss (which we used for the static agents in Fig. ) because the amplitude of the vector varies a lot for different agents and meaningful The evolved parameters of moving agents' plasticity rule for the g(s) = x, identity (a.) and the step function (Eq.\n4) (b.) sensory networks (the environmental parameters here are d e ∈ [0, 1], σ = 0 and p tr = 0.001). The step function (binary output) network evolved a more structured plasticity rule (e.g., θ 3 > 0 for all realizations) than the linear network. Moreover, the learned weights for the identity network (c.) have higher variance and correlate significantly less with the environment's ingredient distribution compared to the learned weights for the thresholded network (d.)\nconclusions cannot be drawn from the MSE loss. For many agents, the learned weights are consistently anti-correlated with the actual ingredient values (an example of such an agent is shown in Fig. ). This means that the output of the sensory network will have the opposite sign from the actual food value.\nWhile in the static network, this would lead to very bad predictions and high loss, in the foraging task, these agents perform exactly as well as the ones where the weights and ingredients values are positively correlated, since the motor network can simply learn to move towards food for which it gets a negative instead of a positive sensory input.\nThis additional step of the output of the plastic network going through the motor network before producing any behavior has a strong effect on the plasticity rules that the embodied agents evolve. Specifically, if we look at the emerging rules the top performing agents have evolved (Fig. ), it becomes clear that, unlike the very well-structured rules of the static agents (Fig. ), there is now virtually no discernible pattern or structure.\nThe difference becomes even clearer if we look at the learned weights (at the end of a simulation) of the best-performing agents (Fig. ). While there is some correlation with the environment's ingredient value distribution, the variance is very large, and they do not seem to converge on the \"correct\" values in any way.\nThis is to some extent expected since, unlike the static agents where the network's output has to be exactly correct, driving the evolution of rules that converge to the precise environmental distribution, in the embodied networks, the bulk of the processing is done by the motor network which can evolve to interpret the scalar value of the sensory network's output in a variety of ways.\nThus, as long as the sensory network's plasticity rule co-evolves with the motor network, any plasticity rule that learns to produce consistent information about the value of encountered food can potentially be selected. To further test this assumption, we introduce a bottleneck of information propagation between the sensory and motor networks by using a step-function nonlinearity on the output of the sensory network (Eq.\n4). Similarly to the decision task of the static network, the output of the sensory network now becomes binary. This effectively reduces the flow of information from the sensory to the motor network, forcing the sensory network to consistently decide whether food should be consumed (with the caveat that the motor network can still interpret the binary sign in either of two ways, either consuming food marked with 1 or the ones marked with 0 by the sensory network).\nThe agents perform equally well in this variation of the task as before (Fig. ), but now, the evolved plasticity rules seem to be more structured (Fig. ). Moreover, the variance of the learned weights in the bestperforming agents is significantly reduced (Fig. ), which indicates that the bottleneck in the sensory network is in-creasing selection pressure for rules that learn the environment's food distribution accurately.\nWe find that different sources of variability have a strong impact on the extent to which evolving agents will develop neuronal plasticity mechanisms for adapting to their environment. A diverse environment, a reliable sensory system, and a rate of environmental change that is neither too large nor too small are necessary conditions for an agent to be able to effectively adapt via synaptic plasticity.\nAdditionally, we find that minor variations of the task an agent has to solve or the parametrization of the network can give rise to significantly different plasticity rules. Our results partially extend to embodied artificial agents performing a foraging task. We show that environmental variability also pushes the development of plasticity in such agents.\nStill, in contrast to the static agents, we find that the interaction of a static motor network with a plastic sensory network gives rise to a much greater variety of wellfunctioning learning rules. We propose a potential cause of this degeneracy; as the relatively complex motor network is allowed to read out and process the outputs from the plastic network, any consistent information coming out of these outputs can be potentially interpreted in a behaviorally useful way.\nReducing the information the motor network can extract from the sensory system significantly limits learning rule variability. Our findings on the effect of environmental variability concur with the findings of previous studies that have identified the constraints that environmental variability places on the evolutionary viability of learning behaviors.\nWe extend these findings in a mechanistic model which uses a biologically plausible learning mechanism (synaptic plasticity). We show how a simple evolutionary algorithm can optimize the different parameters of a simple reward-modulated plasticity rule for solving simple prediction and decision tasks.\nReward-modulated plasticity has been extensively studied as a plausible mechanism for credit assignment in the brain ; ; and has found several applications in artificial intelligence and robotics tasks ; . Here, we demonstrate how such rules can be very well-tuned to take into account different environmental parameters and produce optimal behavior in simple systems.\nAdditionally, we demonstrate how the co-evolution of plasticity and static functional connectivity in different subnetworks fundamentally changes the evolutionary pressures on the resulting plasticity rules, allowing for greater diversity in the form of the learning rule and the resulting learned connectivity.\nSeveral studies have demonstrated how, in biological networks, synaptic plasticity heavily interacts with and is driven by network topology . Moreover, it has been recently demonstrated that biological plasticity mechanisms are highly redundant in the sense that any observed neural connectivity or recorded activity can be achieved with a variety of distinct, unrelated learning rules .\nThis observed redundancy of learning rules in biological settings complements our results and suggests that the function of plasticity rules cannot be studied independently of the connectivity and topology of the networks they are acting on. The optimization of functional plasticity in neural networks is a promising research direction both as a means to understand biological learning processes and as a tool for building more autonomous artificial systems.\nOur results suggest that reward-modulated plasticity is highly adaptable to different environments and can be incorporated into larger systems that solve complex tasks. This work studies a simplified toy model of neural network learning in stochastic environments. Future work could be built on this basic framework to examine more complex reward distributions and sources of environmental variability.\nMoreover, a greater degree of biological realism could be added by studying more plausible network architectures (multiple plastic layers, recurrent and feedback connections) and more sophisticated plasticity rule parametrizations. Additionally, our foraging simulations were constrained by limited computational resources and were far from exhaustive.\nFurther experiments can investigate environments with different constraints, food distributions, multiple seasons, more complex motor control systems and interactions of those systems with different sensory networks as well as the inclusion of plasticity on the motor parts of the artificial organisms.", "answers": ["As the transition probability increases, the learning rate initially rises and then declines."], "length": 5346, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "7ae0ad8d4ded2dee79251ff4f951ecfcabad31d8b4f896ae"}
{"input": "What did Mary tell the disciples?", "context": "A Homily from Easter Sunday, 2017.\nEarly on the first day of the week, while it was still dark, Mary Magdalene came to the tomb and saw that the stone had been removed from the tomb. But Mary stood weeping outside the tomb. As she wept, she bent over to look[a] into the tomb; and she saw two angels in white, sitting where the body of Jesus had been lying, one at the head and the other at the feet. They said to her, “Woman, why are you weeping?” She said to them, “They have taken away my Lord, and I do not know where they have laid him.” When she had said this, she turned around and saw Jesus standing there, but she did not know that it was Jesus. Jesus said to her, “Woman, why are you weeping? Whom are you looking for?” Supposing him to be the gardener, she said to him, “Sir, if you have carried him away, tell me where you have laid him, and I will take him away.” Jesus said to her, “Mary!” She turned and said to him in Hebrew,[b] “Rabbouni!” (which means Teacher). Jesus said to her, “Do not hold on to me, because I have not yet ascended to the Father. But go to my brothers and say to them, ‘I am ascending to my Father and your Father, to my God and your God.’” Mary Magdalene went and announced to the disciples, “I have seen the Lord”; and she told them that he had said these things to her.\nEarly in the morning, while it was still dark, Mary wept in the throws of grief. Early in the morning, while it was still dark, Mary dragged herself out of bed after a sleepless night and walked to the tomb in a kind of trance. Early in the morning, while it was still dark, Mary cried—scared, confused, alone. Early in the morning, while it was still dark, Mary thought that the powers of death had the last Word. Early in the morning, while it was still dark, Mary heard a voice in the darkness calling her name—Mary.\nThroughout this Lenten season, we’ve examined the ways that the powers and principalities hold us captive—how they push us towards securing our own survival, dominating others, using God for our own agenda. We’ve seen how in Jesus’ ministry, he’s constantly in resistance mode—exposing the powers for what they really are and envisioning an alternative way of living in the world. He describes this way as “the kingdom of God,” the living water we drink so we never thirst again, the light of the world. Jesus invites those who follow him into similar acts of resistance—to free us from the power money has on us by giving it away, to choose to see ourselves as Jesus sees us, resisting the shame that says I’m not enough, to practice Sabbath that contradicts productivity, to untie the grave clothes of someone who’s hands and feet are still tied in the trappings of death.\nBut all Jesus’ acts of resistance had a cost. All of the times he just wouldn’t shut up, all of the crowds he attracted because he actually noticed those who were normally ignored, the powers finally said enough is enough and put an end to his resistance the only way they could guarantee silence and division—by nailing him to a tree.\nJust then, she turned and saw a man the shadow of a man behind her; a man she assumed was the gardener, his face unfamiliar in the darkness. He repeated the question—“Woman, why are you crying?” Thinking that perhaps he knew what happened or worse, that he was a culprit, she begged, “Sir if you have carried him away, tell me where you have put him and I will get him.” But Jesus interrupted her pleading, interrupted her desperation, and called her by name from the darkness, Mary.\nMary. He calls her name. Her name. The name that captures the particularity of her life. To the gardener, she would just be the crying woman. At other points in her life, she was the possessed woman, the woman who wasn’t enough, the woman on the outside of the group. Never nameless—but still unnamed. Never not Mary, but still, not known.\nEarly in the morning, while it was still dark, God defeated the powers and principalities in the ultimate act of resistance—resurrection. The grave could not contain the Lord. Even death wasn’t enough.\nIn the resurrection, God defeats the powers of death and shows that it’s God who has the final Word. Nothing, not even death, can keep us from being fully known by God. The powers try to have the final say on our names, our identities, the markers by which we measure ourselves, the systems that hold people captive or keep people in oppression. But Jesus calls us out of the darkness by name.\nOn this Easter Sunday, we hear our Risen Lord calling our names from the darkness—Jesus, the resurrected one, the name above all names, the great I am, the Prince of Peace, the alpha and omega, the light of the world. The risen Lord has spoken.\nThis is the name unto which you were baptized. As you come forward and mark the sign of the cross on your forehead today, hear Jesus speaking your name from the darkness and drawing you into the light.\nFrom our worship service on the fifth Sunday of Lent, April 2, 2017.\n“Is the Lord really with us or not?” “Is the Lord really with us or not?” Why did you bring us all the way from Egypt to let us die of thirst in this desert? At least in Egypt, we had water. At least in Egypt, we weren’t so thirsty. At least in Egypt, we knew what tomorrow would hold. At least in Egypt, we weren’t so thirsty.\nBut no, that’s not the story they give us. They are hard on their ancestors. They tell how it is. The elders who sat and wrote down these stories understood something about our bodies, who we are and how we work. After all the generations these stories passed through, they tell the truth about how quickly we forget, about how quickly we complain, about how quickly we grow thirsty, about how much we need water.\nIt doesn’t take long, does it. By the end of this sermon, I will no doubt feel thirsty, not from walking on hard dusty ground in the heat of the day, but just from speaking with you. Most of us wake up in the morning needing a drink. Our bodies depend on water. We cannot live without it. Thirst, then, doesn’t happen only one time. When the Israelites panicked that they had no water, they weren’t only thinking of the present moment. They knew what was coming! We need water to live! Without water, we will die! Even if we have water for today, we will need water again tomorrow! We can drink until we are satisfied, only to know that we will eventually be thirsty for more.\nThe gospel of John tells a story about a woman who gave up on this question all together. She moved beyond wondering if the Lord was really with her, so confident God had forgotten her that she gave up wondering at all. Born a Samaritan into a world that valued other bodies as better than her body: male bodies, Jewish bodies, even married bodies. Even after encountering Jesus, she still leaves their conversation without a name, numbered as one of many, simply called, “Samaritan woman.” She too, was thirsty. Most believe that her shame led her to drink water in the heat of the day, when no one else would be at the rocky well, when she could get a drink alone, without experiencing the stigma and stares of others. When she came to get a drink, Jesus was also at the well, thirsty himself and in need of rest and water from the long journey through Samaria.\nThe Israelites complaint for water sends Moses to the only one who can satisfy, the only one who can meet this need. Moses turns to God, “What should I do with these people? How can I satisfy their thirst? I’ve looked around, I’ve checked far and wide, turned the house upsidedown, looked under the seats of the car, at the bottle of every bottle, I’ve even looked for dew on the ground and under the lids of jars and there is no water to be found. Where do we go for water? Is the Lord really with us or not?\nThe Israelites who wrote down this story and allowed the ancestors to look like desperate complainers who doubted God and tested God, they were onto something. They knew that we are thirsty people. Jesus knew also. All who are thirsty, come! All who believe in me, drink this living water! We are desperate to feel God’s presence, to be bathed in the water of the Spirit, to know that this is not all there is, to feel a sense of belonging to the One who is greater than I. We can only make it so long in the desert, so long wandering from one trial to the next, without a drink.\nAnd yet, Jesus also says, “Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled. Notice with me: not blessed are those who are righteous, but those who thirst for righteousness. Not blessed are those who are righteous, but those who thirst for righteousness. Blessed are those who thirst for relationship with God, to know God, to see God.\nI wonder, “Does Jesus want us to keep wanting?” Does Jesus want us to keep thirsting? Many faithful followers of Jesus throughout history have never claimed their thirst was quenched, never fully satisfied. You know that moment when you quench your thirst, when you sigh with relief when your throat is at ease once again, that’s the opposite of how many of God’s children have described the life of faith. They describe wanting more, being satisfied at times, while knowing they will be thirsty again.\nWhat will be waiting for you at the rock? Will the water gush out, bursting forth, covering you from head to toe with God’s presence, drenching you in hope, cleansing you from the dust that’s caked to your feet and renewing you for a new day, a new hour, a new moment basking in the presence of God?\nWhat will be waiting for you at the rock? Will the water drip slowly, quenching your thirst for but a moment, giving you just a glimpse of God’s spirit? Will it be so hard to get the water from the rock, that you’ll have to bend down, get underneath that dripping water to try and catch a drop? Will it be just enough for you to know, if only for a moment, that God is really with you? Will it be just enough to satisfy you for this hour, but keep you coming back for more?\nWhat will be waiting for you at the rock? What if it seems like the water has run out, like there isn’t a drop left, the way that Mother Teresa described? What then? We follow her example. She still goes to the rock, over and over again, not to get water quench her own thirst, but to relieve the thirst of God’s other children.\nThis post was adapted from our sermon series on Interpreting Exodus. Pastor Megan preached this sermon at Butner Federal Prison complex on August 30, 2015.\nOn Father’s Day 2015, we gathered for worship at the labyrinth in front of UNC hospital, having devoted the month of June to exploring the question, “What happens after we die?” Many have watched their father’s die in this place or other similar spaces. We shared in a time of both remembrance and prayer/meditation, participating in the ancient spiritual practice of walking the labyrinth. A labyrinth is a kind of maze, laid out in a circle.\nTony graciously shared the following reflections from his experience at the labyrinth on the hot June day.\nIt’s smaller than I expected, stark and hard‐surfaced, with no landscaping for ornamentation or shade. I don’t know what to expect from it… or from myself. But that’s part of the appeal. I stand at the entrance, hesitating, trying to clear my mind. This doesn’t work very well, so I just start walking.\nAlmost immediately, the path presents itself as a linear and chronological symbol of my life’s journey. Like my physical lifetime, it has a beginning and an end, with an as‐yet undetermined amount between. This could be interesting. I like it so far… although I’m insecure about my style… and unsure about proper protocol. Is someone staring at me? Do I have to meditate? How slowly should I walk? Is it better to focus my thoughts… or to simply let them come? Will I control this thing, or allow it to control me?\nI begin to see each step as an increment of elapsed time, an irretrievable expenditure of life energy. I equate my initial discomfort to the natural immaturity of my childhood years. I gradually move beyond it, into metaphorical adulthood. This is much better.\nMost of the path is a series of gentle arcs. These are fairly easy to maneuver, like my comfortable life. But these segments are connected by intermittent sharp turns, mostly 180‐degree switchbacks. I see these as representing significant life changes or challenges, requiring more concentration and skill to negotiate. I notice that I am executing some of these turns mechanically, and some more gracefully. I begin to anticipate upcoming turns, and try to maintain good form around each one.\nI can’t see much of the path ahead, nor the end. I spend a significant amount of mental energy dealing with this uncertainty, constantly wanting to know my real‐time ratio of “distance walked” to “distance remaining”. This is a recurring distraction.\nToday is Father’s Day, and my Dad is on my mind. He recently completed his well‐walked journey, and is now watching me… even if as mere metaphor… or only as an element of my own (self‐) consciousness. I feel his presence embedded in his absence. I’m aware that it’s not only my turn to walk… it’s my only turn to walk.\nI think about my children, grandson, soon‐to‐arrive granddaughter, and their descendants. The familiar succession of life, death and new life seems magical, divinely‐derived, and strangely better than living forever. My role is limited, but critical. I love the part, and embrace it.\nI am acutely aware that others are journeying all around me. These are friends of mine. We meet, almost brushing, as we walk. The path seems purposefully narrow, perhaps perfectly so. I suddenly understand that it is impossible to walk this close to others without being affected by them. I affect them too… seen as small adjustments in their position or posture. As we meet, I try not to encroach too much, but making sure not to pull away. I put creative energy into maintaining the perfect degree of separation between our bodies. This feels like more art than science… each friend deserving a customized approach. This closeness seems good to me.\nThere is a much younger walker behind me, getting ever closer. I’m clearly holding her back. Maybe this means that the younger generation wants me to hurry up and get out of their way. I remind myself not to stretch the symbolism too far… as I pick up my pace.\nI now see the end of the path ahead. I have been expecting this part to be emotionally complicated, but it is not. The final section is round… large and unrestrictive… a qualitative change from the narrow linear pathway. The circle opens up to welcome me. It is easy to step into, a perfectly natural thing to do at the end of my walk. Inside the circle, I am centered… comfortable… peaceful… thankful.\n16 As Jesus passed alongside the Galilee Sea, he saw two brothers, Simon and Andrew, throwing fishing nets into the sea, for they were fishermen. 17 “Come, follow me,” he said, “and I’ll show you how to fish for people.” 18 Right away, they left their nets and followed him. 19 After going a little farther, he saw James and John, Zebedee’s sons, in their boat repairing the fishing nets. 20 At that very moment he called them. They followed him, leaving their father Zebedee in the boat with the hired workers.\nThis is a story about 4 fishermen, Simon, Andrew, James and John. It’s a normal morning at the docks. Each one of them is going about business as usual. They arrived at dawn, bundled up in the cool morning air and started work without much conversation. Simon and Andrew are working on one fishing boat and see the Teacher approaching. “Hey. There he is,” says Andrew. Jesus from Nazareth. You can’t go anywhere without hearing about him lately. What’s he doing down here?” They paddle back to shore, not wanting to miss any trouble this Jesus fellow might stir up. Simon and Andrew get the beach and Jesus comes over to talk to them. It’s like he had come there that morning just to find these two guys. Jesus didn’t say much, “Come and follow me.” Jesus invited these 2 fishermen to be his disciples, to follow after him, to walk behind him, tracing his every step.\nFurther down the beach, the same scene repeats. This time, Jesus walks directly up to James and John who are focused on repairing their fishing net. Jesus says the same thing to them and now all four fishermen walk behind their rabbi with no idea of what’s ahead of them.\nIt’s a big deal! The four normal guys, working a normal job, on a normal morning, decide to follow Jesus. Maybe you’ve wondered like I have, how is it that Simon, Andrew, James and John do it? How do they drop everything to follow Jesus? What were they thinking? How did they feel?\nIt’s interesting. The story doesn’t tell us. There’s nothing about how they felt. It doesn’t say they were excited, or moved, or scared, or joyful or resistant. This story about four fisherman gives us only verbs. Jesus passed alongside the Galilee Sea. He saw two brothers. He said, Come, follow. Then, Simon and Andrew left and followed. Jesus saw James and John. Jesus called them. They followed him.\nThis is a story about four fisherman who decided to follow Jesus.\nThis is also a story about fishing. I’ve been fishing been fishing three or four times. Once I realized that fishing was primarily a crack of dawn activity, I knew it wasn’t really for me. Jesus uses a kind of puzzling image about fishing. He says, “Come, follow me, and I’ll show you how to fish for people.” I don’t know about you, but this I find this to be very strange. I realized this week why his image is so confusing to me. What do you imagine when someone talks about fishing? What I imagine when I hear the word “fish” or “fishing” is a fishing pole, the rod, reel, bait, tackle box, worms, that kind of fishing. So I’ve always interpreted what Jesus said this way.\nI will make you fishers of men, fishers of men, fishers of men. I will make you fishers of men, if you follow me.\nThe road Jesus invites these four fishermen to follow him on will mean casting a net of love and welcome to people that they do not anticipate. Jesus will cast his net into the sea of a broken world, filled with sinners, people who have messed up, people who are outsiders, who don’t belong. Jesus will stay in the homes of poor, be guilty of associating prostitutes and touching the hands of people with communicable diseases. Jesus will throw his net into the sea and invite everyone in. Jesus will eventually be arrested and executed because those in power decided his fishing net included a few too many of the wrong people. This is a story about fishing.\nThis isn’t only a story about four fisherman, or only a story about fishing. It’s also, and perhaps, most importantly, a story about God.\nIf this is only a story about four fisherman who decide to follow Jesus, the pressures on you and me! After all, aren’t we too called to follow Jesus? Called to be his disciples? Wasn’t that the invitation you first heard when you first heard about Jesus? God has called us and we must decide. Jesus wants us all to follow him, to be like him, to walk in his footsteps, to do what he does. Of course this story is about that! And they do it, don’t they? Simon, Andrew, James, John, they do it! They decide and they do follow Jesus, imperfectly at that. Still, it’s a lot of pressure, a lot of responsibility. If life becomes all about what we do for Jesus, something is missing.\nIf this is only a story about fishing, have some of us failed? Is it too late for us? Some of us might not be the best at fishing, not all the great about casting Jesus’ loving net to our brothers and sisters. His net is sometimes, or maybe more than sometimes, a bit more expansive than we might be comfortable with. He calls us to be like him and fish for people, and yet, sometimes we can barely get the net into the water. Perhaps for others, we aren’t even convinced that Jesus would include us in the net at all, no matter how deep into the water he goes. He can really mean me? Would his net really reach me? There’s still more to the story.\nThis is a story about God, who God is, how God acts, what God does. Before Andrew, Simon, James and John follow Jesus, Jesus finds them. Before they follow Jesus, Jesus comes to them! They don’t have to go searching, they have been found. Jesus saw. Jesus spoke. Jesus called. Jesus said, “Come.“ We don’t follow Jesus in order to find him, to prove our worthiness with what we do, or even by showing Jesus how big our nets are. We follow Jesus because he first came to us. He came down to the beach to meet these four fishermen. He came specifically for Simon and for Andrew, for James and for John, for you and me.\nThis blog post was adapted from Pastor Megan’s sermon at Butner Federal Prison on January 25, 2015.\nThe life of faith consists of seasons. One scholar suggests that we can categorize these seasons of life as seasons of being securely oriented, painfully disoriented, and surprisingly reoriented. These generalizations could apply to our self-acceptance, our relations to significant others, and our participation in public or private life. We might think about these seasons as passages of life, stages of growth, or even identity crises. Acknowledging where we find ourselves in a particular season can allow us to be honest about where we are at in our lives and where we are in relation to God.\nThe Psalms, a collection of prayers, songs, and poems addressed to God, correspond to these seasons of orientation, disorientation, and reorientation. As we read through the book, we find Psalms where the writer is full of thanksgiving to God, securely oriented in life. We also find Psalms that demonstrate disorientation, perhaps categorized by loss, transition, grief, suffering, or even anger. Finally, some Psalms are written from a perspective of reorientation, wherein the Psalmist transitions from a period of being disoriented to being reoriented in relation to God and others.\nThe Psalms can become our partner in prayer. Giving us words when we have none, we pray the Psalms joining with all those who have prayed them before us and all who will pray them after we are gone. As we pray the Psalms, we find permission to be utterly honest with God about our feelings and situation, free to speak openly and deeply to God about what we are experiencing. Praying the Psalms also helps us to envision God’s future when we can’t see it ourselves. Lastly, the Psalms guard us against religion or merely thinking about God. Using their words in prayer brings us into direct conversation with the living God, in language we may never have imagined would come from our lips.\n-Pray the assigned Psalm from the daily lectionary, with set Scriptures to read each day. Click here to see today’s readings, subscribe to the daily readings by email, or download the app.\n-Pray the Psalms using the practice of praying in color. Click here for an excerpt from Sybil MacBeth’s book that gives instructions for praying in color. I have the book available if anyone would like to borrow it. You can read more about praying in color on her website.\n-Pray a Psalm, followed by journal writing. Consider these prompts: Where do I find myself in this Psalm? Where do I find my community? How am I being oriented to God in this prayer? What images or metaphors do I find striking? Explore the image more deeply.\n-Pray through a list of Psalms, one per day or the same one each day for a week.\n-Pray them as a family or with housemates at mealtime or bedtime.\n-Pray abbreviated Psalms as breath prayers. A breath Ppayer rhythm is simple: Breathe in slow and deep as you whisper or think on a phrase… Hold your breath… Then exhale.\nI will sing to my God as long as I am.\nPsalm 8: Lord, our master, how great is your name in all the earth.\nPsalm 104: Seek the Lord and his power; seek his face forever. Remember the wonders he has done.\n-Pray the Psalms using lectio divina. For instructions on praying lectio divina individually or in groups, click here. There are also instructions for doing lectio divina in color from Sybil MacBeth’s book.\n-Pray a Psalm from the category of life within which you find yourself—orientation, disorientation, or reorientation.\nPsalms of Orientation: These Psalms reflect a confident belief that the world is well ordered, reliable, and life-giving to the person of faith.\nPsalms of Disorientation: These Psalms reflect the brokenness of life, when it is no longer orderly but savage. Spoken out of the depths, they are still bold acts of faith.\nPsalms of New Orientation: The pit is not the end of life; there is more. New orientation Psalms reflect the surprise of new possibilities that are experienced as pure gift from God. They are full of thanks.\nCitations: The Message of the Psalms and Praying the Psalms by Walter Brueggemann and Getting Involved with God, by Ellen Davis.\nJoseph’s story opens in Genesis 37 and it’s a long one. Joseph was one of 11 kids, the youngest son. In Genesis 37, the story says, “Now Jacob (Joseph’s dad) loved Joseph more than any of his other sons because he was born when Jacob was old. Jacob had made for him a long robe. When his brothers saw that their father loved him more than any of his brothers, they hated him and couldn’t even talk nicely to him.” Sibling rivalry, jealousy, family drama—maybe a little too familiar for some of us.\nJust when you want to feel bad for Joseph, show him sympathy, “Poor kid—he can’t help that he’s the favorite,” Joseph makes himself quickly unlikeable. When Joseph’s head hits the pillow at night, he has vivid dreams about the future, dreams where he rules over his brothers. In one of these dreams, he’s in the field working with his brothers. They each tie a bundle of grain together…I imagine it like a hay bail. His bail rises up, towering and floating in the air above the others, while each of his ten older brother’s bails of hay, bows down to his bail, as if he’s ruling over them like a king. What’s worse—he didn’t keep his mouth shut about his dreams. Nope. He went ahead and announced them at the dinner table. When I imagine this scene, I’m reminded of the importance of friends. He seriously needed a friend to say, “Dude, listen, you have some dreams where you’re awesome and your brothers treat you like a king. They hate you, man. Keep your dreams to yourself.” Joseph lacked such a friend, so he bragged about his dreams—that combined with his fancy North Face jacket that Daddy bought for him only and the favoritism their dad showed him, brought his brothers to plot about how they might rid themselves of this pesky brat forever.\nJoseph’s brothers considered killing Joseph, but they settled on kidnapping him and selling him into slavery instead. That way, they wouldn’t have his death on their foreheads, without having to put up with him anymore. They took Joseph’s fancy coat and destroyed it, making it look like a wild animal killed Joseph. This they showed to their father, so that he would assume that Joseph was dead; their dad would never suspect they had any part in his disappearance.\nMeanwhile, Joseph was taken off to Egypt where he worked as a slave. Though he did well there and followed all the rules, he became a victim for a second time, when his master’s wife accused him of a crime he didn’t commit. Over a period of 13 years, Joseph worked as a slave and spent years locked up in prison. After a series of unlikely events, some terrible and some remarkable, Joseph rose to power and became the king’s right hand man, his adviser.\nWith the king’s blessing and support, Joseph led his country in preparing for a famine, putting food away on reserve during seven years of plenty. When a famine struck the land, Egypt was in a good position, able to lean on the reserved food that Joseph had put away. The surrounding lands, including Joseph’s homeland, had to lean on Egypt for food or else they would starve.\nJoseph shows his brother’s enormous generosity. He has them go home, pack up and move their entire family, including their elderly father Jacob to Egypt to be near Joseph. Not long after making the trip to Egypt and being reunited with his father, their father, an elderly man at this point, Jacob dies.\nAnd the final chapter of the story opens. Jacob is dead. Their father is gone. Now what?\nRealizing that their father was dead, Joseph’s brothers said, “What if Joseph still bears a grudge against us and pays us back in full for all the wrong that we did to him?” 16 So they approached[b] Joseph, saying, “Your father gave this instruction before he died, 17 ‘Say to Joseph: I beg you, forgive the crime of your brothers and the wrong they did in harming you.’ Now therefore please forgive the crime of the servants of the God of your father.” Joseph wept when they spoke to him. 18 Then his brothers also wept,[c] fell down before him, and said, “We are here as your slaves.” 19 But Joseph said to them, “Do not be afraid! Am I in the place of God? 20 Even though you intended to do harm to me, God intended it for good, in order to preserve a numerous people, as he is doing today. 21 So have no fear; I myself will provide for you and your little ones.” In this way he reassured them, speaking kindly to them.\nFear is a powerful force. Fear motivates and fear paralyzes.\nIt’s a little funny how they phrase the words of their father. The brothers put a great deal of distance between themselves and Joseph. Instead of saying, “Our father told us to tell you…” they say, “Your father to us to tell you…” They distance themselves from Joseph and from the message that their dad supposedly gave them to pass along.\nAnd then, they do it again. “Please forgive the crime of the servants of the God of your father,” his brothers say. They refer to themselves in third person—“the servants of the God of your father.” It’s not “our crime” that “we committed,” but the crime of these others.\nFear not only keeps them from confession, fear also keeps them from receiving forgiveness. They are scared for their lives the moment their father breathes his last, but haven’t they already been through this conversation with Joseph? At the dinner table, when Joseph revealed his identity to them, he tells them not to worry. “It’s ok. Yeah, it was awful, but look where I am! Look at how God has used me to help save those who would be starving now. I’m even saving you!” Joseph has already offered them forgiveness, but they haven’t fully received it. They haven’t believed what he’s said. Perhaps their views of themselves were so low that they didn’t see themselves worthy of forgiveness. Maybe they’ve carried the guilt for so long about what they’ve done, they fear what life will be like without it. It’s become so much an engrained part of their identity, they don’t know who they are apart from the guilt of what they’ve done. They fear receiving Joseph’s forgiveness. They fear forgiving themselves.\nTo the plea of the 10 brothers, to this made-up, manipulative, last cry for safety, Joseph has two responses. First, he weeps. His weeping—his display of vulnerability and emotion—causes his brothers to begin to weep also. There they are, 11 grown brothers, weeping on the floor of the house. Why did Joseph begin to weep? The story doesn’t say. Let’s notice, brothers and sisters—the road to releasing fear and offering and receiving forgiveness may not come without weeping.\nFear is a powerful force. Fear is an excellent motivator—moving us to do particular things and act in particular ways. But fear not only motivates, it can also paralyze, cause us to freeze right where we’re at, accept things for how they are. This final chapter begins with the brothers saying to one another, “What if…?” What if Joseph still bears a grudge against us…? Fear finishes the sentence, beginning in the words, “What if…?” Fear finishes the sentence. What if…he still bears a grudge against us? What if…we confess our evil to Joseph and he says that’s the end of us? What if…we ask for forgiveness and he denies it—if I say, will you forgive me, and he says, “no”?\n“What if’s” sneak into our minds and hearts.\nWhat if…I never get out of here?\nWhat if I fail as a parent?\nWhat if I don’t belong?\nWhat if no one notices I’m gone?\nWhat if I stand up for what I believe is right and it costs me my reputation?\nWhat if I make a mistake at work and lose my job?\nWhat if I risk opening myself up to someone and get hurt or betrayed again?\nWhat if my body fails me?\nWhat if I can never accept that the past can’t change?\nWhat if I’m not worthy of God’s forgiveness or the forgiveness of those I’ve wronged?\nWhat if I can never forgive myself?\nWe do not have to live in fear. We do not have to be motivated or paralyzed by it. Look at the God that we serve! Joseph explains how God has been with him. He says to his brothers, “Even though you intended to do harm to me, God intended it for good, in order to preserve a numerous people, as he is doing today.” Does this mean that God wanted or desired Joseph’s brothers to kidnap him, throw him into slavery and ruin his life to avenge their jealousy? No. God doesn’t desire that jealousy and revenge rule our lives. God doesn’t will for us to do evil or to harm other people. Rather, God is able to overcome evil and transform it. God can overcome evil! When Jesus was captured, tried as a criminal and sentenced to death, God overcame death, raising Jesus from the death.\nThis post was adapted from my sermon preached at Butner Federal Prison on September 14, 2014.\nWe were gathered at the plaza, right between the giant bull statue and the unattractive fences of a construction site. Luminary bags weighted with rice and lit candles marked the sacred space surrounding 30 of us, one to represent each person who died as a result of domestic violence the previous year in our state. The vigil began as planned, simple, but meaningful, to remember victims of this tragedy and raise awareness about the suffering that takes place behind closed doors. About halfway through the simple service, a woman stumbled into the vigil, interrupting the solemn mood without realizing that a group was gathered and someone was speaking. She stood silent for a few moments, listening to the speaker. When she realized that the speaker was talking about domestic violence, she began to interrupt, asking questions to the speaker, sharing details from her own experience with abuse. “What would you do…what would you do if…?” she cried. Then, as unexpectedly as she joined us and as abruptly as her interruption, she began to weep, uncontrollably crying for the rest of the vigil. A couple of women gathered around her and held her as she wept. Before long, it was my turn to pray. I barely got the words out…I could hardly project my shaking voice over her loud sobs.\n“Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted,” Jesus proclaims in the second line of the beatitudes. Blessed are those who mourn. How is this weeping woman, this victim of abuse, blessed? She mourns the injustices she’s experienced, her suffering, the ways her life has been shaped by pain and her inability to free herself from her oppression. Jesus says that this woman and all her sisters and brothers that mourn with her are blessed.\nThe Jewish culture that Jesus was born into has a rich history of mourning or practicing lament, stretching back hundreds of years before he was born. The prophets and the Psalms include poems, songs, and speeches, recounting the words of people gathered together for public mourning. This mourning wasn’t a kind of crying about having a bad day or because of a frustration at home or work. The mourning Jesus is referencing is the kind of mourning that is a response to injustice and oppression, those who mourn the impact of the powers, both material and spiritual, on the lives of the most vulnerable.\nBlessed are those who mourn. Another beatitude and another paradox. Once again, Jesus’ words are outlandish and nonsensical. How is it that those who mourn are blessed? Aren’t those who are happy and fulfilled, aren’t they the ones that are blessed? Yet, in this beatitude, in this paradox, Jesus once again exposes the powers and envisions an alternative. Jesus exposes the powers that cause people to mourn in the first place, those who experience unjust suffering and loss, the same injustices that cause people to be poor in spirit. It’s these people, the mourners, that are blessed, Jesus says. These are the people that Jesus came for. In God’s empire, mourners are not written off or ignored as uncivilized, uneducated, or badly behaved. Instead, in God’s empire, they are the ones who receive God’s comfort and consolation; God’s hears their cries.\nOur culture tends to restrict mourning or public displays of emotion to something appropriate for home life or private time. Further, spending time in mourning may be quickly relegated to a waste of time or an inactive posture. The expression, “Don’t just cry about it, do something,” illustrates this clearly. But mourning is not a useless waste of time or an inactive practice. Mourn is a verb. In fact, mourning elicits action and engagement. Mourning exposes the powers, shows their true colors. Seeing people in mourning is disorienting. It interrupts the lives we lead that are detached from suffering and injustice, forcing us to take another look, to pause, to listen, and to join.\nThe woman who interrupted our solemn vigil for victims of domestic violence exposed the powers with her loud wailing. She made me feel uncomfortable, like I wanted to look away and get away from her as quickly as possible. And yet, her cries made it impossible for me to forget her. The sound of her weeping echoed in my ears for weeks following and if I try, I can still hear them now, over nine months later. Her mourning moves me to engage in seeking justice for others who have suffered like she has.\n1. James Howell, The Beatitudes for Today. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005., 45.\n2. James Howell, The Beatitudes for Today, 46.", "answers": ["\"I have seen the Lord.\"."], "length": 6856, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "d1f31d2998513a4552d0419e16f8eba896e9ea1c8403605b"}
{"input": "What is the SI unit of power?", "context": "For other uses, see Electricity (disambiguation).\n\"Electric\" redirects here. For other uses, see Electric (disambiguation).\nLightning is one of the most dramatic effects of electricity.\nElectricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge. In early days, electricity was considered as being not related to magnetism. Later on, many experimental results and the development of Maxwell's equations indicated that both electricity and magnetism are from a single phenomenon: electromagnetism. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges and many others.\nThe presence of an electric charge, which can be either positive or negative, produces an electric field. The movement of electric charges is an electric current and produces a magnetic field.\nWhen a charge is placed in a location with a non-zero electric field, a force will act on it. The magnitude of this force is given by Coulomb's law. Thus, if that charge were to move, the electric field would be doing work on the electric charge. Thus we can speak of electric potential at a certain point in space, which is equal to the work done by an external agent in carrying a unit of positive charge from an arbitrarily chosen reference point to that point without any acceleration and is typically measured in volts.\nelectronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies.\nElectrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Even then, practical applications for electricity were few, and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that electrical engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society, becoming a driving force for the Second Industrial Revolution. Electricity's extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society.\nLong before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the \"Thunderer of the Nile\", and described them as the \"protectors\" of all other fish. Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Several ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by catfish and electric rays, and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects. Patients suffering from ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning ra‘ad (رعد) applied to the electric ray.\nAncient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers. Thales of Miletus made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BCE, from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic, in contrast to minerals such as magnetite, which needed no rubbing. Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. According to a controversial theory, the Parthians may have had knowledge of electroplating, based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad Battery, which resembles a galvanic cell, though it is uncertain whether the artifact was electrical in nature.\nBenjamin Franklin conducted extensive research on electricity in the 18th century, as documented by Joseph Priestley (1767) History and Present Status of Electricity, with whom Franklin carried on extended correspondence.\nElectricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert wrote De Magnete, in which he made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the New Latin word electricus (\"of amber\" or \"like amber\", from ἤλεκτρον, elektron, the Greek word for \"amber\") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words \"electric\" and \"electricity\", which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646.\nFurther work was conducted in the 17th and early 18th centuries by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray and C. F. du Fay. Later in the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a metal key to the bottom of a dampened kite string and flown the kite in a storm-threatened sky. A succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature. He also explained the apparently paradoxical behavior of the Leyden jar as a device for storing large amounts of electrical charge in terms of electricity consisting of both positive and negative charges.\nIn 1791, Luigi Galvani published his discovery of bioelectromagnetics, demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which neurons passed signals to the muscles. Alessandro Volta's battery, or voltaic pile, of 1800, made from alternating layers of zinc and copper, provided scientists with a more reliable source of electrical energy than the electrostatic machines previously used. The recognition of electromagnetism, the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena, is due to Hans Christian Ørsted and André-Marie Ampère in 1819–1820. Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821, and Georg Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827. Electricity and magnetism (and light) were definitively linked by James Clerk Maxwell, in particular in his \"On Physical Lines of Force\" in 1861 and 1862.\nWhile the early 19th century had seen rapid progress in electrical science, the late 19th century would see the greatest progress in electrical engineering. Through such people as Alexander Graham Bell, Ottó Bláthy, Thomas Edison, Galileo Ferraris, Oliver Heaviside, Ányos Jedlik, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Charles Algernon Parsons, Werner von Siemens, Joseph Swan, Reginald Fessenden, Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse, electricity turned from a scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modern life.\nIn 1887, Heinrich Hertz:843–44 discovered that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper that explained experimental data from the photoelectric effect as being the result of light energy being carried in discrete quantized packets, energising electrons. This discovery led to the quantum revolution. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for \"his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". The photoelectric effect is also employed in photocells such as can be found in solar panels and this is frequently used to make electricity commercially.\nThe first solid-state device was the \"cat's-whisker detector\" first used in the 1900s in radio receivers. A whisker-like wire is placed lightly in contact with a solid crystal (such as a germanium crystal) to detect a radio signal by the contact junction effect. In a solid-state component, the current is confined to solid elements and compounds engineered specifically to switch and amplify it. Current flow can be understood in two forms: as negatively charged electrons, and as positively charged electron deficiencies called holes. These charges and holes are understood in terms of quantum physics. The building material is most often a crystalline semiconductor.\nThe solid-state device came into its own with the invention of the transistor in 1947. Common solid-state devices include transistors, microprocessor chips, and RAM. A specialized type of RAM called flash RAM is used in USB flash drives and more recently, solid-state drives to replace mechanically rotating magnetic disc hard disk drives. Solid state devices became prevalent in the 1950s and the 1960s, during the transition from vacuum tubes to semiconductor diodes, transistors, integrated circuit (IC) and the light-emitting diode (LED).\nThe presence of charge gives rise to an electrostatic force: charges exert a force on each other, an effect that was known, though not understood, in antiquity.:457 A lightweight ball suspended from a string can be charged by touching it with a glass rod that has itself been charged by rubbing with a cloth. If a similar ball is charged by the same glass rod, it is found to repel the first: the charge acts to force the two balls apart. Two balls that are charged with a rubbed amber rod also repel each other. However, if one ball is charged by the glass rod, and the other by an amber rod, the two balls are found to attract each other. These phenomena were investigated in the late eighteenth century by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, who deduced that charge manifests itself in two opposing forms. This discovery led to the well-known axiom: like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract.\nThe force acts on the charged particles themselves, hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface. The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is given by Coulomb's law, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse-square relation to the distance between them.:35 The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to the strong interaction, but unlike that force it operates over all distances. In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force, the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 1042 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together.\nStudy has shown that the origin of charge is from certain types of subatomic particles which have the property of electric charge. Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature. The most familiar carriers of electrical charge are the electron and proton. Experiment has shown charge to be a conserved quantity, that is, the net charge within an electrically isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system. Within the system, charge may be transferred between bodies, either by direct contact, or by passing along a conducting material, such as a wire.:2–5 The informal term static electricity refers to the net presence (or 'imbalance') of charge on a body, usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together, transferring charge from one to the other.\nThe charge on electrons and protons is opposite in sign, hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive. By convention, the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative, and that by protons positive, a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin. The amount of charge is usually given the symbol Q and expressed in coulombs; each electron carries the same charge of approximately −1.6022×10−19 coulomb. The proton has a charge that is equal and opposite, and thus +1.6022×10−19 coulomb. Charge is possessed not just by matter, but also by antimatter, each antiparticle bearing an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle.\nThe movement of electric charge is known as an electric current, the intensity of which is usually measured in amperes. Current can consist of any moving charged particles; most commonly these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes a current. Electric current can flow through some things, electrical conductors, but will not flow through an electrical insulator.\nBy historical convention, a positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains, or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part. Current defined in this manner is called conventional current. The motion of negatively charged electrons around an electric circuit, one of the most familiar forms of current, is thus deemed positive in the opposite direction to that of the electrons. However, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction, or even in both directions at once. The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation.\nThe process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction, and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal, and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids, or through plasmas such as electrical sparks. While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second,:17 the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light, enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires.\nCurrent causes several observable effects, which historically were the means of recognising its presence. That water could be decomposed by the current from a voltaic pile was discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800, a process now known as electrolysis. Their work was greatly expanded upon by Michael Faraday in 1833. Current through a resistance causes localised heating, an effect James Prescott Joule studied mathematically in 1840.:23–24 One of the most important discoveries relating to current was made accidentally by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, when, while preparing a lecture, he witnessed the current in a wire disturbing the needle of a magnetic compass. He had discovered electromagnetism, a fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetics. The level of electromagnetic emissions generated by electric arcing is high enough to produce electromagnetic interference, which can be detrimental to the workings of adjacent equipment.\nIn engineering or household applications, current is often described as being either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). These terms refer to how the current varies in time. Direct current, as produced by example from a battery and required by most electronic devices, is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a circuit to the negative.:11 If, as is most common, this flow is carried by electrons, they will be travelling in the opposite direction. Alternating current is any current that reverses direction repeatedly; almost always this takes the form of a sine wave.:206–07 Alternating current thus pulses back and forth within a conductor without the charge moving any net distance over time. The time-averaged value of an alternating current is zero, but it delivers energy in first one direction, and then the reverse. Alternating current is affected by electrical properties that are not observed under steady state direct current, such as inductance and capacitance.:223–25 These properties however can become important when circuitry is subjected to transients, such as when first energised.\nThe concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday. An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field. The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses, and like it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance. However, there is an important difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion. Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero. Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker.\nA hollow conducting body carries all its charge on its outer surface. The field is therefore zero at all places inside the body.:88 This is the operating principal of the Faraday cage, a conducting metal shell which isolates its interior from outside electrical effects.\nThe principles of electrostatics are important when designing items of high-voltage equipment. There is a finite limit to the electric field strength that may be withstood by any medium. Beyond this point, electrical breakdown occurs and an electric arc causes flashover between the charged parts. Air, for example, tends to arc across small gaps at electric field strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimetre. Over larger gaps, its breakdown strength is weaker, perhaps 1 kV per centimetre. The most visible natural occurrence of this is lightning, caused when charge becomes separated in the clouds by rising columns of air, and raises the electric field in the air to greater than it can withstand. The voltage of a large lightning cloud may be as high as 100 MV and have discharge energies as great as 250 kWh.\nA pair of AA cells. The + sign indicates the polarity of the potential difference between the battery terminals.\nThe concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work. The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point. It is usually measured in volts, and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity.:494–98 This definition of potential, while formal, has little practical application, and a more useful concept is that of electric potential difference, and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points. An electric field has the special property that it is conservative, which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant: all paths between two specified points expend the same energy, and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated.:494–98 The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term voltage sees greater everyday usage.\nFor practical purposes, it is useful to define a common reference point to which potentials may be expressed and compared. While this could be at infinity, a much more useful reference is the Earth itself, which is assumed to be at the same potential everywhere. This reference point naturally takes the name earth or ground. Earth is assumed to be an infinite source of equal amounts of positive and negative charge, and is therefore electrically uncharged—and unchargeable.\nElectric potential is a scalar quantity, that is, it has only magnitude and not direction. It may be viewed as analogous to height: just as a released object will fall through a difference in heights caused by a gravitational field, so a charge will 'fall' across the voltage caused by an electric field. As relief maps show contour lines marking points of equal height, a set of lines marking points of equal potential (known as equipotentials) may be drawn around an electrostatically charged object. The equipotentials cross all lines of force at right angles. They must also lie parallel to a conductor's surface, otherwise this would produce a force that will move the charge carriers to even the potential of the surface.\nØrsted's discovery in 1821 that a magnetic field existed around all sides of a wire carrying an electric current indicated that there was a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. Moreover, the interaction seemed different from gravitational and electrostatic forces, the two forces of nature then known. The force on the compass needle did not direct it to or away from the current-carrying wire, but acted at right angles to it. Ørsted's slightly obscure words were that \"the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner.\" The force also depended on the direction of the current, for if the flow was reversed, then the force did too.\nØrsted did not fully understand his discovery, but he observed the effect was reciprocal: a current exerts a force on a magnet, and a magnetic field exerts a force on a current. The phenomenon was further investigated by Ampère, who discovered that two parallel current-carrying wires exerted a force upon each other: two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to each other, while wires containing currents in opposite directions are forced apart. The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and forms the basis for the international definition of the ampere.\nThis relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important, for it led to Michael Faraday's invention of the electric motor in 1821. Faraday's homopolar motor consisted of a permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury. A current was allowed through a wire suspended from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into the mercury. The magnet exerted a tangential force on the wire, making it circle around the magnet for as long as the current was maintained.\nExperimentation by Faraday in 1831 revealed that a wire moving perpendicular to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends. Further analysis of this process, known as electromagnetic induction, enabled him to state the principle, now known as Faraday's law of induction, that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop. Exploitation of this discovery enabled him to invent the first electrical generator in 1831, in which he converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy. Faraday's disc was inefficient and of no use as a practical generator, but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism, a possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work.\nItalian physicist Alessandro Volta showing his \"battery\" to French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in the early 19th century.\nThe ability of chemical reactions to produce electricity, and conversely the ability of electricity to drive chemical reactions has a wide array of uses.\nElectrochemistry has always been an important part of electricity. From the initial invention of the Voltaic pile, electrochemical cells have evolved into the many different types of batteries, electroplating and electrolysis cells. Aluminium is produced in vast quantities this way, and many portable devices are electrically powered using rechargeable cells.\nA basic electric circuit. The voltage source V on the left drives a current I around the circuit, delivering electrical energy into the resistor R. From the resistor, the current returns to the source, completing the circuit.\nAn electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path (a circuit), usually to perform some useful task.\nElectric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second.\nElectricity generation is often done with electric generators, but can also be supplied by chemical sources such as electric batteries or by other means from a wide variety of sources of energy. Electric power is generally supplied to businesses and homes by the electric power industry. Electricity is usually sold by the kilowatt hour (3.6 MJ) which is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours. Electric utilities measure power using electricity meters, which keep a running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer. Unlike fossil fuels, electricity is a low entropy form of energy and can be converted into motion or many other forms of energy with high efficiency.\nElectronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes, optoelectronics, sensors and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies. The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible and electronics is widely used in information processing, telecommunications, and signal processing. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a regular working system.\nToday, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control. The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of solid state physics, whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems come under electronics engineering.\nThus, the work of many researchers enabled the use of electronics to convert signals into high frequency oscillating currents, and via suitably shaped conductors, electricity permits the transmission and reception of these signals via radio waves over very long distances.\nEarly 20th-century alternator made in Budapest, Hungary, in the power generating hall of a hydroelectric station (photograph by Prokudin-Gorsky, 1905–1915).\nIn the 6th century BC, the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus experimented with amber rods and these experiments were the first studies into the production of electrical energy. While this method, now known as the triboelectric effect, can lift light objects and generate sparks, it is extremely inefficient. It was not until the invention of the voltaic pile in the eighteenth century that a viable source of electricity became available. The voltaic pile, and its modern descendant, the electrical battery, store energy chemically and make it available on demand in the form of electrical energy. The battery is a versatile and very common power source which is ideally suited to many applications, but its energy storage is finite, and once discharged it must be disposed of or recharged. For large electrical demands electrical energy must be generated and transmitted continuously over conductive transmission lines.\nElectrical power is usually generated by electro-mechanical generators driven by steam produced from fossil fuel combustion, or the heat released from nuclear reactions; or from other sources such as kinetic energy extracted from wind or flowing water. The modern steam turbine invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884 today generates about 80 percent of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources. Such generators bear no resemblance to Faraday's homopolar disc generator of 1831, but they still rely on his electromagnetic principle that a conductor linking a changing magnetic field induces a potential difference across its ends. The invention in the late nineteenth century of the transformer meant that electrical power could be transmitted more efficiently at a higher voltage but lower current. Efficient electrical transmission meant in turn that electricity could be generated at centralised power stations, where it benefited from economies of scale, and then be despatched relatively long distances to where it was needed.\nSince electrical energy cannot easily be stored in quantities large enough to meet demands on a national scale, at all times exactly as much must be produced as is required. This requires electricity utilities to make careful predictions of their electrical loads, and maintain constant co-ordination with their power stations. A certain amount of generation must always be held in reserve to cushion an electrical grid against inevitable disturbances and losses.\nElectricity is a very convenient way to transfer energy, and it has been adapted to a huge, and growing, number of uses. The invention of a practical incandescent light bulb in the 1870s led to lighting becoming one of the first publicly available applications of electrical power. Although electrification brought with it its own dangers, replacing the naked flames of gas lighting greatly reduced fire hazards within homes and factories. Public utilities were set up in many cities targeting the burgeoning market for electrical lighting. In the late 20th century and in modern times, the trend has started to flow in the direction of deregulation in the electrical power sector.\nThe resistive Joule heating effect employed in filament light bulbs also sees more direct use in electric heating. While this is versatile and controllable, it can be seen as wasteful, since most electrical generation has already required the production of heat at a power station. A number of countries, such as Denmark, have issued legislation restricting or banning the use of resistive electric heating in new buildings. Electricity is however still a highly practical energy source for heating and refrigeration, with air conditioning/heat pumps representing a growing sector for electricity demand for heating and cooling, the effects of which electricity utilities are increasingly obliged to accommodate.\nElectricity is used within telecommunications, and indeed the electrical telegraph, demonstrated commercially in 1837 by Cooke and Wheatstone, was one of its earliest applications. With the construction of first intercontinental, and then transatlantic, telegraph systems in the 1860s, electricity had enabled communications in minutes across the globe. Optical fibre and satellite communication have taken a share of the market for communications systems, but electricity can be expected to remain an essential part of the process.\nThe effects of electromagnetism are most visibly employed in the electric motor, which provides a clean and efficient means of motive power. A stationary motor such as a winch is easily provided with a supply of power, but a motor that moves with its application, such as an electric vehicle, is obliged to either carry along a power source such as a battery, or to collect current from a sliding contact such as a pantograph. Electrically powered vehicles are used in public transportation, such as electric buses and trains, and an increasing number of battery-powered electric cars in private ownership.\nElectronic devices make use of the transistor, perhaps one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century, and a fundamental building block of all modern circuitry. A modern integrated circuit may contain several billion miniaturised transistors in a region only a few centimetres square.\nA voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current through the tissues, and although the relationship is non-linear, the greater the voltage, the greater the current. The threshold for perception varies with the supply frequency and with the path of the current, but is about 0.1 mA to 1 mA for mains-frequency electricity, though a current as low as a microamp can be detected as an electrovibration effect under certain conditions. If the current is sufficiently high, it will cause muscle contraction, fibrillation of the heart, and tissue burns. The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes electricity a particular hazard. The pain caused by an electric shock can be intense, leading electricity at times to be employed as a method of torture. Death caused by an electric shock is referred to as electrocution. Electrocution is still the means of judicial execution in some jurisdictions, though its use has become rarer in recent times.\nElectricity is not a human invention, and may be observed in several forms in nature, a prominent manifestation of which is lightning. Many interactions familiar at the macroscopic level, such as touch, friction or chemical bonding, are due to interactions between electric fields on the atomic scale. The Earth's magnetic field is thought to arise from a natural dynamo of circulating currents in the planet's core. Certain crystals, such as quartz, or even sugar, generate a potential difference across their faces when subjected to external pressure. This phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity, from the Greek piezein (πιέζειν), meaning to press, and was discovered in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie. The effect is reciprocal, and when a piezoelectric material is subjected to an electric field, a small change in physical dimensions takes place.\n§Bioelectrogenesis in microbial life is a prominent phenomenon in soils and sediment ecology resulting from anaerobic respiration. The microbial fuel cell mimics this ubiquitous natural phenomenon.\nSome organisms, such as sharks, are able to detect and respond to changes in electric fields, an ability known as electroreception, while others, termed electrogenic, are able to generate voltages themselves to serve as a predatory or defensive weapon. The order Gymnotiformes, of which the best known example is the electric eel, detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated from modified muscle cells called electrocytes. All animals transmit information along their cell membranes with voltage pulses called action potentials, whose functions include communication by the nervous system between neurons and muscles. An electric shock stimulates this system, and causes muscles to contract. Action potentials are also responsible for coordinating activities in certain plants.\nIn the 19th and early 20th century, electricity was not part of the everyday life of many people, even in the industrialised Western world. The popular culture of the time accordingly often depicted it as a mysterious, quasi-magical force that can slay the living, revive the dead or otherwise bend the laws of nature. This attitude began with the 1771 experiments of Luigi Galvani in which the legs of dead frogs were shown to twitch on application of animal electricity. \"Revitalization\" or resuscitation of apparently dead or drowned persons was reported in the medical literature shortly after Galvani's work. These results were known to Mary Shelley when she authored Frankenstein (1819), although she does not name the method of revitalization of the monster. The revitalization of monsters with electricity later became a stock theme in horror films.\nAs the public familiarity with electricity as the lifeblood of the Second Industrial Revolution grew, its wielders were more often cast in a positive light, such as the workers who \"finger death at their gloves' end as they piece and repiece the living wires\" in Rudyard Kipling's 1907 poem Sons of Martha. Electrically powered vehicles of every sort featured large in adventure stories such as those of Jules Verne and the Tom Swift books. The masters of electricity, whether fictional or real—including scientists such as Thomas Edison, Charles Steinmetz or Nikola Tesla—were popularly conceived of as having wizard-like powers.\nWith electricity ceasing to be a novelty and becoming a necessity of everyday life in the later half of the 20th century, it required particular attention by popular culture only when it stops flowing, an event that usually signals disaster. The people who keep it flowing, such as the nameless hero of Jimmy Webb’s song \"Wichita Lineman\" (1968), are still often cast as heroic, wizard-like figures.\nAmpère's circuital law, connects the direction of an electric current and its associated magnetic currents.\n^ Diogenes Laertius. R.D. Hicks (ed.). \"Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book 1 Chapter 1 \". Perseus Digital Library. Tufts University. Retrieved 5 February 2017. Aristotle and Hippias affirm that, arguing from the magnet and from amber, he attributed a soul or life even to inanimate objects.\n^ Aristotle. Daniel C. Stevenson (ed.). \"De Animus (On the Soul) Book 1 Part 2 (B4 verso)\". The Internet Classics Archive. Translated by J.A. Smith. Retrieved 5 February 2017. Thales, too, to judge from what is recorded about him, seems to have held soul to be a motive force, since he said that the magnet has a soul in it because it moves the iron.\n^ a b c Guarnieri, M. (2014). \"Electricity in the age of Enlightenment\". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 8 (3): 60–63. doi:10.1109/MIE.2014.2335431.\n^ Srodes, James (2002), Franklin: The Essential Founding Father, Regnery Publishing, pp. 92–94, ISBN 0-89526-163-4 It is uncertain if Franklin personally carried out this experiment, but it is popularly attributed to him.\n^ a b Guarnieri, M. (2014). \"The Big Jump from the Legs of a Frog\". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 8 (4): 59–61, 69. doi:10.1109/MIE.2014.2361237.\n^ Hertz, Heinrich (1887). \"Ueber den Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung\". Annalen der Physik. 267 (8): S. 983–1000. Bibcode:1887AnP...267..983H. doi:10.1002/andp.18872670827.\n^ \"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921\". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2013-03-16.\n^ John Sydney Blakemore, Solid state physics, pp. 1–3, Cambridge University Press, 1985 ISBN 0-521-31391-0.\n^ Richard C. Jaeger, Travis N. Blalock, Microelectronic circuit design, pp. 46–47, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003 ISBN 0-07-250503-6.\n^ \"The repulsive force between two small spheres charged with the same type of electricity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centres of the two spheres.\" Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, Histoire de l'Academie Royal des Sciences, Paris 1785.\n^ Sewell, Tyson (1902), The Elements of Electrical Engineering, Lockwood, p. 18 . The Q originally stood for 'quantity of electricity', the term 'electricity' now more commonly expressed as 'charge'.\n^ a b Berkson, William (1974), Fields of Force: The Development of a World View from Faraday to Einstein, Routledge, p. 370, ISBN 0-7100-7626-6 Accounts differ as to whether this was before, during, or after a lecture.\n^ \"Lab Note #105 EMI Reduction – Unsuppressed vs. Suppressed\". Arc Suppression Technologies. April 2011. Retrieved March 7, 2012.\n^ Almost all electric fields vary in space. An exception is the electric field surrounding a planar conductor of infinite extent, the field of which is uniform.\n^ Paul J. Nahin (9 October 2002). Oliver Heaviside: The Life, Work, and Times of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6909-9.\n^ \"The Bumpy Road to Energy Deregulation\". EnPowered. 2016-03-28.\n^ a b c d e f g h Van Riper, op.cit., p. 71.\nLook up electricity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\nBasic Concepts of Electricity chapter from Lessons In Electric Circuits Vol 1 DC book and series.", "answers": ["Watt, one joule per second."], "length": 6197, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "4c7891d780eb3f45e8c4e5bf14fd9ed6c0bf898fb159b329"}
{"input": "Can individual molecules of indeno[1,2-a]fluorene switch between open-shell and closed-shell states?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Bistability between π-diradical open-shell and closed-shell states in indeno[1,2-a]fluorene\nPublish Date: Unkown\nAuthor List: Shantanu Mishra (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich), Manuel Vilas-Varela (from Department of Organic Chemistry, Center for Research in Biological Chemistry and Molecular Materials (CiQUS), University of Santiago de Compostela), Leonard-Alexander Lieske (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich), Ricardo Ortiz (from Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)), Igor Rončević (from Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford), Florian Albrecht (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich), Diego Peña (from Department of Organic Chemistry, Center for Research in Biological Chemistry and Molecular Materials (CiQUS), University of Santiago de Compostela), Leo Gross (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich)\n\nFigure\n\nFig. 1 | Non-benzenoid non-alternant polycyclic conjugated hydrocarbons.a, Classical nonbenzenoid non-alternant polycyclic conjugated hydrocarbons: pentalene, azulene and heptalene.b, Generation of indacenes and indenoindenes through benzinterposition and benzannelation of pentalene, respectively.Gray filled rings represent Clar sextets.c, Closed-shell Kekulé (left) and openshell non-Kekulé (right) resonance structures of QDMs.Note that meta-QDM is a non-Kekulé molecule.All indenofluorene isomers, being derived through benzannelation of indacenes, contain a central QDM moiety.d, Closed-shell Kekulé (top) and open-shell non-Kekulé (bottom) resonance structures of indenofluorenes.Compared to their closed-shell structures, 1 and 5 gain two Clar sextets in the openshell structure, while 2-4 gain only one Clar sextet in the open-shell structure.Colored bonds in d highlight the ortho-and para-QDM moieties in the two closed-shell Kekulé structures of 5. e, Scheme of on-surface generation of 5 by voltage pulse-induced dehydrogenation of 6 (C20H14).Structures 7 and 8 represent the two monoradical species (C20H13).\nFig. 2 | Characterization of open-shell indeno[1,2-a]fluorene on bilayer NaCl/Au(111).a, DFTcalculated wave functions of the frontier orbitals of 5OS in the triplet configuration for the spin up (occupied) level (isovalue: 0.002 e -Å -3 ).Blue and red colors represent opposite phases of the wave function.b, Corresponding DFT-calculated spin density of 5OS (isovalue: 0.01 e -Å -3).Blue and orange colors represent spin up and spin down densities, respectively.c, Probability density of the SOMOs of 5OS (isovalue: 0.001 e -Å -3 ).d, DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5OS.e, Constant-height I(V) spectra acquired on a species of 5 assigned as 5OS, along with the corresponding dI/dV(V) spectra.Open feedback parameters: V = -2 V, I = 0.17 pA (negative bias side) and V = 2 V, I = 0.17 pA (positive bias side).Acquisition position of the spectra is shown in Supplementary Fig.7.f, Scheme of many-body transitions associated to the measured ionic resonances of 5OS.Also shown are STM images of assigned 5OS at biases where the corresponding transitions become accessible.Scanning parameters: I = 0.3 pA (V = -1.2V and -1.5 V) and 0.2 pA (V = 1.3 V and 1.6 V). g, Laplace-filtered AFM image of assigned 5OS.STM set point: V = 0.2 V, I = 0.5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0.3Å.The tip-height offset Δz for each panel is provided with respect to the STM setpoint, and positive (negative) values of Δz denote tip approach (retraction) from the STM setpoint.f and g show the same molecule at the same adsorption site, which is next to a trilayer NaCl island.The bright and dark features in the trilayer NaCl island in g correspond to Cl -and Na + ions, respectively.Scale bars: 10 Å (f) and 5 Å (g).\nFig. 3 | Characterization of closed-shell indeno[1,2-a]fluorene on bilayer NaCl/Au(111).a, DFTcalculated wave functions of the frontier orbitals of closed-shell 5 0 (isovalue: 0.002 e -Å -3 ).The wave functions shown here are calculated for the 5para geometry.b, DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5ortho (top) and 5para (bottom).c, Constant-height I(V) spectra acquired on a species of 5 assigned as 5para, along with the corresponding dI/dV(V) spectra.Open feedback parameters: V = -2 V, I = 0.15 pA (negative bias side) and V = 2.2 V, I = 0.15 pA (positive bias side).Acquisition position of the spectra is shown in Supplementary Fig. 7. d, Scheme of many-body transitions associated to the measured ionic resonances of 5para.Also shown are STM images of assigned 5para at biases where the corresponding transitions become accessible.Scanning parameters: I = 0.15 pA (V = -1.5 V) and 0.2 pA (V = 1.7 V). e, Laplace-filtered AFM image of assigned 5para.STM set point: V = 0.2 V, I = 0.5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0.7 Å. f, Selected bonds labeled for highlighting bond order differences between 5para and 5ortho.For the bond pairs a/b, c/d and e/f, the bonds labeled in bold exhibit a higher bond order than their neighboring labeled bonds in 5para.g, Laplace-filtered AFM images of 5 on bilayer NaCl/Cu(111) showing switching between 5OS and 5para as the molecule changes its adsorption position.The faint protrusion adjacent to 5 is a defect that stabilizes the adsorption of 5. STM set point: V = 0.2 V, I = 0.5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0.3Å. STM and STS data in c and d are acquired on the same species, while the AFM data in e is acquired on a different species.Scale bars: 10 Å (d) and 5 Å (e,g).\nNMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.51 (m, 2H), 7.40 -7.28 (m, 5H), 7.27 -7.20 (m, 2H), 7.13 (d, J = 7.7 Hz, 1H), 2.07 (s, 3H), 1.77 (s, 3H) ppm. 13C NMR-DEPT (75 MHz, CDCl3, 1:1 mixture of atropisomers) δ: 141.2 (C), 141.1 (C), 140.0 (C), 139.4 (2C), 137.5 (C), 137.4 (C), 136.0 (3C), 134.8 (C), 134.5 (C), 134.1 (C), 134.0 (C), 133.7 (C), 133.6 (C), 131.6 (CH), 131.2 (CH), 131.1 (CH), 130.7 (CH), 129.8 (CH), 129.7 (CH), 129.5 (CH), 129.4 (CH), 129.0 (CH), 128.9 (CH), 128.7 (2CH), 128.6 (2CH), 127.2 (CH), 127.1 (CH), 127.0 (CH), 126.9 (CH), 126.7 (CH), 126.6 (CH), 20.6 (CH3), 20.5 (CH3), 17.7 (CH3), 17.5 (CH3) ppm.MS (APCI) m/z (%): 327 (M+1, 100).HRMS: C20H16Cl2; calculated: 327.0702, found: 327.0709.\nNMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.93 (d, J = 7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.85 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (d, J = 7.7 Hz, 1H), 7.65 (d, J = 7.4 Hz, 1H), 7.61 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (d, J = 7.7 Hz, 1H), 7.47 (ddd, J = 8.4, 7.2, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.42 (dd, J = 8.1, 7.0 Hz, 1H), 7.35 (m, 2H), 4.22 (s, 3H), 4.02 (s, 3H).ppm. 13C NMR-DEPT (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 144.1 (C), 143.3 (C), 142.3 (C), 141.9 (C), 141.8 (C), 141.2 (C), 138.2 (C), 136.5 (C), 127.0 (CH), 126.9 (CH), 126.7 (CH), 126.6 (CH), 125.3 (CH), 125.2 (CH), 123.6 (CH), 122.2 (CH), 119.9 (CH), 118.4 (CH), 37.4 (CH2), 36.3 (CH2).ppm.MS (APCI) m/z (%): 254 (M+, 88).HRMS: C20H14; calculated: 254.1090, found: 254.1090.\n\nabstract\n\nIndenofluorenes are non-benzenoid conjugated hydrocarbons that have received great interest owing to their unusual electronic structure and potential applications in nonlinear optics and photovoltaics. Here, we report the generation of unsubstituted indeno[1,2-a]fluorene, the final and yet unreported parent indenofluorene regioisomer, on various surfaces by cleavage of two C-H bonds in 7,12-dihydro indeno[1,2-a]fluorene through voltage pulses applied by the tip of a combined scanning tunneling microscope and atomic force microscope.\nOn bilayer NaCl on Au(111), indeno[1,2a]fluorene is in the neutral charge state, while it exhibits charge bistability between neutral and anionic states on the lower work function surfaces of bilayer NaCl on Ag(111) and Cu(111). In the neutral state, indeno[1,2-a]fluorene exhibits either of two ground states: an open-shell π-diradical state, predicted to be a triplet by density functional and multireference many-body perturbation theory calculations, or a closedshell state with a para-quinodimethane moiety in the as-indacene core.\nSwitching between open-and closed-shell states of a single molecule is observed by changing its adsorption site on NaCl. The inclusion of non-benzenoid carbocyclic rings is a viable route to tune the physicochemical properties of polycyclic conjugated hydrocarbons (PCHs) . Non-benzenoid polycycles may lead to local changes in strain, conjugation, aromaticity, and, relevant to the context of the present work, induce an open-shell ground state of the corresponding PCHs .\nMany nonbenzenoid PCHs are also non-alternant, where the presence of odd-membered polycycles breaks the bipartite symmetry of the molecular network . Figure shows classical examples of non-benzenoid non-alternant PCHs, namely, pentalene, azulene and heptalene. Whereas azulene is a stable PCH exhibiting Hückel aromaticity ([4n+2] π-electrons, n = 2), pentalene and heptalene are unstable Hückel antiaromatic compounds with [4n] π-electrons, n = 2 (pentalene) and n = 3 (heptalene).\nBenzinterposition of pentalene generates indacenes, consisting of two isomers s-indacene and as-indacene (Fig. ). Apart from being antiaromatic, indacenes also contain proaromatic quinodimethane (QDM) moieties (Fig. ) , which endows them with potential open-shell character. While the parent s-indacene and asindacene have never been isolated, stable derivatives of s-indacene bearing bulky substituents have been synthesized .\nA feasible strategy to isolate congeners of otherwise unstable non-benzenoid non-alternant PCHs is through fusion of benzenoid rings at the ends of the π-system, that is, benzannelation. For example, while the parent pentalene is unstable, the benzannelated congener indeno[2,1-a]indene is stable under ambient conditions (Fig. ) .\nHowever, the position of benzannelation is crucial for stability: although indeno[2,1a]indene is stable, its regioisomer indeno[1,2-a]indene (Fig. ) oxidizes under ambient conditions . Similarly, benzannelation of indacenes gives rise to the family of PCHs known as indenofluorenes (Fig. ), which constitute the topic of the present work.\nDepending on the benzannelation position and the indacene core, five regioisomers can be constructed, namely, indeno [ Practical interest in indenofluorenes stems from their low frontier orbital gap and excellent electrochemical characteristics that render them as useful components in organic electronic devices .\nThe potential open-shell character of indenofluorenes has led to several theoretical studies on their use as non-linear optical materials and as candidates for singlet fission in organic photovoltaics . Recent theoretical work has also shown that indenofluorene-based ladder polymers may exhibit fractionalized excitations.\nFundamentally, indenofluorenes represent model systems to study the interplay between aromaticity and magnetism at the molecular scale . Motivated by many of these prospects, the last decade has witnessed intensive synthetic efforts toward the realization of indenofluorenes. Derivatives of 1-4 have been realized in solution , while 1-3 have also been synthesized on surfaces and characterized using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), which provide information on molecular orbital densities , molecular structure and oxidation state .\nWith regards to the open-shell character of indenofluorenes, 2-4 are theoretically and experimentally interpreted to be closed-shell, while calculations indicate that 1 and 5 should exhibit open-shell ground states . Bulk characterization of mesitylsubstituted 1, including X-ray crystallography, temperature-dependent NMR, and electron spin resonance spectroscopy, provided indications of its open-shell ground state .\nElectronic characterization of 1 on Au(111) surface using scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) revealed a low electronic gap of 0.4 eV (ref. ). However, no experimental proof of an openshell ground state of 1 on Au(111), such as detection of singly occupied molecular orbitals (SOMOs) or spin excitations and correlations due to unpaired electrons , was shown.\nIn this work, we report the generation and characterization of unsubstituted 5. Our research is motivated by theoretical calculations that indicate 5 to exhibit the largest diradical character among all indenofluorene isomers . The same calculations also predict that 5 should possess a triplet ground state.\nTherefore, 5 would qualify as a Kekulé triplet, of which only a handful of examples exist . However, definitive synthesis of 5 has never been reported so far. Previously, Dressler et al. reported transient isolation of mesityl-substituted 5, where it decomposed both in the solution and in solid state , and only the structural proof of the corresponding dianion was obtained.\nOn-surface generation of a derivative of 5, starting from truxene as a precursor, was recently reported . STM data on this compound, containing the indeno[1,2-a]fluorene moiety as part of a larger PCH, was interpreted to indicate its open-shell ground state. However, the results did not imply the ground state of unsubstituted 5. Here, we show that on insulating surfaces 5 can exhibit either of two ground states: an open-shell or a closed-shell.\nWe infer the existence of these two ground states based on high-resolution AFM imaging with bond-order discrimination and STM imaging of molecular orbital densities . AFM imaging reveals molecules with two different geometries. Characteristic bond-order differences in the two geometries concur with the geometry of either an open-or a closed-shell state.\nConcurrently, STM images at ionic resonances show molecular orbital densities corresponding to SOMOs for the open-shell geometry, but orbital densities of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) for the closed-shell geometry. Our experimental results are in good agreement with density functional theory (DFT) and multireference perturbation theory calculations.\nFinally, we observe switching between open-and closed-shell states of a single molecule by changing its adsorption site on the surface. Synthetic strategy toward indeno[1,2-a]fluorene. The generation of 5 relies on the solution-phase synthesis of the precursor 7,12-dihydro indeno[1,2-a]fluorene (6). Details on synthesis and characterization of 6 are reported in Supplementary Figs.\n. Single molecules of 6 are deposited on coinage metal (Au(111), Ag(111) and Cu(111)) or insulator surfaces. In our work, insulating surfaces correspond to two monolayer-thick (denoted as bilayer) NaCl on coinage metal surfaces. Voltage pulses ranging between 4-6 V are applied by the tip of a combined STM/AFM system, which result in cleavage of one C-H bond at each of the pentagonal apices of 6, thereby leading to the generation of 5 (Fig. ).\nIn the main text, we focus on the generation and characterization of 5 on insulating surfaces. Generation and characterization of 5 on coinage metal surfaces is shown in Supplementary Fig. . ). Blue and orange colors represent spin up and spin down densities, respectively. c, Probability density of the SOMOs of 5OS (isovalue: 0.001 e -Å -3 ).\nd, DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5OS. e, Constant-height I(V) spectra acquired on a species of 5 assigned as 5OS, along with the corresponding dI/dV(V) spectra. Open feedback parameters: V = -2 V, I = 0.17 pA (negative bias side) and V = 2 V, I = 0.17 pA (positive bias side). Acquisition position of the spectra is shown in Supplementary Fig. . f, Scheme of many-body transitions associated to the measured ionic resonances of 5OS.\nAlso shown are STM images of assigned 5OS at biases where the corresponding transitions become accessible. Scanning parameters: I = 0.3 pA (V = -1.2 V and -1.5 V) and 0.2 pA (V = 1.3 V and 1.6 V). g, Laplace-filtered AFM image of assigned 5OS. STM set point: V = 0.2 V, I = 0.5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0.3\nÅ. The tip-height offset Δz for each panel is provided with respect to the STM setpoint, and positive (negative) values of Δz denote tip approach (retraction) from the STM setpoint. f and g show the same molecule at the same adsorption site, which is next to a trilayer NaCl island. The bright and dark features in the trilayer NaCl island in g correspond to Cl -and Na + ions, respectively.\nScale bars: 10 Å (f) and 5 Å (g). To experimentally explore the electronic structure of 5, we used bilayer NaCl films on coinage metal surfaces to electronically decouple the molecule from the metal surfaces. Before presenting the experimental findings, we summarize the results of our theoretical calculations performed on 5 in the neutral charge state (denoted as 5 0 ).\nWe start by performing DFT calculations on 5 0 in the gas phase. Geometry optimization performed at the spin-unrestricted UB3LYP/6-31G level of theory leads to one local minimum, 5OS, the geometry of which corresponds to the open-shell resonance structure of 5 (Fig. , the label OS denotes open-shell).\nThe triplet electronic configuration of 5OS is the lowest-energy state, with the openshell singlet configuration 90 meV higher in energy. Geometry optimization performed at the restricted closed-shell RB3LYP/6-31G level reveals two local minima, 5para and 5ortho, the geometries of which (Fig. ) exhibit bond length alternations in line with the presence of a para-or an ortho-QDM moiety, respectively, in the as-indacene core of the closed-shell resonance structures of 5 (Fig. ) .\nRelative to 5OS in the triplet configuration, 5para and 5ortho are 0.40 and 0.43 eV higher in energy, respectively. Additional DFT results are shown in Supplementary Fig. . To gain more accurate insights into the theoretical electronic structure of 5, we performed multireference perturbation theory calculations (Supplementary Fig. ) based on quasi-degenerate second-order n-electron valence state perturbation theory (QD-NEVPT2).\nIn so far as the order of the ground and excited states are concerned, the results of QD-NEVPT2 calculations qualitatively match with DFT calculations. For 5OS, the triplet configuration remains the lowest-energy state, with the open-shell singlet configuration 60 meV higher in energy. The energy differences between the open-and closed-shell states are substantially reduced in QD-NEVPT2 calculations, with 5para and 5ortho only 0.11 and 0.21 eV higher in energy, respectively, compared to 5OS in the triplet configuration.\nWe also performed nucleus-independent chemical shift calculations to probe local aromaticity of 5 in the openand closed-shell states. While 5OS in the triplet configuration exhibits local aromaticity at the terminal benzenoid rings, 5OS in the open-shell singlet configuration, 5para and 5ortho all display antiaromaticity (Supplementary Fig. ).\nThe choice of the insulating surface determines the charge state of 5: while 5 adopts neutral charge state on the high work function bilayer NaCl/Au(111) surface (irrespective of its openor closed-shell state, Supplementary Fig. ), 5 exhibits charge bistability between 5 0 and the anionic state 5 -1 on the lower work function bilayer NaCl/Ag(111) and Cu(111) surfaces (Supplementary Figs. ).\nIn the main text, we focus on the characterization of 5 on bilayer NaCl/Au(111). Characterization of charge bistable 5 is reported in Supplementary Figs. . We first describe experiments on 5 on bilayer NaCl/Au(111), where 5 exhibits a geometry corresponding to the calculated 5OS geometry, and an open-shell electronic configuration.\nWe compare the experimental data on this species to calculations on 5OS with a triplet configuration, as theory predicts a triplet ground state for 5OS. For 5OS, the calculated frontier orbitals correspond to the SOMOs ψ1 and ψ2 (Fig. ), whose spin up levels are occupied and the spin down levels are empty.\nFigure shows the DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5OS, where the two salient features, namely, the small difference in the bond lengths within each ring and the notably longer bond lengths in the pentagonal rings, agree with the open-shell resonance structure of 5 (Fig. ). Figure shows an AFM image of 5 adsorbed on bilayer NaCl/Au(111) that we assign as 5OS, where the bond-order differences qualitatively correspond to the calculated 5OS geometry (discussed and compared to the closed-shell state below).\nDifferential conductance spectra (dI/dV(V), where I and V denote the tunneling current and bias voltage, respectively) acquired on assigned 5OS exhibit two peaks centered at -1.5 V and 1.6 V (Fig. ), which we assign to the positive and negative ion resonances (PIR and NIR), respectively. Figure shows the corresponding STM images acquired at the onset (V = -1.2\nV/1.3 V) and the peak (V = -1.5 V/1.6 V) of the ionic resonances. To draw a correspondence between the STM images and the molecular orbital densities, we consider tunneling events as many-body electronic transitions between different charge states of 5OS (Fig. ). Within this framework, the PIR corresponds to transitions between 5 0 and the cationic state 5 .\nAt the onset of the PIR at -1.2 V, an electron can only be detached from the SOMO ψ1 and the corresponding STM image at -1.2 V shows the orbital density of ψ1. Increasing the bias to the peak of the PIR at -1.5 V, it becomes possible to also empty the SOMO ψ2, such that the corresponding STM image shows the superposition of ψ1 and ψ2, that is, |ψ1| 2 + |ψ2| 2 (ref.\n). Similarly, the NIR corresponds to transitions between 5 0 and 5 -1 . At the NIR onset of 1.3 V, only electron attachment to ψ2 is energetically possible. At 1.6 V, electron attachment to ψ1 also becomes possible, and the corresponding STM image shows the superposition of ψ1 and ψ2. The observation of the orbital densities of SOMOs, and not the hybridized HOMO and LUMO, proves the open-shell ground state of assigned 5OS.\nMeasurements of the monoradical species with a doublet ground state are shown in Supplementary Fig. . Unexpectedly, another species of 5 was also experimentally observed that exhibited a closedshell ground state. In contrast to 5OS, where the frontier orbitals correspond to the SOMOs ψ1 and ψ2, DFT calculations predict orbitals of different shapes and symmetries for 5para and 5ortho, denoted as α and β and shown in Fig. .\nFor 5ortho, α and β correspond to HOMO and LUMO, respectively. The orbitals are inverted in energy and occupation for 5para, where β is the HOMO and α is the LUMO. Fig. shows an AFM image of 5 that we assign as 5para. We experimentally infer its closed-shell state first by using qualitative bond order discrimination by AFM.\nIn high-resolution AFM imaging, chemical bonds with higher bond order are imaged brighter (that is, with higher frequency shift Δf) due to stronger repulsive forces, and they appear shorter . In Fig. , we label seven bonds whose bond orders show significant qualitative differences in the calculated 5ortho, 5para (Fig. ) and 5OS (Fig. ) geometries.\nIn 5para, the bonds b and d exhibit a higher bond order than a and c, respectively. This pattern is reversed for 5ortho, while the bond orders of the bonds a-d are all similar and small for 5OS. Furthermore, in 5para bond f exhibits a higher bond order than e, while in 5ortho and 5OS bonds e and f exhibit similar bond order (because they belong to Clar sextets).\nFinally, the bond labeled g shows a higher bond order in 5para than in 5ortho and 5OS. The AFM image of assigned 5para shown in Fig. indicates higher bond orders of the bonds b, d and f compared to a, c and e, respectively. In addition, the bond g appears almost point-like and with enhanced Δf contrast compared to its neighboring bonds, indicative of a high bond order (see Supplementary Fig. for height-dependent measurements).\nThese observations concur with the calculated 5para geometry (Fig. ). Importantly, all these distinguishing bond-order differences are distinctly different in the AFM image of 5OS shown in Fig. , which is consistent with the calculated 5OS geometry (Fig. ). In the AFM images of 5OS (Fig. and Supplementary Fig. ), the bonds a-d at the pentagon apices appear with similar contrast and apparent bond length.\nThe bonds e and f at one of the terminal benzenoid rings also exhibit similar contrast and apparent bond length, while the central bond g appears longer compared to assigned 5para. Further compelling evidence for the closed-shell state of assigned 5para is obtained by STM and STS. dI/dV(V) spectra acquired on an assigned 5para species exhibit two peaks centered at -1.4 V (PIR) and 1.6 V (NIR) (Fig. ).\nSTM images acquired at these biases (Fig. ) show the orbital densities of β (-1.4 V) and α (1.6 V). First, the observation of α and β as the frontier orbitals of this species, and not the SOMOs, strongly indicates its closed-shell state. Second, consistent with AFM measurements that indicate good correspondence to the calculated 5para geometry, we observe β as the HOMO and α as the LUMO.\nFor 5ortho, α should be observed as the HOMO and β as the LUMO. We did not observe molecules with the signatures of 5ortho in our experiments. We observed molecules in open-(5OS, Fig. ) and closed-shell (5para, Fig. ) states in similar occurrence after their generation from 6 on the surface. We could also switch individual molecules between open-and closed-shell states as shown in Fig. and Supplementary Fig. .\nTo this end, a change in the adsorption site of a molecule was induced by STM imaging at ionic resonances, which often resulted in movement of the molecule. The example presented in Fig. shows a molecule that was switched from 5para to 5OS and back to 5para. The switching is not directed, that is, we cannot choose which of the two species will be formed when changing the adsorption site, and we observed 5OS and 5para in approximately equal yields upon changing the adsorption site.\nThe molecule in Fig. is adsorbed on top of a defect that stabilizes its adsorption geometry on bilayer NaCl. At defect-free adsorption sites on bilayer NaCl, that is, without a third layer NaCl island or atomic defects in the vicinity of the molecule, 5 could be stably imaged neither by AFM nor by STM at ionic resonances (Supplementary Fig. ).\nWithout changing the adsorption site, the state of 5 (open-or closedshell) never changed, including the experiments on bilayer NaCl/Ag(111) and Cu(111), on which the charge state of 5 could be switched (Supplementary Figs. ). Also on these lower work function surfaces, both open-and closed-shell species were observed for 5 0 and both showed charge bistability between 5 0 (5OS or 5para) and 5 -1 (Supplementary Figs. ).\nThe geometrical structure of 5 -1 probed by AFM, and its electronic structure probed by STM imaging at the NIR (corresponding to transitions between 5 -1 and the dianionic state 5 -2 ), are identical within the measurement accuracy for the charged species of both 5OS and 5para. When cycling the charge state of 5 between 5 0 and 5 -1 several times, we always observed the same state (5OS or 5para) when returning to 5 0 , provided the molecule did not move during the charging/discharging process.\nBased on our experimental observations we conclude that indeno[1,2-a]fluorene (5), the last unknown indenofluorene isomer, can be stabilized in and switched between an open-shell (5OS) and a closed-shell (5para) state on NaCl. For the former, both DFT and QD-NEVPT2 calculations predict a triplet electronic configuration.\nTherefore, 5 can be considered to exhibit the spin-crossover effect, involving magnetic switching between high-spin (5OS) and low-spin (5para) states, coupled with a reversible structural transformation. So far, the spin-crossover effect has mainly only been observed in transition-metal-based coordination compounds with a near-octahedral geometry .\nThe observation that the switching between open-and closedshell states is related to changes in the adsorption site but is not achieved by charge-state cycling alone, indicates that the NaCl surface and local defects facilitate different electronic configurations of 5 depending on the adsorption site.\nGas-phase QD-NEVPT2 calculations predict that 5OS is the ground state, and the closed-shell 5para and 5ortho states are 0.11 and 0.21 eV higher in energy. The experiments, showing bidirectional switching between 5OS and 5para, indicate that a change in the adsorption site can induce sufficient change in the geometry of 5 (leading to a corresponding change in the ground state electronic configuration) and thus induce switching.\nSwitching between open-and closed-shell states in 5 does not require the breaking or formation of covalent bonds , but a change of adsorption site on NaCl where the molecule is physisorbed. Our results should have implications for single-molecule devices, capitalizing on the altered electronic and chemical properties of a system in π-diradical open-shell and closed-shell states such as frontier orbital and singlet-triplet gaps, and chemical reactivity.\nFor possible future applications as a single-molecule switch, it might be possible to also switch between open-and closed-shell states by changing the local electric field, such as by using chargeable adsorbates . Scanning probe microscopy measurements and sample preparation. STM and AFM measurements were performed in a home-built system operating at base pressures below 1×10 -10 mbar and a base temperature of 5 K. Bias voltages are provided with respect to the sample.\nAll STM, AFM and spectroscopy measurements were performed with carbon monoxide (CO) functionalized tips. AFM measurements were performed in non-contact mode with a qPlus sensor . The sensor was operated in frequency modulation mode with a constant oscillation amplitude of 0.5 Å. STM measurements were performed in constantcurrent mode, AFM measurements were performed in constant-height mode with V = 0 V, and I(V) and Δf(V) spectra were acquired in constant-height mode.\nPositive (negative) values of the tip-height offset Δz represent tip approach (retraction) from the STM setpoint. All dI/dV(V) spectra are obtained by numerical differentiation of the corresponding I(V) spectra. STM and AFM images, and spectroscopy curves, were post-processed using Gaussian low-pass filters.\nAu(111), Ag(111) and Cu(111) surfaces were cleaned by iterative cycles of sputtering with Ne + ions and annealing up to 800 K. NaCl was thermally evaporated on Au(111), Ag(111) and Cu(111) surfaces held at 323 K, 303 K and 283 K, respectively. This protocol results in the growth of predominantly bilayer (100)-terminated islands, with a minority of trilayer islands.\nSub-monolayer coverage of 6 on surfaces was obtained by flashing an oxidized silicon wafer containing the precursor molecules in front of the cold sample in the microscope. CO molecules for tip functionalization were dosed from the gas phase on the cold sample. Density functional theory calculations. DFT was employed using the PSI4 program package .\nAll molecules with different charge (neutral and anionic) and electronic (open-and closed-shell) states were independently investigated in the gas phase. The B3LYP exchangecorrelation functional with 6-31G basis set was employed for structural relaxation and singlepoint energy calculations. The convergence criteria were set to 10 −4 eV Å −1 for the total forces and 10 −6 eV for the total energies.\nMultireference calculations. Multireference calculations were performed on the DFToptimized geometries using the QD-NEVPT2 level of theory , with three singlet roots and one triplet root included in the state-averaged calculation. A (10,10) active space (that is, 10 electrons in 10 orbitals) was used along with the def2-TZVP basis set .\nIncreasing either the active space size or expanding the basis set resulted in changes of about 50 meV for relative energies of the singlet and triplet states. These calculations were performed using the ORCA program package . Nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) calculations. Isotropic nucleus-independent chemical shift values were evaluated at the centre of each ring using the B3LYP exchangecorrelation functional with def2-TZVP basis set using the Gaussian 16 software package .\nStarting materials (reagent grade) were purchased from TCI and Sigma-Aldrich and used without further purification. Reactions were carried out in flame-dried glassware and under an inert atmosphere of purified Ar using Schlenk techniques. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was performed on Silica Gel 60 F-254 plates (Merck).\nColumn chromatography was performed on silica gel (40-60 µm). Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra were recorded on a Bruker Varian Mercury 300 or Bruker Varian Inova 500 spectrometers. Mass spectrometry (MS) data were recorded in a Bruker Micro-TOF spectrometer. The synthesis of compound 6 was developed following the two-step synthetic route shown in Supplementary Fig. , which is based on the preparation of methylene-bridge polyarenes by means of Pd-catalyzed activation of benzylic C-H bonds .\nSupplementary Figure | Synthetic route to obtain compound 6. The complex Pd2(dba)3 (20 mg, 0.02 mmol) was added over a deoxygenated mixture of 1,3-dibromo-2,4-dimethylbenzene (9, 100 mg, 0.38 mmol), boronic acid 10 (178 mg, 1.14 mmol), K2CO3 (314 mg, 2.28 mmol) and XPhos (35 mg, 0.08 mmol) in toluene (1:1, 10 mL), and the resulting mixture was heated at 90 °C for 2 h.\nAfter cooling to room temperature, the solvents were evaporated under reduced pressure. The reaction crude was purified by column chromatography (SiO2; hexane:CH2Cl2 9:1) affording 11 (94 mg, 76%) as a colorless oil. The complex Pd(OAc)2 (7 mg, 0.03 mmol) was added over a deoxygenated mixture of terphenyl 11 (90 mg, 0.27 mmol), K2CO3 (114 mg, 0.83 mmol) and ligand L (26 mg, 0.06 mmol) in NMP (2 mL).\nThe resulting mixture was heated at 160 °C for 4 h. After cooling to room temperature, H2O (30 mL) was added, and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3x15 mL). The combined organic extracts were dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered, and evaporated under reduced pressure. The reaction crude was purified by column chromatography (SiO2; hexane:CH2Cl2 9:1) affording compound 6 (8 mg, 11%) as a white solid. in AFM imaging due to their reduced adsorption height compared to the rest of the carbon atoms.\nWe attribute this observation to the significantly different lattice parameter of Cu(111) (2.57 Å) compared to Au(111) and Ag(111) (2.95 Å and 2.94 Å, respectively) , such that the apical carbon atoms of the pentagonal rings of 5 adsorb on the on-top atomic sites on Au(111) and Ag(111), but not on Cu(111).\nOur speculation is based on a previous study of polymers of 1 on Au(111) by Di Giovannantonio et al. , where both tilted and planar individual units of 1 were observed depending on whether the apical carbon atoms of the pentagonal rings in 1 adsorbed on the on-top or hollow sites of the surface, respectively.\nGiven the strong molecule-metal interaction, we found no electronic state signatures of 5 on all three metal surfaces. STM set point for AFM images: V = 0. e, Frontier orbital spectrum of 5 -1 . In the anionic state, ψ2 becomes doubly occupied and ψ1 is the SOMO. Filled and empty circles denote occupied and empty orbitals, respectively.\nFor each panel, zero of the energy axis has been aligned to the respective highest-energy occupied orbital.", "answers": ["Yes, individual molecules of indeno[1,2-a]fluorene can switch between open-shell and closed-shell states by changing their adsorption site on the surface."], "length": 5523, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "566881d2138d7e29cd6dd2b661b6f7ffe4c515c92fdaf837"}
{"input": "What are the symptoms of alpha thalassemia major?", "context": "Thalassaemia minor | definition of Thalassaemia minor by Medical dictionary\nThalassaemia minor | definition of Thalassaemia minor by Medical dictionary\nhttps://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Thalassaemia+minor\n(redirected from Thalassaemia minor)\nRelated to Thalassaemia minor: thalassaemia major\nThalassemia describes a group of inherited disorders characterized by reduced or absent amounts of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein inside the red blood cells. There are two basic groups of thalassemia disorders: alpha thalassemia and beta thalassemia. These conditions cause varying degrees of anemia, which can range from insignificant to life threatening.\nAll types of thalassemias are considered quantitative diseases of hemoglobin, because the quantity of hemoglobin produced is reduced or absent. Usual adult hemoglobin is made up of three components: alpha globin, beta globin, and heme. Thalassemias are classified according to the globin that is affected, hence the names alpha and beta thalassemia. Although both classes of thalassemia affect the same protein, the alpha and beta thalassemias are distinct diseases that affect the body in different ways.\nBeta thalassemia may be the most best-known type of thalassemia and is also called Cooley's anemia. It is caused by a change in the gene for the beta globin component of hemoglobin. Beta thalassemia causes variable anemia that can range from moderate to severe, depending in part on the exact genetic change underlying the disease. Beta thalassemia can be classified based on clinical symptoms. Beta thalassemia major usually causes severe anemia that can occur within months after birth. If left untreated, severe anemia can result in insufficient growth and development, as well as other common physical complications that can lead to a dramatically decreased life-expectancy. Fortunately, in developed countries beta thalassemia is usually identified by screening in the newborn period, before symptoms have developed. Children who are identified early can be started on ongoing blood transfusion therapy as needed. Although transfusion therapy prevents many of the complications of severe anemia, the body is unable to eliminate the excess iron contained in the transfused blood. Over time, the excess iron deposits in tissues and organs, resulting in damage and organ failure. Another medication must be administered to help the body eliminate the excess iron and prevent iron-over-load complications. Beta thalassemia intermedia describes the disease in individuals who have moderate anemia that only requires blood transfusions intermittently, if at all.\nAlpha thalassemia is the result of changes in the genes for the alpha globin component of hemoglobin. There are two main types of alpha thalassemia disease: hemoglobin H disease and alpha thalassemia major. The two diseases are quite different from beta thalassemia as well as from one another. Individuals with hemoglobin H disease can experience events of hemolytic anemia—anemia caused by the rapid breakdown of the red blood cells. These events are thought to be triggered by various environmental causes, such as infection and/or exposure to certain chemicals. Hemoglobin H disease is in most cases milder than beta thalassemia. It does not generally require transfusion therapy. Alpha thalassemia major is a very serious disease that results in severe anemia that begins even before birth. Most affected babies do not survive to be born or die shortly after birth.\nThe thalassemias are among the most common genetic diseases worldwide. Both alpha and beta thalassemia have been described in individuals of almost every ancestry, but the conditions are more common among certain ethnic groups. Unaffected carriers of all types of thalassemia traits do not experience health problems. In fact, the thalassemia trait is protective against malaria, a disease caused by blood-borne parasites transmitted through mosquito bites. According to a widely accepted theory, most genetic changes—mutations—that cause thalassemia occurred multiple generations ago. Coincidentally, these mutations increased the likelihood that carriers would survive malaria infection. Survivors passed the mutation onto their offspring, and the trait became established throughout areas where malaria is common. As populations migrated, so did the thalassemia traits.\nBeta thalassemia trait is seen most commonly in people with the following ancestry: Mediterranean (including North African, and particularly Italian and Greek), Middle Eastern, Indian, African, Chinese, and Southeast Asian (including Vietnamese, Laotian, Thai, Singaporean, Filipino, Cambodian, Malaysian, Burmese, and Indonesian). Alpha-thalassemia trait is seen with increased frequency in the same ethnic groups. However, there are different types of alpha thalassemia traits within these populations. The frequency of hemoglobin H disease and alpha thalassemia major depends on the type of alpha thalassemia trait. The populations in which alpha thalassemia diseases are most common include Southeast Asians and Chinese (particularly Southern Chinese).\nIt is difficult to obtain accurate prevalence figures for various types of thalassemia within different populations. This difficulty arises due to testing limitations in determining exact genetic diagnoses, as well as the fact that many studies have focused on small, biased hospital populations.\nTwo studies reflect prevalence figures that can be helpful counseling families and determining who to screen for beta thalassemia. Between the years of 1990 and 1996, the State of California screened more than 3.1 million infants born in the state for beta thalassemia. Approximately 1 in 114,000 infants had beta thalassemia major, with prevalence rates being highest among Asian Indians (about one in 4,000), Southeast Asians (about one in 10,000), and Middle Easterners (about one in 7,000). Another type of beta thalassemia disease, E/beta thalassemia, was represented in approximately one in 110,000 births, all of which occurred in families of Southeast Asian ancestry. Among Southeast Asians, the prevalence of E/beta thalassemia was approximately one in 2,600 births. This is in keeping with the observation that hemoglobin E trait carrier rates are relatively high within the Southeast Asian population: 16% in a study of 768 immigrants to California, and up to 25% in some specific Southeast Asian populations such as Cambodians. While these California studies address some of the limitations of earlier population studies, the pattern observed in California is expected to be different in other areas of the United States and the world. For example, Italians are underrepresented in this population when compared to the population of the East Coast of the United States.\nDetermining prevalence figures for alpha thalassemia is even more difficult due to increased limitations in diagnostic testing. All types of alpha thalassemia disease are most common among people of Southeast Asian and Chinese descent, for reasons that become clearer with an understanding of the underlying genetics of alpha thalassemia. One study of 500 pregnant women in Northern Thailand estimated a frequency of one in 500 pregnancies affected by alpha thalassemia major, for example. Prevalence of alpha thalassemia disease is significantly lower in the United States primarily because of immigration patterns; although at least one state, California, has observed growing hemoglobin H disease incidence rates that are high enough to justify universal newborn screening for the condition.\nHumans normally make several types of the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin. An individual's stage in development determines whether he or she makes primarily embryonic, fetal, or adult hemoglobins. All types of hemoglobin are made of three components: heme, alpha (or alpha-like) globin, and beta (or beta-like) globin. All types of thalassemia are caused by changes in either the alpha- or beta-globin gene. These changes cause little or no globin to be produced. The thalassemias are, therefore, considered quantitative hemoglobin diseases. All types of thalassemias are recessively inherited, meaning that a genetic change must be inherited from both the mother and the father. The severity of the disease is influenced by the exact thalassemia mutations inherited, as well as other genetic and environmental factors. There are rare exceptions, notably with beta thalassemia, where globin gene mutations exhibit a dominant pattern of inheritance in which only one gene needs to be altered in order to see disease expression. Scientists continue to study the causes. For instance, a new mutation for alpha-thalassemia was discovered for the first time among Iranian patients in 2004.\nBETA-THALASSEMIA. Most individuals have two normal copies of the beta globin gene, which is located on chromosome 11 and makes the beta globin component of normal adult hemoglobin, hemoglobin A. There are approximately 100 genetic mutations that have been described that cause beta thalassemia, designated as either beta0 or beta + mutations. No beta globin is produced with a beta0 mutation, and only a small fraction of the normal amount of beta globin is produced with a beta + mutation.\nWhen an individual has one normal beta globin gene and one with a beta thalassemia mutation, he or she is said to carry the beta thalassemia trait. Beta thalassemia trait, like other hemoglobin traits, is protective against malaria infection. Trait status is generally thought not to cause health problems, although some women with beta thalassemia trait may have an increased tendency toward anemia during pregnancy.\nWhen two members of a couple carry the beta thalassemia trait, there is a 25% chance that each of their children will inherit beta thalassemia disease by inheriting two beta thalassemia mutations, one from each parent. The clinical severity of the beta thalassemia disease—whether an individual has beta thalassemia intermedia or beta thalassemia major—will depend largely on whether the mutations inherited are beta0 thalassemia or beta + thalassemia mutations. Two beta0 mutations generally lead to beta thalassemia major, and two beta+ thalassemia mutations generally lead to beta thalassemia intermedia. Inheritance of one beta0 and one beta + thalassemia mutation tends to be less predictable.\nAlthough relatively uncommon, there are other thalassemia-like mutations that can affect the beta globin gene. Hemoglobin E is the result of a substitution of a single nucleotide. This change results in a structurally altered hemoglobin that is produced in decreased amounts. Therefore, hemoglobin E is unique in that it is both a quantitative (i.e. thalassemia-like) and qualitative trait. When co-inherited with a beta thalassemia trait, it causes a disease that is almost indistinguishable from beta thalassemia disease. Large deletions around and including the beta globin gene can lead to delta/beta thalassemia or hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin (HPFH). Interestingly, delta/beta thalassemia trait behaves very similarly to beta thalassemia trait in its clinical manifestations. However, HPFH trait does not tend to cause hemoglobin disease when co-inherited with a second thalassemia or other beta globin mutation.\nALPHA-THALASSEMIA. Most individuals have four normal copies of the alpha globin gene, two copies on each chromosome 16. These genes make the alpha globin component of normal adult hemoglobin, which is called hemoglobin A. Alpha globin is also a component of fetal hemoglobin and the other major adult hemoglobin called hemoglobin A2. Mutations of the alpha globin genes are usually deletions of the gene, resulting in absent production of alpha globin. Since there are four genes (instead of the usual two) to consider when looking at alpha globin gene inheritance, there are several alpha globin types that are possible.\nAbsence of one alpha globin gene leads to a condition known as silent alpha thalassemia trait. This condition causes no health problems and can be detected only by special genetic testing. Alpha thalassemia trait occurs when two alpha globin genes are missing. This can occur in two ways. The genes may be deleted from the same chromosome, causing the 'cis' type of alpha thalassemia trait. Alternately, they may be deleted from different chromosomes, causing the 'trans' type of alpha thalassemia trait. In both instances, there are no associated health problems, although the trait status may be detected by more routine blood screening.\nHemoglobin H disease results from the deletion of three alpha globin genes, such that there is only one functioning gene. Typically, this can occur when one parent carries the silent alpha thalassemia trait, and the other parent carries the 'cis' type of the alpha thalassemia trait. In this situation, there is a 25% chance for hemoglobin H disease in each of such a couple's children.\nHemoglobin H disease-like symptoms can also be a part of a unique condition called alpha thalassemia mental retardation syndrome. Alpha thalassemia mental retardation syndrome can be caused by a deletion of a significant amount of chromosome 16, affecting the alpha globin genes. This is usually not inherited, but rather occurs sporadically in the affected individual. Affected individuals have mild hemoglobin H disease, mild-to-moderate mental retardation, and characteristic facial features. This syndrome can also occur as a sex-linked form in which a mutation is inherited in a particular gene on the X-chromosome. This gene influences alpha globin production, as well as various other developmental processes. Individuals affected with this form of the syndrome tend to have more severe mental retardation, delayed development, nearly absent speech, characteristic facial features, and genital-urinary abnormalities. The remaining discussion will focus only on aspects of hemoglobin H disease.\nAlpha thalassemia major results from the deletion of all four alpha globin genes, such that there are no functioning alpha globin genes. This can occur when both parents carry the 'cis' type of the alpha thalassemia trait. In this situation, there is a 25% chance for alpha thalassemia major in each of such a couple's children.\nBeta thalassemia major is characterized by severe anemia that can begin months after birth. In the United States and other developed countries beta thalassemia is identified and treated early and effectively. Therefore, the following discussion of symptoms applies primarily to affected individuals in the past and unfortunately in some underdeveloped countries now. If untreated, beta thalassemia major can lead to severe lethargy, paleness, and delays in growth and development. The body attempts to compensate by producing more blood, which is made inside the bones in the marrow. However, this is ineffective without the needed genetic instructions to make enough functioning hemoglobin. Instead, obvious bone expansion and changes occur that cause characteristic facial and other changes in appearance, as well as increased risk of fractures. Severe anemia taxes other organs in the body—such as the heart, spleen, and liver—which must work harder than usual. This can lead to heart failure, as well as enlargement and other problems of the liver and spleen. When untreated, beta thalassemia major generally results in childhood death, usually due to heart failure. In 2004, the first known heart attack associated with beta thalassemia major was reported. Fortunately, in developed countries diagnosis is usually made early, often before symptoms have begun. This allows for treatment with blood transfusion therapy, which can prevent most of the complications of the severe anemia caused by beta thalassemia major. Individuals with beta thalassemia intermedia have a more moderate anemia that may only require treatment with transfusion intermittently, such as when infections occur and stress the body. As a person with beta thalassemia intermedia gets older, however, the need for blood transfusions may increase to the point that they are required on a regular basis. When this occurs their disease becomes more similar to beta thalassemia major. Other genetic and environmental factors can influence the course of the disease as well. For example, co-inheritance of one or two alpha thalassemia mutations can tend to ameliorate some of the symptoms of beta thalassemia disease, which result in part from an imbalance in the amount of alpha- and beta-globin present in the red blood cells.\nHemoglobin h disease\nAbsence of three alpha globin genes causes an imbalance of alpha and beta globin proteins in the red blood cells. The excess beta globin proteins tend to come together to form hemoglobin H, which is unable to release oxygen to the tissues. In addition, hemoglobin H tends to precipitate out in the cells, causing damage to the red blood cell membrane. When affected individuals are exposed to certain drugs and chemicals known to make the membrane more fragile, the cells are thought to become vulnerable to breakdown in large numbers, a complication called hemolytic anemia. Fever and infection are also considered to be triggers of hemolytic anemia in hemoglobin H disease. This can result in fatigue, paleness, and a yellow discoloration of the skin and whites of eyes called jaundice. Usually, the anemia is mild enough not to require treatment. Severe anemia events may require blood transfusion, however, and are usually accompanied by such other symptoms as dark feces or urine and abdominal or back pain. These events are uncommon in hemoglobin H disease, although they occur more frequently in a more serious type of hemoglobin H disease called hemoglobin H/Constant Spring disease. Individuals effected with this type of hemoglobin H disease are also more likely to have enlargement of and other problems with the spleen.\nAlpha thalassemia major\nBecause alpha globin is a necessary component of all major hemoglobins and some minor hemoglobins, absence of all functioning alpha globin genes leads to serious medical consequences that begin even before birth. Affected fetuses develop severe anemia as early as the first trimester of pregnancy. The placenta, heart, liver, spleen, and adrenal glands may all become enlarged. Fluid can begin collecting throughout the body as early as the start of the second trimester, causing damage to developing tissues and organs. Growth retardation is also common. Affected fetuses usually miscarry or die shortly after birth. In addition, women carrying affected fetuses are at increased risk of developing complications of pregnancy and delivery. Up to 80% of such women develop toxemia, a disturbance of metabolism that can potentially lead to convulsions and coma. Other maternal complications include premature delivery and increased rates of delivery by cesarean section, as well as hemorrhage after delivery.\nThalassemia may be suspected if an individual shows signs that are suggestive of the disease. In all cases, however, laboratory diagnosis is essential to confirm the exact diagnosis and to allow for the provision of accurate genetic counseling about recurrence risks and testing options for parents and affected individuals. Screening is likewise recommended to determine trait status for individuals of high-risk ethnic groups.\nThe following tests are used to screen for thalassemia disease and/or trait:\nhemoglobin electrophoresis with quantitative hemoglobin A2 and hemoglobin F\nfree erythrocyte-protoporphyrin (or ferritin or other studies of serum iron levels)\nA complete blood count will identify low levels of hemoglobin, small red blood cells, and other red blood cell abnormalities that are characteristic of a thalassemia diagnosis. Since thalassemia trait can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from iron deficiency, tests to evaluate iron levels are important. A hemoglobin electrophoresis is a test that can help identify the types and quantities of hemoglobin made by an individual. This test uses an electric field applied across a slab of gel-like material. Hemoglobins migrate through this gel at various rates and to specific locations, depending on their size, shape, and electrical charge. Isoelectric focusing and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) use similar principles to separate hemoglobins and can be used instead of or in various combinations with hemoglobin electrophoresis to determine the types and quantities of hemoglobin present. Hemoglobin electrophoresis results are usually within the normal range for all types of alpha thalassemia. However, hemoglobin A2 levels and sometimes hemoglobin F levels are elevated when beta thalassemia disease or trait is present. Hemoglobin electrophoresis can also detect structurally abnormal hemoglobins that may be co-inherited with a thalassemia trait to cause thalassemia disease (i.e., hemoglobin E) or other types of hemoglobin disease (i.e., sickle hemoglobin). Sometimes DNA testing is needed in addition to the above screening tests. This can be performed to help confirm the diagnosis and establish the exact genetic type of thalassemia.\nDiagnosis of thalassemia can occur under various circumstances and at various ages. Several states offer thalassemia screening as part of the usual battery of blood tests done for newborns. This allows for early identification and treatment. Thalassemia can be identified before birth through the use of prenatal diagnosis. Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) can be offered as early as 10 weeks of pregnancy and involves removing a sample of the placenta made by the baby and testing the cells. CVS carries a risk of causing a miscarriage that is between 0.5%-1%. Amniocentesis is generally offered between 15 and 22 weeks of pregnancy, but can sometimes be offered earlier. Two to three tablespoons of the fluid surrounding the baby is removed. This fluid contains fetal cells that can be tested. The risk of miscarriage associated with amniocentesis ranges from 0.33-0.5%. Pregnant woman and couples may choose prenatal testing in order to prepare for the birth of a baby that may have thalassemia. Alternately, knowing the diagnosis during pregnancy allows for the option of pregnancy termination. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) is a relatively new technique that involves in-vitro fertilization followed by genetic testing of one cell from each developing embryo. Only the embryos unaffected by sickle cell disease are transferred back into the uterus. PGD is currently available on a research basis only and is relatively expensive.\nIndividuals with beta thalassemia major receive regular blood transfusions, usually on a monthly basis. This helps prevent severe anemia and allows for more normal growth and development. Transfusion therapy does have limitations, however. Individuals can develop reactions to certain proteins in the blood—called a transfusion reaction. This can make locating appropriately matched donor blood more difficult. Although blood supplies in the United States are very safe, particularly relative to the past and to other areas of the world, there remains an increased risk of exposure to such blood-borne infections as hepatitis. Additionally, the body is not able to get rid of the excess iron that accompanies each transfusion. An additional medication called desferoxamine is administered, usually five nights per week over a period of several hours, using an automatic pump that can be used during sleep or taken anywhere the person goes. This medication is able to bind to the excess iron, which can then be eliminated through urine. If desferoxamine is not used regularly or is unavailable, iron overload can develop and cause tissue damage and organ damage and failure. The heart, liver, and endocrine organs are particularly vulnerable. Desferoxamine itself may rarely produce allergic or toxic side effects, including hearing damage. Signs of desferoxamine toxicity are screened for and generally develop in individuals who overuse the medication when body iron levels are sufficiently low. Overall, however, transfusion and desferoxamine therapy have increased the life expectancy of individuals with the most severe types of beta thalassemia major to the 4th or 5th decade. This can be expected to improve with time and increased developments in treatment, as well as for those with more mild forms of the disease.\nNew treatments offer additional options for some individuals with beta thalassemia major. There are various medications that target the production of red blood cells (i.e. erythropoeitin) or fetal hemoglobin (i.e. hydroxyurea and butyrate). Their effectiveness in ameliorating the severity of beta thalassemia is currently being investigated. Another promising new treatment is bone marrow transplantation, in which the bone marrow of an affected individual is replaced with the bone marrow of an unaffected donor. If successful, this treatment can provide a cure. However, there is an approximately 10-15% chance the procedure could be unsuccessful (i.e. the thalassemia returns); result in complications (i.e. graft-versus-host disease); or result in death. The risk for specific individuals depends on current health status, age, and other factors. Because of the risks involved and the fact that beta thalassemia is a treatable condition, transplant physicians require a brother or sister donor who has an identically matched tissue type, called HLA type. HLA type refers to the unique set of proteins present on each individual's cells, which allows the immune system to recognize \"self\" from \"foreign.\" HLA type is genetically determined, so there is a 25% chance for two siblings to be a match. Transplant physicians and researchers are also investigating ways to improve the safety and effectiveness of bone marrow transplantation. Using newborn sibling umbilical cord blood—the blood from the placenta that is otherwise discarded after birth but contains cells that can go on to make bone marrow—seems to provide a safer and perhaps more effective source of donor cells. Donors and recipients may not have to be perfect HLA matches for a successful transplant using cord blood cells. Trials are also underway to determine the effectiveness of \"partial transplants,\" in which a safer transplant procedure is used to replace only a percentage of the affected individual's bone marrow. Other possible treatments on the horizon may include gene therapy techniques aimed at increasing the amount of normal hemoglobin the body is able to make.\nHemoglobin H disease is a relatively mild form of thalassemia that may go unrecognized. It is not generally considered a condition that will reduce one's life expectancy. Education is an important part of managing the health of an individual with hemoglobin H disease. It is important to be able to recognize the signs of severe anemia that require medical attention. It is also important to be aware of the medications, chemicals, and other exposures to avoid due to the theoretical risk they pose of causing a severe anemia event. When severe anemia occurs, it is treated with blood transfusion therapy. For individuals with hemoglobin H disease, this is rarely required. For those with the hemoglobin H/Constant Spring form of the disease, the need for transfusions may be intermittent or ongoing, perhaps on a monthly basis and requiring desferoxamine treatment. Individuals with this more severe form of the disease may also have an increased chance of requiring removal of an enlarged and/or overactive spleen.\nAnemia — A blood condition in which the level of hemoglobin or the number of red blood cells falls below normal values. Common symptoms include paleness, fatigue, and shortness of breath.\nBilirubin — A yellow pigment that is the end result of hemoglobin breakdown. This pigment is metabolized in the liver and excreted from the body through the bile. Bloodstream levels are normally low; however, extensive red cell destruction leads to excessive bilirubin formation and jaundice.\nBone marrow — A spongy tissue located in the hollow centers of certain bones, such as the skull and hip bones. Bone marrow is the site of blood cell generation.\nBone marrow transplantation — A medical procedure used to treat some diseases that arise from defective blood cell formation in the bone marrow. Healthy bone marrow is extracted from a donor to replace the marrow in an ailing individual. Proteins on the surface of bone marrow cells must be identical or very closely matched between a donor and the recipient.\nDesferoxamine — The primary drug used in iron chelation therapy. It aids in counteracting the life-threatening buildup of iron in the body associated with long-term blood transfusions.\nGlobin — One of the component protein molecules found in hemoglobin. Normal adult hemoglobin has a pair each of alpha-globin and beta-globin molecules.\nHeme — The iron-containing molecule in hemoglobin that serves as the site for oxygen binding.\nHemoglobin — Protein-iron compound in the blood that carries oxygen to the cells and carries carbon dioxide away from the cells.\nHemoglobin A — Normal adult hemoglobin that contains a heme molecule, two alpha-globin molecules, and two beta-globin molecules.\nHemoglobin electrophoresis — A laboratory test that separates molecules based on their size, shape, or electrical charge.\nHepatomegaly — An abnormally large liver.\nHLA type — Refers to the unique set of proteins called human leukocyte antigens. These proteins are present on each individual's cell and allow the immune system to recognize 'self' from 'foreign'. HLA type is particularly important in organ and tissue transplantation.\nHydroxyurea — A drug that has been shown to induce production of fetal hemoglobin. Fetal hemoglobin has a pair of gamma-globin molecules in place of the typical beta-globins of adult hemoglobin. Higher-than-normal levels of fetal hemoglobin can ameliorate some of the symptoms of thalassemia.\nIron overload — A side effect of frequent blood transfusions in which the body accumulates abnormally high levels of iron. Iron deposits can form in organs, particularly the heart, and cause life-threatening damage.\nJaundice — Yellowing of the skin or eyes due to excess of bilirubin in the blood.\nMutation — A permanent change in the genetic material that may alter a trait or characteristic of an individual, or manifest as disease, and can be transmitted to offspring.\nPlacenta — The organ responsible for oxygen and nutrition exchange between a pregnant mother and her developing baby.\nRed blood cell — Hemoglobin-containing blood cells that transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues. In the tissues, the red blood cells exchange their oxygen for carbon dioxide, which is brought back to the lungs to be exhaled.\nScreening — Process through which carriers of a trait may be identified within a population.\nSplenomegaly — Enlargement of the spleen.\nBecause alpha thalassemia major is most often a condition that is fatal in the prenatal or newborn period, treatment has previously been focused on identifying affected pregnancies in order to provide appropriate management to reduce potential maternal complications. Pregnancy termination provides one form of management. Increased prenatal surveillance and early treatment of maternal complications is an approach that is appropriate for mothers who wish to continue their pregnancy with the knowledge that the baby will most likely not survive. In recent years, there have been a handful of infants with this condition who have survived long-term. Most of these infants received experimental treatment including transfusions before birth, early delivery, and even bone marrow transplantation before birth, although the latter procedure has not yet been successful. For those infants that survive to delivery, there seems to be an increased risk of developmental problems and physical effects, particularly heart and genital malformations. Otherwise, their medical outlook is similar to a child with beta thalassemia major, with the important exception that ongoing, life-long blood transfusions begin right at birth.\nAs discussed above, the prognosis for individuals with the most serious types of thalassemia has improved drastically in the last several years following recent medical advances in transfusion, chemo-, and transplantation therapy. Advances continue and promise to improve the life expectancy and quality of life further for affected individuals.\n\"First Known Heart Attack Associated With Beta-thalassemia Major Reported.\" Heart Disease Weekly February 22, 2004: 10.\n\"Novel Alpha-thalassemia Mutations Identified.\" Hematology Week January 26, 2004: 19.\nChildren's Blood Foundation. 333 East 38th St., Room 830, New York, NY 10016-2745. (212) 297-4336. cfg@nyh.med.cornell.edu.\nCooley's Anemia Foundation, Inc. 129-09 26th Ave. #203, Flushing, NY 11354. (800) 522-7222 or (718) 321-2873. http://www.thalassemia.org.\nMarch of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation. 1275 Mamaroneck Ave., White Plains, NY 10605. (888) 663-4637. resourcecenter@modimes.org. http://www.modimes.org.\nNational Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. PO Box 30105, Bethseda, MD 20824-0105. (301) 592-8573. nhlbiinfo@rover.nhlbi.nih.gov. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov.\nNational Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD). PO Box 8923, New Fairfield, CT 06812-8923. (203) 746-6518 or (800) 999-6673. Fax: (203) 746-6481. http://www.rarediseases.org.\nBojanowski J. \"Alpha Thalassemia Major: The Possibility of Long-Term Survival.\" Pamphlet from the Northern California Comprehensive Thalassemia Center. (1999).\nChildren's Hospital Oakland, Northern California Comprehensive Thalassemia Center website. http://www.thalassemia.com.\nCooley's Anemia Foundation, Inc. website. http://www.thalassemia.org/gohome.html.\nJoint Center for Sickle Cell and Thalassemic Disorders website. http://cancer.mgh.harvard.edu/medOnc/sickle.htm.\n[thal″ah-se´me-ah]\na heterogeneous group of hereditary hemolytic anemias marked by a decreased rate of synthesis of one or more hemoglobin polypeptide chains, classified according to the chain involved (α, β, δ); the two major categories are α- and β-thalassemia.\nα-thalassemia (alpha-thalassemia) that caused by diminished synthesis of alpha chains of hemoglobin. The homozygous form is incompatible with life, the stillborn infant displaying severe hydrops fetalis. The heterozygous form may be asymptomatic or marked by mild anemia.\nβ-thalassemia (beta-thalassemia) that caused by diminished synthesis of beta chains of hemoglobin. The homozygous form is called t. major and the heterozygous form is called t. minor.\nthalassemia ma´jor the homozygous form of β-thalassemia, in which hemoglobin A is completely absent; it appears in the newborn period and is marked by hemolytic, hypochromic, microcytic anemia; hepatosplenomegaly; skeletal deformation; mongoloid facies; and cardiac enlargement.\nthalassemia mi´nor the heterozygous form of β-thalassemia; it is usually asymptomatic, but there may be mild anemia.\nsickle cell–thalassemia a hereditary anemia involving simultaneous heterozygosity for hemoglobin S and thalassemia.\nthal·as·se·mi·a\n, thalassanemia (thal'ă-sē'mē-ă, thă-las-ă-nē'mē-ă),\nAny of a group of inherited disorders of hemoglobin metabolism in which there is impaired synthesis of one or more of the polypeptide chains of globin; several genetic types exist, and the corresponding clinical picture may vary from barely detectable hematologic abnormality to severe and fatal anemia.\n[G. thalassa, the sea, + haima, blood]\n/thal·as·se·mia/ (thal″ah-se´me-ah) a heterogeneous group of hereditary hemolytic anemias marked by a decreased rate of synthesis of one or more hemoglobin polypeptide chains, classified according to the chain involved (α, β, δ); the two major categories are α- and β-thalassemia.\nα-thalassemia that caused by diminished synthesis of alpha chains of hemoglobin. The homozygous form is incompatible with life, the stillborn infant displaying severe hydrops fetalis. The heterozygous form may be asymptomatic or marked by mild anemia.\nβ-thalassemia that caused by diminished synthesis of beta chains of hemoglobin. The homozygous form is called t. major and the heterozygous form is called t. minor.\nthalassemia ma´jor the homozygous form of &#x03B2;, in which hemoglobin A is completely absent; it appears in the newborn period and is marked by hemolytic, hypochromic, microcytic anemia, hepatosplenomegaly, skeletal deformation, mongoloid facies, and cardiac enlargement.\nthalassemia mi´nor the heterozygous form of &#x03B2;, usually asymptomatic, although there is sometimes mild anemia.\n(thăl′ə-sē′mē-ə)\nAn inherited form of anemia occurring chiefly among people of Mediterranean descent, caused by faulty synthesis of part of the hemoglobin molecule. Also called Mediterranean anemia.\nthal′as·se′mic adj.\n[thal′əsē′mē·ə]\nEtymology: Gk, thalassa, sea, a + haima, without blood\nproduction and hemolytic anemia characterized by microcytic, hypochromic red blood cells. Thalassemia is caused by inherited deficiency of alpha- or beta-globin synthesis. See also hemochromatosis, hemosiderosis.\nBeta thalassemia, clinical thalassemia, Cooley's anemia, Mediterranean anemia, thalassemia major Hematology A group of genetic diseases by underproduction of hemoglobin due to mutations in the beta globin gene, which is more common in Mediterraneans Heredity Parents are carriers–heterozygotes; one in 4 children is homozygous for the mutation and thus has full-blown disease Clinical See Anemia. Cf Sickle cell anemia.\nα-thalassemia\nHemoglobin Barts Hematology An inherited condition caused by a defect in the synthesis of the Hb α chain; Hb Barts hemoglobinopathy is characterized by the presence of 4 gamma chains; it is more common in southeast Asians; the most severe form of alpha thalassemia causes stillbirth due to hydrops fetalis Heredity Parents are carriers–heterozygotes; one in 4 children is homozygous for the mutation and thus has full-blown disease Clinical Pallor, fatiguability, FTT, fever, infections, diarrhea Management Transfusions\nThalassemia major Hematology A hemoglobinopathy caused by a defect in the synthesis of Hb β chain Clinical Pallor, fatigability, FTT, fever due to infections, diarrhea, bone deformities, hepatosplenomegaly Management Transfusions, but iron overload can damage the heart, liver, and endocrine systems, ergo iron chelation–early use of deferiprone, deferoxamine ↓ transfusion-related iron overload and may protect against DM, cardiac disease, early death\nδ-thalassemia\nHematology A condition characterized by a defect of Hb A2–α2δ2; because Hb A2 comprises only 3% of the circulating Hb, even its complete absence; δ-thalassemia has little clinical or hematologic impact\nγ-thalassemia\nHematology A condition characterized by a defect of gamma–γ Hb chains found in Hb F–α2γ2; because Hb F is present primarily in the fetus and newborns, it is rarely seen outside of the neonatal period, but may cause transient neonatal hemolytic anemia.\n, thalassanemia (thal'ă-sē'mē-ă, -ă-să-nē'mē-ă)\nAny of a group of inherited disorders of hemoglobin metabolism in which there is impaired synthesis of one or more of the polypeptide chains of globin; several genetic types exist, and the corresponding clinical picture may vary from barely detectable hematologic abnormality to severe and fatal anemia. People of Mediterranean, extraction are more often affected than others by this type of anemia.\nSynonym(s): thalassaemia, thalassanaemia.\nAny of a group of inherited disorders of hemoglobin metabolism with impaired synthesis of one or more polypeptide chains of globin; several genetic types exist.\n<a href=\"https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Thalassaemia+minor\">thalassemia</a>\nBarts hemoglobin\nbeta hemoglobinopathy\nbeta-delta thalassemia\nbeta-thalassaemia\nBite Cell\nblack gallstone\nI know of a couple, totally unrelated and unbeknownst to them, who are silent carriers of Thalassaemia minor.\nPakistan: Genetic factor: All in the genes\nBut, unfortunately, when one person with thalassaemia minor carrier happens to marry another with the same diagnosis, there is a strong possibility that their child would be thalassaemia major, as happened in the case of Taneja.\n' My life depends upon a monthly blood transfusion '\n0] thalassaemia demonstrates variable severity, ranging from a condition similar to [beta] thalassaemia minor to something approaching thalassaemia major.\nA retrospective review of homozygous haemoglobin E patients\nThal, Alan P.\nthalame\nthalamencephalic\nthalamencephalon\nthalamic\nthalamic fasciculus\nthalamic nucleus\nthalamic pain syndrome\nthalamic peduncle\nthalamic radiation\nthalamo-\nthalamocoele\nthalamocortical\nthalamocortical fibers\nthalamogeniculate artery\nthalamolenticular\nthalamoperforating artery\nthalamostriate radiation\nthalamotuberal artery\nThalassaemia minor\nthalassaemiaor Cooley's disease\nthalassemic facies\nthalasso-\nThalassobacter\nThalassobacter utilis\nthalassoplankton\nthalassoposia\nthalidomide neuropathy\nThalidomider\nthallium poisoning\nThalarctos\nTHALAS\nThalasaemia\nThalassaemia Association of Malaysia\nthalassaemia major\nThalassaemias\nthalassaemic\nthalassanaemia\nThalassemia Action Group\nThalassemia Clinical Research Network\nthalassemia syndrome", "answers": ["Severe anemia that begins even before birth."], "length": 6102, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "d427e3ab7584a0e253bfb6a9d76626b726c79b57d5e39f2a"}
{"input": "What is the sticking point in the political showdown over the budget?", "context": "CNN.com - Transcripts\nTensions Boil Over possible government shutdown; New trouble targeting Gadhafi; Libyan Rebels in Panicked Retreat; Should U.S. Recognize the Rebels?; Meeting With Gadhafi; Washington, D.C. to Feel Burden of Shutdown; Religious Leaders Fast to Protests Cuts for Poor\nWOLF BLITZER, HOST: Don, thanks very much.\nHappening now, the top U.S. general in charge of the military mission in Libya now expressing doubts that the opposition has the manpower to topple Moammar Gadhafi, as deadly new air strikes force rebel fighters into another retreat. This hour, I'll speak with a former Republican Congressman who's in Tripoli right now trying to get Gadhafi to step down.\nAlso, growing outrage across the United States, amidst new signs tomorrow's potential government shutdown may -- repeat may be unavoidable. Why one lawmaker is telling Congress -- and I'm quoting right now -- \"go straight to hell.\"\nAnd possible presidential hopeful, Donald Trump, on a mission to tell President Obama, \"you're fired.\" We're fact checking his controversial investigation into the president's birth.\nUp first, the political showdown over the budget, as tensions reach a boiling point about 31 hours until impending government shutdown. Just hours from now, President Obama will meet with Republican House speaker, John Boehner, and the Democratic Senate majority leader, Harry Reid, for further negotiations. Those talks scheduled to begin 7:00 p.m. Eastern.\nHundreds of thousands of people across the country will be impacted by the shutdown. And we'll be bringing you examples throughout the next two hours.\nOne place it would be felt heavily is right here in Congress' backyard, the city of Washington. Washington, DC -- its spending is tied to the federal budget. And this major metropolitan area could lose millions of dollars while a number of critical services, like trash collection, for example, would be suspended for at least a week.\nToday, an enraged Eleanor Holmes, the delegate representing Washington, DC, lit into Congress over the stalemate.\n(BEGIN VIDEO CLIP) ELEANOR HOLMES NORTON (D), D.C. DELEGATE: It's one thing to beat up on the District of Columbia. It's another thing drop a bomb on the city. And that's what this Congressional -- C.R. does. It takes the route of authoritarian governments and dictatorships by dictating to a local government how it may spend its local funds. And it may force the District of Columbia government to shut down, although our government had a balanced budget.\nBLITZER: And get this -- the members of Congress charged with reaching a deal, they'll still be receiving a paycheck if there's a shutdown, despite the hundreds of thousands of government employees who won't be receiving any paychecks. The current Congressional salary, by the way, $174,000 a year.\nOur CNN senior Congressional correspondent, Dana Bash, is up on Capitol Hill with the latest developments -- Dana, specifically, where are the sticking points right now?\nDANA BASH, CNN SENIOR CONGRESSIONAL CORRESPONDENT:\nWell, look, Wolf, this is effectively a bill to fund the government. And the sticking points certainly are about how much spending to cut. That's what this whole issue has been about.\nHowever -- however, one of the main issues, I am told, that were just -- that was discussed at the White House meeting this afternoon with the president, the House speaker and the Senate majority leader, was over not necessarily spending measures, but over lightning rod issues like regulating greenhouse gases and abortion.\nBASH (voice-over): One of the biggest disagreements is not over government spending, but policy.\nREP. JOHN BOEHNER (R-OH), SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE: Some 40 or 50 policy restrictions that were attached to -- to our bill.\nBASH: So-called policy riders Republicans call essential and Democrats call nonstarters. The most divisive is over abortion. A GOP plan to cut all federal funding for Planned Parenthood, which provides abortion procedures in addition other women's health services.\nSEN. HARRY REID (D-NV), MAJORITY LEADER: This is a budget. This is to keep our country running. This is not a woman's health bill.\nBASH: Planned Parenthood staged a rally outside the Capitol to protest.\nCECILE RICHARDS, CEO, PLANNED PARENTHOOD: They don't want to allow Planned Parenthood to serve the three million women that we see every single year. Ninety-seven percent of the services Planned Parenthood provides are preventive care.\nUNIDENTIFIED MALE: I certainly don't think that taxpayers should subsidize abortions. It's -- if a woman chooses to have an abortion, it's legal to do that in this country. But I don't think taxpayers should be put in a position to have to pay for those abortions.\nBASH: Another major sticking point -- how much spending to cut. A Democratic source tells CNN they have finally tentative agreement on slashing $34.5 billion from the rest of this year's budget. But a Republican source says there's no deal.\nBOEHNER: There is no agreement on the number. There are no agreement on the policy issues that are contained with it.\nBASH: Then there's the critical issue of what programs and agencies to cut. Democrats say they're trying to find spending cuts with the least impact on those who need it most. So they're pushing for things like temporary one year cuts in programs. Some examples, cuts in wetlands protection and Pell grants for summer school and graduate students.\nRepublicans call that smoke and mirrors.\nBOEHNER: And our goal is to make real spending cuts.\nBASH: Some examples of what Republicans want to cut -- money for food inspectors, Head Start education programs and funding for housing.\nBASH: This afternoon, House Republicans did pass a bill to keep the government running for one week past tomorrow's midnight deadline. It has $12 billion in cuts. It would fund the Defense Department for the rest of the year. But Democrats, including the president of the United States, call it a distraction and they say that they really want to keep the focus on what they're negotiating, which is a bill that would keep the government open -- keep the government functioning and funded for the rest of the year.\nBLITZER: And the president's playing hardball. He's saying he'll veto that legislation --\nBASH: He was, yes.\nBLITZER: -- if it were to pass the Senate and come to his desk. I hear, Dana, that some employees already are getting furloughing notices.\nBASH: It's true. This is just preventive. But all across the Capitol here today, people in offices and -- and -- well, really, everywhere -- were told whether or not, if, in fact, it does come to a government shutdown, if they're going to be here or not. And this is an example. We obtained one of the furlough notices. And I'll just read you a line. This -- imagine if this came across your desk. It says: \"Because your services are not needed for the orderly suspension of operations and you're not engaged in one of the accepted functions, you're being placed on furlough effective Saturday, April 9, 2011.\"\nNow, again, of course, this is just protective. The government is still open. But interesting that they're already getting ready for a government shutdown and telling people who will come to work and not.\nOne more note. Even people who are here, who are called essential, they're not going to get paid, either.\nBLITZER: All right, Dana.\nDon't go too far away.\nWe'll be in close touch.\nThe impact of the potential government shutdown is even being felt on the front lines of combat in Afghanistan. And Iraq. The Defense secretary, Robert Gates, is in Iraq right now. And he's telling U.S. troops they will feel a pinch.\nROBERT GATES, SECRETARY OF DEFENSE: I hope they didn't have you standing out here in the sun too long\nIf -- if the government shutdown starts on the 8th and goes for a week, you'd get a half a check. If it goes from the 15th to the 30th, you wouldn't get a paycheck on the 30th but you would be back paid for all of it. So that's -- that's the deal.\nBLITZER: Not great deal.\nGates also told the troops this would likely be his last trip to the country as Defense secretary and he wanted to say thank you.\nHe's expected to retire later this year.\nNow to the deadly stalemate in Libya. New signs the military operation in the region is facing some tough new challenges.\nOur Pentagon correspondent, Barbara Starr is here.\nShe's watching the story.\nShe's got more.\nWhat are you learning? BARBARA STARR, CNN PENTAGON CORRESPONDENT: Well, Wolf, there was very dramatic, very hard-nosed testimony today on Capitol Hill from the top U.S. commander responsible for the U.S. involvement in Libya, saying that Gadhafi forces are becoming increasingly difficult to target, as they are using civilian vehicles, mixing in with local populations, moving next to mosques, schools, hospitals -- all the same tactics we saw for years in Iraq.\nAnd now, all of this today leading to a very dramatic exchange between General Carter Ham and one of the most vocal administration critics, Senator John McCain.\nSEN. JOHN MCCAIN (R), ARIZONA: Hearing your testimony, General Ham, is almost an Orwellian experience for me. The fact is that if we had imposed the no-fly zone three weeks, four weeks ago, Gadhafi would not be in power today.\nThe fact is that the situation on the ground is basically a stalemate.\nWould you say that the situation on the ground is a stalemate or an emerging stalemate?\nGEN. CARTER HAM, COMMANDER, U.S. AFRICA COMMAND: Senator, I -- I would agree with that if present on the ground.\nMCCAIN: So the goal -- our policy objective of the removal of Gadhafi is further from being achieved than it was three or four weeks ago.\nHAM: Senator, I -- I don't know that I would agree with that. What I -- because that, again, was not a military mission. The military mission of protecting, I think, was not wholly achieved, but achieved in large part.\nSTARR: General Ham also acknowledging another problem -- a key U.S. aircraft, the AC-130, that flies low and slow to target on the ground, is facing what he called \"a significant threat\" from surface to air missiles, which he said remain effective and operational in some cases.\nAnd, Wolf, get this. General Ham says there were about 20,000 of those surface to air missiles when the campaign started and they are concerned that an awful lot of them are still out there -- Wolf.\nBLITZER: Barbara, thanks very much for that report.\nPanicked rebels are once again on the retreat from Gadhafi's forces. Just today, at least three people were killed, another 10 injured, in new air strikes. And there are mounting questions about whether NATO could be responsible for the attack.\nOur senior international correspondent, Ben Wedeman, is joining us now from Benghazi.\nBen's watching all of this closely.\nYou just heard General Ham, who is the commander of the U.S. military's Africa Command. He was in charge of the mission before handing over complete control to NATO. You just heard him say there could be a stalemate out there.\nWhat's the sense on the ground?\nBEN WEDEMAN, CNN SENIOR INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENT: Well, the sense was a few days ago that it was, indeed, a stalemate -- sort of a seesaw battle that went back and forth between Ajdabiya and Brega.\nBut what we saw today was that that seesaw was tipped over. And it was a general retreat by the opposition forces from somewhere near Brega to almost the other side of Ajdabiya. This, after this air strike, which almost everybody on the ground believes to be NATO leaving not three, but four people dead. And many others are still unaccounted for.\nThat set off this general retreat whereby we saw all their heavy -- all of the opposition forces' heavy equipment -- multiple rocket launchers, tens and tens of these pickup trucks mounted with heavy machine guns streaming through Ajdabiya to the other side, the far side of the city. Some of them going all the way back to Benghazi, according to the head of the rebel forces in the eastern part of the country, Abdul Fatah Younis. He says that the Gadhafi forces were approaching Ajdabiya from three different directions.\nI would not call that a stalemate -- Wolf.\nBLITZER: Ben, you got a close-up look at some of the casualties today out on the front lines.\nWEDEMAN: It's very bad, very bad. I mean it wasn't just fighters. It was also medics who had gone to the scene of this reported air strike, which then got hit again. So one of them was a doctor, one of them was a medic. And we were in the hospital. And there was real anger at NATO, anger at the fact that when they needed those air strikes on the Gadhafi forces, they weren't getting them. And now, for the second time in a week, there's been another strike. Now, of course, we must stress that NATO says that they -- because they don't have enough boots on the ground, they can neither confirm nor deny this was a NATO strike. But certainly, speaking to eyewitnesses in the hospital, it certainly sounded like an air strike. And there are no other planes in the skies of Libya other than NATO planes -- Wolf.\nBLITZER: Ben Wedeman in Benghazi for us.\nThe U.S. says Moammar Gadhafi is no longer the legitimate leader of Libya.\nSo why not recognize the rebels?\nWhy one U.S. official says it raises serious concerns.\nAnd a former U.S. Congressman in Libya armed with a message for the Libyan dictator.\nWill he get to meet with him face-to-face?\nMy interview with Curt Weldon, that Republican former Congressman -- that's coming up, as well.\nBLITZER: Let's get right to Jack.\nHe's got some nuclear concerns on his mind with The Cafferty File -- Jack.\nJACK CAFFERTY, THE CAFFERTY FILE: Well, they had another little temblor in Japan -- a 7.1 magnitude earthquake hit Northeastern Japan today, the strongest aftershock since that massive 9.0 quake and tsunami that followed devastated that nation four weeks ago. And this one today was in roughly the same area.\nOne of the big concerns, of course, is possible further damage to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. The Tokyo Electric Power Company, TEPCO, which operates the plant -- or what's left of it -- said there were no serious incidents as a result of today's aftershock.\nSo they say. Radioactivity from that plant has poisoned the surrounding land, air and ocean. Millions of people have been exposed. Millions more could be, as radioactivity has been picked up in food and drinking water and detected in faraway places, like California.\nThis week, workers plugged a crack in the plant that had been gushing contaminated water into the ocean for weeks. As a result, TEPCO says now radiation levels in the ocean waters off the coast there have dropped dramatically.\nYesterday, the head of the United Nations' scientific committee on the effects of atomic radiation said the Fukushima accident is not expected to have any serious impact on the health of the Japanese people. He said, quote: \"We have seen traces of iodine in the air all over the world, but they are much, much, much lower than traces we have seen at similar distances following Chernobyl,\" unquote.\nWell, not everybody is convinced. In South Korea, more than 130 primary schools and kindergartens ordered closed today outside of Seoul. People there were worried that windy, rainy weather could be carrying radioactive material from Japan.\nNorth Korea aired warnings on television for its people to stay indoors during that rain storm and to take a full shower if they were caught outside in the storm.\nEven here in the United States, some chefs are now using sensors to test levels of radiation in the fish they plan to serve in restaurants.\nHere's the question -- do you think you're being told the truth about the nuclear accident in Japan?\nIf your -- if your trout is he glowing, Wolf --\nBLITZER: Yes?\nCAFFERTY: -- you might want to send it back and get a ham sandwich.\nBLITZER: You want it well done, but not necessarily that well done.\nCAFFERTY: No.\nBLITZER: All right, Jack.\nNot a laughing matter.\nBLITZER: Serious stuff.\nCAFFERTY: Right.\nBLITZER: See you in a few moments.\nNew questions this hour about the capabilities of the rebels in Libya and whether they have the power to overthrow Moammar Gadhafi.\nShould the United States -- should the United States have a hand in helping arm the rebels?\nLet's bring in our foreign affairs correspondent, Jill Dougherty, with this part of the story.\nWhat are you hearing over at the State Department -- Jill. JILL DOUGHERTY, CNN FOREIGN AFFAIRS CORRESPONDENT: Well, you know, Wolf, other countries have done it, other countries like France and Italy have done it -- recognizing the opposition. And supporters say now, with the rebels in retreat, the U.S. shouldn't wait.\nBut what would it really change anything?\nDOUGHERTY (voice-over): The U.S. says Moammar Gadhafi is no longer the legitimate leader of Libya.\nSecretary of State Hillary Clinton is full of praise for them.\nHILLARY RODHAM CLINTON, SECRETARY OF STATE: These were not soldiers. These were not trained military forces. They were doctors and lawyers and university professors and economists and, you know, young men who were students. And they are being attacked by mercenaries, by ruthless forces that Gadhafi is utilizing to show no mercy against his people. And they are courageous. They are moving as fast as they can to try to form themselves into a military operation.\nDOUGHERTY: Clinton has met with the rebel leaders personally, but the administration still is cautious. The president authorized the CIA to send in agents to learn about the rebels and assess their needs. Clinton's special representative, the State Department's Christopher Stevens, seen here in 2008 in Tripoli, is on the ground in Benghazi, scoping them out.\nMARK TONER, U.S. STATE DEPARTMENT SPOKESMAN: We sent somebody in to get that kind of on the ground assessment of the -- of -- of their identity, of their leadership structure, to talk with them firsthand and to see what direction we think they're moving in. We've seen some positive signals.\nDOUGHERTY: Recognizing the rebels, a senior official tells CNN, raises serious issues. It would acknowledge that Libya is now a divided country.\nAnd could the U.S. be sure the group represents the whole opposition movement?\nIt's a bit early, this official says. Maybe they turn out not to be the right folks.\nBut Secretary Clinton knows the timing is urgent.\nCLINTON: What NATO is doing is buying time, buying space.\nDOUGHERTY: So far, the U.S. is providing what's called non- lethal humanitarian aid. The administration hasn't yet decided to arm them or provide financial assistance.\nDOUGHERTY: But a senior U.S. official tells CNN there's a lot the United States could be doing right now without going so far as to recognize the rebels, pointing out that the U.S. funds political groups and other organizations around the world. But this official says you want to be careful about who they are.\nSo, so far, caution seems to be winning out over urgency -- Wolf.\nJill is at the State Department.\nThe House speaker, John Boehner, may be doing double duty if the government shuts down this weekend. You're going to find out why he could be cleaning up a lot of trash in his own backyard.\nAnd a former U.S. Congressman now on a mission to meet with Moammar Gadhafi in Tripoli in person. Curt Weldon, he's here. He'll join us in THE SITUATION ROOM from Tripoli. You're going to find out who he says would be a good replacement for the embattled Libyan leader.\nBLITZER: Military leaders have a message for Congress about \"don't ask/don't tell.\"\nWell, military leaders say preparations for repealing \"don't ask/don't tell\" are going better than they expected. They testified before a House committee today about getting rid of the policy that bars openly gay service members. They caution, though, that it will take time and training to implement the repeal. And it must still be certified by President Obama, the Defense secretary and the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.\nWell, your Smartphone just got a little smarter. The FCC is requiring that wireless carriers provide access to the mobile Internet anywhere it's available, even when it's offered by a competing provider. And that could be a huge -- make a huge difference to smaller carriers, who told the FCC they just can't compete otherwise against industry heavyweights like Verizon and AT&T.\nNew York City school chancellor, Cathie Black, is stepping down after only three months on the job. Mayor Michael Bloomberg says her short stint just didn't work out as either of them had expected or hoped. Her approval rating has plunged to 17 percent.\nBlack chaired \"First\" magazine before overseeing the nation's largest school system. Deputy Mayor Dennis Walcott will replace her.\nAnd a war of words is erupting between an emerging Republican star, New Jersey Governor Chris Christie, and his state's largest teachers' union. In a network TV interview, Christie called the union leaders, quote, \"political thugs.\" He blames them for teacher lay-offs that he says could have been avoided if they had not opposed salary freezes. The New Jersey Education Association is firing back, accusing Christie of name-calling -- Wolf.\nBLITZER: Sticks and stones will break many bones.\nSYLVESTER: Sticks and stones may break my bones --\nSYLVESTER: But words never hurt me.\nA former U.S. Congressman is in Tripoli, Libya right now. His goal -- to talk to Moammar Gadhafi. His message -- we'll talk about that. My interview with Curt Weldon coming up next.\nPlus, we showed it to you earlier -- a member of Congress telling colleagues to, quote, \"go to hell.\"\nNow she's is joining us live here in THE SITUATION ROOM to explain.\nHOLMES NORTON: -- of Columbia. It's another thing to drop a bomb on a city. And that's what this --\nBLITZER: Former Congressman Curt Weldon is in a -- Weldon is on a mission to Libya right now to try to meet with the embattled leader, Moammar Gadhafi. But that may be easier said than done.\nJoining us now from Tripoli, former Republican Congressman Curt Weldon of Pennsylvania. Congressman, thanks very much for coming in.\nAnd joining us now from Tripoli, former Republican Congressman Curt Weldon of Pennsylvania.\nCURT WELDON, FORMER U.S. CONGRESSMAN: My pleasure, Wolf.\nBLITZER: Let's talk about your meeting with Moammar Gadhafi. I take it it has not yet happened.\nDo you expect to meet with the Libyan leader? WELDON: Absolutely. The invitation that was sent to me was from his chief of staff, Bashir Salah, who I've met on all three of my official visits here in 2004 and 2005. And the letter specifically says we want you to come over and meet with the leader and our senior leadership.\nAnd I said it's worth me coming over to support the administration and to try to let the leader know face to face that this is facing -- it's very grave timing in the situation and they have to have some movement fairly quickly or they're not going to be happy with the -- with the alternatives.\nBLITZER: What's taking so long?\nWhy haven't you been able to meet with Gadhafi yet?\nWELDON: Well, it -- that's not unusual. I mean all three of the delegation trips that I led here in 2003 and 2004 -- or, actually, 2004 and 2005 -- they always make you wait until 30 minutes before the meeting and then you go. And some of those meetings were at 10:00 at night, some were at 5:00 in the afternoon.\nAs you know from the excellent reporting being done by your folks here, there's a lot of security concerns, and they are very concerned where Gadhafi is at any given moment. That's one of the issues, but we have been making ourselves available.\nWe have been doing a lot of back-channel meetings with friends and associates that I have here, and we have met with the chief of staff and one of the sons, and today with the prime minister, a very lengthy meeting for two hours. So, we're going to give them until tomorrow. We're not going to stay beyond that. And we have given them some suggestions, and we expect a response by midday tomorrow. And if we don't, we will done exit conversation with your people and let you know our feelings.\nBLITZER: What's the major headline that you got out of these meetings with other leaders? I take it you met with Saif Al-Islam Gadhafi, one of the sons of Moammar Gadhafi. What are they saying to you?\nWELDON: Well, we actually didn't meet with Saif. I have met with Saif probably 10 times over the past seven years, both in America and here in Libya. I have not yet met with Saif. I have offered, if he is available.\nI have met with Saadi. And the general thrust is obviously that they want peace and they want to find a way out of this. But as I have explained to them, there's certain things that have to be done according to our president and our secretary of state, who I'm here to support.\nWe don't have a different agenda. There's no compromise on our part. Our only mission here is to talk face to face with them and say this is reality and this is a grave situation, and you need to do certain things that we suggest that we think will get our administration to respond to your actions. And again, we're not doing any negotiating.\nThey know me, they have seen my efforts. I have not taken anything from their country in the way of financial benefits, and I'm here only because I want to avoid war. I don't want to see American soldiers killed, and I don't want to see more innocence Libyans killed.\nBLITZER: You wrote an op-ed in \"The New York Times\" this week saying that once you meet face to face with Moammar Gadhafi, you will tell him to step down. Is that still your intention?\nWELDON: Absolutely, Wolf. I wrote the op-ed before the trip was planned. And I wrote it, Wolf, because back in 2004, when I led the first delegation of Americans to sit down with him in the tent in Tripoli, he said to me, \"Congressman, why did it take 30 years for someone from your country to come and sit with me and tell me to my face that you believe that I'm a criminal and a terrorist. And then if you didn't believe me, bomb me?\"\nAnd I said, \"Leader, I can't explain that.\" So I said now it's time for someone to sit in a tent face to face with Colonel Gadhafi and let him know how grave this situation is.\nAnd I'm willing to do that. And I think I'm probably the best person because I have met with him three times, and because I sat in that tent in 2004 and listened to him tell me that. So, in effect, that's why I'm here.\nBLITZER: You wrote also in \"The New York Times\" this -- you wrote, \"Colonel Gadhafi's son, Saif, a powerful businessman, a politician, could play a constructive role as a member of the committee to devise a new government structure or constitution.\"\nYou know, a lot of people, including the opposition, the rebels, as they're called, they think Saif Al-Islam Gadhafi is just as much a killer or thug as his father is, and they say they have no interest in dealing with him either.\nWhat do you say to that criticism?\nWELDON: Well, what I said, I'm not endorsing anything anyone for any office here. What I am hoping for is what the president wants, which is a free and fair election to take place, hopefully sooner rather than later.\nBut having been involved with Libya for seven years, I was a witness to the work that Saif did in the Lockerbie case, the La Bella nightclub bombing. I personally witnessed through the Gadhafi Foundation the work that Saif did to free up the Bulgarian nurses who were sentenced to death twice, along with a Palestinian doctor.\nI have seen the work that Saif and Dr. Salani (ph) at the foundation have done in dealing with chemical weapons destruction and with the elimination of landmines and humanitarian efforts worldwide. I have been out to (INAUDIBLE), the chemical weapons plant, and I have actually seen visibly how they have removed the chemical weapons production materials. He was behind all of that.\nBelieve me, Wolf, I'm not happy with some of the statements and the actions that he's made over the past month, and he knows I'm not happy. But I think in a fair election, up until now, he should be given the opportunity to seek office where he can run against other candidates, perhaps, for the presidency. And so I would at this time think that he should be allowed that opportunity.\nThat's not to say I condone anything that he said or his actions. He will have to be accountable for those on his own.\nBLITZER: Because you make him sound like he's a decent guy when so many people think he is a killer, a murderer, especially given the statements that he recently made, that if he goes into Benghazi, if he finds these rebels, he will go and kill them all. You make it sound like he's a decent guy.\nWELDON: Well, I -- you know, I haven't been with him on a continual basis. I have met with him a number of times, both in the U.S. and here, under some very stressful situations, especially when it came to resolving the Lockerbie case and the La Bella nightclub. And despite what Sarkozy said about resolving the issues of the Bulgarian nurses when they were sentenced to death twice, it was Saif who played a very critical role against some very powerful forces in this country that wanted to kill those people.\nYou know, I don't know of any incidences where I, first hand, have seen evidence of him committing human rights violations, and if he did, he has to be held accountable like everyone else. And I have said that publicly and I will say that privately.\nSo my judgment is just based upon my experience with him, the fact that he is a knowledgeable person, he understands the need to interact and interface with the West. I think he could be a viable candidate. But ultimately, my opinion is hopefully going to be the opinion of the Libyan people.\nBLITZER: Because you probably have seen all of the articles, the reports over the past month, month and a half, of mass murder, of killings, not only by Saif Al-Islam, but some of his brothers that have gone on, the atrocities that have been so widely reported. I hear what you're saying about his role over the recent years when the Bush administration, and later the Obama administration, was trying to improve relations with Libya, but over the past several weeks, based on all of the international reporting we have seen, it's been a brutal record that he has accomplished.\nWELDON: Well, again, I don't have firsthand evidence of that. I just got here two days ago. And I fully support an international tribunal to look at human rights violations on everyone in this country. That's necessary. And if they find evidence that he has been involved in that, then he should suffer the consequences of his actions.\n(END VIDEOTAPE) BLITZER: In our next hour, part two of the interview with former congressman Curt Weldon. There have been some questions raised about his motive. Is he in all of this for the money? You're going to find out his answer to that and more. Stand by.\nAlso, Washington, D.C.'s congressional delegate is telling colleagues -- and I'm quoting her now -- \"Go to hell.\" She is joining us live in THE SITUATION ROOM to tell us why.\nPlus, no budget deal, no food -- the extreme tens of thousands of people are going to as a government shutdown looms.\nBLITZER: Let's get back to the outrage boiling over on Capitol Hill, only hours before a potential government shutdown.\nJoining us now, the Democratic delegate representing the city of Washington, D.C., Eleanor Holmes Norton.\nELEANOR HOLMES NORTON (D), D.C. DELEGATE: Of course, Wolf.\nBLITZER: I think it's fair to say that Washington, D.C., a city of a population of about 600,000 people, the only major metropolitan -- the only major city in the United States that's going to foal the direct impact of a federal government shutdown so dramatically, so powerfully, because it is a federal district.\nGive me an example of what's going to happen if there's a government shutdown.\nNORTON: Absolutely, although your viewers will be shocked by what they are about to hear.\nThey know a little bit about taxation without representation -- we pay our taxes, then we have full representation in the House and the Senate. But I bet they didn't know that our local budget, without a dime of federal money in it -- and we support ourselves almost entirely -- has to be sent to the masters in the Congress to sign off on it before we can spend our own local money.\nWell, listen to this, Wolf. We passed our budget in -- last spring. The appropriators signed off on it last summer.\nSo, why are we in a federal budget fight over their money when it is our money I am talking about? I have put forward amendments that said the district can spend its own local funds.\nBLITZER: What's going to happen in the District of Columbia Saturday, Sunday, Monday, if there is a government shutdown? Give me an example or two.\nNORTON: I will give you some dramatic ones. How about the shutdown of the D.C. government itself? Because since the final gavel hasn't fallen on all the federal appropriations, then the district government has now prepared to shut down on Saturday morning just because the federal government is shutting down.\nWe are at the height of the tourist season, the Cherry Blossom Festival. That has been severely curtailed because of the federal shutdown. That's going to -- three million people come here just in one month for the cherry blossoms. Our mayor has had to put out a list of agencies that will be open and a list of agencies that won't be open.\nBLITZER: Trash collection -- will there be any trash collection in the District of Columbia?\nNORTON: No trash collection, and some residents have started up a Facebook page that says if they close down the District of Columbia, we're carrying our trash to Speaker Boehner's House.\nBLITZER: You don't support that do you?\nNORTON: I do not.\nNORTON: And let me just say right here, I do not. But let me tell you, I am only expressing a little of the rage that the taxpaying residents of the District of Columbia are feeling.\nBLITZER: But let me ask you this, Congresswoman, because the Democrats were in control, they had a large majority in the House all of last year; in the Senate, a significant majority. They failed to pass a budget. Don't the Democrats deserve a lot of the blame for this current impasse?\nNORTON: Absolutely not, because the Democrats would never have held our budget up here.\nLISA BLOOM, CNN LEGAL ANALYST: Why didn't they pass the budget?\nNORTON: Well, that doesn't have anything to do with us. This is our local money.\nAll it would take is -- the Democrats in the Senate are ready to agree. The president is ready to sign an amendment --\nBLITZER: But they could have done this any time last year.\nNORTON: Wait a minute, Wolf. Wait a minute -- an amendment that said while we're fighting it out on the federal budget, we will let the district spend its own local funds.\nSo that's all I'm asking. I'm not in this fight, so don't ask me why the Democrats didn't pass the Democratic budget.\nI passed -- we passed our budget. Our budget is balanced. The only issue before the Senate and the House is, can we spend our local money? It doesn't have anything to do with their budget.\nThey can go on from now until Timbuktu. Let us spend our money and don't close down our city because the federal government can't get its act together.\nBLITZER: I'm with you there. This is an outrage, the fact that there is -- if there is going to be shutdown. I'm still hoping there won't be a shutdown, but it's --\nNORTON: I think there may not be.\nBLITZER: -- ridiculous when you think about it, when you think about how close they are. It would be a horrible, horrible tragedy, because 800,000 people directly are going to start losing their paychecks. And the District of Columbia, which is, as you point out correctly, taxation without representation, is going to suffer a great deal more than any other city in the United States.\nGood luck, Congresswoman. Thanks very much.\nNORTON: Thank you, Wolf.\nBLITZER: I feel your pain.\nConcerns within military families over a government shutdown. Also, why they are downright scared they won't be able to put food on the table.\nAnd tens of thousands of people on a hunger strike, including some members of Congress. We'll explain why.\nCAFFERTY: The question this hour is: Do you believe you're being told the truth about the nuclear accident in January?\nFred writes, \"You want the truth? You can't handle the truth.\"\n\"Just how should a government balance our right to know the truth with the perceived need to not create a panic and thus a larger problem? Can you really evacuate a million people? To where? Yes, without the truth, how can anyone try to act reasonably?\"\n\"In the end, we do have a right to know the truth. Honesty is the best policy.\"\nPaul in Ohio writes, \"Jack, I believe they're telling what they think they know with certainty. It is most certain that they don't know everything.\"\nJeremy in California, \"So I'm confused. Is the current California radiation level 'harmless to human health,' 'not immediately harmful to human health,' not permanently harmful to people outside the region,' or no more than an apples-to-oranges transcontinental flight?\"\nCraig writes, \"Perspective. In Japan, they have had yet another earthquake and have lived in fear and chaos for over a month. And yet, their government hasn't shut down. Nuclear disaster, natural disaster, absolute destruction hasn't kept their elected officials from doing their duty to the people.\n\"Yet, in America, we get Harry Reid, John Boehner and a White House who are more concerned with the 2012 election campaign. It's times like these when we see just how far off the mark we really are.\"\nLouis writes, \"No. Just too many things going wrong. They say that the seafood will be safe. I ask this: Do fish migrate or do they set up housekeeping in one spot and then stay there? And if so, why don't I catch fish in the same place every day?\"\nAnd Jim in Colorado, \"The nuclear industry telling the truth? The unicorn, garden gnome and I were talking this over just the other day, and we all agreed it could happen. Why not?\"\nIf you want to read more about the unicorn and the garden gnome, go to CNN.com/CaffertyFile.\nBLITZER: We will, for sure, Jack. Thank you. See you in a few moments.\nSeveral sticking points in the ongoing budget negotiations, but will the government shutdown come down to money or social issues?\nPlus, Donald Trump, he's making allegations about President Obama's birthplace. Does Donald Trump have any grounds for any of that? We're digging deeper for answers.\nBLITZER: The growing outrage over the budget crisis isn't just about Congress' failure to reach a deal, it's also about some of the cuts that are being proposed.\nLets bring in our own Lisa Sylvester once again. She has the details -- Lisa.\nWell, as congressional leaders hammer away on a budget compromise, a group of religious leaders have been fasting and praying to raise awareness of cuts in the budget that they say will harm the poor.\nJIM WALLIS, PRESIDENT, SOJOURNERS: Orange juice never tasted so good.\nSYLVESTER (voice-over): It's been 10 days since Jim Wallis last had solid food. The president of Sojourners, a Christian group that advocates for the underprivileged, is leading the charge among faith groups on a hunger fast to protest proposed cuts in the federal budget for the poor.\nWALLIS: We're saying a budget is a moral document. And whether at your kitchen table, as a family, or a church or a nation, you make choices. What's important, what's not?\nSYLVESTER: Wallis said in the last 10 days, more than 30,000 people around the country have joined in the fast in their own way. He says they have become a bit like God's lobbyists for the poor, putting a theological and moral spin on the cuts. Wallis said he is all for deficit reduction but --\nWALLIS: I don't think doing this at the expense of the poorest people is a good choice, or hurting those who are already hurting the most is moral or even is smart.\nSYLVESTER: Fiscal conservatives have suggested cuts in food stamps, foreign aid, and preschool programs for low-income families, that private groups can and should provide for the needy. But David Beckman of Bread for the World, who used to work at the World Bank, says the private sector can't fill the gap.\nDAVID BECKMAN, PRESIDENT, BREAD FOR THE WORLD: All the private charitable feeding in the country amounts to about six percent of the food that poor people get from the national programs. So if you slash food stamps, as the House Republicans are proposing to do, there is no way that churches and charities and charitable people can make up for that.\nSYLVESTER: Tony Hall was a member of Congress for years. As part of the fast, he is urging his former colleagues to reconsider cuts.\nTONY HALL, ALLIANCE TO END HUNGER: When you make decisions about people's lives, be careful. You don't cut the poorest of the poor, because they didn't get you here. They didn't cause this mess.\nSYLVESTER: On Wednesday, members of Congress began signing up for the fast.\nREP. BARBARA LEE (D), CALIFORNIA: Several members of Congress today will be joining you in this fast.\nSYLVESTER: Now, Sheila Jackson Lee, Keith Ellison and Jim McGovern are among 28 congressional Democrats who have signed on so far to join the hunger fast, and they will be doing a relay, with each taking one day to fast and then passing on the fast to their colleagues.\nWallis and Hall, they're doing it a little differently. They're fasting all the way through Easter Sunday. But they say for them, this fight for the poor is larger than just the specific budget battle -- Wolf.\nBLITZER: These are committed, committed people to try to help.\nWe're going back to Libya in just a few moments. Rebel forces, furious with NATO right now, the R-rated message they are sending through our own Ben Wedeman.", "answers": ["The sticking point in the political showdown over the budget is how much spending to cut."], "length": 7321, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "6ee1971ac8c7c0ee4a5add9ec201557d28d3c2f66b176fb4"}
{"input": "When did the London Paving and Lighting Act pass, which mandated the numbering of houses?", "context": "A Brief History of Benjamin Franklin's Residences on Craven Street, London: 1757 - 1775 - Journal of the American Revolution\nBenjamin Franklin House, 36 Craven St, London. (Photo by Elliott Brown | Wikimedia Commons)\nIf one looked into Benjamin Franklin’s time on Craven Street, they might initially believe he lived at 36 Craven Street the entirety of his two stays in London based on the plethora of articles on the internet that say so. If they dug a little deeper they might read that he lived at No. 27 Craven Street, previously numbered 7, but now numbered 36; or that he lived exclusively at No. 7 Craven Street; or that he lived in multiple residences on Craven Street; or that he moved out of No. 36 to another house on Craven Street and then moved back into No. 36 the last year of his residence. What is one to believe with all of the conflicting accounts? What does the historical record have to say about Franklin’s time on Craven Street?\nFigure 1. Spur Alley 1685. “A map of the parish of St Martins in the Fields, taken from ye last survey, with additions (1685)”. (© The British Library Board, Shelfmark: Maps Crace Port. 13.2, Item number: 2)\nBefore Craven Street existed there was Spur Alley, a narrow passageway sandwiched between the Hungerford Market to the north (now Charing Cross Station) and Scotland Yard and the Northumberland House and Garden to the south. It was flanked on both ends by major thoroughfares, the Strand on the west, connecting Westminster to London by road, and the River Thames on the east, not only connecting the two cities to each other and to Southwark on the south side of the Thames, but connecting the entire metropolis to the rest of the world. Being located in the City of Westminster, Spur Alley had escaped the devastation of the Great Fire of London in 1666 leaving its wooden structures, built in the early part of seventeenth century, intact, but also in dire need of restoration or demolition. “The ratebooks show that during the last thirty years or so of their existence the houses in Spur Alley were in a very bad condition. Few of them were rated at more than a few shillings and many of them were unoccupied.”[1] The landowner, William, 5th Baron Craven, desiring to increase the profitability of his assets, tore down the derelict structures on Spur Alley around 1730 and leased the newly established lots to builders. By 1735, twenty brick houses in the Georgian style had been built on the west side and sixteen on the east side of the way now called Craven Street.[2]\nFigure 2. Craven Street 1746. (John Rocque London, Westminster and Southwark, First Edition 1746, Motco Enterprises Limited, motco.com)\nLetters to Franklin during his residence with Mrs. Margaret Stevenson, his landlady on Craven Street, were addressed rather vaguely; “Craven Street/Strand”, “Mrs. Stevensons in Craven Street”, or “Benjamin Franklin Esqr.” are but a few examples. Letters from Franklin referenced “London,” or sometimes “Cravenstreet,” but never included a number. Despite the absence of numbered addresses in Franklin’s correspondence, there was a sense of one’s place in the neighborhood based on entries in the Westminster Rate Books (tax assessments). The Rate Books did not list house numbers during Franklin’s time there, but they did list the residents of Craven Street in a particular order that became the default numbering system for the street. Number one was associated with the first resident listed under “Craven Street” in the Rate Books and was the northernmost house on the west side of the street. The numbers increased counter-clockwise down the west side and up the east side in accordance with the list of residents. In 1748, the first year of Margaret Stevenson’s (Stevens in the Rate Books for that year) residence on Craven Street, she is listed as the twenty-seventh resident, the second house north of Court Street (later Craven Court, now Craven Passage) on the east side of the street.[3]\nIn 1766, Parliament passed the London Paving and Lighting Act (6 Geo. 3 c. 26), “An act for the better paving, cleansing, and enlightening, the city of London, and the liberties thereof; and for preventing obstructions and annoyances within the same; and for other purposes therein mentioned.”[4] One of the other purposes therein mentioned was the numbering of houses. With an aim to bring order to the chaotic numbering systems or lack thereof on London streets the Act provided that “… the said commissioners … may also cause every house, shop, or warehouse, in each of the said streets, lanes, squares, yards, courts, alleys, passages, and places, to be marked or numbered, in such manner as they shall judge most proper for distinguishing the same.”[5] This was quite an undertaking that took years to accomplish. It was a decade later before numbered addresses on Craven Street in the City of Westminster appeared in The London Directory (1776). The London Directory and its competitors were published primarily by booksellers or printers to supplement their income and were highly profitable. To say they were competitive is an understatement. “Some of the most hotly disputed struggles over copyright in the century concerned guidebooks. Many were optimistically emblazoned with a royal license and a notice that the work had been entered at Stationers’ Hall. Various struggles between rival guides intensified as the potential for profits became clear.”[6] The London Directory boldly proclaimed to contain “An ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE NAMES and PLACES of ABODE of the MERCHANTS and PRINCIPAL TRADERS of the Cities of LONDON and WESTMINSTER, the Borough of SOUTHWARK, and their Environs, with the Number affixed to each House.”[7] Kent’s Directory made a similar proclamation: “An Alphabetical LIST OF THE Names and Places of Abode OF THE DIRECTORS of COMPANIES, Persons in Public Business, MERCHANTS, and other eminent TRADERS in the Cities of London and Westminster, and Borough of Southwark WITH THE NUMBERS as they are affixed to their Houses agreeable to the late Acts of Parliament.”[8] Mrs. Stevenson wasn’t included in the directories because she didn’t meet the criteria of being a merchant or trader, not because she was a woman. Although it is rare to see women listed in the directories, some examples do exist.[9] If Mrs. Stevenson had appeared in the directories in 1776 it would not have been on Craven Street as she had moved to Northumberland Court, a stone’s throw away, the previous year.[10] A comparison of Craven Street residents whose names and addresses do appear in the directories with the same residents as they appear in the Westminster Rate Books determines if the numbering systems were congruent. For the most part they were. For example, Joseph Bond at No. 30, William Rowles at No. 31, Samuel Sneyd at No. 32, and Jonathan Michie at No. 35 in The London Directory coincide with their places of residence in the Westminster Rate Books; however, errors did occur. The 1776 edition of The London Directory lists Brown & Whiteford, wine merchants, at No. 9 Craven Street while the Westminster Rate Books list them as the twenty-ninth residents. Obviously, it makes no sense to have Brown & Whiteford at No. 9 in The London Directory and their next-door neighbor, Joseph Bond, at No. 30. The same error appears in Baldwin’s The New Complete Guide for 1783. The New Complete Guide may have “borrowed” the error from The London Directory. It was not uncommon for the owner of one directory to copy entries from another to save both time and money. Beginning in 1778 and contrary to The London Directory, Kent’s Directory faithfully followed the numbering system of the Westminster Rate Books in all of its editions and listed Brown & Whiteford at No. 29 as did Bailey’s Northern Directory in 1781. Perhaps realizing their error, The London Directory changed their listing of Brown & Whiteford from No. 9 to No. 29 in their 1783 edition and maintained that listing thereafter.\nSometime prior to 1792, the embankment on the Thames at the south end of Craven Street had been sufficiently extended allowing for the construction of ten new houses below the original houses: “ … four houses, Nos. 21–24, were built on the west side, and six houses, Nos. 25–30, on the east side of the way.”[11] In a note in the same report, the new numbering system is explained. “The houses in the street, which had previously been numbered consecutively down the west side and up the east side, were then renumbered on the same system to include the additional houses.”[12] Because the new houses (21-24) on the west side were built below the existing houses (1-20), houses 1-20 retained their original numbering.\nFigure 4. Craven Street 1799. (Richard Horwood’s Map of London, Westminster and the Borough of Southwark 1799, Motco Enterprises Limited, motco.com)\nOne would think that the numbers of the sixteen original houses on the east side, Nos. 21 – 36, would simply increase by ten with the addition of the ten new houses, but such was not the case; they increased by nine. How could that be? The only possible explanation is that No. 21 of the original houses was demolished to make way for the construction of the northernmost of the six new houses on the east side (No. 30). Evidence of No. 21’s demolition appears in the lease granted to Charles Owen by William, 7th Baron Craven, in 1792, which describes No. 22 as: “All that messuage in Craven Street late in the occupation of Francis Deschamps undertaker … being the Southernmost house in the Old Buildings on the East Side of the said Street numbered with the No. 22.”[13] The lease describes No. 22 as being the southernmost house in the old buildings on the east side of Craven Street. Clearly the house previously at No. 21 did not exist when the lease granted to Charles Owen was written in 1792 as it used to be the southernmost house. It is also worth noting that in 1790, The London Directory listed Jacob Life at No. 21 (original numbering). In 1791-2, it listed him at No. 6. With No. 21 vacated, it would allow for its demolition and the construction of the tenth new house. By utilizing lot No. 21 for the new construction, only nine additional lots were needed to build the ten houses, hence, Margaret Stevenson’s former residence at 27 became 36 (27 + 9) in the renumbering and not 37.\nFor nearly a century and a half after Franklin departed London for America in March of 1775 the scales were tipped heavily in favor of his residence having been No. 7 Craven Street. As early as 1807 in London; Being An Accurate History And Description Of The British Metropolis And Its Neighborhood, Volume 4, one would have read: “In Craven Street is a house, No. 7, remarkable for having been the residence of Dr. Benjamin Franklin.[14] In 1815, the identical phrase appeared in The Beauties of England and Wales.[15] After 23 editions of not mentioning Franklin, his name finally appeared in the 24th edition of The Picture of London in 1826: “The house, No. 7, Craven Street, in the Strand, was once the residence of Dr. Benjamin Franklin.”[16] In 1840, Jared Sparks referred to Franklin’s Craven Street residence appearing in London guide books in his voluminous The Works of Benjamin Franklin: “In the London Guide Books, ‘No. 7, Craven Street,’ is still indicated as the house in which Dr. Franklin resided.”[17] In 1846, George Gulliver F.R.S., in his book, The Works of William Hewson, wrote: “She [Polly] had been upon terms of the warmest friendship with Dr. Franklin\nFigure 5. No. 7 Craven Street with Memorial Tablet. (Photo courtesy of British History Online, and the Survey of London)\nsince she was eighteen years of age. That eminent philosopher resided with her mother, Mrs. Margaret Stevenson, at No. 7, Craven Street, Strand, during the fifteen years of his abode in London.”[18] Guide books mentioning Franklin at No. 7 continued to proliferate throughout the century: Handbook for London; Past and Present, Volume I (1849);”[19] Handbook for Modern London (1851);”[20] The Town; Its Memorable Characters and Events (1859);”[21] London and Its Environs (1879).[22] There was an anomaly when London In 1880 Illustrated With Bird’s-Eye Views of the Principal Streets, Sixth Edition (1880) placed Franklin at 27 Craven street.[23] The anomaly lasted for six years until his place of residence was changed to No. 7 in the revised edition, London. Illustrated by Eighteen Bird’s-Eye Views of the Principal Streets (1886).[24] London Past and Present; Its History, Associations, and Traditions, Volume 1 (1891), copied the 1849 Handbook for London almost word-for-word and included, “The house is on the right from the Strand.”[25] In October of 1867, The Society of Arts in London declared that: “In order to show how rich the metropolis is in the memory of important personages and events, which it would be desirable to mark by means of tablets on houses, the Council have caused an alphabetical list to be prepared, … ”[26] Franklin had been elected a corresponding member to the Society in 1756 and was a popular choice among Council members deciding who they were to memorialize.[27] By January of 1870, a tablet honoring him was affixed to the house they believed to have been his residence while in London, No. 7 Craven Street in the Strand on the west side of the street.[28] A majority of historians writing about Franklin in the nineteenth and early twentieth century placed him at No. 7: O. L. Holley, The Life of Benjamin Franklin (1848); E. M. Tomkinson, Benjamin Franklin (1885); John Torrey Morse, Benjamin Franklin (1891); Paul Elmer More, Benjamin Franklin (1900); John S. C. Abbot, Benjamin Franklin (1903); Sydney George Fisher, The True Benjamin Franklin (1903). A notable exception is D. H. Montgomery’s His Life Written by Himself published in 1896. He has Franklin at No. 27 Craven Street. It seems then that depending upon the source, Franklin was thought to have lived at either No. 7 or No. 27, but not both, the overwhelming majority favoring No. 7. As late as 2011, Franklin is still mentioned as living at No. 7.[29]\nIn 1913, No. 7 was scheduled to be torn down. An article in the March 1914 edition of The Book News Monthly, describes the situation:\nAs is well known to informed American pilgrims, it has been possible for all admirers of the famous philosopher and statesman to pay their respects to his memory before that house, No. 7 Craven Street, just off the Strand, which was his chief home during his two sojourns in the British capital, but even as these lines are being written the London newspapers are recording that that interesting shrine is soon to be pulled down to make room for a restaurant. It is some mitigation of this misfortune to remember that at the most the Craven Street house was nothing more than a reproduction of the one in which Franklin had his suite of four rooms, for the structure has been rebuilt since Franklin’s time. When, then, some one makes a piteous plea that at least the philosopher’s bedroom shall be preserved, the soothing answer is that the apartment in question is only a replica of that in which the illustrious American enjoyed his well-earned slumbers in 1757-62 and 1764-75. The restaurant-builder, however, with an eye doubtless to possible American patronage, has assured the world that every effort will be made to preserve as much as possible of the entire structure.[30]\nConcerned with the possible demolition of Franklin’s residence, the Royal Society of Arts (formerly the Society of Arts[31]) initiated an inquiry into the matter.[32] The London County Council, having taken over the responsibility of placing memorial tablets on notable houses from the Royal Society, was charged with the investigation. It ultimately fell to Sir George Laurence Gomme, a clerk to the Council, to come up with a response. A few years earlier Sir George had discovered Margaret Stevenson residing at No. 27 Craven Street in the Westminster Rate Books. He must have wondered why No. 7 on the west side of Craven Street was being celebrated as Franklin’s residence when the evidence clearly showed otherwise.\nSir George and his staff examined the various London directories discussed earlier and came up with a novel explanation for the discrepancy. They concluded that there had been two numbering systems on Craven Street. An anonymous author echoes Sir George’s conclusion about the two numbering systems in an article in The Journal of the Royal Society of Arts:\n…an inspection of the directories of that time proves that there were at least two systems of numbering in Craven Street before the erection of the additional houses. According to one of these the numbers started from the top (Strand end) on the west side of the street, and ran down to the bottom to No. 20, then crossed over and went back to the Strand along the east side – 21 to 36. According to the other system, the east side of the street was numbered from the bottom upwards, starting at No 1. This was not apparently in general use, but there is evidence that this numbering was at all events occasionally used.\nThe evidence of these two systems of numbering, and for believing that Mrs. Stevenson’s house was first No. 7 under the oldest system, next No. 27 under the second system, and finally No. 36 under the latest and existing system, is to be found in the various directories and the Westminster rate-books.[33]\nThe “evidence” mentioned above consisted of The London Directory’s listing of Brown & Whiteford at No. 9: “The rate-books for 1781 and 1786 show the house next but one to the north of Mrs. Stevenson’s house as in the occupation of Brown and ‘Whiteford,’ while the old directories mention the business of the firm as wine merchants, and give their address as 9, Craven Street – then a little later, down to 1791, as 29, Craven Street. Curiously enough, in the years 1778 to 1780, or 1781, Lowndes gives it as No. 9, and Kent as 29.”[34] Ignoring Kent’s Directory having Brown and Whiteford as 29 and The London Directory (Lowndes) having Brown and Whiteford “a little later” as 29, and knowing that Mrs. Stevenson lived two doors south of them, Sir George concluded that her house must have been numbered 7, even though there is no listing in any of the directories of her residence ever being No. 7. He surmised that the No. 7 on the west side of Craven Street with the memorial tablet thought to have been Franklin’s residence had simply been confused with number 7 (27) on the east side. Again from The Journal of the Royal Society of Arts:\nTaking all the evidence together, there cannot be any doubt whatever that Mrs. Stevenson’s house, in which Franklin lodged, was the house two doors north from Craven Court, first numbered 7, afterwards 27, and finally 36, and consequently that the house in which Franklin lived was that now numbered 36, not the one now numbered 7, on which the tablet is placed.[35]\nA response to The Royal Society of Arts was issued: “… the London County Council … informed the Society that it had made a mistake and that No. 36 Craven street was the building that deserved commemoration.”[36] The Society accepted the Council’s conclusion, and despite assurances of preservation by the restaurant builder, No. 7 was torn down the following year.\nSir George’s assertion “that Mrs. Stevenson’s house, in which Franklin lodged, was the house two doors north from Craven Court” was correct, however, his assertion that it was “first numbered 7, afterwards 27”, was not. It was only by association with the errant entry of Brown & Whiteford at No. 9 from 1776-1782 in The London Directory that Mrs. Stevenson’s address was conjured to be No. 7. The problem with associating her address exclusively with that of Brown & Whiteford at No. 9 during those years is that, as previously demonstrated, The London Directory also listed four other Craven Street residents, Bond, Rowles, Sneyd, and Michie, who’s addresses did conform to the numbering system in The Westminster Rate Books. If Brown & Whiteford at No. 9 was indicative of a numbering system different from The Westminster Rate Books, Bond, Rowles, Sneyd, and Michie would have been listed as Nos. 10, 11, 12, and 15, respectively. So on one hand Sir George was relying on the Westminster Rate Books to establish Mrs. Stevenson at No. 27 and on the other hand he was dismissing the Westminster Rate Books to establish her at No. 7. Instead of using the anomalous listing of Brown & Whiteford at No. 9, he could have just as easily, and more logically, used the Bond et al. listings, or the post-1782 Brown & Whiteford listing in the London Directory at No. 29 to establish Mrs. Stevenson at No. 27. Even if there had been two numbering systems, his assertion that No. 27 was first numbered 7 would still be false. The earliest numbering system was the Westminster Rate Books dating from the early 1730s when the houses were constructed. Brown & Whiteford at No. 9 didn’t appear until 46 years later and then only for a brief period.\nThere is ample evidence in Franklin’s correspondence and in a memoir by Polly Hewson (Mrs. Stevenson’s daughter) that Benjamin and Mrs. Stevenson lived in not one, but two houses on Craven Street. On July 6, 1772, Polly wrote to Benjamin from her house at Broad Street North in London: “My Mother I must tell you went off last friday week, took our little Boy with her and left Mr. Hewson [Polly’s husband, William] the care of her House [27 Craven Street]. The first thing he did was pulling down a part of it in order to turn it to his own purpose, and advantage we hope. This Demolition cannot affect you, who at present are not even a Lodger [Benjamin was traveling at the time], your litterary apartment remains untouch’d, the Door is lock’d …”[37] In a memoir about her husband written after his death Polly writes: “He [William Hewson] began his Lectures Sept. 30, 1772, in Craven-street, where he had built a Theatre adjoining a house which he intended for the future residence of his family.”[38] On October 7, 1772, Benjamin wrote to his son William: “I am very well. But we [Mrs. Stevenson and I] are moving to another House in the same street; and I go down tomorrow to Lord LeDespencer’s to [stay a] Week till things are settled.”[39] To his son-in-law, Richard Bache, on the same day he wrote: “We are moving to another House in the [street] leaving this to Mr. Hewson.”[40] Writing to a friend on October 30, 1772 he explained: “I should sooner have answered your Questions but that in the Confusion of my Papers, occasioned by removing to another House, I could not readily find the Memorandums …”[41] On November 4, 1772 Benjamin informed his wife Deborah of the move. “We are removed to a more convenient House in the same street, Mrs. Stevenson having accommodated her Son-in-Law with that we lived in. The Removing has been a troublesome Affair, but is now over.”[42]\nAn agreement had been struck between the parties. Margaret and Benjamin would move to another house on Craven Street and allow Polly and William to move into No. 27, the large yard behind the house being spacious enough to accommodate the anatomy school William wished to build.[43] Perhaps the idea was inspired by Margaret’s next-door neighbor at No. 26, Dr. John Leake, a man-midwife and founder of the Westminster Lying-in Hospital, who had built a theater adjoining his residence in which he practiced anatomy and taught midwifery.[44]\nAfter Margaret and Benjamin vacated No. 27, Polly, William, their son William Jr., and William’s younger sister, Dorothy Hewson, took up residence there.[45] In the 1773 Westminster Rate Books for Craven Street, Mrs. Stevenson’s (Stephenson in the Rate Books) name has been crossed out and replaced with “William Hewson.”[46] Further proof that the Hewsons had indeed moved into 27 Craven Street has been confirmed by the discovery of human and animal remains buried in the basement of No. 36 (formerly No. 27 and now the Benjamin Franklin House), a by-product of the dissections that took place at William’s anatomy school.[47]\nSo what house on Craven Street did Mrs. Stevenson and Benjamin move into after vacating No. 27? An examination of the Westminster Rate Books for the years 1774 and 1775 reveal them living not at No. 7 on the west side of Craven Street as one might expect from the overwhelming consensus of nineteenth century guidebooks and biographies, but surprisingly at No. 1.[48] The controversy of No. 7 being torn down was all for naught as it had never been Franklin’s residence. Sir George was correct on that point. Unfortunately, No. 1 was torn down as well in the early part of the twentieth century. The first time No. 1 is mentioned as Franklin’s second residence is in the Survey of London: Volume 18, St Martin-in-The-Fields II: the Strand published by the London County Council in 1937, ironically the same County Council that had declared No. 36 as Franklin’s only residence twenty-four years earlier.\nFrom 1748 until 1772 Margaret ‘Stephenson’ occupied this house [No. 27 (36)], and it was there that Benjamin Franklin settled after his arrival in London in 1757 as Agent to the General Assembly of Pennsylvania … In October, 1772, Mrs. Stevenson and Franklin removed to No. 1, Craven Street (now demolished), and No. 36 was for the next two years occupied by William Hewson, surgeon, who had married Mary Stevenson.[49]\nIn the spring of 1774, William Hewson died unexpectedly of septicemia two weeks after cutting himself while dissecting a cadaver. Polly was left to care for their two young sons and was pregnant with a daughter she would give birth to in August of the same year. Is it possible that Margaret and Benjamin moved back into No. 27 to assist Polly after the death of her husband as suggested in The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin?[50]\nIf the Westminster Rate Books are to be believed, the answer is no. For the year 1774, the Rate Books list Margaret Stevenson at No. 1 and William Hewson at No. 27. For the year 1775, they list Margaret Stevenson at No. 1 and Magnus Falkner (Falconer/Falconar) at No. 27. Magnus was William’s assistant at the anatomy school and fiancé to William’s sister, Dorothy. On his death bed, William instructed Polly, “let Mr. Falconar be my successor.”[51] Magnus would immediately take over the running of the anatomy school and continue William’s unfinished research. Four months later, he and Dorothy would marry.[52] Essentially only two things changed at 27 Craven Street after William’s death: Polly gave birth to her daughter, and Magnus replaced William as the lease holder, so even if Margaret and Benjamin had wished to move back into No. 27, there would have been no room for them. It is also interesting to note that considering the multiple times Benjamin wrote of his move out of No. 27 (and complained of it), he never once mentioned moving back into No. 27 in any of his correspondence after Mr. Hewson’s death.\nFigure 6. No. 36 Craven Street. (Photo courtesy of David Ross, britainexpress.com)\nIn sum, based on the Westminster Rate Books[53] and Franklin’s correspondence, Mrs. Stevenson is known to have resided at No. 27 (36) Craven Street from 1748 to 1772. It follows that, aside from the two years Franklin spent in Philadelphia from 1762 to 1764, he resided there from 1757 to 1772. Franklin’s correspondence also reveals that in the autumn of 1772, he and Mrs. Stevenson moved to another house on Craven Street. The 1773 Westminster Rate Books show her name crossed off at No. 27 and William Hewson’s inserted. The following year the Rate Books list her at No. 1 Craven Street. Evidence for Mrs. Stevenson and Benjamin remaining at No. 1 after William’s death appears in the Westminster Rate Books for 1775 which have Mrs. Stevenson still residing at No. 1 and Magnus Falkner residing at No. 27. Further evidence can be construed from the lack of any mention of a move back into No. 27 in Franklin’s correspondence. Despite the many theories one could devise as to why Franklin was thought to have lived at No. 7 Craven Street by so many guide books and Franklin biographers of the nineteenth century, one thing is certain; at some point after Franklin’s departure to America in March of 1775, and no later than 1807, someone mistakenly associated him with No. 7 on the west side of Craven Street, and it soon became his de facto residence. Credit must go to D. H. Montgomery in 1896 and Sir George in 1913 for setting the record partially straight by placing Franklin at No. 27(36). In 1937, the London County Council gave us the first accurate account of Franklin’s residences on Craven Street in the Survey of London at No. 27(36) and No. 1. It has been shown conclusively that No. 27 was never previously numbered 7. It was, however, renumbered 36 in 1792 after ten additional houses were built at the southern end of the street and remains No. 36 to this day.\n[1] “Craven Street and Hungerford Lane”, in Survey of London: Volume 18, St Martin-in-the-Fields II: the Strand, ed. G H Gater and E P Wheeler (London, 1937), 27-39, Early History of the Site.\nhttp://www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-london/vol18/pt2/pp27-39\n[2] “England, Westminster Rate Books, 1634-1900,” from database with images, Craven Street – 1735, FamilySearch from database by FindMyPast and images digitized by FamilySearch; citing Westminster City Archives, London.\n[3] Ibid., Craven Street – 1748.\n[4] The Statutes at Large, From Magna Charta to the End of the Eleventh Parliament of Great Britain. Anno 1761 Continued, Vol. XXVII, ed. Danby Pickering, (Cambridge, John Archdeacon, 1767), 96.\n[6] James Raven, Publishing Business in Eighteenth-Century England, (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2014), 201.\n[7] The London Directory For the Year 1776, Ninth Edition, (London: T. Lowndes, 1776), title page.\n[8] Kent’s Directory For the Year 1778, Forty-Sixth Edition, (London: Richard and Henry Causton, 1778), title page.\n[9] A listing in Kent’s Directory for the Year 1882 on p. 28 reveals, “Brown Sarah, Leather-seller, 1, Westmoreland-buildings, Aldersgate-street”, and in Kent’s Directory for the Year 1883 on p. 175, “Whiteland Mary, Wine & Brandy Mercht. Jermyn-str. St. James.”\n[10] “The Papers of Benjamin Franklin,” Sponsored by The American Philosophical Society and Yale University, Digital Edition by The Packard Humanities Institute, 22:263a.\nhttp://franklinpapers.org/franklin\nMrs. Stevenson wrote to Benjamin Franklin a letter from her new home at 75 Northumberland Court on November 16, 1775: “In this Court I have a kind friend, Mr. Lechmoen he comes and seats with me and talks of you with a hiy regard and friendship.”\n[11] Survey of London, Early History of the Site.\n[12] Survey of London, Footnotes/n 10.\n[13] Survey of London, Historical Notes/No. 31.\n[14] David Hughson, LL.D., London; Being An Accurate History And Description Of The British Metropolis And Its Neighbourhood, To Thirty Miles Extent, From An Actual Perambulation, Vol. IV, (London: W. Stratford, 1807), 227.\n[15] The Reverend Joseph Nightingale, The Beauties of England and Wales: Or, Original Delineations, Topographical, Historical, and Descriptive, of Each County, Vol. X, Part III, Vol. II (London: J. Harris; Longman and Co.; J. Walker; R. Baldwin; Sherwood and Co.; J. and J. Cundee; B. and R. Crosby and Co.; J Cuthell; J. and J. Richardson; Cadell and Davies; C. and J. Rivington; and G. Cowie and Co., 1815), 245.\n[16] John Britton, F.S.A. & Co., ed., The Original Picture of London, Enlarged and Improved: Being A Correct Guide For The Stranger, As Well As For the Inhabitant, To The Metropolis Of The British Empire Together With A Description Of The Environs, The Twenty-Fourth Edition (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1826), 479.\n[17] Jared Sparks, The Works of Benjamin Franklin, Vol. VII, (Philadelphia: Childs & Peterson, 1840), 151.\n[18] George Gulliver, F.R.S., The Works of William Hewson, F. R. S., (London: Printed for the Sydenham Society, MDCCCXLVI), xx.\n[19] Peter Cunningham, Handbook for London; Past and Present, Vol. I, (London: John Murray, 1849), 245.\n[20] F. Saunders, Memories of the Great Metropolis: or, London, from the Tower to the Crystal Palace, (New York: G.P. Putnam, MDCCCLII), 138.\n[21] Leigh Hunt, The Town; Its Memorable Characters and Events, (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1859), 185.\n[22] K. Baedeker, London and Its Environs, Including Excursions To Brighton, The Isle of Wight, Etc.: Handbook For Travelers, Second Edition, (London: Dulau and Co., 1879), 133.\n[23] Herbert Fry, London In 1880 Illustrated With Bird’s-Eye Views of the Principal Streets, Sixth Edition, (New York: Scribner, Welford, & Co., 1880), 50.\n[24] Herbert Fry, London. Illustrated By Eighteen Bird’s-Eye Views of the Principal Streets, (London: W. H. Allen and Co., 1886), 40.\n[25] Henry B. Wheatley, F.S.A., London Past and Present; Its History, Associations, and Traditions, Vol. 1, (London: John Murray, New York: Scribner & Welford, 1891), 473.\n[26] The Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. XV, No. 778, (October 18, 1867): 717.\n[27] D. G. C. Allen, “Dear and Serviceable to Each Other: Benjamin Franklin and the Royal Society of Arts,” American Philosophical Society, Vol. 144, No. 3, (September 2000): 248-249.\nFranklin was a corresponding member in 1756 because he was still residing in Philadelphia. He became an active member the following year when he moved to London.\n[28] The Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. XVIII, No. 894, (Jan. 7, 1870): 137.\n“Since the last announcement, the following tablets have been affixed on houses formerly occupied by – Benjamin Franklin, 7 Craven-street, Strand, W.C.”\n[29] Franklin in His Own Time, eds. Kevin J. Haytes and Isabelle Bour, (Iowa City, University of Iowa Press, 2011), xxxvii.\n“Takes lodgings with Margaret Stevenson at No. 7 Craven Street.” It is unknown if the editors are referring to No. 7 on the west side of Craven Street or No. 36 on the east side using Sir George’s explanation of No. 36 being previously numbered 7.\n[30] Henry C. Shelly, “American Shrines on English Soil, III. In the Footprints of Benjamin Franklin,” in The Book News Monthly, September, 1913 to August, 1914, (Philadelphia: John Wanamaker, 1914), 325.\n[31] The Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. LVI, No. 2,880, (Jan. 31, 1908): 245.\nhttp://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015058423073;view=1up;seq=251\n“His Majesty the King, who is Patron of the Society, has granted permission to the Society to prefix to its title the term ‘Royal,’ and the Society will consequently be known in future as the ‘Royal Society of Arts.’”\n[32] Nineteenth Annual Report, 1914, of the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society, (Albany: J. B. Lyon Company, 1914), 293.\nhttp://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89072985302;view=1up;seq=4;size=150\n[33] The Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. LXII, No. 3,183, (Nov. 21, 1913): 18.\nhttp://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015058422968;view=1up;seq=26\n[36] Allen, “Dear and Serviceable,” 263-264.\n[37] Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 19:20.\n[38] Thomas Joseph Pettigrew, F. L. S., Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Late John Coakley Lettsom With a Selection From His Correspondence, Vol. I, (London: Nichols, Son, and Bentley, 1817), 144 of Correspondence.\n[39] Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 19:321b.\n[40] Ibid., 19:314.\n[41] Ibid., 19:353a.\n[43] Simon David John Chaplin, John Hunter and the ‘museum oeconomy’, 1750-1800, Department of History, King’s College London. Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of London., 202.\n“Following Falconar’s death [1778] the lease [27 Craven Street] was advertised, and the buildings were described as:\nA genteel and commodious house, in good Repair, with Coach-house and Stabling for two Horses…consisting of two rooms and light closets on each floor, with outbuildings in the Yard, a Museum, a Compleat Theatre, and other conveniences. (Daily Advertiser, 27 August 1778)”\n[44] Simon Chaplin, “Dissection and Display in Eighteenth-Century London,” in Anatomical Dissection in Enlightenment England and Beyond: Autopsy, Pathology and Display, ed. Dr. Piers Mitchell, (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2012), 108.\n“Given that a nearby building at 35 [ No. 26 in Franklin’s time] was occupied by the man-midwife John Leake, who advertised lectures – including lessons in the art of making preparations – at his ‘theatre’ between 1764 and 1788, it is possible that some facilities were shared. In both cases, however, the buildings [Leake’s residence at No. 26 and Hewson’s residence next door at 27] served a dual function as domestic accommodation and as sites for lecturing and dissection.”\n[45] George Gulliver, F.R.S., The Works of William Hewson, F. R. S., (London: Printed for the Sydenham Society, MDCCCXLVI), xviii.\n[46] Westminster Rate Books, Craven Street – 1773, courtesy of the City of Westminster Archives.\n[47] S.W. Hillson et al., “Benjamin Franklin, William Hewson, and the Craven Street Bones,” Archaeology International, Vol. 2, (Nov. 22, 1998): 14-16.\nhttp://dx.doi.org/10.5334/ai.0206\n[48] Westminster Rate Books, Craven Street – 1774, 1775, courtesy of the City of Westminster Archives.\n[49] Survey of London, Historical Notes/No. 36, Craven Street (not sourced).\n[50] Gordon S. Wood, The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin, (New York: The Penguin Press, 2004), 261.\n[51] Pettigrew, Memoirs, 146 of Correspondence.\n[52] http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-22-02-0178, note 7. “Falconar married Hewson’s sister five months after the Doctor’s death; most of the Craven Street circle attended the wedding, and BF gave away the bride: Polly to Barbara Hewson, Oct. 4, 1774, APS” (American Philosophical Society); “England Marriages, 1538–1973 ,” database, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:V52W-TGS : accessed September 15, 2015), Magnus Falconar and Dorothy Hewson, September 12, 1774; citing Saint Martin In The Fields, Westminster, London, England, reference ; FHL microfilm 561156, 561157, 561158, 942 B4HA V. 25, 942 B4HA V. 66.\n[53] I chose to rely on the Westminster Rate Books for the numbering system on Craven Street. The books were consistent throughout the eighteenth century in the ordering of residents on the street and were used as the basis for the 1792 re-numbering. For the most part, commercial directories aligned with them as well. If by chance a directory didn’t initially align, it would inevitably produce future editions that did.\nBenjamin Franklin, Benjamin Franklin House, London\nMore from David Turnquist\nIf one looked into Benjamin Franklin’s time on Craven Street, they might...\nI think it’s very ironic that on the street maps included in your excellent article, Craven Street is so close to Scotland Yard. Because following the back and forth juxtapositions of numbers 7, 27 and 36 Craven Street (throw in 75 Northumberland Court and 1 Craven Street, too) was a case that could confound Sherlock Holmes.\nExcellent job of deciphering street renumbering material spanning sixty years, including that of a wrong house number (# 7) being erroneously identified and then perpetuated in subsequent street map printings. It’s gratifying at least to know that the present day #36 Craven Street is the correct house for Ben Franklin tourists to visit. Except for #1 Craven Street for the last three years Franklin was in London, but we won’t get into that.\nAgain, excellent article, David!", "answers": ["1766."], "length": 6539, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "229b5bf2402ae2950c72494dcfd5f1c825c396205b49ca50"}
{"input": "What is the main advantage of the proposed method in terms of computation time?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Incorporating Human Path Preferences in Robot Navigation with Minimal Interventions\nPublish Date: 16 Mar 2023\nAuthor List: Oriana Peltzer, Dylan Asmar, Mac Schwager, Mykel Kochenderfer\n\nFigure\n\nHyperplane arrangement of a twodimensional space containing two obstacles (colored in gray).The robot is located inside the pink polytope, surrounded by three adjacent obstacle-free polytopes.Each hyperplane on the boundary of the robot's polytope corresponds to one of the nonredundant constraints in eq.(4).(b)Graph derived from the hyperplane arrangement.The nodes on the graph designate polytopes, and edges designate transitions to adjacent polytopes.To estimate the human's preference, the robot updates a posterior over the goal and over which of the graph transitions φ 1 , φ 2 and φ 3 is preferred by the human.(c)Example preference defined over the graph.The location of the goal is indicated in yellow in the lower right polytope.For each node, the outgoing pink arrow designates the edge on the graph corresponding to the preferred transition between polytopes.\nSimple, 10 × 10, 8 polytopes.(b) Map 2: Office, 10 × 10, 56 polytopes.(c) Map 3: Classroom, 20 × 20, 73 polytopes.(d) Sampled observations and robot's executed trajectories.\nFig.5: Maps used for simulating the robot navigation problem with path preferences.In (d), the heading angles observed are indicated with arrows.The goal is indicated with a pink circle, and the orange robot corresponds to the starting location.The blue robot follows a policy that accounts for path preference, while the green robot does not.The opacity of the robots increases with time.\nMap 1 problem setup and example realizations for goal-only (green) and path preference (blue) solution methods.The robot starts at the lower left corner of the environment, and the goal of the task (pink circle) is in the upper left area.The robot does not know which goal, among 10 options (shown in light blue squares), is the correct goal.The human provides noisy observations, indicated by arrows, at each iteration.The green robot selects actions according to the goal-only baseline, and the blue robot uses our proposed method to infer path preferences.The polytopes composing G are drawn in blue.Probability of correct goal.WLPHVWHS +J (c) Entropy of goal distribution g.\nFig. 6: Probability of the correct goal, fig.6b, and entropy of the goal belief distribution P (g), fig.6c, for the same problem setup, fig.6a.In this problem instance, the human's preference is to go to the goal by passing on the right side of the obstacle.Results are averaged over 50 runs and the area filled represents one standard deviation above and below the mean value.The goal-only baseline shows an over-confident prediction (shown by the strong reduction in belief entropy) that the correct goal is less likely, making it more difficult to reach the correct goal compared to a method that accounts for path preference.\nSuccess rates in the simple environment (Map 1).The results are averaged over 6 randomly sampled problem instances (start location, goal location, and goal possibilities), and over 50 runs per problem instance.∆T is the number of time steps separating two consecutive human inputs.The robot's mission time is Tmax = 30 time steps.We selected γ h = 1.5, corresponding to relatively noisy human inputs and making the problem more difficult to solve for the robot.\nComputation times for Goal Only and Path Preference methods on Map 1 (fig.5a),Map 2 (fig.5b), and Map 3 (fig.5c),averaged over 100 runs with randomly sampled problem instances.The 95 % confidence interval is provided with the mean.We evaluate computation time at the first iteration of each run (where the search depth takes on its highest value Tmax).\n\nabstract\n\nRobots that can effectively understand human intentions from actions are crucial for successful human-robot collaboration. In this work, we address the challenge of a robot navigating towards an unknown goal while also accounting for a human's preference for a particular path in the presence of obstacles.\nThis problem is particularly challenging when both the goal and path preference are unknown a priori. To overcome this challenge, we propose a method for encoding and inferring path preference online using a partitioning of the space into polytopes. Our approach enables joint inference over the goal and path preference using a stochastic observation model for the human.\nWe evaluate our method on an unknown-goal navigation problem with sparse human interventions, and find that it outperforms baseline approaches as the human's inputs become increasingly sparse. We find that the time required to update the robot's belief does not increase with the complexity of the environment, which makes our method suitable for online applications.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nCollaboration between humans and robots has become increasingly important and one key aspect of this collaboration is the ability for robots to adapt to human decisions. In many scenarios, such as a robot navigating through a busy room to deliver an item, it is important for the robot to take into account human preferences.\nFor instance, humans may prefer a specific path that would allow their colleagues to notice the item being delivered, but this preference may change dynamically based on various factors such as changes in the environment or unforeseen circumstances. While some preferences can be incorporated into the path-planning process, accommodating dynamic user preferences in real-time remains challenging.\nIn this paper, we propose a way to enable robots to adapt to human preferences dynamically by leveraging real-time feedback to inform decision-making. In this work, we tackle the problem of robot navigation in which the robot cannot observe the goal or the preferred path to the goal, but must make navigation decisions that are influenced by humans through recommended actions.\nPrior work has explored how to adapt to a human's preference through feedback, but such approaches often require a high level of intervention, which can be time-consuming and impractical in real-world scenarios. To optimize the use of human input and quickly infer the human's preference, Fig. : An autonomous robot navigates in a simulated classroom towards a goal location (pink circle).\nAt the start of its mission, it receives direction indications (arrows) from a human that indicate which path it should take to get to the goal. In this scenario, the human wants the robot to go around the desks on the right side of the classroom. A robot that does not reason over path preferences (green) will take the shortest path to the goal regardless of the human's input.\nOur method (blue) infers the human's path preference from these indications and adapts to their recommendations. we propose an approach that leverages probabilistic representations of human preference and incorporates real-time feedback. Previous research by Bajcsy et al. considered an online adaptation problem in a manipulation task, where the person can apply forces to the robot to indicate their preferences.\nBy allowing the robot to continue its task while taking into account a probabilistic representation of human preference, their approach does not require frequent inputs. Building on this idea, we adopt a similar approach to adapt to a human's preference in the context of a robot autonomously navigating through a known environment, such as a cluttered office space.\nSpecifically, we focus on allowing the human to influence the robot's trajectory with respect to obstacles, by providing guidance on preferred routes or paths, while the robot continues to execute its task. Paths can be represented using homotopy classes . However, homotopies can pose computational challenges when used to encode and infer human preferences.\nWhen the robot maintains a belief over homotopy classes, the inference problem can become exponentially complex with the number of obstacles in the space. Additionally, when the goal is unknown, the number of variables increases with the number of candidate destinations. This complexity can render the decision-making problem intractable.\nOur solution is to encode path preference based on a partitioning of the environment into polytopes . This representation allows path preferences to be expressed as sets of preferred transitions between adjacent polytopes. Paths belonging to different homotopy classes correspond to different sequences of transitions.\nBy leveraging conditional independence assumptions, we can make the Bayesian inference problem tractable. These assumptions exploit the fact that human actions provide information about the path in a piece-wise manner. For example, indicating a preference for navigating around a particular obstacle only provides information about the local area and not the entire path.\nFinally, after updating its belief representation over the human's preference, the robot can adapt to indications by replanning online. Our contributions are as follows. • We formulate the human-robot collaboration problem as a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) where both the goal of the task and the human's path preference are unknown random variables.\n• We propose an encoding of a human's path preference using a partitioning of the environment into polytopes, along with conditional independence assumptions that make the Bayesian inference problem tractable to infer the task goal and path preference online. • Through simulations in two environments of different sizes and complexity, we show that our method is effective for solving problems where the robot must reach a goal that is unknown a-priori while simultaneously adapting to a human's indications.\nOur method shows higher success rates compared to baseline approaches when the human inputs are sparse. Our approach enables a robot to make effective navigation decisions in collaboration with a human, even when the goal and path preference are not known in advance, and with minimal human input. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in shared autonomy and interactive systems, where humans and robots work together to accomplish tasks.\nSeveral approaches have been proposed to address the challenge of enabling effective collaboration between human and robot agents while still achieving high task performance. Losey et al. and Jeon, Losey, and Sadigh propose a framework where a human operator is given control of a task-relevant latent action space while an autonomous system handles the rest.\nDragan and Srinivasa present a formalism for arbitrating between a user's input and a robot's policy when both human and robot share control of the same action space. Cognetti et al. [7] provide a method for real-time modifications of a path, . . . Fig. : We model the intent inference problem with the above diagram.\nAt each step in time, the robot receives an observation ot from the human conditioned on its current location st, the intended goal g, and the human's path preference θ. The robot updates its belief over g and θ and transitions to a next location st+1. while Hagenow et al. present a method that allows an outside agent to modify key robot state variables and blends the changes with the original control.\nHowever, a common challenge of these approaches is the high level of intervention required from humans. Best and Fitch propose a method for predicting an agent's intended trajectory from observations. Rather than maintaining a belief over the agent's future path, they infer the agent's intended goal among a set of candidate locations at the boundary of the space.\nThis approach provides information on where the agent is heading and generates a distribution of candidate future trajectories for the agent. Inferring the goal of the task among a discrete set of candidates is also relevant to the area of shared autonomy. Javdani, Srinivasa, and Bagnell propose a formalism for shared control of a robotic arm, where the robot must assist the human in picking up an object but needs to infer which object the human has chosen from joystick inputs.\nPlanning with homotopy class constraints is useful in problems where the robot's requirements are given with respect to obstacles, and Yi, Goodrich, and Seppi consider topological constraints provided by human operators. Bhattacharya propose an efficient algorithm for solving pathplanning problems under homotopic constraints.\nHowever, the number of homotopy classes for a given problem can be infinite, and as the robot changes location and updates its representation of the world, carrying out inference over homotopy classes in a dynamic environment requires recomputing the set of homotopies at every iteration, making the belief update challenging.\nPrior work has addressed the challenge of shared autonomy by considering how robots can infer a human's intended goal, or how they can infer the preferred path to a goal. However, we argue that inferring the goal and the path as separate problems can lead to over-confidence in incorrect beliefs about the user's preferences.\nTo illustrate this point, consider the following scenario: a robot and a human are collaborating to move an object from one end of a room to Fig. : Using the hyperplanes composing the H-representation of each obstacle, we construct a hyperplane arrangement of the obstacle-free space (a). We define the human's preference for the robot's one step action choices as the posterior distribution (given all human input up to that point) over transitions from the current to the neighboring polytopes, i.e. edges on the graph.\nEach time the robot transitions to a new polytope, the set of neighbor polytopes and the distribution over human preferences are updated. another, but there is an obstacle in the way. The human would like the robot to take a path around the obstacle on the left, even though the goal is on the right. If the robot only infers the goal from the human's inputs, it may incorrectly assume that the goal is on the right, and become over-confident in this belief.\nOn the other hand, if the robot only infers the preferred path, it may mistakenly assume that the goal is on the left, leading to a failure in completing the task. To overcome these challenges, our work proposes a joint inference approach that considers both the human's intended goal and their preferred path to that goal.\nSpecifically, we model the human's preference over different homotopy classes and leverage a conditional independence assumption to provide a tractable solution. In our approach, we assume that the human's inputs are noisily rational conditioned on both the goal and the preference. By jointly inferring the goal and path preference, we can avoid over-confidence in incorrect beliefs about the user's preferences, leading to improved system performance.\nWe consider the problem of robot navigation in a known environment to an unknown destination, where a human can intervene and provide a heading direction to the robot using a joystick or force cues. The human also has a preference on which path the robot should take with respect to obstacles, and our objective is for the robot to understand the human's intentions and execute the task with minimal interventions.\nLet g be a discrete random variable denoting the goal of the task, belonging to a set of candidates Ω g , and let θ be a discrete-valued random variable representing the human's path preference, belonging to a set of possible preferences Θ. The physical location of the robot at time index t is denoted by s t ∈ R 2 , and the robot's action at time index t, belonging to some action space A, is denoted by a t .\nThe transition model T (s t+1 | s t , a t ) is deterministic, meaning the robot has full control over its future location. At any time step, the human may provide an observation to the robot. When the human intervenes, the robot receives a direction (heading angle) that can be mapped to a future location in space.\nMore specifically, we map the direction to an intended location, which is the resulting robot location after advancing in the indicated direction for one time step. For simplicity, we consider that the robot directly makes an observation o t of the location indicated by the human. We assume that the robot has a stochastic observation model for the human P (o t | s t , g, θ) that is conditioned on both the goal of the task g and the human's preferred path θ.\nWe further assume that having chosen a goal and path preference, the human takes actions to noisily minimize a cost function C g,θ that measures the cost of moving from the robot's current location to the goal along the preferred path. For example, C g,θ (s t , o t ) can be the length of the shortest path from location s t to the goal g after taking a first step to o t , and constrained by path preference θ.\nWe use C g,θ to induce a probability distribution over observations, given by: where γ h is a hyperparameter that designates the rationality coefficient. This model assumes the human will pick the lowest cost action with the highest probability and the likelihood of an action decreases exponentially with the increase in cost .\nOur inclusion of the path preference θ sets our approach apart from . The model is shown in fig. represented as a Bayesian Network.\n\nInference\n\nAt each time step where the human provides an observation, the posterior P (g, θ) is given through the Bayesian update We note that the number of Bayesian updates required at each iteration to update the belief is equal to the cardinality of Ω g × Θ. In addition, each Bayesian update involves computing C g,θ ( .\n, . ) in eq. ( ), which involves solving an optimization problem (such as a shortest path problem). In section IV, we propose a specific encoding of preference θ for resolving eq. ( ), while ensuring the number of computations of the cost C g,θ (., .) per update does not grow exponentially with the number of obstacles.\n\nDecision Making\n\nWe consider a navigation problem where the robot receives reward according to the model R(s t , g, θ, a t ). We wish to find the optimal policy π that maximizes the expected discounted sum of future rewards, with discount factor γ. The above problem is a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) .\nIn this section, we propose an encoding of human's path preference θ for computing the posterior in eq. ( ). Devifrom the concept of homotopy classes, we define the preference according to a partitioning of the environment into polytopes, as shown in fig. , creating a hyperplane arrangement of the space.\nHyperplane arrangements have been used by Vincent and Schwager in the context of Neural Network verification. In our setting, we leverage this representation to define path preferences as preferred transitions between adjacent regions of the space.\n\nHyperplane Arrangement\n\nWe assume a two-dimensional environment composed of m polytopic obstacles, each defined by their half-space representation (H-representation) where A i ∈ R di×2 and b i ∈ R di , and where d i is the number of edges (hyperplanes) composing polytope i. Let n = i d i be the total number of hyperplanes. We leverage each obstacle's H-representation to construct a hyperplane arrangement of the environment as shown in fig.\n.e. a partitioning of the space into polytopes. More specifically, each location in space belongs to a polytope j for which we can write an H-representation of the form where α j i ∈ {−1, 1} di is a vector specific to polytope j and obstacle i corresponding to the relative position of any point in the set with respect to each hyperplane in O i .\nFig. : Intent inference model in a hyperplane arrangement of the obstacle free space. We spatially decompose the preference θ into a set of preferred neighboring polytopes per region of the space. Within each polytope j, the human preference pj is a discrete distribution over the preferred neighbor in N (j).\nWe assume that for a location st belonging to polytope j, and given goal g and preference pj, the observation ot and any other preference p i,i =j are conditionally independent. Concatenating elements from each obstacle's Hrepresentation, we can write polytope j's H-representation as where Some of the constraints in eq. ( ) (corresponding to rows of A, b and α j ) are redundant, i.e. the set P j does not change upon their removal.\nWe can further reduce the Hrepresentation of a polytope to include only non-redundant constraints. By removing the rows corresponding to redundant constraints, we obtain new matrices A j e , b j e and α j e such that we can write the polytope's reduced H-representation as The non-redundant constraints correspond to edges of the polytope.\nIn other words, as the robot continually moves in space, the first hyperplane that it will cross upon exiting the polytope will correspond to one of the polytope's nonredundant constraints. Vincent and Schwager outline an iterative method for removing redundant constraints by solving n linear programs.\nWe use this method in practice for computing α j e for each polytope. We can now characterize each polytope by a vector α j e ∈ {−1, 1} n j e , where n j e ≤ n is the number of essential constraints of the polytope. The polytopes P j partition the environment into a hyperplane arrangement.\n\nPath Preference\n\nIn this section, we provide a definition of preference θ according to a graphical representation of the environment based on the hyperplane arrangement. Under this representation, a path preference corresponds to a set of preferred transitions. In other words, for each polytope in the space, the human will have a preference to which neighboring polytope they wish to transition.\nLet G := (V, E) be an undirected graph, where vertices are obstacle-free polytopes, and edges connect two adjacent polytopes. Each polytope is described by a unique vector α j as defined in eq. ( ). Two polytopes are adjacent if they share non-redundant constraints (rows in eq. ( )) corresponding to the same hyperplane (i.e. they are on opposite sides of the hyperplane).\nLet N (v) be the set of neighbors of a vertex v. For each vertex, we denote p v the discrete-valued random variable describing which edge in N (v) the human intends to transition to. Using this formalism, we define a path preference as the set of preferred transitions over all nodes in the graph, Let m θ = v∈V |N (v)| be the cardinality of Θ, and m g = |Ω g | the number of possible goals.\nA priori, the number of Bayesian updates required to update the belief at every iteration should be m θ × m g . Now, let us assume the conditional independence relationships described by the new problem diagram in fig. . More specifically, we introduce the assumption that conditioned on a robot location s t , the goal g, and the preference for the corresponding vertex p v in the graph, the observation o t and the preference for any other vertex are conditionally independent.\nIn other words, the observations the human provides can be defined conditioned only on the robot location, the goal, and the human's preference for its current vertex p v . By introducing this assumption, each update step only requires updating the joint (p v , g), reducing the number of cost computations to |N (v)| × m g .\nWe can notice that by introducing this assumption, we removed the direct relationship between the number of polytopes in the environment and the complexity of the Bayesian update in eq. ( ). In practice, components of θ are not mutually independent. For example, if the human preference at a vertex v 1 is\n, it is unlikely that the human will also prefer p v2 = (v 2 , v 1 ) (turning back). We can improve our model by assuming a dependent relationship between preferences for adjacent edges, which does not significantly increase the complexity of the inference problem. An interesting property of our encoding is that any two paths that belong to different homotopy classes will cross different sequences of polytopes, i.e. they correspond to a different sequence of edges on G.\nThis can be proved by contradiction. Let us suppose that two continuous trajectories ξ 1 and ξ 2 , with the same start and end points and that do not intersect any obstacle, traverse the same regions in G in the same order. From the construction of the hyperplane arrangement, each polytope that the paths traverse through is obstacle-free.\nTherefore, within each polytope, there is no obstacle in the area located in between the portions of ξ 1 and ξ 2 that belong to the region. A smooth transformation of ξ 1 into ξ 2 can be obtained by transforming each portion of ξ 1 belonging to the polytopes it intersects into the corresponding portion of ξ 2 for the same polytopes, where the extremities of the trajectory portions are connected to one another along the polytope's edges (where the same edge is crossed by both paths).\nAlong this transformation, the paths do not intersect any obstacle, and therefore ξ 1 and ξ 2 belong to the same homotopy class.\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nWe evaluate our model on a simulated navigation task where the robot must reach a goal that is unknown a priori while respecting the path preferences indicated by a human. The robot navigates in a grid world containing obstacles. The transition model is deterministic: the robot selects an adjacent location on the grid to reach at the next time step.\nThe robot is also allowed to take diagonal actions. Each location s t in the map can be mapped to a vertex v t ∈ G. Therefore, the actions leading to locations mapped to different vertices correspond to edges on the graph. We note f (s t , a t ) the edge crossed by taking action a t from location s t .\nThe robot is given a mission time limit T max for reaching the goal. In this problem, we assume that the human selects actions to noisily minimize a cost function C g,θ , where θ is defined as per eq. ( ), corresponding to the length of the shortest path to the goal constrained by the preference (where the robot is only allowed to make transitions on G along preferred edges).\nMore specifically, where δ(s t , g | o t , p vt ) designates the length of the shortest path from s t to g passing by o t and constrained by preference p vt . This is a slight variant of the cost function proposed by Best and Fitch , where we add in a conditioning on the path preference. We compute costs by running the A path planning algorithm on the environment maps (grid worlds with diagonal actions) and impose preference constraints by pruning invalid transitions from the search tree.\nReward model. At each step in time, the robot receives a reward which is a sum of three components: a goal-specific reward a preference-specific reward or penalty We compute solutions to the POMDP defined in section III-B with the online solver POMCP , and with the particularity that within the rollouts, the robot does not expect to collect human inputs.\nEach time a solution is computed, the robot takes an action and may receive an observation. If it does, it updates its belief distribution over the unknown problem variables and resolves the POMDP over a receding horizon.\n\nBaselines\n\n• Goal only. The robot solves the POMDP while ignoring the effects of path preference. Similarly to , we assume the human is taking action to minimize a goaldependent cost C g (s t , o t ) = δ(s t , g | o t ), where the conditioning on the preference is removed. We also omit the path preference's contribution to the reward R pref .\n• Compliant. The robot complies with the human input, but does not take an initiative. If the user stops providing information, the robot continues in the last direction indicated for 5 time steps (conserving its momentum), then stops. • Blended. We designed an arbitration function to decide between our proposed policy (accounting for path preferences) and the user's recommendation when the robot receives inputs.\nOur metric to evaluate confidence in the robot's prediction for the purpose of arbitration is the entropy of the intention distribution H(g, p i ), where p i denotes the preferred neighbor for the current region. Because our representation of the world is discrete, the arbitration is given by a step function.\nDenoted by U , the action corresponding to the human's input, and P , the robot's prediction for the optimal action, we write the policy where we chose h = 1.6 as the confidence threshold.\n\nResults\n\nWhen evaluating the algorithm, we consider that a run is successful if the robot reached the goal within its allocated mission time T max and only made transitions between graph vertices corresponding to the human's preferences. We vary the time delay between human inputs, from constant guidance (∆ T = 1) to only a single observation (∆ T ≥ T max ).\nSuccess rates. Table I reports the success rates for experiments conducted over six randomly sampled problem instances and 50 runs per instance in Map 1 (fig. ). When the human provides inputs at every iteration, the compliant policy shows the highest success rates. However, as ∆ T increases, the compliant robot is not able to accomplish the task within the allotted time as it does not receive sufficient inputs to do so, and performance decreases compared to the autonomous baselines.\nWe find that in these runs, accounting for path preference consistently improves performance compared with the goal-only baseline. Results also show that blending the user's input with the robot's policy (Path Preference + Blend) when the human provides information leads to improved performance. Belief entropy.\nFigure shows a challenging problem instance where the directions the human provides do not align directly with the shortest path to the goal. By ignoring the effects of preferences in the problem model (goal only), the robot quickly infers from observations that the upper left goal is less likely than others (P (g) drops).\nThe strong decrease in entropy shows that the robot becomes overconfident in this prediction. Overconfidence in an incorrect goal will prevent the agent from finding the correct goal once the human's indications directly align with it, as it needs to correct for the wrong predictions, as shown in the path realization (fig.\n). In this realization, the goal-only method (green robot) fails to search the upper left area within the allotted time. By accounting for path preferences in its model, the blue robot's entropy over the goal distribution decreases more steadily, allowing for it to leverage the human's latest observations and reach the goal successfully.\nshows an over-confident prediction (shown by the strong reduction in belief entropy) that the correct goal is less likely, making it more difficult to reach the correct goal compared to a method that accounts for path preference. Computation time. In table II we provide the time required to solve the POMDP, and the time required to update the robot's belief as it receives new observations.\nWe compute solutions on three maps: a simple 10 × 10 grid world with 8 polytopes (fig. ), a 10 × 10 grid world with 56 polytopes (fig. ), and a 20×20 grid world with 73 polytopes (fig. ). The latter environment being larger, we increase the mission time and the depth of the search tree in POMCP from T max = 30 (Map 1 and Map 2) to T max = 60 (Map 3).\nWe do not notice an increase in the time required to update the robot's belief with an increase in problem complexity, which is consistent with our observation that the complexity of the Bayesian update should not increase with the number of obstacles or polytopes. On the contrary, the belief update time on Map 2 and Map 3, containing more obstacles, is reduced compared to the first map.\nMore obstacles result in fewer iterations when solving the constrained shortest path problem with A . Adding constraints due to the obstacles and polytopes reduces the size of the A search tree. C. Limitations Simulation environments. In our simulations, we hardcoded the preference policy over the maps (e.g. in Map 1, go around the table counter-clockwise).\nWe randomly sampled problem instances (start and goal locations, and goal options) to reduce the bias introduced by these preference choices. To best evaluate and compare the different approaches, it would be best to sample preferences among a distribution of preferences chosen by a human (for example, from benchmarks resulting from a collection of data).\nCreating such a benchmark is an interesting direction for future work. Hyperplane arrangement construction. The main limitation of our approach is that the size and geometry of each polytope depends strongly on the geometry of the obstacles, as seen in fig. . Because of this, the robot can make predictions over preferences that are too refined compared with the topology of the environment.\nA direct consequence is that when the size of the polytopes is small, the information provided by the human can be incorrectly interpreted as a preference on the robot's immediate action. Our method can be improved by changing the structure of the hyperplane arrangement so that it relies on the topology of the environment, but does not vary strongly with the geometry of the features in the environment.\nFor this purpose, topometric maps and region construction algorithms are promising directions. We presented an approach for encoding and inferring a human's path preference in an environment with obstacles. By leveraging a partitioning of the space into polytopes and a stochastic observation model, our method allows for joint inference over the goal and path preference even when both are unknown a-priori.\nOur experiments on an unknown-goal navigation problem with sparse human interventions demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach and its suitability for online applications. The time required to update the robot's belief does not increase with the complexity of the environment, which further highlights the practicality of our method.", "answers": ["The time required to update the belief does not increase with the complexity of the environment."], "length": 5665, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "aeb34faf1b5507b32d6d5b49474ea5c71d4ec2aa84a82d93"}
{"input": "What did Justice Kennedy argue about Quill in Direct Marketing Ass'n v. Brohl?", "context": "South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc. - Harvard Law Review\nFourth Circuit Invalidates Maryland Statute Regulating Price Gouging in the Sale of Generic Drugs.\nSouth Dakota Supreme Court Holds Unconstitutional State Law Requiring Internet Retailers Without In-State Physical Presence to Remit Sales Tax.\nJudicial junk, the Court has long thought, is easier to scrap when the erroneous precedent cannot be fixed by Congress, as in constitutional cases.1× 1. See Burnet v. Coronado Oil & Gas Co., 285 U.S. 393, 405–10 (1932) (Brandeis, J., dissenting); Lee Epstein, William M. Landes & Adam Liptak, The Decision to Depart (or Not) from Constitutional Precedent: An Empirical Study of the Roberts Court, 90 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1115, 1116 (2015) (“[Justice Brandeis’s] dissenting opinion . . . now has the status of black letter law.”). On the flip side, whenever a bad precedent can be corrected by Congress, stare decisis applies with “special force.”2× 2. See Patterson v. McLean Credit Union, 491 U.S. 164, 172–73 (1989). The Court, following Justice Brandeis, usually articulates the rule as distinguishing between “constitutional” and “statutory” precedents. See, e.g., id. But the distinction is occasionally said to be between “constitutional” and “nonconstitutional cases.” See, e.g., Glidden Co. v. Zdanok, 370 U.S. 530, 543 (1962) (plurality opinion). Nomenclature aside, the Court has — until now — adhered to Justice Brandeis’s key insight that the important factor is whether or not the mistake may be legislatively corrected. Last Term, in South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc.,3× 3. 138 S. Ct. 2080 (2018). the Court tinkered with this thinking in overruling an outdated dormant commerce clause precedent. Dormant commerce clause decisions technically produce constitutional holdings, but Congress may override them at will.4× 4. See Prudential Ins. Co. v. Benjamin, 328 U.S. 408, 421–27 (1946). Under the usual logic of stare decisis, it should take special force to dislodge such precedents. But Wayfair applied the weakened stare decisis of constitutional cases, asserting that the Court must “address a false constitutional premise . . . . whether or not Congress can or will act.”5× 5. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2096–97.\nEmerging from Wayfair is an odd and ominous development in stare decisis doctrine. Odd, because it turns on a formal classification instead of on Congress’s practical ability to fix the problem. Ominous, because the Court’s logic leads far past the dormant commerce clause. Wayfair grants only feeble stare decisis to precedents that set a “constitutional default rule,”6× 6. Id. at 2096 (“While . . . Congress has the authority to change the physical presence rule, Congress cannot change the constitutional default rule.”). meaning constitutional decisions that allow for legislative adjustment or override. This new stare decisis analysis makes other precedents setting constitutional default rules more vulnerable — including, perhaps, mainstays of criminal procedure like Miranda v. Arizona7× 7. 384 U.S. 436 (1966). and Mapp v. Ohio.8× 8. 367 U.S. 643 (1961).\nSince its 1967 decision in National Bellas Hess, Inc. v. Department of Revenue,9× 9. 386 U.S. 753 (1967). the Court has held that, under the “dormant” or “negative” implication of the Commerce Clause,10× 10. The dormant or negative commerce clause is a judicial derivation from the Commerce Clause “prohibiting States from discriminating against or imposing excessive burdens on interstate commerce without congressional approval,” which “strikes at one of the chief evils that led to the adoption of the Constitution, namely, state tariffs and other laws that burdened interstate commerce.” Comptroller of the Treasury of Md. v. Wynne, 135 S. Ct. 1787, 1794 (2015). states may not compel remote sellers with no physical presence in the state to collect and remit sales taxes.11× 11. See Bellas Hess, 386 U.S. at 759–60. In Quill Corp. v. North Dakota,12× 12. 504 U.S. 298 (1992). the Court refused to overrule the “bright-line, physical-presence requirement” of Bellas Hess, leaning heavily on stare decisis.13× 13. Id. at 317–18. Three Justices joined a concurrence explaining that their decision rested solely “on the basis of stare decisis.” Id. at 320 (Scalia, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment). So the physical presence test remained the law of the land while the internet conquered the earth. Justice Kennedy had joined the Quill majority and Justice Scalia’s concurring opinion emphasizing stare decisis, but by 2015 he had second thoughts. Writing separately in Direct Marketing Ass’n v. Brohl,14× 14. 135 S. Ct. 1124 (2015). Justice Kennedy acknowledged that “[t]he Internet has caused far-reaching systemic and structural changes in the economy” and therefore “Quill now harms States to a degree far greater than could have been anticipated earlier.”15× 15. Id. at 1135 (Kennedy, J., concurring). He concluded with the wish that “[t]he legal system should find an appropriate case for this Court to reexamine Quill and Bellas Hess.”16× 16. Id.\nSeldom has a concurring opinion signed by a lone Justice prompted a state to officially declare an emergency. Yet in 2016, in response to Justice Kennedy’s overture, the South Dakota legislature passed a law, S.B. 106, “to provide for the collection of sales taxes from certain remote sellers . . . and to declare an emergency.”17× 17. 2016 S.D. Sess. Laws ch. 70 pmbl. 217 (codified at S.D. Codified Laws § 10-64 (2017)). It required every remote seller to collect and remit sales tax if the seller’s business in South Dakota comprised either a “gross revenue” greater than $100,000 or at least 200 “separate transactions” within one calendar year.18× 18. Id. § 1. Significantly, the law did not apply retroactively.19× 19. Id. § 5. The “emergency” declaration was necessary to give the law immediate effect, for the purpose of “permitting the most expeditious possible review of the constitutionality of this law” by the U.S. Supreme Court.20× 20. Id. § 8(8). As Justice Alito put it, the “South Dakota law [was] obviously a test case.”21× 21. Transcript of Oral Argument at 27, Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. 2080 (No. 17-494), https://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/2017/17-494_7lho.pdf [https://perma.cc/8HYH-VU8N].\nExpeditiously, a group of remote sellers challenged the law. After being sued by South Dakota for refusing to register for the newly required sales tax license, Wayfair, Inc., Overstock.com, Inc., and Newegg, Inc. moved for summary judgment in South Dakota circuit court on the grounds that S.B. 106 was unconstitutional under Quill and Bellas Hess — a point South Dakota conceded, indicating that it was seeking review by the U.S. Supreme Court to overturn Quill.22× 22. State v. Wayfair Inc., 2017 SD 56, ¶¶ 9–11, 901 N.W.2d 754, 759–60. Accordingly, the South Dakota circuit court granted the motion for summary judgment and South Dakota appealed to the state’s highest court.23× 23. Id. ¶ 12, 901 N.W.2d at 760. The South Dakota Supreme Court unanimously affirmed, recognizing that South Dakota’s “arguments on the merits” may be “persuasive” but “Quill remains the controlling precedent.”24× 24. Id. ¶ 18, 901 N.W.2d at 761. See generally Recent Case, State v. Wayfair Inc., 2017 SD 56, 901 N.W.2d 754 (S.D. 2017), 131 Harv. L. Rev. 2089 (2018).\nThe U.S. Supreme Court vacated and remanded.25× 25. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2100. Writing for the Court one last time, Justice Kennedy26× 26. Justices Thomas, Ginsburg, Alito, and Gorsuch joined Justice Kennedy’s opinion. pilloried Quill’s physical presence rule as “arbitrary, formalistic,” “anachronistic,” and “unfair and unjust” to both states and brick-and-mortar retailers.27× 27. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2092, 2095. After all, the rationale of Quill was that remote sellers lacked a sufficiently “substantial nexus” with the state to justify imposing a duty of tax collection.28× 28. Quill Corp. v. North Dakota, 504 U.S. 298, 311 (1992) (quoting Complete Auto Transit, Inc. v. Brady, 430 U.S. 274, 279 (1977)). This was wrong even in the mail-order catalog days of 1967 and 1992, but “the Internet revolution has made [Quill’s] earlier error all the more egregious and harmful.”29× 29. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2097; see also id. at 2092. The rule deprived the states of billions of dollars, since they could not force remote sellers to collect the tax and consumers hardly ever paid it on their own.30× 30. Id. at 2088 (“[C]onsumer compliance rates are notoriously low.”). Quill “serve[d] as a judicially created tax shelter” for remote retailers who do a great deal of business online.31× 31. Id. at 2094.\nSatisfied that Bellas Hess and Quill were wrongly decided, the Court then jumped the hurdle of stare decisis. The Quill Court had feared upsetting reliance interests.32× 32. Quill, 504 U.S. at 317 (“Bellas Hess . . . has engendered substantial reliance and has become part of the basic framework of a sizable industry.”). Wayfair shrugged off this concern, noting that “stare decisis accommodates only ‘legitimate reliance interest[s]’”; by contrast, reliance on the physical presence rule was largely due to consumers evading their use-tax obligations.33× 33. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2098 (alteration in original) (quoting United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 824 (1982)). Quill had also appealed to Congress’s ultimate authority over interstate commerce as a reason to abide by a precedent, even if wrongly decided.34× 34. See Quill, 504 U.S. at 318–19; id. at 320 (Scalia, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment) (“Congress . . . can change the rule of Bellas Hess by simply saying so.”). But Wayfair denied that Congress’s ability to change the law was a proper consideration:\nWhile it can be conceded that Congress has the authority to change the physical presence rule, Congress cannot change the constitutional default rule. It is inconsistent with the Court’s proper role to ask Congress to address a false constitutional premise of this Court’s own creation. Courts have acted as the front line of review in this limited sphere; and hence it is important that their principles be accurate and logical, whether or not Congress can or will act in response.35× 35. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2096–97.\nHaving dispensed with the physical presence rule, the Court remanded the case to the South Dakota courts to determine in the first instance “whether some other principle in the Court’s Commerce Clause doctrine might invalidate the Act.”36× 36. Id. at 2099. But the Court listed “several features [of South Dakota law] that appear[ed] designed to prevent discrimination against or undue burdens upon interstate commerce.” Id.\nJustices Thomas and Gorsuch each filed concurring opinions. Justice Thomas wistfully likened himself to Justice White — who voted for Bellas Hess but against Quill a quarter-century later — and confessed that he “should have joined [Justice White’s dissenting] opinion.”37× 37. Id. at 2100 (Thomas, J., concurring). Justice Thomas added that the “Court’s entire negative Commerce Clause jurisprudence” is wrong and should be abandoned.38× 38. Id. Justice Gorsuch also wrote separately to express skepticism of the Court’s dormant commerce clause jurisprudence, raising “questions for another day” of whether the doctrine “can be squared with the text of the Commerce Clause, justified by stare decisis, or defended as misbranded products of federalism or antidiscrimination imperatives flowing from Article IV’s Privileges and Immunities Clause.”39× 39. Id. at 2100–01 (Gorsuch, J., concurring).\nChief Justice Roberts dissented.40× 40. Justices Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan joined the Chief Justice’s dissent. Surprisingly, the dissenting Justices “agree[d] that Bellas Hess was wrongly decided, for many of the reasons given by the Court.”41× 41. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2101 (Roberts, C.J., dissenting). The dispute between the majority and the dissent turned entirely on the principles and application of stare decisis. Chief Justice Roberts argued that whether or how to reverse Quill should be left to Congress, which “has the flexibility to address these questions in a wide variety of ways” and “can focus directly on current policy concerns rather than past legal mistakes.”42× 42. Id. at 2104. He also pointed to the “baffling” burdens of compliance with the idiosyncratic tax codes of “[o]ver 10,000 jurisdictions,” particularly for small businesses, and doubted that new “software” — the majority’s proposed solution to this mess43× 43. Id. at 2098 (majority opinion) (“Eventually, software that is available at a reasonable cost may make it easier for small businesses to cope with these problems.”). — would soon solve the problem.44× 44. Id. at 2103–04 (Roberts, C.J., dissenting). In Bellas Hess, the Court reasoned that the dormant commerce clause protects interstate business from being “entangle[d] . . . in a virtual welter of complicated obligations to local jurisdictions.” Nat’l Bellas Hess, Inc. v. Dep’t of Revenue, 386 U.S. 753, 759–60 (1967). The dissent replied that the Court “vastly underestimate[d] the skill of contemporary man and his machines.” Id. at 766 (Fortas, J., dissenting). The dispute in Wayfair over whether software is up to the task effectively reprised the old debate from Bellas Hess, only this time couched as part of the stare decisis inquiry’s concern for reliance interests rather than as a matter of dormant commerce clause doctrine. While Wayfair acknowledged that “[c]omplex state tax systems could have the effect of discriminating against interstate commerce,” 138 S. Ct. at 2099, the Court remarked that “[t]he physical presence rule is a poor proxy” for an inquiry into any actual burdens imposed on interstate commerce, id. at 2093.\nChief Justice Roberts emphasized that a “heightened form of stare decisis”45× 45. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2102 (Roberts, C.J., dissenting). applies when “Congress . . . can, if it wishes, override this Court’s decisions with contrary legislation.”46× 46. Id. at 2101 (first citing Michigan v. Bay Mills Indian Cmty., 134 S. Ct. 2024, 2036 (2014) (tribal sovereign immunity); then citing Kimble v. Marvel Entm’t, LLC, 135 S. Ct. 2401, 2409 (2015) (statutory interpretation); and then citing Halliburton Co. v. Erica P. John Fund, Inc., 134 S. Ct. 2398, 2411 (2014) (judicially created doctrine implementing a judicially created cause of action)). In Quill, the Chief Justice noted, the Court had taken to heart that “Congress may be better qualified” and “has the ultimate power to resolve” the question47× 47. Id. at 2102 (quoting Quill Corp. v. North Dakota, 504 U.S. 279, 318 (1992)). while Justice Scalia had “recogniz[ed] that stare decisis has ‘special force’ in the dormant Commerce Clause context due to Congress’s ‘final say over regulation of interstate commerce.’”48× 48. Id. (quoting Quill, 504 U.S. at 320 (Scalia, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment)). Moreover, “[i]f stare decisis applied with special force in Quill, it should be an even greater impediment” afterward since Quill effectively “tossed [the ball] into Congress’s court.”49× 49. Id. (alteration in original) (quoting Kimble, 135 S. Ct. at 2409); cf. Bay Mills, 134 S. Ct. at 2039 n.12 (“When we inform Congress that it has primary responsibility over a sphere of law, and invite Congress to consider a specific issue within that sphere, we cannot deem irrelevant how Congress responds.”). Because the Court invited Congress to act and then “suddenly chang[ed] the ground rules, the Court may have waylaid Congress’s consideration of the issue.”50× 50. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2102–03 (Roberts, C.J., dissenting).\nIn Wayfair, the Court applied the flimsier form of stare decisis to a precedent that could have been overruled by Congress. It did so in the context of a dormant commerce clause case, but Wayfair’s logic extends to all constitutional default rules — that is, constitutional decisions that Congress remains free to change. Not only does Wayfair deviate from the Court’s decades-old stare decisis analysis, it also imperils other precedents that set constitutional default rules.\nThe Court’s reasoning in Wayfair departs from its prior stare decisis analysis. In 1932, Justice Brandeis posited that stare decisis must bend “in cases involving the Federal Constitution, where correction through legislative action is practically impossible.”51× 51. Burnet v. Coronado Oil & Gas Co., 285 U.S. 393, 406–07 (1932) (Brandeis, J., dissenting). The Court has long since adopted his argument,52× 52. See, e.g., Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649, 665 (1944). as well as its corollary — that stare decisis commands “special force in the area of statutory interpretation” where “Congress remains free to alter what [the Court has] done.”53× 53. Patterson v. McLean Credit Union, 491 U.S. 164, 172–73 (1989). For normative evaluations of heightened stare decisis for statutory precedents, see generally Einer Elhauge, Statutory Default Rules: How to Interpret Unclear Legislation 211–23 (2008); and William N. Eskridge, Jr., Overruling Statutory Precedents, 76 Geo. L.J. 1361, 1364–1409 (1988). Justice Brandeis’s logic demands that dormant commerce clause cases, where Congress is free to act, be granted the weightier stare decisis.54× 54. Scholars have noted the curious fact that Justice Brandeis included many dormant commerce clause cases as examples of overruled constitutional precedents. See, e.g., Earl M. Maltz, Commentary, Some Thoughts on the Death of Stare Decisis in Constitutional Law, 1980 Wis. L. Rev. 467, 468–469, 469 n.11. One explanation for this is that Justice Brandeis sought the authority of Chief Justice Taney’s dictum that the Court’s “opinion upon the construction of the Constitution is always open to discussion” — which referred to the dormant commerce clause. See Burnet, 285 U.S. at 408 n.3 (Brandeis, J., dissenting) (quoting The Passenger Cases, 48 U.S. (7 How.) 283, 470 (1849) (Taney, C.J., dissenting)). In Chief Justice Taney’s time, it was thought that Congress could not override the Court’s dormant commerce clause decisions, see Cooley v. Bd. of Wardens, 53 U.S. (12 How.) 299, 321 (1852), so the context of Chief Justice Taney’s dictum does not conflict with Justice Brandeis’s theory of stare decisis. The Court applied this reasoning in Quill, as Chief Justice Roberts underscored.55× 55. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2102 (Roberts, C.J., dissenting).\nYet the Wayfair majority refused to consider Congress’s authority to legislate as a relevant factor for stare decisis.56× 56. Even Justice Kennedy’s earlier opinion in Direct Marketing contemplated judicially overruling Quill, conspicuously neglecting a possible legislative solution. See supra p. 278. The Court even insisted that to do so “is inconsistent with the Court’s proper role,” since Quill embodied “a false constitutional premise of th[e] Court’s own creation.”57× 57. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2096 (emphasis added). This refusal breaks from the practical Brandeisian wisdom that has guided the Court’s treatment of precedent for the better part of a century. The point is not that stare decisis should have ultimately propped up Bellas Hess yet again, as Wayfair’s dissenting Justices maintained. After all, a realistic approach that is alert to each branch’s institutional capacities might have led to the conclusion that Congress was actually ill-equipped to overrule Quill. In this vein, the Court could have sensibly pointed out that Congress is unlikely to stick its neck out with a tax hike (or a look-alike) from which only the states would benefit.58× 58. For two practical arguments to this effect, see Brian Galle, Essay, Kill Quill, Keep the Dormant Commerce Clause: History’s Lessons on Congressional Control of State Taxation, 70 Stan. L. Rev. Online 158, 160–62 (2018), https://review.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2018/03/70-Stan.-L.-Rev.-Online-158-Galle.pdf [https://perma.cc/22YP-P4V5]; Edward A. Zelinsky, The Political Process Argument for Overruling Quill, 82 Brook. L. Rev. 1177, 1191–92 (2017). Indeed, South Dakota advanced such practical arguments in its brief.59× 59. See Petitioner’s Brief at 54, Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. 2080 (No. 17-494) (“Congress has little incentive to act here because it would be (or appear to be) authorizing new or greater tax collections from its constituents, while receiving none of the revenue in return.”). More generally, the Court might have discussed the limits of the states’ influence in the federal system as a reason not to wait for congressional intervention, a topic it has debated on other occasions.60× 60. See Richard H. Pildes, Institutional Formalism and Realism in Constitutional and Public Law, 2013 Sup. Ct. Rev. 1, 30–32; see also Galle, supra note 58, at 159 (“Congress is not a trustworthy guardian of state fiscal power, making continuing judicial involvement a more appealing prospect.”). Or it could have argued that new facts on the ground — namely, the blast of e-commerce that hit like a comet after Quill — overpowered stare decisis of any force, special or plain.61× 61. Two recent studies of stare decisis highlighted the physical presence rule as exemplifying a precedent that may reasonably be overruled due to changed facts. See Bryan A. Garner et al., The Law of Judicial Precedent 364–65 (2016); Randy J. Kozel, Settled Versus Right: A Theory of Precedent 112–13 (2017). It should be noted that the authors of The Law of Judicial Precedent classify the physical presence rule as a constitutional precedent for stare decisis purposes, thus anticipating the Court’s misstep in Wayfair. Garner et al., supra, at 354–65. Because even statutory precedents may sometimes be overruled,62× 62. See Patterson v. McLean Credit Union, 491 U.S. 164, 173–74 (1989) (discussing justifications for overruling statutory precedents). Contra Lawrence C. Marshall, “Let Congress Do It”: The Case for an Absolute Rule of Statutory Stare Decisis, 88 Mich. L. Rev. 177 (1989). the Court could have killed Quill without first planting its constitutional kiss of death.63× 63. Cf. Thomas R. Lee, Stare Decisis in Historical Perspective: From the Founding Era to the Rehnquist Court, 52 Vand. L. Rev. 647, 704 (1999) (“Justice Brandeis’ . . . memorable prose has since become a mandatory part of the burial rite for any constitutional precedent.”).\nThe Court resisted such arguments. Instead, Wayfair reasoned that Congress’s total ability to correct an erroneous decision counts for nothing when the Court gets the Constitution wrong. That such a theory sprouts from a case like Wayfair, which repudiated a “formalistic distinction,”64× 64. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2092. is ironic. Wayfair’s stare decisis analysis resorts to the formalism of making constitutional a “magic” word65× 65. See Transcript of Oral Argument, supra note 21, at 12. rather than asking whether Congress can step in.\nMoreover, the Court’s new thinking on stare decisis threatens other constitutional default rules. Wayfair now stands for the proposition that a “constitutional default rule” — a term the Court apparently lifted from South Dakota’s reply brief on the merits66× 66. Reply Brief at 22, Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. 2080 (No. 17-494) (“Congress is polarized, which makes it critical . . . to get the constitutional default rule right.”). — gets only weakened stare decisis. To appreciate why this holding matters, it is worth exploring the concept and scope of constitutional default rules. Contract theory describes default rules as legal rules that the parties may “contract around.”67× 67. See, e.g., Ian Ayres & Robert Gertner, Filling Gaps in Incomplete Contracts: An Economic Theory of Default Rules, 99 Yale L.J. 87, 87 (1989). Although “constitutional default rule” could be read broadly to include a variety of actors and contracting mechanisms,68× 68. See John Ferejohn & Barry Friedman, Toward a Political Theory of Constitutional Default Rules, 33 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 825, 826 (2006) (“When we speak of default rules in constitutional law, we typically are talking about specifications of ways the government can act (or modify its behavior) to get around a constitutional prohibition.”). the Court’s use of the term for purposes of stare decisis may be narrowly defined as judicial precedents of constitutional law that “are ultimately subject to congressional control.”69× 69. Gillian E. Metzger, Congress, Article IV, and Interstate Relations, 120 Harv. L. Rev. 1468, 1525 (2007) (describing judicially enforceable “constitutional default rules imposing obligations on the states in the name of union [that] are ultimately subject to congressional control”). The dormant commerce clause is a paradigmatic constitutional default rule because what the Court does today Congress may undo tomorrow. Justice Scalia declared this fact “[t]he clearest sign that the negative Commerce Clause is a judicial fraud,” for “[h]ow could congressional consent lift a constitutional prohibition?”70× 70. Comptroller of the Treasury of Md. v. Wynne, 135 S. Ct. 1787, 1808 (2015) (Scalia, J., dissenting). But that’s what a constitutional default rule is. The Court has allowed Congress to overturn its dormant commerce clause cases since 1891.71× 71. See In re Rahrer, 140 U.S. 545, 560–62 (1891).\nDormant commerce clause cases are not the only constitutional default rules. Professor Laurence Tribe’s treatise identifies two others.72× 72. 1 Laurence H. Tribe, American Constitutional Law § 6-35 (3d ed. 2000). And in a groundbreaking article, Professor Henry Monaghan revealed “a substructure of substantive, procedural, and remedial rules” forming “a constitutional common law subject to amendment, modification, or even reversal by Congress.”73× 73. Henry P. Monaghan, The Supreme Court, 1974 Term — Foreword: Constitutional Common Law, 89 Harv. L. Rev. 1, 2–3 (1975); see also Susan R. Klein, Identifying and (Re)Formulating Prophylactic Rules, Safe Harbors, and Incidental Rights in Constitutional Criminal Procedure, 99 Mich. L. Rev. 1030 (2001) (further developing Monaghan’s theory in criminal procedure context). What follows is a list of six lines of cases beyond the dormant commerce clause that may be fairly described as constitutional default rules. The first two are drawn from Tribe’s treatise while the next four are found in Monaghan’s article:\n(1) State Taxation of Federal Instrumentalities: States may not tax instrumentalities of the federal government74× 74. McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316, 436 (1819). — unless Congress consents.75× 75. See, e.g., Helvering v. Gerhardt, 304 U.S. 405, 411 n.1 (1938) (“Congress may curtail an immunity which might otherwise be implied or enlarge it beyond the point where, Congress being silent, the Court would set its limits.” (citations omitted)). One court has described such judicial decisions as setting a “constitutional default rule.” United States v. Delaware, 958 F.2d 555, 560 n.9 (3d Cir. 1992) (“[W]e must decide the constitutional default rule for this type of tax, fully aware that Congress could decide at any time to reverse our decision statutorily.”). (2) Article I, Section 10 Cases: Article I, Section 10 provides that certain prohibitions on the states may be waived by Congress.76× 76. See U.S. Const. art. I, § 10, cls. 2–3. The Court has taken note of this when considering whether to overrule, for instance, an Import-Export Clause precedent.77× 77. See Hooven & Allison Co. v. Evatt, 324 U.S. 652, 668 (1945) (“In view of the fact that the Constitution gives Congress authority to consent to state taxation of imports and hence to lay down its own test for determining when the immunity ends, we see no convincing practical reason for abandoning the test which has been applied for more than a century . . . .”), overruled on other grounds by Limbach v. Hooven & Allison Co., 466 U.S. 353 (1984). In Michelin Tire Corp. v. Wages, 423 U.S. 276 (1976), the Court left open the question whether “Congress may authorize, under the Import-Export Clause, an exaction that it could not directly impose under the Tax Clause.” Id. at 301 n.13. Metzger, however, argues that the Import-Export Clause is free of other clauses’ limits on congressional power. See Metzger, supra note 69, at 1500 & n.120. (3) Bivens Cases: In Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents of Federal Bureau of Narcotics,78× 78. 403 U.S. 388 (1971). the Court held that a violation of the Fourth Amendment gives rise to a right to sue for damages.79× 79. Id. at 397. But the Court has also held that “[s]uch a cause of action may be defeated . . . when . . . Congress has provided an alternative remedy which it explicitly declared to be a substitute for recovery directly under the Constitution and viewed as equally effective.”80× 80. Carlson v. Green, 446 U.S. 14, 18–19 (1980). (4) Miranda Cases: The Miranda Court famously “encourage[d]” Congress and the states to explore alternative “procedures which are at least as effective in apprising accused persons of their right of silence and in assuring a continuous opportunity to exercise it.”81× 81. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 467 (1966). In Dickerson v. United States, 530 U.S. 428 (2000), the Court struck down a congressional attempt to effectively abolish Miranda, holding that “Miranda announced a constitutional rule that Congress may not supersede legislatively.” Id. at 444. But Dickerson also stood by Miranda’s “invitation for legislative action” to replace Miranda with an adequate substitute. Id. at 440; see also Michael C. Dorf & Barry Friedman, Shared Constitutional Interpretation, 2000 Sup. Ct. Rev. 61 (discussing legislative alternatives to Miranda). (5) The Police Lineup Case: In United States v. Wade,82× 82. 388 U.S. 218 (1967). the Court created an exclusionary rule for evidence obtained from a police lineup in violation of the Sixth Amendment right to counsel but acknowledged that it could be replaced by “[l]egislative or other regulations . . . which eliminate the risks of abuse.”83× 83. Id. at 239. (6) The Exclusionary Rule Cases: Mapp v. Ohio made the Fourth Amendment “exclusionary rule” binding on the states,84× 84. 367 U.S. 643, 655 (1961). yet Congress is thought to have the power to replace it.85× 85. See Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents of Fed. Bureau of Narcotics, 403 U.S. 388, 422–24 (1971) (Burger, C.J., dissenting) (inviting Congress to replace the Fourth Amendment exclusionary rule); Harold J. Krent, How to Move Beyond the Exclusionary Rule: Structuring Judicial Response to Legislative Reform Efforts, 26 Pepp. L. Rev. 855, 864–71 (1999).\nAll of the above are arguably constitutional default rules set by the Court that remain, to one degree or another, open to congressional revision. The list could be longer or shorter, depending on which default rules the Court will view as constitutional86× 86. A shorter list could be produced by whittling away at the constitutional status of the cases identified by Monaghan. While the Court has held that Miranda is a constitutional decision, Dickerson, 530 U.S. at 444, some of the other cases may be viewed as nonconstitutional. See, e.g., Collins v. Virginia, 138 S. Ct. 1663, 1675–80 (2018) (Thomas, J., concurring) (arguing that Mapp is “nonconstitutional,” id. at 1678 n.5); Richard H. Fallon, Jr. et al., Hart and Wechsler’s The Federal Courts and the Federal System 775–77 (7th ed. 2015) (discussing whether Bivens is constitutionally required). Conversely, a longer list might include any constitutional right that can be waived by a party. See, e.g., Daniel A. Farber, Another View of the Quagmire: Unconstitutional Conditions and Contract Theory, 33 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 913, 918 (2006) (describing the Eleventh Amendment as “just a contractual default rule that the states are free to barter away”). Such a list might also include various constitutionally inspired judicial presumptions. See, e.g., Jack Goldsmith & John F. Manning, The President’s Completion Power, 115 Yale L.J. 2280, 2299 (2006) (describing the Chevron presumption of delegated interpretive power to administrative agencies as “a constitutionally inspired default rule”); Nicholas Quinn Rosenkranz, Federal Rules of Statutory Interpretation, 115 Harv. L. Rev. 2085, 2097–98 (2002) (describing clear statement rules as “constitutional default rules” reversible by Congress). Many other decisions could likely be characterized as constitutional default rules; the list above is only an initial stab. and on how it will answer open questions about congressional authority over certain constitutional provisions.87× 87. See, e.g., Thomas v. Wash. Gas Light Co., 448 U.S. 261, 272 n.18 (1980) (plurality opinion) (leaving unresolved whether Congress may limit constitutional full faith and credit obligations); White v. Mass. Council of Constr. Emp’rs, Inc., 460 U.S. 204, 215 n.1 (1983) (Blackmun, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (leaving unresolved “whether Congress may authorize . . . what otherwise would be a violation” of the Privileges and Immunities Clause); 1 Tribe, supra note 72, § 6-35, at 1243–44 (arguing that Congress cannot override judicial constructions of the Privileges and Immunities Clause); Metzger, supra note 69, at 1486–89 (arguing the opposite). But the takeaway is clear: weaker stare decisis for constitutional default rules. Pre-Wayfair, one would have thought that stare decisis applies with special force to such precedents, given congressional power to set them straight. Not anymore. Why? Because it is improper to “ask Congress to address a false constitutional premise of th[e] Court’s own creation.”88× 88. Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2096. The Latin for Wayfair’s doctrine is not stare decisis, which should reflect a realistic, working relationship between the legislative and judicial branches. It is mea culpa.\nIn its zeal to update the Constitution for “the Cyber Age,”89× 89. Id. at 2097. the Court deleted Congress from stare decisis doctrine in constitutional cases. The Court had better options. It could have left Quill on Congress’s doorstep, as the dissent argued. Or it could have justified overruling Quill notwithstanding the special force of stare decisis. Instead, the Court reasoned that it doesn’t matter whether Congress is willing and able to do the job: a constitutional mess calls for a judicial clean-up crew. For constitutional default rules — a category of decisions embracing the dormant commerce clause and sweeping far beyond — Wayfair’s new theory of stare decisis makes the Court’s precedents less sticky and Congress less relevant.", "answers": ["Quill harmed states more than anticipated due to the Internet."], "length": 5429, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "e4725ed7b6df9933d5336f79d5c9d1d803a3e475831f1017"}
{"input": "What is the main focus of the research paper?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Nuclear Liquid-Gas Transition in the Strong Coupling Regime of Lattice QCD\nPublish Date: 28 Mar 2023\nAuthor List: J Kim (from Institute for Advanced Simulation (IAS-4), Forschungszentrum Jülich), P Pattanaik (from Fakultät für Physik, Bielefeld University), W Unger (from Fakultät für Physik, Bielefeld University)\n\nFigure\n\nFIG. 1.Typical 2-dimension configuration at β = 1.0, at non-zero quark mass, temperature, chemical potential.The black dots are monomers, the blue lines are dimers, the red arrows are baryon loop segments (or triplets g b + f b = ±3 if adjacent to a non-trivial plaquette), and the green squares are plaquette occupations ±1.The actual configurations are 3+1-dimensional.\nFIG.2.Chiral susceptibility on a 2 4 volume for various quark masses, as a function of the bare anisotropy γ (with aT = γ 2 /2), analytic results from enumeration compared to numerical data from simulations via the worm algorithm.\nFIG.3.Various observables in the µB-T plane on a 2 4 volume at amq = 0.1.The back-bending of the first order transition at temperatures below aT = 0.5 in all observables is an artifact of the small volume, and vanishes in the thermodynamic limit.The temperature aT = 1/2 corresponds to the isotropic lattice here.\nFIG. 4. The chiral condensate (left) and the baryon density (right) for quark mass m = 1.5 as a function of the chemical potential and for various temperatures.\nFIG. 7. ∆f at amq = 0.2 as a function of chemical potential and β the on a 6 3 × 4 lattice\nFIG. 8. Baryon mass from ∆E as a function of the quark mass amq, and contributions from different dual variables: monomers, dimers and baryon segments.\nFIG. 9. Baryon density for volume 4 3 × 8 in the full µB − mq plane, illustrating the strong quark mass dependence of the onset to nuclear matter.\nFIG. 10.Baryonic observables on various volumes in the first order region amq = 1.5.Vertical bands indicate the mean and error of the nuclear transition.\nFIG. 12. Left: Extrapolation of the pseudo-critical values of µB for the various volumes into the thermodynamic limit.Right: Critical baryon chemical potential for different quark masses.The first order transition region is shown in blue, the crossover region is shown in red and the range for critical end point is marked in black.\nFIG. 17. Nuclear interaction scaled with baryon mass.As the quark mass increases, it tends to zero.\nFIG. 18. Critical baryon chemical potential and baryon mass from different approaches.\nParameters for the Monte Carlo runs to determine the nuclear transition at strong coupling, with statistics after thermalization.\n\nabstract\n\nThe nuclear liquid-gas transition from a gas of hadrons to a nuclear phase cannot be determined numerically from conventional lattice QCD due to the severe sign problem at large values of the baryon chemical potential. In the strong coupling regime of lattice QCD with staggered quarks, the dual formulation is suitable to address the nuclear liquid gas transition.\nWe determine this first order transition at low temperatures and as a function of the quark mass and the inverse gauge coupling β. We also determine the baryon mass and discuss the nuclear interactions as a function of the quark mass, and compare to mean field results. It is known from experiments that at low temperatures, there is a phase transition between dilute hadron gas and dense nuclear matter as the baryon chemical potential increases.\nThis transition is of first order and terminates at about T c = 16 MeV in a critical end point. The value of the chemical potential µ 1st B at zero temperature is given roughly by the baryon mass m B , where the difference of µ 1st B −m B is due to nuclear interactions. For a review on nuclear interactions see .\nAs the nuclear force between baryons to form nuclear matter is due to the residual strong interactions between quarks and gluons, it should be accurately described by QCD. We choose to study the nuclear transition and nuclear interaction via lattice QCD , with its Lagrangian being a function of the quark mass and the inverse gauge coupling.\nIn order to understand the nature of the transition, it is helpful to study its dependence on these parameters. However, at finite baryon density, lattice QCD has the infamous sign problem which does not allow us to perform direct Monte Carlo simulations on the lattice. Various methods have been proposed to overcome the numerical sign problem, but they are either limited to µ B /T 3 or can not yet address full QCD in 3+1 dimensions in the whole µ B − T plane , in particular the nuclear transition is out of reach.\nAn alternative method is to study lattice QCD via the strong coupling expansion. There are two established effective theories for lattice QCD based on this: (1) the 3-dim. effective theory for Wilson fermions in terms of Polyakov loops, arising from a joint strong coupling and hopping parameter expansion , the dual representation for staggered fermions in 3+1 dimensions, with dual degrees of freedom describing mesons and baryons.\nBoth effective theories have their limitations: is limited to rather heavy quarks (but is valid for large values of β) whereas ( ) is limited to the strong coupling regime β 1 (but is valid for any quark mass). We study lattice QCD in the dual formulation, both at infinite bare gauge coupling, β = 0, and at leading order of the strong coupling expansion in the regime β < 1, which is far from the continuum limit.\nBut since strong coupling lattice QCD shares important features with QCD, such as confinement, and chiral symmetry breaking and its restoration at the chiral transition temperature, and a nuclear liquid gas transition, we may get insights into the mechanisms, in particular as the dual variables give more information in terms of its world lines, as compared to the usual fermion determinant that depends on the gauge variables.\nTo establish a region of overlap of both effective theories, we have chosen to perform the Monte Carlo simulations in the dual formulation extending to rather large quark masses. This paper is organized as follows: in the first part we explain the dual formulation in the strong coupling regime, in the second part we provide analytic results based on exact enumeration and mean field theory, in the third part we explain the setup of our Monte Carlo simulations and present result on the m q -and β-dependence of the nuclear transition.\nSince the strong coupling regime does not have a well defined lattice spacing, we also determine the baryon mass am B to set the parameters of the grand-canonical partition function, aT and aµ B , in units of am B . We conclude by discussing the resulting nuclear interactions, and compare our findings with other results.\n\nStaggered action of strong coupling QCD and its dual representation\n\nIn the strong coupling regime, the gauge integration is performed first, followed by the Grassmann integration to obtain a dual formulation. This was pioneered for the strong coupling limit in and has been extended by one of us to include gauge corrections . The sign problem is mild in the strong coupling limit and still under control for β < 1, where we can apply sign reweighting.\nThe dual degrees of freedom are color-singlet mesons and baryons, which are point-like in the strong coupling limit, and become extended about a lattice spacing by incorporating leading order gauge corrections. The partition function of lattice QCD is given by where DU is the Haar measure, U ∈ SU(3) are the gauge fields on the lattice links (x, μ) and { χx , χ x } are the unrooted staggered fermions at the lattice sites x.\nThe gauge action S G [U] is given by the Wilson plaquette action and the staggered fermion action S F [ χ, χ, U] is: where the gauge action depends on the inverse gauge coupling β = 2Nc g 2 and the fermion action depends on the quark chemical potential aµ q which favors quarks in the positive temporal direction, and the bare quark mass am q .\nFirst we consider the strong coupling limit where the inverse gauge coupling β=0 and hence the gauge action S G [U] drops out from the partition function in this limit. The gauge integration is over terms depending only on the individual links (x, μ) so the partition function factorizes into a product of one-link integrals and we can write it as:\nwith z(x, μ) the one-link gauge integral that can be eval-uated from invariant integration, as discussed in , where we write the one-link integral in terms of new hadronic variables: Only terms of the form (M (x)M (y)) k x, μ (with k x,μ called dimers which count the number of meson hoppings) and B(y)B(x) and B(x)B(y) (called baryon links) are present in the solution of the one-link integral.\nThe sites x and y = x + μ are adjacent lattice sites. It remains to perform the Grassmann integral of the fermion fields χ, χ. This requires to expand the exponential containing the quark mass in Eq. (4) (left), which results in the terms (2am q M (x)) nx (with n x called monomers). To obtain non-vanishing results, at every site, the 2N c Grassman variables χ x,i and χx,i have to appear exactly once, resulting in the Grassmann constraint (GC):\nwhere n x is the number of monomers, k x,μ is the number of dimers and the baryons form self-avoiding loops x,μ , which due to the constraint cannot coexist with monomers or dimers. With this, we obtain an exact rewriting of the partition function Eq. ( ) for N c = 3, in terms of integer-valued dual degrees of freedom {n, k, }:\nwhere the sum over valid configurations has to respect the constraint (GC). The first term in the partition function is the contribution from dimers and the second term is the contribution from monomers. The weight factor w( ) for each baryon loop depends on the baryon chemical potential µ B = 3µ q and induces a sign factor σ( ) which depends on the geometry of :\nHere, ω is the winding number of the loop . The total sign factor σ( ) ∈ {±1} is explicitly calculated for every configuration. We apply sign reweighting as the dual formulation has a mild sign problem: baryons are non-relativistic and usually have loop geometries that have a positive signs. The dual partition function of the strong coupling limit is simulated with the worm algorithm (see Section III A) and the sign problem is essentially solved in this limit.\n\nExtension to finite β\n\nThe leading order gauge corrections O(β) to the strong coupling limit are obtained by expanding the Wilson gauge action Eq. ( ) before integrating out the gauge links. A formal expression is obtained by changing the order of integration (first gauge links, then Grassmann-valued fermions) within the QCD partition function:\nWith this the O (β) partition function is The challenge in computing Z (1) is to address the SU(N c ) integrals that receive contributions from the elementary plaquette U P . Link integration no longer factorizes, however the tr[U P ] can be decomposed before integration: Integrals of the type J ij with two open color indices -as compared to link integration at strong coupling -have been derived from generating functions\nfor either J = 0 or for G = U(N c ) . The SU(3) result was discussed in , in terms of the dual variables, neglecting rotation and reflection symmetries, there are 19 distinct diagrams to be considered. The resulting partition function, valid to O(β), is with q P ∈ {0, ±1}, and the site weights w x → ŵx , bond weights w b → ŵb and baryon loop weights w → ŵ receive modifications compared to the strong coupling limit Eq. ( ) for sites and bonds adjacent to an excited plaquette q P = 1.\nThe weights are given in , and are rederived for any gauge group in . The configurations {n, k, , q p } must satisfy at each site x the constraint inherited from Grassmann integration: which is the modified version of Eq. ( ) with q x = 1 if located at the corner of an excited plaquette q p = 0, otherwise q x = 0.\nA more general expression that we obtained via group theory and is valid to higher orders of the strong coupling expansion is discussed in terms of tensor networks . A typical 2-dimensional configuration that arises at β = 1 in the Monte Carlo simulations is given in Fig. . Note that if a baryon loop enters a non-trivial plaquette, one quark is separated from the two other quarks, resulting in the baryon being extended object, rather being point-like in the strong coupling limit.\nThe O(β) partition function has been used in the chiral limit to study the full µ B − T plane via reweighting from the strong coupling ensemble. Whereas the second order chiral transition for small values of the aµ B decreased up to the tri-critical point, the first order nuclear transition was invariant: aµ 1st B 1.78(1) at zero temperature has no β-dependence.\nFor the ratio T (µ B = 0)/µ 1st B (T 0) we found the values 0.787 for β = 0 and 0.529 β = 1, which should be compared to T c / 0.165 for full QCD . However, since reweighting cannot be fully trusted across a first order boundary, direct simulations at nonzero β are necessary. The Monte Carlo technique to update plaquette variables is discussed in Section III A.\nIn this section, we provide analytic results from exact enumeration for small volumes, and mean field results based on the 1/d expansion, valid in the thermodynamic limit. The main purpose is to compare our Monte Carlo results to these analytic predictions.\n\nExact enumeration\n\nTo establish that our Monte Carlo simulations indeed sample the partition functions Eq. ( ) and Eq. ( ), we have obtained analytic results on a 2 4 volume at strong coupling, and at finite beta in two dimensions on a 4 × 4 volume, comparing O (β) and O β 2 truncations. Our strategy to obtain an exact enumeration of the partition function Z is to enumerate plaquette configurations first, then fixing the fermion fluxes which together with the gauge fluxes that are induced by the plaquettes form a singlet, a triplet or anti-triplet, i.e. on a given bond b, g b + f b ∈ {−3, 0, 3}, and last we perform the monomerdimer enumeration on the available sites not saturated by fermions yet by a depth-first algorithm .\nAt strong coupling, with no plaquettes, g b = 0 and f b are baryonic fluxes. All observables that can be written in terms of derivatives of log(z), such as the baryon density, the chiral condensate, the energy density, and also the average sign, are shown in Fig.\n\nExpectations from mean field theory\n\nAnother analytical method to study strong coupling lattice QCD is the mean field approach, where the partition function is expanded in 1 d (d is the spatial dimension) and then a Hubbard-Stratonovich transformation performed . After this procedure, the free energy is a function of temperature T , the chiral condensate σ and chemical potential µ B :\nhere E[m] is one-dimensional quark excitation energy which is a function of the quark mass m = am q . For N c = 3 and d = 3 we determined the minimum of the free energy with respect to the chiral condensate. This gives us the equilibrium chiral condensate as a function of (T, m, µ B ). The chiral condensate and the baryon density as a function of the baryon chemical potential in lattice units aµ B and for various temperatures at quark mass m = 1.5 is shown in Fig. . We have determined the critical temperature to be aT c = 0.23 , which is characterized by an infinite slope of the chiral condensate.\nFor lower temperatures, there is a clear discontinuity of the chiral con-densate, separating the low density phase from the high density phase. For temperatures above and in the vicinity of aT c the chiral condensate and baryon density has no discontinuity but rapidly changes, corresponding to a crossover transition.\nWith this method, the phase diagram is plotted for different quark masses in Fig. . The second order phase transition in the chiral limit is plotted in solid blue line, the dotted lines show the first order phase transition for different quark masses and the solid red line indicates the critical end point for the different quark masses.\nMean field theory also gives an expression for the pion mass am π and the baryon mass am B : The mean field baryon mass for N c = 3, d = 3 is also plotted in red in Fig. . Whereas the baryon mass is around N c in the chiral limit (am B 3.12 for N c = 3), it approximately doubles at m = 3.5 (am B 6.28) which corresponds to the pion mass am π = 4.45, i.e. m π /m B = 0.708.\nHence, at around bare mass m = 3.5, the valence quark mass of the baryon corresponds roughly to 1/3 of the chiral limit value of the baryon mass. The first Monte Carlo simulations that could extend in the µ B − T plane was the MDP algorithm , but it required the introduction of the worm algorithm to make substantial progress.\nFirst studies of the worm algorithm applied to the strong coupling limit QCD (with gauge group U(3)) are , and for gauge group SU . Monte Carlo simulations to extend the worm to incorporate leading order corrections were first proposed in . We will shortly review the setup of or Monte Carlo strategy for the nuclear transition, with an emphasis on the challenges to address large quark masses.\n\nStrong Coupling\n\nWithout any further resummation, there is a mild sign problem in the dual formulation of lattice QCD in the strong coupling limit. When the average sign σ is not too small (close to zero), it implies that most of the configurations have a positive weight thus allowing us to perform sign reweighting strategies.\nIn Fig. , ∆f is plotted as a function of the baryon chemical potential and the quark masses. It is seen that ∆f is close to zero for most cases except near the critical chemical potential and for small quark masses, but never exceeds 5 × 10 −4 . Hence sign reweighting can be performed in the full parameter space.\nThe result that the sign problem becomes even milder when increasing the mass is related to the fact that larger critical chemical potentials result in a larger fraction of static baryons (spatial baryon hoppings become rare). FIG. . ∆F at strong coupling as a function of chemical potential and quark mass on a 6 3 × 8.\nThe sign problem becomes milder as the quark mass increases.\n\nFinite β\n\nAll runs at finite β have been obtained for N τ = 4, which corresponds to a moderately low temperature aT = 0.25 compared to the value of the chiral transition aT 1.54. Those simulations were too expensive to attempt N τ = 8 runs, in particular as a higher statistics was required. The spatial volumes are 4 3 , 6 3 and 8 3 .\nFor β values are from 0.0 to 1.0 with step size 0.1, and for am q values from 0.00 to 1.00 with step size 0.01. The values of aµ were chosen close to the nuclear transition, the scanning range is shifted to large values as am q increases. At small quark masses the scanning range is from aµ = 0.4 to 1.0 and for the large quark masses, it is from 0.6 to 1.2 with step size 0.01.\nThe statistics used for are 15 × 10 4 measurements and between measurement, 40 × N 3 s worm updates.\n\nResidual sign problem\n\nAlthough it is possible to resum the sign problem at strong coupling with a resummation of baryon and pion world lines, this is not possible when including gauge corrections. In order to compare both sign problems, we kept the original dual formulation to monitor the severity of the sign problem. This is done via the relation\nbetween the average sign σ and the difference of the free energy density ∆f between the full ensemble f and of the sign-quenched ensemble f || .\n\nNuclear interactions\n\nWe have found that aµ 1st B is very different from the baryon mass. This must be due to strong attractive interactions of nucleons. In contrast to continuum physics, in the strong coupling limit there is no pion exchange due to the Grassmann constraint. Instead, nucleons are point like and hard core repulsive.\nHowever, the pion bath, which is modified by the presence of static baryons, results in an attractive interaction. In , this has been analyzed in the chiral limit using the snake algorithm, and it has been found that the attractive force is of entropic origin. Here, we do not quantify the nuclear interaction via the nuclear potential, but via the difference between critical baryon chemical potential and baryon mass, in units baryon mass, as shown in Fig. , given the am B as measured in Section III C.\nThis compares better to the 3dim. effective theory. The nuclear interaction is maximal and more than 40% in the chiral limit, which is related to pions being massless: the modification of the pion bath is maximal. We clearly find that the nuclear interaction decreases drastically and almost linearly until it almost approaches zero at about am q = 2.0, corresponding to a pion mass am π = 3.36, see Section II B. The large error bars for larger quark masses, that are due to the subtraction of almost same magnitudes, makes it difficult to extract a non-zero nuclear interaction at the largest quark masses.\nIn this work, we have determined the baryon mass and the nuclear transition via Monte Carlo: the worm algorithm based on the dual formulation, at finite β equipped with additional updates. All those numerical results and various analytic expressions are summarized in Fig. . We find that as the quark mass becomes large, spatial mesons hoppings (i.e.\nspatial dimers) become rare, which makes this 3+1-dimensional system closer to 1dim. QCD . Also, both the baryon mass and the baryon chemical potential obtained in our dual representation, i.e. for staggered fermions, approaches the baryon mass of the 3-dim. effective theory which is based on Wilson fermions.\nAnother comparison that summarizes the validity of the mean field approach discussed in Section II B is shown in Fig. . It is evident that mean field theory has strong deviations for small quark masses, but this discrepancy becomes smaller for larger quark masses. The extension of the study of the nuclear transition to finite inverse gauge coupling β is summarized in Fig. , which shows the β-dependence of aµ c B for various quark masses.\nFor all quark masses ranging from am q = 0 to am q = 1.0, there is only a very weak β-dependence, confirming the expectation from mean field theory . This works was restricted to isotropic lattices ξ = a/a t = 1, i.e. we performed simulations at fixed temperature. Non-isotropic lattices are necessary to vary the temperature at fixed values of β.\nThis requires to include two bare anisotropies, γ for the fermionic action and γ G for the gauge action. Finite β has only been studied by us in the chiral limit . Clearly, it is interesting to study the location of the nuclear critical point also including higher order gauge corrections and at finite quark mass.\nSimulations including O(β 2 ) are under preparation.", "answers": ["Nuclear liquid-gas transition in lattice QCD."], "length": 4017, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "4d6cd243b10a8460d2e2239182b797420ccc36335a74d23e"}
{"input": "How is the function beta(r) determined in the derivation?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\nThe Schwarzschild solution plays a key role in teaching about general relativity: It describes the simplest version of a black hole. By Birkhoff's theorem, it more generally describes the gravitational field around any spherical mass distribution, such as the Sun in our own Solar system. As one of two particularly simple, yet physically relevant examples of a non-trivial metric (the other being the FLRW spacetime of an expanding universe), it is particularly well-suited for teaching about general techniques of ``reading'' and interpreting a spacetime metric.\n\nConsider undergraduate courses where students are introduced to selected concepts and results from general relativity without exposing them to the full mathematical formalism. Such courses have the advantage of introducing students to one of the two great fundamental theories of 20th century physics early on (the other being quantum mechanics); they also profit from subject matter that meets with considerable interest from students.\\cite{Hartle2006} Using the terminology of Christensen and Moore,\\cite{Christensen2012} in the ``calculus only'' approach pioneered by Taylor and Wheeler,\\cite{Taylor2001,Taylor2018} spacetime metrics are not derived, but taken as given, and the focus is on learning how to interpret a given spacetime metric. Similar presentations can be found in the first part of the ``physics first'' approach exemplified by Hartle's text book,\\cite{Hartle2003} where the concepts of the metric and of geodesics are introduced early on, and their physical consequences explored, while the mathematics necessary for the Einstein equations is only introduced at a later stage. \n\nWhenever the approach involves an exploration of simple metrics such as the Schwarzschild solution, but stops short of the formalism required for the full tensorial form of Einstein's equations, access to a simple derivation of the Schwarzschild solution that does not make use of the advanced formalism can be a considerable advantage.\n\nSimplified derivations of the Schwarzschild solution have a long tradition within general relativity education,\\cite{Schiff1960,Harwit1973} although specific simplifications have met with criticism.\\cite{Rindler1968} This article presents a derivation which requires no deeper knowledge of the formalism of differential geometry beyond an understanding of how to interpret a given spacetime metric $\\mathrm{d} s^2$. The derivation avoids the criticism levelled at attempts to derive the Schwarzschild solution from the Einstein equivalence principle in combination with a Newtonian limit,\\cite{Gruber1988} relying as it does on a simplified version of the vacuum Einstein equation.\n\nMore specifically, I combine the restrictions imposed by the symmetry with the simple form of Einstein's equations formulated by Baez and Bunn.\\cite{BaezBunn2005} That same strategy was followed by Kassner in 2017,\\cite{Kassner2017} but in this text, I use the ``infalling coordinates'' that are commonly associated with the Gullstrand-Painlev\\'e form of the Schwarzschild metric,\\cite{Martel2001,Visser2005,HamiltonLisle2008} not the more common Schwarzschild coordinates. That choice simplifies the argument even further. In the end, what is required is no more than the solution of an ordinary differential equation for a single function, which yields to standard methods, to obtain the desired result.\n\n\\section{Coordinates adapted to spherical symmetry and staticity}\n\\label{SymmetriesCoordinates}\n\nAssume that the spacetime we are interested in is spherically symmetric and static. In general relativity, a symmetry amounts to the possibility of being able to choose coordinates that are adapted to the symmetry, at least within a restricted sub-region of the spacetime in question. That the spacetime is static is taken to mean that we can introduce a (non-unique) time coordinate ${t}$ so that our description of spacetime geometry does not depend explicitly on ${t}$, and that space and time are completely separate --- in the coordinates adapted to the symmetry, there are no ``mixed terms'' involving $\\mathrm{d} {t}$ times the differential of a space coordinate in the metric. If we use ${t}$ to slice our spacetime into three-dimensional hyperplanes, each corresponding to ``space at time ${t}$,'' then each of those 3-spaces has the same spatial geometry. A mixed term would indicate that those slices of space would need to be shifted relative to another in order to identify corresponding points. The mixed term's absence indicates that in adapted coordinates, there is no need for such an extra shift. In those coordinates, we can talk about the 3-spaces as just ``space,'' without the need for specifying which of the slices we are referring to.\n\nIn the case of spherical symmetry, we can introduce spherical coordinates that are adapted to the symmetry: a radial coordinate $r$ and the usual angular coordinates $\\vartheta,\\varphi$, so that the spherical shell at constant $r$ has the total area $4\\pi r^2$. In consequence, the part of our metric involving $\\mathrm{d}\\vartheta$ and $\\mathrm{d}\\varphi$ will have the standard form\n\\begin{equation}\nr^2(\\mathrm{d}\\vartheta^2+\\sin^2\\theta\\mathrm{d}\\varphi^2) \\equiv r^2\\mathrm{d}\\Omega^2,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the right-hand side defines $\\mathrm{d}\\Omega^2$, the infinitesimal solid angle corresponding to each particular combination of $\\mathrm{d}\\vartheta$ and $\\mathrm{d}\\varphi$.\n\nThe radial coordinate slices space into spherical shells, each corresponding to a particular value $r=const.$ The rotations around the origin, which are the symmetry transformations of spherical symmetry, map each of those spherical shells onto itself, and they leave all physical quantities that do not explicitly depend on $\\vartheta$ or $\\varphi$ invariant.\n\nIn what follows, we will use the basic structures introduced in this way --- the slices of simultaneous ${t}$, the radial directions within each slice, the angular coordinates spanning the symmetry--adapted spherical shells of area $4\\pi r^2$ --- as auxiliary structures for introducing spacetime coordinates. For now, let us write down the shape that our metric has by simple virtue of the spherical symmetry, the requirement that the spacetime be static, and the adapted coordinates, namely\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{d} s^2 = -c^2F(r) \\mathrm{d} {t}^2 + G(r) \\mathrm{d} r^2 + r^2\\:\\mathrm{d}\\Omega^2. \n\\label{StaticForm}\n\\end{equation}\nStudents familiar with  ``reading'' a spacetime metric will immediately recognize the sign difference between the parts describing space and describing time that is characteristic for spacetime, and the speed of light $c$ that gives us the correct physical dimensions. That there is no explicit dependence on $\\varphi$ and $\\vartheta$ in the remaining functions $F$ and $G$ is a direct consequence of spherical symmetry. That the factor in front of $\\mathrm{d}\\Omega^2$ is $r^2$ is a consequence of our coordinate choice, with spherical angular coordinates so that the area of a spherical surface of constant radius $r$ is $4\\pi r^2$. That there is no explicit dependence on ${t}$ is one consequence of the spacetime being static; the absence of the mixed term $\\mathrm{d} {t}\\cdot \\mathrm{d} r$ is another. We are left with two unknown functions $F(r)$ and $G(r)$. In the following, let us call ${t}$ and $r$ the {\\em static coordinates}. \n \nNote that, since $G(r)$ is as yet undefined, we have not yet chosen a specific physical meaning for the length measurements associated with our $r$ coordinate. But because of the $\\mathrm{d}\\Omega^2$ part, it is clear that whatever choice we make, the locally orthogonal lengths $r\\cdot\\mathrm{d}\\vartheta$ and $r\\cdot\\sin\\vartheta\\cdot\\mathrm{d}\\varphi$ will have the same physical interpretation as for the length measurement corresponding to $\\mathrm{d} r$.\n\n\\section{Infalling observer coordinates}\n\\label{Sec:InfallingObservers}\n\nNow that we know what the radial directions are, at each moment of time ${t}$, we follow Visser\\cite{Visser2005} as well as Hamilton and Lisle\\cite{HamiltonLisle2008} in defining a family of radially infalling observers.  Observers in that family are in free fall along the radial direction, starting out at rest at infinity: In mapping each observer's radial progression in terms of the static coordinate time ${t}$, we adjust initial conditions, specifically: the choice of initial speed at some fixed time ${t}$, in just the right way that the radial coordinate speed goes to zero for each observer in the same way as $r\\to\\infty.$\n\nIt is true that talking about ``infalling'' observers already reflects our expectation that our solution should describe the spacetime of a spherically symmetric mass.  As we know from the Newtonian limit, such a mass attracts test particles in its vicinity. It should be noted, though, that all our calculations would also be compatible with the limit of no mass being present. In that case, ``infalling'' would be a misnomer, as our family of observers would merely hover in empty space at unchanging positions in $r$. \n\nWe can imagine infinitesimal local coordinate systems associated with our observers --- think of the observer mapping out space and time by defining three orthogonal axes, and by measuring time with a co-moving clock. We assume all such little coordinate systems to be non-rotating --- otherwise, we would break spherical symmetry, since rotation would locally pick out a plane of rotation that is distinguishable from the other planes. The radial direction is a natural choice for the first space axis of those little free-falling systems. The other directions, we take to point to observers falling side by side with our coordinate-defining observer --- and to remain pointed at a specific such other observer, once the choice of direction is made.\n\nWe assume our infalling observers' clocks to be synchronised at some fixed radius value $r$. By spherical symmetry, those clocks should then be synchronised at {\\em all} values of $r$. Anything else would indicate direction-dependent differences for the infalling observers and their clocks, after all. Hence, at any given static time ${t}$, all the infalling observers who are at radius value $r$ show the same proper time $T$ on the ideal clocks travelling along with them. \n\nOnce our definition is complete, our static, spherically symmetric spacetime is filled with infalling observers from that family: Whenever we consider an event $\\cal E$, there will be an observer from that family passing by at that time, at that location. \n\nNow, consider the coordinate speed of those infalling observers. If we position ourselves at some constant radius value $r$ and watch the falling observers fly by, then we can express both their proper time rate and their coordinate speed in the $r$ direction in terms of $r$ and ${t}$. We can combine the two pieces of information to obtain the rate of change in radial position $r$ with proper time $T$ for those infalling observers. But since the initial conditions for those observers are the same, and since our spacetime is, by assumption, static, the resulting function can only depend on $r$, and not explicitly on ${t}$. Let us rescale that function with the speed of light to make it dimensionless, give it an overall minus sign to make it positive for infalling particles, and call it $\\beta(r)$,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\beta(r)\\equiv -\\frac{1}{c}\\frac{\\mathrm{d} r}{\\mathrm{d} T}(r).\n\\label{betaDefinition}\n\\end{equation}\n\nRecall from section \\ref{SymmetriesCoordinates} that we also still have the freedom to decide on the physical meaning of $r$. We make the choice of making $\\mathrm{d} r$ the physical length measured by one of our infalling observers at the relevant location in spacetime, at constant time $T$. Via our angular coordinates, that implies that length measurements orthogonal to the radial direction, $r\\cdot\\mathrm{d}\\vartheta$ and $r\\cdot\\sin\\vartheta\\:\\mathrm{d}\\varphi$ inherit the same physical interpretation.\n\nAs a next step, we transform our metric (\\ref{StaticForm}) from the static form into the form appropriate for our coordinate choice $r$ and $T$. We do so by writing the static time coordinate as a function ${t}(T,r)$ in terms of infalling observer time and radius value. In consequence,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{d} {t} = \\frac{\\partial{t}}{\\partial T}\\cdot\\mathrm{d} T+ \\frac{\\partial {t}}{\\partial r}\\cdot\\mathrm{d} r,\n\\end{equation}\nand our new metric now has the form\n\\begin{align}\n \\mathrm{d} s^2 = {} & -c^2 F(r)\\left(\\frac{\\partial t}{\\partial T}\\right)^2\\mathrm{d} T^2 \\nonumber \\\\[0.2em]\n & -2c^2F(r)\\left(\\frac{\\partial t}{\\partial T}\\right)\\left(\\frac{\\partial t}{\\partial r}\\right)\\mathrm{d} T\\:\\mathrm{d} r \\nonumber \\\\[0.2em]\n & +\\left[G(r)-c^2F(r)\\left(\\frac{\\partial t}{\\partial r}\\right)^2\\right]\\mathrm{d} r^2+r^2\\:\\mathrm{d}\\Omega^2.\n \\end{align}\nAt face value, this looks like we are moving the wrong way, away from simplification, since we now have more functions, and they depend on two variables instead of one.\n\nBut in fact, this new formulation paves the way for an even simpler form of the metric. Consider a specific event, which happens at given radius value $r$. In a small region around that event, we will introduce a new coordinate $\\bar{r}$ to parametrize the radial direction. We want this coordinate to be co-moving with our infalling observers at $r$; each such observer then has a position $\\bar{r}=const.$ that does not change over time. \n\nKey to our next step is that we {\\em know} the metric for the local length and time measurements made by any one of our free-falling observers. By Einstein's equivalence principle, the metric is that of special relativity. Locally, namely whenever tidal effects can be neglected, spacetime geometry for any non-rotating observer in free fall is indistinguishable from Minkowski spacetime as described by a local inertial system.\n\nSince we have chosen both the time coordinate $T$ and the physical meaning of the radial coordinate $r$ so as to conform with the measurements of the local infalling observer, the transformation between $\\bar{r}$ and $r$ is particularly simple: It has the form of a Galilei transformation\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{d}\\bar{r}= \\mathrm{d} r + \\beta(r)c\\:\\mathrm{d} T.\n\\label{barRshift}\n\\end{equation}\nIn that way, as it should be by definition, radial coordinate differences at constant $T$ are the same in both systems, while for an observer at constant $\\bar{r},$ with $\\mathrm{d} \\bar{r}=0$, the relation between $\\mathrm{d} r$ and $\\mathrm{d} T$ is consistent with the definition of the function $\\beta(r)$ in (\\ref{betaDefinition}).\n\nAre you surprised that this is not a Lorentz transformation, as one might expect from special relativity? Don't be. We are not transforming from one local inertial coordinate system to another. The $T$ is already the time coordinate of the infalling observers, so both coordinate systems have the same definition of simultaneity, and time dilation plays no role in this particular transformation. Also, we have chosen $r$ intervals to correspond to length measurements of the infalling observers, so there is no Lorentz contraction, either. It is the consequence of these special choices that gives the relation (\\ref{barRshift}) its simple form.\n\nLast but not least, when we analyse specifically an infinitesimal neighbourhood of the point $r,\\vartheta,\\varphi$, let us make the choice that directly at our point of interest, we make $\\bar{r}$ coincide with $r$. Since before, we had only fixed the differential $\\mathrm{d} \\bar{r}$, we do have the remaining freedom of choosing a constant offset for $\\bar{r}$ that yields the desired result.\n\nBy Einstein's equivalence principle, the metric in terms of the locally co-moving coordinates $T,\\bar{r},\\vartheta,\\varphi$ is the spherical-coordinate version of the Minkowski metric,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{d} s^2 = -c^2\\mathrm{d} T^2 + \\mathrm{d}\\bar{r}^2 + \\bar{r}^2\\mathrm{d}\\Omega.\n\\end{equation}\nThis version can, of course, be obtained by taking the more familiar Cartesian-coordinate version\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{d} s^2=-c^2\\mathrm{d} T^2 + \\mathrm{d} X^2 + \\mathrm{d} Y^2 + \\mathrm{d} Z^2,\n\\label{CartesianMinkowski}\n\\end{equation}\napplying the definition of Cartesian coordinates $X,Y,Z$ in terms of spherical coordinates $\\bar{r},\\vartheta,\\varphi$\n\\begin{equation}\nx= \\bar{r}\\:\\sin\\vartheta\\:\\cos\\varphi, \\;\\;\ny= \\bar{r}\\:\\sin\\vartheta\\:\\sin\\varphi, \\;\\;\nz= \\bar{r}\\:\\cos\\vartheta,\n\\end{equation}\nto express $\\mathrm{d} X, \\mathrm{d} Y, \\mathrm{d} Z$ in terms of $\\mathrm{d} \\bar{r}, \\mathrm{d}\\vartheta, \\mathrm{d}\\varphi$, and substitute the result into (\\ref{CartesianMinkowski}).\n\nBy noting that we have chosen $\\bar{r}$ so that, at the specific spacetime event where we are evaluating the metric, $\\bar{r}=r$, while, for small radial coordinate shifts around that location, we have the relation (\\ref{barRshift}), we can now write down the same metric in the coordinates $T, r, \\vartheta,\\varphi$, namely as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{d} s^2 = -c^2\\left[\n1-\\beta(r)^2\n\\right] \\mathrm{d} T^2+2c\\beta(r)\\mathrm{d} r\\:\\mathrm{d} T\n+\\mathrm{d} r^2+r^2\\mathrm{d}\\Omega^2.\n\\label{preMetric}\n\\end{equation}\nSince we can repeat that local procedure at any event in our spacetime, this result is our general form of the metric, for all values of $r$. This, then is the promised simplification: By exploiting the symmetries of our solutions as well as the properties of infalling observers, we have reduced our metric to a simple form with no more than one unknown function of one variable, namely $\\beta(r)$.\n\nSo far, what I have presented is no more than a long-form version of the initial steps of the derivation given by Visser in his heuristic derivation of the Schwarzschild metric.\\cite{Visser2005} In the next section, we will deviate from Visser's derivation.\n\n\\section{$\\beta(r)$ from tidal deformations}\n\\label{TidalSection}\n\nIn the previous section, we had exploited symmetries and Einstein's equivalence principle. In order to determine $\\beta(r)$, we need to bring in additional information, namely the Einstein equations, which link the matter content with the geometry of spacetime. For our solution, we only aim to describe the spacetime metric outside whatever spherically-symmetric matter distribution resides in (or around) the center of our spherical symmetry. That amounts to applying the {\\em vacuum Einstein equations}.\n\nMore specifically, we use a particularly simple and intuitive form of the vacuum Einstein equations, which can be found in a seminal article by Baez and Bunn:\\cite{BaezBunn2005} Consider a locally flat free-fall system around a specific event $\\cal E$, with a time coordinate $\\tau$, local proper time, where the event we are studying corresponds to $\\tau=0$. In that system, describe a small sphere of freely floating test particles, which we shall call a {\\em test ball}. The particles need to be at rest relative to each other at $\\tau=0$. Let the volume of the test ball be $V(\\tau)$. Then the vacuum version of Einstein's equations states that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\left.\\frac{\\mathrm{d}^2 V}{\\mathrm{d}\\tau^2}\\right|_{\\tau=0} = 0.\n\\label{EinsteinVacuum}\n\\end{equation}\nIn words: If there is no matter or energy inside, the volume of such a test ball remains constant in the first order (those were our initial conditions) and the second order (by eq.~[\\ref{EinsteinVacuum}]). \n\nIf you are familiar with Wheeler's brief summary of Einstein's equations, ``spacetime grips mass, telling it how to move'' and ``mass grips spacetime, telling it how to curve'',\\cite{Wheeler1990} you will immediately recognise that this is a specific way for the structure of spacetime telling the test ball particles how to move. The calculation later in this section provides the second part: It will amount to using (\\ref{EinsteinVacuum}) to determine the structure of spacetime, namely the still missing function $\\beta(r)$, and that is the way for mass, in this case: for the absence of mass, to tell spacetime how to curve.\n\nNote that equation (\\ref{EinsteinVacuum}) also holds true in Newtonian gravity. So in a way, this version of Einstein's equation can be seen as a second-order extension of the usual Einstein equivalence principle: Ordinarily, the equivalence principle is a statement about physics in the absence of tidal forces. Equation (\\ref{EinsteinVacuum}) adds to this that the lowest-order correction for tidal forces in a freely falling reference frame is that specified by Newtonian gravity. This makes sense, since by going into a free-fall frame, and restricting our attention to a small spacetime region, we have automatically created a weak-gravity situation. In such a situation, tidal corrections are approximately the same as those described by Newton. This argument can serve as a heuristic justification of (\\ref{EinsteinVacuum}).\n\nIn 2017, Kassner made use of the Baez-Bunn form of Einstein's vacuum equation to derive the Schwarzschild solution, starting from what we have encountered as the static form of the metric (\\ref{StaticForm}).\\cite{Kassner2017} We follow the same general recipe, but using the infalling coordinates introduced in section \\ref{Sec:InfallingObservers}, which makes our derivation even simpler.\n\nConsider five test particles in a small region of space. Let the motion of each be the same as for the local representative from our coordinate-defining family of infalling observers. We take the central particle $C$ to be at radial coordinate value $r=R$ at the time of the snapshot shown in Fig.~\\ref{TestParticlesOutside}. The other four are offset relative to the central particle: As described in the local inertial system that is co-moving with the central particle, one of the particles is shifted by $\\Delta l$ upwards in the radial direction, another downward, while two of the particles are offset orthogonally by the same distance.\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.5\\linewidth]{01-free-fall-particles.pdf}\n\\caption{Five test particles in our spherically-symmetric spacetime}\n\\label{TestParticlesOutside}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\nThe $\\Delta l$ is meant to be infinitesimally small, so while Fig.~\\ref{TestParticlesOutside} is of course showing a rather large $\\Delta l$ so as to display the geometry of the situation more clearly, we will in the following only keep terms linear in $\\Delta l$. \n\nConsider a generic particle, which moves as if it were part of our coordinate-defining family of infalling observers, and which at the time $T_0$ is at $r=r_0$. By a Taylor expansion, that particle's subsequent movement is given by\n\\begin{equation}\nr(T) = r_0 + \\frac{\\mathrm{d} r}{\\mathrm{d} T}(T_0) \\cdot \\Delta T +\\frac12 \\frac{\\mathrm{d}^2 r}{\\mathrm{d} T^2}(T_0) \\cdot \\Delta T^2\n\\label{TaylorREvo}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Delta T\\equiv T-T_0$. We know from (\\ref{betaDefinition}) that the derivative in the linear term can be expressed in terms of $\\beta(r)$; by the same token,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{\\mathrm{d}^2 r}{\\mathrm{d} T^2} = -c\\frac{\\mathrm{d}\\beta}{\\mathrm{d} T}=-c\\beta' \\frac{\\mathrm{d} r}{\\mathrm{d} T} = c^2\\beta\\cdot\\beta',\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the prime denotes differentiation of $\\beta$ with respect to its argument. Since, in the following, the product of $\\beta$ and its first derivative will occur quite often, let us introduce the abbreviation\n\\begin{equation}\nB(r) \\equiv \\beta(r)\\cdot\\beta'(r).\n\\label{BigBDefinition}\n\\end{equation}\nWith these results, can rewrite the Taylor expansion (\\ref{TaylorREvo}) as \n\\begin{equation}\nr(T) = r_0 -c\\beta(r_0)\\cdot\\Delta T + \\frac12 c^2B(r_0)\\cdot\\Delta T^2.\n\\label{RadialOrbitTime}\n\\end{equation}\nIn order to find $r_C(T)$ for our central particle, we simply insert $r_0=R$ into that expression. If, on the other hand, we want to write down the time evolution for particles $U$ and $D$, let us denote it by $r_{U,D}(T)$, we need to evaluate the expression (\\ref{RadialOrbitTime}) at the initial location $r_0=R\\pm\\Delta l$. Since $\\Delta l$ is small, we can make a Taylor expansion of $\\beta(r)$ and its derivative around $r=R$, and neglect everything beyond the terms linear in $\\Delta l$. The result is\n\\begin{multline}\nr_{U,D}(T)=R \\pm\\Delta l-c\\left[\n\\beta(R)\\pm\\beta'(R)\\Delta l\n\\right]\\Delta T \\\\[0.2em]\n+\\frac{c^2}{2}\\big[\nB(R)\\pm B'(R)\\Delta l\n\\big]\\Delta T^2\n\\end{multline}\nIn consequence, the distance between the upper and lower particle, $d_{\\parallel}(T)\\equiv r_U(T)-r_D(T),$ changes over time as\n\\begin{equation}\nd_{\\parallel}(T) =  2\\Delta l\\left[\n1-c\\beta'(R)\\Delta T+\\frac12c^2 B'(R)\\Delta T^2\n\\right].\n\\label{dParallel}\n\\end{equation}\nNext, let us look at how the distance between the particles $L$ and $R$ changes over time. The initial radial coordinate value for each of the particles is\n\\begin{equation}\nr(T_0) = \\sqrt{R^2+\\Delta l^2}=R\\left[1+\\frac12\\left(\\frac{\\Delta l}{R}\\right)^2\\right]\\approx R,\n\\end{equation}\nthat is, equal to $R,$ as long as we neglect any terms that are higher than linear in $\\Delta l$. In consequence, $r_{L,R}(t)$ is the same function as for our central particle, given by eq.~(\\ref{RadialOrbitTime}) with $r_0=R$. The transversal (in Fig.~\\ref{TestParticlesOutside}: horizontal) distance $d_{\\perp}(T)$ between the particles $L$ and $R$ changes in proportion to the radius value,\n\\begin{align}\nd_{\\perp}(T) &= 2\\Delta l\\cdot\\frac{r_{L}(T)}{R} \\nonumber \\\\\n                 &=2\\Delta \\left[1-\\frac{c\\beta(R)}{R}\\Delta T+\\frac{c^2}{2}\\frac{B(R)}{R}\\Delta T^2\\right].\n                \\label{dPerp}\n\\end{align}\nWith these preparations, consider the vacuum Einstein equation (\\ref{EinsteinVacuum}) for the volume of a test ball. Initially, our particles $C, U, D, L, R$ define a circle, which is deformed to an ellipse. By demanding rotational symmetry around the radial direction, we can construct the associated ellipsoid, which is initially a spherical surface. That ellipsoid has one axis in radial direction, whose length is $d_{\\parallel}(T)$, and two axes that are transversal and each have the length  $d_{\\perp}(t)$. But that ellipsoid is not quite yet the test ball we need. After all, the particles of the test ball need to be at rest initially, at time $T_0$, in the co-moving system defined by the central particle $C$. Our defining particles are not, as the terms linear in $\\Delta T$ in both (\\ref{dParallel}) and (\\ref{dPerp}) show, where the coefficients of $\\Delta T$ correspond to the particles' initial velocities. \n\nIn order to define our test ball, we need to consider particles at the same location, undergoing the same acceleration, but which are initially at rest relative to the central particle $C$. \n\nWe could go back to the drawing board, back to Fig.~\\ref{TestParticlesOutside}, make a more general Ansatz that includes initial velocities which measure the divergence of the motion of our test ball particles from that of the infalling-observer particles, and repeat our calculation while including those additional velocity terms. But there is a short-cut. The only consequence of those additional velocity terms will be to change the terms linear in $\\Delta T$ in equations (\\ref{dParallel}) and (\\ref{dPerp}). And we already know the end result: We will choose the additional terms so as to cancel the terms linear in $\\Delta T$ in the current versions of (\\ref{dParallel}) and (\\ref{dPerp}). But by that reasoning, we can skip the explicit steps in between, and write down the final result right away. The time evolution of the radial-direction diameter of our test ball, let us call it $L_{\\parallel}(T)$, must be the same as $d_{\\parallel}(T)$, but without the term linear in $\\Delta T$. Likewise, the time evolution $L_{\\perp}(T)$ of the two transversal diameters must be equal to $d_{\\perp}(T)$, but again without the term linear in $\\Delta T$. The result is\n\\begin{align}\nL_{\\parallel}(T)  &=  2\\Delta l \\left[1+\\frac12c^2B'(R)\\Delta T^2\\right] \\\\\nL_{\\perp}(T) &= 2\\Delta l \\left[1+\\frac{c^2}{2}\\frac{B(R)}{R}\\Delta T^2\\right].\n\\end{align}\nThus, our test ball volume is\n\\begin{align}\nV(T) &= \\frac{\\pi}{6}L_{\\parallel}(T) L_{\\perp}^2(T) \\\\\n       &= \\left.\\frac{4\\pi}{3}\\Delta l^3\\left[1+{c^2}\\left( \\frac{B(r)}{r} + \\frac{B'(r)}{2}\\right)\\Delta T^2\\right]\\right|_{r=R}\n\\end{align}\nFor the second time derivative of $V(T)$ to vanish at the time $T=T_0$, we must have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{B(r)}{r} + \\frac{B'(r)}{2}= 0\n\\label{VolumeConditionR}\n\\end{equation}\nfor all values of $r$. This is readily solved by the standard method of separation of variables: We can rewrite (\\ref{VolumeConditionR}) as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{\\mathrm{d} B}{B} = -2\\frac{\\mathrm{d} r}{r},\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is readily integrated to give\n\\begin{equation}\n\\ln(B) = -\\ln(r^{2}) + const.  \\;\\; \\Rightarrow \\;\\; \\ln(Br^2) = C',\n\\end{equation}\nwith a constant $C'$, which upon taking the exponential gives us\n\\begin{equation}\nBr^2= C,\n\\label{BSolution}\n\\end{equation}\nwith a constant $C$. Note that the constant $C$ can be negative --- there is no reason the constant $C'$ needs to be real; only our eventual function $B(r)$ needs to be that, and it is clear that (\\ref{BSolution}) satisfies the differential equation\n(\\ref{VolumeConditionR}) for any constant $C$, positive, zero, or negative. By (\\ref{BigBDefinition}), the solution (\\ref{BSolution}) corresponds to the differential equation\n\\begin{equation}\n\\beta(r)\\beta'(r) = \\frac{C}{r^2}\n\\end{equation}\nfor our function $\\beta$; with another separation of variables, we can re-write this as \n\\begin{equation}\n\\beta\\cdot\\mathrm{d}\\beta=C\\frac{\\mathrm{d} r}{r^2}.\n\\end{equation}\nBoth sides are readily integrated up; we can solve the result for $\\beta(r)$ and obtain\n\\begin{equation}\n\\beta(r) = \\sqrt{\n-\\frac{2C}{r} +2D\n},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $D$ is the second integration constant, and where we have chosen the proper sign, since we know that $\\beta(r)>0$. That brings us to the last step: The requirement that, for large values of $r$, the description provided by our solution should correspond to the results from Newtonian gravity. First of all, we note that our initial condition for the infalling observers, which had those observers start out at zero speed at infinity, means that we must choose $D=0$. Then, as we would expect, $\\beta(r)$ for large values of $r$ becomes very small, corresponding to small speeds. But at slow speeds, time and length intervals as measured by the infalling observer will become arbitrarily close to time and length intervals as measured by an observer at rest in our static coordinate system at constant $r$, using the static time coordinate ${t}$. As is usual, we identify these coordinates with those of an approximately Newtonian description. In that description, the radial velocity is\n\\begin{equation}\nv(r) = \\sqrt{\\frac{2GM}{r}},\n\\end{equation}\nwhich follows directly from energy conservation for the sum of each observer's kinetic and Newtonian-gravitational potential energy. This fixes the remaining integration constant as\n\\begin{equation}\nC = -\\frac{GM}{c^2},\n\\end{equation}\nand the final form of our function $\\beta(r)$ becomes\n\\begin{equation}\n\\beta(r) = \\sqrt{\\frac{2GM}{rc^2}}.\n\\end{equation}\nInserting this result in (\\ref{preMetric}), we obtain the metric\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{d} s^2 = -c^2\\left[\n1-\\frac{2GM}{rc^2}\n\\right]\\mathrm{d} T^2+2\\sqrt{\\frac{2GM}{r}}\\mathrm{d} r\\:\\mathrm{d} T+\\mathrm{d} r^2+r^2\\mathrm{d}\\Omega^2.\n\\label{GPMetric}\n\\end{equation}\nThis is known as the Gullstrand-Painlev\\'e version of the Schwarzschild metric.\\cite{Martel2001,Visser2005,HamiltonLisle2008} A  last transformation step brings us back to the traditional Schwarzschild form. Recall our discussion in sec.~\\ref{SymmetriesCoordinates}, leading up to the explicitly static form (\\ref{StaticForm}) of the metric? The main difference between our current form and the static version is the mixed term containing $\\mathrm{d} r\\:\\mathrm{d} T$ in (\\ref{GPMetric}). Everything else already has the required shape. Inserting the Ansatz\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{d} T = \\mathrm{d} t + \\xi(r) \\mathrm{d} r\n\\end{equation}\ninto the metric (\\ref{GPMetric}), it is straightforward to see that the mixed term vanishes iff our transformation is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{d} T = \\mathrm{d} t +\\frac{\\sqrt{2GM/r}}{c^2\\left(1-\\frac{2GM}{rc^2}\\right)}\\mathrm{d} r.\n\\label{TtTrafo}\n\\end{equation}\nSubstitute this into (\\ref{GPMetric}), and the result is the familiar form of the Schwarzschild metric in Schwarzschild's original coordinates $t,r,\\vartheta,\\varphi$, \n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{d} s^2 = -c^2\\left(1-\\frac{2GM}{c^2 r}\n\\right)\\mathrm{d} t^2 + \\frac{\\mathrm{d} r^2}{\\left(1-\\frac{2GM}{c^2 r}\n\\right)} + r^2\\mathrm{d}\\Omega^2.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nUsing coordinates adapted to the symmetries, we were able to write down the spherically symmetric, static spacetime metric. On this basis, and using the family of infalling observers that is characteristic for the Gullstrand-Painlev\\'e solution, we wrote down the metric in the form (\\ref{preMetric}), with a single unknown function $\\beta(r)$. From the simplified form (\\ref{EinsteinVacuum}) of the vacuum Einstein equations, as applied to a test ball in free fall alongside one of our family of observers, we were able to determine $\\beta(r)$, up to two integration constants. By using the Einstein equation, we escape the restrictions imposed on simplified derivations by Gruber et al.\\cite{Gruber1988} \n\nFrom the initial condition for our infalling observers, as well as from the Newtonian limit at large distances from our center of symmetry, we were able to fix the values of the two intergration constants. Our derivation does not require knowledge of advanced mathematical concepts beyond the ability to properly interpret a given metric line element $\\mathrm{d} s^2$. Even our analysis of tidal effects proceeds via a simple second-order Taylor expansion, leading to differential equations for $\\beta(r)$ that are readily solved using two applications of the method of separation of variables. \n\nWhat is new about the derivation presented here is the combination of the Baez-Bunn equations with the infalling coordinates typical for the Gullstrand-Painlev\\'e form of the metric --- this combination is what, in the end, makes our derivation particularly simple. In turn, this simplicity is what should make the derivation particularly useful in the context of teaching general relativity in an undergraduate setting.\n\nThe derivation proceeds close to the physics, and gives ample opportunity to discuss interesting properties of Einstein's theory of gravity. Students who are presented with this derivation, either as a demonstration or as a (guided) exercise, will come to understand the way that symmetries determine the form of a metric, the deductions that can be made from Einstein's equivalence principle, and last but not least that we need to go beyond the equivalence principle, and consider tidal forces, to completely define our solution.\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgements}\n\nI would like to thank Thomas M\\\"uller for helpful comments on an earlier version of this text.\n\n", "answers": ["Using the vacuum Einstein equation and the Baez-Bunn form."], "length": 4982, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "032ee1448dec7751d00cd9f752fc61c5843a47e49dd7fcb6"}
{"input": "What is Professor Tulis's forthcoming book?", "context": "UT College of Liberal Arts: College of Liberal Arts University of Texas at Austin Departments Graduate Resources Undergraduate Resources Courses Online Courses Dean's Office Alumni & Giving Faculty by Department Search the College of Liberal Arts\nnext profile Jeffrey Tulis Associate Professor — Ph.D.,\nE-mail: tulis@austin.utexas.edu\nOffice: MEZ 3.152\nPolitical Theory and American Politics\nProfessor Tulis's interests bridge the fields of political theory and American politics, including more specifically, American political development, constitutional theory, political philosophy and the American presidency. His publications include The Presidency in the Constitutional Order (LSU, 1981; Transaction, 2010), The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton, 1987), The Constitutional Presidency (Johns Hopkins 2009), The Limits of Constitutional Democracy (Princeton, 2010) and recent journal articles and chapters on constitutional interpretation, the logic of political change, and the meaning of political success. Four collections of essays on The Rhetorical Presidency with responses by Tulis have been published, including a special double issue of Critical Review: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Politics and Society, (2007), where his book is described as \"one of the two or three most important and perceptive works written by a political scientist in the twentieth century.\"\nHe has served as President of the Politics and History Section of the American Political Science Association. He received the President's Associates Teaching Excellence Award at the University of Texas. He has held research fellowships from NEH, ACLS, Olin Foundation, Harvard Law School, and the Mellon Preceptorship at Princeton University, where he taught before moving to Texas. He has held visiting positions at Notre Dame and Harvard. He has served as associate chair of the Department of Government from 1989-2001 and was acting chair during 1992-93. and for part of each year between 1989 and 2001. During the academic year 2008-09, he was a Laurance S. Rockefeller Visiting Fellow at the University Center for Human Values at Princeton. During Spring 2016, he was a Dahrendorf Visiting Fellow at the London School of Economics and Political Science.\nHis forthcoming books include: Legacies of Losing in American Politics, with Nicole Mellow (University of Chicago Press, Fall 2017), and an expanded edition of The Rhetorical Presidency in the Princeton Classics series (Princeton, Fall 2017). For two decades he served as co-editor of the Johns Hopkins Series in Constitutional Thought, and he currently co-edits (with Sanford Levinson) Constitutional Thinking, a Series at the University Press of Kansas.\nGOV 370L • Pres In Constitutional Ord 38840 • Spring 2017 Meets MW 2:30PM-4:00PM CAL 221 show description\nGOV 370 Seminar: The Presidency in the Constitutional Order\nSpring 2017 Unique # 38840\nMW 2:30 to 4pm GDC 2.402\nJeffrey K. Tulis\nIn this Seminar we will discuss a series of constitutional problems including: the problem of executive energy in the American Constitution; presidential selection and the problem of political legitimacy; separation of powers; delegation of powers, the constitutional status of war and foreign affairs, administration and bureaucracy and the meaning of leadership in the constitutional order.\nSeminar will meet twice a week and regular attendance and thorough preparation for discussion is expected. Unexcused absence from more than three classes will result in failure of the participation component of the course. There will also be pop quizzes on the reading that will count as part of your participation grade. In addition to class participation, course requirements include four short analytic essays, and one in-class test. The course grade will be calculated as follows:\nSeminar participation: 20%\nIn-class test: 20%\nThree analytic essays 60% (20% each)\nClass participation is especially important. Preparation for seminar and for your in-class test will be enhanced by careful note taking on the readings. If students appear to be unprepared, pop quizzes will be given and the grades on them will affect the participation component of your course grade.\nTexts: (tentative)\nJoseph M. Bessette and Jeffrey K. Tulis, The Constitutional Presidency\nMichael Nelson, The Presidency in the Political System (tenth edition)\nRichard Ellis and Michael Nelson, Debating the Presidency (third edition)\nThe Federalist (any edition, or online) GOV 310L • American Government-Honors 38335 • Fall 2016 Meets TTH 3:30PM-5:00PM BEN 1.106 show description\nGOV 310 (Honors) (38335) Fall 2016\nTTH 3:30-5:00pm, BEN 1.106\nThis honors seminar offers an introduction to American politics that emphasizes the confluence of ideas, mores, institutions, and interests, in the constitutional system. This course covers more theory, and the readings are more demanding, than other versions of GOV 310. One of the main objectives of the course is to deepen your understanding of the practical aspects of contemporary public affairs by developing your ability to understand the theoretical foundations of American politics. Although we cover the nuts and bolts of politics there is much more theory in this version of GOV 310. If you have registered for this section mainly because 310 is a legislative requirement that you need to fulfill, this is not the right version for you. There is a substantial workload in this class.\nRegular attendance, thorough and timely preparation, and active participation are all necessary to do well.\nFour essays (approximately 1000 words each). Three of these will be assigned analytic essay topics. The last will be a book review of a title chosen by the student from a long list of provided possibilities. (15% each essay, 60% of total course grade)\nTwo in-class tests. These will count 15% each, 30% of total course grade.\nClass participation. (10% of course grade). Both informed participation and occasional leadership of the seminar will be graded.\nNo make-up exams or late papers, except for documented medical or other emergencies.\nMark Landy and Sidney M. Milkis, American Government: Enduring Principles, Critical Choices, Third Edition\nMary Nichols and David Nichols, Readings in American Government, Ninth Edition\nThomas Mann and Norman Ornstein, Its Even Worse Than It Looks: How the American Constitutional System Collided With the New Politics of Extremism\nBruce Ackerman,Before the Next Attack: Preserving Civil Liberties in an Age of Terrorism GOV 381L • Constitutional Conflict 38660 • Fall 2016 Meets W 3:30PM-6:30PM BAT 5.102 show description\nGOV 381L Fall 2016\nConstitutional Conflict\nW 3:30-6:30pm, BAT 5.102\nMany of the most important debates regarding the nature and character of contemporary American politics are essentially arguments regarding the structure of separation of powers. In this seminar we will consider such questions as whether the American system is prone to deadlock of stalemate in the construction of national policy; whether conflict is a hindrance to institutional responsibility or an essential attribute of responsibility; whether there are “political questions” especially suitable to resolution between President and Congress; how one can distinguish salutary from pathological conflict, and whether it is truly possible to harness the ambition of office holders to the duties of their office.\nMore specifically, we will review literature and arguments regarding constitutional reform; divided government; separation of powers theory; and case studies of Supreme Court appointments; the budget process; and war powers and foreign affairs. In these contexts we will also discuss current controversies surrounding war authorization, intelligence and secrecy, sequestration, government shut downs and budget resolutions, and debt ceiling politics.\nThe course is designed to accommodate two different student needs: it will provide a good overview of important literature relevant to the comprehensive examination in American politics and it will provide opportunities for research. This subject area is a treasure trove of “hot” topics, publication possibilities, subjects for MA theses and Ph.D. dissertations. I will tailor the written requirements to the objectives of individual students.\n1. All students will prepare a short analytic essay early in the semester, and an annotated bibliography at mid-semester. These assignments will count (30%) of the grade.\n2. Students interested primarily in exam preparation will complete an examination near the end of the semester based on study questions assigned in advance. OR\nStudents interested in research will write a 20-25 page paper. (60%)\n3. A basic requirement of the course is that students prepare for each seminar by carefully reading the material assigned for that week. Class discussion is an essential component of the course. (10%)\nTentative Texts:\nJones, Separate But Equal Branches\nSilverstein, Imbalance of Powers\nWilson & Schram, Separation of Powers and Good Government\nBurgess, Contest for Constitutional Authority\nFarrier, Passing the Buck: Congress, the Budget and Deficits\nWeissman, A Culture of Deference\nZeisberg, War Powers: The Politics of Constitutional Authority\nFisher, Congressional Abdication on War and Spending\nLowi, The End of Liberalism GOV 379S • Regime Persp Amer Poltc-Honors 38105 • Spring 2016 Meets TH 3:30PM-6:30PM GAR 1.134 (also listed as CTI 335, LAH 350) show description\nGOV 379S Regime Perspectives on American Politics\nThis is a seminar on American politics and culture. Two purposes govern the selection of texts for the course and guide our discussion of them. All of our texts attempt to look at American politics as a whole. Most books and courses on America look at only a part, such as the Presidency, or elections, or popular culture. Here we attempt to think about how the parts of America fit together. Even when these texts speak about a part, for example an institution such as the presidency or the Congress, they present the topic from a vantage point on the whole polity. To see the polity as a whole also means that we will have to revisit and rethink aspects of our political life that we take for granted – that we don’t examine because those parts have become so natural or familiar to us. Seeing the polity whole enables us to render the familiar unfamiliar, to make what we take for granted strange and new.\nTo see the polity as a whole requires that we get some distance from our subject, much as to see the planet earth as a whole requires one to look at it from outer space. Just as it is difficult to get visual perspective on a place living within it, it is difficult to understand the promise or pathologies of a regime from within. To get critical distance from our politics, we will closely study three sets of texts that look at American politics from a distance. The first part of the course will recover the perspective of the founding debate between Federalists and Anti-federalists. This fundamental debate reveals what is a stake in the basic architecture of the American regime. The second part of the course is a close study of Tocqueville’s Democracy in America. Regarded by many as the best book ever written on democracy and the best book written on America, Tocqueville sees our polity whole because he looks at it from the vantage point of Europe, in general, and France, in particular. In the third part of the seminar we think about American politics from the perspective of thoughtful commentators who feel only nominally included in the polity. Half in and half out, these extraordinary black American writers reveal fissures and fault lines in the American regime. We end the class with a discussion of America’s place in the world today – examining a speech by a writer who articulately raises challenges to our self-understanding that are inarticulately expressed today in rage and ranting from enemies of the United States.\nThree take home analytic essays, chosen from a list of topics I provide, each weighted 25% of the course grade. Late essays will not be accepted, except with a doctor’s excuse or a Dean’s excuse for family emergency.\nOR as an option: you may write the two short essays (both together weighted 25%) and do a longer 15 page paper on a topic of your choice in consultation with me (weighted 50% of your course grade). Government honors students who are thinking of doing an honors thesis next year may prefer this option to begin to develop research and writing skills for longer work. Students who prefer this option will need to designate their preferred third short essay and have discussed with me a topic for their long paper by March 30. Texts:\nSelected Anti-Federalist writings\nTocqueville, Democracy in America\nEssays, speeches and articles by Frederick Douglass, W.E.B. Dubois, Booker T. Washington, James Baldwin and Ralph Ellison GOV 382M • Democratic Theory 38120 • Spring 2016 Meets M 3:30PM-6:30PM BAT 1.104 show description\nGOV 382M (38120)\nDemocratic Theory Spring 2016\nThis is a graduate seminar on contemporary topics in democratic theory. Topics to be covered include: democratic epistemology; deliberative democracy; the meaning of the people; oracular democracy; agonistic democracy; and possibly new theories of republicanism, representation and partisanship.\nTexts (tentative)\nHelene Landemore, Democratic Reason\nJeffrey Edward Green, The Eyes of the People\nAmy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson, Why Deliberative Democracy?\nAlan Keenan, Democracy in Question\nJason Frank, Constituent Moments\nJason Frank, Publius and Political Imagination\nNadia Urbanati, Democracy Disfigured\nRussell Muirhead, Partisanship in a Polarized Age\nBryan Garsten, manuscript\nActive seminar participation; an annotated bibliography or review essay; a research/analytic paper. GOV 310L • American Government-Honors 37615 • Fall 2015 Meets TTH 2:00PM-3:30PM BEN 1.106 show description\nTTH 2-3:30/BEN 1.106\nBruce Ackerman,Before the Next Attack: Preserving Civil Liberties in an Age of Terrorism GOV 370L • Presidency In Constitutl Order 37845 • Fall 2015 Meets TTH 5:00PM-6:30PM PAR 310 show description\nGOV 370L (37845)\nTTH 5-6:30 PAR 310\nThe Presidency in the Constitutional Order\nA study of the place of the presidency in the American political order that stresses tension between power and accountability inherent in the office and the system. Topics include: separation of powers, presidential selection, impeachment, relations with Congress and bureaucracy, emergency powers, presidential character, and leadership.\nThis is a very demanding writing flag class. If you are enrolling in this class just in order to satisfy the writing flag, you are in the wrong class. Interest in political theory and willingness to work very hard are necessary for success in this class.\nJoseph M. Bessette, The Constitutional Presidency\nAndrew Rudalevige, The New Imperial Presidency\nBruce Ackerman, The Rise and Decline of the American Republic\nMichael Nelson, ed., The Presidency in the Political System\nMichael Nelson, ed., The Evolving Presidency\nLouis Fisher, Constitutional Conflicts Between Congress and the President\nActive and prepared class participation\nRegular quizzes on the reading\nFour analytic essays (approximately 1200 words).\nOne term paper, (approximately 5000 words). GOV 379S • Regime Persp On Amer Politics 38100 • Spring 2015 Meets T 3:30PM-6:30PM MEZ 1.104 (also listed as LAH 350) show description\nEssays, speeches and articles by Frederick Douglass, W.E.B. Dubois, Booker T. Washington, James Baldwin and Ralph Ellison GOV 382M • Tocqueville 38135 • Spring 2015 Meets M 3:30PM-6:30PM BAT 5.102 show description\nThis graduate seminar will be devoted to close readings of two principal writings of Tocqueville: Democracy in America and The Ancien Regime and the Revolution. We will also assess some of the best secondary studies of Tocqueville, including work by Sheldon Wolin, Harvey Mansfield, Delba Winthrop, Jon Elster, Francois Furet, and a book by Pierre Manent.\nCourse requirements will include two very short analytic essays and one seminar paper (20-25 pages). GOV 310L • American Government-Honors 38722 • Fall 2014 Meets TTH 2:00PM-3:30PM GAR 2.112 show description\nJoseph M. Bessette and John J. Pitney, American Government and Politics: Deliberation, Democracy and Citizenship\nMary Nichols and David Nichols, Readings in American Government\nBruce Ackerman,Before the Next Attack: Preserving Civil Liberties in an Age of Terrorism GOV 370L • Presidency In Constitutl Order 38977 • Fall 2014 Meets TTH 9:30AM-11:00AM CBA 4.332 show description\nA study of the place of the presidency in the American political order that stresses\ntension between power and accountability inherent in the office and the system.\nTopics include: separation of powers, presidential selection, impeachment,\nrelations with Congress and bureaucracy, emergency powers, presidential\ncharacter, and leadership.\nThis is a very demanding writing flag class. If you are enrolling in this class just in order\nto satisfy the writing flag, you are in the wrong class. Interest in political theory and willingness\nto work very hard are necessary for success in this class.\nOne term paper, (approximately 5000 words). GOV 379S • Regime Persp On Amer Politics 39395 • Spring 2014 Meets T 3:30PM-6:30PM MEZ 1.104 (also listed as CTI 335, LAH 350) show description\nEssays, speeches and articles by Frederick Douglass, W.E.B. Dubois, Booker T. Washington, James Baldwin and Ralph Ellison GOV 381L • Constitutional Conflict 39415 • Spring 2014 Meets M 3:30PM-6:30PM BAT 1.104 show description\nLowi, The End of Liberalism GOV 330K • The American President 39140 • Fall 2013 Meets MW 3:00PM-4:30PM MEZ B0.306 show description\nThis course offers an over view of the place of the presidency in the American political order. Topics covered include: constitutional design of the office; nominations and elections; legislative leadership; leadership of the bureaucracy; staffing and organizing the White House; the presidency and the judiciary; war and emergencies. We will spend extra time this fall on the presidential campaign and election of 2012.\nTwo in-class examinations (50% of the final grade)\nOne short (1000 word) take-home essay (30% of the final grade)\nClass participation and quizzes (20% of the final grade)\nRichard J. Ellis, The Development of the American Presidency (Routledge, 2012)\nRichard J. Ellis and Michael Nelson, eds, Debating the American Presidency, (2nd edition, CQ Press, 2009)\nPacket of selected primary texts (to be linked or posted on Blackboard). GOV 330K • The American President 39145 • Fall 2013 Meets MW 5:00PM-6:30PM MEZ B0.306 show description\nPacket of selected primary texts (to be linked or posted on Blackboard). GOV 381L • American Founding 39040 • Spring 2013 Meets T 6:30PM-9:30PM BAT 1.104 show description\nNOTE WELL: Course meets Tuesdays, 6:30 to 9:30pm\nBatts Hall 1.104\nThis is a seminar on American political thought and constitutional design. It is designed for students of American politics and political theory. The principal themes include: 1) the nature of founding and its constitutive significance; 2) the relation of structure and power in American politics; 3) the meaning and significance of the Federalist/Anti-Federalist debate; 4) the philosophic background of the American founding; and 5) the relevance of the founding to debate to prospects for, and pathologies of, American politics today.\nWe will conduct a close reading of the Madison’s Notes, of The Federalist, and selected Anti-Federalist writings. We will also study a larger and growing body of secondary literature on the constitutional convention, ratification and early American political thought.\nJames Madison, Notes of the Debates: In the Federal Convention of 1787\nThe Federalist (Rossiter, ed.)\nThe Anti-Federalist (Storing, ed.)\nDavid Brian Robertson, The Constitution and America’s Destiny (2005)\nPauline Maier, Ratification (2012)\nGordon Wood, The Idea of America (2011)\nJack Rakove, Original Meanings: Politics & Ideas in the Making of the Constitution\nHerbert Storing, What the Anti-Federalists Were For (1981)\nNumerous essays and articles (to be posted on line or gathered in packet)\nGrading: Active seminar participation, including three short papers and presentations (40%) and one article-length seminar paper (60%) T C 357 • Amer Founding/Probs Const Des 43095 • Spring 2013 Meets M 3:30PM-6:30PM CRD 007B show description\nThe American Founding and Problems of Constitutional Design\nJeffrey Tulis, Associate Professor, Department of Government\nSanford Levinson, Professor, School of Law\nThis Plan II seminar will be built around a close reading of the debates that informed the drafting and ratification of the U.S. Constitution. We aim to recover the perspective of these founding thinkers -- their way of thinking -- as much as their concrete ideas, in order to raise fundamental questions about the American political order today. Are some of the most important pathologies of American politics today rooted in design features of our original political architecture? Are the original answers to basic founding questions (such as \"how democratic is our Constitution?) still adequate for contemporary circumstances? What features of the Constitution should we preserve and what features should we amend, if possible? Would it be good for the polity as a whole to reconsider these questions in a new constitutional convention today, or would such an event be a political nightmare? Our reading will include notes from the founding conventions, writings by Federalists and Anti-Federalists, and present-day critiques of the American political order. Our aim will be to generate a dialogue between the thought of the founders and some of the best present day critics and supporters of the Constitution.\nJames Madison, Notes of the Debates in the Federal Convention\nThe Federalist, ed. Clinton Rossiter\nThe Anti-Federalist, ed. Herbert Storing\nPauline Maier, Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787-1788\nSanford Levinson, Framed: America’s 51 Constitutions and the Crisis of Governance\nBruce Ackerman, The Decline and Fall of the American Republic\nRobert Goldwin, ed. How Democratic is the Constitution?\na course packet of selected articles, essays, and additional primary materials.\nClass participation, including at least one presentation of a short discussion paper 25%\nOne take-home analytic essay 25%\nOne term paper 50%\nAbout the Professors:\nProfessor Tulis's interests bridge the fields of political theory and American politics, including more specifically, American political development, constitutional theory, political philosophy and the American presidency. He received the President's Associates Teaching Excellence Award at the University of Texas. He has held research fellowships from NEH, ACLS, Olin Foundation, Harvard Law School, and the Mellon Preceptorship at Princeton University, where he taught before moving to Texas. He has held visiting positions at Notre Dame and Harvard. During the academic year 2008-09, he was a Laurance S. Rockefeller Visiting Fellow at the University Center for Human Values at Princeton.\nProefessor Levinson holds the W. St. John Garwood and W. St. John Garwood, Jr. Centennial Chair in Law, he joined the University of Texas Law School in 1980. Previously a member of the Department of Politics at Princeton University, he is also a Professor in the Department of Government at the University of Texas. The author of over 350 articles and book reviews in professional and popular journals--and a regular contributor to the popular blog Balkinization. He received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Law and Courts Section of the American Political Science Association in 2010. He has been a visiting faculty member of the Boston University, Georgetown, Harvard, New York University, and Yale law schools in the United States and has taught abroad in programs of law in London; Paris; Jerusalem; Auckland, New Zealand; and Melbourne, Australia.\nGOV 330K • The American President 38675 • Fall 2012 Meets MW 3:00PM-4:30PM MEZ B0.306 show description\nPacket of selected primary texts (to be linked or posted on Blackboard). GOV 330K • The American President 38675 • Fall 2011 Meets MW 3:30PM-5:00PM WAG 420 show description\nsee syllabus GOV 330K • The American President 38680 • Fall 2011 Meets MW 5:30PM-7:00PM UTC 1.146 show description\nsee syllabus GOV 379S • Regime Persp On Amer Polit-Hon 39110 • Spring 2011 Meets W 3:30PM-6:30PM BAT 5.102 (also listed as CTI 326, LAH 350) show description\nTo see the polity as a whole requires that we get some distance from our subject, much as to see the planet earth as a whole requires one to look at it from outer space. Just as it is difficult to get visual perspective on a place living within it, it is difficult to understand the promise or pathologies of a regime from within it. To get critical distance from our politics, we will closely study three sets of texts that look at American politics from a distance. The first part of the course will recover the perspective of the founding debate between Federalists and Anti-federalists. This fundamental debate reveals what is a stake in the basic architecture of the American regime. The second part of the course is a close study of Tocqueville’s Democracy in America. Regarded by many as the best book ever written on democracy and the best book written on America, Tocqueville sees our polity whole because he looks at it from the vantage point of Europe, in general, and France, in particular. In the third part of the seminar we think about American politics from the perspective of thoughtful commentators who feel only nominally included in the polity. Half in and half out, these extraordinary black American writers reveal fissures and fault lines in the American regime. We end the class with a discussion of America’s place in the world today – examining a speech by a writer who articulately raises challenges to our self-understanding that are inarticulately expressed today in rage and ranting from enemies of the United States.\nFour take home writing assignments. Analytic essays, each 1000-1500 words. (Grades weighted: 10%, 25%, 25%, and 25%) Late essays will not be accepted, except with a doctor’s excuse or a Dean’s excuse for family emergency. Regular preparation and class participation: 15%.\nOR as an option: By prior arrangement with me by the due date of the second analytic essay, students may substitute one longer research paper (15 – 20 pages) for two of the last three analytic papers This paper will be on a topic of the students choosing , if I approve, and the due date will be the same as the last assigned analytic essay. This project would count 50% of the students course grade.\nSelected writings by Frederick Douglass, W.E.B. Dubois, Ralph Ellison, James Baldwin\nSolzhenitsyn, “A World Split Apart”\nTocqueville, Democracy in America GOV 382M • Tocqueville 39150 • Spring 2011 Meets T 6:30PM-9:30PM BAT 5.102 show description\nSee syllabus GOV 370L • President, Congress, And Court 38695 • Fall 2010 Meets TTH 8:00AM-9:30AM UTC 3.112 show description\nCourse Description: A Study of the political relationship of the President, Congress and Court in the American constitutional order. Has this relationship changed over the course of American history? Is American national politics prone to stalemate or deadlock between the branches regarding major issues of public policy? Do we have a new “imperial presidency?” Should the Court arbitrate disputes between the President and Congress over custody of their respective powers? Has Congress abdicated its constitutional responsibilities? We will examine questions like these in light of practical problems such as executive privilege and secrecy, the war on terror, budget politics and controversies regarding appointments to the Supreme Court. Grading:Three in class essay tests, for which study questions will be distributed in advance. The exam questions will be chosen from the list of study questions. (25% each) One short take home essay (10% each). Class participation and attendance (15%). Tentative Texts: The FederalistFisher, Congressional Abdication on War and SpendingRudalevige, The New Imperial PresidencyBessette and Tulis, The Constitutional PresidencySkowronek, Presidency in Political TimeGoldsmith, The Terror PresidencyA course packet of articles and essays GOV 370L • President, Congress, And Court 38700 • Fall 2010 Meets TTH 5:00PM-6:30PM UTC 3.122 show description\nCourse Description: A Study of the political relationship of the President, Congress and Court in the American constitutional order. Has this relationship changed over the course of American history? Is American national politics prone to stalemate or deadlock between the branches regarding major issues of public policy? Do we have a new “imperial presidency?” Should the Court arbitrate disputes between the President and Congress over custody of their respective powers? Has Congress abdicated its constitutional responsibilities? We will examine questions like these in light of practical problems such as executive privilege and secrecy, the war on terror, budget politics and controversies regarding appointments to the Supreme Court. Grading:Three in class essay tests, for which study questions will be distributed in advance. The exam questions will be chosen from the list of study questions. (25% each) One short take home essay (10% each). Class participation and attendance (15%). Tentative Texts: The FederalistFisher, Congressional Abdication on War and SpendingRudalevige, The New Imperial PresidencyBessette and Tulis, The Constitutional PresidencySkowronek, Presidency in Political TimeGoldsmith, The Terror PresidencyA course packet of articles and essays GOV 312L • Iss & Policies In Amer Gov-Hon 38698 • Spring 2010 Meets MW 3:30PM-5:00PM UTC 3.104 show description\nGovernment 312L satisfies the second half of the mandated six hours of government that every UT student must take. Course covers analysis of varying topics concerned with American political institutions and policies, including the United States Constitution, and assumes basic knowledge of government from GOV 310L, which is a prerequiste. May be taken for credit only once. GOV 370L • President, Congress, And Court 38966 • Spring 2010 Meets MW 5:00PM-6:30PM MEZ B0.306 show description\nPrerequisite: Six semester hours of lower-division coursework in government.\nGOV 370L • President, Congress, And Court 39295 • Fall 2009 Meets TTH 2:00PM-3:30PM UTC 3.112 show description\nGOV 370L • President, Congress, And Court 39435 • Spring 2008 Meets MW 3:00PM-4:30PM PAR 203 show description\nGOV 312L • Iss & Policies In Am Gov-Hon-W 38615-38620 • Spring 2007 Meets MW 11:00AM-12:00PM MEZ B0.306 show description\nGovernment 312L satisfies the second half of the mandated six hours of government that every UT student must take. Course covers analysis of varying topics concerned with American political institutions and policies, including the United States Constitution, and assumes basic knowledge of government from GOV 310L, which is a prerequiste. May be taken for credit only once. GOV 312L • Iss & Policies In Am Gov-Hon-W 37600-37605 • Spring 2006 Meets MW 11:00AM-12:00PM MEZ B0.306 show description\nGovernment 312L satisfies the second half of the mandated six hours of government that every UT student must take. Course covers analysis of varying topics concerned with American political institutions and policies, including the United States Constitution, and assumes basic knowledge of government from GOV 310L, which is a prerequiste. May be taken for credit only once. GOV 312L • Iss & Policies In Am Gov-Hon-W 34900-34905 • Spring 2004 Meets MW 11:00AM-12:00PM BUR 134 show description\nGovernment 312L satisfies the second half of the mandated six hours of government that every UT student must take. Course covers analysis of varying topics concerned with American political institutions and policies, including the United States Constitution, and assumes basic knowledge of government from GOV 310L, which is a prerequiste. May be taken for credit only once. GOV 312L • Iss & Policies In Am Gov-Hon-W 34495-34500 • Spring 2003 Meets MW 11:00AM-12:00PM UTC 1.130 show description\nGovernment 312L satisfies the second half of the mandated six hours of government that every UT student must take. Course covers analysis of varying topics concerned with American political institutions and policies, including the United States Constitution, and assumes basic knowledge of government from GOV 310L, which is a prerequiste. May be taken for credit only once. Publications\nTulis, JK (2011), \"Plausible Futures,\" in Dunn, Charles W. (ed.) The Presidency in the Twenty-First Century, University Press of Kentucky.Tulis, J.K. and Macedo, S. (2010) The Limits of Constitutional Democracy, Princeton University Press.Tulis, J.K. and Macedo, S. (2010) \"Constitutional Boundaries,\" in The Limits of Constitutional Democracy, Princeton University Press.Tulis, JK (2010), \"The Possibility of Constitutional Statesmanship,\" in Tulis, JK and Macedo, S (eds.) The Limits of Constitutional Democracy, Princeton University Press.Tulis, J. (2009) The Constitutional Presidency. Johns Hopkins University Press.Tulis, J. (2009) Impeachment in the Constitutional Order. In J. Tulis & J.M. Bessette (Eds.), The Constitutional Presidency. Johns Hopkins University Press.Tulis, J. & Bessette, J.M. (2009) On the Constitution, Politics, and the Presidency. In J. Tulis & J.M. Bessette (Eds.), The Constitutional Presidency. Johns Hopkins University Press.Tulis, J (and Bessette, J.M) (2010) The Presidency in the Constitutional Order: Historical Perspectives, Reissued Classics Series, Transaction Publishers,Tulis, J and Bessette, J.M. (2010, \"Introduction to the Transaction Edition,\" The Presidency in the Constitutional Order: Historical Perspectives, Transaction Publishers.\nTulis, JK, (2009) \"The Two Constitutional Presidencies,\" in Nelson, Michael (ed.) The Presidency in the Political System, Congressional Quarterly Press.Tulis, J. & Mellow, N. (2007) Andrew Johnson and the Politics of Failure. In S. Skowronek & M. Glassman (Eds.), Formative Acts: Reckoning with Agency in American Politics. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Tulis, J. (2007, September) The Rhetorical Presidency in Retrospect. Critical Review: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Politics and Society, 19(2&3). Curriculum Vitae", "answers": ["Legacies of Losing in American Politics and an expanded edition of The Rhetorical Presidency in the Princeton Classics series."], "length": 5306, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "60b19bbfd875f79ca168f6db761d192ab710f9b5f395de89"}
{"input": "What is the potential of SNNs in modeling the visual system?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Deep Spiking Neural Networks with High Representation Similarity Model Visual Pathways of Macaque and Mouse\nPublish Date: 22 May 2023\nAuthor List: Zhengyu Ma (from Department of Networked Intelligence, Peng Cheng Laboratory), Yu Liutao (from Department of Networked Intelligence, Peng Cheng Laboratory), Huihui Zhou (from Department of Networked Intelligence, Peng Cheng Laboratory), Allen Brain\nAuthor Affiliation: CORNet-S ConvNeXt-Tiny ConvNeXt-Small EfficientNet, AlexNet RegNetY, ResNet34 ConvNeXt-Base CORNetSEW, ResNet8 ResNet101 SEW-ResNet18 ViT-L, GoogLeNet SEW-ResNet34 SEW-ResNet8 Wide\n\nFigure\n\nFigure 1: To conduct neural representation similarity experiments, we apply three similarity metrics to a layer-by-layer comparison between the responses of models and the neural activities of visual cortex.\nFigure 2: For three datasets and three similarity metrics, each point indicates the final representation similarity score of a model.Each pair of SEW ResNet and ResNet with the same depth are linked by a gray solid line.In almost all conditions, SEW ResNet outperforms ResNet by a large margin.\nFigure3: For three datasets and three similarity metrics, we plot the trajectories of similarity score with model layer depth.The models are divided into two groups: ResNet and SEW ResNet.The normalized layer depth ranges from 0 (the first layer) to 1 (the last layer).Because the depths of models are not the same, we first discretize the normalized depth into 50 bins, and then apply the cubic spline interpolation to the scores of each model, yielding the smooth trajectories shown in the plot.The fine, semitransparent lines are the trajectories of each model.The thick lines are the average trajectories among each group.\nFigure 5: For Macaque-Synthetic dataset, trajectories of similarity score with model layer depth are plotted.The models are divided into two groups: ViT and CNN&SNN.The normalized layer depth ranges from 0 (the first layer) to 1 (the last layer).The calculation and plotting of the trajectories are the same as Figure 3.\nFigure6: The basic block of SpikingMobileNet.\"PW CONV\" is the pointwise convolution and \"DW CONV\" is the depthwise convolution.\"SN\" is the spiking neuron.\nFigure 7: Overall model rankings of the similarity scores on Allen Brain mouse dataset.The similarity scores of CNNs, SNNs and vision transformers are shown by blue, green and orange bars, respectively.\nFigure 9: Overall model rankings of the similarity scores on Macaque-Synthetic dataset.\nFigure 10: The Spearman's rank correlation between the overall model rankings of different metrics.There is a strong correlation between SVCCA and TSVD-Reg, but RSA has weaker correlations with them.\nThe correlation between the similarity scores and the model depth.r is Spearman's rank correlation coefficient.\"-\" indicates that there is no significant correlation.\nArchitectures of SNNs.\"sn\" denotes the spiking neuron.\"g = 32\" denotes the grouped convolutions with 32 groups.The hyper-parameters of the spike-element-wise block are shown in the brackets with the number of stacked blocks outside.\n\nabstract\n\nDeep artificial neural networks (ANNs) play a major role in modeling the visual pathways of primate and rodent. However, they highly simplify the computational properties of neurons compared to their biological counterparts. Instead, Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) are more biologically plausible models since spiking neurons encode information with time sequences of spikes, just like biological neurons do.\nHowever, there is a lack of studies on visual pathways with deep SNNs models. In this study, we model the visual cortex with deep SNNs for the first time, and also with a wide range of state-of-the-art deep CNNs and ViTs for comparison. Using three similarity metrics, we conduct neural representation similarity experiments on three neural datasets collected from two species under three types of stimuli.\nBased on extensive similarity analyses, we further investigate the functional hierarchy and mechanisms across species. Almost all similarity scores of SNNs are higher than their counterparts of CNNs with an average of 6.6%. Depths of the layers with the highest similarity scores exhibit little differences across mouse cortical regions, but vary significantly across macaque regions, suggesting that the visual processing structure of mice is more regionally homogeneous than that of macaques.\nBesides, the multi-branch structures observed in some top mouse brain-like neural networks provide computational evidence of parallel processing streams in mice, and the different performance in fitting macaque neural representations under different stimuli exhibits the functional specialization of information processing in macaques.\nTaken together, our study demonstrates that SNNs could serve as promising candidates to better model and explain the functional hierarchy and mechanisms of the visual system. Originally, the prototype of deep neural networks is inspired by the biological vision system . To date, deep neural networks not only occupy an unassailable position in the field of computer vision , but also become better models of the biological visual cortex compared to traditional models in the neuroscience community (Khaligh-Razavi and Kriegeskorte 2014; .\nThey have been successful at predicting the neural responses in primate visual cortex, matching the hierarchy of ventral visual stream (Güc ¸lü and van Gerven 2015; , and even controlling neural activity . Moreover, as training paradigms of mice and techniques for collecting neural activity (de Vries et al. 2020) have been greatly improved, there is a strong interest in exploring mouse visual cortex.\nDeep neural networks also play an important role in revealing the functional mechanisms and structures of mouse visual cortex . Compared to biological networks, Artificial Neural Networks discard the complexity of neurons . Spiking Neural Networks, incorporating the concept of time and spikes, are more biologically plausible models .\nTo be more specific, because of their capabilities of encoding information with spikes, capturing the dynamics of biological neurons, and extracting spatio-temporal features, deep SNNs are highly possible to yield brain-like representations ). However, deep SNNs have not been employed to model visual cortex due to the immaturity of training algorithms.\nRecently, a state-ofthe-art directly trained deep SNN , makes it possible to use deep SNNs as visual cortex models. Contributions. In this work, we conduct large-scale neural representation similarity experiments on SNNs and other high-performing deep neural networks to study the brain's visual processing mechanisms, with three datasets and three similarity metrics (Figure ).\nSpecifically, to the best of our knowledge, we are the first to use deep SNNs to fit complex biological neural representations and explore the biological visual cortex. We summarize our main contributions in four points as follows. • We find that SNNs outperform their counterparts of CNNs with the same depth and almost the same architectures in almost all experiments.\nIn addition, even with very different depths and architectures, SNNs can achieve top performance in most conditions. • By making a more direct comparison between macaques and mice for the first time, we reveal the differences in the visual pathways across the two species in terms of the homogeneity of visual regions and the increases of receptive field sizes across cortical visual pathways, which is consistent with previous physiological work.\n• The multi-branch structures in neural networks benefit neural representation similarity to mouse visual cortex, providing computational evidence that parallel information processing streams are widespread between cortical regions in the mouse visual system. • Comparing the results of two macaque neural datasets under different stimuli, we reveal that the macaque vision system may have functional specialization for processing human faces and other natural scenes.\nAltogether, as the first work to apply deep SNNs to fit neural representations, we shed light on visual processing mechanisms in both macaques and mice, demonstrating the potential of SNNs as a novel and powerful tool for research on the visual system. Our codes and appendix are available at https://github.com/Grasshlw/SNN-Neural-Similarity.\nThere are plenty of computational models of macaque and mouse visual systems for exploring the visual processing mechanisms recently. We summarize some of the outstanding work in the following. The network models of macaque visual system. In the early days, studies basically used simple feedforward neural networks as the models of the macaque visual system (Khaligh-Razavi and Kriegeskorte 2014; .\nRecently, some bio-inspired or more complex models achieved better performance in fitting the neural representations of macaque visual cortex . proposed a brainlike shallow CNN with recurrent connections to better match the macaque ventral visual stream. By mimicking the primary stage of the primate visual system, VOneNets ) performed more robustly in image recognition while better simulating macaque V1.\nMoreover, the representations learned by unsupervised neural networks ) also effectively matched the neural activity of macaque ventral visual stream. Although the above work developed many bio-inspired structures, the networks are still traditional ANNs in nature. Our work introduces deep SNNs for the first time to explore the visual processing mechanisms of macaque visual system.\nThe network models of mouse visual system. Largescale mouse neural dataset provided an experimental basis for model studies of mouse visual system (de Vries et al. 2020; . conducted comparisons between the representations of mouse visual cortex and the VGG16 trained on the Im-ageNet dataset. In , they developed a single neural network to model both the dorsal and ventral pathways with showing the functional specializations.\nWhat's more, a large survey of advanced deep networks ) revealed some hierarchy and functional properties of mice. Similar to the studies of macaque visual system, deep SNNs have never been used to model the mouse visual system. In this work, we not only use SNNs as one of the candidates to fit the representations of mouse visual cortex, but also conduct direct comparisons between macaques and mice to further investigate the functional hierarchy and mechanisms of the two species.\nOur work is conducted with three neural datasets. These datasets are recorded from two species under three types of stimuli. More specifically, there are neural responses of mouse visual cortex to natural scene stimuli, and responses of macaque visual cortex to face image and synthetic image stimuli. Allen Brain mouse dataset.\nIt is part of the Allen Brain Observatory Visual Coding dataset ) col-lected using Neuropixel probes from 6 regions simultaneously in mouse visual cortex. Compared to two-photon calcium imaging, Neuropixel probes simultaneously record the spikes across many cortical regions with high temporal resolution.\nIn these experiments, mice are presented with 118 250-ms natural scene stimuli in random orders for 50 times. Hundreds to thousands of neurons are recorded for each brain region. To get the stable neurons, we first concatenate the neural responses (average number of spikes in 10-ms bins across time) under 118 images for each neuron, and then preserve the neurons whose split-half reliability across 50 trials reaches at least 0.8.\nMacaque-Face dataset. This dataset ) is composed of neural responses of 159 neurons in the macaque anterior medial (AM) face patch under 2,100 real face stimuli, recorded with Tungsten electrodes. For this dataset, we compute the average number of spikes in a time window of 50-350ms after stimulus onset and exclude eleven neurons with noisy responses by assessing the neurons' noise ceiling.\nThe details of the preprocessing procedure are the same as . Macaque-Synthetic dataset. This dataset is also about macaque neural responses which are recorded by electrodes under 3,200 synthetic image stimuli, and used for neural prediction in the initial version of Brain-Score . The image stimuli are generated by adding a 2D projection of a 3D object model to a natural background.\nThe objects consist of eight categories, each with eight subclasses. The position, pose, and size of each object are randomly selected. 88 neurons of V4 and 168 neurons of IT are recorded. The neural responses are preprocessed to the form of average firing rate and can be downloaded from Brain-Score. Since the core visual function of macaque and mouse visual cortex is to recognize objects, the basic premise of model selection is that the model has good performance on object recognition tasks (e.g.\nclassification on ImageNet). Based on this premise, we employ 12 SNNs, 43 CNNs, and 26 vision transformers, all of which are pretrained on the Ima-geNet dataset and perform well in the classification task. As for SNNs, we use SEW ResNet as the base model, which is the deepest and SOTA directly trained SNN .\nFurthermore, by combining the residual block used in SEW ResNet and the hierarchy of the visual cortex, we build several new SNNs and train them on the ImageNet using SpikingJelly ) (see Appendix A for model structures and the details of model training). As for CNNs and vision transformers, we use 44 models from the Torchvision model zoo , 22 models from the Timm model zoo ) and 3 models from the brain-like CNNs, CORnet family ).\nIn the feature extraction procedures of all models, we feed the same set of images used in biological experiments to the pretrained models and obtain features from all chosen layers. Different from CNNs and vision transformers, the features of SNNs are spikes in multiple time steps. To obtain the representation similarity between biological visual cortex and computational models, we apply three similarity metrics to computing similarity scores: representational similarity analysis (RSA) , regression-based encoding method and singular vector canonical correlation analysis (SVCCA) .\nRSA has already been widely used to analyze neural representations of a model and a brain to different stimuli at the population level, while the regression-based encoding method directly fits the model features to neural activity data. SVCCA is originally proposed to compare features of deep neural networks, and then Buice 2019) used it to compare representation matrices from mouse visual cortex and DNNs, which demonstrated its effectiveness.\nWith the same model and same cortical region, we use these metrics for a layer-by-layer comparison to compute the similarity scores. The maximum similarity score across layers for a given cortical region is considered to be the level of representation similarity between the model and the cortical region.\nFinally, in a given dataset, we take the average score of all cortical regions as the final similarity score for each model, which gives the overall model rankings. The implementation of each similarity metric is as follows. RSA. For two response matrices R ∈ R n×m from each layer of models and each cortical region, where n is the number of units/neurons and m is the number of stimuli, we calculate the representational similarity between the responses to each pair of image stimuli using the Pearson correlation coefficient r, yielding two representational dissimilarity matrices (RDM ∈ R m×m , where each element is the correlation distance 1 − r).\nThen, the Spearman rank correlation coefficient between the flattened upper triangles of these two matrices is the metric score. Regression-Based Encoding Method. Firstly, we run truncated singular value decomposition (TSVD) to reduce the feature dimension of model layers to 40. Secondly, the features after dimensionality reduction are fitted to the representations of each neuron by ridge regression.\nFinally, we compute the Pearson correlation coefficient between the predicted and ground-truth representations of each neuron and take the mean of all correlation coefficients as the metric score. More specifically, we apply leave-one-out crossvalidation to obtain predicted representations of each neuron.\nFor simplicity, we name this method 'TSVD-Reg'. SVCCA. For both the responses of model layers and cortical regions, we use TSVD to reduce the dimension of unit/neuron to 40, yielding two reduced representation matrices. Then we apply canonical correlation analysis (CCA) to these two matrices to obtain a vector of correlation coefficients (the length of the vector is 40).\nThe metric score is the mean of the vector. Because of the invariance of CCA to affine transformations , in this procedure, we only need to ensure that the stimulus dimension is consistent and aligned, even if the unit/neuron dimension is different. Dimensionality reduction plays an important role in this method to make the number of model features comparable to the number of neurons in cortical regions, since the former usually far exceeds the latter.\nIn addition, dimensionality reduction helps to determine which features are important to the original data, while CCA suffers in important feature detection. Using just CCA performs badly, which has been proven by . To check how similar the models are to the visual cortex's mechanisms in visual processing, we rank the final similarity scores of all models and conduct comparisons among three types of models (CNNs, SNNs, and vision transformers).\nSpecially, we focus on comparing SNN (SEW ResNet) and CNN (ResNet) with the same depth and almost the same architectures (Figure ). The final similarity score of a model is the average similarity score across all cortical regions. (The overall rankings can be found in Appendix B and the comparisons among three types of models are shown in Appendix C.)\nAllen brain mouse dataset. No single model achieves the highest final similarity scores with all three metrics. For a fair comparison, we apply the paired t-test to SEW ResNet and ResNet with the same depth. For all three metrics, SEW ResNet performs better than ResNet by a large margin (t = 5.857, p = 0.004; t = 7.666, p = 0.002; t = 7.592, p = 0.002) 1 . 1 The results of the three similarity metrics are separated by semicolons, in the order of SVCCA, TSVD-Reg, and RSA.\nOther Macaque-Face dataset. For both SVCCA and TSVD-Reg, Wide-SEW-ResNet14 and Wide-SEW-ResNet8 achieve the first and second highest final similarity scores respectively. But for RSA, TNT-S and Inception-ResNet-V2 take their place and outperform other models by a large margin. As for SEW ResNet and ResNet, the former performs significantly better than the latter for both SVCCA and TSVD-Reg (t = 8.195, p = 0.001; t = 7.528, p = 0.002).\nHowever, the difference is not significant for RSA (t = 1.117, p = 0.327). Specifically, the similarity score of SEW ResNet152 is only slightly higher than that of ResNet152, and at the depth of 50 and 101, SEW ResNet's scores are lower than ResNet's. Macaque-Synthetic dataset. Similar to the results of Allen Brain dataset, no model performs best for all three metrics.\nSEW ResNet performs moderately better than ResNet (t = 3.354, p = 0.028; t = 3.824, p = 0.019; t = 2.343, p = 0.079). The only contrary is that SEW ResNet18 performs worse than ResNet18 for RSA. Further, to check the details of comparison between the SNNs and their CNN counterparts, we analyze the trajectories of similarity score across model layers (Figure ).\nAs for ResNet and SEW ResNet with the same depth, the trends of their similarities across model layers are almost the same, but the former's trajectory is generally below the latter's. In other words, the similarity scores of SEW ResNet are higher than those of ResNet at almost all layers. Taken together, the results suggest that when the overall results that appear below also correspond to the three metrics in this order, unless the correspondence is stated in the text.\narchitectures and depth are the same, SNNs with spiking neurons perform consistently better than their counterparts of CNNs with an average increase of 6.6%. Besides, SEW ResNet14 also outperforms the brain-like recurrent CNN, CORnet-S, with the same number of layers (see more details in Appendix B). Two properties of SNNs might contribute to the higher similarity scores.\nOn the one hand, IF neurons are the basic neurons of spiking neural networks. The IF neuron uses several differential equations to roughly approximate the membrane potential dynamics of biological neurons, which provides a more biologically plausible spike mechanism for the network. On the other hand, the spiking neural network is able to capture the temporal features by incorporating both time and binary signals, just like the biological visual system during information processing.\nTo figure out the distinctions in the functional hierarchy between macaques and mice, for each cortical region, we obtain the normalized depth of the layer that achieves the highest similarity score in each model. Then, we divide models (excluding vision transformers) into two groups based on their depths and conduct investigations on these two groups separately.\nA nonparametric ANOVA is applied to each group for testing whether layer depths change significantly across cortical regions. For mouse visual cortex (Figure (a)), taking the deep model group as an example, ANOVA shows overall significant changes in depth across cortical regions for TSVD-Reg and RSA (Friedman's χ 2 = 49.169,\np = 2.0 × 10 −9 ; χ 2 = 19.455, p = 0.002). But there is no significant change for SVCCA (χ 2 = 8.689, p = 0.122). According to these results, the differences in depth across regions are indeterminacy and irregular. Meanwhile, the trends of layer depth between some regions contradict the hierarchy observed in physiological experiments of mice (those between VISp and VISrl for TSVD-Reg and between VISal and VISpm for RSA).\nHowever, for macaque visual cortex (Figure (b)), there are significant differences (t = −5.451, p = 6.5 × 10 −6 ; t = −8.312, p = 2.8 × 10 −9 ; t = −3.782, p = 6.9 × 10 −4 , also taking the deep model group as an example) between V4 and IT, and the trend is consistent with the information processing hierarchy in primate visual cortex.\nThe comparative analyses of the best layer depths of the shallow and deep model groups also exhibit the differences between macaques and mice. For mouse visual cortex, the best layer depths of shallow models are significantly higher than those of deep models. Compared to deep models, most shallow models achieve the top similarity scores in intermediate and even later layers.\nDifferently, for macaque visual cortex, the depth of models has little effect on the depth of the most similar layer. What's more, we find that the most similar layer of mouse visual cortex always occurs after the 28 × 28 feature map is downsampled to 14 × 14, which leads to the layer depths' difference between shallow and deep models.\nNevertheless, the best layer of macaque IT appears in the last part of networks, where the feature map has been downsampled more times. In summary, our results might reveal two distinctions in the functional hierarchy between macaques and mice. First, there is a distinct functional hierarchical structure of macaque ventral visual pathway, while there might be no clear sequential functional hierarchy in mouse visual cortex.\nOne explanation is that the mouse visual cortex is organized into a parallel structure and the function of mouse cortical regions are more generalized and homogeneous than those of macaques. Another possibility would be that even though the sequential relations exist among mouse cortical regions as proposed in anatomical and physiological work, they are too weak for the current deep neural networks to capture.\nAdditionally, mice perform more complex visual tasks than expected with a limited brain capacity . Consequently, the neural responses of mouse visual cortex may contain more information not related to object recognition that neural networks focus on. Secondly, it is well known that the units in the neural networks get larger receptive fields after downsampling, and through the analyses of differences between two groups of models based on depth, we find the feature map of the best layer for mouse is downsampled fewer times than that for macaque.\nBased on these results, we provide computational evidence that the increased ratio of the receptive field size in cortical regions across the mouse visual pathway is smaller than those across the macaque visual pathways, which echoes some physio- Macaque-Face dataset --- Table : The correlation between the similarity scores and the number of parameters.\nr is Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. \"-\" indicates that there is no significant correlation. To explore the processing mechanisms in the visual cortex of macaques and mice, we investigate the model properties from the whole to the details. As shown in Table and 2, we first measure the correlation between the similarity scores and the sizes (i.e. the number of trainable parameters and the depth) of network models.\nFor Allen Brain mouse dataset, there are significant negative correlations between the similarity scores and the number of parameters for three metrics while there is no correlation with the depth. Conversely, for the two macaque neural datasets, the similarity scores are highly correlated with the depth of networks, but not with the number of parameters.\nSpecifically, there is a positive correlation for Macaque-Face dataset while a negative correlation for Macaque-Synthetic dataset. (We also apply the linear regression to analyze the correlation between the similarity scores and the model size. The results are consistent with Spearman's rank correlation and are shown in Appendix E).\nBased on these results, we further investigate more detailed properties of neural networks to explain the processing mechanisms in the visual cortex. For the mouse dataset, on the one hand, the best layer depths show non-significant changes across the mouse cortical regions as mentioned in the previous section.\nOn the other hand, the similarity scores of the mouse dataset are only correlated with the number of model parameters but not with the depth of models. It calls into the question whether any detailed structures in the neural networks help to reduce the number of parameters and improve its similarity to mouse visual cortex.\nTherefore, we explore the commonalities between models that have the top 20% representation similarities (see Appendix D) for Allen Brain dataset. As expected, the top models contain similar structures, such as fire module, inception module, and depthwise separable convolution. All these structures essentially process information through multiple branches/channels and then integrate the features from each branch.\nThe models with this type of structure outperform other models (t = 2.411, p = 0.024; t = 3.030, p = 0.007; t = 1.174, p = 0.247). Moreover, we apply the depthwise separable convolution to SNNs, which yields a positive effect. The representation similarity of Spiking-MobileNet is higher than SEW-ResNet50 with a similar depth (+0.8%; +3.9%; +12.1%).\nIn fact, some studies using multiple pathways simulate the functions of mouse visual cortex to some extent . Our results further suggest that not only the mouse visual cortex might be an organization of parallel structures, but also there are extensive parallel information processing streams between each pair of cortical regions .\nFor the two macaque datasets with different stimuli, not only are the model rankings significantly different, but also the correlations between the similarity scores and the model depth are totally opposite. These results corroborate the following two processing mechanisms in macaques: the ventral visual stream of primate visual cortex possesses canonical coding principles at different stages; the brain exhibits a high degree of functional specialization, such as the visual recognition of faces and other objects, which is reflected in the different neural responses of the corresponding region (although the face patch AM is a sub-network of IT, they differ in the neural representations).\nBesides, as shown in Figure , The calculation and plotting of the trajectories are the same as Figure . the similarity scores of vision transformers reach the maximum in the early layers and then decrease. Differently, the scores of CNNs and SNNs keep trending upwards, reaching the maximum in almost the last layer.\nOn the other hand, Appendix C shows that vision transformers perform well in Macaque-Face dataset but poorly in Macaque-Synthetic dataset. Considering the features extraction mechanism of vision transformers, it divides the image into several patches and encodes each patch as well as their internal relation by self-attention.\nThis mechanism is effective for face images that are full of useful information. However, the synthetic image consists of a central target object and a naturalistic background. When vision transformers are fed with this type of stimuli, premature integration of global information can lead to model representations containing noise from the unrelated background.\nWhat's more, when we take all models with the top 20% representation similarities as a whole for analyses, as described in the above paragraph, the properties that enable networks to achieve higher neural similarity are not yet clear. Taken together, the computational mechanism of the better models may reveal core processing divergence to different types of stimuli in the visual cortex.\nIn this work, we take large-scale neural representation similarity experiments as a basis, aided by analyses of the similarities across models and the visual cortical regions. Compared to other work, we introduce SNNs in the similarity analyses with biological neural responses for the first time, showing that SNNs achieve higher similarity scores than CNNs that have the same depth and almost the same architectures.\nAs analyzed in Section 3.1, two properties of SNNs might serve as the explanations for their high similarity scores. The subsequent analyses of the models' simulation performance and structures indicate significant differences in functional hierarchies between macaque and mouse visual cortex. As for macaques, we observed a clear sequential hi-erarchy.\nHowever, as for mouse visual cortex, some work ) exhibits that the trend of the model feature complexity roughly matches the processing hierarchy, but other work suggests that the cortex ) is organized into a parallel structure. Our results are more supportive of the latter. Furthermore, we provide computational evidence not only that the increased ratio of the receptive field size in cortical regions across the mouse visual pathway is smaller than those across the macaque visual pathway, but also that there may be multiple pathways with parallel processing streams between mouse cortical regions.\nOur results also clearly reveal that the processing mechanisms of macaque visual cortex differ to various stimuli. These findings provide us with new insights into the visual processing mechanisms of macaque and mouse, which are the two species that dominate the research of biological vision systems and differ considerably from each other.\nCompared to CNNs, the study of task-driven deep SNNs is just in its initial state. Although we demonstrate that SNNs outperform their counterparts of CNNs, SNNs exhibit similar properties as CNNs in the further analyses. In this work, we only build several new SNNs by taking the hints from the biological visual hierarchy, while many well-established structures and learning algorithms in CNNs have not been applied to SNNs yet.\nIn addition, the neural datasets used in our experiments are all collected under static image stimuli, lacking rich dynamic information to some certain, which may not fully exploit the properties of SNNs. Given that SNNs perform well in the current experiments, we hope to explore more potential of SNNs in future work.\nIn conclusion, as more biologically plausible neural networks, SNNs may serve as a shortcut to explore the biological visual cortex. With studies on various aspects of SNNs, such as model architectures, learning algorithms, processing mechanisms, and neural coding methods, it's highly promising to better explain the sophisticated, complex, and diverse vision systems in the future.\n\nImplementation Details of SNNs Spiking Neuron Model\n\nFor all SNNs, we use the Integrate-and-Fire (IF) model as the spiking neuron model, which acts as the activation layer in neural networks. As mentioned in , V t , X t and S t denote the state (membrane voltage), input (current) and output (spike) of the spiking neuron model respectively at time-step t, and the dynamics of the IF model can be described as follows:\n(1) (2) (3) While V t is the membrane voltage after the trigger of a spike, H t is also the membrane voltage, but after charging and before a spike firing. Θ(x) is the unit step function, so S t equals 1 when H t is greater than or equal to the threshold voltage V thresh and 0 otherwise. Meanwhile, when a spike fires, V t is reset to V reset .\nHere, we set V thresh = 1 and V reset = 0. In addition, because Θ(x) is non-differentiable at 0, the surrogate gradient method is applied to approximate the derivative function during back-propagation. Here, we use the inverse tangent function as the surrogate gradient function and the derivative function is\n(5) In our experiments on SNNs, we not only use SEW ResNet proposed by ), but also build several new SNNs. On the one hand, we improve the spike-elementwise block in SEW ResNet with new architectures referring to studies on ResNet , as shown in Table . On the other hand, as the multi-branch structures in CNNs increase neural representation similarity to mouse visual cortex, we use depthwise separable convolutions and follow the overall architecture of MobileNetV2 to build the SpikingMobileNet, the basic block of which is shown in Figure .\nOur implementation is based on SpikingJelly , an open-source framework of deep SNN. We use the ImageNet dataset to pre-train the new SNNs. Following the settings for training SEW ResNet , we train the models for 320 epochs on 8 GPUs (NVIDIA V100), using SGD with a mini-batch size of 32. The momentum is 0.9 and the weight decay is 0. The initial learning rate is 0.1 and we decay it with a cosine annealing, where the maximum number of iterations is the same as the number of epochs.\nFor all SNNs, we set the simulation duration T = 4.\n\nOverall model rankings\n\nThe results of model rankings are shown in Figure , 8 and 9. We also apply the Spearman's rank correlation to the overall model rankings of different metrics, which is shown in Figure .\n\nScore Comparisons among Model Groups\n\nWe conduct comparisons of similarity scores among CNNs, SNNs, and vision transformers. The results are shown in Figure .\n\nOverall CNN rankings\n\nThe results of CNN rankings are shown in Figure , 13 and 14.\n\nCorrelations between the Model Sizes and the Similarity Scores\n\nThe results of linear regression to model sizes and the similarity scores are shown in Figure , 16 and 17.\n\nThe ImageNet Accuracy and the Similarity Scores\n\nThe results are shown in Figure .", "answers": ["SNNs have the potential to better model and explain the functional hierarchy and mechanisms of the visual system."], "length": 5588, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "6b35731428ea6d9b480338b90572d21690c2fbb89ebba249"}
{"input": "What is the water depth in the Greater Ekofisk Area?", "context": "Filip Fremo Minge – Ekofisk\nAuthor: Filip Fremo Minge\nPosted on 1. October 2019 12. October 2019\n— Sunset over Ekofisk. Photo: Husmo Foto/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nThe three are operated by ConocoPhillips on behalf of the Ekofisk licensees. The area also embraces former producers Albuskjell, Cod, Edda, Tor, West Ekofisk and Tommeliten G.\nThese fields all lie within production licence 018 apart from Tommeliten G, which was operated by Statoil from 1976 to 2003.\nIn all, 31 installations have been positioned in the Greater Ekofisk Area.\nFirst Norwegian offshore field\nEkofisk began production on 15 June 1971, following its discovery in the autumn of 1969. Development of the field has occurred in several phases.\nIts central facilities were installed during the early 1970s, with oil initially being buoy-loaded into tankers. From 1975, it has been piped to Teesside in the UK. The gas has been landed by pipeline at Emden in Germany from 1977.\nekofisk i et nøtteskall, engelsk\nJacked up six metres\nThe water depth in the Greater Ekofisk Area is 70-75 metres. However, declining pressure in the Ekofisk reservoir over the years has caused the seabed to subside.\nEfforts began as early as 1985 to safeguard the installations against the effects of this development, and the steel platforms in the Ekofisk Complex were jacked up by six metres in 1987.\nIn addition, a protective breakwater was installed around the Ekofisk tank in 1989. The rate of seabed subsidence has declined sharply in recent years.\nWaterflooding improves recovery\nThe Ekofisk 2/4 K water injection platform became operational in December 1987 as part of efforts to improve Ekofisk’s recovery factor – the share of petroleum in place actually produced.\nWaterflooding capacity on the field to help maintain reservoir pressure was later expanded several times, and had reached just over 500 000 barrels per day by 2019.\nMeasured in barrels of oil equivalent, the recovery factor on Ekofisk has risen from an original estimate of 17 per cent to over 50 per cent.\nEkofisk I and II plus licence extension\nThe first phase of development and production on Ekofisk began with initial oil output from the converted Gulftide jack-up rig in 1971 and ended with the start-up of Ekofisk II in 1998.\nLarge parts of the Greater Ekofisk Area were restructured in the latter year, leading to plans for removing 15 installations – 14 steel platforms and the process facilities on the Ekofisk tank.\nplattformer, historie, 2004, driftsenter åpnet,\nEmbla 2/7 D. Photo: ConocoPhillips/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nDesignated Ekofisk I, these redundant structures include Ekofisk 2/4 A, 2/4 B, 2/4 FTP, 2/4 Q, 2/4 H, 2/4 R, 2/4 P and 2/4 T.\nIn addition come the Edda 2/7 C, Albuskjell 1/6 A, Albuskjell 2/4 F, Cod 7/11 A, West Ekofisk 2/4 D, Norpipe 36/22 A and Norpipe 37/4 A installations.\nThe concrete part of the tank – Ekofisk 2/4 T – will remain. Gulftide was removed as far back as 1974. Two platforms owned by other companies – Ekofisk 2/4 G and 2/4 S – have also gone.\nA new plan for development and operation (PDO) of the field (Ekofisk II) was approved in 1994, at the same time as the Ekofisk licence was extended to 2028.\nThis creates a new Ekofisk Complex with two structures – the Ekofisk 2/4 X wellhead unit installed in the autumn of 1996 and the Ekofisk 2/4 J processing and transport platform in 1997.\nEkofisk II became operational in August 1998 and is intended to produce until 2028. Ekofisk, Eldfisk and Embla are tied back to the new complex, as was Tor until it shut down in December 2015.\nEkofisk West\nhistorie, forsidebilde, 2003, ekofisk vekst godkjent i statsråd\nEkofisk Growth. Illustration: Ståle Ådland\nIn December 2002, soon after the Conoco-Phillips merger had been announced, the Ekofisk West project was presented to improve oil and gas recovery. Process capacity and reliability on Ekofisk were also to be enhanced.\nThis development primarily involved the construction and installation of a new platform, Ekofisk 2/4 M, with processing facilities and 24 new wells drilled over five years.\nThe latter could contribute to improved recovery both because there were more wells and because they would tap new locations in the reservoir. On stream in 2005, 2/4 M was linked to the Ekofisk Complex with a bridge.\nProcess capacity for produced water was also to be increased through upgrading on Ekofisk 2/4 J and Eldfisk 2/7 E. A third measure concerned laying a power cable from the Ekofisk Complex to 2/4 K in order to make electricity supplies more efficient.\nNew developments: Eldfisk II and Ekofisk South\nEldfisk 2/7 S løft\nThe deck of Eldfisk 2/7 S being mated with the steel jacket. Foto: Øyvind Sætre/ConocoPhillips\nThe plan for development and operation (PDO) of Eldfisk II, approved by the Storting (parliament) on 9 June 2011, includes a new wellhead, process and accommodation platform – Eldfisk 2/7 S.\nIn addition come 42 new wells as well as upgrades to existing platforms which extend their commercial life.\nThe PDO for Ekofisk South involves the construction of a new wellhead platform – Ekofisk 2/4 Z – as well as a new subsea water injection facility and 44 additional wells.\nConocoPhillips Norge, 2004.\nMinistry of Petroleum and Energy, press release, “Vekstprosjekt på Ekofisk godkjent”, 6 June 2003.\nhttps://www.stortinget.no/no/Saker-og-publikasjoner/Saker/Sak/?p=50343\nhttps://www.stortinget.no/globalassets/pdf/innstillinger/stortinget/2010-2011/inns-201011-398.pdf\nhttps://www.regjeringen.no/no/aktuelt/klart-for-40-nye-ar-pa-ekofisk-feltet/id642376/)\nPublished 1. October 2019 • Updated 12. October 2019\n— Gassterminalen i Emden. Foto: Husmo Foto/Norsk Oljemuseum\nOil terminal in Teesside\nOlje- og gassterminalene, engelsk,\nTeesside terminal. Brian Henderson Thynne takes samples of refrigerated propane. Photo: Husmo Foto/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nThe terminal at Teesside in north-east England receives oil and natural gas liquids (NGL) by pipeline from the Ekofisk field. It comprises stabilisation, NGL fractionation, storage tanks for crude oil and an export port.\nAfter arriving through the Norpipe Oil line, crude and NGL are separated and the oil goes through a stabilisation process before reaching the 10 storage tanks, which each hold 750 000 barrels.\nThe NGLs go to the fractionation facility, with a daily capacity of 64 000 barrels, for separation into methane, ethane, propane, and normal and iso butane.\nWhile the methane (natural gas) is used to fuel the plant, the other products (now known as liquefied petroleum gases – LPG) are made liquid by cooling and stored for export by sea.\nOne reason for the choice of Teesside as the landfall for the Ekofisk pipeline was the opportunity it offered to install deepwater quays.\nThe terminal has four of these, with those for crude oil able to handle tankers up to 150 000 deadweight tonnes. The LPG quays can accept carriers loading as much as 60 000 cubic metres.\nTwo of the crude oil quays lie on the main channel of the River Tees, while the others have been installed in dredged docks.\nGas terminal in Emden\nGas arriving at the Emden terminal from the Ekofisk Complex enters nine parallel treatment trains for cleaning, metering and onward distribution to the buyers.\nThe North Sea gas is very clean, and needs only limited treatment to remove small amounts of sulphur compounds using an absorption process. Impure molecules from the gas accumulate on the surface of small particles, which act as filter spheres.\nEach of the nine trains comprises four process columns and a process oven. The gas enters the top of a column and leaves through the base after passing through the filter spheres.\nThat leaves the gas ready for sale, and it is piped to the fiscal metering station before entering the buyer receiving pipelines and distribution network.\nThree separate commercial pipeline systems connect to the terminal, operated by Ruhrgas, BEB and Gastransport Services (previously Gasunie) respectively. They pipe the gas away on behalf of the gas buyers.\nThe Norsea Gas Terminal in Emden was officially opened in September 1977 by Norwegian industry minister Bjartmar Gjerde and Phillips executive Gordon Goerin.\nRanking as the first gas sales deal for the Norwegian continental shelf, the Ekofisk agreement paved the way for later contracts covering other fields off Norway.\nRegularity at the Emden terminal has been very high, with its own equipment never causing shutdowns. Maintenance takes place when other parts of the system are off line.\nThe terminal has a daily capacity of about 2.1 million cubic feet of gas per day.\nGas transport restructured\nNorpipe AS owned the gas pipeline from Ekofisk to Emden until the transport system for the Norwegian offshore sector was restructured at 1 January 2003.\nNorsea Gas A/S furthermore served as the formal owner of the Emden facility, with Phillips Petroleum and then ConocoPhillips as operator for both pipeline and terminal.\nolje- og gassterminalene,\nTeesside gas terminal. Photo: Husmo Foto/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nSince 2007, Norway’s state-owned Gassco company has been responsible for technical operation of the facilities on behalf of their owners.\nThat included operator responsibility for the H7 and B11 booster platforms along the gas pipeline, which were shut down in 2007 and 2013 respectively and have since been removed.\nThe Gassled partnership is a project collaboration embracing 10 companies which collective own large parts of the gas infrastructure on the Norwegian continental shelf (NCS).\nA substantial proportion of Norway’s gas deliveries to Germany continues to arrive at the Emden terminal, including the volumes piped from Ekofisk.\nPreliminary planning for a new terminal in the German port began in 2011, with Gassled taking the investment decision for this development in the autumn of 2012.\nConstruction work began in the following year, with the new facility being built on an unused part of the existing terminal site.\nThe new terminal has not expanded export capacity. But its functionality is well adapted to future processing needs for fields in the Greater Ekofisk Area and other parts of the NCS sending gas through the Norpipe system.\nIt was officially opened on 24 May 2016 by Elisabeth Aspaker, the Norwegian government minister for the EU and the European Economic Area. That closed a chapter in Ekofisk’s history.\nSource: ConocoPhillips Norge\n— Gas pipes at Ekofisk. Photo: Husmo Foto/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nIn addition to ConocoPhillips’ own production from Ekofisk, these pipelines carry gas and oil from the company’s fields in the UK sector and from other fields on the Norwegian and British continental shelves.\nThe three fields in the Greater Ekofisk Area are also tied together by pipelines.\nOil pipeline to Teesside\nrørledningene, engelsk,\nPipes and oil tanks at the Teesside plant. Photo: ConocoPhillips/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nThe pipeline linking Ekofisk with the terminal for oil and natural gas liquids (NGL) at Teesside on the north-east English coast became operational in October 1975.\nPumps raise the pressure of the oil and NGL before they start their journey to land. Two pumping stations – 37/4 A and 36/22 A ­– originally stood along the pipeline to maintain this pressure, but have now been disconnected and removed.\nThe pipeline was installed with the ability to carry a million barrels per day. However, that much capacity has never been required.\nIn the UK sector, a 24-inch pipeline has been tied in with a Y connection to receive input from several British fields – including the J block developments operated by ConocoPhillips.\nOutput from the Greater Ekofisk Area is supplemented by crude from Valhall, Hod, Ula and Gyda heading for Teesside, optimising pipeline utilisation and thereby boosting value creation.\nThe pipeline is owned by Norpipe Oil AS and operated by ConocoPhillips.\nGas pipeline to Emden\nSandbags and gravel were used to cover Norpipe to Emden. Photo: Unknown/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nThis pipeline became operational in September 1977. The starting pressure of around 132 bar is provided by compressors on the Ekofisk Complex.\nThe 443-kilometre distance to Emden was split into three equal sections, with platforms B11 and H7 located at the intermediate points to provide boosting if required.\nHowever, additional compression was seldom needed on the final stage to Emden. H7 was shut down in 2007 and B11 in 2013, and both have since been removed.\nThese two booster platforms were located in the German sector of the North Sea, while the pipeline also crosses the Danish sector.\nThe pipeline has been trenched or covered with sand. Its final section passes the island of Juist before making landfall on the coast of East Friesland to the north of Emden.\nIts daily capacity is roughly 59.4 million standard cubic metres (2.1 billion cubic feet). In addition to gas from the Greater Ekofisk Area, it carries output from Valhall, Hod, Ula, Gyda and the Statpipe system (primarily Statfjord and Gullfaks).\nPosted on 24. June 2017 25. October 2019\nEmbla 2/7 D\nThis unmanned wellhead facility is remotely controlled from Eldfisk 2/7 S located 5.2 kilometres to the north, where oil and gas output from the platform is also processed.\nUnmanned and remotely operated wellhead platform\nOn stream 12 May 1993\n— Embla 2/7 D. Photo: ConocoPhillips\nsokkelkart, illustrasjon, blokker, lisens, forsidebilde, engelsk,\nHand-colored map of the licenses of the first licensing round on the Norwegian continental shelf. Norwegian Continental Shelf Map, 1965.\nThe Phillips group was awarded block 2/7 as early as 1965, and the Embla reservoir lies in the southern part of this acreage. Drilling began there in 1974 to depths of 4 500-5 000 metres, but pressure and temperature in the wells were too high for testing with the available equipment.\nThe first production well was not drilled and tested until 1988, followed by a second in 1990. Both yielded very promising results, and the field came on stream in May 1993.\nEmbla comprises a sandstone reservoir at least 250 million years old. The other fields in the Greater Ekofisk Area comprise fine-grained carbonate rocks deposited about 70 million years ago.\nThe Embla reservoir has a temperature of 160°C compared with the 125°C normally found in the chalk formations 1 000 metres higher up, and its pressure is almost twice as high.\nFabricated by Heerema in the Netherlands, the Embla 2/7 D jacket (support structure) was installed by the M 7000 crane vessel. It stands 84 metres high and weighs 2 300 tonnes.\nA 5.2-kilometre subsea umbilical from Eldfisk comprises three power cables for electricity supply and eight fibreoptic lines handling data transmission and telecommunication.\nEldfisk 2/7 S, embla,\nEldfisk 2/7 S. Photo: ConocoPhillips\nThe platform has six production wells and an average daily output of roughly 7 000 barrels of oil. All processing and metering took place on Eldfisk 2/7 FTP until 2015, and has now been switched to Eldfisk 2/7 S.\nA 14-inch flowline linked 2/7 D with 2/7 FTP and runs today to 2/7 S. Produced at Wick in Scotland, this line was floated out to the field in one piece.\nTopside equipment includes the wellhead area, helideck (built by Vindholmen Services in Arendal), crane, control room, workshop, test separator and glycol pump.\nNormally unmanned, the platform is maintained as and when required and therefore incorporates a simplified accommodation module with lounge, mess, coffee room, galley, changing room, WC and 12 emergency beds.\nMore about platforms\nEkofisk 2/4 Z\nThis installation is a wellhead platform in the Ekofisk Complex.\nGulftide\nThis four-leg jack-up drilling rig was built in Glasgow during 1967 for Ocean Drilling & Exploration Co.\nPosted on 1. September 2019 8. October 2019\n— Gulftide with Ekofisk 2/4 A in the background. Photo: Aker Mek. Verksted/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nGulftide was converted to cope with conditions on Ekofisk in the Åmøy Fjord near Stavanger. This jack-up drilling rig was equipped with process equipment and its derrick, helideck, hangar and legs were reinforced.\nTo win time, it was decided that the discovery well and three appraisals drilled on Ekofisk by Ocean Viking would be completed for production.\nPrinciples for producing from Gulftide were relatively simple. Output flowed from the subsea wellheads to the platform, where it went through two-stage separation to remove gas and water.\nWith pressure also reduced, the gas was flared off and the oil sent on by flowlines to two loading buoys where shuttle tankers moored to take on cargo.\nutbyggingen,\nTankskipet Donovania laster olje fra lastebøyen på Ekofisk. I bakgrunnen skimtes så vidt Gulftide. Foto: ConocoPhillips/Norsk Oljemuseum\nProduction could only continue while ships were loading. As soon as one tanker had been filled, the oil stream was diverted to the vessel waiting at the other loading buoy.\nThe problem with this approach was manifested when weather conditions ­– strong winds and/or high waves – forced the tankers to leave the buoys.\nIf that happened, production from the wellheads had to be suspended immediately. Given the prevailing weather on Ekofisk, that happened regularly. Output was halted for 20 per cent of the time during the first year.\nhttps://ekofisk.industriminne.no/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2019/09/Building-Ekofisk.mp4\nGulftide was replaced as the temporary production installation in 1974 by the permanent Ekofisk 2/4 A (Alpha) and 2/4 B (Bravo) platforms for production, drilling and quarters.\nIn addition came the Ekofisk 2/4 C (Charlie) production, drilling and compression facility, the Ekofisk 2/4 FTP (field terminal platform) for production and risers, and Ekofisk 2/4 Q for accommodation.\nOil and gas were produced by 2/4 A, B and C through their own wells for processing in their separation plants and piping on the 2/4 FTP for a three-stage separation process.\nAt the same time, the tanker loading buoys were moved further from the platforms and the Ekofisk 2/4 T oil storage tank became operational.\nThis facility was extremely advantageous, because it allowed production to continue virtually regardless of whether bad weather prevented tankers from connecting to the buoys.\nEkofisktanken ble satt i drift i 1974. Foto: ConocoPhillips/Norsk Oljemuseum\nThe 2/4 FTP platform, where oil and gas from the three producing facilities was processed, had been planned to handle the level of output estimated for the main field.\nClear restrictions had been imposed by the Norwegian government on the amount of gas Phillips was allowed to flare. That also set a ceiling for oil production, since gas accompanies it up from the reservoir.\nThe solution was to install two powerful compression packages on 2/4 C in order to inject the gas under pressure back into the producing formation.\nAccommodation facilities had to be provided on the two first platforms, 2/4 A and B. Where 2/4 C and FTP were concerned, however, they were tied together with bridges and to 2/4 Q.\nPublished 1. September 2019 • Updated 8. October 2019\nPosted on 9. April 2019 25. October 2019\nJack-up drilling rig\nBuilt 1967 in Glasgow for Ocean Drilling & Exploration Co.\nBegan test production on Ekofisk 15 June 1971\nProduced on Ekofisk until 1974\n— Gulftide at theEkofisk field. Photo: Terje Tveit/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\ngulftide,\nGulftide. Photo: Unknown/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nA mere 17 months after the Ekofisk discovery was announced in December 1969, Gulftide was ready to come on stream as a temporary production platform.\nIts official inauguration took place on 9 June, with initial test output commencing on 15 June. Full production began on 8 July.\nThe rig was chosen because it was available on the market. Established equipment for processing oil and gas was tailored to the limited space on board. Separate flowlines carried wellstreams from four subsea wells. Oil, gas and water were separated on board, with the gas flared and the oil piped to two buoys for loading into shuttle tankers.\nWork on the process equipment was relatively simple. The problem was to tailor it to the rig. The subsea wellheads had to be reinforced to meet the demands posed by the North Sea, and a buoy loading system needed to be developed for waters where this technology had never been used before.\nTo gain time, it was decided that the three appraisal wells drilled by Ocean Viking to map the extent of the field – in addition to the discovery well – would be completed for production.\nFørste testflamme tent på Ekofisk. På Gulftide\n1973, Teddy Broadhurst, gulftide,\narbeidsliv, hjelpearbeider\nGulftide, separator – på bildet kan man se at det er fire brønner.\narbeidsliv, gulftide, pionerkultur, arbeid, dekk, Norges første havbunnsbrønner, historie, 1971,\nThe producers would be topped with hydraulically controlled wellheads. Such equipment had been tried out on the seabed earlier, but on a limited scale and not in the deep and rough waters found on Ekofisk. This challenge was overcome by having the wellheads manufactured and then reinforced at the Phillips base in Dusavik outside Stavanger. Flowlines and control cables would also be laid from each well to Gulftide, with production comingled in a single riser to the topsides.\nWeather conditions also represented a major problem when designing the loading buoys. Phillips itself had experience with such facilities, but the concept had only been used before in harbour-like conditions and waters no deeper than 27 metres. They were now to stand in 70 metres in the middle of the North Sea.\nGulftide was converted in the Åmøy Fjord outside Stavanger to cope with conditions on Ekofisk. The processing facilities were installed and reinforcements made to the derrick, helideck, hangar and leg structures.\nGulftide, Ekofisk 2/4 A, boretårn, flare, 1971, utbygging,\nGulftide with Ekofisk 2/4 A in the background. Photo: Aker Mek. Verksted/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nPlanning began in late 1970, when Phillips received approval to begin laying the flowlines between wellheads and rig. Brown & Root won this contract, with the first oil pipelines on the Norwegian continental shelf laid by the Hugh W Gordon laybarge.\nThe production principle on Gulftide was relatively simple. Output flowed from the subsea wellheads to the rig, where it passed through two separation levels to be split into oil and gas while the huge pressure was reduced.\nGas was flared off and the oil was piped to one of the loading buoys where a shuttle tanker was moored. Production could only take place when a ship was present.\nOffisiell åpning av norsk oljeproduksjon,\nThe Greek tanker, Theogennitor, unloads crude oil from loading buoys on the Ekofisk field. Gulftide in the background. Photo: ConocoPhillips/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nAs soon as one tanker had become fully laden, the oil flow was switched to the other buoy where another ship was waiting to take on cargo.\nThe problem with this approach arose when weather conditions meant the tankers had to cast off from the buoys because of strong winds or high waves. The rig then had to shut down production from the wellheads immediately.\nGiven the weather conditions found on Ekofisk, output regularly had to cease. Production was suspended for 20 per cent of the first year for this reason.\nOutput began cautiously on 8 July 1971 from a single well. The second producer came on stream that September, the third was ready the following month and all four were producing by February 1972. They each flowed 10 000 barrels of oil per day.\nSource: Kvendseth, Stig, Giant discovery, 1988.\nPublished 9. April 2019 • Updated 25. October 2019\nNorpipe H-7\nThis platform served as a pumping/compressor station to maintain pressure in the 443-kilometre Norpipe gas pipeline from Ekofisk to Emden in Germany, which became operational in September 1977.\nKjappe fakta::\nCompressor platform on Ekofisk-Emden gas pipeline\nInstalled 1976\nOperational 1977\nShut down 29 October 2007\nRemoved 2013\n— Norpipe GNSC-H7. Photo: Husmo Foto/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nGas received initial compression to 132 bar at the Ekofisk Complex. The pipeline was divided into three equal lengths, with Norpipe GNSC B11 positioned at the end of the first third to maintain pressure as and when required.\nFrom there, the gas then travelled the next third of the distance to the second and virtually identical compressor platform, H7.\nThis was also responsible for maintaining pressure, but additional compression was seldom required on this final leg of the journey to Emden.\nBoth platforms stood on the German continental shelf, but 48 kilometres of the pipeline also ran across the Danish North Sea sector.\nThe pipeline is trenched or covered with sand. On its final approach to the coast of East Friesland, it passes beneath the island of Juist before making landfall north of Emden.\nCapacity in Norpipe is about 60 million standard cubic metres (scm) or 2.1 billion cubic feet per day. In addition to output from the Ekofisk-area fields, it carries gas from Valhall, Ula and the Statpipe system – primarily Statfjord and Gullfaks. Gas was also transported for a time from Hod and Gyda, but that has ceased.\nfritid, Norpipe GNSC-H7,\nMagnus Refsland and Werner Hein have pulled the crab trap (full of starfish) on the Norpipe H-7 platform. Photo: Husmo Foto/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nBuilt in 1976, the B11 platform had six decks. Its permanent staffing totalled 14 people, but various service personnel were also often on board. The regular crew included three in catering.\nThe 11 Phillips employees comprised the offshore installation manager, the nurse/radio operator, eight operators and a roustabout.\nIn addition to their direct function, the operators covered various other trades which meant the crew was self-sufficient in most circumstances.\nBoth platforms obtained a satellite antenna in 1986 which allowed them to received Norwegian TV, while the 24-bed accommodation were redecorated in 1981 and upgraded in the summer of 1990.\nWork on the upgrading largely comprised converting all cabins to doubles with shower and WC. The galley and changing rooms were renewed and changing facilities for women provided.\nA new module with a lounge for non-smokers, a smoking room, gym and pool room was also installed. During this work, the West Gamma accommodation rig was positioned alongside.\nUpgrading equipment on the platform was also initiated in 1990. While the pipeline’s original daily capacity had been estimated at 2 100 million standard cubic feet, this was found to have declined after a number of years to 1 975 million.\nTo return to the original capacity, the compressors needed to be upgraded and power supply from the turbines increased. This was done both on the Ekofisk tank and on the H7 and B11 platforms. Gas coolers on the tank were replaced as well.\nNorpipe GNSC-H7, yrker, radiooperatør,\nRadio operator Torleif Førland on the platform Norpipe H-7, with his amateur radio. Photo: Husmo Foto/Norwegian Petroleum Museum\nThe control systems were also upgraded in parallel. Control panels on turbines and compressors were replaced and metering instruments installed to conduct measurements in this equipment.\nWhile the nearest neighbour to B11 was a Danish oil field, H7 stood in the middle of the shipping channel. M/S Hero broke down 15 nautical miles west of the latter platform at around 13.00 on 12 November 1977.\nBy 21.00, the ship was still adrift and heading directly for H7, and all 14 crew on the platform made ready to evacuate by helicopter – the waves were too high for the lifeboats. The wreck passed at 21.40 with a clearance of 400 metres.\nGerman cargo carrier Reint collided with H7 on 30 September 1995, despite efforts by the standby ship to avert the threat. Production was halted as a safety measure, but the platform luckily suffered only minor damage. The collision was caused by inadequate watchkeeping on the ship’s bridge.\nOperator responsibility for B11 and H7 was transferred at the beginning of 2003 to Norway’s state-owned Gassco company, which runs the Norwegian gas transport network.\nThis change had little significance for operation of the platforms, since the actual work was still carried out by ConocoPhillips as a technical service provider to Gassco.\nH7 was shut down in 2007, and removal had been completed in 2013. In connection with preparations to remove the structure, operator responsibility was transferred to Statoil as the company in charge of the project on Gassco’s behalf.\nPublished 24. August 2016 • Updated 22. October 2019\nPhillips inundates Sola with oil revenues\nperson by Kristin Øye Gjerde\nStavanger and neighbouring Sola were the first Norwegian local authorities to experience fantastic oil-related growth after the award of the first exploration licences in 1965.\n— Phillips er i ferd med å etablere seg på Norscobasen nederst til høyre Ca 1972 Foto: Norsk fly og flyfoto/Norsk Oljemuseum\nThe Shell refinery at Risavika in Sola was completed two years later, while the Norsco base in Tananger became operational as early as 1966.\nBut things really took off once the Ekofisk field had been discovered in the autumn of 1969 and started trial production on 14 July 1971.\nOperator Phillips Petroleum Company moved its offices from the Dusavik base outside Stavanger to Tananger in Sola, and Shell could finally start refining Norwegian rather than imported crude.\nSola’s population now rose steadily from 8 400 in 1965 to 15 000 two decades later, and jobs grew even faster – from about 2 000 in 1970 to almost 8 000 in 1985. That averages 10 per cent annually.\nPhillips and Shell became cornerstone companies. A large part of their workforce, particularly in Phillips, worked offshore. In addition came newly established oil supply firms.\nMore jobs were also created in retail, public administration, education, health and social care, personal services and so forth.\nAlthough traditional agriculture remained important for the local authority, the number of farmers gradually declined as a result of mechanisation.[REMOVE]Fotnote: This article is based on the chapter “Elverket i Oljealderen” in I det regionale spenningsfelt. Sola Energi 1913-1999, Kristin Øye Gjerde.\nBoreskipet Drillship ligger ved kai på Norscobasen i Tananger (1968). Foto: NOM/Norsk Fly og Flyfoto\nBoreskipet Drillship ligger ved kai på Norscobasen i Tananger (1968). Foto: Norsk Fly og Flyfoto/Norsk Oljemuseum\nThe “agio tax”\nThe sharp rise in Sola’s revenues was attributable entirely to the oil industry, and it found itself in an enviable position during this period. Tax revenues rose even faster than population and jobs.\nTo give an indication, the local authority’s overall income from wealth and income taxes rose from NOK 9.3 million in 1966 to NOK 198 million in 1990. The biggest growth came in 1978-82, when it averaged 39 per cent a year.[REMOVE]Fotnote: Sola local authority, plans.\nThe secret behind this sharp increase was the tax paid by the oil companies – primarily Phillips – on agio, or the percentage fee charged when exchanging one currency for another.\nUnder Norwegian law at the time, the companies paid tax on their interest income to the local authority where they had their head office. In making this rule, however, the government had failed to take account of the considerable sums involved.\nAs operator of the Greater Ekofisk Area, Phillips had placed capital to be used for new investment in banks around the world – particularly the UK.\nThese deposits yielded substantial interest payments, and tax was payable on converting this income into Norwegian kroner.[REMOVE]Fotnote: Toralv Torstenbø, former chief executive officer in Sola local authority, interviewed by Kristin Øye Gjerde, 22 February 2001.\nSola council is said to have almost gone into shock the first time Phillips paid this agio tax. It suddenly had more money than it could spend.\nDuring the 1970s and early 1980s, Sola’s municipal income always exceeded the budgeted amount. Large sums could be transferred every year to a capital fund.\nSince the local authority was in a growth phase, additional funding was needed for the big developments it faced. While the rest of Norway experienced a slump in the late 1970s, Sola continued in top gear without a sign of unemployment.\nNet income tax revenues came to NOK 55.5 million in 1978, while net spending was NOK 31.9 million. And these fantastic results went on improving.\nBy 1982, wealth and income taxes yielded NOK 203.4 million – compared with a budget of NOK 146 million, which was upgraded to NOK 190 million during the year.\nAccording to Toralv Torstensbø, the financial controller, agio tax accounted for almost half this amount – in other words, as much as the tax paid by all other enterprises, private individuals and industry in Sola.\nIts chief executive officer became a little overweening. In his comments on the 1982 budget, he declared that it would be “natural for Sola local authority to feel a strong regional responsibility and not to be too strict about the traditional division of costs between state, county and local authority.”\nIn line with this open-handed policy, Sola paid for both road projects and an upper secondary modern school which the county council was supposed to fund.[REMOVE]Fotnote: Chief executive officer’s budget proposal for Sola local authority covering 1974-85.\nTightening up petroleum tax\nThis unexpected prosperity undoubtedly created some jealously in the neighbouring local authorities, and the media began to show an interest in the issue.\nLocal daily Stavanger Aftenblad interviewed Sola’s chief executive and controller in 1981, when its photographer took a shot which illustrated the boundless wealth – Torstensbø stood showering hundred-krone notes over his colleague.\nThis story was not only read by the paper’s regular subscribers. The following day, 150 copies were distributed to members of the Storting (parliament).\nThat in turn prompted Centre Party representative Lars Velsand to make a passionate speech in which he described the position as a misuse of tax revenues.\nHe called on the government to intervene so that individual local authorities were unable to benefit in this way. Nor was he alone in finding it unreasonable that a small community like Sola should get so much money.\nThe result was an amendment to the Petroleum Tax Act on 11 June 1982, which specified that the proceeds from the agio tax should be transferred in future to central government.\nLøfteskipet Uglen i aksjon ved Norscobasen i juli 1980. Foto: NOM/Norsk Fly og Flyfoto\nLøfteskipet Uglen i aksjon ved Norscobasen i juli 1980. Foto: Norsk Fly og Flyfoto/Norsk Oljemuseum\nUnfortunately, however, Sola had got used to consuming these revenues. It is easy to learn expensive habits, but not so straightforward to shrug them off again.\nMatters had become a little unusual when the council’s executive board adopted the style of the oil company chiefs and took a helicopter outing during an ordinary budget meeting.[REMOVE]Fotnote: Oskar Goa, former chief technical officer in Sola local authority, interviewed by Kristin Øye Gjerde, 23 October 2000.\nHowever, most of the tax money benefitted the general public. Paying for Sola upper secondary school and new national and county highways is an example of this.\nThe council also invested on local authority school buildings and community facilities such as the big sports complex at Åsen, with an outdoor athletics ground and two modern indoor arenas. Dysjaland and Tananger also acquired new sports arenas.\nA new cultural centre built in central Sola has a distinctive architecture in brick and glass, with a grassed roof to blend with the surrounding Jæren landscape. With two stages and a public library, this became the community’s main venue for events and so forth.\nThe local authority thereby built up a very good infrastructure. Power cables were laid in the same trenches as water and sewage pipes, a network of cycle lanes was built and street lighting installed.\nOn the downside, virtually all these investments boosted operating expenses. The council’s running costs rose by an annual average of 30 per cent in 1978-84, with the biggest growth in the last three years of the period.\nSo the calls by Storting representatives to transfer agio tax receipts from councils to central government represented a real threat to local politicians.\nSola joined forces with other local authorities in the same position, including Stavanger, Oslo and Bærum as well as Rogaland county council.\nA delegation met the Storting’s standing committee on finance to present their case, and secured a commitment to accept a phased reduction in revenues over four years.\nThe local authorities would receive 80 per cent of agio tax receipts during the first year, then 60 per cent, 40 per cent and finally 20 per cent.[REMOVE]Fotnote: Amendment to the Petroleum Tax Act adopted on 14 May 1982.\nIn reality, however, the run-down percentages were adjusted to extend over five years in annual steps of 80, 60, 20, 20 and 20 per cent. The total amount going to the local authorities was the same.\nThe arrangement was controversial to the last, and also uncertain because it had to be approved in each annual government budget.\nLiving within its means\nAfter the tax change, Sola’s chief executive officer saw the writing on the wall. It seemed “to be unquestionable that [Sola] has seen its best days in purely financial terms and must return to setting tougher priorities for various assignments,” he asserted in connection with the budget process for 1983.[REMOVE]Fotnote: Chief executive officer’s budget proposal for Sola local authority, 1983.\nIt took the politicians a little longer to accept this reality, but they were forced to reduce investment and operating expenditures in the years which followed.\nCutting back on the new sports arenas and cultural centre was not very desirable. Nor was it pleasant to have to slow down. But savings had to be made, and long-terms spending plans were removed from the budget for possible reintroduction later.\nA raft of measures were stripped from the budget in 1985, such as extensions to and modernisation of schools, sports arenas and swimming pools, a new somatic nursing home, housing for the intellectually disabled and sheltered housing. Grants for national and county roads were reduced.[REMOVE]Fotnote: Chief executive officer’s budget proposal for Sola local authority, 1985.\nOnce the government’s compensation scheme had ended, Torstensbø – now chief executive officer – told Stavanger Aftenblad that he did not want to paint too gloomy a picture.\n“But it’s clear that we must set much more moderate financial priorities than we’ve been used to. To sum up the position, we were previously flush with cash and poor in facilities. We’re now flush with facilities and poor in cash.”[REMOVE]Fotnote: Stavanger Aftenblad, ”Alt blir dyrere i det rike Sola”, 19 May 1987.\nSola kulturhus fotografert vinteren 2004\nRogaland county council also raised the question of whether it would be possible to establish a permanent arrangement which allowed local authorities and counties to benefit from some of the tax revenues paid by local oil companies.\nThe council pointed out that it was otherwise normal practice for Norwegian companies to pay taxes to the local communities they were based in.\nThis request was turned by Labour finance minister Gunnar Berge because the councils concerned still benefitted from bigger tax payments by oil company employees and on property.[REMOVE]Fotnote: Stavanger Aftenblad, “Rogaland reiser skattekrav på ny”, 16 January 1988.\nAccording to Torstensbø, this was only partly true. The big oil companies were not so significant for Sola’s income once the agio tax was excluded.\nAbout NOK 2 million was received annually from Phillips, primarily in property tax. The most important taxpayers in the local authority were the roughly 90 companies at Aker Base. These were service providers such as Halliburton, Schlumberger and Baker Hughes.\nAt the same time, Sola acquired a steadily growing number of affluent residents and a growing share of its revenue came from income tax. Despite the cut-backs, it remained prosperous.\nPublished 29. July 2019 • Updated 29. July 2019\nMore about economy\nParticipants in Ekofisk\nThe question of who “owns” Ekofisk is not straightforward. In simple terms, however, the field and the rest of Norway’s continental shelf (NCS) belongs to the Norwegian state. This was determined on 14 June 1963, when the Storting (parliament) passed the Act Relating to Exploration for and Exploitation of Submarine Natural Resources. This permits licences to be awarded on certain terms.\nRiding out the oil crisis\nThe greatest-ever oil bonanza, with oil prices hitting USD 130 per barrel, came to an abrupt end in 2014, when the cost of a barrel of crude slumped to less than USD 50 from June to December. And the bottom had still not been reached – this was only the start of a new oil crisis which lasted several years. What effect did this have on ConocoPhillips’ financial position off Norway?", "answers": ["The water depth in the Greater Ekofisk Area is 70-75 meters."], "length": 6625, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "18ef34b54d2ddc134e1be7cae3d6101432465011d016c77a"}
{"input": "What is the recommended daily intake of vitamin K for adult women and men?", "context": "Vitamin K - Wikipedia\n(Redirected from Vitamin k)\nThis article needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2015)\nThis article is about the family of vitamers. For vitamin K1 the form usually used as a supplement, see Phytomenadione.\nVitamin K structures. MK-4 and MK-7 are both subtypes of K2.\nVitamin K deficiency, Warfarin overdose\nVitamin K is a group of structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamins the human body requires for complete synthesis of certain proteins that are prerequisites for blood coagulation and which the body also needs for controlling binding of calcium in bones and other tissues. The vitamin K-related modification of the proteins allows them to bind calcium ions, which they cannot do otherwise. Without vitamin K, blood coagulation is seriously impaired, and uncontrolled bleeding occurs. Low levels of vitamin K also weaken bones and promote calcification of arteries and other soft tissues[citation needed].\nChemically, the vitamin K family comprises 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (3-) derivatives. Vitamin K includes two natural vitamers: vitamin K1 and vitamin K2.[1] Vitamin K2, in turn, consists of a number of related chemical subtypes, with differing lengths of carbon side chains made of isoprenoid groups of atoms.\nVitamin K1, also known as phylloquinone, is made by plants, and is found in highest amounts in green leafy vegetables because it is directly involved in photosynthesis. It may be thought of as the plant form of vitamin K. It is active as a vitamin in animals and performs the classic functions of vitamin K, including its activity in the production of blood-clotting proteins. Animals may also convert it to vitamin K2.\nBacteria in the gut flora can also convert K1 into vitamin K2. In addition, bacteria typically lengthen the isoprenoid side chain of vitamin K2 to produce a range of vitamin K2 forms, most notably the MK-7 to MK-11 homologues of vitamin K2. All forms of K2 other than MK-4 can only be produced by bacteria, which use these forms in anaerobic respiration. The MK-7 and other bacterially derived forms of vitamin K2 exhibit vitamin K activity in animals, but MK-7's extra utility over MK-4, if any, is unclear and is a matter of investigation.\nThree synthetic types of vitamin K are known: vitamins K3, K4, and K5. Although the natural K1 and all K2 homologues and synthetic K4 and K5 have proven nontoxic, the synthetic form K3 (menadione) has shown toxicity.[2]\n1.2 Cardiovascular health\n1.4 Coumarin poisoning\n4.1 Conversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2\n4.2 Vitamin K2\n6 Absorption and dietary need\n7 Dietary reference intake\n10 Biochemistry\n10.1 Function in animals\n10.2 Gamma-carboxyglutamate proteins\n10.3 Methods of assessment\n10.4 Function in bacteria\n11 Injection in newborns\n11.3 Controversy\nA review of 2014 concluded that there is positive evidence that monotherapy using MK-4, one of the forms of Vitamin K2, reduces fracture incidence in post-menopausal women with osteoporosis, and suggested further research on the combined use of MK-4 with bisphosphonates. In contrast, an earlier review article of 2013 concluded that there is no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation helps prevent osteoporosis or fractures in postmenopausal women.[3]\nA Cochrane systematic review of 2006 suggested that supplementation with Vitamin K1 and with MK4 reduces bone loss; in particular, a strong effect of MK-4 on incident fractures among Japanese patients was emphasized.[4]\nA review article of 2016 suggested to consider, as one of several measures for bone health, increasing the intake of foods rich in vitamins K1 and K2.[5]\nCardiovascular health[edit]\nAdequate intake of vitamin K is associated with the inhibition of arterial calcification and stiffening,[6] but there have been few interventional studies and no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation is of any benefit in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease.[7]\nOne 10-year population study, the Rotterdam Study, did show a clear and significant inverse relationship between the highest intake levels of menaquinone (mainly MK-4 from eggs and meat, and MK-8 and MK-9 from cheese) and cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in older men and women.[8]\nVitamin K has been promoted in supplement form with claims it can slow tumor growth; there is however no good medical evidence that supports such claims.[9]\nCoumarin poisoning[edit]\nVitamin K is part of the suggested treatment regime for poisoning by rodenticide (coumarin poisoning).[10]\nAlthough allergic reaction from supplementation is possible, no known toxicity is associated with high doses of the phylloquinone (vitamin K1) or menaquinone (vitamin K2) forms of vitamin K, so no tolerable upper intake level (UL) has been set.[11]\nBlood clotting (coagulation) studies in humans using 45 mg per day of vitamin K2 (as MK-4)[12] and even up to 135 mg per day (45 mg three times daily) of K2 (as MK-4),[13] showed no increase in blood clot risk. Even doses in rats as high as 250 mg/kg, body weight did not alter the tendency for blood-clot formation to occur.[14]\nUnlike the safe natural forms of vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 and their various isomers, a synthetic form of vitamin K, vitamin K3 (menadione), is demonstrably toxic at high levels. The U.S. FDA has banned this form from over-the-counter sale in the United States because large doses have been shown to cause allergic reactions, hemolytic anemia, and cytotoxicity in liver cells.[2]\nPhylloquinone (K1)[15][16] or menaquinone (K2) are capable of reversing the anticoagulant activity of the anticoagulant warfarin (tradename Coumadin). Warfarin works by blocking recycling of vitamin K, so that the body and tissues have lower levels of active vitamin K, and thus a deficiency of vitamin K.\nSupplemental vitamin K (for which oral dosing is often more active than injectable dosing in human adults) reverses the vitamin K deficiency caused by warfarin, and therefore reduces the intended anticoagulant action of warfarin and related drugs.[17] Sometimes small amounts of vitamin K are given orally to patients taking warfarin so that the action of the drug is more predictable.[17] The proper anticoagulant action of the drug is a function of vitamin K intake and drug dose, and due to differing absorption must be individualized for each patient.[citation needed] The action of warfarin and vitamin K both require two to five days after dosing to have maximum effect, and neither warfarin or vitamin K shows much effect in the first 24 hours after they are given.[18]\nThe newer anticoagulants dabigatran and rivaroxaban have different mechanisms of action that do not interact with vitamin K, and may be taken with supplemental vitamin K.[19][20]\nVitamin K2 (menaquinone). In menaquinone, the side chain is composed of a varying number of isoprenoid residues. The most common number of these residues is four, since animal enzymes normally produce menaquinone-4 from plant phylloquinone.\nA sample of phytomenadione for injection, also called phylloquinone\nThe three synthetic forms of vitamin K are vitamins K3 (menadione), K4, and K5, which are used in many areas, including the pet food industry (vitamin K3) and to inhibit fungal growth (vitamin K5).[21]\nConversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2[edit]\nVitamin K1 (phylloquinone) – both forms of the vitamin contain a functional naphthoquinone ring and an aliphatic side chain. Phylloquinone has a phytyl side chain.\nThe MK-4 form of vitamin K2 is produced by conversion of vitamin K1 in the testes, pancreas, and arterial walls.[22] While major questions still surround the biochemical pathway for this transformation, the conversion is not dependent on gut bacteria, as it occurs in germ-free rats[23][24] and in parenterally-administered K1 in rats.[25][26] In fact, tissues that accumulate high amounts of MK-4 have a remarkable capacity to convert up to 90% of the available K1 into MK-4.[27][28] There is evidence that the conversion proceeds by removal of the phytyl tail of K1 to produce menadione as an intermediate, which is then condensed with an activated geranylgeranyl moiety (see also prenylation) to produce vitamin K2 in the MK-4 (menatetrione) form.[29]\nVitamin K2[edit]\nMain article: Vitamin K2\nVitamin K2 (menaquinone) includes several subtypes. The two subtypes most studied are menaquinone-4 (menatetrenone, MK-4) and menaquinone-7 (MK-7).\nVitamin K1, the precursor of most vitamin K in nature, is a stereoisomer of phylloquinone, an important chemical in green plants, where it functions as an electron acceptor in photosystem I during photosynthesis. For this reason, vitamin K1 is found in large quantities in the photosynthetic tissues of plants (green leaves, and dark green leafy vegetables such as romaine lettuce, kale and spinach), but it occurs in far smaller quantities in other plant tissues (roots, fruits, etc.). Iceberg lettuce contains relatively little. The function of phylloquinone in plants appears to have no resemblance to its later metabolic and biochemical function (as \"vitamin K\") in animals, where it performs a completely different biochemical reaction.\nVitamin K (in animals) is involved in the carboxylation of certain glutamate residues in proteins to form gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residues. The modified residues are often (but not always) situated within specific protein domains called Gla domains. Gla residues are usually involved in binding calcium, and are essential for the biological activity of all known Gla proteins.[30]\nAt this time[update], 17 human proteins with Gla domains have been discovered, and they play key roles in the regulation of three physiological processes:\nBlood coagulation: prothrombin (factor II), factors VII, IX, and X, and proteins C, S, and Z[31]\nBone metabolism: osteocalcin, also called bone Gla protein (BGP), matrix Gla protein (MGP),[32] periostin,[33] and the recently discovered Gla-rich protein (GRP).[34][35]\nVascular biology: growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6)[36]\nUnknown function: proline-rich γ-carboxyglutamyl proteins (PRGPs) 1 and 2, and transmembrane γ-carboxy glutamyl proteins (TMGs) 3 and 4.[37]\nLike other lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D and E), vitamin K is stored in the fatty tissue of the human body.\nAbsorption and dietary need[edit]\nPrevious theory held that dietary deficiency is extremely rare unless the small intestine was heavily damaged, resulting in malabsorption of the molecule. Another at-risk group for deficiency were those subject to decreased production of K2 by normal intestinal microbiota, as seen in broad spectrum antibiotic use.[38] Taking broad-spectrum antibiotics can reduce vitamin K production in the gut by nearly 74% in people compared with those not taking these antibiotics.[39] Diets low in vitamin K also decrease the body's vitamin K concentration.[40] Those with chronic kidney disease are at risk for vitamin K deficiency, as well as vitamin D deficiency, and particularly those with the apoE4 genotype.[41] Additionally, in the elderly there is a reduction in vitamin K2 production.[42]\nThe National Academy of Medicine (NAM) updated an estimate of what constitutes an adequate intake (AI) for vitamin K in 2001. The NAM does not distinguish between K1 and K2 – both are counted as vitamin K. At that time there was not sufficient evidence to set the more rigorous estimated average requirement (EAR) or recommended dietary allowance (RDA) given for most of the essential vitamins and minerals. The current daily AIs for vitamin K for adult women and men are 90 μg and 120 μg respectively. The AI for pregnancy and lactation is 90 μg. For infants up to 12 months the AI is 2–2.5 μg, and for children aged 1 to 18 years the AI increases with age from 30 to 75 μg. As for safety, the FNB also sets tolerable upper intake levels (known as ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of vitamin K no UL is set, as evidence for adverse effects is not sufficient. Collectively EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as dietary reference intakes.[43] The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and did not set an UL.[44]\nFor U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percentage of daily value (%DV). For vitamin K labeling purposes the daily value was 80 μg, but as of May 2016 it has been revised upwards to 120 μg. A table of the pre-change adult daily values is provided at reference daily intake. Food and supplement companies have until 28 July 2018 to comply with the change.\nSee also: Vitamin K2 § Dietary sources\nK1 (μg)[45]\nKale, cooked\nCollards, cooked\nCollards, raw\nSwiss chard, cooked\nSwiss chard, raw\nTurnip greens, raw\nRomaine lettuce, raw\nTable from \"Important information to know when you are taking: Warfarin (Coumadin) and Vitamin K\", Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health Drug Nutrient Interaction Task Force.[46]\nVitamin K1 is found chiefly in leafy green vegetables such as dandelion greens (which contain 778.4 μg per 100 g, or 741% of the recommended daily amount), spinach, swiss chard, lettuce and Brassica vegetables (such as cabbage, kale, cauliflower, broccoli, and brussels sprouts) and often the absorption is greater when accompanied by fats such as butter or oils; some fruits, such as avocados, kiwifruit and grapes, are also high in vitamin K. By way of reference, two tablespoons of parsley contains 153% of the recommended daily amount of vitamin K.[47] Some vegetable oils, notably soybean oil, contain vitamin K, but at levels that would require relatively large calorie consumption to meet the USDA-recommended levels.[48] colonic bacteria synthesize a significant portion of humans' vitamin K needs; newborns often receive a vitamin K shot at birth to tide them over until their colons become colonized at five to seven days of age from the consumption of breast milk.\nThe tight binding of vitamin K1 to thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts makes it less bioavailable. For example, cooked spinach has a 5% bioavailability of phylloquinone, however, fat added to it increases bioavailability to 13% due to the increased solubility of vitamin K in fat.[49]\nMain article: Vitamin K deficiency\nAverage diets are usually not lacking in vitamin K, and primary deficiency is rare in healthy adults. Newborn infants are at an increased risk of deficiency. Other populations with an increased prevalence of vitamin K deficiency include those who suffer from liver damage or disease (e.g. alcoholics), cystic fibrosis, or inflammatory bowel diseases, or have recently had abdominal surgeries. Secondary vitamin K deficiency can occur in people with bulimia, those on stringent diets, and those taking anticoagulants. Other drugs associated with vitamin K deficiency include salicylates, barbiturates, and cefamandole, although the mechanisms are still unknown. Vitamin K1 deficiency can result in coagulopathy, a bleeding disorder.[50]Symptoms of K1 deficiency include anemia, bruising, nosebleeds and bleeding of the gums in both sexes, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women.\nOsteoporosis[51][52] and coronary heart disease[53][54] are strongly associated with lower levels of K2 (menaquinone). Vitamin K2 (as menaquinones MK-4 through MK-10) intake level is inversely related to severe aortic calcification and all-cause mortality.[8]\nFunction in animals[edit]\nMechanism of action of vitamin K1.\nThe function of vitamin K2 in the animal cell is to add a carboxylic acid functional group to a glutamate (Glu) amino acid residue in a protein, to form a gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residue. This is a somewhat uncommon posttranslational modification of the protein, which is then known as a \"Gla protein\". The presence of two −COOH (carboxylic acid) groups on the same carbon in the gamma-carboxyglutamate residue allows it to chelate calcium ions. The binding of calcium ions in this way very often triggers the function or binding of Gla-protein enzymes, such as the so-called vitamin K-dependent clotting factors discussed below.\nWithin the cell, vitamin K undergoes electron reduction to a reduced form called vitamin K hydroquinone, catalyzed by the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR).[55] Another enzyme then oxidizes vitamin K hydroquinone to allow carboxylation of Glu to Gla; this enzyme is called gamma-glutamyl carboxylase[56][57] or the vitamin K-dependent carboxylase. The carboxylation reaction only proceeds if the carboxylase enzyme is able to oxidize vitamin K hydroquinone to vitamin K epoxide at the same time. The carboxylation and epoxidation reactions are said to be coupled. Vitamin K epoxide is then reconverted to vitamin K by VKOR. The reduction and subsequent reoxidation of vitamin K coupled with carboxylation of Glu is called the vitamin K cycle.[58] Humans are rarely deficient in vitamin K1 because, in part, vitamin K1 is continuously recycled in cells.[59]\nWarfarin and other 4-hydroxycoumarins block the action of VKOR.[60] This results in decreased concentrations of vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone in tissues, such that the carboxylation reaction catalyzed by the glutamyl carboxylase is inefficient. This results in the production of clotting factors with inadequate Gla. Without Gla on the amino termini of these factors, they no longer bind stably to the blood vessel endothelium and cannot activate clotting to allow formation of a clot during tissue injury. As it is impossible to predict what dose of warfarin will give the desired degree of clotting suppression, warfarin treatment must be carefully monitored to avoid overdose.\nGamma-carboxyglutamate proteins[edit]\nMain article: Gla domain\nThe following human Gla-containing proteins (\"Gla proteins\") have been characterized to the level of primary structure: blood coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII, IX, and X, anticoagulant proteins C and S, and the factor X-targeting protein Z. The bone Gla protein osteocalcin, the calcification-inhibiting matrix Gla protein (MGP), the cell growth regulating growth arrest specific gene 6 protein (Gas6), and the four transmembrane Gla proteins (TMGPs), the function of which is at present unknown. Gas6 can function as a growth factor to activate the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase and stimulate cell proliferation or prevent apoptosis in some cells. In all cases in which their function was known, the presence of the Gla residues in these proteins turned out to be essential for functional activity.\nGla proteins are known to occur in a wide variety of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. The venom of a number of Australian snakes acts by activating the human blood-clotting system. In some cases, activation is accomplished by snake Gla-containing enzymes that bind to the endothelium of human blood vessels and catalyze the conversion of procoagulant clotting factors into activated ones, leading to unwanted and potentially deadly clotting.\nAnother interesting class of invertebrate Gla-containing proteins is synthesized by the fish-hunting snail Conus geographus.[61] These snails produce a venom containing hundreds of neuroactive peptides, or conotoxins, which is sufficiently toxic to kill an adult human. Several of the conotoxins contain two to five Gla residues.[62]\nMethods of assessment[edit]\nVitamin K status can be assessed by:\nThe prothrombin time (PT) test measures the time required for blood to clot. A blood sample is mixed with citric acid and put in a fibrometer; delayed clot formation indicates a deficiency. This test is insensitive to mild deficiency, as the values do not change until the concentration of prothrombin in the blood has declined by at least 50%.[63]\nUndercarboxylated prothrombin (PIVKA-II); in a study of 53 newborns, found \"PT (prothrombin time) is a less sensitive marker than PIVKA II\",[64] and as indicated above, PT is unable to detect subclinical deficiencies that can be detected with PIVKA-II testing.\nPlasma phylloquinone was found to be positively correlated with phylloquinone intake in elderly British women, but not men,[65] but an article by Schurgers et al. reported no correlation between FFQ[further explanation needed] and plasma phylloquinone.[66]\nUrinary γ-carboxyglutamic acid responds to changes in dietary vitamin K intake. Several days are required before any change can be observed. In a study by Booth et al., increases of phylloquinone intakes from 100 μg to between 377 and 417 μg for five days did not induce a significant change. Response may be age-specific.[67]\nUndercarboxylated osteocalcin (UcOc) levels have been inversely correlated with stores of vitamin K[68] and bone strength in developing rat tibiae. Another study following 78 post-menopausal Korean women found a supplement regimen of vitamins K and D, and calcium, but not a regimen of vitamin D and calcium, was inversely correlated with reduced UcOc levels.[69]\nFunction in bacteria[edit]\nMany bacteria, such as Escherichia coli found in the large intestine, can synthesize vitamin K2 (menaquinone-7 or MK-7, up to MK-11),[70] but not vitamin K1 (phylloquinone). In these bacteria, menaquinone transfers two electrons between two different small molecules, during oxygen-independent metabolic energy production processes (anaerobic respiration).[71] For example, a small molecule with an excess of electrons (also called an electron donor) such as lactate, formate, or NADH, with the help of an enzyme, passes two electrons to menaquinone. The menaquinone, with the help of another enzyme, then transfers these two electrons to a suitable oxidant, such fumarate or nitrate (also called an electron acceptor). Adding two electrons to fumarate or nitrate converts the molecule to succinate or nitrite plus water, respectively.\nSome of these reactions generate a cellular energy source, ATP, in a manner similar to eukaryotic cell aerobic respiration, except the final electron acceptor is not molecular oxygen, but fumarate or nitrate. In aerobic respiration, the final oxidant is molecular oxygen (O2), which accepts four electrons from an electron donor such as NADH to be converted to water. E. coli, as facultative anaerobes, can carry out both aerobic respiration and menaquinone-mediated anaerobic respiration.\nInjection in newborns[edit]\nThe blood clotting factors of newborn babies are roughly 30–60% that of adult values; this may be due to the reduced synthesis of precursor proteins and the sterility of their guts. Human milk contains 1–4 μg/L of vitamin K1, while formula-derived milk can contain up to 100 μg/L in supplemented formulas. Vitamin K2 concentrations in human milk appear to be much lower than those of vitamin K1. Occurrence of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the first week of the infant's life is estimated at 0.25–1.7%, with a prevalence of 2–10 cases per 100,000 births.[72] Premature babies have even lower levels of the vitamin, so they are at a higher risk from this deficiency.\nBleeding in infants due to vitamin K deficiency can be severe, leading to hospitalization, blood transfusions, brain damage, and death. Supplementation can prevent most cases of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the newborn. Intramuscular administration is more effective in preventing late vitamin K deficiency bleeding than oral administration.[73][74]\nAs a result of the occurrences of vitamin K deficiency bleeding, the Committee on Nutrition of the American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended 0.5–1 mg of vitamin K1 be administered to all newborns shortly after birth.[74]\nIn the UK vitamin K supplementation is recommended for all newborns within the first 24 hours.[75] This is usually given as a single intramuscular injection of 1 mg shortly after birth but as a second-line option can be given by three oral doses over the first month.[76]\nControversy arose in the early 1990s regarding this practice, when two studies suggested a relationship between parenteral administration of vitamin K and childhood cancer,[77] however, poor methods and small sample sizes led to the discrediting of these studies, and a review of the evidence published in 2000 by Ross and Davies found no link between the two.[78] Doctors reported emerging concerns in 2013,[79] after treating children for serious bleeding problems. They cited lack-of newborn vitamin K administration, as the reason that the problems occurred, and recommended that breastfed babies could have an increased risk unless they receive a preventative dose.\nIn the early 1930s, Danish scientist Henrik Dam investigated the role of cholesterol by feeding chickens a cholesterol-depleted diet.[80] He initially replicated experiments reported by scientists at the Ontario Agricultural College (OAC).[81] McFarlane, Graham and Richardson, working on the chick feed program at OAC, had used chloroform to remove all fat from chick chow. They noticed that chicks fed only fat-depleted chow developed hemorrhages and started bleeding from tag sites.[82] Dam found that these defects could not be restored by adding purified cholesterol to the diet. It appeared that – together with the cholesterol – a second compound had been extracted from the food, and this compound was called the coagulation vitamin. The new vitamin received the letter K because the initial discoveries were reported in a German journal, in which it was designated as Koagulationsvitamin. Edward Adelbert Doisy of Saint Louis University did much of the research that led to the discovery of the structure and chemical nature of vitamin K.[83] Dam and Doisy shared the 1943 Nobel Prize for medicine for their work on vitamin K (K1 and K2) published in 1939. Several laboratories synthesized the compound(s) in 1939.[84]\nFor several decades, the vitamin K-deficient chick model was the only method of quantifying vitamin K in various foods: the chicks were made vitamin K-deficient and subsequently fed with known amounts of vitamin K-containing food. The extent to which blood coagulation was restored by the diet was taken as a measure for its vitamin K content. Three groups of physicians independently found this: Biochemical Institute, University of Copenhagen (Dam and Johannes Glavind), University of Iowa Department of Pathology (Emory Warner, Kenneth Brinkhous, and Harry Pratt Smith), and the Mayo Clinic (Hugh Butt, Albert Snell, and Arnold Osterberg).[85]\nThe first published report of successful treatment with vitamin K of life-threatening hemorrhage in a jaundiced patient with prothrombin deficiency was made in 1938 by Smith, Warner, and Brinkhous.[86]\nThe precise function of vitamin K was not discovered until 1974, when three laboratories (Stenflo et al.,[87] Nelsestuen et al.,[88] and Magnusson et al.[89]) isolated the vitamin K-dependent coagulation factor prothrombin (factor II) from cows that received a high dose of a vitamin K antagonist, warfarin. It was shown that, while warfarin-treated cows had a form of prothrombin that contained 10 glutamate (Glu) amino acid residues near the amino terminus of this protein, the normal (untreated) cows contained 10 unusual residues that were chemically identified as γ-carboxyglutamate (Gla). The extra carboxyl group in Gla made clear that vitamin K plays a role in a carboxylation reaction during which Glu is converted into Gla.\nThe biochemistry of how vitamin K is used to convert Glu to Gla has been elucidated over the past thirty years in academic laboratories throughout the world.\n^ \"Vitamin K Overview\". University of Maryland Medical Center. ^ a b Higdon, Jane (Feb 2008). \"Vitamin K\". Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. Retrieved 12 Apr 2008. ^ Hamidi, M. S.; Gajic-Veljanoski, O.; Cheung, A. M. (2013). \"Vitamin K and bone health\". Journal of Clinical Densitometry (Review). 16 (4): 409–413. doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2013.08.017. PMID 24090644. ^ Cockayne, S.; Adamson, J.; Lanham-New, S.; Shearer, M. J.; Gilbody, S; Torgerson, D. J. (Jun 2006). \"Vitamin K and the prevention of fractures: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials\". Archives of Internal Medicine (Review). 166 (12): 1256–1261. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.12.1256. PMID 16801507. ^ O'Keefe, J. H.; Bergman, N.; Carrera Bastos, P.; Fontes Villalba, M.; Di Nicolantonio, J. J.; Cordain, L. (2016). \"Nutritional strategies for skeletal and cardiovascular health: hard bones, soft arteries, rather than vice versa\". Open Heart (Review). 3 (1): e000325. doi:10.1136/openhrt-2015-000325. PMC 4809188. PMID 27042317. ^ Maresz, K. (Feb 2015). \"Proper Calcium Use: Vitamin K2 as a Promoter of Bone and Cardiovascular Health\". Integrative Medicine (Review). 14 (1): 34–39. PMC 4566462. PMID 26770129. ^ Hartley, L.; Clar, C.; Ghannam, O.; Flowers, N.; Stranges, S.; Rees, K. (Sep 2015). \"Vitamin K for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease\". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Systematic review). 9 (9): CD011148. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011148.pub2. PMID 26389791. ^ a b Geleijnse, J. M.; Vermeer, C.; Grobbee, D. E.; Schurgers, L. J.; Knapen, M. H.; van der Meer, I. M.; Hofman, A.; Witteman, J. C. (Nov 2004). \"Dietary intake of menaquinone is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: the Rotterdam Study\". Journal of Nutrition. 134 (11): 3100–3105. PMID 15514282. ^ Ades, T. B., ed. (2009). \"Vitamin K\". American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies (2nd ed.). American Cancer Society. pp. 558–563. ISBN 978-0-944235-71-3. ^ Lung, D. (Dec 2015). Tarabar, A., ed. \"Rodenticide Toxicity Treatment & Management\". Medscape. WebMD. ^ Rasmussen, S. E.; Andersen, N. L.; Dragsted, L. O.; Larsen, J. C. (Mar 2006). \"A safe strategy for addition of vitamins and minerals to foods\". 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(1988). \"Role of vitamin-K-dependent proteins in bone metabolism\". Annual Review of Nutrition. 8: 565–583. doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.08.070188.003025. PMID 3060178. ^ Coutu, D. L.; Wu, J. H.; Monette, A.; Rivard, G. E.; Blostein, M. D.; Galipeau, J (Jun 2008). \"Periostin, a member of a novel family of vitamin K-dependent proteins, is expressed by mesenchymal stromal cells\". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 283 (26): 17991–18001. doi:10.1074/jbc.M708029200. PMID 18450759. ^ Viegas, C. S.; Simes, D. C.; Laizé, V.; Williamson, M. K.; Price, P. A.; Cancela, M. L. (Dec 2008). \"Gla-rich protein (GRP), a new vitamin K-dependent protein identified from sturgeon cartilage and highly conserved in vertebrates\". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 283 (52): 36655–36664. doi:10.1074/jbc.M802761200. PMC 2605998. PMID 18836183. ^ Viegas, C. S.; Cavaco, S.; Neves, P. L.; Ferreira, A.; João, A.; Williamson, M. K.; Price, P. A.; Cancela, M. L.; Simes, D. C. (Dec 2009). \"Gla-rich protein is a novel vitamin K-dependent protein present in serum that accumulates at sites of pathological calcifications\". American Journal of Pathology. 175 (6): 2288–2298. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2009.090474. PMC 2789615. PMID 19893032. ^ Hafizi, S.; Dahlbäck, B. (Dec 2006). \"Gas6 and protein S. Vitamin K-dependent ligands for the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase subfamily\". The FEBS Journal. 273 (23): 5231–5244. doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05529.x. PMID 17064312. ^ Kulman, J. D.; Harris, J. E.; Xie, L.; Davie, E. W. (May 2007). \"Proline-rich Gla protein 2 is a cell-surface vitamin K-dependent protein that binds to the transcriptional coactivator Yes-associated protein\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (21): 8767–8772. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703195104. PMC 1885577. PMID 17502622. ^ \"Vitamin K\". MedlinePlus. US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. Sep 2016. 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H.; van der Schouw, Y. T. (Sep 2009). \"A high menaquinone intake reduces the incidence of coronary heart disease\". Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases. 19 (7): 504–510. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2008.10.004. PMID 19179058. ^ Oldenburg, J.; Bevans, C. G.; Müller, C. R.; Watzka, M. (2006). \"Vitamin K epoxide reductase complex subunit 1 (VKORC1): the key protein of the vitamin K cycle\". Antioxidants & Redox Signaling. 8 (3–4): 347–353. doi:10.1089/ars.2006.8.347. PMID 16677080. ^ Suttie, J. W. (1985). \"Vitamin K-dependent carboxylase\". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 54: 459–477. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.54.070185.002331. PMID 3896125. ^ Presnell, S. R.; Stafford, D. W. (Jun 2002). \"The vitamin K-dependent carboxylase\". Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 87 (6): 937–946. PMID 12083499. ^ Stafford, D. W. (Aug 2005). \"The vitamin K cycle\". Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 3 (8): 1873–1878. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2005.01419.x. 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Journal of Maternal, Fetal & Neonatal Medicine. 25 (9): 1660–1663. doi:10.3109/14767058.2012.657273. PMID 22280352. ^ Thane, C. W.; Bates, C. J.; Shearer, M. J.; Unadkat, N; Harrington, D. J.; Paul, A. A.; Prentice, A.; Bolton-Smith, C. (Jun 2002). \"Plasma phylloquinone (vitamin K1) concentration and its relationship to intake in a national sample of British elderly people\". British Journal of Nutrition. 87 (6): 615–622. doi:10.1079/BJNBJN2002582. PMID 12067432. ^ McKeown, N. M.; Jacques, P. F.; Gundberg, C. M.; Peterson, J. W.; Tucker, K. L.; Kiel, D. P.; Wilson, P. W.; Booth, SL (Jun 2002). \"Dietary and nondietary determinants of vitamin K biochemical measures in men and women\" (PDF). Journal of Nutrition. 132 (6): 1329–1334. PMID 12042454. ^ Yamano, M.; Yamanaka, Y.; Yasunaga, K.; Uchida, K. (Sep 1989). \"Effect of vitamin K deficiency on urinary gamma-carboxyglutamic acid excretion in rats\". Nihon Ketsueki Gakkai Zasshi. 52 (6): 1078–1086. 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PMC 413996. PMID 140652. ^ Shearer, M. J. (Jan 1995). \"Vitamin K\". Lancet. 345 (8944): 229–234. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(95)90227-9. PMID 7823718. ^ Greer, J. P.; Foerster, J.; Lukens, J. N.; Rodgers, G. M.; Paraskevas, F.; Glader, B. (eds.). Wintrobe's Clinical Hematology (11th ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkens. ^ a b American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus Newborn. (Jul 2003). \"Controversies concerning vitamin K and the newborn. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn\" (PDF). Pediatrics. 112 (1.1): 191–192. doi:10.1542/peds.112.1.191. PMID 12837888. ^ Logan, S.; Gilbert, R. (1998). \"Vitamin K For Newborn Babies\" (PDF). Department of Health. Retrieved 12 Oct 2014. ^ \"Postnatal care: Routine postnatal care of women and their babies [CG37]\". www.nice.org.uk. NICE. Jul 2006. Retrieved 12 Oct 2014. ^ Parker, L.; Cole, M.; Craft, A. W.; Hey, E. N. (1998). \"Neonatal vitamin K administration and childhood cancer in the north of England: retrospective case-control study\". BMJ (Clinical Research Edition). 316 (7126): 189–193. doi:10.1136/bmj.316.7126.189. PMC 2665412. PMID 9468683. ^ McMillan, D. D. (1997). \"Routine administration of vitamin K to newborns\". Paediatric Child Health. 2 (6): 429–431. ^ \"Newborns get rare disorder after parents refused shots\". Having four cases since February just at Vanderbilt was a little bit concerning to me ^ Dam, C. P. H. (1935). \"The Antihaemorrhagic Vitamin of the Chick: Occurrence And Chemical Nature\". Nature. 135 (3417): 652–653. doi:10.1038/135652b0. ^ Dam, C. P. H. (1941). \"The discovery of vitamin K, its biological functions and therapeutical application\" (PDF). Nobel Prize Laureate Lecture. ^ McAlister, V. C. (2006). \"Control of coagulation: a gift of Canadian agriculture\" (PDF). Clinical and Investigative Medicine. 29 (6): 373–377. ^ MacCorquodale, D. W.; Binkley, S. B.; Thayer, S. A.; Doisy, E. A. (1939). \"On the constitution of Vitamin K1\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 61 (7): 1928–1929. doi:10.1021/ja01876a510. ^ Fieser, L. F. (1939). \"Synthesis of Vitamin K1\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 61 (12): 3467–3475. doi:10.1021/ja01267a072. ^ Dam, C. P. H. (12 Dec 1946). \"The discovery of vitamin K, its biological functions and therapeutical application\" (PDF). Nobel Prize lecture. ^ Warner, E. D.; Brinkhous, K. M.; Smith, H. P. (1938). \"Bleeding Tendency of Obstructive Jaundice\". Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine. 37 (4): 628–630. doi:10.3181/00379727-37-9668P. ^ Stenflo, J; Fernlund, P.; Egan, W.; Roepstorff, P. (Jul 1974). \"Vitamin K dependent modifications of glutamic acid residues in prothrombin\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (7): 2730–2733. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.7.2730. PMC 388542. PMID 4528109. ^ Nelsestuen, G. L.; Zytkovicz, T. H.; Howard, J. B. (Oct 1974). \"The mode of action of vitamin K. Identification of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid as a component of prothrombin\" (PDF). Journal of Biological Chemistry. 249 (19): 6347–6350. PMID 4214105. ^ Magnusson, S.; Sottrup-Jensen, L.; Petersen, T. E.; Morris, H. R.; Dell, A. (Aug 1974). \"Primary structure of the vitamin K-dependent part of prothrombin\". FEBS Letters. 44 (2): 189–193. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(74)80723-4. PMID 4472513. Bibliography[edit]\nRhéaume-Bleue, Kate (2012). Vitamin K2 and the Calcium Paradox. John Wiley & Sons, Canada. ISBN 1-118-06572-7. External links[edit]\n\"Vitamin K: Another Reason to Eat Your Greens\". v\nTPP / ThDP (B1)\nFMN, FAD (B2)\nNAD+, NADH, NADP+, NADPH (B3)\nCoenzyme A (B5)\nPLP / P5P (B6)\nTHFA / H4FA, DHFA / H2FA, MTHF (B9)\nAdoCbl, MeCbl (B12)\nPhylloquinone (K1), Menaquinone (K2)\nnon-vitamins\nCoenzyme B\nHeme / Haem (A, B, C, O)\nMolybdopterin/Molybdenum cofactor\nTHMPT / H4MPT\nFe2+, Fe3+\nvitamins: see vitamins\nAntihemorrhagics (B02)\n(coagulation)\nPhytomenadione (K1)\nMenadione (K3)\nintrinsic: IX/Nonacog alfa\nVIII/Moroctocog alfa/Turoctocog alfa\nextrinsic: VII/Eptacog alfa\ncommon: X\nII/Thrombin\nI/Fibrinogen\nXIII/Catridecacog\ncombinations: Prothrombin complex concentrate (II, VII, IX, X, protein C and S)\nCarbazochrome\nthrombopoietin receptor agonist (Romiplostim\nEltrombopag)\nTetragalacturonic acid hydroxymethylester\nEpinephrine/Adrenalone\namino acids (Aminocaproic acid\nAminomethylbenzoic acid)\nserpins (Aprotinin\nAlfa1 antitrypsin\nCamostat).", "answers": ["90 μg for women and 120 μg for men."], "length": 7142, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "b3f3be2f0b46c0df08868f749519635186e6e22cf054ca79"}
{"input": "What are the benefits of using binary variables in the SLAS formulation?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: SLAS: Speed and Lane Advisory System for Highway Navigation\nPublish Date: Unkown\nAuthor List: Faizan Tariq, David Isele, John Baras, Sangjae Bae\n\nFigure\n\nFig. 1.Motivational Example.With a slow moving vehicle ahead, the ego vehicle (in blue) may decide to either change lane to the fast moving lane (left) to minimize travel time or adjust its speed without changing lanes to preserve safety but it would be unwise for it to switch to the slow moving lane (right) as that would not benefit travel time or safety.\nFig. 3. Simulation Setup.Scenario Runner sets up the scenario for the CARLA Simulator, which then communicates with the SLAS and the Planning and Control ROS (Robot Operating System) nodes through the ROS bridge node.\nFig. 4. Testing scenario with three lanes: lane 0 (left), lane 1 (center) and lane 2 (right).The expected motion of the ego vehicle, over the course of the simulation, is shown with numbered frames.The right most lane (lane 3) is reserved for merging traffic so it is not utilized in our simulation.\nFig. 5. Left: Travel time comparison.Center: Lane choice (lateral position) comparison.The center lines of lanes 0 (left), 1 (center) and 2 (right) have fixed lateral displacements of 0m, 3.5m and 7m respectively.Right: Headway comparison.With no leading vehicle, the headway is restricted by the visibility range of 50m.\n\nabstract\n\nThis paper proposes a hierarchical autonomous vehicle navigation architecture, composed of a high-level speed and lane advisory system (SLAS) coupled with low-level trajectory generation and trajectory following modules. Specifically, we target a multi-lane highway driving scenario where an autonomous ego vehicle navigates in traffic.\nWe propose a novel receding horizon mixed-integer optimization based method for SLAS with the objective to minimize travel time while accounting for passenger comfort. We further incorporate various modifications in the proposed approach to improve the overall computational efficiency and achieve real-time performance.\nWe demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed approach in contrast to the existing methods, when applied in conjunction with state-of-the-art trajectory generation and trajectory following frameworks, in a CARLA simulation environment.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nLane changing is considered to be one of the most risky driving behaviors since it is highly contingent upon multimodal trajectory predictions of neighboring vehicles and requires timely decision making . It is further influenced by a number of uncertainty factors such as road conditions, measurement accuracy, and a long tail of behavioral uncertainty of on-road agents.\nHowever, if executed efficiently, lane changing coupled with speed adjustment can yield significant improvement in minimizing overall travel time while ensuring passenger comfort . To elaborate further, consider the scenario presented in Fig. . Based on the predicted motion (shown in a lighter shade) of the neighboring vehicles (shown in orange), the ego vehicle (shown in blue) may decide to either change lane left in an attempt to minimize its travel time or slow down in the current lane to maintain safety.\nHowever, it would be imprudent for the ego vehicle to risk changing lane right and consequently get stuck behind a slow moving vehicle even though there is presently a greater headway. This simple scenario highlights the importance of foresight and long planning-horizon in strategic decision making for autonomous vehicles.\nExisting methods like MOBIL give us the ability to change lanes but behave greedily (prioritizing immediate rewards) oftentimes, which can lead to sub-optimal performance. It was shown in that the lane changing performance can be improved with an A inspired approach, but the formulation was limited to constant speed.\nSuch an approach is unable to assess the benefits of speed adjustment 1 University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA. Email: {mftariq,baras}@umd.edu. 2 Honda Research Institute, San Jose, CA, USA. Email: {disele,sbae}@honda-ri.com. Research supported by Honda Research Institute, USA.  in minimizing overall travel time.\nAs will become apparent in Section IV, it may be necessary at times to sacrifice on shortterm benefits to gain long-term performance improvements. In such a scenario, an approach with speed adjustment coupled with long planning horizon has the foresight to deliver significantly better results. Moreover, the inclusion of speed adjustment in the decision making process inhibits the risk of incurring trajectory infeasibility as the environment conditions may prevent the ego vehicle from traveling at a constant reference speed and the low-level planner may be unable to handle such a discrepancy.\nTherefore, in this work, we propose a low complexity receding horizon optimization based approach that outputs the lane change maneuvers coupled with speed adjustments for long planning horizons (> 15s) while guaranteeing safety. The long horizon strategic decision making gives ego vehicle the ability to proactively anticipate and handle challenging driving situations.\nLiterature review: In the literature, speed and lane changing decisions are generally considered from a motion planner's perspective , which allows for a simultaneous determination of target lanes and waypoints to perform the maneuver. The motion planning methods present in the literature can broadly be categorized into sampling-based, learning-based and optimization-based approaches.\nIn regards to the sampling-based approaches, single-query methods, in particular the different variants of RRT, are preferred over multi-query methods, like roadmap-based methods, due to the faster execution time and their ability to incorporate non-holonomic constraints . Even though these methods are able to incorporate safety guarantees by sampling feasible trajectories from a reachable safe set , the overall driving experience is often rather uncomfortable due to the concatenation of individual trajectories.\nMoreover, the asymptotic optimality guarantees availed by arXiv:2303.00861v1 [cs.RO] 1 Mar 2023 these methods do not help with real-world implementation in complex driving scenarios since they tend to have high sample complexity . In terms of the learning-based methods, the preferred approach seems to be the variations of Reinforcement Learning techniques applied in a simulated environment , , , , .\nThese approaches, although seeming to work well in simulation, have concerns regarding real-world implementation due to the large amount of training data that they require, the exploration of unsafe behaviors during training, and a general inability to handle edge cases. They mainly utilize neural networks as function approximators which yields low computational complexity but also results in a lack of explainability and safety guarantees.\nLastly, the optimization-based approaches, especially the derivatives of optimal control methods, are abundant in the literature. In contrast to the potential-field based approaches that yield decent collision avoidance performance but are unable to accommodate vehicle dynamics, the optimal control methods , especially the derivatives of Model Predictive Control (MPC) approach , , , yield excellent collision avoidance performance while accommodating vehicle dynamics.\nHowever, this performance comes at a cost of high computational complexity, arising mainly from the non-convex collision avoidance and the non-linear dynamics constraints. This, in turn, restricts the planning horizon to merely a few seconds. The key requirements for the algorithmic design of an autonomous vehicle include real-time operation, safety guarantees, optimality with respect to some metric(s), and accounting for the behavior variability of on-road agents.\nConsidering these requirements, we propose an optimization-based behavioral planning framework that enables autonomous vehicle maneuvering on multilane highways. While having the benefits of optimizationbased approaches, our method achieves a low computational complexity by employing a binary representation of the decoupled lane indicator dynamics in lieu of lateral dynamics, and utilizing algorithmic modifications to aid numerical computations.\nSpecifically, our method provides: • optimality with respect to travel time and comfort; • safety and feasibility guarantees; • real-time applicability for a long planning horizon; and • modularity in design, which enables the integration of external trajectory prediction modules. The proposed method fills in the research gap by meeting all the key algorithmic requirements while simultaneously gaining the foresight to make strategic decisions that yield long-term performance benefits, as verified in Section IV.\nIn this section, we present the algorithmic pipeline and formalize the road, observation and vehicle dynamics models that will be utilized in the subsequent sections.\n\nAlgorithmic Pipeline\n\nFig. illustrates the algorithmic pipeline of the proposed navigation architecture, in reference to the various existing . Algorithmic pipeline of the proposed navigation architecture. The raw sensory input data is processed by the Perception, and Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) modules to place the autonomous vehicle relative to the various environmental entities in a unified frame of reference.\nThis information is then passed on to the navigation stack, composed of the behavioral planning, motion planning, and vehicle control modules. The output of the navigation module is passed down further in terms of actuation commands (brake, throttle and steering) to the actuators. algorithmic modules deployed on an autonomous vehicle.\nThe taxonomy of the various components of the navigation stack (highlighted by the dotted rectangle) is borrowed from . This pipeline essentially improves the pipeline introduced in by adding a speed advisory system. Our main focus is the development of the behavior planning module, highlighted as SLAS in Fig. . SLAS outputs the target lane and reference speed which are utilized by the motion planning module to generate a reference trajectory for the ego vehicle.\nThe vehicle controllers compute the throttle and steering commands to track the trajectory accordingly. For the motion planning module, we adopt the Neural Networks integrated Model Predictive Control (NNMPC) due to its ability to accommodate the behaviors of neighboring vehicles in the trajectory generation process.\nIn our approach, we assume that the perception (of other vehicles) and the localization (of ego vehicle) are known without any uncertainty, for simplicity, but the modular architecture avails us the ability to integrate any perception or SLAM module in the overall framework. Throughout the manuscript, Z will denote the set of integers and R the set of real numbers.\nFor some a, c ∈ Z and a < c, we will write For some e, g ∈ R and e < g, we will write\n\nRoad Model\n\nThe physical road structure is modeled as a continuous multi-lane highway with negligible curvature and unidirectional traffic flow. The lanes on the highway are clearly demarcated and at any given time k, the number of available lanes for the vehicles to travel on is denoted by N l (k) while the road speed limit is denoted by V l .\nTherefore, the set of lanes available for traveling at a given time instant k is denoted by . We work with the Frenet coordinate system where the distance along the road is denoted by the longitudinal displacement (s) and the distance perpendicular to the road is defined by the lateral displacement (d).\nEach lane is assigned a lane indicator variable l. The leftmost lane, with respect to the direction of traffic flow, is assigned a value of l = 0 while each subsequent lane is assigned an increasing integer value for l, as depicted in Fig. .\n\nVehicle Model\n\nSince we aim to have real-time computations for a long planning horizon (> 15s), we model the vehicle dynamics with a linearized decoupled dynamical system. For the highway driving scenario, where the road curvature is typically small, it is reasonable to assume a decoupling between the lateral and the longitudinal dynamics , especially for the behavior planning layer.\nTherefore, we utilize a linear constant acceleration model for the longitudinal dynamics and abstract out the lateral dynamics with a lane indicator variable. For the lane change dynamics, we use a moving average filter coupled with a rounding function to model the time required by the ego vehicle to change lanes.\nThis is compactly represented as: where s 0 (k), v 0 (k), l 0 (k) and L(k) denote the ego vehicle's longitudinal displacement, speed, lane indicator and target lane, respectively, at time instant k; the subscript i indexes the vehicles on the road with 0 being reserved for the ego vehicle; T s denotes the discretization time step; and N corresponds to the number of time steps required to change lane.\nThe state (x 0 (k)) and control input (u 0 (k)) to the system at time instant k are defined as: where V m denotes the maximum speed of the ego vehicle.\n\nObservation Model\n\nFor practical considerations, we restrict the ego vehicle's visibility range to the sensory perception limit, denoted by R v . Then, the set of vehicles in ego vehicle's visibility range at time instant k, represented by O(k), is defined as: where s i (k) corresponds to the longitudinal displacement of the observed vehicle.\nRemark 1: For the multi-lane highway driving scenario, occlusion does not play a prominent role so we do not account for it in the existing formulation. However, the proposed framework can easily accommodate occlusion and measurement uncertainties since the receding horizon approach bases its decision on the most up-to-date information available at any given time, as demonstrated in .\nIn this section, we describe the prediction model to generate the predicted future trajectories of observed vehicles and present a discussion on the proposed receding horizon optimization-based behavioral planning module.\n\nTrajectory Prediction\n\nReliable behavior and trajectory prediction of other traffic participants is crucial for safe maneuvering of autonomous vehicles. The algorithm proposed in Section III-B is able to incorporate any generic prediction module available in the literature as long as it can provide a deterministic predicted future trajectory for a given vehicle.\nIn this work, we formulate a low-complexity prediction model that highlights the flexibility and efficiency of our proposed approach. For an observed vehicle i ∈ O(k), the future speed profile is predicted using a piece-wise linear function while the lane profile is assumed to stay constant for the duration of the prediction horizon.\nAt a given time step k, the estimated acceleration (ā k i ) and the estimated speed (v k i ) parameters are obtained through linear regression with mean-squared error on the past o k i > 1 speed observations. Based on the estimated parameters, we predict the future speed and longitudinal displacement as follows:\nHere, H a corresponds to the acceleration horizon while vk i (j) and ŝk i (j) respectively represent the predicted speed and longitudinal displacement for vehicle i, j time steps into the future starting from the current time instant k. Remark 2: Due to the modular nature of the proposed framework, the behavior planning module detailed in Section III-B can work with advanced maneuver-based (e.g.\nMarkov Chain ) and interaction-based (e.g. Social Generative Adversarial Networks ) trajectory prediction modules, allowing for interactive maneuvering behaviors.\n\nSpeed and Lane Advisory System\n\nThe goal of our behavior planning module, Speed and Lane Advisory System or in short, SLAS, is to determine a sequence of speed and lane change commands that would enable the ego vehicle to maximize its speed, thus minimizing the travel time, while accounting for driver comfort and abiding by its dynamical, actuator, and safety limits.\nThe output of this module is a relatively smooth speed and lane change profile which is then passed on to a motion planner. It is necessary to incorporate the dynamical and actuator limits in the behavioral planning module so as not to provide the motion planner with goals that are not reachable, and jeopardize the safety of the overall system as a result.\nIn the subsequent discussion, we provide a formulation of the optimization problem for SLAS; highlight the modifications necessary to improve the computational complexity; and, present safety and feasibility analysis. 1) Optimization Problem with Integer Constraints: SLAS is posed as an optimization problem, with the objective to maximize speed while minimizing frequent lane changes and abrupt changes in speed.\nThe output of SLAS, at time instant k, is the control input u 0 (k + 1), as defined in . The optimization problem is formulated as follows: Objective Function: In the formulation above, the optimization variables are the ego vehicle's speed (v k (j)) and target lane (L k (j)), j step into the future, starting from time instant k.\nHere, H corresponds to the planning horizon. The scalarization parameters γ 1 , γ 2 and γ 3 in the objective function account for a relative tradeoff between maximizing speed, minimizing lane changes and minimizing abrupt changes in speed respectively. Increasing γ 1 yields a more aggressive behavior with the priority placed on maximizing speed while γ 2 and γ 3 combine to place an emphasis on maximizing passenger comfort by reducing lane and speed changes respectively.\nDynamical Constraints: These constraints are put in place to ensure the dynamical feasibility of the solution. The constraints ( ), and serve to initialize the longitudinal displacement, speed and target lane respectively for the optimizer, based on the values observed at time instant k. The constraints and ( ) bound the ego vehicle's speed by the speed limit and the acceleration limits of the vehicle respectively.\nThe ego vehicle's speed is then used to calculate the projected longitudinal displacement in . The target lane values at any planning step (j) are restricted to the set of reachable values by ( ), ( ) and . Here, restricts the target lane to the set of available lanes (L(k)), ensures that the lane change, if needed, is made to the adjacent lane only and (17) models the time steps (N ) required for a lane change.\nThe flooring function can easily be transformed into a couple of linear constraints by the introduction of an auxiliary integer variable, as shown in the Appendix. Finally, l k (j) is merely the internal representation of the lane the ego vehicle is projected to travel on at planning step j. Safety Constraint: The safety constraint ensures that the ego vehicle maintains a minimum safe distance (L s i (j)) to the nearest vehicle i, in its projected lane of travel (l k (j)), at planning instant j.\nWe borrow the definition of this safe distance from , where the authors provide a formalization, based on the clause from Vienna Convention on Road Traffic that states that \"A vehicle [...] shall keep at a sufficient distance [...] to avoid collision if the vehicle in front should suddenly slow down or stop.\"\nFurthermore, the absolute value constraint can be decomposed into linear constraints by the application of big-M method and the introduction of an auxiliary variable, as shown in the Appendix. Remark 3: The proposed formulation can accommodate arbitrary number of lanes at any given time instant k. This means that if at any given time, the number of available lanes for traveling either increases or decreases, the proposed formulation will still continue to hold.\nThis is an important consideration since many a times on highways, some lanes are blocked due to various unanticipated situations such as road accidents, roadwork, narrowing of road etc. 2) Computational Complexity Reduction: This section details the optimization problem reformulation with binary variables, optimization warm start technique and lazy constraint implementation, all of which combine to improve the computational complexity of our SLAS module.\nBinary Variables: The proposed formulation in Section III-B has relatively high computation complexity (computation time of ∼ 2s in the worst case scenario -slow moving traffic blocking all the lanes) due to the integer decision variables yielding a mixed-integer optimization problem . To circumvent the computational overload, we reformulate the problem with binary variables that replace the integer variables, as follows:\nwhere the Lk (i, j) represents the modified target lane variable, indexed by the lane (i) as well as the planning step (j) and Lk (a, b) = 1 represents the choice of lane a ∈ L as the target lane at planning step b ∈ Z . Then, some of the constraints from the SLAS formulation in Section III-B are modified as follows:\nHere, initializes the target lane, (21) restricts the target lane at any planning step to the set of available lanes, restricts the lane change between consecutive planning steps to the adjacent lanes, and ( ) represents the augmented safety constraint. The implication ( =⇒ ) in ( ) can easily be transformed into a linear constraint (see Appendix).\nThe augmented minimum safety distance ( Ls i (j)) incorporates the time required to execute the lane change maneuver (N ) from ( ) into the following unified safety constraint: where L l is the width of the lanes (see Fig. ), δ(k) is the signed lateral deviation of the ego vehicle from the previous target lane's boundary at time step k, and γ d (δ k (j)) is the dynamic cost of deviation from the previous target lane (L(k − 1)).\nMoreover, in the cost function , we take L k (0) = L(k − 1). These costs are introduced to prevent the swerving (canceling of lane switch before completion) behavior, unless absolutely necessary (for safety purposes). Remark 4: Since the ego vehicle is considered to have changed lane once it crosses a lane boundary, the deviation δ k (j) is considered from the lane boundary instead of the center of the target lane to maintain the continuity of γ d (δ k (j)) with respect to the lateral displacement of the ego vehicle.\nSpecifically, δ k (j) > 0 if the ego vehicle has crossed the previous target lane boundary and 0 otherwise. This is an important consideration since a discontinuity in γ d (δ k (j)), upon completion of lane change, may lead to infeasibility. Remark 5: The swerving behavior is suppressed but not completely eliminated with a hard constraint since such a behavior is necessary at times to react to the environment's unpredictability.\nThis reactive strategy, which is a distinctive feature of our approach, avails the algorithm the ability to proactively 'change its mind' in case something unanticipated happens in the environment that can jeopardize safety. Optimization Warm Start: To aid the optimizer in finding an initially feasible solution, we provide the solution from the previous time step as a reference.\nFormally, This doesn't imply that the solution from time step k − 1 will hold exactly at time step k, owing to the unmodeled disturbances, but providing this reference aids the optimizer in finding an initially feasible solution in the vicinity of the reference solution. This observation is rooted in the premise that the solution for the long planning horizon is not expected to change significantly between time steps, given the sampling time is not too large, and the predicted behavior of on-road agents does not alter significantly.\nIt is also worth pointing out that the priority here is quickly finding a feasible solution that obeys the safety constraints and actuator limits, and recursively improving it rather than excessively iterating to reach at a global optimum. In our experiments, it was observed that a suboptimal solution was qualitatively not significantly different from the optimal one.\nTherefore, we utilize the cutting planes method for optimization , which first looks for a feasible solution, using our provided reference, and then recursively updates it until either the globally minimal solution is found or the time limit is reached. Lazy Constraints: To further enhance the computational efficiency, we introduce a lazy implementation of the lane changing constraints .\nIt was observed in our experiments that a feasible solution without the lane changing constraints ( ) can be found several order of magnitude (∼ 10×) quicker than if we include these constraints so we decided to have a lazy implementation for them. With a lazy implementation , the solver finds a set of feasible solutions without the inclusion of these constraints and then determines the feasibility of those solutions from the reduced problem with respect to the lazy constraints.\n3) Feasibility: By an argument similar to the one presented in , it is a relatively straightforward proof for recursive feasibility of the problem, i.e. the optimization problem will continue to stay feasible, if initially feasible, with the trivial solution being matching the speed of the leading vehicle and not changing lanes.\nIn this section, we detail our experimental setup, demonstrate the performance of SLAS, and report a qualitative as well as a quantitative comparative analysis. The baselines in our comparative analysis are set to: Extended-Astar (EA ) , MOBIL , and no lane-change model (No-Change).\n\nExperimental Setup\n\nThe implementation setup, depicted in Fig. , is composed of the CARLA simulator (Version 0.9.11) , SLAS module (Section III-B), and the planner and controller module . To solve the optimization problem for SLAS, we use Gurobi Optimizer (Version 9.1.1) . The simulations are performed on a computer equipped with an Intel Xeon(R) CPU E5-2643 v4 @ 3.40GHz × 12 and NVIDIA Titan XP, running Ubuntu 20.04 LTS.\nOn average, the time required for each optimization step is ∼ 0.096s, while the maximum time limit for the optimizer is set to 0.2s, indicating the strong potential for real-time applicability.\n\nCase Study\n\nFigure illustrates the test case scenario for our comparative analysis. The scenario is composed of a highway segment with four lanes and the rightmost lane reserved for merging vehicles. The ego vehicle is initialized to follow a slow moving vehicle in lane 1 and has even slower moving traffic to its right in lane 2. Thus, the only option for it, in order to minimize travel time, is to switch left to lane 0 with faster moving traffic and greater headway.\nOnce it moves to lane 0, and overtakes the slow moving vehicle in lane 1, it has two options: either to keep traveling in lane 0 without making any lane change decisions until getting close to the lead vehicle or proactively exploiting the gap in lane 2 to switch to lane 3 in anticipation of traffic buildup in lanes 1 and 2. A strategic decision maker with foresight will choose to take the later option and make the decision proactively for a greater overall benefit.\nThe evaluation metrics for the comparative analysis include: travel time, lateral displacement, headway and distance to the closest vehicle. As for the simulation parameters, the simulation step size is set to 0.05s (simulation frequency of 20Hz); the velocities of vehicles in lanes 0, 1 and 2 are set to 8, 5 and 2 m/s respectively while the speed limit V l is set to 15m/s; the length of the highway patch is set to 350m while the width between the lanes is set to 3.5m; and the sensor visibility range is set to R v = 50m.\nThe parameters for SLAS are set as follows: T s = 0.4s, H = 40, N = 3, A min = −5m/s 2 , A max = 3.5m/s 2 , γ 1 = 1, γ 2 = 0.1 and γ 3 = 0.01. The values of these parameters can be tuned to yield an aggressive or defensive behavior of the algorithm. 1) Travel Time: The left plot in Fig. depicts the travel time as a function of longitudinal displacement for the four algorithms.\nAs seen in the plot, our method (SLAS) maintains a lower overall travel time as compared to the other methods. Quantitatively speaking, SLAS outperforms EA , MOBIL and No-change methods by 12.72%, 23.52% and 54.34% respectively in terms of the time required to complete the simulation scenario. This shows that our method's foresight compensates for its apparent conservativeness arising from the need to preserve passenger comfort.\n2) Lateral Displacement: To identify the differences in lane changing behaviors between the four approaches, the relationship between lateral and longitudinal displacements over the course of the simulation is highlighted in the center plot of Fig. . In the plot, the lateral displacement of 0 corresponds to the center of lane 0 while the center of each following lane is 3.5m away.\nComparing the performance of the four algorithms, we see SLAS and EA showing relatively similar performances, resulting from proactive decision making. In contrast, since MOBIL only assesses the advantage of switching to the adjacent lanes, it is unable to see the benefit of proactively switching to lane 2. This explains why EA and SLAS start outperforming MOBIL in terms of travel time (left plot) at around the 130 [m] mark for longitudinal displacement.\nAs for a direct comparison between SLAS and EA , the benefits of having speed advisory system become apparent in this center plot. Due to speed control, SLAS is able to constantly maintain a greater headway (right plot) without having to brake significantly upon getting too close to the lead vehicle. This results in a smooth lateral displacement profile which allows the vehicle to change lanes with minimal jerk (quantitative analysis to follow in Section IV-C) and deliver better overall timing performance (left plot).\n3) Headway: The right plot in Fig. shows the headway maintained by the ego vehicle over the course of the simulation. In accordance with our prior discussion, MOBIL cruises behind the front vehicle, maintaining a relatively low headway until a sufficient space in the adjacent lane is found to perform the lane-change maneuver.\nOn the other hand, EA and SLAS show a comparable headway trajectory, however, SLAS maintains a greater headway throughout and achieves the maximum headway prior to EA . Quantitatively, SLAS maintains on average 9.43%, 36.57% and 113.17% more headway than the EA , MOBIL and No-change approaches respectively.\nThis strong performance by SLAS can be attributed to its incorporation of safety guarantees coupled with its consideration for passenger comfort. 4) Distance to closest vehicle: Finally, we compare the distance that ego vehicle maintains from the closest vehicle throughout the simulation. On average, SLAS maintains 9.28%, 32.01%, and 22.84% more distance in comparison to EA , MOBIL and No-change approaches respectively.\nThese numbers are a testament to the strength of our approach resulting from consideration of long planning horizon coupled with speed control.\n\nMonte Carlo Simulations\n\nTo demonstrate the long-term performance of the three approaches (SLAS, EA and MOBIL), we run a series of Monte Carlo simulations on scenarios with randomized initial positions (within a range of 8m) and velocities (within    ranges of 8, 5 and 2 m/s assigned to each of the three lanes randomly) of traffic participants.\nThe result from 50 simulations is presented in Table . In this table, the columns represent the different evaluation metrics, the rows identify the three algorithms, and the values highlighted in green represent the best result with respect to each evaluation metric. The evaluation metrics, going from left to right in the table, are completion time (s), brake (R [−1,0] ), brake jerk (R [−1,0] ), throttle (R [0,1] ), throttle jerk (R [0,1] ), angular acceleration ( • /s 2 ) and angular jerk ( • /s 3 ).\nApart from completion time, the remaining metrics, based on the commands passed to the vehicular actuators (Fig. ), are used to model passenger comfort. In terms of average performance, SLAS greatly outperforms the other methods when it comes to passenger comfort since it explicitly accounts for comfort in the formulation.\nHowever, it does so at a cost of slightly reduced performance in regards to travel time, when compared to EA , since SLAS tries to strike a balance between minimizing travel time and maximizing passenger comfort. SLAS also secures the lowest standard deviation, for each of the evaluation metrics, when compared to the other methods, which points to the consistency in its long-term performance.\n\nCONCLUSION\n\nWe propose a novel behavior planning module for the multi-lane highway maneuvering scenario, that outputs strategic target lane and reference speed commands, and incorporate it with a state-of-the-art motion planning and control framework. We formulate the approach as a receding horizon mixed integer optimization with the goal to minimize travel time while accounting for passenger comfort for a long planning horizon.\nIn order to reduce the computational overload, we reformulate the problem by replacing integer variables with binary ones and further incorporate various modifications to aid numerical computations. We also carry out a detailed comparative analysis to demonstrate the performance of our approach on the CARLA simulator.\nOur future work includes incorporating various delays and uncertainty measures in the perception, localization and prediction modules to evaluate the robustness properties of our approach.\n\nFlooring Constraint\n\nFor y ∈ Z and x ∈ R, the constraint y = x can be represented by the following linear constraints: y ≤ x, y + 1 ≥ x + where > 0 accounts for the feasibility tolerance. where M 0 (big-M) and > 0 accounts for numerical errors (chosen to be 0.1 in our implementations).\n\nAbsolute Value Constraint\n\nFor ∆s, L s ∈ R, the constraint |∆s| − L s ≥ 0 can be represented as: This can further be generalized, as done in our implementation, to have different forward and rear safety margins as: ∆s ≥ L f s ∨ ∆s ≤ −L r s where L f s and L r s are forward and rear safety margins respectively. This can be represented with the following linear constraints:\ns ≥ 0 where M 0 (big-M) and c ∈ {0, 1} is responsible for making a choice between the two constraints.", "answers": ["Reduced computational complexity."], "length": 5466, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "0e9a32e0989483442381f0195e620fea8c5538e42f130bdb"}
{"input": "How can you level up in the early levels?", "context": "What is this game all about? (short version) Do you like the board game RISK®? Then chances are you’ll like QONQR. Your job is to join a faction and help your faction (team) take over the world. QONQR is an artificial intelligence that appeared on the Internet. We don’t know where it came from, or its purpose, but we know it is powerful. The Legion want to destroy QONQR because they believe it will enslave and exterminate humanity. The Swarm believe QONQR will advance the human race, and we should protect it. The Faceless don’t care, and want to steal the technology for their own uses. Pick a side, recruit your friends, and help your faction capture the towns and cities in which you live, work, and play. What is this game all about? (long version) Right now an invisible war is raging all around you. At stake: the Past, Present, and Future. A rogue Artificial Intelligence has been detected infiltrating the world’s networked infrastructure. Initial hacking of the source code has revealed incredible new technology. It is not certain whether this AI seeks to enhance or destroy humanity. It is only certain that it is here, and that is has a name: QONQR.Those who first detected the presence of QONQR on the global networks have argued fiercely over its intentions. They have split into viciously rival Factions, each co-opting the known QONQR technologies for their own ends. Even now the Factions battle over the entire globe seeking to gather resources and prepare for the coming power struggle. Whether you accept it or not, the war is here. Your survival, prosperity, and even glory depend on the choices you make and the skill you demonstrate from this point forward. You will be asked to join one of three Factions. The choice should not be made lightly. Your Faction Alignment will define your place in the war over QONQR. THE LEGION unite under the shared goals of destroying QONQR and saving humanity by crushing the nascent AI before it can mature. They are led by AGENT SUNDAY, a former commander of the NSA's Turing Task Force which has been valiantly stamping out dangerous AIs for years. THE SWARM are convinced that QONQR promises an era of unprecedented technological advancement and human prosperity. Nanobot weaponry expert KIMYO NAGUMO leads this faction in the battle to defend QONQR and assemble its future tech, accelerating humanity's path into the future. THE FACELESS are a loosely organized faction of militant hackers who want QONQR's technology for their own ends, but want to prevent the unavoidable nightmare of human slavery they believe it portends. When they choose to communicate, they do so through an anonymous vigilante who goes by the name PROMETHEUS. . What do I do first? Create a base, then launch. Launch nanobots until your fingers hurt. How do I create a base? On iOS there is a Base icon in the menu bar. For Windows Phone, you will find a bases button on the home screen. These take you to the Base Screen where you can see how many bases you have available to you. Once you create a base, be sure harvest often by returning to the list of your bases. You can see how full each base is by checking the fill percentage icon. Bases stop collecting once they are full. What is the point of creating bases and harvesting resources? You need bases to earn money. Bases collect rare elements over time which you can then harvest for your faction in exchange for qredits. Qredits can be used to purchase ordinance (like nanomissiles) and upgrades which will help you capture and hold battle zones more easily. What do you mean, “launch nanobots?” Nanobots are the invisible soldiers generated by your device (which has been transformed into “Scope” by advanced QONQR technology). Nanobots fight for control of the battle zones around you.. From the home screen click “Current Zone”. Once you have selected your zone, you will be able to deploy nanobots there.. Initially, you are just a level 1 recruit. You are only going to get a small attack formation with a limited range.. Other solders have to practice with rifles before they get tanks; you are no different. Once you prove your mettle, you’ll get access to bigger weapons. Soon you’ll be lobbing missiles hundreds of miles. How do I capture a zone? If you play for the Legion and are launching nanobots into a zone controlled by the Swarm, you will capture the zone for the Legion as soon as you have destroyed enough of the enemy that your nonbots outnumber theirs. If you are the person who causes the zone to change control to the Legion, you will be listed as the Capturer of the Zone. The Person with the most nanobots in the zone is the zone leader. What is my current zone? How do you know? Your current zone is determined by your proximity to the nearest zone center. So, while you might be inside the governmental boundaries of a city, your scope (phone) could tell you your current zone is a different city, if that city’s center is closer. So I just keep deploying? Yes, in the early levels of the game, just keep deploying and harvesting your bases. You will earn XP (experience points) proving your loyalty to your Faction.\tYou will level up quickly and soon have access to many more options. So all I can do is just attack? You only get assault bots to start. They are the most basic type of nanobot formation. As you level up you will get many more options, including bots that are good at defense, energy attacks, long-range deployments, formations that will buff the shields for all your faction-mates in the zone, and many more. My faction already controls this zone should I still attack? Yes, assault bots won’t attack your friends. You will increase the bot counts for that zone, which will deter opponents. Attack bots can defend your zone; they just aren’t very good at it. As you level up you will unlock defensive formations that are better for deploying if your faction already holds the zone. I’ll never knock out my enemy at this rate! In the first few levels your impact might feel minimal, but every deployment helps you gain experience. It won’t take long to level up if you keep at it. If you are unlucky enough to be in a zone where someone has already built up huge defenses, you may be in for a long fight. But remember, your scope moves with you. Go explore the world and find softer targets. Once you level up, it won’t seem like a toy gun against a battleship. You’ll get your big weapons once you prove yourself. We have already seen operatives brag about taking down 1,000,000 nanobots in just a couple days. Nothing is impossible. How do I attack a different zone? As you level up you will unlock more and stronger formations. Those new formations will have range. While at the early levels you can only attack nearby zones, as you level up your attacks will go 10-20 miles (roughly 15-30 Km) and you will eventually gain access to nanomissiles that can go hundreds of miles. What should I buy in the depot first? The smallest thing to buy is a refresh. We give you some of these as you level up so you can try them out. Refreshes will refill (or partially fill depending on the size of your tank) your bot bar or your energy bar. But after that, it depends on your goals. There is much to choose from. Do you want to be able to deploy more nanobots on every launch? Do you want to boost your offensive or defensive bots? Do you want to be able to launch missiles into towns far away? All of these things are possible. Look through the depot and see what you like. Most of the time you will need to buy an upgrade before you can buy the ordinance. For example, missiles are fairly inexpensive, but you need to buy the MX Rack Missile Launcher before you can launch them. Buy the upgrade first. What is the difference between qredits and cubes in the depot? A qredit (aka: credit, which looks like the child of a Q and € ) is the type of currency you earn in the game by harvesting your bases. Cubes (aka: power cubes) are purchased with real money in the Bank section of the Depot. We want everyone to be able to do everything in the game for free, by earning qredits, but for those who want to move a bit faster, you can purchase cubes to speed things along. Purchasing cubes is how QONQR makes money. We very much appreciate your support. Every purchase you make helps us to keep making improvements in the game. Future enhancements will enable you to earn cubes in game. Why can’t I create another base? Additional bases become available as you level up. At the start, you will get a new base every 5 levels. If you don’t have any more bases available to build, you will need to level up. If you have a base available, but aren’t allowed to use it, it is because you already have a base in that zone. You can only have one base in a zone. Get yourself to another zone, then create your base there. My bases are collecting credits at different rates. Your bases collect resources faster if your faction controls the zone. Do your best to either put your bases in zones you can control by yourself, or find zones with strong players in the same faction and put your bases there to maximize your credit collection. The game says I’m in a town that doesn’t exist. QONQR tracks almost 3 million battle zones of varying strategic value in 250 countries. Sometimes those zones include locations that haven’t existed for over 100 years. That’s pretty cool if you ask us. If you find a zone that looks like a duplicate or is just plain wrong, however, let us know on the forums under “Zone Corrections”. How do I move my current position on the map? You might need to take a car, bus, plane or train depending on which zone you are trying to get to, but if you want to move on the map, you need to move in the real world. QONQR is a location-based game, which means you play where you are. However we don't want to make you move to play, we want you to plan when you move. QONQR goes with you as you move through the daily activities in your life. Where do I find the Strategy Guide? Here: http://community.qonqr.com/index.php?/topic/1191-the-official-qonqr-strategy-guide/ How do I win? That is for you to decide. There is still much to discover. We don’t even know if QONQR is good or evil. Why is it here? What is its purpose? Help your faction further its goals and unlock all the secrets of QONQR!\nCongratulations to the Swarm on their overwhelming victory in Atlantis in May 2015 -- taking and retaining all Atlantis zones from beginning to end is hard to argue with -- most convincing -- well done Swarm!\nRumor has it that the Duggers have 20 scopes. Some families really do have a wife and ten kids... Ha Anyways.... Multi scoping is generally not encouraged, usually if you mention that you do it on the forums or in groupme your not going to be a very liked person, even within your own faction. What tends to happen is if you start multiscoping then your enemies start doing it, then you get into a war where ever person has 6 phones and nobody is happy. I've seen or heard about situations like this in a lot of different locations.\nGreat job, faceless! It was actually an exciting Atlantis and I prefer it that way. Way to bring your A game.\nYou know what we need in this game? Nano-Nukes!!\nAttention (insert faction here), We, the (insert faction here) are tired of the way you constantly (circle one).. A. Cube rage us B. Bully us with numbers C. Talk mean to us It hurts our feelings because (circle one).. A. We don't cube B. We don't have as many allies C. We have no sense of humor and/or no backbone Please refrain from participating in the above selected actions for above selected reasons so as the game is enjoyable for (insert faction here). Regards, (insert name and faction here) There we go...this should streamline the entire complaint process of the forums. Copy and reuse as needed. You're welcome.\nSilver, you mentioned in a blog that there are levels beyond 150, is it safe to say there is no level limit anymore or is that for us to discover? Another question, I'm not sure if I'm the only one noticing this but it seems like bot decay doesn't work against Zone Assault bots. I've hit two players I know have been inactive for well over 6 months but my attack had the same effect it did yesterday before the update. However I did notice against Deflection bots I am getting 2x the kill power. Also in response to decontaminatoR. Paid gaming isn't just something for adults. When I was 13 the best options for handheld gaming was GameBoy or GameGear and the games at the time cost anywhere between $29-$39 dollars. I had a paper route to pay for my games. So, no offense, but you can afford $0.99 for a game. You don't even need a paper route, just check under your couch cushions and I'm sure you'll find a few quarters.\nI want to start by thanking Faceless. This round of Atlantis, Legion and Faceless were doubled in sized and probably spending by Swarm. I contacted some great players from the other side and put together a nonaggression pact, this pact was one of the most impressive agreements I've seen in the more than two years of playing. Hundreds of people worldwide stuck to this agreement and put past feelings behind us. It was awesome to see both sides stick so closely to each other in fighting against Swarm. I want to really thank everyone who showed honor by standing behind me and the faceless command when we suggested that, the people who really gave it a chance and then most importantly, to all the players who honored it. Faceless, thank you very much! We stood no chance of winning without you! The battle came down to literally one launch in one of three zones. I'd say that with that being said everyone fought incredibly hard, so I want to give Swarm the respect they deserve. You guys really show out and play to win. Good game, 2 against 1 is not easy, no matter how large your crew is. And Legion, we had many late, late nights, many very long days. You guys killed it this month! We didn't take home a trophy, but I would say we all have something to be proud of! The other leaders who helped me coordinate everything were awesome! So many great people kept everything moving forward 24 hours a day for the whole week. Thank you to everyone who gave it your all for the whole week even when we saw that Swarm had 4x our bots at the end of just one day. Many people would have given up, but we held in and **** near won! I've won Atlantis battles with Faceless and with Legion but I will say, nothing was as fun or incredible as this round! You guys are fantastic and I can't wait to do it all again next month! Hopefully we have more Legion and Faceless show up for the next round, but I know that even if we don't, we will figure out a way, just as warriors do. PEW! PEW! PEW!\nI must start with an announcement: Camels are not the only animal in the middle east. You have overused it already. It's saddens me that anyone would still find it funny. Get a bit of originality. For anyone not wanting to read all this drivel, skip to the end (hint: Bold stuff). At what point have I bullied anyone? When was the last aggressive or threatening message you or any of your members received from me? Never. Legion and Swarm (in the UK) have teamed up because Faceless are dominating in London. That makes sense. It's a three sided fight and if one force becomes too powerful, the other two can join forces to try and take them down. But: We are dominating in the London area while your alliance is attacking players outside of that area. Then you expect me to sit back and do nothing. You are specifically using me as an excuse for why you have teamed up but then you're attacking players outside of my reach, sometimes with Europe involved. If that is not reason enough to attack you then I'm not sure what is. You lot cube, multiscope and have multi faction accounts and still complain. I don't complain about anything you do. Play the way you want to, ill do the same. I am never rude to anyone, always polite no matter what the message is, never brag about what I do, can do or have done, never threaten anyone, try and keep in touch with the few swarm or legion who are civilised to me, listen to any message form any side and if I can help in any way, I try my best to. Formed agreements with enemy (that I didn't need to) that ended up slapping me in the face. I have even in the past taken the time to find out who some of the younger players are so I know to avoid them. When I'm in a different country I try and find who the bullies are. Those players who threaten and brag and laugh at others. Those are my targets (if they exist in those areas). I don't see how anyone can think I'm a bully. Is it your money? Its none of your business how I spend it. Either way your numbers are way off. 700 dollars a day? Did you just decide to blindly strike the number pad to come up with that figure? Best part of one of your posts is saying that the devs should worry about my welfare. What concerns you about me spending my money? Maybe I'll self harm due to overspending? I wont have enough to buy food because I bought too many cubes? I don't understand what they are supposed to worry about. I have issues? At what point did you deduce this oh mighty psychologist? Wait a minute are you my bank account manager? What do you know about how much I can or cant afford? Random guy spends money on something he enjoys. The end. Told you last time to give up on all the drama but I guess thank you for the concern. You play to make me spend more? And? What do you think that accomplishes? In fact how do you even make me spend? You don't even attack me. You sulk when I'm in the UK and when I fly out and you find out, you call in Europe to help you take an zone or two. As they say, whatever floats your boat. As for Atlantis: Please try again. I quit Atlantis when we were winning. I have on occasion involved myself after I was asked to help out but on the whole I give it a miss. The last time (months ago) was the last 10 minutes of Atlantis and Legion fought hard. We lost. I was not the only Faceless player to quit Atlantis. Quite a few of us thought it lasted too long and had too many zones to fight over. I hear the duration has been reduced. You can't honestly believe I changed my sleeping pattern for the game. I was in California for a month. I was jet lagged. My sleeping pattern was a bit off when I got back. You're not even accurate about when I deploy. Pay attention. You should know this by now: I play as and when I want, sometimes every 20 minutes and sometimes I do long stretches and sometimes I'm busy and don't deploy for hours. You wont always win, and nor will I. Try and get satisfaction form at least trying to win or putting up a good fight. About the limit on cubing. Please. I suggested that last year. Twice. Unfortunately multiscoping is allowed and so prevalent that it kind of ruins the idea. These are the facts: YOU and YOUR side threatened Faceless members who support London. One of the members threatened is actually London based. What do you expect him to do while his city is under attacked? A few of your members don't know when to keep quiet. They sent messages to us threatening specific players and telling them their zones will be dropped just because they have helped London. Basically if they help London then they get their zones wiped. And you have the cheek to call me a bully? We stood up to your members specifically because they were trying to bully. That is the reason we went strong months ago and took those big zones. How is this me bullying you? This is me answering your threats. I didn't attack those zones \"just because i can\", it's just because I should. Because of your threats. You can blame your members for the loss of those 2 or 3 big zones. These are the basics: You attack one of our zones. We look at the list of attackers and pick one of the players who deployed the most, find a zone of his or hers and attack it. We don't need to justify our attacks with \"because there are Faceless players within 30 miles\". What, every time we attack a zone we need to send some letter explaining why? You attack us or we attack you, for any reason. That's the game. When some of you were cheating and you could not win you complained, when you cube and lose you complain, when you invite all of Europe to attack and win you still complain. I just think you like to make a fuss. Last words (for now): You think I attack zones as a means of getting attention? I get enough of it form your threads. The only attention seeker here is you with your victim attitude and pity us posts.\nI've had some very angry emails today from a couple users who are upset their rival achieved the ability to switch factions freely having played for one of the factions for only 1 hour. I've been accused of doing favors, changing the rules, and various other backhanded deals. It appears it comes down reading the rules. You do not have to play for every faction for 60 days in order to earn free switching status. Here is a common scenario many players have used to achieve free switching status and avoiding playing for one faction they despise. 1. Start with Swarm 2. Switch to Legion (earn Spy) play for 60 days 3. Switch back to Swarm (earn Double Agent) play for 60 days 4. Switch to Faceless (earn Mercenary) immediately switch back to Swarm or Legion Below is the complete text on the switch nanobots screen. It is the same text that has been there from Day 1 with the exception of the level 100 rules that went into place earlier this year, where you could switch as much as you want before level 100 , but those switches don't count towards the medals. This text has been part of this description since Jan 15, 2013. \"Players that earn all three spy awards, may once again switch factions at any time as they could during the training levels 1 through 99.\" Prior to Jan 15, the text said this. \"Players that earn all three awards may be given the opportunity to switch factions more quickly in future updates (contact support for more information)\" I pulled that right out of source control, which includes the entire change history. Here is the complete text from this page. http://portal.qonqr....r/SwitchFaction WARNING: Defection has consequences! Self-destruct will be initiated on all your nanobots. Without the self-destruct, you would be required to battle against your former self to regain control of your zones. You will lose the capture and leadership of any zones you currently hold. Lifetime captures will be unaffected. If you are still completing the training levels and have not reached Level 100, you may switch as often as you like to find the faction that suits you best. Once you have reached Level 100 switching factions has rewards, but also has additional consequences beyond the self-destruct of all your nanobots. Defection will usually result in a demotion in rank. This is accomplished through awards with negative rank points. Those awards are: Spy - First switch to an opposing faction (-20 points) Double Agent - Return to a faction from which you had previously defected (-20 points) Mercenary - Become a member of all three factions (-20 points) Other Faction Change Details: You may not switch factions again until at least 60 days have passed since your last faction switch. Defection point penalties are applied only once per award Players that earn all three spy awards, may once again switch factions at any time as they could during the training levels 1 through 99. The decision to switch factions is one that must be made with strong determination. Nanobots cannot be reanimated once destroyed. You will retain your earned experience, level, formations, qredits, cubes, and upgrades. However, as far as your zones go, you will be starting over.\n...has got to be one of the funniest moments I've seen in qonqr yet lol.\nThe **** change operation was a success!\nAs a relatively new player for faceless in a region dominated by swarm i can understand the OP. However, judging from the numbers i see here on a regular basis i think you are asking a bit much. My idea would be the opposite approach. Why not add a weapon with extremely short range, let's say like 5km that acts like a bomb and make it much stronk? That would add some serious home advantage. Or alternativley make attack formations lose power over range (exclude nanos and plasma). Maybe something like that would allow newcomers to at least get a foothold in their homezones. It's just an idea, maybe i overlooked something?\nThis is by design. Some day it is possible (I said someday) we could offer skins for your scope. So we will need a uniform color scheme. You can tell the formation families based on the shape of the box. Trapezoid is attack, diamond is defense, and octagon is support. It will take some time to get comfortable with the change.\nGeophysical based game. Anyways, probably not a bad idea but, considering the issues with the three platforms and the development of blue for those platforms, I doubt the resources are available for development on a new platform. Seen the blog? Its Qonqr meets wheel of fortune!\nI am happy to announce that today I both completed the training and captured my first zone.\n^THIS so now that qonqr has been thoroughly funded, can we have blue now? Or is that not happening still lol.\nAtleast I am not legion and there for we can have this intelligent discussion rather than just compete over who has the best words XD ohhhhh someone bring the bill to legion cuz someone just served them extra double order of stir fried SNAPPPPPP If the devs wont make zone dueling for us I hope out there somewhere are those who would empty a zone and challenge one on one to a local battle. I'd like to see the transcript of deployments made / moves made as well that would be neat I think such events would be cool. I suppose if people give up on atlantis as it works now they can schedule their own tournements in empty atlantis zones.. have a team clear the zone.. put 1 vs 1 or teams vs teams.. like fisticuffs challenges.. find out what these warriors are really made of!\n@Qonqrd everyone you know must face palm every time you make a post. Its embarrassing. Mega cubers or whatever you want to call them are not great for the opposing team surrounding them but are great for the game itself (money) and for the team they are part of. Multiscopers are not not great for the opposing team surrounding them and bring nothing to the game but are great for the team they are part of. Both have a negative impact on enemy teams/players but only one benefits the game itself. Both can make people want to quit out of frustration. And that's not great for the game. @OP unlimited refresh is over powered. Its frustrating to fight against a ridiculous amount of refreshes. Unfortunately i dont see anything changing unless this game gets a lot more people playing. More people might mean more money for the company from various sources. More money from various players might mean they can limit the players who spend a ton and still generate a healthy income. The main issue i see with limiting refreshes is someone multiscoping and spending money. He now has two, three, four accounts to refresh with and gets the advantage. Its tricky.\ney dun new ho to yet it uff.\nYet you complain almost everyday here, on your website, Twitter, and YouTube channel that the game needs to change because cubing has such an impact.\nIt was fun. Swarm had me scared at first, but it turned into kind of a bullying match between us and legion. Last hour became p obvious which way it was gonna go. Legion rly stepped up their game in the end there, respect.\nWe are investigating this. Here is what we know: Several of the accounts used the same password. Most of the accounts belonged to people who knew each other personally. The accounts were all switched from the same IP Addresses. The person who logged in, got into each account on the first attempt, so they knew the password for each account. What you should know: QONQR never stores passwords, not even in the logs. Passwords are hashed (one way encrypted) and can never be decrypted When you authenticate to our servers, we hash the password you gave us and compare it to the encrypted password in the database to see if they match. Access to our database in the could is restricted tightly and we are confident no one breached the system. What you should do: Don't use the same password as other people you play with. Don't share your password with anyone.\nI heard all the French players fled to the UK after one German player accidentally shot a single missile into France.\nMost factions now use GroupMe or Line as their means of communication, the forums are too slow as a means of communication and insecure for specific faction conversations. Think of the forums are more of a gaming information resource rather than a means of communication. Contact the top players of your faction in the leader boards of your state and they will likely point you in the right direction to chatting with your local faction. The developers are also building some sort of new chat system into the game, we don't know much about it but apparently beta testing for the chat will be happening very soon (next couple of weeks) according to their timelines.\nA way to honor the dead? Nah, how bout a way to dishonor the dead.\nCould just build it up and retain their capture. Remember Bizzy, staq to the heavens.\nI just read this entire thread. I am now tuckered.\nDoes anyone know if Bot Booster has an effect on Seekers and how much dmg they do to attacking players? Also on the topic of seekers, does the amount of skeers in a battlefield have any effect on how much damage they do?\nInteractive map of real-time zone captures.\nYou know that is something I didn't factor in there. Time. The player who can consistently and constantly launch wins against the guy who casually picks up the phone on occasion or has to work away from a cell phone for 8 hours. Good point. And yes I can't argue skill doesn't factor in, it just seems like less of a factor than other games is all.\nI cant see why a closed forum, open only to registered Qonqr accounts, cant be used. **** spammers!\nGotta love synclock! I suspect linjin has a problem. Maybe the dvs should look into it.\nNo, Naamah...I clearly understood what you were trying to convey. I'll even go as far as to agree that what your facing now is, while fully allowed and deemed completely acceptable by the developers, unbalanced and wrong. However..the imbalance isn't in the game and isn't something that, from a business standpoint, is likely to be regulated. The game is fair..the advantages are provided to all players. It's the players themselves that throw the balance into chaos because, as you've said, not everyone can afford spending several thousand bucks a year in only one game. Truthfully, in my opinion, the moment you admitted to buying cubes yourself your complaint became silly..because I'm sure there's a player out there, who has bought NO cubes, who can make this same complaint about you that you are making about others here. I know these things because I've read them so...many...times in this forum. There was likely a time, ages ago when I was a young Massune, that I even posted a few myself. That was the purpose of my post..I was poking fun at addition of yet another cuber/bully/trash talk complaint on the forum. It wasn't directed at your personal plight so much as the idea that someone, yet again, finds it necessary to lobby for a spending cap on the only real way for this game to make money. As to your specific problem..you, like all those that have raised this topic before you, have few options to rectify the issue. Here are a few that seem to have worked for others..fight harder, recruit better, spend less time complaining and more time organizing, budget for more cubes or quit. I'd rather not see you opt for the latter..but to each their own.\nI agree, we should find a way to honor the dead, but I don't think keeping their towers infinitely is necessarily the solution. The game must go on. I'm pretty sure the point of bot decay was to clear the game of inactive player bots so that new players can have a chance to rise up, not to dishonor the bots of dead players.\nThe following are frequently asked questions about the new server update (so far) It still says Training Complete on my iPhone. -\tDownload the update from iTunes It still says Training Complete on my Android. -\tSorry, Android will not be updated again until the QONQR Blue beta is released My XP per launch keeps going down -\tThis is XP throttling and is intended to limit the ability for people to leve1 from 1 to 100 in a single day through heavy cubing. The XP throttle was introduced with the original version of QONQR in 2012,and the throttle formula is the same for levels above 100. The throttle resets at midnight UTC every day. How do I buy the Bot Regeneration Accelerator? -\tCurrently the Bot Regen Accelerator can only be purchased through http://portal.qonqr.com. Go to the Depot and review your scope upgrades. The new QONQR Blue clients will allow for this purchase to be made in the app using your mobile billing. I don’t have a PayPal account -\tFor users interested in purchasing the Regen upgrade, but who do not have a PayPal account, PayPal does give you the option to checkout using your billing information without creating an account. PayPal is not allowed in my country, or I don’t have a credit or debit card -\tPlease contact support@QONQR.com for alternate options Is Bot Regen Accelerator counted as part of the 100% scope upgrades? -\tYes, but there is a bug that does not increase scope upgrade percent when you purchase this upgrade, that will be fixed in the coming days. For all other questions, please read the 7 blog posts prior to 7/29/2015 for information on what was included in the update today.\nBye Fack, its been a pleasure being allied and against you.\nThe two big issues that are both killing the game slowly and keeping it from growing exponentially are cube injustice and new player ramp. The game obviously also needs to provide a consistent and growing revenue stream as well. I think Silver needs to rethink how revenue is generated if he is going to address cube injustice and new player ramp. For revenue generation I would suggest a model that doesn't give a significant combat advantages. Download and play for free from level 0-99 Pay small monthly fee to get full functionality or play for free at 50% of offensive/defensive funtionality Still buy cubes, but cubes are used for following: - Credit Boost: harvest more credits for a period of time - Range Extension: ability to use standard attack/defense formations at extended ranges - Base Share: get 100% credit attainment even in bases owned by another faction - Purchase additional ordinance - Zone Name Change - ability to customize zone names. \"Breggland\" - Faction Change with Bots - pay for the ability to keep up to 50% of your bots with faction change - Experience Boost: %increase in experienced gained while leveling - Other: anything that helps grow a player or provides enjoyment, but doesn't tip the battle capability of a scope. New Player Ramp/Integration into Game - Offer paid immediate ramp package: one price to become 100 with full upgrades - Like the changes in Blue - Create new zones in Metro areas that only 0-99 level can launch into, with statewide ranges Understand that catering to those who have money and like to use it for an advantage is a good business model and for those people it might be ok to offer very expensive options: - Shield generators: temporary energy shield that adds X% increase to defense or stops X% of damage - EMP's: turns Absorbs off for X minutes. Does not destroy, just turns off - Chain Lighting: Does damage across multiple players in a zone From a development standpoint I have no idea what is possible, easy or hard, but the general idea is to make the playing field more fair for the standard player while maintaining and growing a business revenue stream.\nYou need to come to the Northeast US. We handle our business like no other.", "answers": ["Keep deploying and harvesting your bases to earn experience points and level up quickly."], "length": 6594, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "3c8e9fef2eae8f49aae38b7314a3425b99c3ca8b051e8293"}
{"input": "What is the purpose of the baseline in the layout procedure?", "context": "Probably one of the most frustrating things about building experimental aircraft, especially when starting with a minimum of pre-fabricated parts, is to start building and ending up with an unexpected result. Every builder starts a new project by wanting it to go \"perfectly.\" So when things aren't going well, especially at the beginning, the frustration can lead to an unfinished airplane.\nThis is the first article in a series dedicated to helping builders of the Rand Robinson KR series planes build a straight and true fuselage -- the first part of the construction process. Borrowing from modern boatbuliding techniques, focus will be on the KR-2S, but the principles apply to the entire lineup of KR-1 & KR-2 series planes.\nWhile building the KR-2(s) a common surprise is encountered by builders when the completed fuselage sides are laid into position to form the fuselage box section. With many hours spent building the sides flat, finding the once straight longerons that now bow up from the building surface, form a most dissatisfying \"banana\" shape. Especially when using the preformed fiberglass parts, this curve in the top longeron is not acceptable. The builder is left wondering what went wrong and no amount of clamping or brute force forming will solve the problem to any degree of satisfaction. The problem is not the builder's fault. The solution starts by understanding the three dimensional relationship of the assembled parts being built.\nFirst understand that the plans show the finished form of the plane. They show the \"projected\" form as you would expect to see it if viewing an actual plane from the top, ends and from the side. Since the sides are sloped (flared) outward, looking from the side, the distances given by measuring the profile drawing are \"foreshortened\" and don't give the proper shape for building the fuselage with a flat top longeron. What needs to be done is to \"develop\" the \"true\" distances and shape of the flat panel so that when it is curved into position, the longerons lay flat.\nSecond, understand that the dimensions called for in the plans put a twist in the sides that tends to work the panel in two directions of curvature. This twist makes the panel \"undevelopable\" meaning that that shape cannot be unrolled into an equivalent flat shape. This is important when laying out the side and bottom panels onto flat plywood. To illustrate this, try forming a piece of paper around a soda can. The paper can be formed flat around the can either straight or at a diagonal to it's length. It has only one direction of curvature and is by definition \"developable\". Now try to form the same piece of paper around a baseball. It won't lie flat on the surface without some deformation (folding, wrinkling or tearing) of the paper. The ball has curvature in more that one direction and is a \"compounded\" shape. Paper (or plywood) can only be readily formed in developable shapes as opposed to aluminum or other metal which can accept in plane deformation. A developable surface is needed to lay out a curved surface when the materials used can't be deformed with any degree of in-plane strain.\nInitially, the fuselage sides are laid out flat with reference to the top longeron measured to a straight chalk line. The bowing problem starts when the side panels are bent and sloped to form the fuselage box section. If the sides were not sloped (tumbled home), the section formed would be cylindrical and the longerons would lie flat. Since the sides are tumbled home, the section formed is now conical. When a conical shape is cut with a plane (building surface) not perpendicular to it's axis, the shape formed is elliptical -- exactly what happens with the top longeron. When it's built flat, bent to form a cylindrical section, and sloped to form a conical section, it takes on an elliptical shape firewall to tailstock.\nThis method borrows heavily from proven techniques used in the marine trades. It should be stressed at this point that although the layout procedure is not complicated, it is important to take your time. If the layout is not going well initially, start over! Better to erase layout errors now than to have them built it and cause surprises later.\nLayout to ensure a fair and true fuselage starts by drawing a reference line (baseline) on the building surface. Refer to figures 2 & 3 and use a wire guide to draw a very straight baseline. About 500 lbs. Of tension should be adequate. One could use a chalk line, but we're talking airplanes here, not house framing.\nThe main layout difference is that the baseline isn't used as a reference for the top longeron. The baseline references the mid point of the firewall for the developed (and true dimensioned) side panel. Although the baseline will still be the reference, the top and bottom longerons will be laid separately.\nLayout differences don't end there. Each of the stations (vertical members) will be laid out with a calculated separation so that when the panels are formed into position, they land on the spacing called for in the plans. Another major difference is that the bottom & side panels are applied after forming the fuselage box section. This is mainly to obtain the ability to \"fair\" the side and bottom surfaces and insure a straight and true shape.\nRefer to figure 1 for the layout of the new developed side panel. The firewall (station a) is layed out perpendicular to the baseline. Longitudinal (station) measurements are given along the length of the baseline from the firewall. Vertical dimensions are given to reference the angle and breadths of the station at the baseline.\nNotice that the top longeron is bowed outward and that the stations are spaced slightly greater than called out in the plans. When the panels are formed into the box frame section ,they will work into the dimensions specified in the plans.\nStrike a centerline, longer than is needed on the building surface using a wire guide. Draw off the firewall line perpendicular to the centerline at one end.\nUsing the distances listed in the balloons, mark them off on the centerline. Distances are measured to the nearest sixteenth of an inch. Take time to mark them off carefully. Don't mark off the distances in a cumulative fashion. Use the firewall as a common reference.\nUsing the angles listed at each station, mark off a station line longer than is needed. The angles are measured to the nearest hundredth of a degree. Take time to mark them off carefully.\nAt each station, start by marking off each short (bottom longeron) line distance from the centerline. Use your set of trammels or beam compass for doing this. Mark the intersection of the short line with the station line.\nAt each station, mark off each long (top longeron) line distance from the intersection of the short line distance and the station line. Again the trammels or beam compass is best for completing this step. Mark the intersection of the long line distance with the station line.\nUsing the longeron as a batten, trace out the inside and outside curves of the longeron. After the batten is secure, in between each station, fasten a keeper block inside and outside to preserve the shape of the longeron taking care to avoid potential future interference with the diagonal members to be installed later. The fairing blocks can be removed or left in place if they won't interfere with building. The vertical station members and their diagonals can now be measured and positioned. Remember to refer to the plans for the material thickness direction.\nAfter vertical and diagonal members are cut and fitted, take time to draw their outlines on the building surface to cut down on time and confusion when laying out the opposite side.\nFinishing the side panel is accomplished in a manner similar to that called for in the handbook with the exception that the side and bottom skin panels will be attached later.\nThe next article in the series will discuss jigging and building techniques to ensure alignment and straightness of the flat built side panels. Also covered will be building a \"strongback\" jig to assure alignment of the side panels when they are formed into their final shape.\nPart 3 in the series will cover assembly of the side panels using the jigs. Some joint details will be discussed that will ensure a stronger and more fair fuselage assembly. Also covered will be the layout & attachment of the side and bottom ply skins.\nU.S. Mail: Densmore Associates, inc.\nANSI \"D\" size, computer generated plots of all the layout drawings in this series are available from the author for $30 plus postage & handling. Full (true size) scale plots may be made available depending on demand.\n\"Scarfing\" is the practice of splicing plywood so that short pieces of plywood can be used to span long distances. On the KR, it is required on both the fuselage skins and spar webs. The angle of the splice should be 10 to 12 degrees to maintain strength across the joint. Also, joints should coincide with structural members, such as spar webs or fuselage truss members.\nThis scarfer is made by mating a regular plunge router (this one costs about $50) to a table saw. Obviously, you really only need a table saw to cut the chamfer, but it does make a nice heavy table for scarfing. You could just as easily use a large work table as the base.First, set the table saw for a 5.5 degree cut (for a 1:12 joint, or 6.5 degree cut for a 10:1 joint), and run a 1 x 6 through on edge to chamfer a corner on the board. Then drill the board for three router mounting holes (two are countersunk) and connect the assembly to the table saw with two 1/4 inch bolts. Use a long (2-3 inch) straight cutting bit to do the cutting. Adjust the bit so it doesn't interfere with your table top, and go to town. Keep pressure on the plywood to ensure contact with the table while you're scarfing. Make sure you feed your material from the same end as you would if you were sawing, or the router will take your plywood away from you and put a big dent in your garage door.\nIn the late 60's Ken Rand and Stuart Robinson were working as flight system engineers for Douglas Avionics. Ken was working as an electrical engineer, having previously worked for Sperry as an autopilots project engineer, while Stu's degree was in aeronautical engineering from Northrop University. They were two of the guys at the end of the DC-8,9, and 10 assembly lines responsible for correcting some of the nits and picks in various systems before delivery to the customer.\nThey both wanted to build a fast, inexpensive airplane which was also economical to maintain. Several designs were considered, and plans were bought first for the Jeanie's Teenie and then the Taylor Monoplane. The Monoplane was more to their liking, but would require some modification to fit their needs. A cooperative redesign effort ensued, with virtually no dimensions left untouched. Only the basic fuselage structure, airfoil, and powerplant were retained. The tail shape was Stu's, and came directly from the big DC-8s parked on the ramp outside his office window. The landing gear was designed by Ken, after seeing the gear on a Dewey Bird at Santa Paula airport.\nKen was killed in his KR2 a short time later while flying over Cajon Pass in what was apparently a bad weather / low fuel accident. Ken's wife Jeanette became owner of RR overnight, and stepped up to keep the plans and parts coming. Much of the engineering needs are handled by Bill Marcy of Denver, who's been helping out since early '79.\nTo date, almost 6000 KR1, 9200 KR2, and 760 KR2S plan sets have been sold. 1200 KR2s are estimated to be flying, with 5 KR2Ss now in the air. Much of the development work done on KR's is now done by the builders themselves. KR builders tend to be innovative, which leads to some interesting modifications. Some of the mods that work eventually creep into the plans. The KR2S is a case in point. Many builders who'd heard of the pitch sensitivity and tight cabin of the KR2 began to build an enlarged version, with the length determined by the most commonly available longeron material. The result is a KR2 that is stretched 2\" between firewall and main spar, and 14\" behind the main spar. Higher gross weights dictated more wing area, with the new standard becoming the Diehl wing skin. Those who plan to carry passengers commonly stretch the cabin width a few inches, although 1.5 inches is the limit if you still want to use RR's premolded parts.\nMike Stearns addresses the KR Forum crowd.\nThis year's KR Forum featured guest speakers Mike Stearns, Steve Trentman, and Bill Marcey. Mike Stearns spoke on several topics, including the many sources for KR and homebuilding information available on the Internet. He also mentioned KRNet, the list server devoted entirely to KR aircraft, as well as several notable World Wide Web home pages. He also brought a sample of the new Rand Robinson wing skins with him, and discussed their high temperature core prepreg construction. His KR2S will receive the first set, which is currently being installed at Hinson Composites.\nSteve Trentman spoke on his turbine installation. It uses a turbine engine which saw duty as an A7 attack jet starter engine. Total weight is about 85 pounds, while putting out around 90 horsepower. There is a small stockpile of these engines available from government surplus. sources. This engine can only be throttled back to 52% power, which leads to some pretty interesting landings. One inflight failure has been logged so far, with very little damage to the aircraft. More on this exciting development in next month's issue of KROnline.\nLes Palmer's KR2 N202LP won Best KR2, Best Engine Installation, and People's Choice awards at the 1995 KR Gathering at Columbia, TN. After researching the KR series, and reading Neil Bingham's \"A Critical Analysis of the KR2\" (Jan 88 Sport Aviation), Les decided to build his as a single seater, stretched 24\" in the tail, while maintaining a stock width firewall. His fuselage is made from Douglas fir, which weighs in at 4 lbs heavier than if constructed from spruce. It is skinned with 1/8\" birch plywood. Spars are covered with plywoood on both fore and aft sides, ala KR2S. Diehl wing skins provide the lift. Horizontal stabilizer and elevator were stretched 7\" longer on each side, while the vertical stabilizer and rudder were stretched 8\" taller. . The fuselage to cowling junction was made more graceful by adding 1.5 inches to the height of the firewall end of the fuselage sides.\nLes's canopy is a Dragonfly, using a four linkage system to swing forward when opening. The canopy frame fits snugly into a recess in the foward deck, providing an excellent wind and water seal. The fiberglass work is exemplary.\nSeating is luxurious for one.\nThe cowling is also a work of art, and uses NACA ducts for efficiency. Female molds were made for all the fiberglass parts on Les's plane, so he could proabably be persuaded to make more, if demand dictates. Les also machines a multitude of KR aluminum and steel parts which he now offers for sale.\nThe firewall was reinforced with aluminum brackets and angles bolted between the longerons in anticipation of the 200 lb Subaru EA-81 engine installation. His 100 HP Asian version is outfitted with an American Holley 5200 caburetor and manifold. It uses a PSRU of Les's own design, featuring two spur gears with a 1.69:1 reduction ratio and a toothed belt. Other than tapping the crank for larger bolts to mount the redrive, no other engine modifications were required. Also, this is probably the only air conditioned KR2 on the planet. The prop is a 60/63 Hegy.\nOriginally built as a taildragger, the fixed gear is made from 4130 steel tubing. Custom cast 6.00x6 aluminum wheels and steel rotors are mated with 6\" Cleveland calipers for braking. An early taxi test accident damaged the main gear, and prompted Les to change to tricycle gear. Again, he designed his own fiberglass main gear, and uses a Diehl nose wheel fork with a 4130 strut and 6\" wheel up front.\nEarly tests revealed cooling problems, which prompted a radiator move from the firewall to a lower cowling location.\nThe first flight was almost a disaster, as test pilot Randy Smith lost power right after takeoff. He managed a 180 with a safe downwind landing with only minor nosewheel pant damage. The culprit proved to be a spark plug with too much reach, which was quickly remedied. Subsequent flights have shown water temp to be about 210 degrees, oil temp is 220-230, and airspeed is about 180 mph.\nShopping for the Partially Built KR.\nThis story starts about twenty years ago when I first started looking at the KR-2 as the plane I'd like to build. The only problem at that time was a lack of money, lack of knowledge, and a lack of job stability. I liked the design, except for the low ground clearance of the retractable gear and that a KR was going to be a tight fit for me to fly.\nOver the past twenty years I've owned a number of planes, but still always wanted to build my own. I needed one that would fit me, my budget requirements, and have the speed and performance that I wanted. When \"KITPLANES\" published the article featuring Roy Marsh's new KR-2S, it was the first I had heard of any major modifications or improvements to the same old KR design. I believe that article and Roy Marsh's workmanship have probably been the greatest boon to Rand Robinson (RR) in the last twenty years. It certainly caught my eye! Here was the same design I had decided I wanted to build twenty years ago, with all of the improvements I wanted. It was sitting on fixed gear with some reasonable ground clearance. It had the capability to be built large enough to accommodate me. It has enough prefab parts available that it didn't have to be 100% scratch built if I decided to hurry the project along. And it had the speed I wanted. I knew that Roy's published speeds were probably not realistic expectations for the average KR, but after knocking around for the last three years in my Champ, anything over 90 mph seems pretty fast to me.\nAfter purchasing the info kit and the sales video from Rand Robinson, the next step after deciding for sure to build this plane was to order the KR-2 plans and the KR-2S addendum. I finally got my plans and was putting together my first order to start the plane, when my partner in the Champ pointed out that there was a partially completed KR-2S for sale in Trade-a-plane. My initial answer was \"No, I don't even want to look at it. I want to build my own from scratch.\" My partner insisted that for the advertised price and the fact that it wasn't too far away, I ought to at least give the guy a call and investigate it. \"No, I don't think I want to buy someone else's problems,\" I persisted. That night I went home and crunched up some numbers on the calculator and finally came to the conclusion that for the sake of my budget for the next several years, I really should give this guy a call.\nThree days later, I flew to his place about 400 miles away to take a look at his project. At this point I should probably mention that I consider myself to be fairly knowledgeable about airplane construction, although the vast majority of my experience is with tube and fabric. The rest of this article deals with what I looked for and more importantly what I missed and have had to repair in the last year since I purchased the project.\nWhen we went to the seller's house, I found that the left wing was built using the Dan Diehl wing skins and the right wing skins were leaning against the wall inside the house. Also the canopy was in the house with the canopy covered with paper and tape. I wanted to inspect the fuselage first, so off we went to the shop.\nThere I found a fuselage sitting on it's gear painted in primer gray. The first step was to inspect the quality of workmanship of what could be seen as it sat. The interior of the fuselage looked as if it had been built with a great deal of care. The fit and finish of all of the interior wood was very nice. Even the gussets looked like they had been painstakingly perfectly fitted. The glass work on the turtle back also looked very precise and clean. It was evenly faired into the vertical and horizontal stabs. The tail also appeared to be well built with the exception of a depression directly over the front and rear spars in the horizontal stabs. He explained that when he moved recently, that he had shot the plane with gray primer to protect it from the weather since he wouldn't have ready access to a shop to put it in right away. It ended up sitting out in the hot south Texas summer sun for a few weeks before he got a shop rented to work in. That caused the glass (or possibly the foam inside the horizontal stab) to swell, except that it held onto the spar, so it was slightly ballooned in front of and behind the spars. His recommendation was to fill it back smooth with micro.\nI also found a small linear crack in the lower left wing spar cap on the left wing stub. It appeared to be from over tightening the rear spar wing attach fitting bolts. His explanation was that the crack wasn't important because the rear spars only job is to keep the wings from folding back. I also noticed that the holes for attaching the outer wing to the wing stub were badly rounded out on the rear spar. He explained that the Diehl wing skins require the rear spar to be swept slightly more forward than the stock wings. This won't allow you to use the rear spar attach fittings from RR and that I would need to fabricate a new set of rear spar attach fittings.\nI also found that the aileron bellcranks were not built or installed as per plans, but found that they looked professional. I couldn't check for function since the right bellcrank and sheeve wasn't installed, the left wing also wasn't installed, and the right wing didn't exist yet.\nNext we pulled the inspection panels off of the fuselage and tail and looked at everything I could see with a good flashlight. I didn't find anything else that might be questionable about the fuselage except for a cracked elevator trim tab that was damaged when it fell off it's hanging place on the wall.\nNext we spent some time going over his builders log and builders photo album. I still hadn't seen anything that would dissuade me from buying this project.\nAt this point it was starting to get late and my ride down needed to get airborne for the flight home. I needed to make a decision about whether I wanted this project or not, but I hadn't inspected the wings and canopy yet. I took a cursory look at the left wing and saw lots on micro built up on it and some bubbles in the leading edge, but nothing that looked seriously wrong to my amateur eye. The right wing was only a set of spars in the shop and the Diehl wing skins in the house, so there wasn't much to look at there. The canopy was wrapped in paper and tape, so there wasn't much to look at there either. I decided that even if there were serious problems in the wing that was built, I would be money ahead to go ahead and buy the project. For the advertised price, I could build a new set of wings and still be way ahead financially. We negotiated a final price, shook hands, took my ride to the airport, and started off in search of a U-haul to haul the project home.\nNow, at this point, some of you are thinking about what I surely must have forgotten to inspect and why didn't I take a local A & P or EAA member along for the ride. First of all, I don't know any mechanics locally that have any experience with glass and our EAA chapter of which I am VP is woefully lacking in fiberglass knowledge. Secondly, as you will see, I missed plenty. Some by ignorance, some by just not looking close enough.\nNow for a list of the problems that I found over the last year and a few of the fixes that I came up with.\nI found that the lower set of rear spar attach fittings on the left rear spar were installed backwards with the longer spaced hole towards the fuselage. Since this is the same place that also had the cracked spar cap, it required a major change. Also in the same area he had drilled through the rear spar with a hole saw to create a place for the aileron cable to pass through and managed to cut out the second from the outside vertical brace in the spar. Then he chose to install the aileron bellcranks in front of the rear spar, and cut another hole through the rear spar for the aileron push rod. He also managed to cut out the outside vertical brace in the spar. Since the holes were already drilled through the spar, the choices were to either cut out that section of spar cap and scarf a new piece in, cut the whole rear spar carrythrough out of the fuselage including ruining the left lower wing skin, or do something else creative to reinforce the spar cap and install a custom built set of attach fittings.\nI also found that after I built and installed the right side wing stub ribs and skin that the aileron bellcrank setup would not work as installed. The cable that crosses between the two bellcranks had a sharp uphill from the sheeve to the bellcrank in the last 12 inches on either side. This combined with the radius that the bellcranks turn caused the cross cable to pull up tight when the ailerons were pushed to either end of their travel, but allowed the cables to go very slack when the ailerons were centered. Also the Aileron pushrods needed to pass directly through the lower set of rear wing attach fittings to attach to the aileron. This whole rear spar and aileron bellcrank setup was going to either have to be redesigned or cut out and built to plans. The bottom line is that the problems I observed when I inspected this part were much more serious than expected when I had to fix it.\nI decided that I had to remove the rear fittings from the left wing to be replaced with the new set that my neighborhood machinist was cutting out for me. When I put the wing on the work bench to start removing the rear fittings, I thought I had better take a closer look at the bubbles in the leading edge. I found that as I pushed on the leading edge, it delaminated between the glass lay-up on top and the upper and lower wing skin edges that were floxed together underneath. I concluded that that area had to come apart and took a belt sander to the leading edge. What I found was that the leading edge had been floxed together and glassed over, but the mold release had never been scrubbed off the leading edge of the wing. It peeled apart for rebuild quite easily.\nWhen I got back to removing the rear spar attach fittings, I noticed that the woodwork inside the wing looked awfully dull. The reason was that the wing had been closed up without varnishing any of the woodwork. This was rectified with a small hole saw, a number of extensions and a modified undercoating sprayer.\nI also found that the aluminum drain fitting in the bottom of the left wing tank had been glassed into place upside down. The tapered pipe threads were tapered the wrong way to install the draincock into the tank. Retapping the fitting the right direction seemed to be a good fix for that problem.\nWhen I finally got around to attaching the wing to the fuselage, I found that the front spar attach fittings were badly misaligned. Although they could be forced into alignment, I didn't think I needed that kind of preload on the main spar fittings. This problem was fixed by calling on my local neighborhood machinist to build me an aligning fixture and reaming the attach holes to the next larger size and ordering the new sized bolts.\nOn the fuselage I found that although it had new Cleveland wheels and brakes on it, one of the brakes had a severe wobble to it. I must complement the manufacturers for taking care of that problem. One call to the Cleveland factory and they shipped me a new set of wheels and brakes even though the receipt for this set was over four years old and in the original builders name. Their only concern was that this set had never been placed in service yet.\nI chose to sand the load of micro off the left wing to see what it was covering. When I got down to the glass, I found that there was no glass for the aft inch and a half of the underside of the wing in front of the aileron hinge. With the Diehl wing skins, you build the wings, then cut the ailerons out of trailing edge of the wing. He had mismeasured and cut too much material off the bottom side of the trailing edge in front of the aileron. It was filled by floxing a piece of spruce into the gap to fill the space between the back edge of the fiberglass and the aileron mount. I chose to wrap the trailing edge of that wing, and the other wing to match with a couple of lay-ups of glass.\nWhen I sanded the primer off the aforementioned damaged trim tab, I found that the hinge was floxed to the leading edge of the foam insides of the tab, but not the glass. I also chose to wrap the front of the trim tab with a lay-up of glass.\nI decided to pull the paper off the canopy and take a look at it before I'm ready to bolt it on and fly. The original builder had blown his own canopy and after some of the previous problems, I was beginning to have some concerns about not having looked it over closely enough. The canopy turned out to have been blow a little too large. It ended up with a little larger bubble for headroom, which I didn't object to. However, it had more headroom on the right side than the left. Yes, it was just a little bit lopsided. The main problem was that the canopy is stretched thin enough that it can be easily pushed in with one hand when the weather is warm.. My fear was that this is just thin enough that it may decide to lay on my head or in my lap when flying on a warm day. It will have to be replaced.\nI'm sure that many that are reading this could see several of the potential problems before I mentioned them, but some others may not have and I'm sure that there could have been many other problems that didn't but could have existed on this project. This is also not intended to be critical of the gentleman that started this project as many parts of it, especially the wood work are better than I could have done and much of his work is outstanding. I prefer to think that I'll end up with a better plane with his woodwork combined with my glasswork. This article is intended to feature some of the problems that you may run into in buying someone else's project.\nThe final question is, knowing what I have found over the past year, would I have still purchased this project. The answer is yes, but primarily because the price was right in that I am still money and work ahead of where I would be if I had started the project from scratch. There are a few things that I would have done differently, but nothing that I can't live with. Although I won't be able to say that I built it all from scratch, I have built and rebuild enough of the plane that I should have no problem qualifying under the 51% rule.\nYou can send comments directly to the author via e-mail at \"jscott@LANL.GOV\".\nHere is an brief explanation of how I built my turtledecks. The jig was constructed from scrap plywood and a few 1x4s that I ripped into stringers. I made two temporary bulkheads from the plywood, one for each end. Remember the forward bulkhead needs to be shaped in a way that will closely match the aft end of your canopy frame. Make an aft bulkhead by placing a straight edge at the top of your forward bulkhead and the trailing edge of your horizontal stabilizer. This will give you an idea of how tall your aft bulkhead needs to be. As far as location, I placed my aft bulkhead just forward of the lower/front of my vertical fin. I constructed the jig on the fuselage, it is glued together with automotive bondo.\nAfter the bulkheads were bondoed to the fuselage I used the stringers that I ripped from the 1x4s and bondoed them to the bulkheads. This gave me a male form to cover with thin plastic or posterboard. I stapled two layers of posterboard to the jig(thin plastic would work better). The posterboard wraps down two inches onto the fuselage. After I was satisfied with the way it looked, I then covered the entire thing with duct tape (fiberglass will not stick to duct tape) On top of this I wetout one layer of tri-ply cloth (22oz) that I had left over from an earlier project, and one layer of 8oz. bid. Remember to mask off your fuselage so you don't get epoxy on it. If you are not familiar with composite lay-ups, you should plan on razor cutting your lay-ups 4 to 6 hours after wetout while the lay-up is still soft enough to cut with a razorblade.\nAfter the lay-up cured (2 or 3 days) it was removed from the jig, and the jig was removed from the fuselage and discarded. (be careful, the bondo sticks very well to the spruce, you could splinter your wood during removal) I now have a fiberglass skin that tends to hold the shape of the jig but is still flexible enough to work with. I made two bulkheads out of 1/4 last-a-foam (AS&S) using the plywood formers from the jig as a guide. I covered these foam bulkheads with one 8oz layer of glass on each side, with a glass to glass edge on the bottom. After cure these bulkheads were bondoed into place (to the fuselage)and the fiberglass skin was pulled down tight and floxed to the bulkheads. When the flox cured the bondo joints were broken, again being careful not to harm the wood. The turtledeck was removed from the fuselage and 2 inch tapes added to the bulkheads inside and out.\nAt this point the turtledeck looked great and only weighed about 5lbs. but I noticed you could deform the skin by pushing hard on the outside. So I flipped the turtledeck over and from 1/4 inch last-a-foam, I cut two inch wide strips that would run the entire length, forward and aft inside the turtledeck. In effect these would act as composite stringers, I made enough of these two inch wide strips to make up three stringers. One down the center (sort of a backbone) and one on each side of the \"backbone\" half the distance to the edge of the turtledeck. I sanded the edge of the foam so that when covered with a layer of bid @ 45degrees there would be a nice transition from the turtledeck skin up onto the foam and then back onto the turtledeck I scuff sanded and glued the foam stringers in with micro. I covered the foam stringers with one layer of 8oz bid @ 45degrees.\nYou can also send me email at: mikemims@pacbell.net if you have any questions or want to share your ideas.\nKROnline is an online KR Newsletter devoted to sharing KR information with other builders and pilots in a timely manner. The first issue (September 96) is now available as a zipped MicroSoft Word file at http://members.aol.com/bshadr or as an html document at kronline9.html. If you'd like to submit articles or photos, email Randy Stein at BSHADR@aol.com ------------------------------------------------------------ Don't bother to email Randy though. KROnline has been retired since the KR Newsletter has improved.", "answers": ["The baseline is used as a reference for the mid point of the firewall for the developed side panel."], "length": 6340, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "33bfe67a3d40e71a5e5351ea5db4ea55df61a018d071074b"}
{"input": "What did the decision to base the water rates on usage reflect?", "context": "Time to clean house in Paso Robles Home\nFront Page » Time to clean house in Paso Robles\nSeptember 5, 2010 Opinion By JIM REED\nI’d like to give you an update on the issue of our civil servants cramming hundreds of millions of dollars in spending down our throats after the people of Paso Robles voted down the water rate increase last November. The rate increase is being hung up in the courts by the City Attorney. What was supposed to be a quick issue to get in front of a judge, has been drug out as long as possible by the City Attorney.\nEven if the courts throw out the current rate increase, I expect that our civil servants will just change a couple of words in the rate increase notice and force the same old plan on us again.\nThere is a real problem with the people we have hired to work for us in Paso Robles. It seems that decisions are made based on some agenda, even if it is contrary to citizens’ wishes.\nCity Councilmen Ed Steinbeck, Nick Gilman and Mayor Duane Picanco, on August 19th, voted unanimously to hire the same law firm employed by the City of Bell. You may have heard the recent news story about the City of Bell’s corrupt city representatives.\nThis law firm allowed the elected officials and City employees to pillage the General Fund for their own benefit, contrary to the rights and interests of the citizens. We are already paying several City employees $12,000 per month with equally ridiculous benefits and pensions. What does this say about our elected representatives?\nI believe most residents are like me. We elect people we believe have our best interest in mind. Over the last few years I have seen that nothing is farther from the truth. The people we have elected have lost track of the fact that “the City” exists to protect and deliver services to the citizens. To them it is some all-important ideal they strive to cultivate and improve according to their agenda. They have forgotten that they are elected to represent the citizens.\nWe have an election coming up in November. We have the opportunity to elect some responsible, principled people to represent us. If we elect more people from within this system, we will get more of the same type of government. We need to look at where the new candidates stand. Will they lawfully represent the citizens of the city? Or, are they happy with the way things are being run?\nWe have stood together in the past and have made real significant changes in important matters that are going to affect our lives for years to come. There are several thousand citizens that made their voice heard on the water issue, more than enough votes to make a change in our city government.\nPlease come out and vote for a democratic representative governing body for Paso Robles instead of the tyrannical leadership that exists now.\nJim Reed is a longtime resident of Paso Robles.\nSubjects: Opinion Paso Robles Paso Robles City Council Vote\tRelated:\n<- Previous Next ->\tEndless Summer Nights at Edna Valley, event photos Trial postponed for Paso Robles woman accused of forgery The comments below represent the opinion of the writer and do not represent the views or policies of CalCoastNews.com. (moderator@calcoastnews.com Comment Guidelines )\n2 whatisup says:\t09/13/2010 at 9:27 pm\npasoobserver – Here is something to observe and get you going in the right direction:\nCalifornia Government Code Section 65584\n(a) (1) For the fourth and subsequent revisions of the\nhousing element pursuant to Section 65588, the department shall\ndetermine the existing and projected need for housing for each region\npursuant to this article. For purposes of subdivision (a) of Section\n65583, the share of a city or county of the regional housing need\nshall include that share of the housing need of persons at all income\nlevels within the area significantly affected by the general plan of\n(2) While it is the intent of the Legislature that cities,\ncounties, and cities and counties should undertake all necessary\nactions to encourage, promote, and facilitate the development of\nhousing to accommodate the entire regional housing need, it is\nrecognized, however, that future housing production may not equal the\nregional housing need established for planning purposes.\n(b) The department, in consultation with each council of\ngovernments, shall determine each region’s existing and projected\nhousing need pursuant to Section 65584.01 at least two years prior to\nthe scheduled revision required pursuant to Section 65588. The\nappropriate council of governments, or for cities and counties\nwithout a council of governments, the department, shall adopt a final\nregional housing need plan that allocates a share of the regional\nhousing need to each city, county, or city and county at least one\nyear prior to the scheduled revision for the region required by\nSection 65588. The allocation plan prepared by a council of\ngovernments shall be prepared pursuant to Sections 65584.04 and\n65584.05 with the advice of the department.\n(c) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the due dates for\nthe determinations of the department or for the council of\ngovernments, respectively, regarding the regional housing need may be\nextended by the department by not more than 60 days if the extension\nwill enable access to more recent critical population or housing\ndata from a pending or recent release of the United States Census\nBureau or the Department of Finance. If the due date for the\ndetermination of the department or the council of governments is\nextended for this reason, the department shall extend the\ncorresponding housing element revision deadline pursuant to Section\n65588 by not more than 60 days.\n(d) The regional housing needs allocation plan shall be consistent\nwith all of the following objectives:\n(1) Increasing the housing supply and the mix of housing types,\ntenure, and affordability in all cities and counties within the\nregion in an equitable manner, which shall result in each\njurisdiction receiving an allocation of units for low- and very low\n(2) Promoting infill development and socioeconomic equity, the\nprotection of environmental and agricultural resources, and the\nencouragement of efficient development patterns.\n(3) Promoting an improved intraregional relationship between jobs\n(4) Allocating a lower proportion of housing need to an income\ncategory when a jurisdiction already has a disproportionately high\nshare of households in that income category, as compared to the\ncountywide distribution of households in that category from the most\nrecent decennial United States census.\n(e) For purposes of this section, “household income levels” are as\ndetermined by the department as of the most recent decennial census\npursuant to the following code sections:\n(1) Very low incomes as defined by Section 50105 of the Health and\n(2) Lower incomes, as defined by Section 50079.5 of the Health and\n(3) Moderate incomes, as defined by Section 50093 of the Health\nand Safety Code.\n(4) Above moderate incomes are those exceeding the moderate-income\nlevel of Section 50093 of the Health and Safety Code.\n(f) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, determinations\nmade by the department, a council of governments, or a city or county\npursuant to this section or Section 65584.01, 65584.02, 65584.03,\n65584.04, 65584.05, 65584.06, 65584.07, or 65584.08 are exempt from\nthe California Environmental Quality Act (Division 13 (commencing\nwith Section 21000) of the Public Resources Code).\npasoobserver says:\t09/13/2010 at 6:52 pm\nTo whatisup —- First of all, I reviewed AB 602 Assembly Bill. Thanks. I am sorry to inform you but AB 602 is not the LAW as you so stated in your blog. I contacted the Deputy Chief Council’s office in Sacramento handling AB 602 to confirm your misstatement of facts. You know,in the English language, It shouldn’t be so difficult to answer some simple questions with a “YES” or “NO” answer. Yet, you are reluctant to do so, but you go on and on with a thesis along with some rhetoric. I never talked about a court suit over the “water issue”, I asked YOU, not about waiting for a court decision. Maybe, you did with some other people. Also, I was not ranting about the wineries usage of water. My response to you on your vague question about “there are people not paying their fair share for their use of water”. I related, are you talking about the wineries? I am well aware that most of the wineries are outside the city limits using the same aquifer. You took my question out of context., nice try! You are just being a popinjay and rhetorical. Also, you didn’t answer another question about “what is the unit cost of water” in Templeton? as compared to Paso Robles.\nwhatisup says:\t09/13/2010 at 8:54 pm\nI am on a well. I am sure you are capable of doing your own homework. I also am quite sure if you really contacted the Deputy Chief Counsel’s Office you have been set straight. What I gave you is a proposed small adjustment in the wide range of laws that make up the California Housing element. I assumed you could stumble onto the facts based on what I gave you. By the way, I believe you can review the Paso Robles Housing element plan on the City’s website or at the Library. The California Housing Element Laws that all cities and counties have to follow have been in place for almost 25 years. I realize you don’t actually have a clue how to look the laws up. Either educate yourself or keep making a fool of yourself, your choice. A simple Google search of California Housing Element Laws will get you going. Good Luck!\nTO WHATISUP — I WOULD LIKE TO KNOW WHAT LAW YOU ARE REFERRING TO THAT SAYS “WE” THE PEOPLE HAVE TO SUBSIDIZE NEW DEVELOPMENT? AGAIN, FOR THE THIRD TIME, YOU FAILED TO ANSWER MY QUESTIONS POSED TO YOU IN MY PRIOR RESPONSES TO YOU ON SEPT.10TH &11TH. IS THERE A REASON WHY YOU DON’T WANT TO ANSWER THEM? YOU DO WHAT OUR ELECTED OFFICIALS DO SO WELL, AND THAT IS “IN ONE EAR AND OUT OF THE OTHER EAR” IT SEEMS TO ME THAT YOU ARE EITHER EMPLOYED BY THE CITY OR YOU HAVE OTHER DEALING WITH THE CITY, SO BE IT. IT APPEARS TO ME THAT YOU THINK THE CITY DOES EVERYTHING RIGHT. APPARENTLY, YOU PRESENT YOURSELF AS BEING VERY BIAS ON CITY DECISIONS. IT LIKE THEY CAN’T DO ANYTHING WRONG ACCORDING TO YOUR LOGIC. THEY KNOW WHAT IS BEST FOR THE CITIZENS OF PASO,THAT IS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF ARROGANCE ALONG WITH NARCISSISM.\nWHAT PEOPLE ARE YOU TALKING ABOUT THAT DOESN’T PAY THEIR FAIR SHARE OF WATER? ARE YOU REFERRING TO THE WINERIES USING THE SAME AQUIFER?\nI BELIEVE YOU RELATED THAT YOU RESIDE IN TEMPLETON, BUT YOU OWN PROPERTY IN PASO. BY THE WAY, WHAT IS THE COST PER UNIT OF WATER USAGE IN TEMPLETON COMPARED TO PASO? OF COURSE, TEMPLETON IS IN AN UNINCORPORATED AREA (COUNTY JURISDICTION).\nWELL, I GAVE YOU SOME SUGGESTIONS ON HOW TO PAY FOR THE NACIMIENTO WATER PIPELINE AND SEWER TREATMENT PLANT. ALSO, REMEMBER IT’S THE CITIZENS’ MONEY THAT IS BEING SPENT. WHAT IS MOST IMPORTANT OF ALL, IS LET THE CITIZENS OF PASO DECIDE WITH THEIR VOTE ON HOW TO FINANCE THIS HUGE CAPITAL IMPROVEMENT PROJECT EXPENDITURE. JUST BE IN COMPLIANCE WITH STATE PROPOSITION 218 AND STOP CIRCUMVENTING THE LAW.\nWOULD YOU OBJECT TO HAVING TO FINANCE SOME NEW BONDS ON YOUR PROPERTY TAX BILL AS A ” SPECIAL TAX” OR AN ASSESSMENT TAX” TO PAY FOR THE NACIMIENTO WATER PIPELINE AND SEWER TREATMENT PLANT? A PERCENTAGE OF PASO CITIZENS FINANCE LOCAL SCHOOL BONDS ON THEIR PROPERTY TAX BILL AND DON’T HAVE ANY KIDS GOING TO SCHOOL. HOW ABOUT THAT COMPARISON FOR YOU TO THINK ABOUT? WHAT SAY YOU?\nI say less CapsLock, please.\nwhatisup says:\t09/12/2010 at 11:41 pm\nI have answered your questions. I have been quite detailed in my answers and I am sorry if you can’t deal with the detail. I guess it is your inconvenient truth. You do seem to like to deflect and go around in circles. Another example, now you are ranting about the wineries using the same aquaifier as the City. Let me be clear for you, I don’t like the amount of water the wineries are using. However, the wineries are in the County, not in the City and the City can’t do anything about it. They wineries are allowed to take the water they are taking even if it drops the City’s water levels in their wells. You need to complain to Sacramento. It sounds like you just don’t want to pay anything for the infrastructure because you really just don’t want it built.\nSeveral of your observations of my opinions are bizarre considering I have stated several times I believe the Courts need to decide if Paso Robles has, or has not followed the rules as to funding the infrastucture. Obviously, as I have stated before, if the City loses the lawsuit the infrastructure will have to be paid out of the City’s General Fund until a new method of payment is voted on by the Citizens of Paso Robles. Pretty clear.\nYour idea of charging based on a special assesment rather than the amount of water a property uses means that people who use little water, but live on a more expensive property will pay more than their share, based on their water usage. In addition, how do you deal with a rental unit where the renter is supposed to pay the water bill? Your idea is inherantly unfair, but my guess is it will favor you, so you don’t care if it is unfair and other people would pay part of your share. You also have decided that since I have alternative ideas to yours I must work for, or have business with the City of Paso Robles, another attempt to deflect from the issue. However, once again, I have never worked for the City or have ever done business with the City and don’t expect to ever do business with the City. I do own property in the City which is why I pay attention. Finally, it turns out there needs to be a fix to the housing element laws, the existance of which you are questioning. As I understand it the fix to the housing elemnt laws is because of some lawsuit. This should give you all the information you need to educate yourself on the California Housing Element laws that every city and county in California has to follow:\nBILL ANALYSIS ————————————————————\n|SENATE RULES COMMITTEE | AB 602|\n|Office of Senate Floor Analyses | |\n|1020 N Street, Suite 524 | |\n|(916) 651-1520 Fax: (916) | |\n|327-4478 | |\n———————————————————— THIRD READING\nBill No: AB 602\nAuthor: Feuer (D), et al\nAmended: 8/20/10 in Senate\nSENATE TRANSPORTATION & HOUSING COMM : 6-3, 6/29/10\nAYES: Lowenthal, DeSaulnier, Kehoe, Pavley, Simitian, Wolk\nNOES: Huff, Ashburn, Harman\nASSEMBLY FLOOR : Not relevant\nSUBJECT : Statute of limitations on housing element\nSOURCE : California Rural Legal Assistance Foundation\nHousing California DIGEST : This bill states the intent of the Legislature\nin enacting this bill to modify the courts opinion in Urban\nHabitat Program v. City of Pleasanton (2008) 164\nCal.App.4th 1561, with respect to the interpretation of\nSection 65009 of the Government Code, and revises and\nclarifies statute of limitations and remedies for specified\nhousing related challenges.\nSenate Floor Amendments of 8/20/10 revise the statute of\nlimitations and remedies for specified housing-related\nANALYSIS : The Planning and Zoning Law requires cities\nand counties to prepare and adopt a general plan, including\na housing element, to guide the future growth of a\ncommunity. Following a staggered statutory schedule,\ncities and counties located within the territory of a\nmetropolitan planning organization (MPO) must revise their\nhousing elements every eight years, and cities and counties\nin rural non-MPO regions must revise their housing elements\nevery five years. These five- and eight-year periods are\nknown as the housing element planning period.\nBefore each revision, each community is assigned its fair\nshare of housing for each income category through the\nregional housing needs assessment (RHNA) process. A\nhousing element must identify and analyze existing and\nprojected housing needs, identify adequate sites with\nappropriate zoning to meet its share of the RHNA, and\nensure that regulatory systems provide opportunities for,\nand do not unduly constrain, housing development. The\nreviews both draft and adopted housing elements to\ndetermine whether or not they are in substantial compliance\nwith the law. The Planning and Zoning Law and the Subdivision Map Act\nalso includes a number of sections governing zoning and\nentitlements specifically related to housing, including:\n? The Housing Accountability Act, which requires a city or\ncounty to make one or more specified findings in order to\ndisapprove a particular housing development.\n? A provision requiring cities and counties, when adopting\nan ordinance which limits the number of housing units\nwhich may be constructed on an annual basis, to make\nfindings as to the public health, safety, and welfare\nbenefits that justify reducing the housing opportunities\nof the region. ? Density bonus law, which requires cities and counties to\ngrant a developer a density bonus, incentives, and\nconcessions when the developer proposes to include\nspecified percentages of affordable housing within a\ndevelopment. ? The Least Cost Zoning Law, which requires cities and AB 602\ncounties to designate and zone sufficient vacant land for\nresidential use with appropriate standards to meet\nhousing needs for all income categories and to contribute\nto producing housing at the lowest possible cost.\n? A requirement that, when determining whether to approve a\ntentative subdivision map, a city or county shall apply\nonly those ordinances, policies, and standards in effect\nas of the date the developer’s application is deemed\nPrior to a recent court decision, it was understood that\ncurrent law allowed a party to challenge the adequacy of a\ncity’s or county’s housing element at any time during a\nplanning period, provided that the challenger brought the\naction “in support of or to encourage or facilitate the\ndevelopment of housing that would increase the community’s\nsupply of [affordable] housing.” The challenging party was\nrequired first to serve the city or county with a notice\nidentifying the deficiencies in the housing element. After\n60 days or the date on which the city or county took final\naction in response to the notice, whichever occurred first,\nthe challenging party had one year to file the action in\ncourt. This process and statute of limitations also\napplied to actions brought pursuant to the housing-related\nstatutes listed above. In 2006 Urban Habitat Program brought suit to challenge the\nCity of Pleasanton’s housing policies, including the city’s\nannual cap on housing permits and the city’s cap on the\naggregate number of permissible housing units, both of\nwhich Urban Habitat claimed were insufficient to allow the\ncity to meet its RHNA obligation. In 2008, the First\nDistrict California Court of Appeals issued an unpublished\ndecision in the case of Urban Habitat Program v. City of\nPleasanton allowing the case to proceed with respect to\nsome causes of action, but ruling that the challenge to the\nhousing element itself was time-barred. The court stated:\nAlthough the statute does not specify the time within\nwhich [a deficiency] notice must be given, it is our\nconclusion that the statute must be interpreted as\ncontaining a time limit within which this requirement\nmust be met? In sum, a party bringing a challenge AB 602\ngoverned by section 65009, subdivision (d), has 90\ndays from the date a legislative action is taken or\napproval is given to notify the local land use\nauthority of any claimed deficiencies in such an\naction or approval. Its claim then accrues 60 days\nafter it gives this notice.\nIn other words, instead of being able to initiate a\nchallenge to a deficient housing element at any time during\nthe planning period, housing advocates and other interested\nparties may now only initiate such a challenge by\nsubmitting a deficiency notice within 90 days of the\nhousing element’s adoption.\n1.Removes from the current list of city or county actions\nwhich may be challenged pursuant to Government Code 65009\nnotice and accrual provisions those actions related to\nthe Housing Accountability Act, the Subdivision Map Act,\nand the application of a Density Bonus ordinance to a\nparticular project, all of which are project-specific\nactions. The bill maintains the ability to use these\nnotice and accrual provisions to challenge the adequacy\nof a city’s or county’s density bonus ordinance\n2.Extends lengthening the time in which a deficiency notice\nmay be served to cover all remaining city or county\nactions described in this section of law, as opposed to\njust housing element challenges. In other words, the\namendments apply the longer timeframe to serve the\ndeficiency notice to actions relating to the Least Cost\nZoning Law, annual limits on housing permits, and the\nadequacy of a density bonus ordinance, in addition to\nhousing element law. 3.Provides that an entity challenging such an action in\nsupport of affordable housing may serve the deficiency\nnotice up to five years after the city’s or county’s\naction. After 60 days or the date on which the city or\ncounty takes final action in response to the notice,\nwhichever occurs first, the challenging party has one\nyear to file an action in court, except that the lawsuit AB 602\nmay not be filed more than five years after the city’s or\ncounty’s action. In other words, the entity must file\nthe lawsuit within one year of the expiration of the\ndeficiency notice or within five years of the city’s or\ncounty’s action, whichever occurs first.\n4.Provides that a housing element from a prior planning\nperiod may not be challenged if the city or county has\nadopted a revised housing element for the new planning\nGovernment Code 65755 . Current law requires a court, if it\nfinds any portion of a general plan, including a housing\nelement, out of compliance with the law, to include within\nits order or judgment one or more of the following remedies\nfor any or all types of developments or any or all\ngeographic segments of the city or county until the city or\ncounty has complied with the law:\n? Suspend the authority of the city or county to\nissue building permits.\ngrant zoning changes and/or variances.\ngrant subdivision map approvals.\n? Mandate the approval of building permits for\nresidential housing that meet specified criteria.\n? Mandate the approval of final subdivision maps for\nhousing projects that meet specified criteria.\n? Mandate the approval of tentative subdivision maps\nfor residential housing projects that meet specified\nThis bill clarifies that in any action or proceeding\nbrought pursuant to the notice and accrual provisions of\nGovernment Code Section 65009 described above, neither the\ncourt remedies described above nor any injunction against\nthe development of a housing project shall abrogate,\nimpair, or otherwise interfere with the full exercise of\nthe rights and protections granted to an applicant for a\ntentative map or a vesting tentative map under specified\nprovisions of the Subdivision Map Act or to a developer\nunder a specified provision relating to development AB 602\nUnder current law, HCD operates a number of grant programs\nto which cities and counties may apply. In many cases, the\nlaw requires a city or county to have an HCD-approved\nhousing element in order to be eligible for funding. This bill provides that if a third-party challenges the\nadequacy of a housing element in court and the court finds\nthat the housing element substantially complies with all of\nthe requirements of housing element law, the element shall\nbe deemed to be in compliance for purposes of state housing\nThe statutory language interpreted by the court and at\nissue in this bill was added to statute by AB 998 (Waters),\nChapter 1138, Statutes of 1983, a bill sponsored by the\nLeague of California Cities and the California Building\nIndustry Association. AB 998 created a short statute of\nlimitations period for land use decisions generally but\nprovided a specific exception to protect the ability to\nchallenge deficient housing elements. The Senate Housing\nand Land Use Committee and the Senate Third Reading\nanalysis of the bill stated that the bill:\nSpecifies that for challenges in support of low- and\nmoderate-income housing requirements, the petitioner\nshall notice local government 60 days prior to filing\naction. The [one-year] statute of limitations then\nbegins on the first day the legislative body fails to\nIn the intervening 25 years prior to the Urban Habitat\nruling, housing advocates filed and successfully settled at\nleast ten cases in which the 60-day deficiency notice was\nsent more than 90 days after adoption of the city’s or\ncounty’s housing element. In none of these cases was the\ntimeliness on the advocates’ suit contested. Likewise, six\nbills amended other portions of this statute during those\nintervening years, and there was never any controversy\nsurrounding the lack of a deadline for housing advocates to\nserve a deficiency notice nor any attempt to change the AB 602\nstatute in this regard. Current level of housing element compliance . According to\nHCD’s website as of June 7, 2010, only 46 percent of cities\nand counties have adopted an HCD-approved housing element\nfor the current planning period that began in 2005 for the\nSan Diego region, 2008 for the Southern California, Fresno,\nKern, and Sacramento regions, and the summer of 2009 for\nthe remaining areas of the state. Unlocking the private market . The purpose of housing\nelement law is to create opportunities for the private\nhousing market to function. Builders cannot build without\naccess to appropriately zoned land, and current land use\nplans in many cities and counties in California fail to\nprovide sufficient opportunities to accommodate projected\npopulation growth. The San Diego Association of\nGovernments’ Regional Comprehensive Plan describes this\ntypical California paradox in the following way:\nUnder current plans and policies, more than 90 percent\nof [the San Diego region’s] remaining vacant land\ndesignated for housing is planned for densities of\nless than one home per acre, and most is in the rural\nback country areas dependent upon scarce groundwater\nsupplies. And of the remaining vacant land planned for\nhousing in the 18 incorporated cities, only about\nseven percent is planned for multifamily housing. When\ntaken together, the current land use plans of the 19\nlocal jurisdictions do not accommodate the amount of\ngrowth anticipated in our region. SANDAG’s population\nforecast, which reflects the current adopted local\nland use plans in the region, projects that while\npopulation will increase by 37 percent by 2030,\nhousing will grow by just 30 percent. The forecast\nshows that if local plans are not changed, demand for\nhousing will continue to outpace the supply, just as\nHousing element law addresses this problem directly by\nrequiring cities and counties to zone land at appropriate\ndensities to accommodate the projected housing needs of all\nincome groups and to remove constraints that prevent such\nsites from being developed at the allowed densities. AB 602\nCities and counties, however, are not required to build\nhousing because that is the role of private developers.\nThe law holds cities and counties accountable only for that\nwhich they control: zoning and land use entitlements.\nWithout the ability to enforce housing element law, the\nmarket’s ability to meet housing demand may well remain\nlocked up.\nFISCAL EFFECT : Appropriation: No Fiscal Com.: No\nSUPPORT : (Verified 8/23/10)\nCalifornia Rural Legal Assistance Foundation (co-source)\nHousing California (co-source)\nAdvocates for Affordable Homes in Fremont\nCalifornia Coalition for Rural Housing\nCommunity Housing Improvement Program\nCommunity Housing Works\nEden Housing\nFair Housing of Marin\nGrassroots Leadership Network of Marin\nKennedy Commission\nPublic Advocates, Inc\nSan Diego Housing Federation\nSelf-Help Enterprises\nSierra Club of California\nAmerican Planning Association, California Chapter\nJA:nl 8/23/10 Senate Floor Analyses SUPPORT/OPPOSITION: SEE ABOVE\npasoobserver says:\t09/11/2010 at 11:17 pm\nTo whatisup — Thank you for your response to my comments. However, you failed to answer some of my questions that I mentioned to you. It’s almost like dealing with some City officials. They just let the public vent at their bimonthly council meetings. In my opinion, it’s difficult to deal with narcissism and arrogance. Over the years, there has been some very good input to our elected officials on how to proceed on the Nacimiento water pipeline,but it fell on deaf ears. You wanted me to answer some of your questions,but you did not answer some of my questions. Again, are you willing to subsidize new development?,Yes?or No?, are you willing to pay for a commodity that you are not receiving? Yes?or No? and another question for you. Are you willing to pay over 300% on your water bills within the five (5) year plan that the City has proposed? Also, the water rates will be subject to later increases too. By the way, I do concur with the city’s plan of “you pay for the amount of water units you use”. (748 gal=one unit). However, the higher water rates are not good for our senior citizens on fixed incomes and other struggling families in our community. My first suggestion years ago was desalination. The response was it was too expensive. Of course, now it is more expensive. I would suggest that our elected officials recall the existing bonds (The bonds can be recalled early). The City council can explain to the citizens in detail with financing of new bonds at a lower interest rate as of now for the sewer plant and Nacimiento water pipeline and present their new proposal in compliance with Proposition 218. Let the citizens of Paso VOTE on the financing bonds for their approval. Most of the citizens,that I had spoken to were not happy with the way our City Council handled the Nacimiento water pipeline project. The citizens of Paso didn’t give our City Council a “BLANK CHECK” for $176 million to spend without voter approval. I would suggest that it be a “special tax” or “an assessment” be levied on our property taxes. A percentage of those bonds can be deducted on Federal Income taxes. As it is now, a” fee” on a capital funding project is not deductible. Of course, there are homeowners would not go for this suggestion due to our poor economy. My analogy mentioned above would be, you would get something back on a “special tax” or an “assessment” verses nothing on a “fee”. What say you?\nwhatisup says:\t09/12/2010 at 9:02 am\nUnfortunately the law says we have to subsidize new development in California. I don’t like it, but it is the law. I know paying using the property taxes was bandied about. The argument against it was it would mean some would be paying for water they aren’t using and others could be big water users, but pay a small special assessment on their property taxes. I think the decision that was made to base it on usage was out of fairness. It seems to me if people are using water and not paying their share of the costs it is not fair. The Senior issue is very difficult. If someone is retired for twenty years is it realistic to think prices don’t go up during the 20 years of retirement. Think what prices were in 1990 compared to today. Should Seniors never have to pay for capital improvements? Paso Robles also had very low water rates. Rates that are no longer possible given the circumstances. Desalination will happen eventually. California is out of water. If you want to pay $1,000,000 a gallon there is no more allotable water of any consequence in California. The expense will be tremendous — still have to build a desalination plant, still have to build a pipeline. I don’t know if the plant has to be built along the ocean or if the salt water could be piped over to Paso Robles. If it has to be built along the ocean, Paso Robles doesn’t own land on the ocean and, in any case, the environmentalists will keep it in courts for years as they have done so for other proposed desalination plants in Southern California. Eventually necessity will force desalination past the environmentalists, but not yet.\npasojim says:\t09/13/2010 at 7:46 am\nWhatisup – On one of your previous post you made the comment you haven’t heard any of the legal suggestions for the water issue, But you obviously have. That is a good thing. So we can move the discussion ahead.\nOnce, again this was handled incorrectly by our city custodians from the beginning. And now here we are. The public is not supporting this very expensive, very limited benefit project. As you said, until a plan is developed that the public can support, things don’t look good.\nAll this discussion about the water issue has only reinforced my opinion the issue hasn’t been about water, only how the plan should be paid for. Or more specifically, to what extent do we allow our elected custodians and our un-elected GOD tzar decide which laws they will follow and which laws they will ignore. When the City GOD tzar tell citizens at a council meeting if we don’t agree with the City’s plan, then we should just sue him, and when the City Attorney explains to a citizen at a City Council meeting that she does have to respond to their questions because she does NOT work for them. When the project is voted down by the citizens and the council brings it right back up, it is clear that our elected representatives are not doing their job providing direction to their employees and listening to and representing the CITIZENS.\nThe subject of the original post was the need to elect different representation. I think with all the conversation made on this post, as well as the post on Cal Coast about the hiring of the new legal firm you were involved in, Supports my original opinion.", "answers": ["Fairness."], "length": 5701, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "8fbf0a6531d9250e6bcda0c7ba456441f6d4073bf08de826"}
{"input": "Besides the Boeing C-17, what other transport aircraft is the IAF considering for acquisition?", "context": "Transport Aircraft for IAF - Page 67 - Bharat Rakshak\nTransport Aircraft for IAF\nRe: Transport Aircraft for IAF\nPostby abhik » 17 Nov 2014 05:55\n+1, Air India recently sold their entire fleet of Boeing 777s.\nafaik the A330 MRTT does not make any structural mods or add anything internally in cargo or passenger cabin. it just relies on the intrinsic 110 tons of fuel. external refueling pods are added and internally the control station and cameras for the operator i guess.\nso its a easy conversion from a passenger layout to the AAR mode - mostly ripping out the passenger cabin of all extra stuff and retuning the FCS for any changes in COG.\nthis should have been pursued years ago\nthe IL78 adds a palletized drum tank system inside its cargo bay due to paucity of intrinsic fuel but it can be removed and a/c converted back to cargo hauling or send off to russia for Phalcon structural mods if we want it that way. they will however need to change engines to PS90 as they have the old engines\nhttp://www.airplane-pictures.net/images ... 7/5616.jpg\nthe RAF is already gone that route in 2011\nhttp://www.defensenews.com/article/2011 ... -Refuelers\nLONDON - Airbus Military has delivered the first of 12 A330-200 airliners due to be converted into in-flight refueling planes for the British Royal Air Force by Cobham Aviation Services.\nThe aircraft, part of an order of 14 jets, will be modified with aerial refueling pods and other equipment at Cobham's newly refurbished facility in Bournemouth, England. The first two aircraft have already been converted by Airbus in Spain.\nThe multirole tanker aircraft are being provided to the RAF under a private finance initiative service deal led by Airbus parent EADS.\nSeven of the planes will be operated full time by the RAF. The remainder will be available for lease in the third-party market, with the proviso that they can be returned to British military service to meet any surge in demand.\nAll of the aircraft, to be known as the Voyager in RAF service, will be fitted with two wing-mounted refueling pods, while half the fleet will also be fitted for, but not necessarily with, a center-line mounted unit. The refueling units are being supplied by Cobham.\nThe first aircraft will become operational in a passenger and freight transport role by the end of this year to start relieving pressure on the RAF's hard-pressed assets.\nDespite the increasing fragility of current RAF in-flight refueling operations, the new capability is not contracted to start being used in this role until 2015.\nAll 14 Voyagers are scheduled to be available for RAF operations by the middle of the decade. The A330 will replace the increasingly ancient Tristar and VC-10 refuelers now in service.\nPush the 6 Il-476 from refueler to AEW duty. Phalcon them up\nNot sure if that is a good path to follow. For one they all should be sent to pasture in about 8 years. Then if the are to be phalconed up - the requires major structural changes. Not worth that cost.\nWhatever happened ot the two new ones that were supposed ot be ordered?\nthe IL78 can be easily converted back to IL76 cargo hauling. only the fuel tank inside cargo bay needs removal...infact that was even mentioned in initial days as swing role fuel/cargo.\nPostby Cybaru » 17 Nov 2014 07:55\nI am talking about the new il78 that we ordered recently in refueling role. Sorry for the mix up. They are the same platform, that I why i used 476 or 76 to identify it.\n777 carries more internal fuel than the A330. We suck!\nFrom the KC-777 program.\nhttp://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ ... kc-777.htm\n\"the KC-777 would be 209 feet long with a wingspan of 212 feet, 7 inches. That's the same size as the 777-200LR commercial jet. The KC-777 would be able to carry far more fuel, cargo and passengers than either the KC-767 or the Airbus A330 tanker. The KC-767 offers more operational flexibility, while the KC-777 would be better suited for long-range strategic missions in which more cargo needs to be delivered. The KC-777 would be able to carry more than 350,000 pounds (160,000 kilograms) of fuel and offload more than 220,000 pounds (100,000 kg) of it on a mission of 500 nautical miles (900 kilometers). On the other hand, the KC-767 can lift off with more than 200,000 pounds (90,000 kg) of fuel and offload more than 130,000 pounds (60,000 kg) in a similar mission. The KC-777 would be able to deliver 200 percent more fuel after flying 1,000 nautical miles than older Air Force KC-135s. The KC-777 could carry up to 37 pallets of cargo, compared to the 19 pallets for the KC-767.\"\nPostby Cosmo_R » 18 Nov 2014 04:31\nViv S wrote: From Ajai Shukla's article -\nHAL points out that, since each Avro flies barely 350 hours every year, most of them have a residual life of about 80,000 hours. In a request for information (RFI) released on August 15, HAL has proposed replacing the aircraft’s engines (Rolls Royce Dart) with “modern fuel efficient engines”.\nSo, the IAF's Avros have a residual life of 228 years at the current rate of usage. Ain't life grand?\nAt zero up time, it could reach infinity.\nRelax Cy. Kc777 has no client. Usaf is going with kc767 and almost everyone else with a330.\nWe don't have the number of heavies and long missions of usaf else I would say convert an124.\nKC777 will be extremely expensive given the demand/backlog for the 777 and the 777x. Any buyer would have to virtually pay for the increase in capacity.\nI think the 767 production line is closed. so the proposed KC767 Boeing is supposed to deliver 18 by 2017..that can be managed from mothballed and cargo hauler airframes on the market.\nbut to meet the final order of around 180 will they not have to open the production line unless such a huge number were available on the market?\nI do get the spider feel this program again will be cancelled in favour of a in-production plane like the 777X ?\nI wasn't suggesting we get the KC777. All I was doing was comparing what possibly the 777 could offload compared to A330. It carries 171000 liters of fuel versus 130000 liters that the A330 carries. If we had older 777s in stock, we could have quite easily converted them to this config. The cost to us would be miniscule just the refurbishing cost vs acquiring a new type.\nSingha wrote: I think the 767 production line is closed. so the proposed KC767 Boeing is supposed to deliver 18 by 2017..that can be managed from mothballed and cargo hauler airframes on the market.\nThe Line is open, they have a backlog of around 50 (All Fed ex), with Fed Ex placing a small order this year. The Pegasus order is for all new builds, and so will the follow on order. The only reason for any nation to buy the 767 tanker is going to be because of the ability to hard bargain with Boeing given that the commercial future of the 767 is dead. This also allows a potential buyer to purchase cheap spares from the open market, or club its logistical and inventory purchase with that of the USAF. Other than that and perhaps availability (which would be doubtful once USAF pushes through a larger order) there is really no technical reason to purchase the this tanker over the A330 which by all accounts is a superior tanker in addition to being a much much better airliner in general.\nIAI is doing conversations for the 767 and its called the 767 MMTT\nhttp://www.iai.co.il/sip_storage/FILES/1/38471.pdf\nCybaru wrote: I wasn't suggesting we get the KC777. All I was doing was comparing what possibly the 777 could offload compared to A330. It carries 171000 liters of fuel versus 130000 liters that the A330 carries. If we had older 777s in stock, we could have quite easily converted them to this config. The cost to us would be miniscule just the refurbishing cost vs acquiring a new type.\nThe cost of converting a commercial airliner to a tanker, certifying it and running a full fledged test program is by no means small. There is absolutely no justification for that sort of cost over and above the capability that that A330 provides. If it were a certified and tested conversion, that would be a different matter.\nPostby Kartik » 21 Nov 2014 12:27\nCybaru wrote:\nWhy? If the airframe can handle more flight hours, why not?\nbecause it is a very very old airframe as is. Maintenance spares won't be available easily even as of now, then imagine how it'll be 20-30 years from now.. and as things stood anyway, the HS-748 offered very little in terms of payload and range versus a C-295 class aircraft. The C-295 offers a very credible light transport, whereas the HS-748's role in the IAF was more akin to a transport trainer and for communication duties with little operational use. Having seen a dozen or so HS-748s parked at Vadodara airport all through my childhood, I never once saw one in the air. They just seemed to be stored out in the open. Upon asking an IAF transport pilot who was my friend's father, he remarked \"zyaada kaam ke nahi hain yeh\".\nWhy would you expend more capital on what is essentially an obsolete airframe, even if theoretically it had not yet reached its service life? You'd have to re-engine it, put new avionics on board and even that wouldn't suffice for para dropping requirements..it was operationally never suitable for para dropping, which is an important mission for transport aircraft and had deficiencies in hot and high climes as well.\nUnfortunately, the 748 was never meant to be a military transport. At the request of IAF, its door was enlarged to enable larger cargo items to be loaded and to allow para dropping without hitting the tail plane. However, to load a jeep in it, a 30-ft long ramp was required. The jeep would drive in and insert its front wheels into the aircraft. Then it had to be manually lifted and turned to get it in. Unloading it was just as difficult. Para dropping of troops or cargo even from the aircraft with the enlarged door was considered too dangerous with the risk of hitting the tail plane. The aircraft's performance at hot and high airfields was hopelessly inadequate. Eventually IAF acquired the tail-loading An-32s which were powered specifically for IAF's need for operating in the Himalayas.\nBRF article -Avro in IAF service\nNow unless you want to overcome all these through a costly, time consuming engineering re-design program, that too without access to original documents since this airplane was designed in the 1960s, there is no question of keeping them going for another 40 years. By which time the original design would be over 80 years old and with no one on earth but the IAF as an operator and HAL as the agency supporting it. Hardly a situation anyone would want.\nabhik wrote: +1, Air India recently sold their entire fleet of Boeing 777s.\nOnly 5 of the Boeing 777-200LR, to Etihad Airways, which IMO was a bad decision..they could have reconfigured the airplanes with just 2 classes and continued to fly them to the US, non-stop.\nThe remaining 3 777-200LR were offered for lease but are still a part of AI's fleet since they didn't find any takers. This particular model hardly sold much and was developed for ultra-long range flights..it was the least successful 777 model and clearly AI goofed up on the configuration by going for these in place of the 300ER. The economics however didn't make too much sense for AI eventually.\nthere are 13 777-300ER as a part of their fleet ahd their economics is much better.\nGovt. to decide tomorrow on whether to go ahead and allow the IAF to verify the technical details of the C-295 bid by Tata-Airbus instead of scrapping the tender due to single vendor situation.\nThe government will decide on Saturday whether to press ahead with the Rs 13,000 crore mega project for the private sector to supply 56 medium transport aircraft to the IAF despite only a single bidder, the Tata-Airbus consortium, being in the fray.\nThough the defence acquisitions council (DAC) chaired by Manohar Parrikar will take the final decision, MoD sources on Tuesday said the \"emerging dominant view\" is that green signal should be given to the crucial project designed to promote Indian private sector's entry into the domestic aerospace arena with foreign collaboration.\n\"The Tata-Airbus technical and commercial bid is a credible offer submitted in a competitive environment. The other seven contenders backed out for one reason or the other,\" said a source.\nIAF has now sought the clearance of the DAC -- the first such meeting to be chaired by Parrikar after becoming defence minister on November 10 -- to begin technical evaluation of the C-295 aircraft offered by Airbus Defence & Space and Tata Advanced Systems.\nThough it has become a single-vendor situation, the DAC can approve it if it wants as per existing procurement procedures. Of the eight foreign aviation majors that got the global tender, American Boeing and Lockheed-Martin as well as Brazilian Embraer said they did not manufacture the class of aircraft being sought by IAF.\nRefusing to take part in the tender, Russian Rosoboronexport said it wanted a fresh design and development project. Antonov of Ukraine wanted yet another extension of the bid submission deadline due to the ongoing conflict in Crimea. Swedish Saab said it had shut down its assembly line for such aircraft.\nThen, Alenia Aermacchi was linked to Italian conglomerate Finmeccanica, which has been slapped with \"a partial ban\" after the infamous VVIP helicopter scandal. \"All this left only the European consortium Airbus. The DAC will have to take a call since re-tendering may lead to the same situation,\" said the source.\nIncidentally, it was the Modi government's first DAC in July -- then headed by Arun Jaitley - which revived the Avro replacement project after it was put on hold by the UPA-2 regime last year due to strong opposition from the powerful PSU lobby and ministers like Praful Patel, as reported by TOI earlier.\nApart from the critical need to encourage the private sector to enter defence production in a big way, especially in the aerospace arena where Hindustan Aeronautics enjoys a monopoly, its felt the defence PSU's order books are already overflowing with projects.\nFingers crossed. Hopefully sense will prevail.\nWhy was lr got? Er is capable of Dubai to sfo nonstop.\nLr is overkill unless we want Delhi to Peru .\nSingha wrote: Why was lr got? Er is capable of Dubai to sfo nonstop.\nthey wanted it for non-stop routes from India to the west coast of the US. But with fuel prices going higher and with the lower seat count on the 777-200LR, the seat mile costs grew too high. A 3 class configuration only made matters worse. A higher density configuration with more economy class seats and just 12-15 Business class seats would have been better perhaps, especially if they didn't have very high First Class load factors.\nLR and ER is better if you want to have a better payload down below for long haul. Ultimately, the best bet is going to come form the 787's that take a fewer people (so you can do the longer routes) with still a competitive CASM, and the B and F class folks will pay good money for newer aircraft.\nPostby Kartik » 04 Dec 2014 12:55\nLets see if there is any forward movement on the stalled MTA project once Putin arrives in New Delhi\nMajor defence deals to be signed during Putin-Modi summit\nIn this connection, it is expected that during the summit, Russia and India may ultimately resolve several long-delayed agreements on military-technical cooperation projects between the two countries and sign them finally for their implementation. These agreements, above all, include joint Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft (FGFA) project and joint development of Multi-role Transport Aircraft (MTA).\nA final deal on FGFA for production has been delayed because the Indian Air Force (IAF) did not approve the design and work-share. Now Russia has reportedly agreed that the jet would be a two-seat design, not a one-seater. India’s work-share would also be increased from18 percent to 25 percent, and even up to 40-50 percent in the near future, in view of the steady development of the Indian aviation industry.\nDefence and SecurityAccording to the agreement, India’s stealth air-to-air missile “Astra” along with Indo-Russian BrahMos supersonic cruise missile will be mounted on the FGFA.\nThe preliminary design agreement on FGFA had been signed in 2010 between Indian HAL and Russian Sukhoi Design Bureau to build the jet for the use by both countries. The final design contract was to be signed in July-August 2012. But the deadline has already passed. According to the Indian media reports, under the programme, India is expected to build 200 fighter jets at the cost of $30 billion.\nFGFA is not the only Indo-Russia joint project. The two countries also signed an agreement on the joint development of MTA in 2007, based on Il-214 Russian plane. The cost of the $600 million project is being equally shared by the two countries. The MTA, when developed, will have ready market for 205 aircraft - 45 for the Indian Air Force, 100 for the Russian Air Force, and 60 more for exporting to friendly countries. The international market for MTA is estimated at 390 planes. Under the agreement, thirty percent of the annual production of planes could be exported to third countries.\nThe MTA was expected to go in service with the Russian and Indian Air Forces in 2015. But the project faced a number of problems, delaying the development of the MTA. The project got into rough weather after India felt there was nothing much for Indian engineers and scientists to do in the design and development of the MTA.\nHowever, all the issues related to the project were resolved with the Russians when the HAL undertook to carry out design and development of its work-share of MTA at Aircraft R&D Centre at Bangalore. Russian Ilyushin Design Bureau and the Irkut Corporation and HAL are participating in the project. The first flight is expected to take place in 2017-18.\nThe MTA would replace the AN- 32 aircraft being used by the IAF. It will be used for both cargo and troop transportation, para-drop and air drop of supplies, including low-altitude parachute extraction system.\nBrahMos missile exports a challenging proposition\nAnother key deal expected to be signed during the summit, is for the development of “BrahMos mini missile” by the Indo-Russian joint venture BrahMos Aerospace which manufactures supersonic cruise missile. BrahMos’ new CEO Sudhir Mishra recently said he was hopeful that a deal to develop the mini version of the missile will be signed during Putin’s summit with Modi.\n“We are hoping to sign a tripartite agreement between DRDO, NPOM lab and BrahMos Aerospace during the planned visit of Russian President in December,” Mishra said.\nHe said that the new missile will have a speed of 3.5 mach and carry a payload of 300 km up to a range of 290 km. In size, it will be about half of the present missile, which is around 10 metres long. The missile can be integrated with different platforms, including submarines and FGFA. It is planned to be inducted into service by 2017.\nModi-Abbott to upgrade defence ties\nA new dimension:\nIn a first, India and Australia will also set up a mechanism to discuss “synergies in integrating defence system”, including research and development cooperation on integrating defence equipment that both countries currently purchase, for example, U.S’s C-17 Globemaster III, according to officials.\n^^That report about MTA is fishy. First it says that India has nothing to learn from an existing design (duh) and then says the issue has been resolved. How? Next it says India's need is 45 planes to replace over 100 An-32s. It also speculates about the export potential which may be nonexistent unless we sell it for peanuts.\nThis is a scam which only aims to create screwdriver jobs at HAL, stall any attempt to introduce private players into the aviation market and continue the Russian gravy train. My fear is the Russkies have our testiments in a firm grip with key components of Brahmos, nuke subs, Su30mki etc and we may be jerked around.\n(They need to be more definitive about \"MTA\" - Multirole vs. Medium)\nThe Indians had not selected an engine (among other things) for the MTA with the Russians. Perhaps that has been resolved now.\nOn export numbers, IIRC, it was the responsibility of Rosoboronexport. ?????\nKartik wrote: The MTA would replace the AN- 32 aircraft being used by the IAF. It will be used for both cargo and troop transportation, para-drop and air drop of supplies, including low-altitude parachute extraction system.\nPardon my ignorance. The Avro and An-32 have different upgrade paths. How are the replacements for these venerable aircraft different in terms of use cases in IAF. Cannot one platform replace both these types? (Either MTA or C-295)\nIn this case, I feel they should have just gone with screwdrivergiri (production tech) and got to market first. There is no jet-powered transporter in this range! Just license produce the IL-214 with the PD-14M, glass cockpit and a state-of-the-art COTS avionics computer.\nIn my view, it was a low hanging fruit, which they completely messed up! They could have learnt on how to adopt the plane for the 160-200 seater.\nindranilroy wrote: They could have learnt on how to adopt the plane for the 160-200 seater.\nYes, the MTA project should fold the Avro, An-32 and the regional transport role and become a conversion project rather a development one. The driving numbers will come from the regional transport (thousands in India itself) rather than the Avro or medium transport roles (max 300 between them). This changes the ball game and introduces all kinds of possibilities. But I'm pretty sure that the Il-214/MTA is not the way to go because it will take a decade or more to arrive. A good possibility was another Antonov, the An-148 but it has some mechanical glitches apparently besides being bogged down in the Ukraine mess. Maybe the Russians can \"relocate\" the aircraft to Russia? The other possibility is the BAe-146 which is ironically another Avro. We should remember that both the HS-748 \"Avro\" and An-32 were regional airliners that were converted to military use, not the other way around. HAL or a private firm will pick up a lot of experience in the conversion process itself.\nThe Sukhoi Superjet is already in production/orders,with over 100+ for Russian and intl. customers. It is ideal for regional transport,perfect for flights to smaller Tier-2/3 cities from metros. If we really want a regional jet this is the fastest way toi go,we can set up a manufacturing unti here for the same at an HAL unit.\nPostby shaun » 05 Dec 2014 15:24\nIts an international projects, with components outsourced from different international vendors . Over 30 foreign partnership companies are involved in the project and partly financed by Italy.\nSukhoi is good for passenger use but wont be suitable for military, rough field use. The shoulder wing jets like the An-148 have slower speeds and better ground clearance. The Bae-146 was usedby Druk Air in Bhutan so it should do OK in the ALGs. If we don't fold our requirements then we should go with something like the Superjet which we will at least be able to make in India and also modify to stretched versions. Unless we have a clear path to operational clearance within 10 yrs for the RTA project vetted by our top industrial houses, it is pie-in-the-sky and should be dropped. The RTA will be big enough to keep 2-3 factories humming and leapfrog our capabilities. If we don't get our act together almost immediately, we will miss the boat, just like our trainer fiascos.\nI don't think Superjet fits into our scheme of things. We should think as a country and see to it that our programs don't trample on each other.\nFirst, the more certain ones:\n1. Mahindras NM5 and Airvans can care of the low-cost but sturdy 5,8,10 and 18-seater section.\n2. Saras had such great potential for being the high performance 14-18 seater. But I have almost given up on it. This section will most probably be taken up by the Tata-built Do-228 NG.\n3. We should standardize the C-295 as the Avro/An-32 replacement and create a 70-80 seater variant out of it.\nAnd then the more wishful ones:\n1. If the RTA is going to be a jet, then make it a 100-130 seater. I don't expect the first prototype to take the sky before 2025. I feel it is too big of a jump where we don't even have a base. With LCA, at least we were at least license producing other fighters.\n4. Building on the IL-214, the MTA was on a more sure footing. But, I can't see how the first prototype can to take to the sky before 2019(more than 10 years since MTAL was formed)! If the transport plane materializes, then one can imagine making a civilian 150-200 seater version of the same. But this program needs a push. Will Putin's visit be able to galvanize this into the next symbol of Indo-Russian cooperation. Probably not!\nPostby GeorgeWelch » 12 Dec 2014 23:39\nhttp://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/defence-de ... -1.2144472\nThe Defence Department intends to purchase a Boeing C-17 Globemaster III, a large military transport plane that comes with a price tag of just under $200 million, CTV News has learned\nIt's difficult to get a good count, but by some sources, if this and the 4 Australia planes go through, there will only be 5 left.\nX-Posting from FGFA thread.\nDespite Putin’s visit, two pacts on military aircraft still in doldrums\nPresident Vladimir Putin may have come and gone but stalemate largely persists over two key long-pending India-Russian defence projects, the fifth-generation fighter aircraft (FGFA) and military multirole transport aircraft (MTA).\nThe deadlock over the MTA, which were initially envisaged to gradually replace IAF's ageing fleet of the medium-lift AN-32 aircraft, seems to be much more serious. India now wants to ascertain the cost viability of the twin-engine transport aircraft in comparison to similar planes available in the market.\nThere are also questions about the MTA's \"predicted timelines for delivery\" as well as its failure to meet the high-altitude requirements, which need to be answered before India even thinks of inking the full-scale contract for the project, said sources.\nPostby Gyan » 13 Dec 2014 12:29\nindranilroy wrote: I don't think Superjet fits into our scheme of things. We should think as a country and see to it that our programs don't trample on each other.\n1. Mahindras NM5 and Airvans can care of the low-cost but sturdy 5,8,10 and 18-seater section. Righto\n2. Saras had such great potential for being the high performance 14-18 seater. But I have almost given up on it. This section will most probably be taken up by the Tata-built Do-228 NG. We need future extended variants of presurrized aircraft like 30 seater Saras and say 30 seater unpressurized Do-328 NG.\n3. We should standardize the C-295 as the Avro/An-32 replacement and create a Civilian turboprop pressurized cabin 70-80 seater variant out of it.\n1. If the RTA is going to be a jet, then make it a 100-130 seater. Agreeeeeed I don't expect the first prototype to take the sky before 2025. I feel it is too big of a jump where we don't even have a base. With LCA, at least we were at least license producing other fighters. Though I think that we should participate in Russian MS-21 and also the wide body follow on.\n4. Building on the IL-214, the MTA was on a more sure footing. But, I can't see how the first prototype can to take to the sky before 2019(more than 10 years since MTAL was formed)! If the transport plane materializes, then one can imagine making a civilian 150-200 seater version of the same. Though I think that we should participate in Russian MS-21 and also the wide body follow on. But this program needs a push. Will Putin's visit be able to galvanize this into the next symbol of Indo-Russian cooperation. Probably not!\nAbsence of any specifics on Sukhoi Superjet, MS-21, Wide body aircraft, Mi-38, MRTA, FGFA, even after Putin visit is very disappointing.\nFlightGlobal- Boeing sitting on 8 unsold C-17s\nBy: Dan ParsonsWashington DCSource: Flightglobal.com\nThis story is sourced from Flightglobal.com 12 hours agoBoeing has sold two more C-17 transports to an undisclosed customer, but it will likely end the year with eight unsold white tails.\nThere are 10 Boeing C-17 airlifters in various stages of assembly at the company’s Long Beach, California, production facility.\nTwo of the aircraft are spoken for by an unnamed customer, Boeing says. Boeing is trying to sell off the other eight white tails, which will be the last produced before the factory is shuttered sometime in the summer of 2015.\nThe 279th – and final – C-17 fuselage will be mated to its wings in January or February, programme spokeswoman Tiffany Pitts tells Flightglobal. The operation is California’s last remaining aircraft production line and the lone widebody military aircraft production line in the USA, according to Boeing.\nAt least two countries – Australia and Canada – have publicly announced an intention to purchase a C-17, though neither factor into Boeing’s future planning, Pitts says. Until contracts are finalised, the number available remains eight, she says. The Royal Canadian Air Force already has four C-17As, according to Flightglobal’s World Air Forces 2014 directory.\nCanadian news outlets reported earlier in December that the air force would buy one C-17 with money left over at the end of 2015.\nAustralia is further along with its bid to purchase C-17s. The US Defense Security Cooperation Agency in November announced Australia was approved to buy up to four C-17s and support equipment for $1.6 billion.\nBoeing has plans to store any unsold C-17s following closure of its production line, Pitts says.\n“I’m hoping they all will be sold before then, but we’ve had plans in place for a very long time to store and maintain the aircraft if that doesn’t happen,” she says.\nthe IAF will need to factor in the demand vs availability of C-17s and stock up with a follow-on order quickly. The initial plan to have 16 C-17s may not fructify, considering that there are just 8 left now, with Australia having announced plans to buy 4 more.\nwhy are they closing the line if it has demands ???\nReal estate sales tactics probably. Buy now last 8 3bhk flats Saar.\nkrishnan wrote: why are they closing the line if it has demands ???\nIt requires 3 years lead time to order raw materials/parts from all of its sub-vendors. All current firm orders have been fulfilled, and no new orders have come. Anticipating a need for a few more aircrafts, they produced 10 extra (self-funded) units before production winded down. Bottom line is they don't make money keeping an idle plant around with all its employees and infrastructure. At most what they will likely do is keep a limited infrastructure around for a few more years in case a bunch of new orders come. They can then see if it makes business sense to re-open the plant.\nPostby Aditya_V » 17 Dec 2014 12:19\nWish this can be brought to the notice of Journos/ Poster when slamming LCA/ Arjun and other indigenous projects. If there are no orders there will be no efficiency.\nDec 10, 2014 :: Russia launches Il-76MDM upgrade programme\nRussia's Ilyushin has started to upgrade a first Russian Air Force (VVS) Ilyushin Il-76MD 'Candid' military transport aircraft to Il-76MDM standard, company officials have told IHS Jane's . The main features of the upgrade include refurbished engines and upgraded avionics.\nThe modernisation is being conducted at the VVS's Military Transport Aviation (MTA) maintenance facility based at the Ilyushin division in Zhukovsky city near Moscow.\nA senior Ilyushin official told IHS Jane's that the upgrade of the first aircraft will be finished in 18 months. Subsequent aircraft will take less time to complete the process, however. When the modernisation is finished the initial Il-76MDM will undergo state trials. The upgrade process for subsequent aircraft will begin when the trials programme is completed.\nIHS Jane's was previously told by a VVS senior official that the modernisation of 41 MTA Il-76MDs is planned by 2020. While the Il-76MDM upgrade retains the old D-30KP engine (compared with the PS-90A engine equipping the new Il-76MD-90A/Il-476), the modernisation effort should match the aircraft's onboard electronics with those of the newbuild Il-76MD-90A. This and other efforts mean the cost of modernising the Il-76MD to Il-76MDM is only a third of that of a newbuild Il-76MD-90A.\nThe existing D-30KP engines are to be enhanced to increase their service life. The overall aircraft's service life will be extended by 15 years.\nThe upgrade works are planned to be conducted in an aviation repair factory or in the MTA's aircraft maintenance facility. As a result, the Ulyanovsk-based Aviastar-SP plant, which is building the Il-76MD-90A, is not involved in the Il-76MD to Il-76MDM modernisation programme.\nUsers browsing this forum: Jaeger, Manish_Sharma, rajkumar, VikramA and 43 guests", "answers": ["The IAF is considering the acquisition of the Airbus A330 MRTT (Multi-Role Tanker Transport) besides the Boeing C-17."], "length": 5660, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "8d72c6709ee1da38a65cdfb4f9d90e7348fd8e356c0a8165"}
{"input": "What does the new Iraqi Body Count organization do?", "context": "Ann's Mega Dub: 12/19/10 - 12/26/10\nGot o have a penis to be an expert\nThursday on NPR's Fresh Air, Terry Gross wanted to talk film and music. Since women don't know a thing about either and aren't interested in either, Terry had to find men who were 'experts.'This is C.I.'s \" Iraq snapshot Friday, December 24, 2010. Chaos and violence continue, Nouri's incomplete Cabinet continues to receive criticism, a father offers an 'excuse' for killing his own daughter, and more.Marci Stone (US Headlines Examiner) reports, \"Friday afternoon, Santa is currently in Baghdad, Iraq and on his next stop is Moscow, Russia, according to the 2010 NORAD Santa Tracker. The North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) has been tracking Santa as he makes his annual journey throughout the world.\" Gerald Skoning (Palm Beach Post) quotes Santa saying, \"We send our special wishes for peace and goodwill to all. That includes the people of Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran and North Korea.\" Please note that this is Santa's seventh trip to Iraq since the start of the Iraq War and, as usual, his journey was known in advance. No waiting until he hit the ground to announce he was going to Iraq -- the way George The Bully Boy Bush had to and the way US President Barack Obama still has to. In the lead up to Santa's yearly visit, many 'authorities' in Iraq began insisting that Christmas couldn't be celebrated publicly, that even Santa was banned. Gabriel Gatehouse (BBC News) quotes Shemmi Hanna stating, \"I wasn't hurt but I wish that I had been killed. I wish I had become a martyr for this church, but God kept me alive for my daughters.\" Shemmi Hanna was in Our Lady of Salvation Church in Baghdad when it was assaulted October 31st and she lost her husband, her son, her daughter-in-law and her infant grandson in the attack. The October 31st attack marks the latest wave of violence targeting Iraqi Christians. The violence has led many to flee to northern Iraq (KRG) or to other countries. Zvi Bar'el (Haaretz) notes, \"This week the Iraqi legislature discussed the Christians' situation and passed a resolution in principle to help families who fled. However, the parliament does not know where the Christians are, how many are still in Iraq, in their homes, and how many have found asylum in Iraqi Kurdistan.\" John Leland (New York Times) reports:The congregants on Friday night were fewer than 100, in a sanctuary built for four or five times as many. But they were determined. This year, even more than in the past, Iraqi's dwindling Christian minority had reasons to stay home for Christmas. \"Yes, we are threatened, but we will not stop praying,\" the Rev. Meyassr al-Qaspotros told the Christmas Eve crowd at the Sacred Church of Jesus, a Chaldean Catholic church. \"We do not want to leave the country because we will leave an empty space.\" Raheem Salman (Los Angeles Times) reports, \"Rimon Metti's family will go to Christian services on Christmas Day, but his relatives will be praying for their own survival and wondering whether this is their last holiday season in Baghdad. If they had any grounds for optimism about the future of their faith in Iraq, it vanished this year amid repeated attacks on fellow believers.\" Shahsank Bengali (McClatchy Newspapers) adds, \"Nearly two months after a shocking assault by Islamist militants, Our Lady of Salvation Catholic Church will commemorate Christmas quietly, with daytime mass and prayers for the dead, under security fit more for a prison than a house of worship. It is the same at Christian churches across Baghdad and northern Iraq, where what's left of one of the world's oldest Christian communities prepares to mark perhaps the most somber Christmas since the start of the Iraq war.\"Meanwhile Taylor Luck (Jordan Times) reports on Iraqi refugees in Jordan:Although the calendar will say December 25, for Theresa, Saturday will not be Christmas. There will be no cinnamon klecha cooling on the dining room table, no outdoor ceramic nativity scene, no readings of hymns with relatives. The 63-year-old Iraqi woman has even refused to put up Christmas lights in the crowded two-room Amman hotel apartment she has called home since fleeing Baghdad last month.\"There is no holiday spirit. All we have is fear,\" she said.This holiday will instead mark another year without news from her 46-year-old son, who was kidnapped outside Baghdad in late 2006.From Turkey, Sebnem Arsu (New York Times -- link has text and video) notes the increase in Iraq refugees to the country since October 31st and quotes Father Emlek stating, \"I've never seen as many people coming here as I have in the last few weeks. They also go to Lebanon, Jordan and Syria but it seems that Turkey is the most popular despite the fact that they do not speak the language.\" Jeff Karoub (AP) reports on the small number of Iraqi refugees who have made it to the US and how some of them \"struggle with insomnia, depression and anxiety.\"One group in Iraq who can openly celebrate Christmas are US service members who elect to. Barbara Surk (AP) reports that tomorrow Chief Warrant Officer Archie Morgan will celebrate his fourth Christmas in Iraq and Captain Diana Crane is celebrating her second Christmas in Iraq: \"Crane was among several dozen troops attending a Christmas Eve mass in a chapel in Camp Victory, an American military base just outside Baghdad.\" Marc Hansen (Des Moines Reigster) speaks with six service members from Iowa who are stationed in Iraq. Sgt 1st Class Dennis Crosser tells Hansen, \"I certainly understand from reading the paper what's going on in Afghanistan and the attention definitely needs to be on the troops there. But everyone serving here in Operation New Dawn appreciates a little bit of attention as we finish this up.\"Today Jiang Yu, China's Foreign Minister, issued the following statement, \"We welcome and congratulate Iraq on forming a new government. We hope that the Iraqi Government unite all its people, stabilize the security situation, accelerate economic reconstruction and make new progress in building its country.\" James Cogan (WSWS) reports:US State Department official Philip Crowley declared on Wednesday that Washington had not \"dictated the terms of the government\". In reality, constant American pressure was applied to Maliki, Allawi, Kurdish leaders and other prominent Iraqi politicians throughout the entire nine-month process to form a cabinet. The US intervention included numerous personal phone calls and visits to Baghdad by both President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden.The key objective of the Obama administration has been to ensure that the next Iraqi government will \"request\" a long-term military partnership with the US when the current Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) expires at the end of 2011. The SOFA is the legal basis upon which some 50,000 American troops remain in Iraq, operating from large strategic air bases such as Balad and Tallil and Al Asad. US imperialism spent billions of dollars establishing these advanced bases as part of its wider strategic plans and has no intention of abandoning them.Cogan's only the second person to include the SOFA in his report. Some are impressed with the 'feat' of taking nearly ten months to form a government, stringing the country along for ten months while no decisions could go through. The editorial board of the Washington Post, for example, was full of praise yesterday. Today they're joined by Iran's Ambassador to Iraq, Hassan Danaiifar. The Tehran Times reports that Danaiifar was full of praise today hailing the \"positive and final step which ended the 10-month political limbo in Iraq.\" However, Danaiifar was less pie-in-the-sky than the Post editorial board because he can foresee future problems as evidenced by his statement, \"We may witness the emergence of some problems after one and half of a year -- for example, some ministers may be impeached.\" Of course, there are already many clouds on the horizon, even if Iranian diplomats and Post editorial boards can't suss them out. For example, Ben Bendig (Epoch Times) noted the objection of Iraq's female politicians to Nouri al-Maliki's decision to nominate only one woman (so far) to his Cabinet: \"Some 50 female lawmakers went to the country's top leadership, the United Nations and the Arab League to voice their concern and desire for increased representation.\" BNO notes that protest and also that a group of Iraqi MPs are alleging that Iraqiya bought seats in the Cabinet via money exchanged in Jordan. UPI adds, \"Maliki, a Shiite who has a long history of working with Tehran, has named himself acting minister of defense, interior and national security, three most powerful and sensitive posts in the government he is stitching together. Although Maliki appears to be bending over backward to accommodate rivals among Iraq's Shiite majority as well as minority Sunnis and Kurds in his administration in a spirit of reconciliation, he is unlikely to relinquish those ministries that dominate the security sector.\" DPA reports, \"Sheikh Abdel-Mahdi al-Karbalaei, a confident of influential Shiite spiritual leader Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, said that the new cabinet is 'below the standards' Iraqi citizens had hoped for and suggested it could prove to be weaker than the previous government.\" Ranj Alaaldin (Guardian) also spots clouds on the horizon:Lasting peace and stability depends on resolving outstanding disputes with the Kurds on oil, revenue-sharing, security and the disputed territories (Kirkuk in particular). The Kurds, rather than exploiting their kingmaker position to take a stronger proportion of ministries in Baghdad (they are taking just one major portfolio – the foreign ministry), are instead banking on guarantees from Maliki to implement their list of 19 demands that includes resolving the above disputes in their favour.They may have been naive, though. With their historical and federalist partners, the Islamic supreme council of Iraq in decline, the Kurds may be isolated in the new government – a government dominated by the nationalistic and centrist characteristics of the INM, the Sadrists and indeed State of Law.Maliki may, therefore, turn out to be unable to grant concessions even if he wanted to and could use Osama Nujayfi, the new ultra-nationalist speaker of parliament and Kurdish foe, to absorb the Kurdish criticism and insulate himself from any attacks.AP reports that Iraqi police sought out a 19-year-old woman because of rumors that she was working with al Qaida in Mesopotamia only to be greeted with the news that her father allegedly killed her and the father showed the police where he buried the woman . . . last month. The story begs for more than it offers. The most obvious observation is: what does it say that a woman's allegedly killed by her father and no one says a word for over a month? After that, it should probably be noted that there are many men in Iraq killing women who, no doubt, would love to also be able to pin the blame on al Qaida. In other violence, Reuters notes a house bombing in Haswa which claimed the life of Mohammed al-Karrafi, \"his wife, two sons and a nephew\" -- as well as injuring four more people, and a Samarra roadside bombing which claimed the lives of 2 police officers. DPA notes it was two homes bombed in Haswa and that the Samarra roadside bombing also injured four Iraqi soldiers. Jomana Karadsheh (CNN) reports, \"Another policeman was wounded in Baghdad Friday night when a roadside bomb detonated by a police patrol, an Interior Ministry official told CNN.\"And we'll close with this from Peace Mom Cindy Sheehan's latest Al Jazeera column:The recent repeal of the US military policy of \"Don't ask, don't tell\" is far from being the human rights advancement some are touting it to be. I find it intellectually dishonest, in fact, illogical on any level to associate human rights with any military, let alone one that is currently dehumanising two populations as well as numerous other victims of it's clandestine \"security\" policies.Placing this major contention aside, the enactment of the bill might be an institutional step forward in the fight for \"equality\"; however institutions rarely reflect reality.Do we really think that the US congress vote to repeal the act and Obama signing the bill is going to stop the current systemic harassment of gays in the military?While I am a staunch advocate for equality of marriage and same-sex partnership, I cannot - as a peace activist - rejoice in the fact that now homosexuals can openly serve next to heterosexuals in one of the least socially responsible organisations that currently exists on earth: The US military.It is an organisation tainted with a history of intolerance towards anyone who isn't a Caucasian male from the Mid-West. Even then I'm sure plenty fitting that description have faced the terror and torment enshrined into an institution that transforms the pride and enthusiasm of youth into a narrow zeal for dominating power relations.And we'll close with this from Francis A. Boyle's \"2011: Prospects for Humanity?\" (Global Research):Historically, this latest eruption of American militarism at the start of the 21st Century is akin to that of America opening the 20th Century by means of the U.S.-instigated Spanish-American War in 1898. Then the Republican administration of President William McKinley stole their colonial empire from Spain in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines; inflicted a near genocidal war against the Filipino people; while at the same time illegally annexing the Kingdom of Hawaii and subjecting the Native Hawaiian people (who call themselves the Kanaka Maoli) to near genocidal conditions. Additionally, McKinley's military and colonial expansion into the Pacific was also designed to secure America's economic exploitation of China pursuant to the euphemistic rubric of the \"open door\" policy. But over the next four decades America's aggressive presence, policies, and practices in the \"Pacific\" would ineluctably pave the way for Japan's attack at Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 194l, and thus America's precipitation into the ongoing Second World War. Today a century later the serial imperial aggressions launched and menaced by the Republican Bush Jr. administration and now the Democratic Obama administration are threatening to set off World War III. By shamelessly exploiting the terrible tragedy of 11 September 2001, the Bush Jr. administration set forth to steal a hydrocarbon empire from the Muslim states and peoples living in Central Asia and the Persian Gulf under the bogus pretexts of (1) fighting a war against international terrorism; and/or (2) eliminating weapons of mass destruction; and/or (3) the promotion of democracy; and/or (4) self-styled \"humanitarian intervention.\" Only this time the geopolitical stakes are infinitely greater than they were a century ago: control and domination of two-thirds of the world's hydrocarbon resources and thus the very fundament and energizer of the global economic system – oil and gas. The Bush Jr./ Obama administrations have already targeted the remaining hydrocarbon reserves of Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia for further conquest or domination, together with the strategic choke-points at sea and on land required for their transportation. In this regard, the Bush Jr. administration announced the establishment of the U.S. Pentagon's Africa Command (AFRICOM) in order to better control, dominate, and exploit both the natural resources and the variegated peoples of the continent of Africa, the very cradle of our human species. This current bout of U.S. imperialism is what Hans Morgenthau denominated \"unlimited imperialism\" in his seminal work Politics Among Nations (4th ed. 1968, at 52-53): The outstanding historic examples of unlimited imperialism are the expansionist policies of Alexander the Great, Rome, the Arabs in the seventh and eighth centuries, Napoleon I, and Hitler. They all have in common an urge toward expansion which knows no rational limits, feeds on its own successes and, if not stopped by a superior force, will go on to the confines of the political world. This urge will not be satisfied so long as there remains anywhere a possible object of domination--a politically organized group of men which by its very independence challenges the conqueror's lust for power. It is, as we shall see, exactly the lack of moderation, the aspiration to conquer all that lends itself to conquest, characteristic of unlimited imperialism, which in the past has been the undoing of the imperialistic policies of this kind…. On 10 November 1979 I visited with Hans Morgenthau at his home in Manhattan. It proved to be our last conversation before he died on 19 July 1980. Given his weakened physical but not mental condition and his serious heart problem, at the end of our necessarily abbreviated one-hour meeting I purposefully asked him what he thought about the future of international relations. iraqbbc newsgabriel gatehousethe new york timesjohn lelandhaaretzzvi bar'elthe jordan timestaylor luckthe associated pressjeff karoubthe los angeles timesraheem salmancnnjomana karadsheh\nTerry thinks she's a man\nYesterday on NPR's Fresh Air the hour went to a male TV critic. It's always a man with Terry. Always. And somebody tell her that a snotty, snooty TV critic really doesn't make for good programming.This is C.I.'s \"Iraq snapshot:\" Thursday, December 23, 2010. Chaos and violence continue, Iraqi women make clear their displeasure over the Cabinet make up, Daniel Ellsberg and Veterans for Peace get some recognition, and more. Last Thursday a protest held outside the White House. One of the organizers was Veterans for Peace and Pentagon Papers whistle blower Daniel Ellsberg participated and spoke. Juana Bordas (Washington Post) advocates for both of them to be named persons of the year: Veterans for Peace and Daniel Ellsberg should be this year's person of the year because of their courage and bravery to stand up for all of us who believe that \"war is not the answer.\" Moreover in a time of economic recession, the war machine is bankrupting our country. As John Amidon, a Marine Corps veteran from Albany asked at the White House protest, \"How is the war economy working for you?\"While unemployment rates hover near 10 percent, there is no doubt that the U.S. economy and quality of life is faltering. Worldwide we are 14th in education, 37th in the World Health Organization's ranking on medical systems, and 23rd in the U.N. Environmental Sustainability Index on being most livable and greenest benefits. There is one place we take the undeniable world lead. The US military spending accounts for a whopping 46.5 percent of world military spending--the next ten countries combined come in at only 20.7 percent. Linda Pershing (Truthout) reports, \"Responding to a call from the leaders of Stop These Wars(1) - a new coalition of Veterans for Peace and other activists - participants came together in a large-scale performance of civil resistance. A group of veterans under the leadership of Veterans for Peace members Tarak Kauff, Will Covert and Elaine Brower, mother of a Marine who has served three tours of duty in Iraq, sponsored the event with the explicit purpose of putting their bodies on the line. Many participants were Vietnam War veterans; others ranged from Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans in their 20s and 30s to World War II vets in their 80s and older. They were predominately white; men outnumbered women by at least three to one. After a short rally in Lafayette Park, they formed a single-file procession, walking across Pennsylvania Avenue to the solemn beat of a drum. As they reached the police barricade (erected to prevent them from chaining themselves to the gate, a plan they announced on their web site), the activists stood shoulder to shoulder, their bodies forming a human link across the 'picture postcard' tableau in front of the White House.\" Maria Chutchian (Arlington Advocate) quotes, participant Nate Goldshlag (Vietnam veteran) stating, \"\"There was a silent, single file march around Lafayette Park to a drum beat. Then we went in front of the White House,. There were barricades set up in front of white house fence. So when we got there, we jumped over barricades and were able to get right next to the White House fence.\" Participant Linda LeTendre (Daily Gazette) reports: At the end of the rally, before the silent, solemn procession to the White House fence, in honor of those killed in Iraq and Afghan wars of lies and deceptions, the VFP played taps and folded an American flag that had been left behind at a recent funeral for the veteran of one of those wars. Two attendees in full dress uniform held and folded the flag. I had the image of all of the people who stood along the roads and bridges when the bodies of the two local men, Benjamin Osborn and David Miller, were returned to the Capital District. I thought if all of those people were here now or spoke out against war these two fine young men might still be with us.I was blessed enough to be held in custody with one of those in uniform; a wonderful young man who had to move from his hometown in Georgia because no one understood why as a veteran he was against these wars. Even his family did not understand. (He remains in my prayers.)Our plan was to attach ourselves to the White House fence until President Obama came out and talked to us or until we were arrested and dragged away. I don't have to tell you how it ended.Mr. Ellsberg was one of 139 people arrested at that action. We've noted the protest in pretty much every snapshot since last Thursday. If something else comes out that's worth noting on the protest, we'll include it. We will not include people who don't have their facts and it's really sad when they link to, for example, Guardian articles and the links don't even back them up. It's real sad, for example, when they're trashing Hillary (big strong men that they are) and ripping her apart and yet Barack? \"Obama's inaccurate statements\"??? What the hell is that? You're inferring he lied, say so. Don't be such a little chicken s**t. It's especially embarrasing when you're grandstanding on 'truth.' Especially when you're the little s**t that clogged up the public e-mail account here in the summer of 2008 whining that you were holding Barack to a standard, then admitting that you weren't, then whining that if you did people would be mean to you. Oh, that's sooooooo sad. Someone might say something bad about you. The horror. You must suffer more than all the people in Iraq and Afghanistan combined. While the action took place in DC, actions also took place in other cities. We've already noted NYC's action this week, Doug Kaufmann (Party for Socialism & Liberation) reports on the Los Angeles action: Despite heavy rain, over 100 people gathered in Los Angeles on the corner of Hollywood and Highland to demand an end to the U.S. wars on Afghanistan and Iraq. People came from as far as Riverside to protest, braving what Southern California media outlets have dubbed the \"storm of the decade.\" The demonstration, initiated and led by the ANSWER Coalition, broke the routine of holiday shopping and garnered support from activists and even passers by, who joined in chanting \"Money for jobs and education -- not for war and occupation!\" and \"Occupation is a crime -- Iraq, Afghanistan, Palestine!\" Protesters held banners reading, \"U.S./NATO Out of Afghanistan!\" and \"Yes to jobs, housing and education -- no to war, racism and occupation!\"Speakers at the demonstration included representatives of Korean Americans for Peace, ANSWER Coalition, KmB Pro-People Youth, Veterans for Peace, Party for Socialism and Liberation and National Lawyers Guild. Tuesday, Nouri al-Maliki managed to put away the political stalemate thanks to a lot of Scotch -- tape to hold the deal together and booze to keep your eyes so crossed you don't question how someone can claim to have formed a Cabinet when they've left over ten positions to be filled at a later date. One group speaking out is women. Bushra Juhi and Qassmi Abdul-Zahra (AP) report, \"Iraq's female lawmakers are furious that only one member of the country's new Cabinet is a woman and are demanding better representation in a government that otherwise has been praised by the international community for bringing together the country's religious sects and political parties.\" As noted Tuesday, though represenation in Parliament is addressed in Iraq's Constitution, there is nothing to address women serving in the Cabinet. Aseel Kami (Reuters) notes one of the most damning aspects of Nouri's chosen men -- a man is heaing the Ministry of Women's Affairs. Iraqiya's spokesperson Maysoon Damluji states, \"There are really good women who could do wel . . . they cannot be neglected and marginalized.\" Al-Amal's Hanaa Edwar states, \"They call it a national (power) sharing government. So where is the sharing? Do they want to take us back to the era of the harem? Do they want to take us back to the dark ages, when women were used only for pleasure.\" Deborah Amos (NPR's All Things Considered) reports that a struggle is going on between secular impulses and fundamentalist ones. Gallery owner Qasim Sabti states, \"We know it's fighting between the religious foolish man and the civilization man. We know we are fighting like Gandhi, and this is a new language in Iraqi life. We have no guns. We do not believe in this kind of fighting.\" Deborah Amos is the author of Eclipse of the Sunnis: Power, Exile, and Upheaval in the Middle East. Meanwhile Nizar Latif (The National) reports that distrust is a common reaction to the new government in Baghdad and quotes high school teacher Hussein Abed Mohammad stating, \"Promises were made that trustworthy, competent people would be ministers this time around, but it looks as if everything has just been divided out according to sectarian itnerests. No attention has been paid to forming a functioning government, it is just a political settlement of vested interests. I'm sure al Maliki will have the same problems in his next four years as he had in the last four years.\" Days away from the ten months mark, Nouri managed to finally end the stalemate. Some try to make sense of it and that must have been some office party that the editorial board of the Washington Post is still coming down from judging by \"A good year in Iraq.\" First up, meet the new Iraqi Body Count -- an organization that provides cover for the war and allows supporters of the illegal war to point to it and insist/slur \"Things aren't so bad!\" Sure enough, the editorial board of the Post does just that noting the laughable \"civilian deaths\" count at iCasualities. As we noted -- long, long before we walked away from that crap ass website, they're not doing a civilian count.", "answers": ["It provides cover for the war and allows supporters of the illegal war to point to it."], "length": 4467, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "048c12357868d908dfb979ef3c5c6cf7f6d85053acf1cac4"}
{"input": "What did the London Directory proclaim to contain?", "context": "A Brief History of Benjamin Franklin's Residences on Craven Street, London: 1757 - 1775 - Journal of the American Revolution\nBenjamin Franklin House, 36 Craven St, London. (Photo by Elliott Brown | Wikimedia Commons)\nIf one looked into Benjamin Franklin’s time on Craven Street, they might initially believe he lived at 36 Craven Street the entirety of his two stays in London based on the plethora of articles on the internet that say so. If they dug a little deeper they might read that he lived at No. 27 Craven Street, previously numbered 7, but now numbered 36; or that he lived exclusively at No. 7 Craven Street; or that he lived in multiple residences on Craven Street; or that he moved out of No. 36 to another house on Craven Street and then moved back into No. 36 the last year of his residence. What is one to believe with all of the conflicting accounts? What does the historical record have to say about Franklin’s time on Craven Street?\nFigure 1. Spur Alley 1685. “A map of the parish of St Martins in the Fields, taken from ye last survey, with additions (1685)”. (© The British Library Board, Shelfmark: Maps Crace Port. 13.2, Item number: 2)\nBefore Craven Street existed there was Spur Alley, a narrow passageway sandwiched between the Hungerford Market to the north (now Charing Cross Station) and Scotland Yard and the Northumberland House and Garden to the south. It was flanked on both ends by major thoroughfares, the Strand on the west, connecting Westminster to London by road, and the River Thames on the east, not only connecting the two cities to each other and to Southwark on the south side of the Thames, but connecting the entire metropolis to the rest of the world. Being located in the City of Westminster, Spur Alley had escaped the devastation of the Great Fire of London in 1666 leaving its wooden structures, built in the early part of seventeenth century, intact, but also in dire need of restoration or demolition. “The ratebooks show that during the last thirty years or so of their existence the houses in Spur Alley were in a very bad condition. Few of them were rated at more than a few shillings and many of them were unoccupied.”[1] The landowner, William, 5th Baron Craven, desiring to increase the profitability of his assets, tore down the derelict structures on Spur Alley around 1730 and leased the newly established lots to builders. By 1735, twenty brick houses in the Georgian style had been built on the west side and sixteen on the east side of the way now called Craven Street.[2]\nFigure 2. Craven Street 1746. (John Rocque London, Westminster and Southwark, First Edition 1746, Motco Enterprises Limited, motco.com)\nLetters to Franklin during his residence with Mrs. Margaret Stevenson, his landlady on Craven Street, were addressed rather vaguely; “Craven Street/Strand”, “Mrs. Stevensons in Craven Street”, or “Benjamin Franklin Esqr.” are but a few examples. Letters from Franklin referenced “London,” or sometimes “Cravenstreet,” but never included a number. Despite the absence of numbered addresses in Franklin’s correspondence, there was a sense of one’s place in the neighborhood based on entries in the Westminster Rate Books (tax assessments). The Rate Books did not list house numbers during Franklin’s time there, but they did list the residents of Craven Street in a particular order that became the default numbering system for the street. Number one was associated with the first resident listed under “Craven Street” in the Rate Books and was the northernmost house on the west side of the street. The numbers increased counter-clockwise down the west side and up the east side in accordance with the list of residents. In 1748, the first year of Margaret Stevenson’s (Stevens in the Rate Books for that year) residence on Craven Street, she is listed as the twenty-seventh resident, the second house north of Court Street (later Craven Court, now Craven Passage) on the east side of the street.[3]\nIn 1766, Parliament passed the London Paving and Lighting Act (6 Geo. 3 c. 26), “An act for the better paving, cleansing, and enlightening, the city of London, and the liberties thereof; and for preventing obstructions and annoyances within the same; and for other purposes therein mentioned.”[4] One of the other purposes therein mentioned was the numbering of houses. With an aim to bring order to the chaotic numbering systems or lack thereof on London streets the Act provided that “… the said commissioners … may also cause every house, shop, or warehouse, in each of the said streets, lanes, squares, yards, courts, alleys, passages, and places, to be marked or numbered, in such manner as they shall judge most proper for distinguishing the same.”[5] This was quite an undertaking that took years to accomplish. It was a decade later before numbered addresses on Craven Street in the City of Westminster appeared in The London Directory (1776). The London Directory and its competitors were published primarily by booksellers or printers to supplement their income and were highly profitable. To say they were competitive is an understatement. “Some of the most hotly disputed struggles over copyright in the century concerned guidebooks. Many were optimistically emblazoned with a royal license and a notice that the work had been entered at Stationers’ Hall. Various struggles between rival guides intensified as the potential for profits became clear.”[6] The London Directory boldly proclaimed to contain “An ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE NAMES and PLACES of ABODE of the MERCHANTS and PRINCIPAL TRADERS of the Cities of LONDON and WESTMINSTER, the Borough of SOUTHWARK, and their Environs, with the Number affixed to each House.”[7] Kent’s Directory made a similar proclamation: “An Alphabetical LIST OF THE Names and Places of Abode OF THE DIRECTORS of COMPANIES, Persons in Public Business, MERCHANTS, and other eminent TRADERS in the Cities of London and Westminster, and Borough of Southwark WITH THE NUMBERS as they are affixed to their Houses agreeable to the late Acts of Parliament.”[8] Mrs. Stevenson wasn’t included in the directories because she didn’t meet the criteria of being a merchant or trader, not because she was a woman. Although it is rare to see women listed in the directories, some examples do exist.[9] If Mrs. Stevenson had appeared in the directories in 1776 it would not have been on Craven Street as she had moved to Northumberland Court, a stone’s throw away, the previous year.[10] A comparison of Craven Street residents whose names and addresses do appear in the directories with the same residents as they appear in the Westminster Rate Books determines if the numbering systems were congruent. For the most part they were. For example, Joseph Bond at No. 30, William Rowles at No. 31, Samuel Sneyd at No. 32, and Jonathan Michie at No. 35 in The London Directory coincide with their places of residence in the Westminster Rate Books; however, errors did occur. The 1776 edition of The London Directory lists Brown & Whiteford, wine merchants, at No. 9 Craven Street while the Westminster Rate Books list them as the twenty-ninth residents. Obviously, it makes no sense to have Brown & Whiteford at No. 9 in The London Directory and their next-door neighbor, Joseph Bond, at No. 30. The same error appears in Baldwin’s The New Complete Guide for 1783. The New Complete Guide may have “borrowed” the error from The London Directory. It was not uncommon for the owner of one directory to copy entries from another to save both time and money. Beginning in 1778 and contrary to The London Directory, Kent’s Directory faithfully followed the numbering system of the Westminster Rate Books in all of its editions and listed Brown & Whiteford at No. 29 as did Bailey’s Northern Directory in 1781. Perhaps realizing their error, The London Directory changed their listing of Brown & Whiteford from No. 9 to No. 29 in their 1783 edition and maintained that listing thereafter.\nSometime prior to 1792, the embankment on the Thames at the south end of Craven Street had been sufficiently extended allowing for the construction of ten new houses below the original houses: “ … four houses, Nos. 21–24, were built on the west side, and six houses, Nos. 25–30, on the east side of the way.”[11] In a note in the same report, the new numbering system is explained. “The houses in the street, which had previously been numbered consecutively down the west side and up the east side, were then renumbered on the same system to include the additional houses.”[12] Because the new houses (21-24) on the west side were built below the existing houses (1-20), houses 1-20 retained their original numbering.\nFigure 4. Craven Street 1799. (Richard Horwood’s Map of London, Westminster and the Borough of Southwark 1799, Motco Enterprises Limited, motco.com)\nOne would think that the numbers of the sixteen original houses on the east side, Nos. 21 – 36, would simply increase by ten with the addition of the ten new houses, but such was not the case; they increased by nine. How could that be? The only possible explanation is that No. 21 of the original houses was demolished to make way for the construction of the northernmost of the six new houses on the east side (No. 30). Evidence of No. 21’s demolition appears in the lease granted to Charles Owen by William, 7th Baron Craven, in 1792, which describes No. 22 as: “All that messuage in Craven Street late in the occupation of Francis Deschamps undertaker … being the Southernmost house in the Old Buildings on the East Side of the said Street numbered with the No. 22.”[13] The lease describes No. 22 as being the southernmost house in the old buildings on the east side of Craven Street. Clearly the house previously at No. 21 did not exist when the lease granted to Charles Owen was written in 1792 as it used to be the southernmost house. It is also worth noting that in 1790, The London Directory listed Jacob Life at No. 21 (original numbering). In 1791-2, it listed him at No. 6. With No. 21 vacated, it would allow for its demolition and the construction of the tenth new house. By utilizing lot No. 21 for the new construction, only nine additional lots were needed to build the ten houses, hence, Margaret Stevenson’s former residence at 27 became 36 (27 + 9) in the renumbering and not 37.\nFor nearly a century and a half after Franklin departed London for America in March of 1775 the scales were tipped heavily in favor of his residence having been No. 7 Craven Street. As early as 1807 in London; Being An Accurate History And Description Of The British Metropolis And Its Neighborhood, Volume 4, one would have read: “In Craven Street is a house, No. 7, remarkable for having been the residence of Dr. Benjamin Franklin.[14] In 1815, the identical phrase appeared in The Beauties of England and Wales.[15] After 23 editions of not mentioning Franklin, his name finally appeared in the 24th edition of The Picture of London in 1826: “The house, No. 7, Craven Street, in the Strand, was once the residence of Dr. Benjamin Franklin.”[16] In 1840, Jared Sparks referred to Franklin’s Craven Street residence appearing in London guide books in his voluminous The Works of Benjamin Franklin: “In the London Guide Books, ‘No. 7, Craven Street,’ is still indicated as the house in which Dr. Franklin resided.”[17] In 1846, George Gulliver F.R.S., in his book, The Works of William Hewson, wrote: “She [Polly] had been upon terms of the warmest friendship with Dr. Franklin\nFigure 5. No. 7 Craven Street with Memorial Tablet. (Photo courtesy of British History Online, and the Survey of London)\nsince she was eighteen years of age. That eminent philosopher resided with her mother, Mrs. Margaret Stevenson, at No. 7, Craven Street, Strand, during the fifteen years of his abode in London.”[18] Guide books mentioning Franklin at No. 7 continued to proliferate throughout the century: Handbook for London; Past and Present, Volume I (1849);”[19] Handbook for Modern London (1851);”[20] The Town; Its Memorable Characters and Events (1859);”[21] London and Its Environs (1879).[22] There was an anomaly when London In 1880 Illustrated With Bird’s-Eye Views of the Principal Streets, Sixth Edition (1880) placed Franklin at 27 Craven street.[23] The anomaly lasted for six years until his place of residence was changed to No. 7 in the revised edition, London. Illustrated by Eighteen Bird’s-Eye Views of the Principal Streets (1886).[24] London Past and Present; Its History, Associations, and Traditions, Volume 1 (1891), copied the 1849 Handbook for London almost word-for-word and included, “The house is on the right from the Strand.”[25] In October of 1867, The Society of Arts in London declared that: “In order to show how rich the metropolis is in the memory of important personages and events, which it would be desirable to mark by means of tablets on houses, the Council have caused an alphabetical list to be prepared, … ”[26] Franklin had been elected a corresponding member to the Society in 1756 and was a popular choice among Council members deciding who they were to memorialize.[27] By January of 1870, a tablet honoring him was affixed to the house they believed to have been his residence while in London, No. 7 Craven Street in the Strand on the west side of the street.[28] A majority of historians writing about Franklin in the nineteenth and early twentieth century placed him at No. 7: O. L. Holley, The Life of Benjamin Franklin (1848); E. M. Tomkinson, Benjamin Franklin (1885); John Torrey Morse, Benjamin Franklin (1891); Paul Elmer More, Benjamin Franklin (1900); John S. C. Abbot, Benjamin Franklin (1903); Sydney George Fisher, The True Benjamin Franklin (1903). A notable exception is D. H. Montgomery’s His Life Written by Himself published in 1896. He has Franklin at No. 27 Craven Street. It seems then that depending upon the source, Franklin was thought to have lived at either No. 7 or No. 27, but not both, the overwhelming majority favoring No. 7. As late as 2011, Franklin is still mentioned as living at No. 7.[29]\nIn 1913, No. 7 was scheduled to be torn down. An article in the March 1914 edition of The Book News Monthly, describes the situation:\nAs is well known to informed American pilgrims, it has been possible for all admirers of the famous philosopher and statesman to pay their respects to his memory before that house, No. 7 Craven Street, just off the Strand, which was his chief home during his two sojourns in the British capital, but even as these lines are being written the London newspapers are recording that that interesting shrine is soon to be pulled down to make room for a restaurant. It is some mitigation of this misfortune to remember that at the most the Craven Street house was nothing more than a reproduction of the one in which Franklin had his suite of four rooms, for the structure has been rebuilt since Franklin’s time. When, then, some one makes a piteous plea that at least the philosopher’s bedroom shall be preserved, the soothing answer is that the apartment in question is only a replica of that in which the illustrious American enjoyed his well-earned slumbers in 1757-62 and 1764-75. The restaurant-builder, however, with an eye doubtless to possible American patronage, has assured the world that every effort will be made to preserve as much as possible of the entire structure.[30]\nConcerned with the possible demolition of Franklin’s residence, the Royal Society of Arts (formerly the Society of Arts[31]) initiated an inquiry into the matter.[32] The London County Council, having taken over the responsibility of placing memorial tablets on notable houses from the Royal Society, was charged with the investigation. It ultimately fell to Sir George Laurence Gomme, a clerk to the Council, to come up with a response. A few years earlier Sir George had discovered Margaret Stevenson residing at No. 27 Craven Street in the Westminster Rate Books. He must have wondered why No. 7 on the west side of Craven Street was being celebrated as Franklin’s residence when the evidence clearly showed otherwise.\nSir George and his staff examined the various London directories discussed earlier and came up with a novel explanation for the discrepancy. They concluded that there had been two numbering systems on Craven Street. An anonymous author echoes Sir George’s conclusion about the two numbering systems in an article in The Journal of the Royal Society of Arts:\n…an inspection of the directories of that time proves that there were at least two systems of numbering in Craven Street before the erection of the additional houses. According to one of these the numbers started from the top (Strand end) on the west side of the street, and ran down to the bottom to No. 20, then crossed over and went back to the Strand along the east side – 21 to 36. According to the other system, the east side of the street was numbered from the bottom upwards, starting at No 1. This was not apparently in general use, but there is evidence that this numbering was at all events occasionally used.\nThe evidence of these two systems of numbering, and for believing that Mrs. Stevenson’s house was first No. 7 under the oldest system, next No. 27 under the second system, and finally No. 36 under the latest and existing system, is to be found in the various directories and the Westminster rate-books.[33]\nThe “evidence” mentioned above consisted of The London Directory’s listing of Brown & Whiteford at No. 9: “The rate-books for 1781 and 1786 show the house next but one to the north of Mrs. Stevenson’s house as in the occupation of Brown and ‘Whiteford,’ while the old directories mention the business of the firm as wine merchants, and give their address as 9, Craven Street – then a little later, down to 1791, as 29, Craven Street. Curiously enough, in the years 1778 to 1780, or 1781, Lowndes gives it as No. 9, and Kent as 29.”[34] Ignoring Kent’s Directory having Brown and Whiteford as 29 and The London Directory (Lowndes) having Brown and Whiteford “a little later” as 29, and knowing that Mrs. Stevenson lived two doors south of them, Sir George concluded that her house must have been numbered 7, even though there is no listing in any of the directories of her residence ever being No. 7. He surmised that the No. 7 on the west side of Craven Street with the memorial tablet thought to have been Franklin’s residence had simply been confused with number 7 (27) on the east side. Again from The Journal of the Royal Society of Arts:\nTaking all the evidence together, there cannot be any doubt whatever that Mrs. Stevenson’s house, in which Franklin lodged, was the house two doors north from Craven Court, first numbered 7, afterwards 27, and finally 36, and consequently that the house in which Franklin lived was that now numbered 36, not the one now numbered 7, on which the tablet is placed.[35]\nA response to The Royal Society of Arts was issued: “… the London County Council … informed the Society that it had made a mistake and that No. 36 Craven street was the building that deserved commemoration.”[36] The Society accepted the Council’s conclusion, and despite assurances of preservation by the restaurant builder, No. 7 was torn down the following year.\nSir George’s assertion “that Mrs. Stevenson’s house, in which Franklin lodged, was the house two doors north from Craven Court” was correct, however, his assertion that it was “first numbered 7, afterwards 27”, was not. It was only by association with the errant entry of Brown & Whiteford at No. 9 from 1776-1782 in The London Directory that Mrs. Stevenson’s address was conjured to be No. 7. The problem with associating her address exclusively with that of Brown & Whiteford at No. 9 during those years is that, as previously demonstrated, The London Directory also listed four other Craven Street residents, Bond, Rowles, Sneyd, and Michie, who’s addresses did conform to the numbering system in The Westminster Rate Books. If Brown & Whiteford at No. 9 was indicative of a numbering system different from The Westminster Rate Books, Bond, Rowles, Sneyd, and Michie would have been listed as Nos. 10, 11, 12, and 15, respectively. So on one hand Sir George was relying on the Westminster Rate Books to establish Mrs. Stevenson at No. 27 and on the other hand he was dismissing the Westminster Rate Books to establish her at No. 7. Instead of using the anomalous listing of Brown & Whiteford at No. 9, he could have just as easily, and more logically, used the Bond et al. listings, or the post-1782 Brown & Whiteford listing in the London Directory at No. 29 to establish Mrs. Stevenson at No. 27. Even if there had been two numbering systems, his assertion that No. 27 was first numbered 7 would still be false. The earliest numbering system was the Westminster Rate Books dating from the early 1730s when the houses were constructed. Brown & Whiteford at No. 9 didn’t appear until 46 years later and then only for a brief period.\nThere is ample evidence in Franklin’s correspondence and in a memoir by Polly Hewson (Mrs. Stevenson’s daughter) that Benjamin and Mrs. Stevenson lived in not one, but two houses on Craven Street. On July 6, 1772, Polly wrote to Benjamin from her house at Broad Street North in London: “My Mother I must tell you went off last friday week, took our little Boy with her and left Mr. Hewson [Polly’s husband, William] the care of her House [27 Craven Street]. The first thing he did was pulling down a part of it in order to turn it to his own purpose, and advantage we hope. This Demolition cannot affect you, who at present are not even a Lodger [Benjamin was traveling at the time], your litterary apartment remains untouch’d, the Door is lock’d …”[37] In a memoir about her husband written after his death Polly writes: “He [William Hewson] began his Lectures Sept. 30, 1772, in Craven-street, where he had built a Theatre adjoining a house which he intended for the future residence of his family.”[38] On October 7, 1772, Benjamin wrote to his son William: “I am very well. But we [Mrs. Stevenson and I] are moving to another House in the same street; and I go down tomorrow to Lord LeDespencer’s to [stay a] Week till things are settled.”[39] To his son-in-law, Richard Bache, on the same day he wrote: “We are moving to another House in the [street] leaving this to Mr. Hewson.”[40] Writing to a friend on October 30, 1772 he explained: “I should sooner have answered your Questions but that in the Confusion of my Papers, occasioned by removing to another House, I could not readily find the Memorandums …”[41] On November 4, 1772 Benjamin informed his wife Deborah of the move. “We are removed to a more convenient House in the same street, Mrs. Stevenson having accommodated her Son-in-Law with that we lived in. The Removing has been a troublesome Affair, but is now over.”[42]\nAn agreement had been struck between the parties. Margaret and Benjamin would move to another house on Craven Street and allow Polly and William to move into No. 27, the large yard behind the house being spacious enough to accommodate the anatomy school William wished to build.[43] Perhaps the idea was inspired by Margaret’s next-door neighbor at No. 26, Dr. John Leake, a man-midwife and founder of the Westminster Lying-in Hospital, who had built a theater adjoining his residence in which he practiced anatomy and taught midwifery.[44]\nAfter Margaret and Benjamin vacated No. 27, Polly, William, their son William Jr., and William’s younger sister, Dorothy Hewson, took up residence there.[45] In the 1773 Westminster Rate Books for Craven Street, Mrs. Stevenson’s (Stephenson in the Rate Books) name has been crossed out and replaced with “William Hewson.”[46] Further proof that the Hewsons had indeed moved into 27 Craven Street has been confirmed by the discovery of human and animal remains buried in the basement of No. 36 (formerly No. 27 and now the Benjamin Franklin House), a by-product of the dissections that took place at William’s anatomy school.[47]\nSo what house on Craven Street did Mrs. Stevenson and Benjamin move into after vacating No. 27? An examination of the Westminster Rate Books for the years 1774 and 1775 reveal them living not at No. 7 on the west side of Craven Street as one might expect from the overwhelming consensus of nineteenth century guidebooks and biographies, but surprisingly at No. 1.[48] The controversy of No. 7 being torn down was all for naught as it had never been Franklin’s residence. Sir George was correct on that point. Unfortunately, No. 1 was torn down as well in the early part of the twentieth century. The first time No. 1 is mentioned as Franklin’s second residence is in the Survey of London: Volume 18, St Martin-in-The-Fields II: the Strand published by the London County Council in 1937, ironically the same County Council that had declared No. 36 as Franklin’s only residence twenty-four years earlier.\nFrom 1748 until 1772 Margaret ‘Stephenson’ occupied this house [No. 27 (36)], and it was there that Benjamin Franklin settled after his arrival in London in 1757 as Agent to the General Assembly of Pennsylvania … In October, 1772, Mrs. Stevenson and Franklin removed to No. 1, Craven Street (now demolished), and No. 36 was for the next two years occupied by William Hewson, surgeon, who had married Mary Stevenson.[49]\nIn the spring of 1774, William Hewson died unexpectedly of septicemia two weeks after cutting himself while dissecting a cadaver. Polly was left to care for their two young sons and was pregnant with a daughter she would give birth to in August of the same year. Is it possible that Margaret and Benjamin moved back into No. 27 to assist Polly after the death of her husband as suggested in The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin?[50]\nIf the Westminster Rate Books are to be believed, the answer is no. For the year 1774, the Rate Books list Margaret Stevenson at No. 1 and William Hewson at No. 27. For the year 1775, they list Margaret Stevenson at No. 1 and Magnus Falkner (Falconer/Falconar) at No. 27. Magnus was William’s assistant at the anatomy school and fiancé to William’s sister, Dorothy. On his death bed, William instructed Polly, “let Mr. Falconar be my successor.”[51] Magnus would immediately take over the running of the anatomy school and continue William’s unfinished research. Four months later, he and Dorothy would marry.[52] Essentially only two things changed at 27 Craven Street after William’s death: Polly gave birth to her daughter, and Magnus replaced William as the lease holder, so even if Margaret and Benjamin had wished to move back into No. 27, there would have been no room for them. It is also interesting to note that considering the multiple times Benjamin wrote of his move out of No. 27 (and complained of it), he never once mentioned moving back into No. 27 in any of his correspondence after Mr. Hewson’s death.\nFigure 6. No. 36 Craven Street. (Photo courtesy of David Ross, britainexpress.com)\nIn sum, based on the Westminster Rate Books[53] and Franklin’s correspondence, Mrs. Stevenson is known to have resided at No. 27 (36) Craven Street from 1748 to 1772. It follows that, aside from the two years Franklin spent in Philadelphia from 1762 to 1764, he resided there from 1757 to 1772. Franklin’s correspondence also reveals that in the autumn of 1772, he and Mrs. Stevenson moved to another house on Craven Street. The 1773 Westminster Rate Books show her name crossed off at No. 27 and William Hewson’s inserted. The following year the Rate Books list her at No. 1 Craven Street. Evidence for Mrs. Stevenson and Benjamin remaining at No. 1 after William’s death appears in the Westminster Rate Books for 1775 which have Mrs. Stevenson still residing at No. 1 and Magnus Falkner residing at No. 27. Further evidence can be construed from the lack of any mention of a move back into No. 27 in Franklin’s correspondence. Despite the many theories one could devise as to why Franklin was thought to have lived at No. 7 Craven Street by so many guide books and Franklin biographers of the nineteenth century, one thing is certain; at some point after Franklin’s departure to America in March of 1775, and no later than 1807, someone mistakenly associated him with No. 7 on the west side of Craven Street, and it soon became his de facto residence. Credit must go to D. H. Montgomery in 1896 and Sir George in 1913 for setting the record partially straight by placing Franklin at No. 27(36). In 1937, the London County Council gave us the first accurate account of Franklin’s residences on Craven Street in the Survey of London at No. 27(36) and No. 1. It has been shown conclusively that No. 27 was never previously numbered 7. It was, however, renumbered 36 in 1792 after ten additional houses were built at the southern end of the street and remains No. 36 to this day.\n[1] “Craven Street and Hungerford Lane”, in Survey of London: Volume 18, St Martin-in-the-Fields II: the Strand, ed. G H Gater and E P Wheeler (London, 1937), 27-39, Early History of the Site.\nhttp://www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-london/vol18/pt2/pp27-39\n[2] “England, Westminster Rate Books, 1634-1900,” from database with images, Craven Street – 1735, FamilySearch from database by FindMyPast and images digitized by FamilySearch; citing Westminster City Archives, London.\n[3] Ibid., Craven Street – 1748.\n[4] The Statutes at Large, From Magna Charta to the End of the Eleventh Parliament of Great Britain. Anno 1761 Continued, Vol. XXVII, ed. Danby Pickering, (Cambridge, John Archdeacon, 1767), 96.\n[6] James Raven, Publishing Business in Eighteenth-Century England, (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2014), 201.\n[7] The London Directory For the Year 1776, Ninth Edition, (London: T. Lowndes, 1776), title page.\n[8] Kent’s Directory For the Year 1778, Forty-Sixth Edition, (London: Richard and Henry Causton, 1778), title page.\n[9] A listing in Kent’s Directory for the Year 1882 on p. 28 reveals, “Brown Sarah, Leather-seller, 1, Westmoreland-buildings, Aldersgate-street”, and in Kent’s Directory for the Year 1883 on p. 175, “Whiteland Mary, Wine & Brandy Mercht. Jermyn-str. St. James.”\n[10] “The Papers of Benjamin Franklin,” Sponsored by The American Philosophical Society and Yale University, Digital Edition by The Packard Humanities Institute, 22:263a.\nhttp://franklinpapers.org/franklin\nMrs. Stevenson wrote to Benjamin Franklin a letter from her new home at 75 Northumberland Court on November 16, 1775: “In this Court I have a kind friend, Mr. Lechmoen he comes and seats with me and talks of you with a hiy regard and friendship.”\n[11] Survey of London, Early History of the Site.\n[12] Survey of London, Footnotes/n 10.\n[13] Survey of London, Historical Notes/No. 31.\n[14] David Hughson, LL.D., London; Being An Accurate History And Description Of The British Metropolis And Its Neighbourhood, To Thirty Miles Extent, From An Actual Perambulation, Vol. IV, (London: W. Stratford, 1807), 227.\n[15] The Reverend Joseph Nightingale, The Beauties of England and Wales: Or, Original Delineations, Topographical, Historical, and Descriptive, of Each County, Vol. X, Part III, Vol. II (London: J. Harris; Longman and Co.; J. Walker; R. Baldwin; Sherwood and Co.; J. and J. Cundee; B. and R. Crosby and Co.; J Cuthell; J. and J. Richardson; Cadell and Davies; C. and J. Rivington; and G. Cowie and Co., 1815), 245.\n[16] John Britton, F.S.A. & Co., ed., The Original Picture of London, Enlarged and Improved: Being A Correct Guide For The Stranger, As Well As For the Inhabitant, To The Metropolis Of The British Empire Together With A Description Of The Environs, The Twenty-Fourth Edition (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1826), 479.\n[17] Jared Sparks, The Works of Benjamin Franklin, Vol. VII, (Philadelphia: Childs & Peterson, 1840), 151.\n[18] George Gulliver, F.R.S., The Works of William Hewson, F. R. S., (London: Printed for the Sydenham Society, MDCCCXLVI), xx.\n[19] Peter Cunningham, Handbook for London; Past and Present, Vol. I, (London: John Murray, 1849), 245.\n[20] F. Saunders, Memories of the Great Metropolis: or, London, from the Tower to the Crystal Palace, (New York: G.P. Putnam, MDCCCLII), 138.\n[21] Leigh Hunt, The Town; Its Memorable Characters and Events, (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1859), 185.\n[22] K. Baedeker, London and Its Environs, Including Excursions To Brighton, The Isle of Wight, Etc.: Handbook For Travelers, Second Edition, (London: Dulau and Co., 1879), 133.\n[23] Herbert Fry, London In 1880 Illustrated With Bird’s-Eye Views of the Principal Streets, Sixth Edition, (New York: Scribner, Welford, & Co., 1880), 50.\n[24] Herbert Fry, London. Illustrated By Eighteen Bird’s-Eye Views of the Principal Streets, (London: W. H. Allen and Co., 1886), 40.\n[25] Henry B. Wheatley, F.S.A., London Past and Present; Its History, Associations, and Traditions, Vol. 1, (London: John Murray, New York: Scribner & Welford, 1891), 473.\n[26] The Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. XV, No. 778, (October 18, 1867): 717.\n[27] D. G. C. Allen, “Dear and Serviceable to Each Other: Benjamin Franklin and the Royal Society of Arts,” American Philosophical Society, Vol. 144, No. 3, (September 2000): 248-249.\nFranklin was a corresponding member in 1756 because he was still residing in Philadelphia. He became an active member the following year when he moved to London.\n[28] The Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. XVIII, No. 894, (Jan. 7, 1870): 137.\n“Since the last announcement, the following tablets have been affixed on houses formerly occupied by – Benjamin Franklin, 7 Craven-street, Strand, W.C.”\n[29] Franklin in His Own Time, eds. Kevin J. Haytes and Isabelle Bour, (Iowa City, University of Iowa Press, 2011), xxxvii.\n“Takes lodgings with Margaret Stevenson at No. 7 Craven Street.” It is unknown if the editors are referring to No. 7 on the west side of Craven Street or No. 36 on the east side using Sir George’s explanation of No. 36 being previously numbered 7.\n[30] Henry C. Shelly, “American Shrines on English Soil, III. In the Footprints of Benjamin Franklin,” in The Book News Monthly, September, 1913 to August, 1914, (Philadelphia: John Wanamaker, 1914), 325.\n[31] The Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. LVI, No. 2,880, (Jan. 31, 1908): 245.\nhttp://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015058423073;view=1up;seq=251\n“His Majesty the King, who is Patron of the Society, has granted permission to the Society to prefix to its title the term ‘Royal,’ and the Society will consequently be known in future as the ‘Royal Society of Arts.’”\n[32] Nineteenth Annual Report, 1914, of the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society, (Albany: J. B. Lyon Company, 1914), 293.\nhttp://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89072985302;view=1up;seq=4;size=150\n[33] The Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. LXII, No. 3,183, (Nov. 21, 1913): 18.\nhttp://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015058422968;view=1up;seq=26\n[36] Allen, “Dear and Serviceable,” 263-264.\n[37] Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 19:20.\n[38] Thomas Joseph Pettigrew, F. L. S., Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Late John Coakley Lettsom With a Selection From His Correspondence, Vol. I, (London: Nichols, Son, and Bentley, 1817), 144 of Correspondence.\n[39] Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 19:321b.\n[40] Ibid., 19:314.\n[41] Ibid., 19:353a.\n[43] Simon David John Chaplin, John Hunter and the ‘museum oeconomy’, 1750-1800, Department of History, King’s College London. Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of London., 202.\n“Following Falconar’s death [1778] the lease [27 Craven Street] was advertised, and the buildings were described as:\nA genteel and commodious house, in good Repair, with Coach-house and Stabling for two Horses…consisting of two rooms and light closets on each floor, with outbuildings in the Yard, a Museum, a Compleat Theatre, and other conveniences. (Daily Advertiser, 27 August 1778)”\n[44] Simon Chaplin, “Dissection and Display in Eighteenth-Century London,” in Anatomical Dissection in Enlightenment England and Beyond: Autopsy, Pathology and Display, ed. Dr. Piers Mitchell, (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2012), 108.\n“Given that a nearby building at 35 [ No. 26 in Franklin’s time] was occupied by the man-midwife John Leake, who advertised lectures – including lessons in the art of making preparations – at his ‘theatre’ between 1764 and 1788, it is possible that some facilities were shared. In both cases, however, the buildings [Leake’s residence at No. 26 and Hewson’s residence next door at 27] served a dual function as domestic accommodation and as sites for lecturing and dissection.”\n[45] George Gulliver, F.R.S., The Works of William Hewson, F. R. S., (London: Printed for the Sydenham Society, MDCCCXLVI), xviii.\n[46] Westminster Rate Books, Craven Street – 1773, courtesy of the City of Westminster Archives.\n[47] S.W. Hillson et al., “Benjamin Franklin, William Hewson, and the Craven Street Bones,” Archaeology International, Vol. 2, (Nov. 22, 1998): 14-16.\nhttp://dx.doi.org/10.5334/ai.0206\n[48] Westminster Rate Books, Craven Street – 1774, 1775, courtesy of the City of Westminster Archives.\n[49] Survey of London, Historical Notes/No. 36, Craven Street (not sourced).\n[50] Gordon S. Wood, The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin, (New York: The Penguin Press, 2004), 261.\n[51] Pettigrew, Memoirs, 146 of Correspondence.\n[52] http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-22-02-0178, note 7. “Falconar married Hewson’s sister five months after the Doctor’s death; most of the Craven Street circle attended the wedding, and BF gave away the bride: Polly to Barbara Hewson, Oct. 4, 1774, APS” (American Philosophical Society); “England Marriages, 1538–1973 ,” database, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:V52W-TGS : accessed September 15, 2015), Magnus Falconar and Dorothy Hewson, September 12, 1774; citing Saint Martin In The Fields, Westminster, London, England, reference ; FHL microfilm 561156, 561157, 561158, 942 B4HA V. 25, 942 B4HA V. 66.\n[53] I chose to rely on the Westminster Rate Books for the numbering system on Craven Street. The books were consistent throughout the eighteenth century in the ordering of residents on the street and were used as the basis for the 1792 re-numbering. For the most part, commercial directories aligned with them as well. If by chance a directory didn’t initially align, it would inevitably produce future editions that did.\nBenjamin Franklin, Benjamin Franklin House, London\nMore from David Turnquist\nIf one looked into Benjamin Franklin’s time on Craven Street, they might...\nI think it’s very ironic that on the street maps included in your excellent article, Craven Street is so close to Scotland Yard. Because following the back and forth juxtapositions of numbers 7, 27 and 36 Craven Street (throw in 75 Northumberland Court and 1 Craven Street, too) was a case that could confound Sherlock Holmes.\nExcellent job of deciphering street renumbering material spanning sixty years, including that of a wrong house number (# 7) being erroneously identified and then perpetuated in subsequent street map printings. It’s gratifying at least to know that the present day #36 Craven Street is the correct house for Ben Franklin tourists to visit. Except for #1 Craven Street for the last three years Franklin was in London, but we won’t get into that.\nAgain, excellent article, David!", "answers": ["An alphabetical list of names and places of abode of the merchants and principal traders of the cities of London and Westminster, the Borough of Southwark, and their environs, with the number affixed to each house."], "length": 6567, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "c39f97567cff21a8591f02117632ea71e7b566f65d2d62ab"}
{"input": "What is the rationality coefficient used in the observation model?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Incorporating Human Path Preferences in Robot Navigation with Minimal Interventions\nPublish Date: 16 Mar 2023\nAuthor List: Oriana Peltzer, Dylan Asmar, Mac Schwager, Mykel Kochenderfer\n\nFigure\n\nHyperplane arrangement of a twodimensional space containing two obstacles (colored in gray).The robot is located inside the pink polytope, surrounded by three adjacent obstacle-free polytopes.Each hyperplane on the boundary of the robot's polytope corresponds to one of the nonredundant constraints in eq.(4).(b)Graph derived from the hyperplane arrangement.The nodes on the graph designate polytopes, and edges designate transitions to adjacent polytopes.To estimate the human's preference, the robot updates a posterior over the goal and over which of the graph transitions φ 1 , φ 2 and φ 3 is preferred by the human.(c)Example preference defined over the graph.The location of the goal is indicated in yellow in the lower right polytope.For each node, the outgoing pink arrow designates the edge on the graph corresponding to the preferred transition between polytopes.\nSimple, 10 × 10, 8 polytopes.(b) Map 2: Office, 10 × 10, 56 polytopes.(c) Map 3: Classroom, 20 × 20, 73 polytopes.(d) Sampled observations and robot's executed trajectories.\nFig.5: Maps used for simulating the robot navigation problem with path preferences.In (d), the heading angles observed are indicated with arrows.The goal is indicated with a pink circle, and the orange robot corresponds to the starting location.The blue robot follows a policy that accounts for path preference, while the green robot does not.The opacity of the robots increases with time.\nMap 1 problem setup and example realizations for goal-only (green) and path preference (blue) solution methods.The robot starts at the lower left corner of the environment, and the goal of the task (pink circle) is in the upper left area.The robot does not know which goal, among 10 options (shown in light blue squares), is the correct goal.The human provides noisy observations, indicated by arrows, at each iteration.The green robot selects actions according to the goal-only baseline, and the blue robot uses our proposed method to infer path preferences.The polytopes composing G are drawn in blue.Probability of correct goal.WLPHVWHS +J (c) Entropy of goal distribution g.\nFig. 6: Probability of the correct goal, fig.6b, and entropy of the goal belief distribution P (g), fig.6c, for the same problem setup, fig.6a.In this problem instance, the human's preference is to go to the goal by passing on the right side of the obstacle.Results are averaged over 50 runs and the area filled represents one standard deviation above and below the mean value.The goal-only baseline shows an over-confident prediction (shown by the strong reduction in belief entropy) that the correct goal is less likely, making it more difficult to reach the correct goal compared to a method that accounts for path preference.\nSuccess rates in the simple environment (Map 1).The results are averaged over 6 randomly sampled problem instances (start location, goal location, and goal possibilities), and over 50 runs per problem instance.∆T is the number of time steps separating two consecutive human inputs.The robot's mission time is Tmax = 30 time steps.We selected γ h = 1.5, corresponding to relatively noisy human inputs and making the problem more difficult to solve for the robot.\nComputation times for Goal Only and Path Preference methods on Map 1 (fig.5a),Map 2 (fig.5b), and Map 3 (fig.5c),averaged over 100 runs with randomly sampled problem instances.The 95 % confidence interval is provided with the mean.We evaluate computation time at the first iteration of each run (where the search depth takes on its highest value Tmax).\n\nabstract\n\nRobots that can effectively understand human intentions from actions are crucial for successful human-robot collaboration. In this work, we address the challenge of a robot navigating towards an unknown goal while also accounting for a human's preference for a particular path in the presence of obstacles.\nThis problem is particularly challenging when both the goal and path preference are unknown a priori. To overcome this challenge, we propose a method for encoding and inferring path preference online using a partitioning of the space into polytopes. Our approach enables joint inference over the goal and path preference using a stochastic observation model for the human.\nWe evaluate our method on an unknown-goal navigation problem with sparse human interventions, and find that it outperforms baseline approaches as the human's inputs become increasingly sparse. We find that the time required to update the robot's belief does not increase with the complexity of the environment, which makes our method suitable for online applications.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nCollaboration between humans and robots has become increasingly important and one key aspect of this collaboration is the ability for robots to adapt to human decisions. In many scenarios, such as a robot navigating through a busy room to deliver an item, it is important for the robot to take into account human preferences.\nFor instance, humans may prefer a specific path that would allow their colleagues to notice the item being delivered, but this preference may change dynamically based on various factors such as changes in the environment or unforeseen circumstances. While some preferences can be incorporated into the path-planning process, accommodating dynamic user preferences in real-time remains challenging.\nIn this paper, we propose a way to enable robots to adapt to human preferences dynamically by leveraging real-time feedback to inform decision-making. In this work, we tackle the problem of robot navigation in which the robot cannot observe the goal or the preferred path to the goal, but must make navigation decisions that are influenced by humans through recommended actions.\nPrior work has explored how to adapt to a human's preference through feedback, but such approaches often require a high level of intervention, which can be time-consuming and impractical in real-world scenarios. To optimize the use of human input and quickly infer the human's preference, Fig. : An autonomous robot navigates in a simulated classroom towards a goal location (pink circle).\nAt the start of its mission, it receives direction indications (arrows) from a human that indicate which path it should take to get to the goal. In this scenario, the human wants the robot to go around the desks on the right side of the classroom. A robot that does not reason over path preferences (green) will take the shortest path to the goal regardless of the human's input.\nOur method (blue) infers the human's path preference from these indications and adapts to their recommendations. we propose an approach that leverages probabilistic representations of human preference and incorporates real-time feedback. Previous research by Bajcsy et al. considered an online adaptation problem in a manipulation task, where the person can apply forces to the robot to indicate their preferences.\nBy allowing the robot to continue its task while taking into account a probabilistic representation of human preference, their approach does not require frequent inputs. Building on this idea, we adopt a similar approach to adapt to a human's preference in the context of a robot autonomously navigating through a known environment, such as a cluttered office space.\nSpecifically, we focus on allowing the human to influence the robot's trajectory with respect to obstacles, by providing guidance on preferred routes or paths, while the robot continues to execute its task. Paths can be represented using homotopy classes . However, homotopies can pose computational challenges when used to encode and infer human preferences.\nWhen the robot maintains a belief over homotopy classes, the inference problem can become exponentially complex with the number of obstacles in the space. Additionally, when the goal is unknown, the number of variables increases with the number of candidate destinations. This complexity can render the decision-making problem intractable.\nOur solution is to encode path preference based on a partitioning of the environment into polytopes . This representation allows path preferences to be expressed as sets of preferred transitions between adjacent polytopes. Paths belonging to different homotopy classes correspond to different sequences of transitions.\nBy leveraging conditional independence assumptions, we can make the Bayesian inference problem tractable. These assumptions exploit the fact that human actions provide information about the path in a piece-wise manner. For example, indicating a preference for navigating around a particular obstacle only provides information about the local area and not the entire path.\nFinally, after updating its belief representation over the human's preference, the robot can adapt to indications by replanning online. Our contributions are as follows. • We formulate the human-robot collaboration problem as a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) where both the goal of the task and the human's path preference are unknown random variables.\n• We propose an encoding of a human's path preference using a partitioning of the environment into polytopes, along with conditional independence assumptions that make the Bayesian inference problem tractable to infer the task goal and path preference online. • Through simulations in two environments of different sizes and complexity, we show that our method is effective for solving problems where the robot must reach a goal that is unknown a-priori while simultaneously adapting to a human's indications.\nOur method shows higher success rates compared to baseline approaches when the human inputs are sparse. Our approach enables a robot to make effective navigation decisions in collaboration with a human, even when the goal and path preference are not known in advance, and with minimal human input. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in shared autonomy and interactive systems, where humans and robots work together to accomplish tasks.\nSeveral approaches have been proposed to address the challenge of enabling effective collaboration between human and robot agents while still achieving high task performance. Losey et al. and Jeon, Losey, and Sadigh propose a framework where a human operator is given control of a task-relevant latent action space while an autonomous system handles the rest.\nDragan and Srinivasa present a formalism for arbitrating between a user's input and a robot's policy when both human and robot share control of the same action space. Cognetti et al. [7] provide a method for real-time modifications of a path, . . . Fig. : We model the intent inference problem with the above diagram.\nAt each step in time, the robot receives an observation ot from the human conditioned on its current location st, the intended goal g, and the human's path preference θ. The robot updates its belief over g and θ and transitions to a next location st+1. while Hagenow et al. present a method that allows an outside agent to modify key robot state variables and blends the changes with the original control.\nHowever, a common challenge of these approaches is the high level of intervention required from humans. Best and Fitch propose a method for predicting an agent's intended trajectory from observations. Rather than maintaining a belief over the agent's future path, they infer the agent's intended goal among a set of candidate locations at the boundary of the space.\nThis approach provides information on where the agent is heading and generates a distribution of candidate future trajectories for the agent. Inferring the goal of the task among a discrete set of candidates is also relevant to the area of shared autonomy. Javdani, Srinivasa, and Bagnell propose a formalism for shared control of a robotic arm, where the robot must assist the human in picking up an object but needs to infer which object the human has chosen from joystick inputs.\nPlanning with homotopy class constraints is useful in problems where the robot's requirements are given with respect to obstacles, and Yi, Goodrich, and Seppi consider topological constraints provided by human operators. Bhattacharya propose an efficient algorithm for solving pathplanning problems under homotopic constraints.\nHowever, the number of homotopy classes for a given problem can be infinite, and as the robot changes location and updates its representation of the world, carrying out inference over homotopy classes in a dynamic environment requires recomputing the set of homotopies at every iteration, making the belief update challenging.\nPrior work has addressed the challenge of shared autonomy by considering how robots can infer a human's intended goal, or how they can infer the preferred path to a goal. However, we argue that inferring the goal and the path as separate problems can lead to over-confidence in incorrect beliefs about the user's preferences.\nTo illustrate this point, consider the following scenario: a robot and a human are collaborating to move an object from one end of a room to Fig. : Using the hyperplanes composing the H-representation of each obstacle, we construct a hyperplane arrangement of the obstacle-free space (a). We define the human's preference for the robot's one step action choices as the posterior distribution (given all human input up to that point) over transitions from the current to the neighboring polytopes, i.e. edges on the graph.\nEach time the robot transitions to a new polytope, the set of neighbor polytopes and the distribution over human preferences are updated. another, but there is an obstacle in the way. The human would like the robot to take a path around the obstacle on the left, even though the goal is on the right. If the robot only infers the goal from the human's inputs, it may incorrectly assume that the goal is on the right, and become over-confident in this belief.\nOn the other hand, if the robot only infers the preferred path, it may mistakenly assume that the goal is on the left, leading to a failure in completing the task. To overcome these challenges, our work proposes a joint inference approach that considers both the human's intended goal and their preferred path to that goal.\nSpecifically, we model the human's preference over different homotopy classes and leverage a conditional independence assumption to provide a tractable solution. In our approach, we assume that the human's inputs are noisily rational conditioned on both the goal and the preference. By jointly inferring the goal and path preference, we can avoid over-confidence in incorrect beliefs about the user's preferences, leading to improved system performance.\nWe consider the problem of robot navigation in a known environment to an unknown destination, where a human can intervene and provide a heading direction to the robot using a joystick or force cues. The human also has a preference on which path the robot should take with respect to obstacles, and our objective is for the robot to understand the human's intentions and execute the task with minimal interventions.\nLet g be a discrete random variable denoting the goal of the task, belonging to a set of candidates Ω g , and let θ be a discrete-valued random variable representing the human's path preference, belonging to a set of possible preferences Θ. The physical location of the robot at time index t is denoted by s t ∈ R 2 , and the robot's action at time index t, belonging to some action space A, is denoted by a t .\nThe transition model T (s t+1 | s t , a t ) is deterministic, meaning the robot has full control over its future location. At any time step, the human may provide an observation to the robot. When the human intervenes, the robot receives a direction (heading angle) that can be mapped to a future location in space.\nMore specifically, we map the direction to an intended location, which is the resulting robot location after advancing in the indicated direction for one time step. For simplicity, we consider that the robot directly makes an observation o t of the location indicated by the human. We assume that the robot has a stochastic observation model for the human P (o t | s t , g, θ) that is conditioned on both the goal of the task g and the human's preferred path θ.\nWe further assume that having chosen a goal and path preference, the human takes actions to noisily minimize a cost function C g,θ that measures the cost of moving from the robot's current location to the goal along the preferred path. For example, C g,θ (s t , o t ) can be the length of the shortest path from location s t to the goal g after taking a first step to o t , and constrained by path preference θ.\nWe use C g,θ to induce a probability distribution over observations, given by: where γ h is a hyperparameter that designates the rationality coefficient. This model assumes the human will pick the lowest cost action with the highest probability and the likelihood of an action decreases exponentially with the increase in cost .\nOur inclusion of the path preference θ sets our approach apart from . The model is shown in fig. represented as a Bayesian Network.\n\nInference\n\nAt each time step where the human provides an observation, the posterior P (g, θ) is given through the Bayesian update We note that the number of Bayesian updates required at each iteration to update the belief is equal to the cardinality of Ω g × Θ. In addition, each Bayesian update involves computing C g,θ ( .\n, . ) in eq. ( ), which involves solving an optimization problem (such as a shortest path problem). In section IV, we propose a specific encoding of preference θ for resolving eq. ( ), while ensuring the number of computations of the cost C g,θ (., .) per update does not grow exponentially with the number of obstacles.\n\nDecision Making\n\nWe consider a navigation problem where the robot receives reward according to the model R(s t , g, θ, a t ). We wish to find the optimal policy π that maximizes the expected discounted sum of future rewards, with discount factor γ. The above problem is a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) .\nIn this section, we propose an encoding of human's path preference θ for computing the posterior in eq. ( ). Devifrom the concept of homotopy classes, we define the preference according to a partitioning of the environment into polytopes, as shown in fig. , creating a hyperplane arrangement of the space.\nHyperplane arrangements have been used by Vincent and Schwager in the context of Neural Network verification. In our setting, we leverage this representation to define path preferences as preferred transitions between adjacent regions of the space.\n\nHyperplane Arrangement\n\nWe assume a two-dimensional environment composed of m polytopic obstacles, each defined by their half-space representation (H-representation) where A i ∈ R di×2 and b i ∈ R di , and where d i is the number of edges (hyperplanes) composing polytope i. Let n = i d i be the total number of hyperplanes. We leverage each obstacle's H-representation to construct a hyperplane arrangement of the environment as shown in fig.\n.e. a partitioning of the space into polytopes. More specifically, each location in space belongs to a polytope j for which we can write an H-representation of the form where α j i ∈ {−1, 1} di is a vector specific to polytope j and obstacle i corresponding to the relative position of any point in the set with respect to each hyperplane in O i .\nFig. : Intent inference model in a hyperplane arrangement of the obstacle free space. We spatially decompose the preference θ into a set of preferred neighboring polytopes per region of the space. Within each polytope j, the human preference pj is a discrete distribution over the preferred neighbor in N (j).\nWe assume that for a location st belonging to polytope j, and given goal g and preference pj, the observation ot and any other preference p i,i =j are conditionally independent. Concatenating elements from each obstacle's Hrepresentation, we can write polytope j's H-representation as where Some of the constraints in eq. ( ) (corresponding to rows of A, b and α j ) are redundant, i.e. the set P j does not change upon their removal.\nWe can further reduce the Hrepresentation of a polytope to include only non-redundant constraints. By removing the rows corresponding to redundant constraints, we obtain new matrices A j e , b j e and α j e such that we can write the polytope's reduced H-representation as The non-redundant constraints correspond to edges of the polytope.\nIn other words, as the robot continually moves in space, the first hyperplane that it will cross upon exiting the polytope will correspond to one of the polytope's nonredundant constraints. Vincent and Schwager outline an iterative method for removing redundant constraints by solving n linear programs.\nWe use this method in practice for computing α j e for each polytope. We can now characterize each polytope by a vector α j e ∈ {−1, 1} n j e , where n j e ≤ n is the number of essential constraints of the polytope. The polytopes P j partition the environment into a hyperplane arrangement.\n\nPath Preference\n\nIn this section, we provide a definition of preference θ according to a graphical representation of the environment based on the hyperplane arrangement. Under this representation, a path preference corresponds to a set of preferred transitions. In other words, for each polytope in the space, the human will have a preference to which neighboring polytope they wish to transition.\nLet G := (V, E) be an undirected graph, where vertices are obstacle-free polytopes, and edges connect two adjacent polytopes. Each polytope is described by a unique vector α j as defined in eq. ( ). Two polytopes are adjacent if they share non-redundant constraints (rows in eq. ( )) corresponding to the same hyperplane (i.e. they are on opposite sides of the hyperplane).\nLet N (v) be the set of neighbors of a vertex v. For each vertex, we denote p v the discrete-valued random variable describing which edge in N (v) the human intends to transition to. Using this formalism, we define a path preference as the set of preferred transitions over all nodes in the graph, Let m θ = v∈V |N (v)| be the cardinality of Θ, and m g = |Ω g | the number of possible goals.\nA priori, the number of Bayesian updates required to update the belief at every iteration should be m θ × m g . Now, let us assume the conditional independence relationships described by the new problem diagram in fig. . More specifically, we introduce the assumption that conditioned on a robot location s t , the goal g, and the preference for the corresponding vertex p v in the graph, the observation o t and the preference for any other vertex are conditionally independent.\nIn other words, the observations the human provides can be defined conditioned only on the robot location, the goal, and the human's preference for its current vertex p v . By introducing this assumption, each update step only requires updating the joint (p v , g), reducing the number of cost computations to |N (v)| × m g .\nWe can notice that by introducing this assumption, we removed the direct relationship between the number of polytopes in the environment and the complexity of the Bayesian update in eq. ( ). In practice, components of θ are not mutually independent. For example, if the human preference at a vertex v 1 is\n, it is unlikely that the human will also prefer p v2 = (v 2 , v 1 ) (turning back). We can improve our model by assuming a dependent relationship between preferences for adjacent edges, which does not significantly increase the complexity of the inference problem. An interesting property of our encoding is that any two paths that belong to different homotopy classes will cross different sequences of polytopes, i.e. they correspond to a different sequence of edges on G.\nThis can be proved by contradiction. Let us suppose that two continuous trajectories ξ 1 and ξ 2 , with the same start and end points and that do not intersect any obstacle, traverse the same regions in G in the same order. From the construction of the hyperplane arrangement, each polytope that the paths traverse through is obstacle-free.\nTherefore, within each polytope, there is no obstacle in the area located in between the portions of ξ 1 and ξ 2 that belong to the region. A smooth transformation of ξ 1 into ξ 2 can be obtained by transforming each portion of ξ 1 belonging to the polytopes it intersects into the corresponding portion of ξ 2 for the same polytopes, where the extremities of the trajectory portions are connected to one another along the polytope's edges (where the same edge is crossed by both paths).\nAlong this transformation, the paths do not intersect any obstacle, and therefore ξ 1 and ξ 2 belong to the same homotopy class.\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nWe evaluate our model on a simulated navigation task where the robot must reach a goal that is unknown a priori while respecting the path preferences indicated by a human. The robot navigates in a grid world containing obstacles. The transition model is deterministic: the robot selects an adjacent location on the grid to reach at the next time step.\nThe robot is also allowed to take diagonal actions. Each location s t in the map can be mapped to a vertex v t ∈ G. Therefore, the actions leading to locations mapped to different vertices correspond to edges on the graph. We note f (s t , a t ) the edge crossed by taking action a t from location s t .\nThe robot is given a mission time limit T max for reaching the goal. In this problem, we assume that the human selects actions to noisily minimize a cost function C g,θ , where θ is defined as per eq. ( ), corresponding to the length of the shortest path to the goal constrained by the preference (where the robot is only allowed to make transitions on G along preferred edges).\nMore specifically, where δ(s t , g | o t , p vt ) designates the length of the shortest path from s t to g passing by o t and constrained by preference p vt . This is a slight variant of the cost function proposed by Best and Fitch , where we add in a conditioning on the path preference. We compute costs by running the A path planning algorithm on the environment maps (grid worlds with diagonal actions) and impose preference constraints by pruning invalid transitions from the search tree.\nReward model. At each step in time, the robot receives a reward which is a sum of three components: a goal-specific reward a preference-specific reward or penalty We compute solutions to the POMDP defined in section III-B with the online solver POMCP , and with the particularity that within the rollouts, the robot does not expect to collect human inputs.\nEach time a solution is computed, the robot takes an action and may receive an observation. If it does, it updates its belief distribution over the unknown problem variables and resolves the POMDP over a receding horizon.\n\nBaselines\n\n• Goal only. The robot solves the POMDP while ignoring the effects of path preference. Similarly to , we assume the human is taking action to minimize a goaldependent cost C g (s t , o t ) = δ(s t , g | o t ), where the conditioning on the preference is removed. We also omit the path preference's contribution to the reward R pref .\n• Compliant. The robot complies with the human input, but does not take an initiative. If the user stops providing information, the robot continues in the last direction indicated for 5 time steps (conserving its momentum), then stops. • Blended. We designed an arbitration function to decide between our proposed policy (accounting for path preferences) and the user's recommendation when the robot receives inputs.\nOur metric to evaluate confidence in the robot's prediction for the purpose of arbitration is the entropy of the intention distribution H(g, p i ), where p i denotes the preferred neighbor for the current region. Because our representation of the world is discrete, the arbitration is given by a step function.\nDenoted by U , the action corresponding to the human's input, and P , the robot's prediction for the optimal action, we write the policy where we chose h = 1.6 as the confidence threshold.\n\nResults\n\nWhen evaluating the algorithm, we consider that a run is successful if the robot reached the goal within its allocated mission time T max and only made transitions between graph vertices corresponding to the human's preferences. We vary the time delay between human inputs, from constant guidance (∆ T = 1) to only a single observation (∆ T ≥ T max ).\nSuccess rates. Table I reports the success rates for experiments conducted over six randomly sampled problem instances and 50 runs per instance in Map 1 (fig. ). When the human provides inputs at every iteration, the compliant policy shows the highest success rates. However, as ∆ T increases, the compliant robot is not able to accomplish the task within the allotted time as it does not receive sufficient inputs to do so, and performance decreases compared to the autonomous baselines.\nWe find that in these runs, accounting for path preference consistently improves performance compared with the goal-only baseline. Results also show that blending the user's input with the robot's policy (Path Preference + Blend) when the human provides information leads to improved performance. Belief entropy.\nFigure shows a challenging problem instance where the directions the human provides do not align directly with the shortest path to the goal. By ignoring the effects of preferences in the problem model (goal only), the robot quickly infers from observations that the upper left goal is less likely than others (P (g) drops).\nThe strong decrease in entropy shows that the robot becomes overconfident in this prediction. Overconfidence in an incorrect goal will prevent the agent from finding the correct goal once the human's indications directly align with it, as it needs to correct for the wrong predictions, as shown in the path realization (fig.\n). In this realization, the goal-only method (green robot) fails to search the upper left area within the allotted time. By accounting for path preferences in its model, the blue robot's entropy over the goal distribution decreases more steadily, allowing for it to leverage the human's latest observations and reach the goal successfully.\nshows an over-confident prediction (shown by the strong reduction in belief entropy) that the correct goal is less likely, making it more difficult to reach the correct goal compared to a method that accounts for path preference. Computation time. In table II we provide the time required to solve the POMDP, and the time required to update the robot's belief as it receives new observations.\nWe compute solutions on three maps: a simple 10 × 10 grid world with 8 polytopes (fig. ), a 10 × 10 grid world with 56 polytopes (fig. ), and a 20×20 grid world with 73 polytopes (fig. ). The latter environment being larger, we increase the mission time and the depth of the search tree in POMCP from T max = 30 (Map 1 and Map 2) to T max = 60 (Map 3).\nWe do not notice an increase in the time required to update the robot's belief with an increase in problem complexity, which is consistent with our observation that the complexity of the Bayesian update should not increase with the number of obstacles or polytopes. On the contrary, the belief update time on Map 2 and Map 3, containing more obstacles, is reduced compared to the first map.\nMore obstacles result in fewer iterations when solving the constrained shortest path problem with A . Adding constraints due to the obstacles and polytopes reduces the size of the A search tree. C. Limitations Simulation environments. In our simulations, we hardcoded the preference policy over the maps (e.g. in Map 1, go around the table counter-clockwise).\nWe randomly sampled problem instances (start and goal locations, and goal options) to reduce the bias introduced by these preference choices. To best evaluate and compare the different approaches, it would be best to sample preferences among a distribution of preferences chosen by a human (for example, from benchmarks resulting from a collection of data).\nCreating such a benchmark is an interesting direction for future work. Hyperplane arrangement construction. The main limitation of our approach is that the size and geometry of each polytope depends strongly on the geometry of the obstacles, as seen in fig. . Because of this, the robot can make predictions over preferences that are too refined compared with the topology of the environment.\nA direct consequence is that when the size of the polytopes is small, the information provided by the human can be incorrectly interpreted as a preference on the robot's immediate action. Our method can be improved by changing the structure of the hyperplane arrangement so that it relies on the topology of the environment, but does not vary strongly with the geometry of the features in the environment.\nFor this purpose, topometric maps and region construction algorithms are promising directions. We presented an approach for encoding and inferring a human's path preference in an environment with obstacles. By leveraging a partitioning of the space into polytopes and a stochastic observation model, our method allows for joint inference over the goal and path preference even when both are unknown a-priori.\nOur experiments on an unknown-goal navigation problem with sparse human interventions demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach and its suitability for online applications. The time required to update the robot's belief does not increase with the complexity of the environment, which further highlights the practicality of our method.", "answers": ["γh."], "length": 5646, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "5914446861ce8a3d0d9204dfc9d41edd747de735c3c3fc36"}
{"input": "What factors control the reliance of artificial organisms on plasticity?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Environmental variability and network structure determine the optimal plasticity mechanisms in embodied agents\nPublish Date: Unkown\nAuthor List: Sina Khajehabdollahi (from Department of Computer Science, University of Tübingen)\n\nFigure\n\nFigure2: An outline of the network controlling the foraging agent.The sensor layer receives inputs at each time step (the ingredients of the nearest food), which are processed by the plastic layer in the same way as the static sensory network, Fig.1.The output of that network is given as input to the motor network, along with the distance d and angle α to the nearest food, the current velocity v, and energy E of the agent.These signals are processed through two hidden layers to the final output of motor commands as the linear and angular acceleration of the agent\nFigure4: The evolved parameters θ = (θ 1 , . . ., θ 8 ) of the plasticity rule for the reward prediction (a.) and the decision (b.) tasks, for a variety of parameters (p tr = 0.01, d e ∈ 0, 0.1, . . ., 1, and σ ∈ 0, 0.1, . . ., 1 in all 100 combinations).Despite the relatively small difference between the tasks, the evolved learning rules differ considerably.For visual guidance, the lines connect θs from the same run.\nFigure5: a.The trajectory of an agent (blue line) in the 2D environment.A well-trained agent will approach and consume food with positive values (green dots) and avoid negative food (red dots).b.The learning rate of the plastic sensory network eta p grows with the distance between environments d e c. and decreases with the frequency of environmental change.d.The fitness of an agent (measured as the total food consumed over its lifetime) increases over generations of the EA for both the scalar and binary readouts in the sensory network.e.The Pearson correlation coefficient of an evolved agent's weights with the ingredient value vector of the current environment (E 1 -blue, E 2 -red).In this example, the agent's weights are anti-correlated with its environment, which is not an issue for performance since the motor network can interpret the inverted signs of food.\n\nabstract\n\nThe evolutionary balance between innate and learned behaviors is highly intricate, and different organisms have found different solutions to this problem. We hypothesize that the emergence and exact form of learning behaviors is naturally connected with the statistics of environmental fluctuations and tasks an organism needs to solve.\nHere, we study how different aspects of simulated environments shape an evolved synaptic plasticity rule in static and moving artificial agents. We demonstrate that environmental fluctuation and uncertainty control the reliance of artificial organisms on plasticity. Interestingly, the form of the emerging plasticity rule is additionally determined by the details of the task the artificial organisms are aiming to solve.\nMoreover, we show that coevolution between static connectivity and interacting plasticity mechanisms in distinct sub-networks changes the function and form of the emerging plasticity rules in embodied agents performing a foraging task. One of the defining features of living organisms is their ability to adapt to their environment and incorporate new information to modify their behavior.\nIt is unclear how the ability to learn first evolved , but its utility appears evident. Natural environments are too complex for all the necessary information to be hardcoded genetically and more importantly, they keep changing during an organism's lifetime in ways that cannot be anticipated ; . The link between learning and environmental uncertainty and fluctuation has been extensively demonstrated in both natural ; , and artificial environments .\nNevertheless, the ability to learn does not come without costs. For the capacity to learn to be beneficial in evolutionary terms, a costly nurturing period is often required, a phenomenon observed in both biological , and artificial organisms . Additionally, it has been shown that in some complex environments, hardcoded behaviors may be superior to learned ones given limits in the agent's lifetime and envi-ronmental uncertainty ; ; .\nThe theoretical investigation of the optimal balance between learned and innate behaviors in natural and artificial systems goes back several decades. However, it has recently found also a wide range of applications in applied AI systems ; . Most AI systems are trained for specific tasks, and have no need for modification after their training has been completed.\nStill, technological advances and the necessity to solve broad families of tasks make discussions about life-like AI systems relevant to a wide range of potential application areas. Thus the idea of open-ended AI agents that can continually interact with and adapt to changing environments has become particularly appealing.\nMany different approaches for introducing lifelong learning in artificial agents have been proposed. Some of them draw direct inspiration from actual biological systems ; . Among them, the most biologically plausible solution is to equip artificial neural networks with some local neural plasticity , similar to the large variety of synaptic plasticity mechanisms ; ; that performs the bulk of the learning in the brains of living organisms .\nThe artificial plasticity mechanisms can be optimized to modify the connectivity of the artificial neural networks toward solving a particular task. The optimization can use a variety of approaches, most commonly evolutionary computation. The idea of meta-learning or optimizing synaptic plasticity rules to perform specific functions has been recently established as an engineering tool that can compete with stateof-the-art machine learning algorithms on various complex tasks ; ; Pedersen and Risi (2021); .\nAdditionally, it can be used to reverse engineer actual plasticity mechanisms found in biological neural networks and uncover their functions ; . Here, we study the effect that different factors (environ-arXiv:2303.06734v1 [q-bio.NC] 12 Mar 2023 mental fluctuation and reliability, task complexity) have on the form of evolved functional reward-modulated plasticity rules.\nWe investigate the evolution of plasticity rules in static, single-layer simple networks. Then we increase the complexity by switching to moving agents performing a complex foraging task. In both cases, we study the impact of different environmental parameters on the form of the evolved plasticity mechanisms and the interaction of learned and static network connectivity.\nInterestingly, we find that different environmental conditions and different combinations of static and plastic connectivity have a very large impact on the resulting plasticity rules. We imagine an agent who must forage to survive in an environment presenting various types of complex food particles. Each food particle is composed of various amounts and combinations of N ingredients that can have positive (food) or negative (poison) values.\nThe value of a food particle is a weighted sum of its ingredients. To predict the reward value of a given resource, the agent must learn the values of these ingredients by interacting with the environment. The priors could be generated by genetic memory, but the exact values are subject to change. To introduce environmental variability, we stochastically change the values of the ingredients.\nMore precisely, we define two ingredient-value distributions E 1 and E 2 and switch between them, with probability p tr for every time step. We control how (dis)similar the environments are by parametrically setting E 2 = (1 − 2d e )E 1 , with d e ∈ [0, 1] serving as a distance proxy for the environments; when d e = 0, the environment remains unchanged, and when d e = 1 the value of each ingredient fully reverses when the environmental transition happens.\nFor simplicity, we take values of the ingredients in E 1 equally spaced between -1 and 1 (for the visualization, see Fig. ). The static agent receives passively presented food as a vector of ingredients and can assess its compound value using the linear summation of its sensors with the (learned or evolved) weights, see Fig. .\nThe network consists of N sensory neurons that are projecting to a single post-synaptic neuron. At each time step, an input X t = (x 1 , . . . , x N ) is presented, were the value x i , i ∈ {1, . . . , N } represents the quantity of the ingredient i. We draw x i independently form a uniform distribution on the [0, 1] interval (x i ∼ U (0, 1)).\nThe value of each ingredient w c i is determined by the environment (E 1 or E 2 ). The postsynaptic neuron outputs a prediction of the food X t value as y t = g(W X T t ). Throughout the paper, g will be either the identity function, in which case the prediction neuron is linear, or a step-function; however, it could be any other nonlinearity, such as a sigmoid or ReLU.\nAfter outputting the prediction, the neuron receives feedback in the form of the real value of the input R t . The real value is computed as R t = W c X T t + ξ, where W c = (w c 1 , . . . , w c N ) is the actual value of the ingredients, and ξ is a term summarizing the noise of reward and sensing system ξ ∼ N (0, σ).\nFigure : An outline of the static agent's network. The sensor layer receives inputs representing the quantity of each ingredient of a given food at each time step. The agent computes the prediction of the food's value y t and is then given the true value R t ; it finally uses this information in the plasticity rule to update the weight matrix.\nFor the evolutionary adjustment of the agent's parameters, the loss of the static agent is the sum of the mean squared errors (MSE) between its prediction y t and the reward R t over the lifetime of the agent. The agent's initial weights are set to the average of the two ingredient value distributions, which is the optimal initial value for the case of symmetric switching of environments that we consider here.\nAs a next step, we incorporate the sensory network of static agents into embodied agents that can move around in an environment scattered with food. To this end, we merge the static agent's network with a second, non-plastic motor network that is responsible for controlling the motion of the agent in the environment.\nSpecifically, the original plastic network now provides the agent with information about the value of the nearest food. The embodied agent has additional sensors for the distance from the nearest food, the angle between the current velocity and the nearest food direction, its own velocity, and its own energy level (sum of consumed food values).\nThese inputs are processed by two hidden layers (of 30 and 15 neurons) with tanh activation. The network's outputs are angular and linear acceleration, Fig. . The embodied agents spawn in a 2D space with periodic boundary conditions along with a number of food particles that are selected such that the mean of the food value distribution is ∼ 0. An agent can eat food by approaching it sufficiently closely, and each time a food particle is eaten, it is The sensor layer receives inputs at each time step (the ingredients of the nearest food), which are processed by the plastic layer in the same way as the static sensory network, Fig. .\nThe output of that network is given as input to the motor network, along with the distance d and angle α to the nearest food, the current velocity v, and energy E of the agent. These signals are processed through two hidden layers to the final output of motor commands as the linear and angular acceleration of the agent re-spawned with the same value somewhere randomly on the grid (following the setup of ).\nAfter 5000 time steps, the cumulative reward of the agent (the sum of the values of all the food it consumed) is taken as its fitness. During the evolutionary optimization, the parameters for both the motor network (connections) and plastic network (learning rule parameters) are co-evolved, and so agents must simultaneously learn to move and discriminate good/bad food.\nReward-modulated plasticity is one of the most promising explanations for biological credit assignment . In our network, the plasticity rule that updates the weights of the linear sensor network is a rewardmodulated rule which is parameterized as a linear combination of the input, the output, and the reward at each time step:\nAdditionally, after each plasticity step, the weights are normalized by mean subtraction, an important step for the stabilization of Hebbian-like plasticity rules . We use a genetic algorithm to optimize the learning rate η p and amplitudes of different terms θ = (θ 1 , . . . , θ 8 ). The successful plasticity rule after many food presentations must converge to a weight vector that predicts the correct food values (or allows the agent to correctly decide whether to eat a food or avoid it).\nTo have comparable results, we divide θ = (θ 1 , . . . , θ 8 ) by We then multiply the learning rate η p with θ max to maintain the rule's evolved form unchanged, η norm p = η p • θ max . In the following, we always use normalized η p and θ, omitting norm . To evolve the plasticity rule and the moving agents' motor networks, we use a simple genetic algorithm with elitism .\nThe agents' parameters are initialized at random (drawn from a Gaussian distribution), then the sensory network is trained by the plasticity rule and finally, the agents are evaluated. After each generation, the bestperforming agents (top 10 % of the population size) are selected and copied into the next generation.\nThe remaining 90 % of the generation is repopulated with mutated copies of the best-performing agents. We mutate agents by adding independent Gaussian noise (σ = 0.1) to its parameters. To start with, we consider a static agent whose goal is to identify the value of presented food correctly. The static reward-prediction network quickly evolves the parameters of the learning rule, successfully solving the prediction task.\nWe first look at the evolved learning rate η p , which determines how fast (if at all) the network's weight vector is updated during the lifetime of the agents. We identify three factors that control the learning rate parameter the EA converges to: the distance between the environments, the noisiness of the reward, and the rate of environmental transition.\nThe first natural factor is the distance d e between the two environments, with a larger distance requiring a higher learning rate, Fig. . This is an expected result since the convergence time to the \"correct\" weights is highly dependent on the initial conditions. If an agent is born at a point very close to optimality, which naturally happens if the environments are similar, the distance it needs to traverse on the fitness landscape is small.\nTherefore it can afford to have a small learning rate, which leads to a more stable convergence and is not affected by noise. A second parameter that impacts the learning rate is the variance of the rewards. The reward an agent receives for the plasticity step contains a noise term ξ that is drawn from a zero mean Gaussian distribution with standard deviation σ.\nThis parameter controls the unreliability of the agent's sensory system, i.e., higher σ means that the information the agent gets about the value of the foods it consumes cannot be fully trusted to reflect the actual value of the foods. As σ increases, the learning rate η p decreases, which means that the more unreliable an environment becomes, the less an agent relies on plasticity to update its weights, Fig. .\nIndeed for some combinations of relatively small distance d e and high reward variance σ, the EA converges to a learning rate of η p ≈ 0. This means that the agent opts to have no adaptation during its lifetime and remain at the mean of the two environments. It is an optimal solution when the expected loss due to ignoring the environmental transitions is, on average, lower than the loss the plastic network will incur by learning via the (often misleading because of the high σ) environmental cues.\nA final factor that affects the learning rate the EA will converge to is the frequency of environmental change during an agent's lifetime. Since the environmental change is modeled as a simple, two-state Markov process (Fig. ), the control parameter is the transition probability p tr . When keeping everything else the same, the learning rate rapidly rises as we increase the transition probability from 0, and after reaching a peak, it begins to decline slowly, eventually reaching zero (Fig. ).\nThis means that when environmental transition is very rare, agents opt for a very low learning rate, allowing a slow and stable convergence to an environment-appropriate weight vector that leads to very low losses while the agent remains in that environment. As the rate of environmental transition increases, faster learning is required to speed up convergence in order to exploit the (comparatively shorter) stays in each environment.\nFinally, as the environmental transition becomes too fast, the agents opt for slower or even no learning, which keeps them ) and the decision (b.) tasks, for a variety of parameters (p tr = 0.01, d e ∈ 0, 0.1, . . . , 1, and σ ∈ 0, 0.1, . . . , 1 in all 100 combinations). Despite the relatively small difference between the tasks, the evolved learning rules differ considerably.\nFor visual guidance, the lines connect θs from the same run. near the middle of the two environments, ensuring that the average loss of the two environments is minimal (Fig. ). The form of the evolved learning rule depends on the task: Decision vs. Prediction The plasticity parameters θ = (θ 1 , . . . , θ 8 ) for the rewardprediction task converge on approximately the same point, regardless of the environmental parameters (Fig. ).\nIn particular, θ 3 → 1, θ 5 → −1, θ i → 0 for all other i, and thus the learning rule converges to: Since by definition y t = g(W t X T t ) = W t X T t (g(x) = x in this experiment) and R t = W c X T t + ξ we get: Thus the distribution of ∆W t converges to a distribution with mean 0 and variance depending on η p and σ and W converges to W c .\nSo this learning rule will match the agent's weight vector with the vector of ingredient values in the environment. We examine the robustness of the learning rule the EA discovers by considering a slight modification of our task. Instead of predicting the expected food value, the agent now needs to decide whether to eat the presented food or not.\nThis is done by introducing a step-function nonlinearity (g(x) = 1 if x ≥ 1 and 0 otherwise). Then the output y(t) is computed as: Instead of the MSE loss between prediction and actual value, the fitness of the agent is now defined as the sum of the food values it chose to consume (by giving y t = 1). Besides these two changes, the setup of the experiments remains exactly the same.\nThe qualitative relation between η p and parameters of environment d e , σ and p tr is preserved in the changed experiment. However, the resulting learning rule is significantly different (Fig. ). The evolution converges to the following learning rule: In both cases, the rule has the form ∆W t = η p X t [α y R t + β y ].\nThus, the ∆W t is positive or negative depending on whether the reward R t is above or below a threshold (γ = −β y /α y ) that depends on the output decision of the network (y t = 0 or 1). Both learning rules (for the reward-prediction and decision tasks) have a clear Hebbian form (coordination of preand post-synaptic activity) and use the incoming reward signal as a threshold.\nThese similarities indicate some common organizing principles of reward-modulated learning rules, but their significant differences highlight the sensitivity of the optimization process to task details. We now turn to the moving embodied agents in the 2D environment. To optimize these agents, both the motor network's connections and the sensory network's plasticity parameters evolve simultaneously.\nSince the motor network is initially random and the agent has to move to find food, the number of interactions an agent experiences in its lifetime can be small, slowing down the learning. However, having the larger motor network also has benefits for evolution because it allows the output of the plastic network to be read out and transformed in different ways, resulting in a broad set of solutions.\nThe fitness of an agent (measured as the total food consumed over its lifetime) increases over generations of the EA for both the scalar and binary readouts in the sensory network. e. The Pearson correlation coefficient of an evolved agent's weights with the ingredient value vector of the current environment (E 1 -blue, E 2 -red).\nIn this example, the agent's weights are anti-correlated with its environment, which is not an issue for performance since the motor network can interpret the inverted signs of food. The agents can solve the task effectively by evolving a functional motor network and a plasticity rule that converges to interpretable weights (Fig. ).\nAfter ∼ 100 evolutionary steps (Fig. ), the agents can learn the ingredient value distribution using the plastic network and reliably move towards foods with positive values while avoiding the ones with negative values. We compare the dependence of the moving and the static agents on the parameters of the environment: d e and the state transition probability p tr .\nAt first, in order to simplify the experiment, we set the transition probability to 0, but fixed the initial weights to be the average of E 1 and E 2 , while the real state is E 2 . In this experiment, the distance between states d e indicates twice the distance between the agent's initial weights and the optimal weights (the environment's ingredient values) since the agent is initialized at the mean of the two environment distributions.\nSame as for the static agent, the learning rate increases with the distance d e (Fig. ). Then, we examine the effect of the environmental transition probability p tr on the evolved learning rate η p . In order for an agent to get sufficient exposure to each environment, we scale down the probability p tr from the equivalent experiment for the static agents.\nWe find that as the probability of transition increases, the evolved learning rate η p decreases (Fig. ). This fits with the larger trend for the static agent, although there is a clear difference when it comes to the increase for very small transition probabil-ities that were clearly identifiable in the static but not the moving agents.\nThis could be due to much sparser data and possibly the insufficiently long lifetime of the moving agent (the necessity of scaling makes direct comparisons difficult). Nevertheless, overall we see that the associations observed in the static agents between environmental distance d e and transition probability p tr and the evolved learning rate η p are largely maintained in the moving agents.\nStill, more data would be needed to make any conclusive assertions about the exact effect of these environmental parameters on the emerging plasticity mechanisms. A crucial difference between the static and the moving agents is the function the plasticity has to perform. While in the static agents, the plasticity has to effectively identify the exact value distribution of the environment in order to produce accurate predictions, in the embodied agents, the plasticity has to merely produce a representation of the environment that the motor network can evolve to interpret adequately enough to make decisions about which food to consume.\nTo illustrate the difference, we plot the Pearson correlation coefficient between an agent's weights and the ingredient values of the environment it is moving in (Fig. ). We use the correlation instead of the MSE loss (which we used for the static agents in Fig. ) because the amplitude of the vector varies a lot for different agents and meaningful The evolved parameters of moving agents' plasticity rule for the g(s) = x, identity (a.) and the step function (Eq.\n4) (b.) sensory networks (the environmental parameters here are d e ∈ [0, 1], σ = 0 and p tr = 0.001). The step function (binary output) network evolved a more structured plasticity rule (e.g., θ 3 > 0 for all realizations) than the linear network. Moreover, the learned weights for the identity network (c.) have higher variance and correlate significantly less with the environment's ingredient distribution compared to the learned weights for the thresholded network (d.)\nconclusions cannot be drawn from the MSE loss. For many agents, the learned weights are consistently anti-correlated with the actual ingredient values (an example of such an agent is shown in Fig. ). This means that the output of the sensory network will have the opposite sign from the actual food value.\nWhile in the static network, this would lead to very bad predictions and high loss, in the foraging task, these agents perform exactly as well as the ones where the weights and ingredients values are positively correlated, since the motor network can simply learn to move towards food for which it gets a negative instead of a positive sensory input.\nThis additional step of the output of the plastic network going through the motor network before producing any behavior has a strong effect on the plasticity rules that the embodied agents evolve. Specifically, if we look at the emerging rules the top performing agents have evolved (Fig. ), it becomes clear that, unlike the very well-structured rules of the static agents (Fig. ), there is now virtually no discernible pattern or structure.\nThe difference becomes even clearer if we look at the learned weights (at the end of a simulation) of the best-performing agents (Fig. ). While there is some correlation with the environment's ingredient value distribution, the variance is very large, and they do not seem to converge on the \"correct\" values in any way.\nThis is to some extent expected since, unlike the static agents where the network's output has to be exactly correct, driving the evolution of rules that converge to the precise environmental distribution, in the embodied networks, the bulk of the processing is done by the motor network which can evolve to interpret the scalar value of the sensory network's output in a variety of ways.\nThus, as long as the sensory network's plasticity rule co-evolves with the motor network, any plasticity rule that learns to produce consistent information about the value of encountered food can potentially be selected. To further test this assumption, we introduce a bottleneck of information propagation between the sensory and motor networks by using a step-function nonlinearity on the output of the sensory network (Eq.\n4). Similarly to the decision task of the static network, the output of the sensory network now becomes binary. This effectively reduces the flow of information from the sensory to the motor network, forcing the sensory network to consistently decide whether food should be consumed (with the caveat that the motor network can still interpret the binary sign in either of two ways, either consuming food marked with 1 or the ones marked with 0 by the sensory network).\nThe agents perform equally well in this variation of the task as before (Fig. ), but now, the evolved plasticity rules seem to be more structured (Fig. ). Moreover, the variance of the learned weights in the bestperforming agents is significantly reduced (Fig. ), which indicates that the bottleneck in the sensory network is in-creasing selection pressure for rules that learn the environment's food distribution accurately.\nWe find that different sources of variability have a strong impact on the extent to which evolving agents will develop neuronal plasticity mechanisms for adapting to their environment. A diverse environment, a reliable sensory system, and a rate of environmental change that is neither too large nor too small are necessary conditions for an agent to be able to effectively adapt via synaptic plasticity.\nAdditionally, we find that minor variations of the task an agent has to solve or the parametrization of the network can give rise to significantly different plasticity rules. Our results partially extend to embodied artificial agents performing a foraging task. We show that environmental variability also pushes the development of plasticity in such agents.\nStill, in contrast to the static agents, we find that the interaction of a static motor network with a plastic sensory network gives rise to a much greater variety of wellfunctioning learning rules. We propose a potential cause of this degeneracy; as the relatively complex motor network is allowed to read out and process the outputs from the plastic network, any consistent information coming out of these outputs can be potentially interpreted in a behaviorally useful way.\nReducing the information the motor network can extract from the sensory system significantly limits learning rule variability. Our findings on the effect of environmental variability concur with the findings of previous studies that have identified the constraints that environmental variability places on the evolutionary viability of learning behaviors.\nWe extend these findings in a mechanistic model which uses a biologically plausible learning mechanism (synaptic plasticity). We show how a simple evolutionary algorithm can optimize the different parameters of a simple reward-modulated plasticity rule for solving simple prediction and decision tasks.\nReward-modulated plasticity has been extensively studied as a plausible mechanism for credit assignment in the brain ; ; and has found several applications in artificial intelligence and robotics tasks ; . Here, we demonstrate how such rules can be very well-tuned to take into account different environmental parameters and produce optimal behavior in simple systems.\nAdditionally, we demonstrate how the co-evolution of plasticity and static functional connectivity in different subnetworks fundamentally changes the evolutionary pressures on the resulting plasticity rules, allowing for greater diversity in the form of the learning rule and the resulting learned connectivity.\nSeveral studies have demonstrated how, in biological networks, synaptic plasticity heavily interacts with and is driven by network topology . Moreover, it has been recently demonstrated that biological plasticity mechanisms are highly redundant in the sense that any observed neural connectivity or recorded activity can be achieved with a variety of distinct, unrelated learning rules .\nThis observed redundancy of learning rules in biological settings complements our results and suggests that the function of plasticity rules cannot be studied independently of the connectivity and topology of the networks they are acting on. The optimization of functional plasticity in neural networks is a promising research direction both as a means to understand biological learning processes and as a tool for building more autonomous artificial systems.\nOur results suggest that reward-modulated plasticity is highly adaptable to different environments and can be incorporated into larger systems that solve complex tasks. This work studies a simplified toy model of neural network learning in stochastic environments. Future work could be built on this basic framework to examine more complex reward distributions and sources of environmental variability.\nMoreover, a greater degree of biological realism could be added by studying more plausible network architectures (multiple plastic layers, recurrent and feedback connections) and more sophisticated plasticity rule parametrizations. Additionally, our foraging simulations were constrained by limited computational resources and were far from exhaustive.\nFurther experiments can investigate environments with different constraints, food distributions, multiple seasons, more complex motor control systems and interactions of those systems with different sensory networks as well as the inclusion of plasticity on the motor parts of the artificial organisms.", "answers": ["Environmental fluctuation and uncertainty control the reliance of artificial organisms on plasticity."], "length": 5339, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "79ffdceb9859803e365c3de5d24c187ed06b15f04d04ae6a"}
{"input": "What kind of ultracold neutral plasmas does this study focus on?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\nUltracold neutral plasmas studied in the laboratory offer access to a regime of plasma physics that scales to describe thermodynamic aspects of important high-energy-density systems, including strongly coupled astrophysical plasmas \\cite{VanHorn,Burrows}, as well as terrestrial sources of neutrons \\cite{Hinton,Ichimaru_fusion,Atzeni,Boozer} and x-ray radiation \\cite{Rousse,Esarey}.  Yet, under certain conditions, low-temperature laboratory plasmas evolve with dynamics that are governed by the quantum mechanical properties of their constituent particles, and in some cases by coherence with an external electromagnetic field.   \n\nThe relevance of ultracold plasmas to such a broad scope of problems in classical and quantum many-body physics has given rise to a great deal of experimental and theoretical research on these systems since their discovery in the late 90s.  A series of reviews affords a good overview of progress in the last twenty years \\cite{Gallagher,Killian_Science,PhysRept,Lyon}.  Here, we focus on the subset of ultracold neutral plasmas that form via kinetic rate processes from state-selected Rydberg gases, and emphasize in particular the distinctive dynamics found in the evolution of molecular ultracold plasmas.  \n\nWhile molecular beam investigations of threshold photoionization spectroscopy had uncovered relevant effects a few years earlier \\cite{Scherzer,Alt}, the field of ultracold plasma physics began in earnest with the 1999 experiment of Rolston and coworkers on metastable xenon atoms cooled in a magneto optical trap (MOT) \\cite{Killian}.  \n\nThis work and many subsequent efforts tuned the photoionization energy as a means to form a plasma of very low electron temperature built on a strongly coupled cloud of ultracold ions.  Experiment and theory soon established that fast processes associated with disorder-induced heating and longer-time electron-ion collisional rate processes act to elevate the ion temperatures to around one degree Kelvin, and constrain the effective initial electron temperature to a range above 30 K \\cite{Kuzmin,Hanson,Laha}.  \n\nThis apparent limit on the thermal energy of the electrons can be more universally expressed for an expanding plasma by saying that the electron correlation parameter, $\\Gamma_e$, does not exceed 0.25, where, \n\\begin{equation}\n\\Gamma_e = \\frac{e^2}{4\\pi \\epsilon_0 a_{ws}}\\frac{1}{k_B T_e}\n\\label{eqn:gamma_e}\n\\end{equation}\ndefines the ratio of the average unscreened electron-electron potential energy to the electron kinetic energy.  $a_{ws}$ is the Wigner-Seitz radius, related to the electron density by, $\\rho_e = 1/(\\frac{4}{3} \\pi a_{ws}^3)$.  These plasmas of weakly coupled electrons and strongly coupled ions have provided an important testing ground for ion transport theory and the study of electron-ion collision physics \\cite{Strickler}.\n\nSoon after the initial reports of ultracold plasmas formed by direct photoionization, a parallel effort began with emphasis on the plasma that forms spontaneously by Penning ionization and electron-impact avalanche in a dense ultracold Rydberg gas \\cite{Mourachko}.  This process affords less apparent control of the initial electron temperature.  But, pulsed field-ionization measurements soon established that the photoionized plasma and that formed by the avalanche of a Rydberg gas both evolve to quasi-equilibria of electrons, ions and high-Rydberg neutrals \\cite{Rolston_expand,Gallagher}.  \n\nEarly efforts to understand plasmas formed by Rydberg gas avalanche paid particular attention to the process of initiation.  Evolution to plasma in effusive atomic beams was long known for high-Rydberg gases of caesium and well explained by coupled rate equations \\cite{Vitrant}.  But, low densities and ultracold velocity distributions were thought to exclude Rydberg-Rydberg collisional mechanisms in a MOT.  \n\nIn work on ultracold Rydberg gases of Rb and Cs, Gallagher, Pillet and coworkers describe the initial growth of electron signal by a model that includes ionization by blackbody radiation and collisions with a background of uncooled Rydberg atoms \\cite{Mourachko,Gallagher,Li,Comparat,Tanner}. This picture was subsequently refined to include many-body excitation and autoionization, as well as attractive dipole-dipole interactions \\cite{Viteau,Pillet}, later confirmed by experiments at Rice \\cite{Mcquillen}.  \n\nThe Orsay group also studied the effect of adding Rydberg atoms to an established ultracold plasma.  They found that electron collisions in this environment completely ionize added atoms, even when selected to have deep binding energies \\cite{Vanhaecke}.  They concluded from estimates of electron trapping efficiency that the addition of Rydberg atoms does not significantly alter the electron temperature of the plasma.  \n\nTuning pair distributions by varying the wavelength of the excitation laser, Weidem\\\"uller and coworkers confirmed the mechanical effects of van der Waals interactions on the rates of Penning ionization in ultracold $^{87}$Rb Rydberg gases \\cite{Amthor_mech}.  They recognized blackbody radiation as a possible means of final-state redistribution, and extended this mechanical picture to include long-range repulsive interactions \\cite{Amthor_model}.  This group later studied the effects of spatial correlations in the spontaneous avalanche of Rydberg gases in a regime of strong blockade, suggesting a persistence of initial spatial correlations \\cite{RobertdeSaintVincent}.  \n\nRobicheaux and coworkers have recently investigated the question of prompt many-body ionization from the point of view of Monte Carlo classical trajectory calculations \\cite{Goforth}.  For atoms on a regular or random grid driven classically by an electromagnetic field, they find that many-body excitation enhances prompt ionization by about twenty percent for densities greater than $5.6 \\times 10^{-3}/(n_0^2 a_0)^3$, where $n_0$ is the principal quantum number of the Rydberg gas and $a_0$ is the Bohr radius.  They observed that density fluctuations (sampled from the distribution of nearest neighbour distances) have a greater effect, and point to the possible additional influence of secondary electron-Rydberg collisions and the Penning production of fast atoms not considered by the model, but already observed by Raithel and coworkers \\cite{Knuffman}.  \n\nThe Raithel group also found direct evidence for electron collisional $\\ell$-mixing in a Rb MOT \\cite{Dutta}, and used selective field ionization to monitor evolution to plasma on a microsecond timescale in ultracold $^{85}$Rb $65d$ Rydberg gases with densities as low as $10^8$ cm$^{-3}$ \\cite{WalzFlannigan}.  Research by our group at UBC has observed very much the same dynamics in the relaxation of Xe Rydberg gases of similar density prepared in a molecular beam \\cite{Hung2014}.  In both cases, the time evolution to avalanche is well-described by coupled rate equations (see below), assuming an initializing density of Penning electrons determined by Robicheaux's criterion \\cite{Robicheaux05}, applied to an Erlang distribution of Rydberg-Rydberg nearest neighbours.  \n\nTheoretical investigations of ultracold plasma physics have focused for the most part on the long- and short-time dynamics of plasmas formed by direct photoionization \\cite{PhysRept,Lyon}.  In addition to studies mentioned above, key insights on the evolution dynamics of Rydberg gases have been provided by studies of Pohl and coworkers exploring the effects of ion correlations and recombination-reionization on the hydrodynamics of plasma expansion \\cite{Pohl:2003,PPR}.  Further research has drawn upon molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to reformulate rate coefficients for the transitions driven by electron impact between highly excited Rydberg states \\cite{PVS}, and describe an effect of strong coupling as it suppresses three-body recombination \\cite{Bannasch:2011}.  MD simulations confirm the accuracy of coupled rate equation descriptions for systems with $\\Gamma$ as large as 0.3.  Newer calculations suggest a strong connection between the order created by dipole blockade in Rydberg gases and the most favourable correlated distribution of ions in a corresponding strongly coupled ultracold plasma \\cite{Bannasch:2013}.  \n\nTate and coworkers have studied ultracold plasma avalanche and expansion theoretically as well as experimentally.  Modelling observed expansion rates, they recently found that $^{85}$Rb atoms in a MOT form plasmas with effective initial electron temperatures determined by initial Rydberg density and the selected initial binding energy, to the extent that these parameters determine the fraction of the excited atoms that ionize by electron impact in the avalanche to plasma \\cite{Forest}.  This group also returned to the question of added Rydberg atoms, and managed to identify a crossover in $n_0$, depending on the initial electron temperature, that determines whether added Rydberg atoms of a particular initial binding energy act to heat or cool the electron temperature \\cite{Crockett}.   \n\nOur group has focused on the plasma that evolves from a Rydberg gas under the low-temperature conditions of a skimmed, seeded supersonic molecular beam.  In work on nitric oxide starting in 2008 \\cite{Morrison2008,Plasma_expan,Morrison_shock,PCCP}, we established an initial kinetics of electron impact avalanche ionization that conforms with coupled rate equation models \\cite{Saquet2011,Saquet2012,Scaling,haenelCP} and agrees at early times with the properties of ultracold plasmas that evolve from ultracold atoms in a MOT.  We have also observed unique properties of the NO ultracold plasma owing to the fact that its Rydberg states dissociate \\cite{Haenel2017}, and identified relaxation pathways that may give rise to quantum effects \\cite{SousMBL,SousNJP}.  The remainder of this review focuses on the nitric oxide ultracold plasma and the unique characteristics conferred by its evolution from a Rydberg gas in a laser-crossed molecular beam.  \n\n\n\\section{Avalanche to strong coupling in a molecular Rydberg gas}\n\n\\subsection{The molecular beam ultracold plasma compared with a MOT}\n\nWhen formed with sufficient density, a Rydberg gas of principal quantum number $n_0>30$ undergoes a spontaneous avalanche to form an ultracold plasma \\cite{Li,Morrison2008,RobertdeSaintVincent}.  Collisional rate processes combine with ambipolar hydrodynamics to govern the properties of the evolving plasma.  For a molecular Rydberg gas, neutral fragmentation, occurs in concert with electron-impact ionization, three-body recombination and electron-Rydberg inelastic scattering.  Neutral dissociation combined with radial expansion in a shaped distribution of charged particles, can give rise to striking effects of self-assembly and spatial correlation \\cite{Schulz-Weiling2016,Haenel2017}.   \n\nThe formation of a molecular ultracold plasma requires the conditions of local temperature and density afforded by a high mach-number skimmed supersonic molecular beam.  Such a beam propagates at high velocity in the laboratory, with exceedingly well-defined hydrodynamic properties, including a propagation-distance-dependent density and sub-Kelvin temperature in the moving frame \\cite{MSW_tutorial}.  The low-temperature gas in a supersonic molecular beam differs in three important ways from the atomic gas laser-cooled in a magneto-optical trap (MOT).\n\nThe milli-Kelvin temperature of the gas of ground-state NO molecules entrained in a beam substantially exceeds the sub-100 micro-Kelvin temperature of laser-cooled atoms in a MOT.  However, the evolution to plasma tends to erase this distinction, and the two further characteristics that distinguish a beam offer important advantages for ultracold plasma physics:  Charged-particle densities in a molecular beam can exceed those attainable in a MOT by orders of magnitude.  A great many different chemical substances can be seeded in a free-jet expansion, and the possibility this affords to form other molecular ultracold plasmas, introduces interesting and potentially important new degrees of freedom governing the dynamics of their evolution.\n\n\n\\subsection{Supersonic molecular beam temperature and particle density}\n\nSeeded in a skimmed supersonic molecular beam, nitric oxide forms different phase-space distributions in the longitudinal (propagation) and transverse coordinate dimensions.  As it propagates in $z$, the NO molecules reach a terminal laboratory velocity, $u_{\\parallel}$, of about 1400 ${\\rm ms^{-1}}$, which varies with the precise seeding ratio.  \n\nThe distribution of $v_{\\parallel}$, narrows to define a local temperature, $T_{\\parallel}$, of approximately 0.5 K.  The beam forms a Gaussian spatial distribution in the transverse coordinates, $x$ and $y$.  In this plane, the local velocity, $v_{\\perp}(r)$ is defined for any radial distance almost entirely by the divergence velocity of the beam, $u_{\\perp}(r)$.  Phase-space sorting cools the temperature in the transverse coordinates, $T_{\\perp}$ to a value as low as $\\sim 5$ mK \\cite{MSW_tutorial}.  \n\nThe stagnation pressure and seeding ratio determine the local density distribution as a function of $z$.  For example, expanding from a stagnation pressure of 500 kPa with a 1:10 seeding ratio, a molecular beam propagates 2.5 cm to a skimmer and then 7.5 cm to a point of laser interaction, where it contains NO at a peak density of $1.6 \\times 10^{14}$ cm$^{-3}$.  \n\nHere, crossing the molecular beam with a laser beam tuned to the transition sequence, ${\\rm X} ~^2 \\Pi_{1/2} ~N'' = 1 \\xrightarrow{\\omega_1} {\\rm A} ~^2\\Sigma^+ ~N'=0  \\xrightarrow{\\omega_2} n_0 f(2)$ forms a Gaussian ellipsoidal volume of Rydberg gas in a single selected principal quantum number, $n_0$, orbital angular momentum, $\\ell = 3$, NO$^+$ core rotational quantum number, $N^+ = 2$ and total angular momentum neglecting spin, $N=1$.  \n\nA typical $\\omega_1$ pulse energy of 2 $\\mu$J and a Gaussian width of 0.2 mm serves to drive the first step of this sequence in a regime of linear absorption.  Overlapping this volume by an $\\omega_2$ pulse with sufficient fluence to saturate the second step forms a Rydberg gas ellipsoid with a nominal peak density of $5 \\times 10^{12}$ cm$^{-3}$  \\cite{Morrison2008,MSW_tutorial}.  Fluctuations in the pulse energy and longitudinal mode of $\\omega_1$ cause the real density to vary.  For certain experiments, we find it convenient to saturate the $\\omega_1$ transition, and vary the density of Rydberg gas by delaying $\\omega_2$.  An $\\omega_1$-$\\omega_2$ delay, $\\Delta t$, reduces the Rydberg gas density by a precise factor, $e^{-\\Delta t/\\tau}$, where $\\tau$ is the 200 ns radiative lifetime of NO ${\\rm A} ~^2\\Sigma^+ ~N'=0$ \\cite{Carter,Hancock}.\n\n\n\\subsection{Penning ionization}\n\nThe density distribution of a Rydberg gas defines a local mean nearest neighbour distance, or Wigner-Seitz radius of $ a_{ws} =  \\left(3/4 \\pi \\rho \\right)^{1/3} $, where $\\rho$ refers to the local Rydberg gas density.  For example, a Rydberg gas with a density of $ \\rho_0=0.5 \\times 10^{12}$ cm$^{-3} $ forms an Erlang distribution \\cite{Torquato.1990} of nearest neighbour separations with a mean value of $ 2 a_{ws}=1.6$  $\\mu$m.  \n\nA semi-classical model \\cite{Robicheaux05} suggests that 90 percent of Rydberg molecule pairs separated by a critical distance, $ r_c = 1.8 \\cdot 2 n_0^2 a_0 $ or less undergo Penning ionization within 800 Rydberg periods.  We can integrate the Erlang distribution from $ r=0 $ to the critical distance $r = r_c$ for a Rydberg gas of given $n_0$, to define the local density of Penning electrons ($ \\rho_e$ at $t=0$) produced by this prompt interaction, for any given initial local density, $\\rho_0$ by the expression:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\rho_e(\\rho_0,n_0) = \\frac{0.9}{2} \\cdot 4 \\pi \\rho_0 ^2\\int_0^{r_{c}} r^2 \\mathrm{e}^{-\\frac{4\\pi}{3}\\rho_0 r^3}\\mathrm{d}r \\quad.\n\\label{eqn:Erlang}\n\\end{equation}\n\nEvaluating this definite integral yields an equation in closed form that predicts the Penning electron density for any particular initial Rydberg density and principal quantum number.\n\\begin{equation}\n\\rho_e(\\rho_0,n_0) =\\frac{0.9 \\rho_0}{2}(1-\\mathrm{e}^{-\\frac{4\\pi}{3}\\rho_0 r_c^3}) \\quad.\n\\label{Eq:PenDens}\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[scale=0.33]{Penning_Latice.pdf}\n\\caption{Distributions of ion-ion nearest neighbours following Penning ionization and electron-impact avalanche simulated for a predissociating molecular Rydberg gas of initial principal quantum number, $n_0$, from 30 to 80, and density of 10$^{12}$ cm$^{-3}$.  Dashed lines mark corresponding values of $a_{ws}$. Calculated by counting ion distances after relaxation to plasma in 10$^6$-particle stochastic simulations. Integrated areas proportional to populations surviving neutral dissociation.}\n\\label{fig:PL}\n\\end{figure}\n\nPrompt Penning ionization acts on the portion of the initial nearest-neighbour distribution in the Rydberg gas that lies within $r_c$.  When a molecule ionizes, its collision partner relaxes to a lower principal quantum number, $n'<n_0/\\sqrt{2}$.  This close-coupled interaction disrupts the separability of Rydberg orbital configurations in the Penning partner.  This causes mixing with core penetrating states that are strongly dissociative.  Penning partners are thus very likely to dissociate, leaving a spatially isolated distribution of ions.  We refer to the spatial correlation that results as a Penning lattice \\cite{Sadeghi:2014}.  The extent of this effect varies depending on the local density and the selected initial principal quantum number.  Figure \\ref{fig:PL} shows the degree to which Rydberg gases with initial principal quantum numbers from 30 to 80 form a Penning lattice for an initial density of $1 \\times 10^{12} ~{\\rm cm}^{-3}$.  \n\n\\subsection{Spontaneous electron-impact avalanche}\n\nThe electrons produced by prompt Penning ionization start an electron impact avalanche.  The kinetics of this process are well described by a set of coupled rate equations that account for state-to-state electron-Rydberg inelastic scattering, electron-impact ionization and three-body ion-electron recombination \\cite{PPR,Saquet2011,Saquet2012,Scaling} using detailed rate coefficients,  $k_{ij}$, $k_{i,ion}$ and $k_{i,tbr}$ validated by MD simulations \\cite{PVS}.  \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n-\\frac{d\\rho_i}{dt}&=&\\sum_{j}{k_{ij}\\rho_e\\rho_i}-\\sum_{j}{k_{ji}\\rho_e\\rho_j} \\nonumber\\\\\n&& +k_{i,ion}\\rho_e\\rho_i-k_{i,tbr}\\rho^3_e \n  \\label{level_i}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent and,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{d\\rho_e}{dt}=\\sum_{i}{k_{i,ion}\\rho_e^2}-\\sum_{i}{k_{i,tbr}\\rho^3_e}\n  \\label{electron}\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe relaxation of Rydberg molecules balances with collisional ionization to determine an evolving temperature of avalanche electrons to conserve total energy per unit volume. \n\\begin{equation}\nE_{tot}=\\frac{3}{2}k_BT_e(t)\\rho_e(t)-R\\sum_i{\\frac{\\rho_i(t)}{n_i^2}},\n  \\label{energy}\n\\end{equation}\nHere, for simplicity, we neglect the longer-time effects of Rydberg predissociation and electron-ion dissociative recombination \\cite{Saquet2012}.\n\nSuch calculations show that the conversion from Rydberg gas to plasma occurs on a timescale determined largely by the local Penning electron density, or Penning fraction, $P_f = \\rho_e/\\rho_0$, which depends on the local density of Rydberg molecules and their initial principal quantum number.  \n\nAvalanche times predicted by coupled rate equation calculations range widely.  For example, in a model developed for experiments on xenon, simulations predict that a Rydberg gas with $n_0 = 42$ at a density of $8.8 \\times 10^8 ~{\\rm cm}^{-3}$ ($P_f = 6 \\times 10^{-5}$) avalanches with a half time of  40 $\\mu$s \\cite{Hung2014}.  At an opposite extreme, rate equations estimate that a Rydberg gas of NO with $n_0=60$ at a density of $1 \\times 10^{12} ~{\\rm cm}^{-3}$ ($P_f = 0.3$) rises to plasma in about 2 ns \\cite{Saquet2012}.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .49 \\textwidth]{SFI_n=49.pdf}\n   \\caption{Contour plots showing SFI signal as a function the applied field for an $nf(2)$ Rydberg gas with an initial principal quantum number, $n_0=49$.  Each frame represents 4,000 SFI traces, sorted by initial Rydberg gas density.  Ramp field beginning at 0 and 150 ns (top, left to right), and  300 and 450 ns (bottom) after the $\\omega_2$ laser pulse.  The two bars of signal most evident at early ramp field delay times represent the field ionization of the $49f(2)$ Rydberg state respectively to NO$^+$ X $^1\\Sigma^+$ cation rotational states, $N^+=0$ and 2.  The signal waveform extracted near zero applied field represents the growing population of plasma electrons.  \n   }\n\\label{fig:SFI}\n\\end{figure}\n\nSelective field ionization (SFI) probes the spectrum of binding energies in a Rydberg gas.  Applied as a function of time after photoexcitation, SFI maps the evolution from a state of selected initial principal quantum number, $n_0$, to plasma \\cite{Haenel2017}.  Figure \\ref{fig:SFI} shows SFI spectra taken at a sequence of delays after the formation of $49f(2)$ Rydberg gases of varying density.    \n\nHere, we can see that a $49f(2)$ Rydberg gas with an estimated initial density $\\rho_0 = 3 \\times 10^{11} ~{\\rm cm}^{-3}$ relaxes to plasma on a timescale of about 500 ns.  Observations such as these agree well with the predictions of coupled rate-equation calculations.  We can understand this variation in relaxation dynamics with $\\rho_0$ and $n_0$ quite simply in terms of the corresponding density of prompt Penning electrons these conditions afford to initiate the avalanche to plasma.  \n\nFigure \\ref{fig:scaled_rise} illustrates this, showing how rise times predicted by coupled rate-equation simulations for a large range of initial densities and principal quantum number match when plotted as a function of time scaled by the ultimate plasma frequency and fraction of prompt Penning electrons.  The dashed line gives an approximate account of the scaled rate of avalanche under all conditions of Rydberg gas density and initial principal quantum number in terms of the simple sigmoidal function:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{\\rho_e}{\\rho_0} = \\frac{a}{b+e^{-c\\tau}},\n  \\label{scaledEq1}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\tau = t \\omega_e P_f^{3/4},\n  \\label{scaledEq2}\n\\end{equation}\nin which $\\omega_e$ is the plasma frequency after avalanche, $P_f$ is the fraction of prompt Penning electrons, and $a = 0.00062$,  $b =   0.00082$ and $c =     0.075$ are empirical coefficients.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .4 \\textwidth]{sim_analytical_density.pdf}\n   \\caption{Rise in fractional electron density as a function of time scaled by the plasma frequency, $\\omega_e$ and fraction, $\\rho_e(t=0)/\\rho_0 = P_f$, of prompt Penning electrons.  Simulation results shown for $n_0 = 30$, 50 and 70 with initial densities, $\\rho_0 = 10^9,~10^{10},~10^{11},~{\\rm and}~10^{12}~{\\rm cm}^{-3}$.  \n   }\n\\label{fig:scaled_rise}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsection{Evolution to plasma in a Rydberg gas Gaussian ellipsoid}\n\nAs outlined above, the local density and principal quantum number together determine the rate at which a Rydberg gas avalanches to plasma.  Our experiment crosses a 2 mm wide cylindrically Gaussian molecular beam with a 1 mm diameter TEM$_{00}$ $\\omega_1$ laser beam to produce a Gaussian ellipsoidal distribution of molecules excited to the A $^2\\Sigma^+$ $v=0, ~N'=0$ intermediate state.  A larger diameter $\\omega_2$ pulse then drives a second step that forms a Rydberg gas in a single $n_0f(2)$ state with the spatial distribution of the intermediate state.  \n\nWe model this shaped Rydberg gas as a system of 100 concentric ellipsoidal shells of varying density \\cite{haenelCP}.  Coupled rate equations within each shell describe the avalanche to plasma.  This rate process proceeds from shell to shell with successively longer induction periods, determined by the local density as detailed above.  The rising conversion of Rydberg molecules to ions plus neutral dissociation products conserves the particle number in each shell.  We assume that local space charge confines electrons to shells, conserving quasi-neutrality.  Electrons exchange kinetic energy at the boundaries of each shell, which determines a single plasma electron temperature.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .5 \\textwidth]{shell_model_100}\n   \\caption{(top frame) Cross-sectional contour diagram in the $x,y$ plane for $z=0$ describing the distribution of ion plus electron density over 100 shells of Gaussian ellipsoid with initial dimensions, $\\sigma_x= 0.75$ mm and $\\sigma_y= \\sigma_z = 0.42$ mm and an initial $n_0 = 50$ Rydberg gas density, $\\rho_0 = 2 \\times 10^{11}$ cm$^{3}$ after an evolution time of 100 ns.  (bottom frame) Curves describing the (dashed) ascending ion and (solid) descending Rydberg gas densities of each shell as functions of evolution time, for $t=20$, 40, 60, 80 and 100 ns.  \n   }\n\\label{fig:shell}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe upper frame of Figure \\ref{fig:shell} shows contours of NO$^+$ ion density after 100 ns obtained from a shell-model coupled rate-equation simulation of the avalanche of a Gaussian ellipsoidal Rydberg gas of nitric oxide with a selected initial state, $50f(2)$ and a density of $2 \\times 10^{11}$ cm$^{-3}$.  Here, we simulate a relaxation that includes channels of predissociation at every Rydberg level and redistributes the energy released to electrons, which determines a uniform rising electron temperature for all shells.  \n\nFor comparison, the lower frame plots curves describing the ion density of each shell as a function of time from 20 to 100 ns, as determined by applying Eq \\ref{scaledEq1} for the local conditions of initial Rydberg gas density.  This numerical approximation contains no provision for predissociation.  Coupled rate-equation simulations for uniform volumes show that predissociation depresses yield to some degree, but has less effect on the avalanche kinetics \\cite{Saquet2012}.  Therefore, we can expect sets of numerically estimated shell densities, scaled to agree with the simulated ion density at the elapsed time of 100 ns to provide a reasonable account of the earlier NO$^+$ density profiles as a function of time.   \n\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .4 \\textwidth]{Shell_pop}\n   \\caption{Global population fractions of particles as they evolve in the avalanche of a shell-model ellipsoidal Rydberg gas with the initial principal quantum number and density distribution of Figure \\ref{fig:shell}\n   }\n\\label{fig:shell_yields}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor each time step, the difference, $\\rho_0 - \\rho_e$ defines the neutral population of each shell.  We assign a fraction of this population to surviving Rydberg molecules, such that the total population of NO$^*$ as a function of time agrees with the prediction of the shell-model simulation, as shown in Figure \\ref{fig:shell_yields}.  We consider the balance of this neutral population to reflect NO$^*$ molecules that have dissociated to form N($^4$S) $+$ O($^3$P).  Figure \\ref{fig:shell} plots these surviving Rydberg densities as a function of radial distance for each evolution time.  At the initial density of this simulation, note at each time step that a higher density of Rydberg molecules encloses the tail of the ion density distribution in $x$.   \n\n\\subsection{Plasma expansion and NO$^+$ - NO$^*$ charge exchange as an avenue of quench}\n\nWe regard the ions as initially stationary.  The release of electrons creates a radial electric potential gradient, which gives rise to a force, $-e\\nabla \\phi_{k,j}(t)$, that accelerates the ions in shell $j$ in direction $k$ according to \\cite{Sadeghi.2012}:\n\n\\begin{align}\n\\frac{-e}{m'}\\nabla \\phi_{k,j}(t) = & \\frac{\\partial u_{k,j}(t)}{\\partial t} \\notag  \\\\\n= & \\frac{k_BT_e(t)}{m'\\rho_j(t)} \\frac{\\rho_{j+1}(t) - \\rho_j(t)}{r_{k,j+1}(t) - r_{k,j}(t)},\n  \\label{dr_dt}\n\\end{align}\n\n\\noindent where $\\rho_j(t)$ represents the density of ions in shell $j$.  \n\nThe instantaneous velocity, $u_{k,j}(t)$ determines the change in the radial coordinates of each shell, $r_{k,j}(t)$, \n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{\\partial r_{k,j}(t)}{\\partial t}=u_{k,j}(t) = \\gamma_{k,j}(t) r_{k,j}(t),\n  \\label{dr_dt}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent which in turn determines shell volume and thus its density, $ \\rho_j(t)$.   \nThe electron temperature supplies the thermal energy that drives this ambipolar expansion.  Ions accelerate and $T_e$ falls according to: \n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{3k_B}{2}\\frac{\\partial T_e(t)}{\\partial t}= -\\frac{m'}{\\sum_{j}{N_j}}\\sum_{k,j}{N_j u_{k,j}(t)\\frac{\\partial u_{k,j}(t)}{\\partial t}},\n  \\label{dr_dt}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent where we define an effective ion mass, $m'$, that recognizes the redistribution of the electron expansion force over all the NO$^+$ charge centres by resonant ion-Rydberg charge exchange, which occurs with a very large cross section \\cite{PPR}.  \n\\begin{equation}\nm' =\\left (1+ \\frac{\\rho^*_{j}(t)}{ \\rho_j(t)}\\right) m ,\n  \\label{dr_dt}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent in which $\\rho^*_{j}(t)$ represents the instantaneous Rydberg density in shell $j$.\n\nThe initial avalanche in the high-density core of the ellipsoid leaves few Rydberg molecules, so this term has little initial effect.  Rydberg molecules predominate in the lower-density wings.  There, momentum sharing by charge exchange assumes a greater importance.  \n\nWe see this most directly in the $\\omega_2$ absorption spectrum of transitions to states in the $n_0 f(2)$ Rydberg series, detected as the long-lived signal that survives a flight time of 400 $\\mu$s to reach the imaging detector.  The balance between the rising density of ions and the falling density of Rydberg molecules depends on the initial density of electrons produced by prompt Penning ionization.  As clear from Eq \\ref{Eq:PenDens}, this Penning fraction depends sensitively on the principal quantum number, and for all principal quantum numbers, on the initial Rydberg gas density.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .4 \\textwidth]{w2_spectra}\n   \\caption{Double-resonant spectra of nitric oxide Rydberg states in the $nf$ series converging to NO$^+$ $v=0$, $N^+=2$ (designated, $nf(2)$), derived from the late-peak signal obtained after a flight time of 400 $\\mu$s by scanning $\\omega_2$ for $\\omega_1$ tuned to NO A $^2\\Sigma^+$ $v=0$, $N'=0$ for initial $nf(2)$ densities from top to bottom of 0.07, 0.10, 0.13, 0.19, 0.27, 0.30, 0.32 and $3 \\times 10^{12}$ cm$^{3}$.  \n  }\n\\label{fig:w2_spectra}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFigure \\ref{fig:w2_spectra} shows a series of $\\omega_2$ late-signal excitation spectra for a set of initial densities.  Here, we see a clear consequence of the higher-order dependence of Penning fraction - and thus the NO$^+$ ion - NO$^*$ Rydberg molecule balance - on $n_0$, the $\\omega_2$-selected Rydberg gas initial principal quantum number.  This Penning-regulated NO$^+$ ion - NO$^*$ Rydberg molecule balance appears necessary as a critical factor in achieving the long ultracold plasma lifetime required to produce this signal.  We are progressing in theoretical work that explains the stability apparently conferred by this balance.  \n\n\n\\subsection{Bifurcation and arrested relaxation}\n\nAmbipolar expansion quenches electron kinetic energy as the initially formed plasma expands.  Core ions follow electrons into the wings of the Rydberg gas.  There, recurring charge exchange between NO$^+$ ions and NO$^*$ Rydberg molecules redistributes the ambipolar force of the expanding electron gas, equalizing ion and Rydberg velocities.  This momentum matching effectively channels electron energy through ion motion into the overall $\\pm x$ motion of gas volumes in the laboratory.  The internal kinetic energy of the plasma, which at this point is defined almost entirely by the ion-Rydberg relative motion, falls.  Spatial correlation develops, and over a period of 500 ns, the system forms the plasma/high-Rydberg quasi-equilibrium dramatically evidenced by the SFI results in Figure \\ref{fig:SFI}.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .4 \\textwidth]{Bifurcation.pdf}\n   \\caption{$x,y$ detector images of ultracold plasma volumes produced by 2:1 aspect ratio ellipsoidal Rydberg gases with selected initial state, $40f(2)$ after a flight time of 402 $\\mu$s over a distance of 575 mm.  Lower frame displays the distribution in $x$ of the charge integrated in $y$ and $z$.  Both images represent the unadjusted raw signal acquired in each case after 250 shots.  \n   }\n\\label{fig:bifurcation}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn the wings, momentum redistribution owing to cycles of ion-Rydberg charge transfer retards radial expansion \\cite{Pohl2003,PPR}.  By redirecting electron energy from ambipolar acceleration to $\\pm x$ plasma motion, NO$^+$ to NO$^*$ charge exchange dissipates electron thermal energy.  This redistribution of energy released in the avalanche of the Rydberg gas to plasma, causes the ellipsoidal Rydberg gas to bifurcate \\cite{Schulz-Weiling2016,Haenel2017}, forming very long-lived, separating charged-particle distributions.  We capture the electron signal from these recoiling volumes on an imaging detector as pictured in Figure \\ref{fig:bifurcation}.  Here, momentum matching preserves density and enables ions and Rydberg molecules to relax to positions that minimize potential energy, building spatial correlation.  \n\nThe semi-classical description of avalanche and relaxation outlined above forms an important point of reference from which to interpret our experimental observations.  The laser crossed molecular beam illumination geometry creates a Rydberg gas with a distinctively shaped high-density spatial distribution.  This initial condition has an evident effect on the evolution dynamics.  We have developed semi-classical models that explicitly consider the coupled rate and hydrodynamic processes governing the evolution from Rydberg gas to plasma using a realistic, ellipsoidal representation of the ion/electron and Rydberg densities \\cite{haenelCP}.  No combination of initial conditions can produce a simulation that conforms classically with the state of arrested relaxation we observe experimentally. \n\n\n\\subsection{A molecular ultracold plasma state of arrested relaxation}\n\nThus, we find that spontaneous avalanche to plasma splits the core of an ellipsoidal Rydberg gas of nitric oxide. As ambipolar expansion quenches the electron temperature of this core plasma, long-range, resonant charge transfer from ballistic ions to frozen Rydberg molecules in the wings of the ellipsoid quenches the ion-Rydberg molecule relative velocity distribution. This sequence of steps gives rise to a remarkable mechanics of self-assembly, in which the kinetic energy of initially formed hot electrons and ions drives an observed separation of plasma volumes. These dynamics redistribute ion momentum, efficiently channeling electron energy into a reservoir of mass-transport. This starts a process that evidently anneals separating volumes to a state of cold, correlated ions, electrons and Rydberg molecules. \n\nWe have devised a three-dimensional spin model to describe this arrested state of the ultracold plasma in terms of two, three and four-level dipole-dipole energy transfer interactions (spin flip-flops), together with Ising interactions that arise from the concerted pairwise coupling of resonant pairs of dipoles \\cite{SousMBL,SousNJP}.  \n\nThe Hamiltonian includes the effects of onsite disorder owing to the broad spectrum of states populated in the ensemble and the unique electrostatic environment of every dipole.  Extending ideas developed for simpler systems \\cite{Burin1,Sondhi}, one can make a case for slow dynamics, including an arrest in the relaxation of NO Rydberg molecules to predissociating states of lower principal quantum number.\n\nSystems of higher dimension ought to thermalize by energy transfer that spreads from rare but inevitable ergodic volumes (Griffiths regions) \\cite{Sarang2, Roeck_griffith, RareRegions_rev, Thermal_inclusions}.  However, a feature in the self-assembly of the molecular ultracold plasma may preclude destabilization by rare thermal domains:  Whenever the quenched plasma develops a delocalizing Griffiths region, the local predissociation of relaxing NO molecules promptly proceeds to deplete that region to a void of no consequence.\n\nIn summary, the classical dynamics of avalanche and bifurcation appear to create a quenched condition of low temperature and high disorder in which dipole-dipole interactions drive self-assembly to a localized state purified by the predissociation of thermal regions.  We suggest that this state of the quenched ultracold plasma offers an experimental platform for studying quantum many-body physics of disordered systems. \\\\\n\n\\section{Acknowledgments}\nThis work was supported by the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research (Grant No. FA9550-17-1-0343), together with the Natural Sciences and Engineering research Council of Canada (NSERC), the Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI) and the British Columbia Knowledge Development Fund (BCKDF). \n\n", "answers": ["A subset that form via kinetic rate processes from state-selected Rydberg gases."], "length": 5088, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "91c198d5820bfba5caf396532a0b30a531e9d09a7a9005a4"}
{"input": "What are the two ground states observed for indeno[1,2-a]fluorene on NaCl surfaces?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Bistability between π-diradical open-shell and closed-shell states in indeno[1,2-a]fluorene\nPublish Date: Unkown\nAuthor List: Shantanu Mishra (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich), Manuel Vilas-Varela (from Department of Organic Chemistry, Center for Research in Biological Chemistry and Molecular Materials (CiQUS), University of Santiago de Compostela), Leonard-Alexander Lieske (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich), Ricardo Ortiz (from Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)), Igor Rončević (from Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford), Florian Albrecht (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich), Diego Peña (from Department of Organic Chemistry, Center for Research in Biological Chemistry and Molecular Materials (CiQUS), University of Santiago de Compostela), Leo Gross (from IBM Research Europe -Zurich)\n\nFigure\n\nFig. 1 | Non-benzenoid non-alternant polycyclic conjugated hydrocarbons.a, Classical nonbenzenoid non-alternant polycyclic conjugated hydrocarbons: pentalene, azulene and heptalene.b, Generation of indacenes and indenoindenes through benzinterposition and benzannelation of pentalene, respectively.Gray filled rings represent Clar sextets.c, Closed-shell Kekulé (left) and openshell non-Kekulé (right) resonance structures of QDMs.Note that meta-QDM is a non-Kekulé molecule.All indenofluorene isomers, being derived through benzannelation of indacenes, contain a central QDM moiety.d, Closed-shell Kekulé (top) and open-shell non-Kekulé (bottom) resonance structures of indenofluorenes.Compared to their closed-shell structures, 1 and 5 gain two Clar sextets in the openshell structure, while 2-4 gain only one Clar sextet in the open-shell structure.Colored bonds in d highlight the ortho-and para-QDM moieties in the two closed-shell Kekulé structures of 5. e, Scheme of on-surface generation of 5 by voltage pulse-induced dehydrogenation of 6 (C20H14).Structures 7 and 8 represent the two monoradical species (C20H13).\nFig. 2 | Characterization of open-shell indeno[1,2-a]fluorene on bilayer NaCl/Au(111).a, DFTcalculated wave functions of the frontier orbitals of 5OS in the triplet configuration for the spin up (occupied) level (isovalue: 0.002 e -Å -3 ).Blue and red colors represent opposite phases of the wave function.b, Corresponding DFT-calculated spin density of 5OS (isovalue: 0.01 e -Å -3).Blue and orange colors represent spin up and spin down densities, respectively.c, Probability density of the SOMOs of 5OS (isovalue: 0.001 e -Å -3 ).d, DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5OS.e, Constant-height I(V) spectra acquired on a species of 5 assigned as 5OS, along with the corresponding dI/dV(V) spectra.Open feedback parameters: V = -2 V, I = 0.17 pA (negative bias side) and V = 2 V, I = 0.17 pA (positive bias side).Acquisition position of the spectra is shown in Supplementary Fig.7.f, Scheme of many-body transitions associated to the measured ionic resonances of 5OS.Also shown are STM images of assigned 5OS at biases where the corresponding transitions become accessible.Scanning parameters: I = 0.3 pA (V = -1.2V and -1.5 V) and 0.2 pA (V = 1.3 V and 1.6 V). g, Laplace-filtered AFM image of assigned 5OS.STM set point: V = 0.2 V, I = 0.5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0.3Å.The tip-height offset Δz for each panel is provided with respect to the STM setpoint, and positive (negative) values of Δz denote tip approach (retraction) from the STM setpoint.f and g show the same molecule at the same adsorption site, which is next to a trilayer NaCl island.The bright and dark features in the trilayer NaCl island in g correspond to Cl -and Na + ions, respectively.Scale bars: 10 Å (f) and 5 Å (g).\nFig. 3 | Characterization of closed-shell indeno[1,2-a]fluorene on bilayer NaCl/Au(111).a, DFTcalculated wave functions of the frontier orbitals of closed-shell 5 0 (isovalue: 0.002 e -Å -3 ).The wave functions shown here are calculated for the 5para geometry.b, DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5ortho (top) and 5para (bottom).c, Constant-height I(V) spectra acquired on a species of 5 assigned as 5para, along with the corresponding dI/dV(V) spectra.Open feedback parameters: V = -2 V, I = 0.15 pA (negative bias side) and V = 2.2 V, I = 0.15 pA (positive bias side).Acquisition position of the spectra is shown in Supplementary Fig. 7. d, Scheme of many-body transitions associated to the measured ionic resonances of 5para.Also shown are STM images of assigned 5para at biases where the corresponding transitions become accessible.Scanning parameters: I = 0.15 pA (V = -1.5 V) and 0.2 pA (V = 1.7 V). e, Laplace-filtered AFM image of assigned 5para.STM set point: V = 0.2 V, I = 0.5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0.7 Å. f, Selected bonds labeled for highlighting bond order differences between 5para and 5ortho.For the bond pairs a/b, c/d and e/f, the bonds labeled in bold exhibit a higher bond order than their neighboring labeled bonds in 5para.g, Laplace-filtered AFM images of 5 on bilayer NaCl/Cu(111) showing switching between 5OS and 5para as the molecule changes its adsorption position.The faint protrusion adjacent to 5 is a defect that stabilizes the adsorption of 5. STM set point: V = 0.2 V, I = 0.5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0.3Å. STM and STS data in c and d are acquired on the same species, while the AFM data in e is acquired on a different species.Scale bars: 10 Å (d) and 5 Å (e,g).\nNMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.51 (m, 2H), 7.40 -7.28 (m, 5H), 7.27 -7.20 (m, 2H), 7.13 (d, J = 7.7 Hz, 1H), 2.07 (s, 3H), 1.77 (s, 3H) ppm. 13C NMR-DEPT (75 MHz, CDCl3, 1:1 mixture of atropisomers) δ: 141.2 (C), 141.1 (C), 140.0 (C), 139.4 (2C), 137.5 (C), 137.4 (C), 136.0 (3C), 134.8 (C), 134.5 (C), 134.1 (C), 134.0 (C), 133.7 (C), 133.6 (C), 131.6 (CH), 131.2 (CH), 131.1 (CH), 130.7 (CH), 129.8 (CH), 129.7 (CH), 129.5 (CH), 129.4 (CH), 129.0 (CH), 128.9 (CH), 128.7 (2CH), 128.6 (2CH), 127.2 (CH), 127.1 (CH), 127.0 (CH), 126.9 (CH), 126.7 (CH), 126.6 (CH), 20.6 (CH3), 20.5 (CH3), 17.7 (CH3), 17.5 (CH3) ppm.MS (APCI) m/z (%): 327 (M+1, 100).HRMS: C20H16Cl2; calculated: 327.0702, found: 327.0709.\nNMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 7.93 (d, J = 7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.85 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (d, J = 7.7 Hz, 1H), 7.65 (d, J = 7.4 Hz, 1H), 7.61 (d, J = 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (d, J = 7.7 Hz, 1H), 7.47 (ddd, J = 8.4, 7.2, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.42 (dd, J = 8.1, 7.0 Hz, 1H), 7.35 (m, 2H), 4.22 (s, 3H), 4.02 (s, 3H).ppm. 13C NMR-DEPT (125 MHz, CDCl3) δ: 144.1 (C), 143.3 (C), 142.3 (C), 141.9 (C), 141.8 (C), 141.2 (C), 138.2 (C), 136.5 (C), 127.0 (CH), 126.9 (CH), 126.7 (CH), 126.6 (CH), 125.3 (CH), 125.2 (CH), 123.6 (CH), 122.2 (CH), 119.9 (CH), 118.4 (CH), 37.4 (CH2), 36.3 (CH2).ppm.MS (APCI) m/z (%): 254 (M+, 88).HRMS: C20H14; calculated: 254.1090, found: 254.1090.\n\nabstract\n\nIndenofluorenes are non-benzenoid conjugated hydrocarbons that have received great interest owing to their unusual electronic structure and potential applications in nonlinear optics and photovoltaics. Here, we report the generation of unsubstituted indeno[1,2-a]fluorene, the final and yet unreported parent indenofluorene regioisomer, on various surfaces by cleavage of two C-H bonds in 7,12-dihydro indeno[1,2-a]fluorene through voltage pulses applied by the tip of a combined scanning tunneling microscope and atomic force microscope.\nOn bilayer NaCl on Au(111), indeno[1,2a]fluorene is in the neutral charge state, while it exhibits charge bistability between neutral and anionic states on the lower work function surfaces of bilayer NaCl on Ag(111) and Cu(111). In the neutral state, indeno[1,2-a]fluorene exhibits either of two ground states: an open-shell π-diradical state, predicted to be a triplet by density functional and multireference many-body perturbation theory calculations, or a closedshell state with a para-quinodimethane moiety in the as-indacene core.\nSwitching between open-and closed-shell states of a single molecule is observed by changing its adsorption site on NaCl. The inclusion of non-benzenoid carbocyclic rings is a viable route to tune the physicochemical properties of polycyclic conjugated hydrocarbons (PCHs) . Non-benzenoid polycycles may lead to local changes in strain, conjugation, aromaticity, and, relevant to the context of the present work, induce an open-shell ground state of the corresponding PCHs .\nMany nonbenzenoid PCHs are also non-alternant, where the presence of odd-membered polycycles breaks the bipartite symmetry of the molecular network . Figure shows classical examples of non-benzenoid non-alternant PCHs, namely, pentalene, azulene and heptalene. Whereas azulene is a stable PCH exhibiting Hückel aromaticity ([4n+2] π-electrons, n = 2), pentalene and heptalene are unstable Hückel antiaromatic compounds with [4n] π-electrons, n = 2 (pentalene) and n = 3 (heptalene).\nBenzinterposition of pentalene generates indacenes, consisting of two isomers s-indacene and as-indacene (Fig. ). Apart from being antiaromatic, indacenes also contain proaromatic quinodimethane (QDM) moieties (Fig. ) , which endows them with potential open-shell character. While the parent s-indacene and asindacene have never been isolated, stable derivatives of s-indacene bearing bulky substituents have been synthesized .\nA feasible strategy to isolate congeners of otherwise unstable non-benzenoid non-alternant PCHs is through fusion of benzenoid rings at the ends of the π-system, that is, benzannelation. For example, while the parent pentalene is unstable, the benzannelated congener indeno[2,1-a]indene is stable under ambient conditions (Fig. ) .\nHowever, the position of benzannelation is crucial for stability: although indeno[2,1a]indene is stable, its regioisomer indeno[1,2-a]indene (Fig. ) oxidizes under ambient conditions . Similarly, benzannelation of indacenes gives rise to the family of PCHs known as indenofluorenes (Fig. ), which constitute the topic of the present work.\nDepending on the benzannelation position and the indacene core, five regioisomers can be constructed, namely, indeno [ Practical interest in indenofluorenes stems from their low frontier orbital gap and excellent electrochemical characteristics that render them as useful components in organic electronic devices .\nThe potential open-shell character of indenofluorenes has led to several theoretical studies on their use as non-linear optical materials and as candidates for singlet fission in organic photovoltaics . Recent theoretical work has also shown that indenofluorene-based ladder polymers may exhibit fractionalized excitations.\nFundamentally, indenofluorenes represent model systems to study the interplay between aromaticity and magnetism at the molecular scale . Motivated by many of these prospects, the last decade has witnessed intensive synthetic efforts toward the realization of indenofluorenes. Derivatives of 1-4 have been realized in solution , while 1-3 have also been synthesized on surfaces and characterized using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), which provide information on molecular orbital densities , molecular structure and oxidation state .\nWith regards to the open-shell character of indenofluorenes, 2-4 are theoretically and experimentally interpreted to be closed-shell, while calculations indicate that 1 and 5 should exhibit open-shell ground states . Bulk characterization of mesitylsubstituted 1, including X-ray crystallography, temperature-dependent NMR, and electron spin resonance spectroscopy, provided indications of its open-shell ground state .\nElectronic characterization of 1 on Au(111) surface using scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) revealed a low electronic gap of 0.4 eV (ref. ). However, no experimental proof of an openshell ground state of 1 on Au(111), such as detection of singly occupied molecular orbitals (SOMOs) or spin excitations and correlations due to unpaired electrons , was shown.\nIn this work, we report the generation and characterization of unsubstituted 5. Our research is motivated by theoretical calculations that indicate 5 to exhibit the largest diradical character among all indenofluorene isomers . The same calculations also predict that 5 should possess a triplet ground state.\nTherefore, 5 would qualify as a Kekulé triplet, of which only a handful of examples exist . However, definitive synthesis of 5 has never been reported so far. Previously, Dressler et al. reported transient isolation of mesityl-substituted 5, where it decomposed both in the solution and in solid state , and only the structural proof of the corresponding dianion was obtained.\nOn-surface generation of a derivative of 5, starting from truxene as a precursor, was recently reported . STM data on this compound, containing the indeno[1,2-a]fluorene moiety as part of a larger PCH, was interpreted to indicate its open-shell ground state. However, the results did not imply the ground state of unsubstituted 5. Here, we show that on insulating surfaces 5 can exhibit either of two ground states: an open-shell or a closed-shell.\nWe infer the existence of these two ground states based on high-resolution AFM imaging with bond-order discrimination and STM imaging of molecular orbital densities . AFM imaging reveals molecules with two different geometries. Characteristic bond-order differences in the two geometries concur with the geometry of either an open-or a closed-shell state.\nConcurrently, STM images at ionic resonances show molecular orbital densities corresponding to SOMOs for the open-shell geometry, but orbital densities of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) for the closed-shell geometry. Our experimental results are in good agreement with density functional theory (DFT) and multireference perturbation theory calculations.\nFinally, we observe switching between open-and closed-shell states of a single molecule by changing its adsorption site on the surface. Synthetic strategy toward indeno[1,2-a]fluorene. The generation of 5 relies on the solution-phase synthesis of the precursor 7,12-dihydro indeno[1,2-a]fluorene (6). Details on synthesis and characterization of 6 are reported in Supplementary Figs.\n. Single molecules of 6 are deposited on coinage metal (Au(111), Ag(111) and Cu(111)) or insulator surfaces. In our work, insulating surfaces correspond to two monolayer-thick (denoted as bilayer) NaCl on coinage metal surfaces. Voltage pulses ranging between 4-6 V are applied by the tip of a combined STM/AFM system, which result in cleavage of one C-H bond at each of the pentagonal apices of 6, thereby leading to the generation of 5 (Fig. ).\nIn the main text, we focus on the generation and characterization of 5 on insulating surfaces. Generation and characterization of 5 on coinage metal surfaces is shown in Supplementary Fig. . ). Blue and orange colors represent spin up and spin down densities, respectively. c, Probability density of the SOMOs of 5OS (isovalue: 0.001 e -Å -3 ).\nd, DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5OS. e, Constant-height I(V) spectra acquired on a species of 5 assigned as 5OS, along with the corresponding dI/dV(V) spectra. Open feedback parameters: V = -2 V, I = 0.17 pA (negative bias side) and V = 2 V, I = 0.17 pA (positive bias side). Acquisition position of the spectra is shown in Supplementary Fig. . f, Scheme of many-body transitions associated to the measured ionic resonances of 5OS.\nAlso shown are STM images of assigned 5OS at biases where the corresponding transitions become accessible. Scanning parameters: I = 0.3 pA (V = -1.2 V and -1.5 V) and 0.2 pA (V = 1.3 V and 1.6 V). g, Laplace-filtered AFM image of assigned 5OS. STM set point: V = 0.2 V, I = 0.5 pA on bilayer NaCl, Δz = -0.3\nÅ. The tip-height offset Δz for each panel is provided with respect to the STM setpoint, and positive (negative) values of Δz denote tip approach (retraction) from the STM setpoint. f and g show the same molecule at the same adsorption site, which is next to a trilayer NaCl island. The bright and dark features in the trilayer NaCl island in g correspond to Cl -and Na + ions, respectively.\nScale bars: 10 Å (f) and 5 Å (g). To experimentally explore the electronic structure of 5, we used bilayer NaCl films on coinage metal surfaces to electronically decouple the molecule from the metal surfaces. Before presenting the experimental findings, we summarize the results of our theoretical calculations performed on 5 in the neutral charge state (denoted as 5 0 ).\nWe start by performing DFT calculations on 5 0 in the gas phase. Geometry optimization performed at the spin-unrestricted UB3LYP/6-31G level of theory leads to one local minimum, 5OS, the geometry of which corresponds to the open-shell resonance structure of 5 (Fig. , the label OS denotes open-shell).\nThe triplet electronic configuration of 5OS is the lowest-energy state, with the openshell singlet configuration 90 meV higher in energy. Geometry optimization performed at the restricted closed-shell RB3LYP/6-31G level reveals two local minima, 5para and 5ortho, the geometries of which (Fig. ) exhibit bond length alternations in line with the presence of a para-or an ortho-QDM moiety, respectively, in the as-indacene core of the closed-shell resonance structures of 5 (Fig. ) .\nRelative to 5OS in the triplet configuration, 5para and 5ortho are 0.40 and 0.43 eV higher in energy, respectively. Additional DFT results are shown in Supplementary Fig. . To gain more accurate insights into the theoretical electronic structure of 5, we performed multireference perturbation theory calculations (Supplementary Fig. ) based on quasi-degenerate second-order n-electron valence state perturbation theory (QD-NEVPT2).\nIn so far as the order of the ground and excited states are concerned, the results of QD-NEVPT2 calculations qualitatively match with DFT calculations. For 5OS, the triplet configuration remains the lowest-energy state, with the open-shell singlet configuration 60 meV higher in energy. The energy differences between the open-and closed-shell states are substantially reduced in QD-NEVPT2 calculations, with 5para and 5ortho only 0.11 and 0.21 eV higher in energy, respectively, compared to 5OS in the triplet configuration.\nWe also performed nucleus-independent chemical shift calculations to probe local aromaticity of 5 in the openand closed-shell states. While 5OS in the triplet configuration exhibits local aromaticity at the terminal benzenoid rings, 5OS in the open-shell singlet configuration, 5para and 5ortho all display antiaromaticity (Supplementary Fig. ).\nThe choice of the insulating surface determines the charge state of 5: while 5 adopts neutral charge state on the high work function bilayer NaCl/Au(111) surface (irrespective of its openor closed-shell state, Supplementary Fig. ), 5 exhibits charge bistability between 5 0 and the anionic state 5 -1 on the lower work function bilayer NaCl/Ag(111) and Cu(111) surfaces (Supplementary Figs. ).\nIn the main text, we focus on the characterization of 5 on bilayer NaCl/Au(111). Characterization of charge bistable 5 is reported in Supplementary Figs. . We first describe experiments on 5 on bilayer NaCl/Au(111), where 5 exhibits a geometry corresponding to the calculated 5OS geometry, and an open-shell electronic configuration.\nWe compare the experimental data on this species to calculations on 5OS with a triplet configuration, as theory predicts a triplet ground state for 5OS. For 5OS, the calculated frontier orbitals correspond to the SOMOs ψ1 and ψ2 (Fig. ), whose spin up levels are occupied and the spin down levels are empty.\nFigure shows the DFT-calculated bond lengths of 5OS, where the two salient features, namely, the small difference in the bond lengths within each ring and the notably longer bond lengths in the pentagonal rings, agree with the open-shell resonance structure of 5 (Fig. ). Figure shows an AFM image of 5 adsorbed on bilayer NaCl/Au(111) that we assign as 5OS, where the bond-order differences qualitatively correspond to the calculated 5OS geometry (discussed and compared to the closed-shell state below).\nDifferential conductance spectra (dI/dV(V), where I and V denote the tunneling current and bias voltage, respectively) acquired on assigned 5OS exhibit two peaks centered at -1.5 V and 1.6 V (Fig. ), which we assign to the positive and negative ion resonances (PIR and NIR), respectively. Figure shows the corresponding STM images acquired at the onset (V = -1.2\nV/1.3 V) and the peak (V = -1.5 V/1.6 V) of the ionic resonances. To draw a correspondence between the STM images and the molecular orbital densities, we consider tunneling events as many-body electronic transitions between different charge states of 5OS (Fig. ). Within this framework, the PIR corresponds to transitions between 5 0 and the cationic state 5 .\nAt the onset of the PIR at -1.2 V, an electron can only be detached from the SOMO ψ1 and the corresponding STM image at -1.2 V shows the orbital density of ψ1. Increasing the bias to the peak of the PIR at -1.5 V, it becomes possible to also empty the SOMO ψ2, such that the corresponding STM image shows the superposition of ψ1 and ψ2, that is, |ψ1| 2 + |ψ2| 2 (ref.\n). Similarly, the NIR corresponds to transitions between 5 0 and 5 -1 . At the NIR onset of 1.3 V, only electron attachment to ψ2 is energetically possible. At 1.6 V, electron attachment to ψ1 also becomes possible, and the corresponding STM image shows the superposition of ψ1 and ψ2. The observation of the orbital densities of SOMOs, and not the hybridized HOMO and LUMO, proves the open-shell ground state of assigned 5OS.\nMeasurements of the monoradical species with a doublet ground state are shown in Supplementary Fig. . Unexpectedly, another species of 5 was also experimentally observed that exhibited a closedshell ground state. In contrast to 5OS, where the frontier orbitals correspond to the SOMOs ψ1 and ψ2, DFT calculations predict orbitals of different shapes and symmetries for 5para and 5ortho, denoted as α and β and shown in Fig. .\nFor 5ortho, α and β correspond to HOMO and LUMO, respectively. The orbitals are inverted in energy and occupation for 5para, where β is the HOMO and α is the LUMO. Fig. shows an AFM image of 5 that we assign as 5para. We experimentally infer its closed-shell state first by using qualitative bond order discrimination by AFM.\nIn high-resolution AFM imaging, chemical bonds with higher bond order are imaged brighter (that is, with higher frequency shift Δf) due to stronger repulsive forces, and they appear shorter . In Fig. , we label seven bonds whose bond orders show significant qualitative differences in the calculated 5ortho, 5para (Fig. ) and 5OS (Fig. ) geometries.\nIn 5para, the bonds b and d exhibit a higher bond order than a and c, respectively. This pattern is reversed for 5ortho, while the bond orders of the bonds a-d are all similar and small for 5OS. Furthermore, in 5para bond f exhibits a higher bond order than e, while in 5ortho and 5OS bonds e and f exhibit similar bond order (because they belong to Clar sextets).\nFinally, the bond labeled g shows a higher bond order in 5para than in 5ortho and 5OS. The AFM image of assigned 5para shown in Fig. indicates higher bond orders of the bonds b, d and f compared to a, c and e, respectively. In addition, the bond g appears almost point-like and with enhanced Δf contrast compared to its neighboring bonds, indicative of a high bond order (see Supplementary Fig. for height-dependent measurements).\nThese observations concur with the calculated 5para geometry (Fig. ). Importantly, all these distinguishing bond-order differences are distinctly different in the AFM image of 5OS shown in Fig. , which is consistent with the calculated 5OS geometry (Fig. ). In the AFM images of 5OS (Fig. and Supplementary Fig. ), the bonds a-d at the pentagon apices appear with similar contrast and apparent bond length.\nThe bonds e and f at one of the terminal benzenoid rings also exhibit similar contrast and apparent bond length, while the central bond g appears longer compared to assigned 5para. Further compelling evidence for the closed-shell state of assigned 5para is obtained by STM and STS. dI/dV(V) spectra acquired on an assigned 5para species exhibit two peaks centered at -1.4 V (PIR) and 1.6 V (NIR) (Fig. ).\nSTM images acquired at these biases (Fig. ) show the orbital densities of β (-1.4 V) and α (1.6 V). First, the observation of α and β as the frontier orbitals of this species, and not the SOMOs, strongly indicates its closed-shell state. Second, consistent with AFM measurements that indicate good correspondence to the calculated 5para geometry, we observe β as the HOMO and α as the LUMO.\nFor 5ortho, α should be observed as the HOMO and β as the LUMO. We did not observe molecules with the signatures of 5ortho in our experiments. We observed molecules in open-(5OS, Fig. ) and closed-shell (5para, Fig. ) states in similar occurrence after their generation from 6 on the surface. We could also switch individual molecules between open-and closed-shell states as shown in Fig. and Supplementary Fig. .\nTo this end, a change in the adsorption site of a molecule was induced by STM imaging at ionic resonances, which often resulted in movement of the molecule. The example presented in Fig. shows a molecule that was switched from 5para to 5OS and back to 5para. The switching is not directed, that is, we cannot choose which of the two species will be formed when changing the adsorption site, and we observed 5OS and 5para in approximately equal yields upon changing the adsorption site.\nThe molecule in Fig. is adsorbed on top of a defect that stabilizes its adsorption geometry on bilayer NaCl. At defect-free adsorption sites on bilayer NaCl, that is, without a third layer NaCl island or atomic defects in the vicinity of the molecule, 5 could be stably imaged neither by AFM nor by STM at ionic resonances (Supplementary Fig. ).\nWithout changing the adsorption site, the state of 5 (open-or closedshell) never changed, including the experiments on bilayer NaCl/Ag(111) and Cu(111), on which the charge state of 5 could be switched (Supplementary Figs. ). Also on these lower work function surfaces, both open-and closed-shell species were observed for 5 0 and both showed charge bistability between 5 0 (5OS or 5para) and 5 -1 (Supplementary Figs. ).\nThe geometrical structure of 5 -1 probed by AFM, and its electronic structure probed by STM imaging at the NIR (corresponding to transitions between 5 -1 and the dianionic state 5 -2 ), are identical within the measurement accuracy for the charged species of both 5OS and 5para. When cycling the charge state of 5 between 5 0 and 5 -1 several times, we always observed the same state (5OS or 5para) when returning to 5 0 , provided the molecule did not move during the charging/discharging process.\nBased on our experimental observations we conclude that indeno[1,2-a]fluorene (5), the last unknown indenofluorene isomer, can be stabilized in and switched between an open-shell (5OS) and a closed-shell (5para) state on NaCl. For the former, both DFT and QD-NEVPT2 calculations predict a triplet electronic configuration.\nTherefore, 5 can be considered to exhibit the spin-crossover effect, involving magnetic switching between high-spin (5OS) and low-spin (5para) states, coupled with a reversible structural transformation. So far, the spin-crossover effect has mainly only been observed in transition-metal-based coordination compounds with a near-octahedral geometry .\nThe observation that the switching between open-and closedshell states is related to changes in the adsorption site but is not achieved by charge-state cycling alone, indicates that the NaCl surface and local defects facilitate different electronic configurations of 5 depending on the adsorption site.\nGas-phase QD-NEVPT2 calculations predict that 5OS is the ground state, and the closed-shell 5para and 5ortho states are 0.11 and 0.21 eV higher in energy. The experiments, showing bidirectional switching between 5OS and 5para, indicate that a change in the adsorption site can induce sufficient change in the geometry of 5 (leading to a corresponding change in the ground state electronic configuration) and thus induce switching.\nSwitching between open-and closed-shell states in 5 does not require the breaking or formation of covalent bonds , but a change of adsorption site on NaCl where the molecule is physisorbed. Our results should have implications for single-molecule devices, capitalizing on the altered electronic and chemical properties of a system in π-diradical open-shell and closed-shell states such as frontier orbital and singlet-triplet gaps, and chemical reactivity.\nFor possible future applications as a single-molecule switch, it might be possible to also switch between open-and closed-shell states by changing the local electric field, such as by using chargeable adsorbates . Scanning probe microscopy measurements and sample preparation. STM and AFM measurements were performed in a home-built system operating at base pressures below 1×10 -10 mbar and a base temperature of 5 K. Bias voltages are provided with respect to the sample.\nAll STM, AFM and spectroscopy measurements were performed with carbon monoxide (CO) functionalized tips. AFM measurements were performed in non-contact mode with a qPlus sensor . The sensor was operated in frequency modulation mode with a constant oscillation amplitude of 0.5 Å. STM measurements were performed in constantcurrent mode, AFM measurements were performed in constant-height mode with V = 0 V, and I(V) and Δf(V) spectra were acquired in constant-height mode.\nPositive (negative) values of the tip-height offset Δz represent tip approach (retraction) from the STM setpoint. All dI/dV(V) spectra are obtained by numerical differentiation of the corresponding I(V) spectra. STM and AFM images, and spectroscopy curves, were post-processed using Gaussian low-pass filters.\nAu(111), Ag(111) and Cu(111) surfaces were cleaned by iterative cycles of sputtering with Ne + ions and annealing up to 800 K. NaCl was thermally evaporated on Au(111), Ag(111) and Cu(111) surfaces held at 323 K, 303 K and 283 K, respectively. This protocol results in the growth of predominantly bilayer (100)-terminated islands, with a minority of trilayer islands.\nSub-monolayer coverage of 6 on surfaces was obtained by flashing an oxidized silicon wafer containing the precursor molecules in front of the cold sample in the microscope. CO molecules for tip functionalization were dosed from the gas phase on the cold sample. Density functional theory calculations. DFT was employed using the PSI4 program package .\nAll molecules with different charge (neutral and anionic) and electronic (open-and closed-shell) states were independently investigated in the gas phase. The B3LYP exchangecorrelation functional with 6-31G basis set was employed for structural relaxation and singlepoint energy calculations. The convergence criteria were set to 10 −4 eV Å −1 for the total forces and 10 −6 eV for the total energies.\nMultireference calculations. Multireference calculations were performed on the DFToptimized geometries using the QD-NEVPT2 level of theory , with three singlet roots and one triplet root included in the state-averaged calculation. A (10,10) active space (that is, 10 electrons in 10 orbitals) was used along with the def2-TZVP basis set .\nIncreasing either the active space size or expanding the basis set resulted in changes of about 50 meV for relative energies of the singlet and triplet states. These calculations were performed using the ORCA program package . Nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) calculations. Isotropic nucleus-independent chemical shift values were evaluated at the centre of each ring using the B3LYP exchangecorrelation functional with def2-TZVP basis set using the Gaussian 16 software package .\nStarting materials (reagent grade) were purchased from TCI and Sigma-Aldrich and used without further purification. Reactions were carried out in flame-dried glassware and under an inert atmosphere of purified Ar using Schlenk techniques. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was performed on Silica Gel 60 F-254 plates (Merck).\nColumn chromatography was performed on silica gel (40-60 µm). Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra were recorded on a Bruker Varian Mercury 300 or Bruker Varian Inova 500 spectrometers. Mass spectrometry (MS) data were recorded in a Bruker Micro-TOF spectrometer. The synthesis of compound 6 was developed following the two-step synthetic route shown in Supplementary Fig. , which is based on the preparation of methylene-bridge polyarenes by means of Pd-catalyzed activation of benzylic C-H bonds .\nSupplementary Figure | Synthetic route to obtain compound 6. The complex Pd2(dba)3 (20 mg, 0.02 mmol) was added over a deoxygenated mixture of 1,3-dibromo-2,4-dimethylbenzene (9, 100 mg, 0.38 mmol), boronic acid 10 (178 mg, 1.14 mmol), K2CO3 (314 mg, 2.28 mmol) and XPhos (35 mg, 0.08 mmol) in toluene (1:1, 10 mL), and the resulting mixture was heated at 90 °C for 2 h.\nAfter cooling to room temperature, the solvents were evaporated under reduced pressure. The reaction crude was purified by column chromatography (SiO2; hexane:CH2Cl2 9:1) affording 11 (94 mg, 76%) as a colorless oil. The complex Pd(OAc)2 (7 mg, 0.03 mmol) was added over a deoxygenated mixture of terphenyl 11 (90 mg, 0.27 mmol), K2CO3 (114 mg, 0.83 mmol) and ligand L (26 mg, 0.06 mmol) in NMP (2 mL).\nThe resulting mixture was heated at 160 °C for 4 h. After cooling to room temperature, H2O (30 mL) was added, and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3x15 mL). The combined organic extracts were dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered, and evaporated under reduced pressure. The reaction crude was purified by column chromatography (SiO2; hexane:CH2Cl2 9:1) affording compound 6 (8 mg, 11%) as a white solid. in AFM imaging due to their reduced adsorption height compared to the rest of the carbon atoms.\nWe attribute this observation to the significantly different lattice parameter of Cu(111) (2.57 Å) compared to Au(111) and Ag(111) (2.95 Å and 2.94 Å, respectively) , such that the apical carbon atoms of the pentagonal rings of 5 adsorb on the on-top atomic sites on Au(111) and Ag(111), but not on Cu(111).\nOur speculation is based on a previous study of polymers of 1 on Au(111) by Di Giovannantonio et al. , where both tilted and planar individual units of 1 were observed depending on whether the apical carbon atoms of the pentagonal rings in 1 adsorbed on the on-top or hollow sites of the surface, respectively.\nGiven the strong molecule-metal interaction, we found no electronic state signatures of 5 on all three metal surfaces. STM set point for AFM images: V = 0. e, Frontier orbital spectrum of 5 -1 . In the anionic state, ψ2 becomes doubly occupied and ψ1 is the SOMO. Filled and empty circles denote occupied and empty orbitals, respectively.\nFor each panel, zero of the energy axis has been aligned to the respective highest-energy occupied orbital.", "answers": ["Open-shell π-diradical state and closed-shell state with a para-quinodimethane moiety."], "length": 5514, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "59a29a109088d9bd027b8fb77c20871684aa5069abec8e20"}
{"input": "How does the receptive field size affect the completion of shapes?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: CONTOUR COMPLETION USING DEEP STRUCTURAL PRIORS\nPublish Date: 9 Feb 2023\nAuthor List: Ali Shiraee, Morteza Rezanejad, Mohammad Khodadad, Dirk Walther, Hamidreza Mahyar\n\nFigure\n\nFigure 1: Just by looking at subfigure (a), we, as humans, can easily perceive a shape like the one in subfigure (b).This is an extraordinary capability of our human brain and in this paper, we tried to see whether convolutional neural networks can show such capabilities.\nFigure 2: The trajectory from random noise X N to the incomplete image X I in image space.The network will pass a completed version of the image, X C , throughout this trajectory.\nFigure 4: This figure shows our iterative process to complete the fragmented contours of an image given as input to our pipeline.\nFigure 5: This example shows how different scores change throughout a single run.All three scores change in the range of [0, 100].Our goal is to maximize reconstruction_score and minimize the overfit_score, but we should consider that the minimization lower bound is data dependent and is not zero.\nFigure 6: Evolutionary process of the deep structure prior.The right column shows the incomplete shapes given to the model and the rest of the columns show how the model is overfitting gradually to produce the incomplete shapes.In each column, we are showing an intermediate iteration of this process.The loss-term setup enables our pipeline to let the completed image appears during this iterative process.\nAverage MSE and IoU values between the incomplete (Raw) images, the output of DIP and DSP methods, and ground truth for each image are provided in this table.\nFor this experiment, we ran the model over a subset of complex dataset with 500 incomplete images at various levels of alpha for 250 iterations.After the image completion is done, we compared the evaluation metrics between the completed image and the ground truth to examine the performance of the model for different values of alpha.\nIn this table, we show the effect of the receptive filter size on our algorithm's capability to fill in bigger gap sizes.The numbers in this table are showing the percentage of the time that DIP was successful to complete shapes with each gap size and corresponding receptive field size.As predicted, the bigger the filter size, the more successful the algorithm is in filling in the gaps.\n\nabstract\n\nHumans can easily perceive illusory contours and complete missing forms in fragmented shapes. This work investigates whether such capability can arise in convolutional neural networks (CNNs) using deep structural priors computed directly from images. In this work, we present a framework that completes disconnected contours and connects fragmented lines and curves.\nIn our framework, we propose a model that does not even need to know which regions of the contour are eliminated. We introduce an iterative process that completes an incomplete image and we propose novel measures that guide this to find regions it needs to complete. Our model trains on a single image and fills in the contours with no additional training data.\nOur work builds a robust framework to achieve contour completion using deep structural priors and extensively investigate how such a model could be implemented.\n\nIntroduction\n\nThe human visual system is used to seeing incomplete outlines. Our brains can effortlessly group visual elements and fragmented contours that seem to be connected to each other. This power enables us to make shapes, organize disconnected visual features, and even properties of 3D surfaces when projected on 2D planes.\ndemonstrated how early vision may quickly complete partially-occluded objects using monocular signals. This capability of perceptual grouping has been studied in vision science for decades . Although there has been some work on perceptual grouping in the past couple of years, it has been less studied in the past decade due to the enormous progress of deep neural networks and their success in dealing with the pixel-by-pixel inference of images.\nDifferent types of lines and curves have been studied to maximize the connectivity of two broken ends in the planer contour completion problem . Different types of lines and curves have been studied to maximize the connectivity of two broken ends in the planer contour completion problem. Geometry-based constraints can be utilized to address some challenges of contour completion problems, such as smoothness and curvature consistency .\nHowever, such approaches only work for simple, smooth contours and usually fail in more complex settings. On the other hand, we currently have deep models that could easily take an incomplete image and complete the missing regions using enough training data . The amazing capability of such models especially those that are trained on different modalities with millions or billions of training data raises the question of whether we need such a large amount of training to perceive all the visual cues that are present in an image, which underlies visual perception by humans.\nIn human vision, Gestalt psychology suggests that our brain is designed to perceive structures and patterns that are grouped by some known rules. In this work, we show that some perceptual structures can also be learned from the image itself directly using architectures that enable such learning. Earlier work has shown  This is an extraordinary capability of our human brain and in this paper, we tried to see whether convolutional neural networks can show such capabilities.\nthat some forms of perceptual grouping can be achieved using computational models, such as stochastic completion fields . This type of learning resonates with some of the Gestalt perceptual grouping principles including \"proximity\", \"good continuation\" and \"similarity\". In scenarios where color and/or texture are present, the cue of \"similarity\" helps us group regions with consistent patterns .\nWhen color and texture are present, they provide a collection of rich information for such cues. In the present article, we probe convolutional neural networks in a scenario where both are absent, and the neural network is dealing with just forms and shapes. Specifically, we explore whether the convolutional neural network architecture itself can give rise to some of these grouping cues when they are fed just contours and shapes alone.\nFor years, neural networks have been treated as black boxes that can generalize images very well to multiple classes when there are enough training exemplars. One of the reasons that neural networks are trained on many exemplars is to avoid the problem of overfitting. On the other hand, we know that CNNs that generalize well to large classes of exemplars can easily overfit when those class labels are randomly permuted .\nInspired by this observation, suggest that image priors can be learned to a large extent through a generator network architecture that is solely trained on a single image. This encouraged us to take a deeper look at what structural information can be learned from a single-shape image and whether we can reconstruct some of those perceptual grouping capabilities using a generator network.\nInspired by , in this work, we adopt a novel training regime to complete shapes and contours where we use a UNet architecture with random initial weights and try to complete the contours within a single image without any training data. In our model, we imagine that the input image (i.e., the only image used to update the model's weights) is an image of fragmented contours.\nIn this work, instead of training the model on multiple images fetched from a big image dataset, we imagine a random fixed tensor noise image as input to this model. At each iteration, the random noise tensor is inferred through our generative network and the network produces an outcome image. We introduce a novel loss function that enables this network to complete contours.\nThis process repeats, and the weights of our network are updated gradually based on this loss function, which is an energy term defined based on the input image and the output of the network. The model will reconstruct the missing structures i.e., group fragmented contours that perceptually seem to be connected, before it fully overfits to the incomplete input image.\nContributions of our work are summarized as follows: 1. In our pipeline, we propose a novel algorithm that enables us to complete contours that appear to be connected to each other in an illusory form. 2. Our model is trained on just one single query image and does not need any training data. 3. Our model does not need to know which regions of the image are masked or occluded, i.e., we remove the dependency of the algorithm on the guiding mask (a guiding mask is a mask that informs the model on where the missing regions are located at).\nWe also introduce two metrics to produce a stopping criterion to know when to stop training before the model fully overfits to the incomplete image, i.e., we guide the model to stop when the completed image is produced.\n\nMethods\n\nOur eyes are trained to predict a missing region of an occluded object within a scene. We can easily perceive or make guesses about parts of objects or shapes that we do not necessarily see. Even when we are looking at an image, we might guess about the shape, property, or other attributes of an unknown object within a scene.\nSuch capability extends beyond just known objects or shapes. We can look at a disconnected set of contours and guess what the connected form may look like. This capability is rooted in our prior knowledge about the world. (see Figure ). In this work, we aim to achieve a similar capability using deep generative networks.\nMost neural networks that we work with these days are trained with a massive amount of data and one might think that this is the only way that a neural network can obtain prior information. Authors of Deep Image Prior (DIP) suggest that the convolutional architecture can capture a fair amount of information about image distribution.\nThey show that the hourglass architectures like UNet can show some good performances in some inverse problems such as image denoising, super-resolution, and inpainting. In this work, we focus on completing fragmented contours end-to-end just by using a single image. To be able to address this problem, we first look at a similar problem in image editing, known as image inpainting.\nImage inpainting is the task of completing an image where some regions of that image are covered or filtered by a mask. In image inpainting, the generative model receives a masked image with the mask that guides the algorithm to fill in those missing regions. Although in the problem of contour completion, we have a very similar goal, the additional challenge that we suffer from is that we do not necessarily have a mask that covers the regions of interest for us.\nFor example, when we look at Figure (left), we are not provided that which regions of the image are incomplete by a guiding mask. Our brain figures this out just by looking at the form and predicting those missing regions. Inspired by the image inpainting work of DIP , we propose a novel algorithm for the contour completion problem (see Figure ), where, unlike DIP, we do not have a guiding mask to know where to fill in the missing regions of our disconnected contours.\nLet us assume that we are given a degraded image x I containing a fragmented contour. We propose an iterative process (see Figure ) that can connect those discontinuities and glue those fragmented pieces together as follows. We propose an hour-glass model structure (f ) that is initially set up with completely random parameters (θ 0 ) at first.\nThrough an iterative process, we start feeding our network with a fixed random tensor noise z signal and obtain the inferred output (f (z)) from that network. We then back-propagate the difference between the inferred output and the incomplete image to the network. We then repeat this process until the difference between the generated outcome of the network (f θ (z)) and the incomplete image (x I ) gets smaller and smaller and finally overfits the incomplete image (x I ).\nIn this work, we propose a novel error metric to backpropagate in the model and update its weights. we set the metric in a way that enables us to complete the incomplete image before it overfits the incomplete image. This is where the magic of our algorithm happens. We also propose a stopping criterion, so that when the image is complete, we no longer overfit the outcome of the model and instead produce a plausible connected set of fragmented contour pieces.\nAs illustrated in Figure , this trajectory will pass through a complete version of the image in image space, which is close to the actual connected ground truth x gt , which we do not have access to directly.\n\nEnergy Function\n\nWe can model this iterative process mathematically by maximizing a posterior distribution. Let us assume that the optimal image x * that we want to achieve is on a path that connects a random tensor noise z to the incomplete image x I . With this assumption, we can eventually overfit any random tensor noise to the incomplete image x I , and we can formulate the posterior distribution of our wanted optimal image x * as follows:\nNo Prior To better recapitulate what we want to achieve using our generative model, we solve an energy minimization problem on the parameter space of the model, rather than explicitly working with probability distributions and optimizing on x (image space). Thus, we solve an energy minimization problem that incorporates the incomplete image (x I ) and model parameters (f θ (z)):\nAs shown in Figure , the pipeline starts from a random initialized set of parameters θ and updates those weights until it reaches a local minimum θ * . The only information provided for the network is the incomplete image x I . When we reach the optimal θ * , the completed image is obtained as x * = f θ * (z) where z is random tensor noise.\nIn this work, we use a U-Net architecture with skip connections as the generator model. \" As we mentioned previously, in this work we were inspired by an earlier work known as Deep Image Prior (DIP) . In this work, the authors suggested a mean-squared-error loss term that enables the network to compare the output of the generator to the incomplete input image:\nwhere x I is the incomplete image with missing pixels in correspondence of a binary mask m ∈ {0, 1} H×W and operator is for point-wise multiplication of two image matrices. In the inpainting tasks, the existence of a mask is essential as the algorithm needs to know where to fill in the missing area, whereas, in our work, we wanted to know whether the network can perform completion on its own without the need for the mask.\nIn other words, is it possible for the network to predict where to fill in at the same time that it is trying to reconstruct the incomplete image through the iterative process? To answer this question, we tried to solve a much harder problem in which the mask is not provided to the model and the model is agnostic to it.\nTo better understand how a solution could be hypothesized for this problem, we first imagine that we want to consider all the available regions in our image that could be potential places to fill in, i.e., we set the mask in the previous formula 1 to be equal to the incomplete image x I . This is problematic as the model quickly tries to fill in all white space and quickly reconstructs the incomplete image by doing so.\nOn the other hand, we can take the inverse problem of the current problem, where the model tries to just fill in the regions that fragmented contour lives in. Taking these two at the same time, we came up with a novel loss term for energy minimization term that helps us remove the need for the mask in the case of the contour completion problem:\nIn this term, we introduce a linear combination of the two loss terms, where one focuses on reconstructing the missing regions in the foreground, and one focuses on avoiding inpainting regions in the background. The logic behind this is that, if we assume the original image to be representative of the mask, then the model tries to reconstruct in all white regions (the foreground), and in the inverse problem we just want to reconstruct the regions that are already part of the ground truth.\n\nStopping Criteria\n\nAs shown in Figure , knowing when to stop iterating to the over-fitted model is a key to obtaining a completed shape. Therefore, we equipped our model with a criterion that uses two individual novel terms to know when to stop and output the result of the network. These two metrics expand the capability of the generator network beyond what it does currently and achieve a full end-to-end contour completion model that trains and infers on a single image of divided contour fragments.\nThese new terms are: reconstruction_score (ρ) and overfit_score (ω).\n\nReconstruction Score\n\nThe first score that this paper suggests is the reconstruction score, i. e., we have to make sure that the model is trained enough that it can reconstruct at least the entire set of fragmented contours within the image. This is a trivial score and to compute the reconstruction_score (ρ), we apply a k-dimensional tree (KDTree) nearest-neighbor lookup to find the ratio of points in the original incomplete image (x 0 ).\nThis score ranges from [0 − 100].\n\nOverfit Score\n\nIt is evident that the model overfits the fragmented contours. This is due to the fact that the error in our loss term is minimized as the x overfits to x I , i. e., replacing x with x I in the loss term would give us zero. As we hypothesize iterative process also produces the complete image before it overfits to the incomplete image, we can imagine that at some point the image is complete (x C ) and does not need to be fine-tuned any more to overfit to x I .\nWe suggest a new score called overfit_score. overfit_score determines how much of the reconstructed outcome is over the number of pixels that are already in the incomplete image (x I ). To compute the overfit_score (ω), we apply a k-dimensional tree (KDTree) nearest-neighbor lookup of points in the outcome of the input image and see what portions of those points are novel and not already in the incomplete image (x I ).\nSimilar to reconstruction_score, the overfit_score also ranges from [0 − 100]. Our goal is to maximize reconstruction_score and minimize the overfit_score, but we should consider that the minimization lower bound is data dependent and is not zero.\n\nCombined Score\n\nTo be able to find the best possible set of completed contours, we combine the two and have a loop that tries to achieve close to full reconstruction and avoids over-fitting at the same time. This is what we call an \"ideal\" stopping point in the contour completion problem. In each run throughout all iterations, we pick an output of the network that minimizes a dissimilarity term:\nwhere δ represents our dissimilarity score. The reconstruction_score and overfit_score are obtainable given network output and the incomplete image. Ideally, we want to achieve an output image that has a reconstruction_score equal to 100 and an overfit_score of γ which is a hyperparameter that is dependent on the image and complexity of the shape.\nEmpirically, we observed that this value is highly correlated with the distance between gaps that are observed in fragmented contours, i. e., the larger the gap results in a larger γ value. We will discuss this in more detail in the next section (see Section 3). For one sample image, we computed the two metrics reconstruction_score and overfit_score and the combined value of dissimilarity (δ) and showed how these values change (see Figure ).\nOur initial observations show that the reconstruction_score will increase to 100 quickly for the incomplete image indicating that the already existing fragments of the contours have been reconstructed in the output. However, as mentioned previously, we cannot solely rely on this score since we also want to minimize the overfitting.\nRemember that our goal is to produce an output that: a) preserves the original contours in the incomplete image and b) fills in the gaps between the fragmented contours. It is evident that overfit_score decreases throughout an iterative run of our process until it reaches zero. The dissimilarity will also decrease along with the overfit to a point, then it will increase, as the model tries to reproduce the incomplete image.\nThis is where an ideal γ value can be picked, i.e., where to stop when the reconstruction is good but we have not done a full overfit to the incomplete image. Thus, one should pick the value of γ empirically in the scenario that the ground truth is not available, whereas, assuming that the ground truth is available, we can easily compute the best γ value.\nIn our experiments, we tried two datasets of images with different gap sizes. We observed that the best the γ for one set of samples is ∼ 5 (the set with shorter gaps) while it is ∼ 23 for samples from the other set, i. e, the set with longer gaps (see Figure for some completed examples).\n\nExperiments and Results\n\nPerforming unsupervised contour completion is a difficult task to benchmark as one can never know what fragments exactly are connected to each other in a real-world scenario. This makes the problem of contour completion a hard problem to solve. In this paper, we tried to create artificial shapes that are occluded by some masks and then tried to see if our model can regenerate the missing pieces and glue those divided contours together.\nTo demonstrate our model's behavior, we will conduct experiments on datasets created for this task and will report on them in this section. To compare network results in different settings, we will use pixel-wise Mean Squared Error (MSE) and Intersection over Union (IoU) between the produced result of the network and unmasked ground truth data and the reconstructed image on black pixels (where contours live).\n\nData\n\nWe prepared two datasets, one labeled \"Simple\" and one \"Complex\", in accordance with the number of gaps in each shape. Both datasets contain nine different categories of shapes. In order to generate the Complex dataset, we used FlatShapeNet which is a dataset for the educational game Ariga. The dataset includes the following categories: Circle, Kite, Parallelogram, Rectangle, Rhombus, Square, Trapezoid, Triangle and Overlap.\nThe \"overlap\" category contains images that are made as a mixture of two shapes that are overlapping from the previous categories. These are some standard shapes with a few gaps in simple dataset, while the complex dataset has some hand-drawn shapes with fragmented lines and more gaps that produce more variety in general.\nFor each instance, a ground truth image is available for comparison. Most of our experiments have been conducted using the complex dataset in order to evaluate the generalization of our approach. For the analysis of how γ values should be set for each shape, we used the simple dataset as a reference.\n\nEvaluation\n\nIn this section, we compare our model to the original Deep Image Prior (DIP) inpainting model. DIP's inpainting module accepts a degraded image and a binary mask corresponding to that image. In order to make a fair comparison, instead of providing a binary mask, we used the incomplete images both as input and as a mask in order to see whether it can produce a result similar to ours.\nFor DIP, we run the iterative process for a maximum number of 2500 iterations with the U-net backbone. We used the exact same architecture and setting in our model for a fair comparison. Using our ground truth dataset images, we calculate the MSE loss between the network output and ground truth during each iteration instead of relying on our stopping mechanism described in the previous section.\nWe then store the output with minimal loss throughout all the iterations. Finally, we select the best output among all iterations, report the MSE and IoU with the ground truth, and save the iteration number which resulted in the lowest MSE. Table compares the results that are obtained using the DIP method, the DSP method (ours), and the difference between raw images and the ground truth.\nWe have presented the average MSE-loss, average IoU, and the average number of iterations for the best output for different methods. As can be seen from the table, our model improves both MSE and IoU between the incomplete image and ground truth in fewer iterations. The DIP method can neither generate a better result than the raw image nor provide stopping criteria to prevent overfitting.\nWe provide a more detailed analysis of this result in Figure . As results show, our algorithm not only provides a much faster convergence but also consistently provides a better-completed image (consistently less MSE loss and better IoU), whereas it is challenging for the DIP method to accomplish better results without a guiding mask.\nWe compare MSE loss between the degraded raw images that these algorithms started with (shown in blue) (a) Mean Squared Error Loss: we clearly see that for almost all images, DSP (green) achieves a lower MSE than the incomplete images (blue) whereas, the DIP completed images either do not improve the MSE or even worsen that for the incomplete images.\nNote that, the MSE is computed to an available ground truth image hidden from our methods (the lower is better). (b) Intersection Over Union: here, we are looking at the IoU metric that specifies the amount of intersection over the union between the obtained images and the ground truth data. Again, we see that DSP produces images that are much closer to the ground truth (in most cases) whereas the DIP can not achieve a similar result.\nWhile we see few DIP completed images produce a better IoU than the degraded images (in terms of IoU), most of them are worse than the starting image (the higher is better). (c) The number of iterations that are needed for each algorithm to obtain its best results. Here, we see that DSP can quickly produce the best outcome with the least MSE loss whereas the DIP algorithm's best results are when we run the iterative process for more iterations (the lower is better).\n\nCorrelation of γ with the Gap Size\n\nTo better understand the γ parameter of our combined score, we conducted the following experiment. A total of 12000 samples were obtained by merging all of our images from the two datasets, simple and complex. As we have access to the ground truth for each degraded image in the combined dataset, we can easily calculate reconstruction_score and overfit_score for each degraded-ground truth pair.\nAs expected, we obtain a reconstruction_score of 100 for all samples, but the overfit_score varies among them. Intuitively, we hypothesized that an optimal value of overfit score should be intertwined with the total area of gaps. To test this hypothesis, we did the following experiment. We first define a function φ(x) which takes a binary, black and white image x and returns the number of black pixels in it.\nThen we define a gap term as follows: where x I is the incomplete image and x gt is the ground truth. In this case, gap indicates the total area of the gap with respect to the whole shape. We found out that this term and the best result have a correlation of 97.43%. This indicates that the value of γ is highly correlated with the gap size, that is something expected in a way.\n\nEffect of α\n\nWe conducted additional experiments concerning how α affects the quality of reconstruction. In the previous section, we defined Equation 2 as the loss term that guides our iterative process. The term α specifies the amount of emphasis the model should place on reconstructing missing regions, rather than filling in fragmented contours.\nA lower α indicates a better grouping quality, as shown in Equation . However, we will not achieve completion if we remove the first term completely from the loss by setting α = 0. Therefore, the first term should be kept, but its weight should be very low in order to achieve a good completion. On the other hand, if we set α = 1 and omit the second term, we lose the contour completion regularization term and obtain the same output as a vanilla deep image prior, which does not complete shapes.\n\nEffect of Receptive Field Size\n\nTo better understand the effect of receptive field size on our algorithm, we test the following hypothesis: can models with bigger receptive field size complete shapes with bigger gaps? In Table , we report showing the results of this experiment. As we can see, the bigger the receptive field size, the more complete shapes we can reconstruct using DSP.\n\nImplementation Details\n\nAs shown in Figure , we use a model with 5 layers and 128 channels for downsampling and upsampling convolutions, and 64 channels for skip convolutions. The upsampling and downsampling modules use 3 × 3 filters, while the skip module uses 1 × 1 filters. In the upsample part of the network, the nearest neighbor algorithm is used.\nWe used 256 × 256 images with three channels in all of our experiments. In training, we use the MSE loss between the degraded image and the output of the network, and we optimize the loss using the ADAM optimizer and a learning rate equal to 0.01 . In our experiments, we also used α = 0.15 as an optimal proportion coefficient for reconstruction loss.\n\nConclusion\n\nIn this work, we introduced a novel framework for contour completion using deep structure priors (DSP). This work offers a novel notion of a maskless grouping of fragmented contours. In our proposed framework, we introduced a novel loss metric that does not require a strict definition of the mask. Instead, it lets the model learn the perceivable illusory contours and connects those fragmented pieces using a generator network that is solely trained on just the single incomplete input image.\nOur model does not require any pre-training which demonstrates that the convolutional architecture of the hour-glass model is able to connect disconnected contours. We present an extended set of experiments that show the capability of our algorithm. We investigate the effect of each parameter introduced in our algorithm separately and show how one could possibly achieve the best result for their problem using this model.\nIn future work, we plan to extend this model and try to see how it performs with real images. In particular, we want to determine whether we can inpaint real-world photographs while retaining perceptually aware scene structures. The importance of shape in perception by deep neural networks has been highlighted in many adversarial examples to appearance-based networks .\nThe outcome of this work has strong potential to impact the designing and implementation of models that are robust to such perturbations.", "answers": ["Bigger receptive field size leads to more successful shape completion."], "length": 5241, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "4ad542cf320f1c01a4bce92a59628789784cf9722d7d476c"}
{"input": "What did the court in In re Ferguson conclude about the transformation prong of the Bilski test?", "context": "Xpp-pdf support utility\nXpp-pdf support utility\nPATENT, TRADEMARK\n& COPYRIGHT !\nReproduced with permission from BNA’s Patent,Trademark 11/20/09, 11/20/2009. Copyright ஽ 2009 by The Bu-reau of National Affairs, Inc. (800-372-1033) http://www.bna.com As the patent community anticipates a decision by the U.S. Supreme Court on subject matter patentability, recent rulings by the Federal Circuit and the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences suggest strategies for preparing method patent applications that will sur- vive the Federal Circuit’s ‘‘machine-or-transformation’’ test.\nThe Changing Landscape of Method Claims in the Wake of In re Bilski:What We Can Learn from Recent Decisions of Federal Courts and the Board ofPatent Appeals rulings on software-based and other business methodpatent applications.\nOn review before the high court is the en banc ruling ‘‘Pure’’ business methods are out. Algorithms by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit1 are out. Machines and data transformations that, in order to be eligible for patent protection, an in- ventive method must either be tied to a machine or re- While the patent community waits for the Supreme cite a transformation of an article.2 This ‘‘machine-or- Court’s decision in Bilski v. Kappos, No. 08-964 (U.S.\ntransformation’’ test replaced the Freeman-Walter- argued Nov. 9, 2009) (79 PTCJ 33, 11/13/09), patent ap- Abele3 test and the ‘‘useful, concrete and tangible plicants seeking to write patentable claims are stuckwith trying to conform to the lower courts’ most recent 1 In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943, 88 USPQ2d 1385 (Fed. Cir.\n2008) (en banc) (77 PTCJ 4, 11/7/08).\n2 ‘‘The machine-or-transformation test is a two-branched Adriana Suringa Luedke and Bridget M. Hay- inquiry; an applicant may show that a process claim satisfies den are lawyers at Dorsey & Whitney, Min- § 101 either by showing that his claim is tied to a particular neapolis. Luedke can be reached at machine, or by showing that his claim transforms an article.’’ leudke.adriana@dorsey.com. Hayden can be reached at hayden.bridget@dorsey.com. 3 In re Freeman, 573 F.2d 1237, 197 USPQ 464 (C.C.P.A.\n1978); In re Walter, 618 F.2d 758, 205 USPQ 397 (C.C.P.A.\nCOPYRIGHT ஽ 2009 BY THE BUREAU OF NATIONAL AFFAIRS, INC.\nresult’’ inquiry advocated in State Street,4 each of gregating, and selling real estate property and claims which had been applied by the Federal Circuit and its reciting a method of performing tax-deferred real estate predecessor court in various cases, and both of which property exchanges were not statutory under Section 101. Since no machine was recited, the only issue be- In this article, we examine the 2008 decision of the fore the court was whether the claims met the ‘‘trans- Federal Circuit, federal district court decisions, and de- formation’’ prong of the Bilski test.13 The court held cisions of Patent and Trademark Office’s Board of that the claims ‘‘involve[d] only the transformation or Patent Appeals and Interferences. Based upon the out- manipulation of legal obligations and relationships’’ comes in these cases, we offer guidance as to what is that did not qualify under Bilski.14 patent-eligible under 35 U.S.C. § 101, strategies for pre- Concerning the recitation of the ‘‘creation of deed- senting methods in patent applications and claiming shares’’ in some of the claims, the court found that the these methods, and possible ‘‘fixes’’ for applications deedshares themselves were not physical objects, but drafted pre-Bilski that must now withstand scrutiny un- only represented intangible legal ownership interests in der the new machine-or-transformation test.\nproperty.15 Therefore, the creation of deedshares wasnot sufficient to establish patent eligibility under Bil- A number of recent federal court and board decisions have applied the patent eligibility test set forth in Bilski, implemented step to an otherwise obvious method was not sufficient to avoid invalidity of the claim. In KingPharmeuticals Inc. v. Eon Labs Inc.,17 the district court held invalid claims to a method of increasing the oral Several cases have addressed (and rejected) claims bioavailability of metaxalone because the claims were obvious over the prior art asserted by the accused in- In In re Ferguson,6 the Federal Circuit reviewed the board’s rejection of claims directed to a method of mar- Two dependent claims added a step of informing the keting a product and a ‘‘paradigm’’ for marketing soft- patient of certain results, which the patentee argued ware as nonstatutory subject matter under Section was not obvious. The court rejected this argument, con- 101.7 The appellate court affirmed the board’s rejection, cluding that ‘‘[b]ecause the food effect is an inherent concluding that the method claims were neither tied to property of the prior art and, therefore, unpatentable, a particular machine or apparatus nor did they trans- then informing a patient of that inherent property is form a particular article into a different state or thing.8 The court defined a machine broadly as ‘‘a concrete The court also commented that the added step of in- thing, consisting of parts, or of certain devices or com- forming the patient did not meet the patent eligibility binations of devices,’’ which did not include the ‘‘shared standard set forth in Bilski because the step did not re- marketing force’’ to which the method claims were quire use of a machine or transform the metaxalone into a different state or thing.19 Notably, this conclusion The claims directed to a ‘‘paradigm’’ were non- runs counter to the Supreme Court’s instruction that statutory because the claims did not fall within any of claims are to be examined ‘‘as a whole’’ and not dis- the four statutory categories (machines, manufactures, sected into old and new elements and that are evaluated compositions of matter and processes). Concerning the two closest possible categories, the court concluded Recent board decisions have been consistent with the that the claimed paradigm was not a process, because holdings of the federal courts. For example, in Ex parte no act or series of acts was required, and was not a Roberts,21 the board found ineligible under Section 101 manufacture, because it was not a tangible article re- a ‘‘method of creating a real estate investment instru- sulting from a process of manufacture.10 Concerning ment adapted for performing tax-deferred exchanges’’ the recitation of a ‘‘marketing company’’ in the para- because the claim did not satisfy either the machine or digm claims, the court concluded that the patent appli- cants did ‘‘no more than provide an abstract idea—a Similarly, in Ex parte Haworth,23 a method for ‘‘at- business model for an intangible marketing com- tempting to collect payments from customers having delinquent accounts concurrently with a partner that In Fort Properties Inc. v. American Master Lease owns the delinquent accounts’’ was found to be patent LLC,12 the California district court held that claims re- ineligible because the claim wording was ‘‘broad in that citing a series of transactions involving acquiring, ag- 1980); In re Abele, 684 F.2d 902, 214 USPQ 682 (C.C.P.A.\n4 State Street Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Financial 16 See Ex parte Roberts., 2009-004444 at 4-5 (B.P.A.I. June Group, 149 F.3d 1368, 1370, 47 USPQ2d 1596 (Fed. Cir. 1998) 19, 2009) (holding a ‘‘method of creating a real estate invest- ment instrument adapted for performing tax-deferred ex- changes’’ patent ineligible as not passing the machine-or- 7 The court accepted the board’s definition of ‘‘paradigm’’ 17 593 F. Supp.2d 501 (E.D.N.Y. 2009).\nto mean ‘‘a pattern, example or model.’’ Id. at 1362.\n20 See Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 188 (1981).\n21 No. 2009-004444 (B.P.A.I. June 19, 2009).\n12 2009 WL 249205, *5 (C.D. Cal. Jan. 22, 2009).\n23 No. 2009-000350 (B.P.A.I. July 30, 2009).\nit refers generally to extending an offer, receiving an machine. Accordingly, the process claims . . . are not acceptance, and paying a commission’’ and did not in- voke, recite or limit the method of implementation us-ing any particular machine or apparatus.24 The court also evaluated similar claims that recited the use of a ‘‘comparator’’ to perform the recited pixel- B. Software Claims Not Expressly Tied to a ‘Particular by-pixel comparison and held that this recitation also did not mandate a machine.29 While the court acknowl-edged that software was offered as one ‘‘option,’’ the Other cases have addressed software methods where court concluded that the claimed function of the com- the claim language was either not expressly tied to com- parator could also be performed in one’s mind or on pa- puter hardware components or the ties to computer per such that a machine was not required. The court components were somewhat ambiguous. In several further noted that, even though the ‘‘comparator’’ was cases, courts have rejected the recitation of generic defined as a ‘‘device,’’ ‘‘the use of the term ‘device’ is computer components as sufficient to satisfy the ‘‘ma- not synonymous with machine.’’30 As a result, none of chine’’ prong of the Bilski test. A number of these deci- the claims at issue met the ‘‘machine’’ prong of the Bil- sions also addressed the ‘‘transformation’’ prong of the Concerning the ‘‘transformation’’ prong, the court re- In Research Corporation Technology Inc. v. Mi- lied in particular upon the Abele decision in expanding crosoft Corp.,25 the district court considered the patent the requirements of this test by requiring that the eligibility of method claims in six patents directed to claimed transformation process be both ‘‘(1) limited to methods of halftoning of gray scale images by using a transformation of specific data, and 2) limited to a vi- pixel-by-pixel comparison of the image against a blue sual depiction representing specific objects or sub- noise mask. Relying on the Federal Circuit’s Bilski stances.’’31 It then concluded that a number of the analysis as well as a decision of its predecessor court, patent claims did not meet the second prong of this ex- In re Abele,26 the judge concluded that a number of the panded test because the claims did not ‘‘require any vi- sual depiction or subsequent display’’ even though the transformation test set forth in Bilski.27 claimed method did transform specific image data.32 Concerning the ‘‘machine’’ prong, the district court The district court also found other claims patent- found that the pixel-by-pixel comparison recited in the eligible under Section 101 because these claims recited claims did not require the use of a machine, but could the use of the comparison data ‘‘to produce a halftoned ‘‘dictate[d] a transformation of specific data, and [were] be done on a sheet of paper using a pen. The com- further limited to a visual depiction which represents parison uses formulas and numbers to generate a bi- specific objects.’’33 Thus, the patent eligibility of the nary value to determine the placement of a dot at a claims turned on whether the claims recited the use of location. Formulas and numbers not tied to a particu- the transformed data to generate a display.\nlar machine cannot be patented, under the machine In DealerTrack Inc. v. Huber,34 the district court prong, even with a field-of-use limitation because granted a summary judgment of invalidity under § 101 they represent fundamental principles, and to do so of patent claims directed to ‘‘a computer aided method’’ would preempt the entire field. The patent claims . . .\nof managing a credit application reciting the following do not mandate the use of a machine to achieve their algorithmic and algebraic ends. Simply because adigital apparatus such as a computer, calculator, or [A] receiving credit application data from a remote the like could assist with this comparison does not render it patent eligible material. RCT’s argument [B] selectively forwarding the credit application data that a pixel by its nature is electronic and therefore to remote funding source terminal devices; necessitates a machine is a post solution argumentand the Court rejects it. The claim construction specifies that the comparison is of a value to a mask 29 The term ‘‘comparator’’ was construed by the court to be (or set of values) to determine whether the dot is a ‘‘device (or collection of operations, as in software) that com- turned on at a specific location. This process does pares an input number (called the operand) to a number pre- not require a particular machine. The Bilski test is stored in the comparator (called the threshold) and produces clear: the process claims must be tied to a particular as output a binary value (such as ‘‘0,’’ zero) if the input is alge-braically less than the threshold [the result of comparing anoperand against a fixed threshold and setting an operand less 24 Id. at 9-10. See also, e.g., Ex parte Farnes, 2009-002770 than the threshold to one value and an operand greater than (B.P.A.I. June 2, 2009) (rejecting a method claim for develop- or equal to the threshold to another value], and produces the ing a solution to a customer experience issue including steps opposite binary value (such as ‘‘1,’’ one) if the input is algebra- of: ‘‘identifying a target customer,’’ ‘‘defining a current cus- ically greater than or equal to the threshold.’’ Id. at *17 (em- tomer experience,’’ ‘‘summarizing values and benefits’’ to pro- vide to the customer, and ‘‘identifying metrics for measuring success’’); Ex parte Salinkas, 2009-002768 (B.P.A.I. May 18, 31 Id. at *9. Notably, Bilski concluded that the Abele visual 2009) (finding patent ineligible a method of launching a depiction was ‘‘sufficient’’ to establish transformation (545 knowledge network involving ‘‘selecting an executive spon- F.3d at 963), while the Research Corporation court went fur- sor,’’ ‘‘forming a core team of experts,’’ and ‘‘providing pre- ther by making visual depiction ‘‘required’’ to establish trans- 25 2009 WL 2413623 (D. Ariz. July 28, 2009) (78 PTCJ 432, 26 684 F.2d 902, 214 USPQ 682 (C.C.P.A. 1982).\n34 2009 WL 2020761 (C.D. Cal. July 7, 2009) (78 PTCJ 341, PATENT, TRADEMARK & COPYRIGHT JOURNAL [C] forwarding funding decision data from at least tation of ‘over the Internet’ suffices to tie a process one of the remote funding source terminal de- claim to a particular machine’’ and concluded that it vices to the remote application entry and display The internet continues to exist despite the addition [D] wherein the selectively forwarding the credit ap- or subtraction of any particular piece of hardware. It may be supposed that the internet itself, rather than [E] sending at least a portion of a credit application any underlying computer or set of computers, is the to more than one of said remote funding sources ‘‘machine’’ to which plaintiff refers. Yet the internet is an abstraction. If every computer user in the world [F] sending at least a portion of a credit application unplugged from the internet, the internet would to more than one of said remote funding sources cease to exist, although every molecule of every ma- sequentially until a finding [sic ] source returns a chine remained in place. One can touch a computer or a network cable, but one cannot touch ‘‘the inter- [G] sending . . . a credit application . . . after a prede- Additionally, the court found that the recitation of the [H] sending the credit application from a first remote internet in this case merely constituted ‘‘insignificant funding source to a second remote funding extra-solution activity’’ and therefore did not qualify as a ‘‘particular machine’’ under Bilski.41 ‘‘[T]ossing in In concluding that the claim did not satisfy the Bilski references to internet commerce’’ was not sufficient to machine-or-transformation test, the court held that the render ‘‘a mental process for collecting data and weigh- claimed central processor, remote application and dis- ing values’’ patent-eligible.42 Additionally, ‘‘limiting’’ play device, and remote funding source terminal device the claim to use over the Internet was not a meaningful could be ‘‘any device’’ and did not constitute a ‘‘’par- limitation, such that the claims ‘‘broadly preempt the ticular machine’ within the meaning of Bilski.’’35 The fundamental mental process of fraud detection using court relied upon several board decisions to support its associations between credit cards.’’43 premise that ‘‘claims reciting the use of general purpose processors or computers do not satisfy the test.’’36 claim,44 notwithstanding the Federal Circuit’s holding In Cybersource Corp. v. Retail Decisions Inc.,37 the in In re Beauregard,45 the district court concluded that district court held claims for ‘‘a method for verifying the ‘‘there is at present no legal doctrine creating a special validity of a credit card transaction over the Internet’’ ‘‘Beauregard claim’’ that would exempt the claim from and ‘‘a computer readable medium containing program the analysis of Bilski.’’ Moreover, ‘‘[s]imply appending instructions for detecting fraud in a credit card transac- ‘A computer readable media including program instruc- tion . . . over the Internet’’ invalid under § 101 based tions’ to an otherwise non-statutory process claim is in- upon the court’s interpretation of Bilski.\nsufficient to make it statutory.’’46 Consequently, this Concerning the method claim, the court considered claim also failed the Bilski test.\nboth the ‘‘transformation’’ and ‘‘machine’’ prongs of the In at least one instance, the U.S. International Trade Bilski test. In concluding that there was no transforma- Commission has interpreted the ‘‘machine’’ prong of tion, the court focused on the intangibility of the ma- Bilski less stringently than did the district courts in the nipulated data. According to the court, transformation cases discussed above. In In the Matter of Certain Video is limited to transformation of a physical article or sub- Game Machines and Related Three-Dimensional Point- stance. Accordingly, the method claim did not qualify ing Devices,47 the accused infringer filed a motion for because the data representing credit cards did not rep- summary judgment alleging that the asserted claims resent tangible articles but instead an intangible series impermissibly sought to patent a mathematical algo- of rights and obligations existing between the account rithm. According to the movant, the recitations of a ‘‘3D pointing device,’’ ‘‘handheld device,’’ or ‘‘free space Concerning whether the claimed method was tied to pointing device’’ were not sufficient to tie the claims to a particular machine, the court assessed whether ‘‘reci- a particular machine, but served ‘‘only to limit the field-of-use of the claimed mathematical algorithm and [did] not otherwise impart patentability on the claimed math- Id. at *3. The court relied upon the holdings in Ex parte Gutta, No. 2008-3000 at 5-6 (B.P.A.I. Jan. 15, 2009) (stating In denying the motion for summary judgment, the ‘‘[t]he recitation in the preamble of ‘[a] computerized method ITC first noted that, ‘‘[w]hile the ultimate determination performed by a data processor’ adds nothing more than a gen- of whether the asserted claims are patentable under eral purpose computer that is associated with the steps of the § 101 is a question of law, the Federal Circuit has ac- process in an unspecified manner.’’); Ex parte Nawathe, No.\n2007-3360, 2009 WL 327520, *4 (B.P.A.I. Feb. 9, 2009) (finding‘‘the computerized recitation purports to a general purpose processor [], as opposed to a particular computer specifically programmed for executing the steps of the claimed method.’’); and Ex parte Cornea-Hasegan, No. 2008-4742 at 9-10 (B.P.A.I.\nJan. 13, 2009) (indicating the appellant does not dispute ‘‘the recitation of a processor does not limit the process steps to any 44 Claims having this format are called ‘‘Beauregard’’ specific machine or apparatus.’’). The court also cited Cyber- claims and were found to not be barred by the traditional source Corp. v. Retail Decisions Inc., (discussed below), in sup- printed matter rule in In re Beauregard, 53 F.3d 1583, 1584, 35 port of its interpretation of the required ‘‘particular machine.’’ 37 620 F. Supp. 2d 1068, 92 USPQ2d 1011 (N.D. Cal. 2009) 47 2009 WL 1070801 (U.S.I.T.C. 2009).\nknowledged that ‘there may be cases in which the legal given a dataset of feature vectors associated with the question as to patentable subject matter may turn on subsidiary factual issues’ ’’ (citation omitted). In con- for each binary partition under consideration, rank- struing the claims, the tribunal found that there was a ing features using two-category feature ranking; and genuine dispute as to whether the claimed ‘‘devices’’represented a ‘‘particular machine’’ under the Bilski while the predetermined number of features has not test and whether the claimed ‘‘two-dimensional rota- yet been selected: picking a binary partition p; tional transform’’ was merely a mathematical calcula- selecting a feature based on the ranking for binary tion or instead meant ‘‘changing the mathematical rep- resentation of a two-dimensional quantity from oneframe of reference to a differently-oriented frame of ref- adding the selected feature to an output list if not al- erence’’ as asserted by the patentee. Additionally, the ready present in the output list and removing the se- dispute over the meaning of the claimed ‘‘two- lected feature from further consideration for the bi- dimensional rotational transform’’ also raised a dis- puted issue as to whether this element recited a trans- Notably, while the independent claim failed the formation that would qualify under the ‘‘transforma- machine-or-transformation test, its dependent claim tion’’ prong of Bilski. Given these disputed issues, the was eligible because it recited, ‘‘further comprising us- ITC concluded that it was inappropriate to grant sum- ing the selected features in training a classifier for clas- mary judgment as to the patent eligibility of the claims.\nsifying data into categories.’’ In view of the specifica- A similar conclusion was reached in Versata Soft- tion, the board indicated that the ‘‘classifier’’ was a par- ware Inc. v. Sun Microsystems Inc.,48 in which the dis- ticular machine ‘‘in that it performs a particular data trict court denied the defendant’s motion for summary classification function that is beyond mere general pur- judgment of invalidity under Section 101 based upon pose computing.’’53 The board also concluded that the the Bilski court’s refusal ‘‘to adopt a broad exclusion claim ‘‘transforms a particular article into a different over software or any other such category of subject state or thing, namely by transforming an untrained matter beyond the exclusion of claims drawn to funda- classifier into a trained classifier.’’54 In Ex parte Casati,55 the board reversed the examin- Less stringent ‘‘machine’’ prong analyses are also er’s Section 101 rejection of a method claim reciting: found at the board level. For example, in Ex parteSchrader,50 the board held patent-eligible under Bilski A method of analyzing data and making predictions, reading process execution data from logs for a busi- A method for obtaining feedback from consumers re- ceiving an advertisement from an ad provided by anad provider through an interactive channel, the collecting the process execution data and storing the process execution data in a memory defining a ware-house; creating a feedback panel including at least one feed-back response concerning said advertisement; and analyzing the process execution data; generatingprediction models in response to the analyzing; and providing said feedback panel to said consumers, using the prediction models to predict an occurrence said feedback panel being activated by a consumer to of an exception in the business process.\nprovide said feedback response concerning said ad-vertisement to said ad provider through said interac- In this case, giving consideration to the specification, which ‘‘unequivocally describes the data warehouse aspart of the overall system apparatus, and subsequent Here, the board found ‘‘interactive channel’’ to be descriptions describe the memory/warehouse device in part of an ‘‘overall patent eligible system of appara- terms of machine executable functions,’’ the board con- tuses’’ when viewed in the context of the specification, cluded that ‘‘one of ordinary skill in the art would un- which included ‘‘the Internet and World Wide Web, In- derstand that the claimed storing of process execution teractive Television, and self service devices, such as In- data in a memory defining a warehouse constitutes formation Kiosks and Automated Teller Machines.’’51 patent-eligible subject matter under § 101 because the In another recent decision, Ex parte Forman,52 the memory/warehouse element ties the claims to a particu- board found a ‘‘computer-implemented feature selec- tion method’’ including a ‘‘classifier’’ eligible under Other recent board decisions have reached the oppo- Section 101 because it satisfied both the machine and transformation prong. Here, the ‘‘classifier’’ was recitedin a dependent claim, in which its independent claim re-cited: 53 Id. at 13.\n54 Id. See also Ex parte Busche, No. 2008-004750 (B.P.A.I.\nA computer-implemented feature selection method May 28, 2009) (holding a process claim and a computer pro- for selecting a predetermined number of features for gram product claim, each reciting training a machine, ‘‘are di- a set of binary partitions over a set of categories rected to machines that have such structure as may be adaptedby training.’’) 55 No. 2009-005786 (B.P.A.I. July 31, 2009).\n48 2009 WL 1084412, *1 (E.D. Tex. March 31, 2009).\n56 Id. at 7. See also Ex parte Dickerson, No. 2009-001172 at 49 Citing Bilski, 545 F.3d at 959 n. 23.\n16 (B.P.A.I. July 9, 2009) (holding claims that ‘‘recite a comput- 50 No. 2009-009098 (B.P.A.I. Aug. 31, 2009).\nerized method which includes a step of outputting information from a computer . . . are tied to a particular machine or appa- 52 No. 2008-005348 (B.P.A.I. Aug. 17, 2009).\nPATENT, TRADEMARK & COPYRIGHT JOURNAL implemented methods ineligible under the Bilski test transformation test applied to this type of claim.63 because the claims failed to tie the method steps to any Then, applying the Bilski test, the board concluded that concrete parts, devices, or combinations of devices. For the claim did not qualify. According to the board, the example, in Ex parte Holtz,57 the board found ineligible under Section 101 a ‘‘method for comparing file tree de-scriptions’’ because the claim ‘‘obtains data (a file struc- does not transform physical subject matter and is not ture), compares data (file structures), generates a tied to a particular machine. . . . Limiting the claims change log, and optimizes the change log without tying to computer readable media does not add any practi- these steps to any concrete parts, devices, or combina- cal limitation to the scope of the claim. Such a field- tions of devices’’ and the ‘‘file structures’’ did not repre- of-use limitation is insufficient to render an other- Similarly, in Ex parte Gutta,58 the board held ineli- gible under § 101 a ‘‘method for identifying one or moremean items for a plurality of items . . . having a sym- II. The Current Scope of Patent Eligibility bolic value of a symbolic attribute,’’ concluding that the These recent cases establish that some types of meth- claim ‘‘computes a variance and selects a mean item ods are clearly patent-eligible under Section 101, others without tying these steps to any concrete parts, devices, clearly are not eligible, and yet others may be depend- or combinations of devices’’ and ‘‘symbolic values are ing on how they are described and claimed.\nneither physical objects nor do they represent physicalobjects.’’ First, the eligibility of system and apparatus claims is largely unaffected by the Bilski decision, with the ca- In contrast to the district court’s decision in Cyber- veat that such claims may be more closely scrutinized source Corp., discussed supra, in a recent board deci- for compliance with Diamond v. Diehr and Gottschalk sion, Ex parte Bodin,59 ‘‘a computer program product’’ v. Benson, which prohibit patenting of a claim directed was found to be patent-eligible subject matter as being to ‘‘laws of nature, natural phenomena, [or] abstract embodied in a ‘‘computer readable medium.’’ Here, the board considered whether the phrase ‘‘recorded on the Also, methods that are performed at least in part by a recording medium’’ as it is recited in the body of the machine qualify for patent eligibility under Section 101.\nclaims was the same as ‘‘recorded on a computer- Thus, for example, some computer-implemented and readable medium.’’ Acknowledging the differences be- software-related inventions remain patentable as long tween a statutory claim to a data structure stored on a as they are properly described and claimed as being computer readable medium compared to a nonstatutory performed by a computer or computer components.\nclaim to a data structure that referred to ideas reflected The tie to a machine, however, cannot merely be im- in nonstatutory processes, the board stated: ‘‘[w]hen plicit based upon the description and context of the ap- functional descriptive material is recorded on some plication or general language in the preamble of the computer-readable medium, it becomes structurally claim. Instead, the use of a machine to perform one or and functionally interrelated to the medium and will be more of the claimed functions must be expressly de- statutory in most cases since use of technology permits scribed in the body of the claim so as to be a meaning- the function of the descriptive material to be real- ful limitation on the claim. If a method claim can be read in such a way that all functions can be performed Similarly, in Ex parte Azuma,61 a claim to a ‘‘com- by a human, it will likely not pass the machine prong of puter program product . . . comprising: a computer us- able medium’’ was found to be directed to statutory The ‘‘Interim Examination Instructions for Evaluat- subject matter under § 101 because the language ‘‘com- ing Subject Matter Eligibility Under 35 U.S.C. § 101’’ re- puter usable medium’’ referred to tangible storage me- cently issued by the Patent and Trademark Office con- dia, such as a server, floppy drive, main memory and firm that the recitation of a general purpose computer hard disk as disclosed by appellant’s specification, and is sufficient to satisfy Section 101 where the general did not ‘‘implicate the use of a carrier wave.’’ purpose computer is ‘‘programmed to perform the pro- In an older decision, Ex parte Cornea-Hasegan,62 cess steps, . . . in effect, becom[ing] a special purpose however, the Board seemingly came to the opposite conclusion, holding that a claim reciting ‘‘a computer Concerning data transformation, there seems to be readable media including program instructions which agreement of the Federal Circuit and at least one dis- when executed by a processor cause the processor to trict court that a method that is both limited to transfor- perform’’ a series of steps was not patent-eligible under mation of specific data and limited to a visual depiction Bilski. The board first determined that ‘‘analysis of a representing specific objects or substances qualifies un- ‘manufacture’ claim and a ‘process’ claim is the sameunder 63 Id. at 11.\n57 No. 2008-004440 at 12-13 (B.P.A.I. Aug. 24, 2009).\n65 Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 185, 205 USPQ 488 58 No. 2008-004366 at 10-11 (B.P.A.I. Aug. 10, 2009).\n(1980); Gottschalk v. Benson, 409 U.S. 63, 67, 175 USPQ 673 59 No. 2009-002913 (B.P.A.I. Aug. 5, 2009).\n60 Id. at 10 (comparing In re Lowry, 32 F.3d 1579, 1583-84, 66 ‘‘Interim Examination Instructions for Evaluating Sub- 32 USPQ2d 1031 (Fed. Cir. 1994) to In re Warmerdam, 33 F.3d ject Matter Eligibility Under 35 U.S.C. § 101,’’ U.S. Patent and 1354, 1361-62, 31 USPQ2d 1754 (Fed. Cir. 1994)).\nTrademark Office, Aug. 24, 2009, at 6 (78 PTCJ 530, 8/28/09).\n61 No. 2009-003902 at 10 (B.P.A.I. Sept. 14, 2009).\nThe authors’ recent experiences with examiners suggest that 62 No. 2008-004742 (B.P.A.I. Jan. 13, 2009).\nthe examiners are following these instructions.\nder Section 101.67 Thus, claims analogous to those in In Concerning claims directed to computer program re Abele68 in which ‘‘data clearly represented physical products, one district court has held that appending ‘‘A and tangible objects, namely the structure of bones, or- computer readable media including program instruc- gans, and other body tissues [so as to recite] the trans- tions’’ to an otherwise non-statutory process claim is in- formation of that raw data into a particular visual depic- sufficient to make it statutory.72 The board has also tion of a physical object on a display’’ are patent- held ineligible claims to ‘‘a computer readable me- dia.’’73 The board has, however, also upheld the eligibil-ity of ‘‘a computer program product’’ as being embod- ied in a computer readable medium.74 Given these in- Bilski has had a significant impact in eliminating consistent decisions, the patent eligibility of claims in patent protection for inventions that are performed en- tirely by humans or can be interpreted as such if read Concerning claims directed to generalized computer broadly. This includes claims that describe processes processing functions, several Board decisions suggest for creating or manipulating legal and financial docu- that, absent a tie to a concrete real-world application, ments and relationships. In this area in particular, many such claims are likely to be deemed an ‘‘algorithm’’ un- pending applications filed prior to Bilski are no longer der Benson and therefore held to be non-statutory. 75 patent-eligible, and many issued patents are no longer Any recitation of a specific field of use for the claimed valid. This retroactive impact of the Bilski decision is process or use of the outcome of such processes are troubling, given the investment in these patents and ap- also more likely to be found ‘‘field-of-use’’ or ‘‘post- plications, which have now been rendered essentially solution activity’’ limitations insufficient to render the worthless despite the suggestion in the Federal Circuit’s claim patent-eligible. Thus, the more tied a claimed pro- earlier State Street decision, now overruled, that such cess is to tangible results or particular applications (not claims qualified for patent protection.\njust fields of use), the more likely it is to qualify under Inventions that do not fit within the four statutory categories are also not patent-eligible. The Federal Cir-cuit and the board have rejected claims directed to ‘‘a III. Presenting and Claiming Methods in Patent signal,’’ ‘‘a paradigm,’’ ‘‘a user interface’’ and ‘‘a corr-elator’’ on the basis that these items did not qualify as a ‘‘machine, manufacture, composition of matter or pro- Several strategies for describing and claiming meth- cess’’ under § 101. 70 There is also an increasing focus ods or processes in patent applications may avoid or on the tangibility of the claimed invention in that, to minimize potential Section 101 problems.\nqualify as a ‘‘machine’’ or ‘‘manufacture’’ under Section First, the description provided in a patent application should include well-defined steps or functions associ-ated with method or process. For example, when the claims include ‘‘initiating’’ method steps, a description Remaining areas of uncertainty concerning the scope of well-defined physical steps or functions for initiating of Section 101 include (1) what qualifies under Bilski as should be provided, and a concrete item, machine, de- a ‘‘transformation of an article or data,’’ (2) whether vice, or component that is responsible for the initiating claims to computer programs (Beauregard claims) function should be identified. For claiming ‘‘identify- qualify, and (3) whether internal computer processing ing’’ method steps, provide specific parameters for functionality not tied to a specific application or tan- making the identification, such as according to a speci- fied measurement.76 Where data is involved, the source Concerning data transformation, other than Abele- and type of data should be specified.\nstyle claims discussed above, what qualifies as a data or Also, drawings should be provided that depict the article transformation remains unclear. Claims that concrete item, device, component or combination have been held not to meet the transformation prong in- thereof, and each method or process step or function clude claims directed to the creation or manipulation of should be linked expressly to at least one item, device data representing an intangible series of rights and ob- or component in the drawings that performs the step or ligations (e.g., credit card data) and claims directed to function. Broadening language indicating that other the transformation or manipulation of legal obligations components may also be used to perform the function and relationships. Beyond these specific examples, it is may also be included to avoid an unduly narrow inter- difficult to predict what will or will not qualify as a data or article transformation under Bilski.\nThe claims should affirmatively claim the device, ma- chine or component performing each step or function.\n67 In re Bilski, 545 F.3d at 963; Research Corporation Tech- For computer or software-related inventions, the de- nologies, 2009 WL 2413623 at *9.\nscription should specify that the software functionality 68 The claimed process involved graphically displaying vari- ances of data from average values wherein the data was X-rayattenuation data produced in a two dimensional field by a com- 72 Cybersource Corp., 620 F. Supp. 2d at 1080.\nputed tomography scanner. See In re Bilski, 545 F.3d at 962- 73 Cornea-Hasegan, No. 2008-004742.\n74 Ex parte Bodin, No. 2009-002913 (B.P.A.I. Aug. 5, 2009).\n69 In re Bilski, 545 F.3d at 963.\n75 E.g., Ex parte Greene, No. 2008-004073 (B.P.A.I. Apr. 24, 70 In re Nuijten 500 F.3d 1346, 1357, 84 USPQ2d 1495 (Fed.\n2009); Daughtrey, No. 2008-000202; Ex parte Arning, No.\nCir. 2007) (74 PTCJ 631, 9/28/07) (signal); In re Ferguson, 558 2008-003008 (B.P.A.I. Mar. 30, 2009); Cybersource Corp., 620 F.3d 1359, 1366, 90 USPQ2d 1035 (Fed. Cir. 2009) (77 PTCJ F. Supp.2d at 1080 (concerning claim 2).\n489, 3/13/09) (paradigm); Ex parte Daughtrey, No. 2008- 76 See Brief of American Bar Association as Amicus Curiae 000202 (B.P.A.I. Apr. 8, 2009) (user interface); Ex parte Laba- Supporting Respondent, Bilski v. Kappos, No. 08-964, ABA die, No. 2008-004310 (B.P.A.I. May 6, 2009) (correlator).\nAmicus Br. at 12-13 (U.S. amicus brief filed Oct. 2, 2009) (78 71 E.g., Nuijten, 500 F.3d at 1356-7.\nPATENT, TRADEMARK & COPYRIGHT JOURNAL is performed by a computer or computer components.\npatent or published application, the option of importing Specificity as to the type of computer component per- subject matter into the specification is limited to ‘‘non- forming each function may be helpful in establishing essential’’ subject matter. In other words, the specifica- eligibility under the Bilski test.\ntion can only be amended to disclose a machine for per-forming process steps as long as one skilled in the art IV. Fixing Pre-Bilski Applications to Meet the New would recognize from the original disclosure that the process is implemented by a machine. The key in mak- For patent applications filed prior to the Bilski deci- ing this type of amendment is avoiding (or overcoming) sion, it can be challenging to meet the new require- a rejection under 35 U.S.C. § 112, para. 1, for lack of ments for patent eligibility, particularly when no ma- chine or transformations were expressly described in If incorporation by reference is not an option, a patent applicant may submit evidence, such as a decla- In some cases, there may be sufficient explicit de- ration by the inventor or a duly qualified technical ex- scription of a machine, e.g., a computer, such that the pert, demonstrating that one skilled in the art would un- machine can be added into the body of the claims. For derstand the disclosed method to be one performed by example, patent applications for computer-related in- a machine. Unlike attorney argument, which can be dis- ventions sometimes contain a generic description of regarded, such evidence must be considered by the ex- computers that are used to perform the claimed method, and such a generic description may be suffi- One other option is to reformat the claims. Since Bil- cient to impart patent eligibility to the claims when the ski ostensibly does not apply to system and apparatus general-purpose computer is programmed to become a claims, in some instances it may be possible for an ap- plicant to convert his method claims into system claims For patent applications lacking in an explicit descrip- to avoid application of the Bilski test. This strategy, tion of any machine, however, the application may in- however, is unlikely to succeed where the patent speci- corporate by reference patents or publications that can fication does not describe such a system for implement- be used to bolster the specification and provide support ing the method and therefore does not provide the req- for the requisite claim amendments. When an applica- uisite disclosure of the claimed invention under Section tion incorporates by reference a U.S. patent or pub- lished U.S. patent application, any description from the incorporated references, whether or not the subject The future of the Bilski machine-or-transformation matter is ‘‘essential’’ to support the claims, may be im- test now rests with the Supreme Court. Regardless of ported into the specification. This option may enable the outcome of the appeal, however, it is clear that the importation of the requisite description of a machine, scope of statutory subject matter under Section 101 has which can then also be recited in the claims.77 When been narrowed. The Supreme Court now has a chance the document incorporated by reference is not a U.S.\nto clarify what has been excluded; it may even reject ormodify the Bilski machine-or-transformation test. How 77 Manual of Patent Examining Procedure, Eighth Ed., Rev.\nthis will affect the development and protection of cur- 7/2008, at § 608.01(P); see also 37 C.F.R. § 1.57.\nrent and future technologies remains to be seen.\nSource: http://www.dorsey.com/files/upload/luedke_bna_patent_journal_nov09.pdf\n(resolução 404.2012 retificação 19062012)\nRESOLUÇÃO Nº 404 , DE 12 DE JUNHO DE 2012 Dispõe sobre padronização dos procedimentos administrativos na lavratura de Auto de Infração, na expedição de notificação de autuação e de notificação de penalidade de multa e de advertência, por infração de responsabilidade de proprietário e de condutor de veículo e da identificação de condutor infrator, e dá outras providências.\nCheloidi e cicatrici ipertrofiche in dermatologia\na cura del dr. Antonio Del Sorbo - Specialista in Dermatologia e Venereologia antoniodelsorbo@libero.it I Cheloidi di Alibert A volte una ferita anche apparentemente banale, guarisce lasciando una cicatrice voluminosa, rossastra e soprattutto antiestetica. I cheloidi sono cicatrici abnormi che possono far seguito a intervento chirurgico (es: tiroide, mammella, etc) e questo u", "answers": ["It required the transformation to be limited to specific data and a visual depiction representing specific objects or substances."], "length": 6925, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "9831469b98405cd1fc1bee7de6f9630ae1cbb5946fd7ca0b"}
{"input": "According to the text, what is Toby Schindelbeck's observation about the police?", "context": "July | 2012 | Chico Taxpayers Association\nKeep a Knockin’ but you can’t come in! Come back next Tuesday night and try it again! And be sure to bring plenty of your friends.\nToby Schindelbeck has finally been rewarded for his persistence – he’s been going before Chico City Council, asking that Finance MisDirector Jennifer Hennessy comply with city code and give a budget report at every meeting. City clerk Debbie Presson has informed him that this subject will be “discussed” at the August 7 council meeting.\nBut we know, it won’t be a very good “discussion” unless a bunch of people come in and demand some action. Toby has observed that issues like Corporate Personhood and the “single-use” plastic bag ban have drawn fairly small crowds – he estimates 25 – 30 people, and I’d say he’s being generous. The city has acted on these issues, with only that small fraction of the population in support. So, Toby believes there needs to be an even stronger presence to get a decent discussion on this matter, and I agree.\nLike Toby and Stephanie Taber and others have been saying, the city code calls for a monthly budget report, with sticky details like receipts, etc, and Jennifer Hennessy admits she has not made such a report in the seven years she’s been with the city of Chico. Try not paying your taxes for seven years – you’ll get the same treatment as the man from Touch of Class Florist – 68 years old, and he’s being sent to PRISON. But Jennifer Hennessy and her boss Dave Burkland, and their overseer, Mayor Ann Schwab, get to flog the law right in front of everybody, and Ann just steps right into that little red convertible and drives off to her palatial estate in Forest Ranch.\nThe law is a piece of paper. It takes people to demand law enforcement. We’ve got a serious law enforcement problem in our town. The police say they aren’t paid enough to enforce the laws in the streets, and now Dave Burkland says, he just doesn’t have to.\nAnd your mayor won’t make him either. He’s retiring, on more than $150,000 a year, for the rest of his life, but she’s up for election in November – time to take out the trash.\nThat meeting is scheduled for August 7, the usual time, the usual place. I’ll keep you posted.\nTags: Ann Schwab Chico CA, Ann Schwab for city council, Dave Burkand Chico Ca, Friends of Ann Schwab, Jennifer Hennessy Chico Ca\nStephanie Taber answers Quentin Colgan’s letter to the News and Review\nI get complaints from friends and strangers, and it has also been my own experience, that the editor of the Chico News and Review is not always objective in deciding which letters received from the public will be printed in the paper and which ones won’t. Robert Speer has offered me excuses, but I have always found him to be disingenuous. For example – he told me he would only run letters that referenced an article or letter recently printed in the paper – untrue a million times over. He also told me he wouldn’t print letters that had already run in the Enterprise Record – also untrue a million times over. The man has his own reasons for running or not running letters.\nDavid Little is more objective, but he’s got his faults too – once he threw out a letter from my husband and later admitted he had thought I’d written it and used my old man’s name. He just threw it out without even calling the phone number or e-mailing, just assumed I’d do something like that when I’d never done anything like that before, because he was mad at me over a snit we were having at the time.\nI think Little gets his nose out at people personally, and Hell hath no fury, know what I mean? With Speer it can personal but I think it’s most often political. Suffice to say, they both carry what my dad used to call a “Shit List,” and if you’re on it, you don’t get ink in their rag.\nOf course either paper is equally likely to print a total wad of lies or misinformation without so much as a google fact check. I will never forget the time Dave Little printed a letter saying the cops had been called to my house on a dog complaint. The letter writer insinuated that this was why I often wrote letters complaining about the cop contracts. I called Little and told him the letter was false, nothing like that had ever happened – but he wouldn’t retract it. I had to look the old man up in the phone book and call him myself, tell him he had been misinformed, and ask him to write a retraction. He apologized profusely and the apology was in the paper within three days. He wouldn’t tell me where he got the information, but later I found out he was a member of VIPS, and he still is. I think that’s something Dave Little could have looked into before he printed a story like that about me and my family, not to mention my dogs, but he didn’t see it that way. Poor journalism, is how I see it, and that’s what I’ve come to expect out of both the daily and the weekly.\nSo, pardon me if I was not surprised when my friend Stephanie mentioned to me that she didn’t think Speer would run her response to a letter from Quentin Colgan, regarding our current fiscal morass. QC made an argument he has been swinging around town lately – that Fire Station 5 had to be closed recently because the Tea Party forced the city to have a $150,000 election over Measure A.\nThe first problem I have with this argument is, the city is out a heck of a lot more than $150,000. The second problem I have is, I happen to know that over 8,000 Chicoans signed that petition, and there’s not more than 600 active members of the Tea Party. I also know the Tea Party didn’t sponsor the petition drive, nor were they the only people that marched out with those petitions. Colgan’s argument doesn’t make sense to me, but it’s amazing what kind of “facts” the general populace will believe if you just keep repeating them.\nSome folks are trying to use the Tea Party as a target to rile up their peanut gallery, using Measure A as their rally call. They keep banging the same old drum. They refuse to have a rational discussion about the situation we’re facing, because it’s going to mean some sour beans for them and their trough-dwelling friends.\nSo, it’s up to a rational person like Stephanie Taber to lay it out straight for those who like facts. Stephanie attends the meetings, she reads the reports, she goes to the trouble of putting questions in writing for $taff, and then waiting persistently for an answer that practically has to be deciphered by a lawyer. She has followed this budget conversation since the day then-city-manager and first rat to jump, Greg Jones, expressed his grave concerns that we were headed straight for bankruptcy. She has followed the figures and checked the facts until she has forced these rats right to the wall – they have lately begun to dig their feet in and refuse to obey the sunshine laws, refusing to give the fiscal reports demanded by the city charter. Some people can try to run their little smokescreen of repetitive nonsense, but more rational people are finding out the truth. Thanks to Stephanie Taber for writing this letter below, which may or may not run in the Chico News and Review:\nI’d like to take this opportunity to respond to Quentin Colgan’s letter of July 12th; primarily because the costs surrounding the Special Election held regarding Measure A have been distorted. Yes, it did cost $150,000, but why? That’s the elephant in the room. The progressives on the City Council chose the method by which the election would be held. Per the City Charter (which is the City’s Constitution) Section 501 clearly states “The City Council may determine that any Special Election shall be held by mailed ballot” etc. That would have cut the cost by half, at least. But the Council chose the most expensive means possible, voting at the precinct. They were afraid that just telling the students they were being disenfranchised, which was an obvious lie, would not be sufficient to defeat it.\nAs to “it’s all the Tea Party’s fault”; I was the only signature to the Measure. I felt no need to consult the Tea Party before I took that action; but did enlist the help of many concerned citizens to gather the more than 8,000 signature required to put it on the ballot.\nToby Schindelbeck has called upon our Finance Director to adhere to Section 908 of the City’s Charter which states “(the) Finance Director shall submit to the Council through the City Manager monthly statements of receipts, disbursements and balances in such form as to show the exact financial condition of the City”. It does not state when you may want to or if you have time to; it says “shall”. No one on the Council or otherwise can remember when that may have happened last. If it was being done as the Charter states it would have been recognize that the City was facing a financial Armageddon and steps could have been taken much earlier in the fiscal year to avoid the closing of Fire Station 5.\nTags: Ann Sc hwab Chico Ca, Ann Schwab for city council, Chico Enterprise Record, Chico News and Review, Chico Tea Party Patriots, City of Chico, David Little, Friends of Ann Schwab, Quentin Colgan, Robert Speer, Stephanie Taber\nCity Art Director Mary Gardner is foisting a new “Art Tax” on us to pay her own salary\nTo mgardner@ci.chico.ca.us, gerimahood@yahoo.com, mcbergarts@gmail.com\n(Mary Gardner, city of Chico public arts director, city of Chico, Geraldine Mahood and Monica Berg of the Arts Commission)\nI recently read your memo here\nChico-Arts-Building-Tax.pdf\nI think it’s despicable Ms. Gardner that you are trying raise revenues for your own salary by foisting a new “Art Tax” on new development.\nMs. Mahood, Ms. Berg, nobody wants eggsuckers like you telling them how to spend their money or what’s “art”. You people make me sick.\nThe Chico Taxpayers Association will fight this grab, as will other civic groups through the area. That’s why you’ve kept your efforts “under the radar” I assume – you don’t want people to know about this, because you don’t want to hear what they think about it. Or YOU!\nYou people need to get real jobs and quit sucking off the public teat.\nhttp://www.norcalblogs.com/adhoc/\nSincerely, Juanita Sumner, Chico CA\nTags: Ann Schwab Chico CA, Ann Schwab for city council, Chico Arts Commission, City of Chico \"Art Tax\", City of Chico Arts Policy Manual, Friends of Ann Schwab, Geraldine Mahood, Mary Gardner, Monica Berg\nJennifer Hennessy is incompetent – she can’t do her job and Burkland says she doesn’t have to\nI’ll never forget my first real job – a clerical position at a manufacturing plant. I would compare it to the story of the miller’s daughter. On the first day, I was told that the employee I was to be replacing would stick around for a week to train me. At noon that day, having shown me where everything was and how to use the coffee maker, she got up from her chair, smiled, and told me she thought I could “handle it,” then left. At one o’clock, the plant manager came over to my desk followed by several “production” workers. They brought cart loads of microfilm, on rolls, in little white boxes. I was to label all of those boxes, three carts, piled high. This job had gotten held up, he explained, it would be “great!” if it could go out today. Did I think I could get them done by 4 o’clock? I wanted to make everybody happy, so said I yes without thinking, and set to work loading the labels into the typewriter.\nIt was a disaster. I had never typed anything like those labels before – typing class had been all about letters and envelopes, columns and reports. The labels skittered all over the platen, getting glue all over the inside of the typewriter. About every 50 or so labels, the platen had to be taken out and cleaned with alcohol. I typed and typed. By 3 o’clock I knew I was in trouble. The production workers had come over to my desk to help me affix the sticky labels. We were nervous, labels were getting screwed up. At 3:30 the office manager and receptionist came back to my desk to help with the labels. I typed and typed, and tried not to cry.\nWe didn’t make it. The plant manager was flustered. The salesman who’d promised the job was really pissed off, he said mean things. I apologized again and again, they told me it wasn’t all my fault, but could I please be more careful what I committed myself to in future. I could tell they also expected me to get a hell of a lot faster, but they were just trying to be nice.\nSo, I got faster. I came in early in the morning and worked through lunch until I got better at my job. I had signed up for a typing job, nobody had described all the weird stuff they expected me to type. It started with typing and labeling, not only sticky labels, but microfiche jackets. They have a little quarter inch tall label strip across the top that chips and peels if you aren’t careful loading them into the typewriter, and strips or frames of 35 and 16 mm film that falls out in your typewriter. Then there were the three-part work orders, with carbon paper, and the three-part shipping labels, also with carbon paper. There were the mistakes – whole orders that had been indexed incorrectly, and therefore typed incorrectly, and therefore had to be corrected and typed all over again. I won’t describe what I had to go through to correct microfiche labels, it was too stupid. I hated doing that, so I asked for my own little “eye-loup” – a little magnifier that you hold up to a light to look at the tiny little page numbers on the film – to make sure the cards had been indexed correctly before I typed them.\nI’m not perfect, but I know I’m competent, cause I kept that job for five years while I watched others get fired, for everything from showing up late to breaking expensive equipment to stealing. I was given new jobs and increased responsibility as time went by. I got good job reviews from my supervisors, and good raises. Morale was high, we liked our co-workers and our managers, we felt like a team. Our customers were nice to us too. We worked for cities and counties, hospitals, banks – anybody who needed to keep records. We were trusted to handle confidential records, like people’s medical records. As we handled these confidential files we were simply told, “Don’t look at them,” so we didn’t.\nI left in 1984 in finish school. Over the next decade computers killed the microfilm industry, and the company went out of business.\nExcuse me if I compare my experiences in the private sector with stuff I’ve seen coming out of our city $taff. I keep waiting for some professional behavior, some professional accountability out of the people who run our town, and I start to wonder if I will ever get it. For a couple of months now, Toby Schindelbeck and Stephanie Taber, among others, have been asking council and Finance MisDirector Jennifer Hennessy to provide a simple accounting of city finances, as is required by the city charter, and she just plain refuses to give it. City Mangler Dave Burkland won’t make her.\nLast month she actually admitted, she is UNABLE to do it. At the June 5 meeting she admitted that she is incompetent to follow the city charter. She said that when she came to her position seven years ago, she “struggled” with doing such a report – something every house wife does – and went whining to then-city-manager Tom Lando, who apparently patted her on the head and told her she didn’t have to do it anymore.\nI don’t know about you guys, but I go over my check book every month, just to make sure everything is straight. I’ve found big, dumb mistakes, in the 100’s column even, that could have caused big, dumb problems down the road. I’m no math instructor, like Mary Goloff, but it’s not exactly rocket science – you just add your deposits and subtract your checks and withdrawals. I’ll admit, when my kids were little, I felt like I never had time to do that, and stuff would get screwed up. So now that I’ve got time, I make it a regularly scheduled event, and it’s amazing how much easier it is. And, I can keep the figures in my head, I know essentially how much I can afford to spend when I’m at the grocery store, or what kind of activities we can plan. My husband and son are enjoying a weekend trip right now that is already paid for, thankyouverymuch.\nBut Jennifer Hennessy is unable to do that? And she has expectable stuff – over 80 percent of her budget is payroll. She doesn’t have that many emergencies. The biggest emergency she’s had lately, is that the state has taken back the fund she’s been mis-using – the RDA. She was paying salaries and benefits out of a fund that’s supposed to be reserved for emergency public works projects. In other words, she’s been dipping into the till to pay her own salary!\nThe mayor is to blame here, she’s the captain of our ship. Unfortunately, like the captain of the Costa Concordia, she’s abandoned ship for a party onshore. While she and her college chums bully their bag ban down our throats, our ship is sinking. We have less than $200,000 in our reserve fund, we have un-secured pension obligations totaling in the millions and growing every day, and we have $taff who are using blackmail to get their way – they are just refusing to do their jobs. Hennessy won’t give the report she’s required to give because it’s BAD. I think the mayor is completely behind her on this – Ann Schwab doesn’t want us to hear that report either. Would you?\nPlease write a letter to council demanding that Hennessy do her job, or get out.\nTags: Ann Schwab Chico CA, Ann Schwab for city council, bankruptcy, City of Chico, Dave Burkland, embezzlement, Friends of Ann Schwab, Jennifer Hennessy, malfeasance\nScranton, Pennsylvania cuts workers to minimum wage – only $130,000 in their cash reserves\nI finally got a chance to watch the video of last Tuesday’s council meeting. It cut on me during the meeting, just after Walker and Goloff were mopping up their attack on Sorensen, and I didn’t get it back til yesterday. I have watched the video in bits and snatches. I made it to the noise ordinance conversation last night, but had to turn it off after Jessica Allen and a couple of her friends got up to demand their rights to be bad neighbors.\nOne thing I learned is that the city of Chico has less than $200,000 in the reserve fund. No, I did not forget a zero on that figure, that’s it – less than $200,000. Read it and weep – and then call them to ask what they did with that property tax check you just sent in.\nYou can look at the budget report here: http://www.chico.ca.us/finance/budget.asp\nYou see the millions the city takes in, in sales tax (over $17 million) property tax (over $11 million), even taxes on your PG&E, phone and water (almost $7 million), and your visitors’ motel rooms (over $2 million). To me that seems petty – “bed tax”? Some people think it’s a good idea to shake down the visitors of your town, as if it’s not enough that they spend money on your motels, restaurants and shopping centers. It’s a common grab all over California, every city does it. A lot of distasteful things become “common” when no decent person stands up to say “enough is enough.”\nIn Chico, as has been oft repeated, over 80 percent of our budget is in salaries and benefits. That’s the elephant in the room, and everybody’s getting pretty hip deep in elephant shit around here. It’s a simple concept, no matter how convoluted $taff and council try to make it: if they spend all the money on salaries, benefits, and the Great Pension Stock Market Disaster, there’s no money left to pay for supplies to say, clean up leaks in the sewer and water lines that are causing the state to fine us by the day, widen the roads that we are required to widen because of the permitting of Meriam Park, etc. And you can just get used to those pot holes in the street out front of your house. Got bad neighbors? Get a lawyer.\nWhat’s really frustrating are the reactions of the cops and fire – they act like they don’t get paid at all. Those guys take most of the 80 percent. They get overtime written into their schedules. According to Hennessy, both fire and the cops are over budget on their workman’s comp claims for at least the third year in a row. The city just slammed another cop contract past us without public review, and signed the new chief’s contract three days before it was made available to the public, and then only by request and a direct visit to the clerk’s office Downtown.\nSo, we will get another year of poor response times, bitching and moaning from cops and fire. Get ready for your homeowners and your car insurance to go up – the insurance companies know when your local police and fire departments are a pile of shit.\nAnd don’t think I’m not wondering about all those suspicious house fires.\nYou can just forget about any of the services a city is supposed to offer. Try to get something out of the city clerk these days – if you can catch her in the office!\nWell, here’s the story of Scranton, Pennsylvania – home of Michael Scott!\nhttp://bottomline.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/10/12659748-scranton-pa-slashes-workers-pay-to-minimum-wage?lite\nThe mayor of Scranton, when faced with a situation similar to Chico’s mess, did what needed to be done. Unfortunately, he waited until it was too late to do something rational. I’m afraid it’s come to that with our city council – if you think that scene between Goloff and Sorensen was rational, well, you deserve to live here.\nTags: Ann Schwab for city council, Bob Evans for city council, Chico City council eletions 2012, cities declare bankruptcy, Friends of Ann Schwab, pensions, phone tax, salaries, sales tax increase\nMarysville council rejects sales tax ploy by retiring city administrator – where’s Chico’s knight in shining armor?\nI am not a member of the Chico Chamber of Commerce, but I check in to their website regularly to see what they’re up to. Sometimes I believe, they are the real Chico City Council. While our elected leaders frolic and cavort in their stupid committee meetings, the Chamber is working on a “Top 10 Economic Development Action List”.\nYeah, sounds great, until you consider, one of their “Top 10” is a proposal to raise the local sales tax.\nOne prominent member of the Chamber who might be able to fill us in on the discussion is Bob Evans. I’ve asked Bob where he stands on this tax increase, but he just keeps saying he hasn’t seen a proposal yet. Lately I have asked him if he would require Lando and the other sales tax increase proponents to get the legal number of signatures on a petition before he votes to put this proposal on the ballot, but he won’t answer me. His downright refusal to discuss the tax increase is frustrating to me – I want to believe Bob is a “fiscal conservative.” After all, he had some high and mighty things to say about his opposition to the phone tax. But, he knew the phone tax didn’t need his support to get on the ballot. It’s easy to posture as the good guy when you know others will achieve the end result you really want. Evans’ resistance to making a pledge against a sales tax increase is screaming in my ear like a fire alarm.\nIn Marysville, Mayor Bill Harris had no trouble making himself clear when his city mangler proposed a half-cent sales tax increase: “This will be viewed as the City Council coming to them wanting more money again.”\nWell, the article mentioned, the city mangler is retiring, so I would also see it as his way of securing his f-ing pension, but nobody mentions that.\nCity councilwoman Christina Billeci echoed a sentiment I’ve been hearing increasingly in Chico – “We need to balance the budget with the revenues we have,” she said.\nOther council members cited lack of support from citizens, including one councillor who claimed to have got “angry reactions” to the proposal. One council member said he might have supported the move before the June election, “But the cigarette tax was voted down, and that should have been a slam dunk,” he said. “I would see this as a waste of effort and money.”\nThe only council member who supported the notion, Head Start administrator Ricky Samayoa, made some pretty disparaging remarks about the town.\n“There’s a lot of people that know there’s a lack of resources here for us to have a proper city and manage it,” he said. Oooo! A “proper city”! What a bitch! Does he have letters from constituents to support this statement, or is he just using “a lot of people” to describe himself and his co-workers? Not enough drive through coffee stands for you Ricky? Not enough 5 Star restaurants or pink boutiques? Sorry, we’ve never been ones for putting on the Ritz here in the North State, better get in your zip car and drive back to the Bay Area.\nIn the Enterprise Record story, Samoyoa further claimed that “continued cuts to maintenance and other aspects of the city’s budget hurt chances for an economic recovery.” I imagine Marysville has the same problem Chico has – too many $100,000+ salaries and not enough $20,000 – $50,000 workers. While he’s sitting down there under the air conditioner vent at Head Start in a fresh shirt and manicure, the streets are going unmaintained, the classrooms overcrowded, the police and fire departments underfunded – is that the problem Mr. Samayoa?\n“The way we’re continuing to go, it’s just going to be a dying city, even if the economy picks up,” he said. Now, that statement doesn’t even make sense. This is a typical example of scare tactics. “The way we’re continuing to go…” You mean, paying $100,000+ salaries to fat bureaucrats, while cutting services to the public? Somehow I don’t think that’s what he’s talking about. ” …it’s just going to be a dying city…” Wow, what an idiot – obviously no knowledge of local history. Marysville has been through so many booms and busts, it ought to be called “Bouncyville.” If you get to know Marysville, you see it has everything needed to be a wonderful place to live, in good times and bad, regardless of carpetbaggers like Samayoa.\n“Give folks the opportunity to have this debate,” Mr. Samayoa suggests. Sounds like the rhetoric coming from Andy Holcombe and the rest of the sales tax increase proponents. Hey, that’s a swell idea! People should talk about these things, hash them out. And then, if enough of them sign a petition to put such a proposal on a legal ballot, well, they can VOTE on it! But that costs alot of money – best for those who really believe in this cockamamie idea to get the petition first, show the need to spend all that money on an election. That’s what rational people would do, anyway.\nBut if you ask Holcombe to discuss the pending proposal, he denies there is any such thing. The only member of Chico City Council who is willing to discuss this proposal at all has been Mark Sorensen – thanks Mark. At least Mark has been good enough to answer our questions about the mechanics of such a proposal and getting it onto the ballot. Evans and Holcombe have both denied knowing anything about it, although Holcombe has made it good and clear he’d support raising the sales tax and Evans has been seen at Chamber discussions on the matter. The others have been mum to the public, but I’m guessing they will support it. Holcombe, Schwab, Goloff, Walker, Gruendl – and Evans? – are all banking on more revenues to rescue the city from the Shit Creek they’ve floated us up. Evans, while he will admit we’re in deep shit, will not offer so much as a suggestion of a paddle. He seems to be holding back until after he gets himself safely re-elected in November. Then he’s got a year to get that sales tax voted in and three years to make the public forget he had anything to do with it.\nWell Bob, is that what you’re up to?\nI’ll say, if he were at least honest, I might be able to hold my nose and support him, but this game he’s playing is a real turn-off.\nTags: Ann Schwab Chico CA, Ann Schwab for city council, Bob Evans Chico Ca, Bob Evans for city council, chico city council race 2012, city of Chico bankruptcy, city of Chico sales tax increase, Friends of Ann Schwab, Ricky Samayoa Marysville Ca\nCouncil video feed still not available – $taff seems to have taken the Summer off!\nI know, there’s probably a perfectly legitimate explanation for this. Debbie Presson isn’t sure why the feed is off, but she’s got somebody working on it. Not yesterday though, cause she was out of her office.\nI’ll tell you what else is interesting – there haven’t been any of those morning meetings lately – in fact, it looks like all the committee meetings for July are CANCELLED. In fact, there hasn’t been an “Economic Development” committee meeting for months that I’m aware. For all intents and purposes, the city of Chico seems to be on Summer Vacation! How nice for them!\nBut, as you see, the town runs along without them. In fact, I’m wishing the public works department would also take a hike – they’re TOO BUSY right now, tearing up the streets Downtown. Oh well, the college students have “gone home” – what do we need Downtown for when the college students have gone home?\nThat seems to be the gist of if – the city of Chico is here to serve the college students. The rest of us can just get along – as long as we keep paying our taxes, nobody will bother us!\nI just have to wonder, what are these $85,000, $95,000, $134,000 $taffers doing right now, and why do we need to keep paying them?\nTags: Ann Schwab Chico CA, Ann Schwab for city council, City of Chico, embezzlers, Friends of Ann Schwab, malfeasance\nNew police chief’s contract signed last Tuesday, made available to the public Friday – gotta love that “sunshine”!\nLast Tuesday night we got a new police chief – Kirk Trostle. Only a month ago city manager Dave Burkland issued a statement – “police chief candidates not knockouts” according to the Enterprise Record. Trostle is a refugee from the Oroville police department, where, as chief, he certainly had his critics. He came to Chico only about a year and a half ago, from a department that was not without it’s problems. The council made their appointment without any elaboration – he was essentially the best thing they could come up with on short notice.\nBut shouldn’t we be able to negotiate a better contract with this man? Retiring Chief Porky Mike Maloney is getting over $165,000 a year, just in salary. He will be getting over $100,000 to retire, for the rest of his life, plus medical benefits. Frankly, I predict he’s carrying a colostomy bag within five years.\nHave you seen Trostle’s contract? They signed it at council last Tuesday. But when we asked for it, they said we wouldn’t be able to look at it until Friday. I was invited to go down to the clerk’s office, at her convenience, 9 – 5, during MY WORK DAY, to look at a contract that had already been signed. Why in the hell would I want to do that? They don’t even offer you a decent cup of coffee.\nSo no, I haven’t seen it yet, but I’m guessing, it’s worse than Maloney’s contract. A fellow taxpayer went down Friday and reports he has the contracts, but has not given me any details. I don’t know if he had to pay for paper copies or what, but you can view it for free if you want to go down there. I’ll get back to you when I got something.\nTags: Ann Schwab Chico CA, Ann Schwab for city council, Chico Police Department, Chico Police Officers Association, City of Chico, Friends of Ann Schwab, Kirk Trostle chief of police chico ca, mike maloney retires at 50 what a pig\nMary Goloff and Jim Walker gang jump Mark Sorensen on the dais – just another lovely Chico city council meeting!\nI’m sitting here in disbelief of the attack I just watched Mary Goloff and Jim Walker wage on Mark Sorensen at city council tonight. I couldn’t make the meeting, so I have been watching it via computer.\nSorensen had been challenged by a smarmy Jim Walker to list what changes he would make to balance the budget. Sorensen carefully began to explain that city funds had been depleted by millions over the last few years, with escalating costs leaving revenues in the dirt. He also explained that the lion’s share of our expenses are “operating costs,” meaning, salaries. He also carefully explained that there were programs we simply could not afford anymore, meaning, salaries.\nMary Goloff could be heard heckling him off microphone. If you or I did what she was doing we’d be asked to leave the room, possibly with police escort. But Mayor Schwab just sat there looking at Goloff, saying nothing. Goloff finally got on mike, interrupted Sorensen, and asked him to be specific. So, Sorensen offered housing, saying it had been a mistake to undertake so many housing projects, and he also specified the arts programs – such as the requirement that any capital project include one percent of the total cost of that project be added for art.\nAt this point Goloff began to interrupt Sorensen. She started heckling him about how “we all agree” that the arts are important, yadda, yadda. She just kept at Sorensen, not allowing him to answer any of her out-there questions, until Sorensen asked her to stop interrupting him.\nAfter a quick exchange Walker butted in to attack Sorensen. Out of nowhere, Walker bashed Sorensen about wanting to spend more money on the police department, asking Sorensen where he would get the money to hire more police. This question was off base, Sorensen hadn’t even gotten that far before Goloff had completely derailed him.\nJim Walker is just sitting out his time, he seems to be enjoying himself at all of our expense. He, like so many “public servants,” seems to think he is elected to do what he wants, what seems like “the right thing” in his fairy tale mind, instead of carry out the law.\nMary Goloff seems to think she has been anointed Queen in some farcical aquatic ceremony to lead us all in the light of her cough syrup-induced wisdom. She seems to love the sound of her own voice, while here at my house, it sets off the hounds for blocks.\nMy computer started failing at this point, and I was unable to watch the rest of the meeting. I am going on vacation tomorrow, I’ll see you folks on the flip flop.\nTags: Ann Schwab Chico CA, Ann Schwab for city council, Friends of Ann Schwab\nTurn that S*** UP!\nWe had a lively discussion down at the library yesterday about how we are going to fight the phone tax increase in November.\nThe key here is to inform the public. $taff has already done their best to make this measure confusing and deceptive, actually writing into the measure that it will lower taxes. They mean, they are lowering the rate half a cent, but of course, this half-cent will be an ice cube in hell when they apply the tax to all the new stuff this measure allows – starting with cell phones, texting, paging, and adding whatever new technology comes along. All the voter needs to know is, this measure will raise his/her taxes, noticeably.\nEven people on welfare will pay this tax, even though they qualify for the rate-assistance plans offered by the phone companies – utility tax is based on the total bill, before the adjustment for the rate assistance. And, this tax includes those prepaid phone cards.\nThe hardest hit will be commercial customers. A friend of mine who owns a little manufacturing business in town tells me the city of Chico thinks all business owners are “rich sugar daddies”.\nMy friend always tells me, that while I am in these meetings Downtown, he is in Oroville or Redding or Modesto or some other town, dealing with his business. He says these towns have better, more workable $taff. He is among the business owners who have used the word “hostile” to describe Dave Burkland, and the city business climate in general.\nWe have to get the word out to people like my friend that NOW IS THE TIME to get involved. I like that band, Rage Against the Machine – they say, “it has to start somewhere, it has to start sometime. What better place than here, what better time than NOW!”\nWe’re fighting the city, which will use public money to fund this tax increase initiative. For example, they have already used $taff time to research and write the measure, and now council members and $taff will create the “for” argument to be placed on the ballot. Our city attorney makes over $190,000 a year in salary alone – Mark Sorensen figured the cost of an hour of her time, but I forget the figure. More than most people make in a day, is all I remember.\nThe city will turn over their arguments in favor in August – at that point we can take this dog and pony show on the road. Until then, let’s keep working. Thanks all!\n", "answers": ["Toby Schindelbeck's observation is that the police say they aren't paid enough to enforce the laws in the streets."], "length": 6599, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "3a63a9ca3248cecdeef9f43282a5162ff154b0bcdcf4ba81"}
{"input": "What is the group's request to the Connecticut DEEP Commissioner?", "context": "Outdoors\tFebruary 19, 2017\nYou are here: Home / Archives for Departments / OutdoorsActor Sam Waterson Hosts PBS Documentary on Lyme Land Trust January 14, 2017 by admin Leave a Comment Jack Tiffany, owner of Tiffany Farms on Rte. 156 and an earlier pioneer in Lyme land preservation, is interviewed by PBS “Visionaries” documentary producers.\nFiled Under: Lyme, Outdoors Application Deadline for Environmental Leadership Scholarship is Feb. 1 January 8, 2017 by admin Leave a Comment Applications are now being accepted for the Virginia R. Rollefson Environmental Leadership Scholarship, a $1,000 award to recognize a high school student who has demonstrated leadership and initiative in promoting conservation, preservation, restoration, or environmental education.\nFiled Under: Lyme, News, Old Lyme, Outdoors, Top Story Preserves in Lyme Now Closed for Hunting During Weekdays November 17, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment Starting yesterday, Wednesday, Nov. 16, the following Preserves in Lyme will be closed Monday through Friday until Tuesday, Dec. 20, 2016, except to licensed hunters with valid consent forms from the Town of Lyme Open Space Coordinator:\nBanningwood Preserve\nBeebe Preserve\nChestnut Hill Preserve\nEno Preserve\nHand Smith\nHoney Hill Preserve\nJewett Preserve\nMount Archer Woods\nPickwick’s Preserve\nPlimpton Preserve\nSlawson Preserve\nThese preserves, owned by the Town of Lyme or the Lyme Land Conservation Trust, will be open on Saturdays and Sundays during this hunting period as no hunting is allowed on weekends.\nThe hunting program is fully subscribed.\nFor more information on the hunting program in Lyme, visit http://www.lymelandtrust.org/stewardship/hunting-program/\nFiled Under: Lyme, Outdoors, Top Story Town of Old Lyme Offers Part-time Land Steward Opportunity October 11, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment The Town of Old Lyme is seeking a part-time individual to maintain and manage the trail systems on its major preserves. Keeping trails cleared, maintaining markers, kiosks, entrances, parking areas, and managing for wildlife and other natural resources are the priorities.\nFor more information, visit the job posting on the home page of the Town’s web page at http://www.oldlyme-ct.gov/Pages/index.\nTo learn about the Open Space Commission and the properties it manages, visit http://www.oldlyme-ct.gov/Pages/OldLymeCT_Bcomm/open_space\nFiled Under: Old Lyme, Outdoors, Top Story CT Fund for the Environment Annual Meeting to be Held Sunday in Hartford September 22, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment Engaging and educating communities for preservation of the Long Island Sound tidal estuary\nSave the Sound is celebrating National Estuaries Week Sept. 17 – 24 with a series of interactive and educational events throughout the Long Island Sound region. This annual celebration of estuaries—the vital coastal zones where freshwater rivers meet salty seas—is sponsored by Restore America’s Estuaries and its member organizations including Save the Sound. This year’s events call attention to the many benefits of thriving coastal ecosystems, including how estuary conservation efforts support our quality of life and economic well-being.\n“The Long Island Sound estuary is not only where freshwater rivers meet the saltwater Atlantic, but where wildlife habitat meets beaches and boating, and where modern industry meets traditional oystering,” said Curt Johnson, executive director of Save the Sound, which is a bi-state program of Connecticut Fund for the Environment (CFE).\nJohnson continued, “All over the country, estuaries are the lifeblood of coastal economies. From serving as natural buffers to protect our coastlines from storms to providing unique habitat for countless birds, fish, and wildlife, estuaries deserve our protection and our thanks.”\nSave the Sound is celebrating estuaries with a number of events this week, including the release of a new video, a presentation on Plum Island at the Old Lyme-Phoebe Griffin Noyes Library and the CFE/Save the Sound annual meeting:\nAerial view of Plum Island lighthouse. (From Preserve Plum Island website)\nChris Cryder, Special Projects Coordinator for Save the Sound and Outreach Coordinator for the Preserve Plum Island Coalition, will host Preserving Plum Island for Future Generations, a special presentation on the importance of conserving the wildlife habitats and historic buildings of Plum Island, New York.\nPlum Island flanks Plum Gut in the Long Island Sound estuary’s eastern end, where fast-moving tides create highly productive fishing grounds. The talk is part of a multi-week series featuring photographs and paintings of Plum Island, and lectures on its ecology, geology, and history.\nOld Lyme-Phoebe Griffin Noyes Library, 2 Library Lane, Old Lyme, Connecticut\nRegister by calling the library at 860-434-1684.\nThe Annual Meeting of Connecticut Fund for the Environment and its bi-state program Save the Sound will take place in the Planet Earth exhibit at the Connecticut Science Center. The event is open to the public with registration, and will feature a keynote address from Curt Spalding, administrator of EPA’s New England Region. Spalding is a leader in combatting nitrogen pollution and in climate change resilience planning efforts for New England.\nConnecticut Science Center, 250 Columbus Blvd, Hartford, Connecticut\n4 – 7 p.m\nRSVP to mlemere@ctenvironment.org\nTo celebrate the contributions of volunteers to restoring the Long Island Sound estuary, Save the Sound has released a new video of a habitat restoration planting at Hyde Pond in Mystic. Following removal of the old Hyde Pond dam and opening 4.1 miles of stream habitat for migratory fish last winter (see time lapse video here), in May about 30 volunteers planted native vegetation along the Whitford Brook stream bank, under the direction of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, CT DEEP’s Fisheries division, and Save the Sound staff.\nFind more information on the project’s benefits and funders here.\nLook for the planting video on Save the Sound’s website, YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter accounts.\nFiled Under: Old Lyme, Outdoors 750+ Volunteers Clean Beaches from Norwalk to New London Including Griswold Point in Old Lyme September 17, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment Kendall Perkins displays a skull she found during Save The Sound‘s Coastal Clean-up Day held yesterday at White Sand Beach.\nSave the Sound, a bi-state program of Connecticut Fund for the environment, organized 31 cleanups across Connecticut’s shoreline this weekend. The efforts are part of International Coastal Cleanup, which brings together hundreds of thousands of people each year to remove plastic bags, broken glass, cigarette butts, and other trash from the world’s shores and waterways. One of the areas included in the cleanup effort was from White Sand Beach to the tip of Griswold Point in Old Lyme.\nThe event was founded by Ocean Conservancy in 1985, and Save the Sound has served as the official Connecticut coordinator for the last 14 years.\n“We didn’t plan it this way, but I can’t imagine a better way to celebrate the 31st anniversary of International Coastal Cleanup Day than with 31 cleanups!” said Chris Cryder, special projects coordinator for Save the Sound. “The cleanup just keeps growing, in Connecticut and worldwide. We have some terrific new and returning partners this year, including the SECONN Divers, folks from the U.S. District Court, multiple National Charity League chapters, and many more.”\nCryder continued, “The diversity of the groups involved really reflects the truth that ocean health affects all of us. Clean beaches and oceans are safer for beachgoers and boaters, they’re healthier for wildlife that aren’t eating plastic or getting tangled up in trash, and they’re economic powerhouses for the fishing and tourism industries.”\nThe cleanups are co-hosted by a wide array of local partners including high schools, youth groups, and scout troops; churches; boaters and divers; watershed associations, park stewards, and land trusts. Twenty-eight cleanups will be held Saturday, with three more on Sunday and others through mid-October, for a total of 70 cleanups statewide.\nBased on the estimates of cleanup captains, between 750 and 900 volunteers were expected to pitch in on Saturday alone. Last year, a total of 1,512 volunteers participated in Save the Sound cleanups throughout the fall. They collected more than three tons of litter and debris from 58 sites on Connecticut beaches, marshes, and riverbanks.\nOver the event’s three-decade history, 11.5 million volunteers have collected 210 million pounds of trash worldwide. Every piece of trash volunteers find is tracked, reported to Save the Sound, and included in Ocean Conservancy’s annual index of global marine debris. The data is used to track trends in litter and devise policies to stop it at its source.\nFiled Under: Old Lyme, Outdoors, Top Story Stonewell Farm Hosts Two-Day Workshop on Dry Stone Wall Building, Sept. 24, 25 September 13, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment Andrew Pighill’s work includes outdoor kitchens, wine cellars, fire-pits, fireplaces and garden features that include follies and other whimsical structures in stone.\nKILLINGWORTH — On Sept. 24 and 25, from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. daily, Andrew Pighills, master stone mason, will teach a two-day, weekend long workshop on the art of dry stone wall building at Stonewell Farm in Killingworth, CT.\nParticipants will learn the basic principles of wall building, from establishing foundations, to the methods of dry laid (sometimes called dry-stacked) construction and ‘hearting’ the wall. This hands-on workshop will address not only the structure and principles behind wall building but also the aesthetic considerations of balance and proportion.\nThis workshop expresses Pighill’s commitment to preserve New England’s heritage and promote and cultivate the dry stone wall building skills that will ensure the preservation of our vernacular landscape.\nThis workshop is open to participants, 18 years of age or older, of all levels of experience. Note the workshop is limited to 16 participants, and spaces fill up quickly.\nYou must pre-register to attend the workshop. The price for the workshop is $350 per person. Stonewell Farm is located at 39 Beckwith Rd., Killingworth CT 06419\nIf you have any questions or to register for the workshop, contact the Workshop Administrator Michelle Becker at 860-322-0060 or mb@mbeckerco.com\nAt the end of the day on Saturday you’ll be hungry, tired and ready for some rest and relaxation, so the wood-fired Stone pizza oven will be fired up and beer, wine and Pizza Rustica will be served.\nAbout the instructor: Born in Yorkshire, England, Andrew Pighills is an accomplished stone artisan, gardener and horticulturist. He received his formal horticulture training with The Royal Horticultural Society and has spent 40+ years creating gardens and building dry stone walls in his native England in and around the spectacular Yorkshire Dales and the English Lake District. Today, Pighills is one of a small, but dedicated group of US-based, certified, professional members of The Dry Stone Walling Association (DSWA) of Great Britain. Having moved to the United States more than 10 years ago, he now continues this venerable craft here in the US, building dry stone walls, stone structures and creating gardens throughout New England and beyond.\nHis particular technique of building walls adheres to the ancient methods of generations of dry stone wallers in his native Yorkshire Dales. Pighills’ commitment to preserving the integrity and endurance of this traditional building art has earned him a devoted list of private and public clients here and abroad including the English National Trust, the English National Parks, and the Duke of Devonshire estates. His stone work has been featured on British and American television, in Charles McCraven’s book The Stone Primer, and Jeffrey Matz’s Midcentury Houses Today, A study of residential modernism in New Canaan Connecticut. He has featured in the N Y Times, on Martha Stewart Living radio, and in the Graham Deneen film short “Dry Stone”, as well as various media outlets both here and in the UK, including an article in the Jan/Feb 2015 issue of Yankee Magazine.\nPighills is a DSWA fully qualified dry stone walling instructor. In addition to building in stone and creating gardens, Pighills teaches dry stone wall building workshops in and around New England. He is a frequent lecturer on the art of dry stone walling, and how traditional UK walling styles compare to those found in New England. His blog, Heave and Hoe; A Day in the Life of a Dry Stone Waller and Gardener, provides more information about Pighills.\nFor more information, visit www.englishgardensandlandscaping.com\nFiled Under: Outdoors CT Port Authority Chair Tells Lower CT River Local Officials, “We’re All on One Team” August 27, 2016 by Olwen Logan 2 Comments Enjoying a boat ride on the Connecticut River, but still finding time for discussions, are (from left to right) Chester First Selectwoman Lauren Gister, Old Lyme First Selectwoman and Connecticut Port Authority (CPA) board member Bonnie Reemsnyder, Essex First Selectman Norm Needleman, CPA Chairman Scott Bates and Deep River First Selectman Angus McDonald, Jr.\nFiled Under: Chester, Deep River, Essex, News, Old Lyme, Outdoors, Politics, Top Story House Approves Courtney-Sponsored Amendment Restricting Sale of Plum Island July 10, 2016 by admin 2 Comments Representative Joe Courtney\nLocal Congressional Representative Joe Courtney (CT-02) announced Thursday (July 7) that a bipartisan amendment he had led, along with Representatives Rosa DeLauro (CT-03), Lee Zeldin (R-NY) and Peter King (R-NY), to prohibit the sale of Plum Island was passed by the House of Representatives.\nThe amendment, which will prohibit the General Services Administration (GSA) from using any of its operational funding to process or complete a sale of Plum Island, was made to the Financial Services and General Government Appropriations Act of 2017..\nIn a joint statement, the Representatives said, “Our amendment passed today is a big step toward permanently protecting Plum Island as a natural area. Plum Island is a scenic and biological treasure located right in the middle of Long Island Sound. It is home to a rich assortment of rare plant and animal species that need to be walled off from human interference.”\nThe statement continued, “Nearly everyone involved in this issue agrees that it should be preserved as a natural sanctuary – not sold off to the highest bidder for development.” Presumptive Republican Presidential nominee Donald Trump had shown interest in the property at one time.\nIn 2008, the federal government announced plans to close the research facility on Plum Island and relocate to Manhattan, Kansas. Current law states that Plum Island must be sold publicly to help finance the new research facility.\nAerial view of Plum Island.\nThe lawmakers joint statement explained, “The amendment will prevent the federal agency in charge of the island from moving forward with a sale by prohibiting it from using any of its operational funding provided by Congress for that purpose,” concluding, ” This will not be the end of the fight to preserve Plum Island, but this will provide us with more time to find a permanent solution for protecting the Island for generations to come.”\nFor several years, members from both sides of Long Island Sound have been working in a bipartisan manner to delay and, ultimately, repeal the mandated sale of this ecological treasure. Earlier this year, the representatives, along with the whole Connecticut delegation, cosponsored legislation that passed the House unanimously to delay the sale of Plum Island.\nFiled Under: Outdoors July 1 Update: Aquatic Treatment Planned for Rogers Lake, July 5 July 1, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment We received this updated information from the Old Lyme Selectman’s office at 11:05 a.m. this morning:\nFiled Under: Lyme, Old Lyme, Outdoors, Town Hall They’re Everywhere! All About Gypsy Moth Caterpillars — Advice from CT Agricultural Experiment Station June 2, 2016 by Adina Ripin Leave a Comment Gypsy moth caterpillars – photo by Peter Trenchard, CAES.\nThe potential for gypsy moth outbreak exists every year in our community.\nDr. Kirby Stafford III, head of the Department of Entomology at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, has written a fact sheet on the gypsy moth available on the CAES website. The following information is from this fact sheet.\nThe gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, was introduced into the US (Massachusetts) by Etienne Leopold Trouvelot in about 1860. The escaped larvae led to small outbreaks in the area in 1882, increasing rapidly. It was first detected in Connecticut in 1905. By 1952, it had spread to 169 towns. In 1981, 1.5 million acres were defoliated in Connecticut. During the outbreak of 1989, CAES scientists discovered that an entomopathogenic fungus, Entomophaga maimaiga, was killing the caterpillars. Since then the fungus has been the most important agent suppressing gypsy moth activity.\nThe fungus, however, cannot prevent all outbreaks and hotspots have been reported in some areas, in 2005-06 and again in 2015.\nThe life cycle of the gypsy moth is one generation a year. Caterpillars hatch from buff-colored egg masses in late April to early May. An egg mass may contain 100 to more than 1000 eggs and are laid in several layers. The caterpillars (larvae) hatch a few days later and ascend the host trees and begin to feed on new leaves. The young caterpillars, buff to black-colored, lay down silk safety lines as they crawl and, as they drop from branches on these threads, they may be picked up on the wind and spread.\nThere are four or five larval stages (instars) each lasting 4-10 days. Instars 1-3 remain in the trees. The fourth instar caterpillars, with distinctive double rows of blue and red spots, crawl up and down the tree trunks feeding mainly at night. They seek cool, shaded protective sites during the day, often on the ground. If the outbreak is dense, caterpillars may feed continuously and crawl at any time.\nWith the feeding completed late June to early July, caterpillars seek a protected place to pupate and transform into a moth in about 10-14 days. Male moths are brown and fly. Female moths are white and cannot fly despite having wings. They do not feed and live for only 6-10 days. After mating, the female will lay a single egg mass and die. The egg masses can be laid anywhere: trees, fence posts, brick/rock walls, outdoor furniture, cars, recreational vehicles, firewood. The egg masses are hard. The eggs will survive the winter and larvae hatch the following spring during late April through early May.\nThe impact of the gypsy moth can be extensive since the caterpillar will feed on a wide diversity of trees and shrubs. Oak trees are their preferred food. Other favored tree species include apple, birch, poplar and willow. If the infestation is heavy, they will also attack certain conifers and other less favored species. The feeding causes extensive defoliation.\nHealthy trees can generally withstand one or two partial to one complete defoliation. Trees will regrow leaves before the end of the summer. Nonetheless, there can be die-back of branches. Older trees may become more vulnerable to stress after defoliation. Weakened trees can also be attacked by other organisms or lack energy reserves for winter dormancy and growth during the following spring. Three years of heavy defoliation may result in high oak mortality.\nThe gypsy moth caterpillars drop leaf fragments and frass (droppings) while feeding creating a mess for decks, patios, outdoor furniture, cars and driveways. Crawling caterpillars can be a nuisance and their hairs irritating. The egg masses can be transported by vehicles to areas where the moth is not yet established. Under state quarantine laws, the CAES inspects certain plant shipments destined to areas free of the gypsy moth, particularly for egg masses.\nThere are several ways to manage the gypsy moth: biological, physical and chemical.\nBiologically, the major gypsy moth control agent has been the fungus E. maimaiga. This fungus can provide complete control of the gypsy moth but is dependent on early season moisture from rains in May and June to achieve effective infection rates and propagation of the fungus to other caterpillars. The dry spring of 2015 resulted in little or no apparent fungal inoculation or spread until it killed late-stage caterpillars in some areas of the state, after most defoliation.\nInfected caterpillars hang vertically from the tree trunk, head down. Some die in an upside down “V” position, a characteristic of caterpillars killed by the less common gypsy moth nucleopolyhedrosis virus (NPV). This was not detected in caterpillars examined in 2015.\nPhysical controls include removing and destroying egg masses, which can be drowned in a soapy water and disposed of. Another method is to use burlap refuge/barrier bands wrapped around tree trunks so that migrating caterpillars will crawl into or under the folded burlap or be trapped by the sticky band.\nThere are a number of crop protection chemicals labeled for the control of gypsy moth on ornamental trees and shrubs. There are treatments for egg masses, larvae and adult moths. Detailed information about these chemical treatments is available in the CAES factsheet.\nFor complete information about the gypsy moth and its management, visit the CAES website and look for the fact sheet on gypsy moth.\nFiled Under: News, Outdoors East Lyme Public Trust Invites Community to Celebrate Boardwalk Re-dedication May 25, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment On Saturday, May 28, at 11 a.m., the East Lyme Public Trust Foundation, in co-operation with East Lyme Parks and Recreation Department, will sponsor A Dream Fulfilled, the official re-dedication of the East Lyme Boardwalk. The re-dedication ceremony, which will be held on the Boardwalk, will feature keynote speaker, Sen. Paul Formica, former First Selectman of East Lyme.\nOther speakers will include East Lyme First Selectman Mark Nickerson, Public Trust President Joe Legg, Public Trust Past-President Bob DeSanto, Public Trust Vice-President John Hoye, and Parks and Recreation Director Dave Putnam; all the speakers will recognize the many people who have helped made this dream a reality.\nThe East Lyme Public Trust Foundation would like to invite the general public to witness this historic occasion. In addition, the members would especially like to encourage the participation of the 200 people who dedicated benches and the innumerable people who sponsored plaques. They would also love to welcome all members of the Trust – past and present – and all those who originally helped make the Boardwalk a reality.\nParticipants should enter the Boardwalk at Hole-in-the Wall on Baptist Lane, Niantic. Then, there will be a short walk to the area of the monument where the ceremony will take place. At the entrance to Hole-in-the Wall, the Public Trust will have a display of historical information and memorabilia related to the construction and re-construction of the Boardwalk. Public Trust members, Pat and Jack Lewis will be on hand to host the exhibit titled Before and After and to welcome participants. After the ceremony, participants will have the opportunity to visit “their bench” and re-visit “their plaque.” During and after the dedication, music will be provided by Trust member, Bill Rinoski, who is a “D.J. for all occasions.” Rinoski will feature “Boardwalk-related” music and Oldies plus Top 40 selections. This historic occasion will be videotaped as a public service by Mike Rydene of Media Potions of East Lyme. High school volunteers will be on hand to greet participants and help with directions.\nThe organizing committee is chaired by Michelle Maitland. Her committee consists of Joe Legg, President of the East Lyme Public Trust, Carol Marelli, Bob and Polly DeSanto, June Hoye, and Kathie Cassidy.\nVisit Facebook – East Lyme Public Trust Foundation – for more information on the re-dedication ceremony. For more information on the Boardwalk, explore this website.\nFiled Under: Outdoors Lyme Land Trust Seeks to Preserve Whalebone Cove Headwaters May 8, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment Lyme Land Trust Preservation Vice President Don Gerber stands with Chairman Anthony Irving (kneeling) next to Whalebone Creek in the proposed Hawthorne Preserve in Hadlyme.\nThe Lyme Land Conservation Trust has announced a fund raising drive to protect 82 acres of ecologically strategic upland forest and swamp wildlife habitat in Hadlyme on the headwaters of Whalebone Cove, one of the freshwater tidal wetlands that comprises the internationally celebrated Connecticut River estuary complex.\nThe new proposed preserve is part of a forested landscape just south of Hadlyme Four Corners and Ferry Road (Rt. 148), and forms a large part of the watershed for Whalebone Creek, a key tributary feeding Whalebone Cove, most of which is a national wildlife refuge under the management of the US Fish & Wildlife Service.\nThe Land Trust said it hopes to name the new nature refuge in honor of William Hawthorne of Hadlyme, whose family has owned the property for several generations and who has agreed to sell the property to the Land Trust at a discount from its market value if the rest of the money necessary for the purchase can be raised by the Land Trust.\n“This new wildlife preserve will represent a triple play for habitat conservation,” said Anthony Irving, chairman of the Land Trust’s Preservation Committee.\n“First, it helps to protect the watershed feeding the fragile Whalebone Cove eco-system, which is listed as one of North America’s important freshwater tidal marshes in international treaties that cite the Connecticut River estuary as a wetland complex of global importance. Whalebone Creek, one of the primary streams feeding Whalebone Cove, originates from vernal pools and upland swamps just south of the Hawthorne tract on the Land Trust’s Ravine Trail Preserve and adjacent conservation easements and flows through the proposed preserve. Virtually all of the Hawthorne property comprises much of the watershed for Whalebone Creek.\n“Second, the 82 acres we are hoping to acquire with this fund raising effort represents a large block of wetlands and forested wildlife habitat between Brush Hill and Joshuatown roads, which in itself is home to a kaleidoscope of animals from amphibians and reptiles that thrive in several vernal pools and swamp land, to turkey, coyote, bobcat and fisher. It also serves as seasonal nesting and migratory stops for several species of deep woods birds, which are losing habitat all over Connecticut due to forest fragmentation.\n“Third, this particular preserve will also conserve a key link in the wildlife corridors that connects more than 1,000 acres of protected woodland and swamp habitat in the Hadlyme area.” Irving explained that the preserve is at the center of a landscape-scale wildlife habitat greenway that includes Selden Island State Park, property of the US Fish & Wild Life’s Silvio O Conte Wildlife Refuge, The Nature Conservancy’s Selden Preserve, and several other properties protected by the Lyme Land Conservation Trust.\n“Because of its central location as a hub between these protected habitat refuges,” said Irving, “this preserve will protect forever the uninterrupted access that wildlife throughout the Hadlyme landscape now has for migration and breeding between otherwise isolated communities and families of many terrestrial species that are important to the continued robust bio-diversity of southeastern Connecticut and the Connecticut River estuary.”\nIrving noted that the Hawthorne property is the largest parcel targeted for conservation in the Whalebone Cove watershed by the recently developed US Fish & Wildlife Service Silvio O Conte Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan. Irving said the Land Trust hopes to create a network of hiking trails on the property with access from both Brush Hill Road on the east and Joshuatown Road on the west and connection to the Land Trust’s Ravine Trail to the south and the network of trails on the Nature Conservancy’s Selden Preserve.\nIrving said there is strong support for the Land Trust’s proposal to preserve the property both within the Hadlyme and Lyme communities and among regional and state conservation groups. He noted letters of support have come from the Hadlyme Garden Club, the Hadlyme Public Hall Association, the Lyme Inland Wetlands & Watercourses Agency, the Lyme Planning and Zoning Commission, the Lyme Open Space Committee, the Lower Connecticut River Valley Council of Governments, the Lyme Garden Club, the Lyme Public Hall, The Nature Conservancy, The Silvio O Conte Refuge, the Connecticut River Watershed Council, and the Friends of Whalebone Cove, Inc.\nHe reported that between Hawthorne’s gift and several other pledges the Land Trust has already received commitments of 25 percent of the cost of the property.\nFiled Under: Lyme, Outdoors, Top Story, vnn Old Lyme Tree Commission Celebrates Arbor Day April 29, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment Members of the three groups gather around the new oak tree. From left to right are Kathy Burton, Joanne DiCamillo, Joan Flynn. Anne Bing, Emily Griswold and Barbara Rayel.\nFiled Under: Old Lyme, Outdoors, Top Story, Town Hall Enjoy a Tour of Private Gardens in Essex, June 4 April 28, 2016 by Adina Ripin Leave a Comment See this beautiful private garden in Essex on June 4.\nESSEX – On Saturday, June 4, from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m., plan to stroll through eight of the loveliest and most unusual private gardens in Essex. Some are in the heart of Essex Village while others are hidden along lanes most visitors never see. While exploring, you will find both formal and informal settings, lovely sweeping lawns and panoramic views of the Connecticut River or its coves. One garden you will visit is considered to be a ‘laboratory’ for cultivation of native plants. Master Gardeners will be available to point out specific features, offer gardening tips, and answer questions.\nThe garden tour is sponsored by the Friends of the Essex Library. Tickets are $25 in advance and $30 at the Essex Library the day of the event. Cash, checks, Visa or Master Card will be accepted. Tickets can be reserved by visiting the library or by completing the form included in flyers available at the library and throughout Essex beginning May 2. Completed forms can be mailed to the library. Confirmations will be sent to the email addresses on the completed forms.\nYour ticket will be a booklet containing a brief description of each garden along with a map of the tour and designated parking. Tickets must be picked up at the library beginning at 9:45 a.m. the day of the event.\nRichard Conroy, library director, has said, “The Essex Library receives only about half of its operating revenue from the Town. The financial assistance we receive each year from the Friends is critical. It enables us to provide important resources such as Ancestry.com and museum passes, as well as practical improvements like the automatic front doors that were recently installed. I urge you to help your Library by helping our Friends make this event a success! Thank you for your support.”\nThe tour will take place rain or shine. For more information, call 860-767-1560. All proceeds will benefit Friends of the Essex Library.\nFiled Under: Outdoors Potapaug Presents Plum Island Program April 7, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment Potapaug Audubon presents “Preserving Plum Island” on Thursday, April 7, at 7 p.m. at Old Lyme Town Hall, 52 Lyme St., Old Lyme, with guest speaker Chris Cryder, from the Preserve Plum Island Coalition.\nCryder will discuss the efforts to protect the island, which provides vital habitat for threatened and endangered birds.\nThis is a free program and all are welcome.\nFiled Under: Old Lyme, Outdoors CT Legislators Support Study to Preserve Plum Island From Commercial Development March 28, 2016 by Jerome Wilson 1 Comment Aerial view of Plum Island lighthouse. (From Preserve Plum Island website)\nLast Thursday, March 24, at a press conference in Old Saybrook, a triumvirate of Congressional legislators from Connecticut, State Senator Richard Blumenthal and US Representatives Joe Courtney (D-2nd District) and Rosa DeLauro (D-3rd District) confirmed their support for a study to determine the future of Plum Island located in Long Island Sound.\nMembers of the Plum Island Coalition — which has some 65 member organizations all dedicated to preserving the island — were in attendance to hear the good news.\nThe island still houses a high-security, federal animal disease research facility, but the decision has already been taken to move the facility to a new location in Kansas with an opening slated for 2022. The current facility takes up only a small percentage of the land on the island and significantly for environmentalists, the remainder of the island has for years been left to nature in the wild.\nIn supporting a federal study on the future of Plum Island, Sen. Blumenthal said, “This study is a step towards saving a precious, irreplaceable national treasure from developers and polluters. It will provide the science and fact-based evidence to make our case for stopping the current Congressional plan to sell Plum Island to the highest bidder.” He continued, “The stark truth is the sale of Plum Island is no longer necessary to build a new bioresearch facility because Congress has fully appropriated the funds. There is no need for this sale – and in fact, Congress needs to rescind the sale.” Congress, however, still has a law on the books that authorizes the sale of Plum Island land to the highest bidder. Therefore, opponents of the sale will have the burden of convincing Congress to change a law that is currently in place.\nFiled Under: Old Lyme, Outdoors, Top Story, vnn Land Trusts’ Photo Contest Winners Announced March 24, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment Winner of the top prize, the John G. Mitchell Environmental Conservation Award – Hank Golet\nThe 10th Annual Land Trust’s Photo Contest winners were announced at a March 11 reception highlighting the winning photos and displaying all entered photos. Land trusts in Lyme, Old Lyme, Salem, Essex and East Haddam jointly sponsor the annual amateur photo contest to celebrate the scenic countryside and diverse wildlife and plants in these towns. The ages of the photographers ranged from children to senior citizens.\nHank Golet won the top prize, the John G. Mitchell Environmental Conservation Award, with his beautiful photograph of a juvenile yellow crowned night heron in the Black Hall River in Old Lyme. Alison Mitchell personally presented the award, created in memory of her late husband John G. Mitchell, an editor at National Geographic, who championed the cause of the environment.\nWilliam Burt, a naturalist and acclaimed wildlife photographer, who has been a contest judge for ten years, received a special mention. Judges Burt; Amy Kurtz Lansing, an accomplished art historian and curator at the Florence Griswold Museum; and Skip Broom, a respected, award-winning local photographer and antique house restoration housewright, chose the winning photographs from 219 entries.\nThe sponsoring land trusts – Lyme Land Conservation Trust, Essex Land Trust, the Old Lyme Land Trust, Salem Land Trust, and East Haddam Land Trust – thank the judges as well as generous supporters RiverQuest/ CT River Expeditions, Lorensen Auto Group, the Oakley Wing Group at Morgan Stanley, Evan Griswold at Coldwell Banker, Ballek’s Garden Center, Essex Savings Bank, Chelsea Groton Bank, and Alison Mitchell in honor of her late husband John G. Mitchell. Big Y and Fromage Fine Foods & Coffee provided support for the reception.\nThe winning photographers are:\nJohn G. Mitchell Environmental Award, Hank Golet, Old Lyme\n1st: Patrick Burns, East Haddam\n2nd: Judah Waldo, Old Lyme\n3rd: James Beckman, Ivoryton\nHonorable Mention Gabriel Waldo, Old Lyme\nHonorable Mention Sarah Gada, East Haddam\nHonorable Mention Shawn Parent, East Haddam\nCultural/Historic\n1st: Marcus Maronne, Mystic\n2nd: Normand L. Charlette, Manchester\n3rd: Tammy Marseli, Rocky Hill\nHonorable Mention Jud Perkins, Salem\nHonorable Mention Pat Duncan, Norwalk\nHonorable Mention John Kolb, Essex\nLandscapes/Waterscapes\n1st: Cheryl Philopena, Salem\n2nd: Marian Morrissette, New London\n3rd: Harcourt Davis, Old Lyme\nHonorable Mention Cynthia Kovak, Old Lyme\nHonorable Mention Bopha Smith, Salem\n1st: Mary Waldron, Old Lyme\n2nd: Courtney Briggs, Old Saybrook\n3rd: Linda Waters, Salem\nHonorable Mention Pete Govert, East Haddam\nHonorable Mention Marcus Maronne, Mystic\nHonorable Mention Marian Morrissette, New London\nFirst place winner of the Wildlife category – Chris Pimley\n1st: Chris Pimley, Essex\n2nd: Harcourt Davis, Old Lyme\nHonorable Mention Thomas Nemeth, Salem\nHonorable Mention Jeri Duefrene, Niantic\nHonorable Mention Elizabeth Gentile, Old Lyme\nThe winning photos will be on display at the Lymes’ Senior Center for the month of March and Lyme Public Library in April. For more information go to lymelandtrust.org.\nFiled Under: Outdoors Old Lyme’s Open Space Commission Hosts Talk on Sea Level Rise, Salt Marsh Advance March 11, 2016 by admin 1 Comment The Town of Old Lyme’s Open Space Commission invites all interested parties to a workshop by Adam Whelchel, PhD, Director of Science at The Nature Conservancy’s Connecticut Chapter. The workshop will be held on Friday, March 11, at 9 a.m. in the Old Lyme Town Hall.\nFiled Under: Outdoors, Town Hall Inaugural Meeting of ‘Friends of Whalebone Cove’ Held, Group Plans to Protect Famous Tidal Wetland March 7, 2016 by admin Leave a Comment The newly formed ‘Friends of Whalebone Cove’ are working to preserve and protect the Cove’s fragile ecosystem.\nA new community conservation group to protect Whalebone Cove, a freshwater tidal marsh along the Connecticut river in Hadlyme recognized internationally for its wildlife habitat, will hold its first organizational meeting this coming Sunday, March 6, at 4 p.m.\nCalling the group “Friends of Whalebone Cove” (FOWC), the organizers say their purpose is to “create a proactive, community-based constituency whose mission is to preserve and protect the habitat and fragile eco-systems of Whalebone Cove.”\nMuch of Whalebone Cove is a nature preserve that is part of the Silvio O. Conte National Wildlife Refuge (www.fws.gov/refuge/silvio_o_conte) under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (USFW). The Refuge owns and manages 116 acres of marshland in Whalebone Cove and upland along its shores.\nPrior to being taken over by USFW, the Whalebone Cove preserve was under the protection of The Nature Conservancy.\nAs part of the Connecticut River estuary, the Cove is listed in the Ramsar Convention on International Wetlands (www.ramsar.org) as tidal marshlands on the Connecticut River that constitute a “wetlands complex of international importance.”\nThe Ramsar citation specifically notes that Whalebone Cove has one of the largest stands of wild rice in the state. Except at high tide, most of the Cove is open marshland covered by wild rice stands with relatively narrow channels where Whalebone Creek winds its way through the Cove to the main stem of the Connecticut River.\nBrian Slater, one of the group’s leaders who is filing the incorporation documents creating FOWC, said the creation of the organization was conceived by many of those living around the Cove and others in the Hadlyme area because of increased speeding motor boat and jet ski traffic in the Cove in recent years, damaging wetland plants and disrupting birds and other wildlife that make the Cove their home.\nSlater said “Our goal is to develop a master plan for protection of the Cove through a collaborative effort involving all those who have a stake in Whalebone Cove – homeowners along its shores and those living nearby, the Silvio O. Conte Refuge, the Connecticut Department of Energy & Environmental Protection (DEEP), hunters, fishing enthusiasts, canoeing and kayaking groups, Audubon groups, the Towns of Lyme and East Haddam, The Nature Conservancy, the Connecticut River Watershed Council, the Lyme Land Conservation Trust, the Connecticut River Gateway Commission, and others who want to protect the Cove.”\n“Such a plan”, said Slater, “should carefully evaluate the habitat, plants, wildlife and eco-systems of the Cove and the surrounding uplands and watershed and propose an environmental management plan that can be both implemented and enforced by those entrusted with stewarding the Cove and its fragile ecosystems for the public trust.”\nFOWC has written a letter to Connecticut DEEP Commissioner Rob Klee asking that he appoint a blue ribbon commission to conduct the research and develop the management plan. FOWC also asked that Commissioner Klee either deny or defer approval on any applications for new docks in the Cove until the management plan can be developed and implemented. Currently there are no docks in the Cove.\n“We are very concerned that the installation of docks permitted for motor boat use will greatly increase the amount of motorized watercraft in the Cove,” said Slater. “There’s already too much jet ski and speeding motorboat traffic in the Cove. Those living on the Cove have even seen boats towing water skiers crisscrossing the wild rice plants at high tide. Something has to be done to protect the birds and marine life that give birth and raise their young in the Cove.”\nSlater urged all those “who treasure Whalebone Cove and the many species of birds, turtles, fish, reptiles, amphibians, beaver, and rare flora and fauna that make their home in it to attend the meeting, whether they live in the Hadlyme area or beyond.”\nExpected to be at the meeting will be representatives from USFW, DEEP, the Connecticut River Watershed Council, and several other conservation organizations.\nThe meeting will be held at Hadlyme Public Hall, 1 Day Hill Rd., in Lyme, which is at the intersection of Ferry Rd. (Rte. 148), Joshuatown Rd., and Day Hill Rd. Representatives from the Silvio O. Conte Refuge will make a short presentation on the history and mission of the Conte Refuge system, which includes nature preserves throughout the Connecticut River Valley in four states.\nFor more information, call 860-322-4021 or email fowchadlyme@gmail.com\nFiled Under: Lyme, News, Outdoors Next Page »", "answers": ["Appointing a blue ribbon commission to conduct the research and develop the management plan and denying or defering approval on any applications for new docks in the Cove until the management plan can be developed and implemented."], "length": 6819, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "7e9ba2f426e81faad004a9aba93c714af689ed705e544d22"}
{"input": "What is the electron correlation parameter, $\\Gamma_e$?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\nUltracold neutral plasmas studied in the laboratory offer access to a regime of plasma physics that scales to describe thermodynamic aspects of important high-energy-density systems, including strongly coupled astrophysical plasmas \\cite{VanHorn,Burrows}, as well as terrestrial sources of neutrons \\cite{Hinton,Ichimaru_fusion,Atzeni,Boozer} and x-ray radiation \\cite{Rousse,Esarey}.  Yet, under certain conditions, low-temperature laboratory plasmas evolve with dynamics that are governed by the quantum mechanical properties of their constituent particles, and in some cases by coherence with an external electromagnetic field.   \n\nThe relevance of ultracold plasmas to such a broad scope of problems in classical and quantum many-body physics has given rise to a great deal of experimental and theoretical research on these systems since their discovery in the late 90s.  A series of reviews affords a good overview of progress in the last twenty years \\cite{Gallagher,Killian_Science,PhysRept,Lyon}.  Here, we focus on the subset of ultracold neutral plasmas that form via kinetic rate processes from state-selected Rydberg gases, and emphasize in particular the distinctive dynamics found in the evolution of molecular ultracold plasmas.  \n\nWhile molecular beam investigations of threshold photoionization spectroscopy had uncovered relevant effects a few years earlier \\cite{Scherzer,Alt}, the field of ultracold plasma physics began in earnest with the 1999 experiment of Rolston and coworkers on metastable xenon atoms cooled in a magneto optical trap (MOT) \\cite{Killian}.  \n\nThis work and many subsequent efforts tuned the photoionization energy as a means to form a plasma of very low electron temperature built on a strongly coupled cloud of ultracold ions.  Experiment and theory soon established that fast processes associated with disorder-induced heating and longer-time electron-ion collisional rate processes act to elevate the ion temperatures to around one degree Kelvin, and constrain the effective initial electron temperature to a range above 30 K \\cite{Kuzmin,Hanson,Laha}.  \n\nThis apparent limit on the thermal energy of the electrons can be more universally expressed for an expanding plasma by saying that the electron correlation parameter, $\\Gamma_e$, does not exceed 0.25, where, \n\\begin{equation}\n\\Gamma_e = \\frac{e^2}{4\\pi \\epsilon_0 a_{ws}}\\frac{1}{k_B T_e}\n\\label{eqn:gamma_e}\n\\end{equation}\ndefines the ratio of the average unscreened electron-electron potential energy to the electron kinetic energy.  $a_{ws}$ is the Wigner-Seitz radius, related to the electron density by, $\\rho_e = 1/(\\frac{4}{3} \\pi a_{ws}^3)$.  These plasmas of weakly coupled electrons and strongly coupled ions have provided an important testing ground for ion transport theory and the study of electron-ion collision physics \\cite{Strickler}.\n\nSoon after the initial reports of ultracold plasmas formed by direct photoionization, a parallel effort began with emphasis on the plasma that forms spontaneously by Penning ionization and electron-impact avalanche in a dense ultracold Rydberg gas \\cite{Mourachko}.  This process affords less apparent control of the initial electron temperature.  But, pulsed field-ionization measurements soon established that the photoionized plasma and that formed by the avalanche of a Rydberg gas both evolve to quasi-equilibria of electrons, ions and high-Rydberg neutrals \\cite{Rolston_expand,Gallagher}.  \n\nEarly efforts to understand plasmas formed by Rydberg gas avalanche paid particular attention to the process of initiation.  Evolution to plasma in effusive atomic beams was long known for high-Rydberg gases of caesium and well explained by coupled rate equations \\cite{Vitrant}.  But, low densities and ultracold velocity distributions were thought to exclude Rydberg-Rydberg collisional mechanisms in a MOT.  \n\nIn work on ultracold Rydberg gases of Rb and Cs, Gallagher, Pillet and coworkers describe the initial growth of electron signal by a model that includes ionization by blackbody radiation and collisions with a background of uncooled Rydberg atoms \\cite{Mourachko,Gallagher,Li,Comparat,Tanner}. This picture was subsequently refined to include many-body excitation and autoionization, as well as attractive dipole-dipole interactions \\cite{Viteau,Pillet}, later confirmed by experiments at Rice \\cite{Mcquillen}.  \n\nThe Orsay group also studied the effect of adding Rydberg atoms to an established ultracold plasma.  They found that electron collisions in this environment completely ionize added atoms, even when selected to have deep binding energies \\cite{Vanhaecke}.  They concluded from estimates of electron trapping efficiency that the addition of Rydberg atoms does not significantly alter the electron temperature of the plasma.  \n\nTuning pair distributions by varying the wavelength of the excitation laser, Weidem\\\"uller and coworkers confirmed the mechanical effects of van der Waals interactions on the rates of Penning ionization in ultracold $^{87}$Rb Rydberg gases \\cite{Amthor_mech}.  They recognized blackbody radiation as a possible means of final-state redistribution, and extended this mechanical picture to include long-range repulsive interactions \\cite{Amthor_model}.  This group later studied the effects of spatial correlations in the spontaneous avalanche of Rydberg gases in a regime of strong blockade, suggesting a persistence of initial spatial correlations \\cite{RobertdeSaintVincent}.  \n\nRobicheaux and coworkers have recently investigated the question of prompt many-body ionization from the point of view of Monte Carlo classical trajectory calculations \\cite{Goforth}.  For atoms on a regular or random grid driven classically by an electromagnetic field, they find that many-body excitation enhances prompt ionization by about twenty percent for densities greater than $5.6 \\times 10^{-3}/(n_0^2 a_0)^3$, where $n_0$ is the principal quantum number of the Rydberg gas and $a_0$ is the Bohr radius.  They observed that density fluctuations (sampled from the distribution of nearest neighbour distances) have a greater effect, and point to the possible additional influence of secondary electron-Rydberg collisions and the Penning production of fast atoms not considered by the model, but already observed by Raithel and coworkers \\cite{Knuffman}.  \n\nThe Raithel group also found direct evidence for electron collisional $\\ell$-mixing in a Rb MOT \\cite{Dutta}, and used selective field ionization to monitor evolution to plasma on a microsecond timescale in ultracold $^{85}$Rb $65d$ Rydberg gases with densities as low as $10^8$ cm$^{-3}$ \\cite{WalzFlannigan}.  Research by our group at UBC has observed very much the same dynamics in the relaxation of Xe Rydberg gases of similar density prepared in a molecular beam \\cite{Hung2014}.  In both cases, the time evolution to avalanche is well-described by coupled rate equations (see below), assuming an initializing density of Penning electrons determined by Robicheaux's criterion \\cite{Robicheaux05}, applied to an Erlang distribution of Rydberg-Rydberg nearest neighbours.  \n\nTheoretical investigations of ultracold plasma physics have focused for the most part on the long- and short-time dynamics of plasmas formed by direct photoionization \\cite{PhysRept,Lyon}.  In addition to studies mentioned above, key insights on the evolution dynamics of Rydberg gases have been provided by studies of Pohl and coworkers exploring the effects of ion correlations and recombination-reionization on the hydrodynamics of plasma expansion \\cite{Pohl:2003,PPR}.  Further research has drawn upon molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to reformulate rate coefficients for the transitions driven by electron impact between highly excited Rydberg states \\cite{PVS}, and describe an effect of strong coupling as it suppresses three-body recombination \\cite{Bannasch:2011}.  MD simulations confirm the accuracy of coupled rate equation descriptions for systems with $\\Gamma$ as large as 0.3.  Newer calculations suggest a strong connection between the order created by dipole blockade in Rydberg gases and the most favourable correlated distribution of ions in a corresponding strongly coupled ultracold plasma \\cite{Bannasch:2013}.  \n\nTate and coworkers have studied ultracold plasma avalanche and expansion theoretically as well as experimentally.  Modelling observed expansion rates, they recently found that $^{85}$Rb atoms in a MOT form plasmas with effective initial electron temperatures determined by initial Rydberg density and the selected initial binding energy, to the extent that these parameters determine the fraction of the excited atoms that ionize by electron impact in the avalanche to plasma \\cite{Forest}.  This group also returned to the question of added Rydberg atoms, and managed to identify a crossover in $n_0$, depending on the initial electron temperature, that determines whether added Rydberg atoms of a particular initial binding energy act to heat or cool the electron temperature \\cite{Crockett}.   \n\nOur group has focused on the plasma that evolves from a Rydberg gas under the low-temperature conditions of a skimmed, seeded supersonic molecular beam.  In work on nitric oxide starting in 2008 \\cite{Morrison2008,Plasma_expan,Morrison_shock,PCCP}, we established an initial kinetics of electron impact avalanche ionization that conforms with coupled rate equation models \\cite{Saquet2011,Saquet2012,Scaling,haenelCP} and agrees at early times with the properties of ultracold plasmas that evolve from ultracold atoms in a MOT.  We have also observed unique properties of the NO ultracold plasma owing to the fact that its Rydberg states dissociate \\cite{Haenel2017}, and identified relaxation pathways that may give rise to quantum effects \\cite{SousMBL,SousNJP}.  The remainder of this review focuses on the nitric oxide ultracold plasma and the unique characteristics conferred by its evolution from a Rydberg gas in a laser-crossed molecular beam.  \n\n\n\\section{Avalanche to strong coupling in a molecular Rydberg gas}\n\n\\subsection{The molecular beam ultracold plasma compared with a MOT}\n\nWhen formed with sufficient density, a Rydberg gas of principal quantum number $n_0>30$ undergoes a spontaneous avalanche to form an ultracold plasma \\cite{Li,Morrison2008,RobertdeSaintVincent}.  Collisional rate processes combine with ambipolar hydrodynamics to govern the properties of the evolving plasma.  For a molecular Rydberg gas, neutral fragmentation, occurs in concert with electron-impact ionization, three-body recombination and electron-Rydberg inelastic scattering.  Neutral dissociation combined with radial expansion in a shaped distribution of charged particles, can give rise to striking effects of self-assembly and spatial correlation \\cite{Schulz-Weiling2016,Haenel2017}.   \n\nThe formation of a molecular ultracold plasma requires the conditions of local temperature and density afforded by a high mach-number skimmed supersonic molecular beam.  Such a beam propagates at high velocity in the laboratory, with exceedingly well-defined hydrodynamic properties, including a propagation-distance-dependent density and sub-Kelvin temperature in the moving frame \\cite{MSW_tutorial}.  The low-temperature gas in a supersonic molecular beam differs in three important ways from the atomic gas laser-cooled in a magneto-optical trap (MOT).\n\nThe milli-Kelvin temperature of the gas of ground-state NO molecules entrained in a beam substantially exceeds the sub-100 micro-Kelvin temperature of laser-cooled atoms in a MOT.  However, the evolution to plasma tends to erase this distinction, and the two further characteristics that distinguish a beam offer important advantages for ultracold plasma physics:  Charged-particle densities in a molecular beam can exceed those attainable in a MOT by orders of magnitude.  A great many different chemical substances can be seeded in a free-jet expansion, and the possibility this affords to form other molecular ultracold plasmas, introduces interesting and potentially important new degrees of freedom governing the dynamics of their evolution.\n\n\n\\subsection{Supersonic molecular beam temperature and particle density}\n\nSeeded in a skimmed supersonic molecular beam, nitric oxide forms different phase-space distributions in the longitudinal (propagation) and transverse coordinate dimensions.  As it propagates in $z$, the NO molecules reach a terminal laboratory velocity, $u_{\\parallel}$, of about 1400 ${\\rm ms^{-1}}$, which varies with the precise seeding ratio.  \n\nThe distribution of $v_{\\parallel}$, narrows to define a local temperature, $T_{\\parallel}$, of approximately 0.5 K.  The beam forms a Gaussian spatial distribution in the transverse coordinates, $x$ and $y$.  In this plane, the local velocity, $v_{\\perp}(r)$ is defined for any radial distance almost entirely by the divergence velocity of the beam, $u_{\\perp}(r)$.  Phase-space sorting cools the temperature in the transverse coordinates, $T_{\\perp}$ to a value as low as $\\sim 5$ mK \\cite{MSW_tutorial}.  \n\nThe stagnation pressure and seeding ratio determine the local density distribution as a function of $z$.  For example, expanding from a stagnation pressure of 500 kPa with a 1:10 seeding ratio, a molecular beam propagates 2.5 cm to a skimmer and then 7.5 cm to a point of laser interaction, where it contains NO at a peak density of $1.6 \\times 10^{14}$ cm$^{-3}$.  \n\nHere, crossing the molecular beam with a laser beam tuned to the transition sequence, ${\\rm X} ~^2 \\Pi_{1/2} ~N'' = 1 \\xrightarrow{\\omega_1} {\\rm A} ~^2\\Sigma^+ ~N'=0  \\xrightarrow{\\omega_2} n_0 f(2)$ forms a Gaussian ellipsoidal volume of Rydberg gas in a single selected principal quantum number, $n_0$, orbital angular momentum, $\\ell = 3$, NO$^+$ core rotational quantum number, $N^+ = 2$ and total angular momentum neglecting spin, $N=1$.  \n\nA typical $\\omega_1$ pulse energy of 2 $\\mu$J and a Gaussian width of 0.2 mm serves to drive the first step of this sequence in a regime of linear absorption.  Overlapping this volume by an $\\omega_2$ pulse with sufficient fluence to saturate the second step forms a Rydberg gas ellipsoid with a nominal peak density of $5 \\times 10^{12}$ cm$^{-3}$  \\cite{Morrison2008,MSW_tutorial}.  Fluctuations in the pulse energy and longitudinal mode of $\\omega_1$ cause the real density to vary.  For certain experiments, we find it convenient to saturate the $\\omega_1$ transition, and vary the density of Rydberg gas by delaying $\\omega_2$.  An $\\omega_1$-$\\omega_2$ delay, $\\Delta t$, reduces the Rydberg gas density by a precise factor, $e^{-\\Delta t/\\tau}$, where $\\tau$ is the 200 ns radiative lifetime of NO ${\\rm A} ~^2\\Sigma^+ ~N'=0$ \\cite{Carter,Hancock}.\n\n\n\\subsection{Penning ionization}\n\nThe density distribution of a Rydberg gas defines a local mean nearest neighbour distance, or Wigner-Seitz radius of $ a_{ws} =  \\left(3/4 \\pi \\rho \\right)^{1/3} $, where $\\rho$ refers to the local Rydberg gas density.  For example, a Rydberg gas with a density of $ \\rho_0=0.5 \\times 10^{12}$ cm$^{-3} $ forms an Erlang distribution \\cite{Torquato.1990} of nearest neighbour separations with a mean value of $ 2 a_{ws}=1.6$  $\\mu$m.  \n\nA semi-classical model \\cite{Robicheaux05} suggests that 90 percent of Rydberg molecule pairs separated by a critical distance, $ r_c = 1.8 \\cdot 2 n_0^2 a_0 $ or less undergo Penning ionization within 800 Rydberg periods.  We can integrate the Erlang distribution from $ r=0 $ to the critical distance $r = r_c$ for a Rydberg gas of given $n_0$, to define the local density of Penning electrons ($ \\rho_e$ at $t=0$) produced by this prompt interaction, for any given initial local density, $\\rho_0$ by the expression:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\rho_e(\\rho_0,n_0) = \\frac{0.9}{2} \\cdot 4 \\pi \\rho_0 ^2\\int_0^{r_{c}} r^2 \\mathrm{e}^{-\\frac{4\\pi}{3}\\rho_0 r^3}\\mathrm{d}r \\quad.\n\\label{eqn:Erlang}\n\\end{equation}\n\nEvaluating this definite integral yields an equation in closed form that predicts the Penning electron density for any particular initial Rydberg density and principal quantum number.\n\\begin{equation}\n\\rho_e(\\rho_0,n_0) =\\frac{0.9 \\rho_0}{2}(1-\\mathrm{e}^{-\\frac{4\\pi}{3}\\rho_0 r_c^3}) \\quad.\n\\label{Eq:PenDens}\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[scale=0.33]{Penning_Latice.pdf}\n\\caption{Distributions of ion-ion nearest neighbours following Penning ionization and electron-impact avalanche simulated for a predissociating molecular Rydberg gas of initial principal quantum number, $n_0$, from 30 to 80, and density of 10$^{12}$ cm$^{-3}$.  Dashed lines mark corresponding values of $a_{ws}$. Calculated by counting ion distances after relaxation to plasma in 10$^6$-particle stochastic simulations. Integrated areas proportional to populations surviving neutral dissociation.}\n\\label{fig:PL}\n\\end{figure}\n\nPrompt Penning ionization acts on the portion of the initial nearest-neighbour distribution in the Rydberg gas that lies within $r_c$.  When a molecule ionizes, its collision partner relaxes to a lower principal quantum number, $n'<n_0/\\sqrt{2}$.  This close-coupled interaction disrupts the separability of Rydberg orbital configurations in the Penning partner.  This causes mixing with core penetrating states that are strongly dissociative.  Penning partners are thus very likely to dissociate, leaving a spatially isolated distribution of ions.  We refer to the spatial correlation that results as a Penning lattice \\cite{Sadeghi:2014}.  The extent of this effect varies depending on the local density and the selected initial principal quantum number.  Figure \\ref{fig:PL} shows the degree to which Rydberg gases with initial principal quantum numbers from 30 to 80 form a Penning lattice for an initial density of $1 \\times 10^{12} ~{\\rm cm}^{-3}$.  \n\n\\subsection{Spontaneous electron-impact avalanche}\n\nThe electrons produced by prompt Penning ionization start an electron impact avalanche.  The kinetics of this process are well described by a set of coupled rate equations that account for state-to-state electron-Rydberg inelastic scattering, electron-impact ionization and three-body ion-electron recombination \\cite{PPR,Saquet2011,Saquet2012,Scaling} using detailed rate coefficients,  $k_{ij}$, $k_{i,ion}$ and $k_{i,tbr}$ validated by MD simulations \\cite{PVS}.  \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n-\\frac{d\\rho_i}{dt}&=&\\sum_{j}{k_{ij}\\rho_e\\rho_i}-\\sum_{j}{k_{ji}\\rho_e\\rho_j} \\nonumber\\\\\n&& +k_{i,ion}\\rho_e\\rho_i-k_{i,tbr}\\rho^3_e \n  \\label{level_i}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent and,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{d\\rho_e}{dt}=\\sum_{i}{k_{i,ion}\\rho_e^2}-\\sum_{i}{k_{i,tbr}\\rho^3_e}\n  \\label{electron}\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe relaxation of Rydberg molecules balances with collisional ionization to determine an evolving temperature of avalanche electrons to conserve total energy per unit volume. \n\\begin{equation}\nE_{tot}=\\frac{3}{2}k_BT_e(t)\\rho_e(t)-R\\sum_i{\\frac{\\rho_i(t)}{n_i^2}},\n  \\label{energy}\n\\end{equation}\nHere, for simplicity, we neglect the longer-time effects of Rydberg predissociation and electron-ion dissociative recombination \\cite{Saquet2012}.\n\nSuch calculations show that the conversion from Rydberg gas to plasma occurs on a timescale determined largely by the local Penning electron density, or Penning fraction, $P_f = \\rho_e/\\rho_0$, which depends on the local density of Rydberg molecules and their initial principal quantum number.  \n\nAvalanche times predicted by coupled rate equation calculations range widely.  For example, in a model developed for experiments on xenon, simulations predict that a Rydberg gas with $n_0 = 42$ at a density of $8.8 \\times 10^8 ~{\\rm cm}^{-3}$ ($P_f = 6 \\times 10^{-5}$) avalanches with a half time of  40 $\\mu$s \\cite{Hung2014}.  At an opposite extreme, rate equations estimate that a Rydberg gas of NO with $n_0=60$ at a density of $1 \\times 10^{12} ~{\\rm cm}^{-3}$ ($P_f = 0.3$) rises to plasma in about 2 ns \\cite{Saquet2012}.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .49 \\textwidth]{SFI_n=49.pdf}\n   \\caption{Contour plots showing SFI signal as a function the applied field for an $nf(2)$ Rydberg gas with an initial principal quantum number, $n_0=49$.  Each frame represents 4,000 SFI traces, sorted by initial Rydberg gas density.  Ramp field beginning at 0 and 150 ns (top, left to right), and  300 and 450 ns (bottom) after the $\\omega_2$ laser pulse.  The two bars of signal most evident at early ramp field delay times represent the field ionization of the $49f(2)$ Rydberg state respectively to NO$^+$ X $^1\\Sigma^+$ cation rotational states, $N^+=0$ and 2.  The signal waveform extracted near zero applied field represents the growing population of plasma electrons.  \n   }\n\\label{fig:SFI}\n\\end{figure}\n\nSelective field ionization (SFI) probes the spectrum of binding energies in a Rydberg gas.  Applied as a function of time after photoexcitation, SFI maps the evolution from a state of selected initial principal quantum number, $n_0$, to plasma \\cite{Haenel2017}.  Figure \\ref{fig:SFI} shows SFI spectra taken at a sequence of delays after the formation of $49f(2)$ Rydberg gases of varying density.    \n\nHere, we can see that a $49f(2)$ Rydberg gas with an estimated initial density $\\rho_0 = 3 \\times 10^{11} ~{\\rm cm}^{-3}$ relaxes to plasma on a timescale of about 500 ns.  Observations such as these agree well with the predictions of coupled rate-equation calculations.  We can understand this variation in relaxation dynamics with $\\rho_0$ and $n_0$ quite simply in terms of the corresponding density of prompt Penning electrons these conditions afford to initiate the avalanche to plasma.  \n\nFigure \\ref{fig:scaled_rise} illustrates this, showing how rise times predicted by coupled rate-equation simulations for a large range of initial densities and principal quantum number match when plotted as a function of time scaled by the ultimate plasma frequency and fraction of prompt Penning electrons.  The dashed line gives an approximate account of the scaled rate of avalanche under all conditions of Rydberg gas density and initial principal quantum number in terms of the simple sigmoidal function:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{\\rho_e}{\\rho_0} = \\frac{a}{b+e^{-c\\tau}},\n  \\label{scaledEq1}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\tau = t \\omega_e P_f^{3/4},\n  \\label{scaledEq2}\n\\end{equation}\nin which $\\omega_e$ is the plasma frequency after avalanche, $P_f$ is the fraction of prompt Penning electrons, and $a = 0.00062$,  $b =   0.00082$ and $c =     0.075$ are empirical coefficients.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .4 \\textwidth]{sim_analytical_density.pdf}\n   \\caption{Rise in fractional electron density as a function of time scaled by the plasma frequency, $\\omega_e$ and fraction, $\\rho_e(t=0)/\\rho_0 = P_f$, of prompt Penning electrons.  Simulation results shown for $n_0 = 30$, 50 and 70 with initial densities, $\\rho_0 = 10^9,~10^{10},~10^{11},~{\\rm and}~10^{12}~{\\rm cm}^{-3}$.  \n   }\n\\label{fig:scaled_rise}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsection{Evolution to plasma in a Rydberg gas Gaussian ellipsoid}\n\nAs outlined above, the local density and principal quantum number together determine the rate at which a Rydberg gas avalanches to plasma.  Our experiment crosses a 2 mm wide cylindrically Gaussian molecular beam with a 1 mm diameter TEM$_{00}$ $\\omega_1$ laser beam to produce a Gaussian ellipsoidal distribution of molecules excited to the A $^2\\Sigma^+$ $v=0, ~N'=0$ intermediate state.  A larger diameter $\\omega_2$ pulse then drives a second step that forms a Rydberg gas in a single $n_0f(2)$ state with the spatial distribution of the intermediate state.  \n\nWe model this shaped Rydberg gas as a system of 100 concentric ellipsoidal shells of varying density \\cite{haenelCP}.  Coupled rate equations within each shell describe the avalanche to plasma.  This rate process proceeds from shell to shell with successively longer induction periods, determined by the local density as detailed above.  The rising conversion of Rydberg molecules to ions plus neutral dissociation products conserves the particle number in each shell.  We assume that local space charge confines electrons to shells, conserving quasi-neutrality.  Electrons exchange kinetic energy at the boundaries of each shell, which determines a single plasma electron temperature.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .5 \\textwidth]{shell_model_100}\n   \\caption{(top frame) Cross-sectional contour diagram in the $x,y$ plane for $z=0$ describing the distribution of ion plus electron density over 100 shells of Gaussian ellipsoid with initial dimensions, $\\sigma_x= 0.75$ mm and $\\sigma_y= \\sigma_z = 0.42$ mm and an initial $n_0 = 50$ Rydberg gas density, $\\rho_0 = 2 \\times 10^{11}$ cm$^{3}$ after an evolution time of 100 ns.  (bottom frame) Curves describing the (dashed) ascending ion and (solid) descending Rydberg gas densities of each shell as functions of evolution time, for $t=20$, 40, 60, 80 and 100 ns.  \n   }\n\\label{fig:shell}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe upper frame of Figure \\ref{fig:shell} shows contours of NO$^+$ ion density after 100 ns obtained from a shell-model coupled rate-equation simulation of the avalanche of a Gaussian ellipsoidal Rydberg gas of nitric oxide with a selected initial state, $50f(2)$ and a density of $2 \\times 10^{11}$ cm$^{-3}$.  Here, we simulate a relaxation that includes channels of predissociation at every Rydberg level and redistributes the energy released to electrons, which determines a uniform rising electron temperature for all shells.  \n\nFor comparison, the lower frame plots curves describing the ion density of each shell as a function of time from 20 to 100 ns, as determined by applying Eq \\ref{scaledEq1} for the local conditions of initial Rydberg gas density.  This numerical approximation contains no provision for predissociation.  Coupled rate-equation simulations for uniform volumes show that predissociation depresses yield to some degree, but has less effect on the avalanche kinetics \\cite{Saquet2012}.  Therefore, we can expect sets of numerically estimated shell densities, scaled to agree with the simulated ion density at the elapsed time of 100 ns to provide a reasonable account of the earlier NO$^+$ density profiles as a function of time.   \n\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .4 \\textwidth]{Shell_pop}\n   \\caption{Global population fractions of particles as they evolve in the avalanche of a shell-model ellipsoidal Rydberg gas with the initial principal quantum number and density distribution of Figure \\ref{fig:shell}\n   }\n\\label{fig:shell_yields}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor each time step, the difference, $\\rho_0 - \\rho_e$ defines the neutral population of each shell.  We assign a fraction of this population to surviving Rydberg molecules, such that the total population of NO$^*$ as a function of time agrees with the prediction of the shell-model simulation, as shown in Figure \\ref{fig:shell_yields}.  We consider the balance of this neutral population to reflect NO$^*$ molecules that have dissociated to form N($^4$S) $+$ O($^3$P).  Figure \\ref{fig:shell} plots these surviving Rydberg densities as a function of radial distance for each evolution time.  At the initial density of this simulation, note at each time step that a higher density of Rydberg molecules encloses the tail of the ion density distribution in $x$.   \n\n\\subsection{Plasma expansion and NO$^+$ - NO$^*$ charge exchange as an avenue of quench}\n\nWe regard the ions as initially stationary.  The release of electrons creates a radial electric potential gradient, which gives rise to a force, $-e\\nabla \\phi_{k,j}(t)$, that accelerates the ions in shell $j$ in direction $k$ according to \\cite{Sadeghi.2012}:\n\n\\begin{align}\n\\frac{-e}{m'}\\nabla \\phi_{k,j}(t) = & \\frac{\\partial u_{k,j}(t)}{\\partial t} \\notag  \\\\\n= & \\frac{k_BT_e(t)}{m'\\rho_j(t)} \\frac{\\rho_{j+1}(t) - \\rho_j(t)}{r_{k,j+1}(t) - r_{k,j}(t)},\n  \\label{dr_dt}\n\\end{align}\n\n\\noindent where $\\rho_j(t)$ represents the density of ions in shell $j$.  \n\nThe instantaneous velocity, $u_{k,j}(t)$ determines the change in the radial coordinates of each shell, $r_{k,j}(t)$, \n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{\\partial r_{k,j}(t)}{\\partial t}=u_{k,j}(t) = \\gamma_{k,j}(t) r_{k,j}(t),\n  \\label{dr_dt}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent which in turn determines shell volume and thus its density, $ \\rho_j(t)$.   \nThe electron temperature supplies the thermal energy that drives this ambipolar expansion.  Ions accelerate and $T_e$ falls according to: \n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{3k_B}{2}\\frac{\\partial T_e(t)}{\\partial t}= -\\frac{m'}{\\sum_{j}{N_j}}\\sum_{k,j}{N_j u_{k,j}(t)\\frac{\\partial u_{k,j}(t)}{\\partial t}},\n  \\label{dr_dt}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent where we define an effective ion mass, $m'$, that recognizes the redistribution of the electron expansion force over all the NO$^+$ charge centres by resonant ion-Rydberg charge exchange, which occurs with a very large cross section \\cite{PPR}.  \n\\begin{equation}\nm' =\\left (1+ \\frac{\\rho^*_{j}(t)}{ \\rho_j(t)}\\right) m ,\n  \\label{dr_dt}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent in which $\\rho^*_{j}(t)$ represents the instantaneous Rydberg density in shell $j$.\n\nThe initial avalanche in the high-density core of the ellipsoid leaves few Rydberg molecules, so this term has little initial effect.  Rydberg molecules predominate in the lower-density wings.  There, momentum sharing by charge exchange assumes a greater importance.  \n\nWe see this most directly in the $\\omega_2$ absorption spectrum of transitions to states in the $n_0 f(2)$ Rydberg series, detected as the long-lived signal that survives a flight time of 400 $\\mu$s to reach the imaging detector.  The balance between the rising density of ions and the falling density of Rydberg molecules depends on the initial density of electrons produced by prompt Penning ionization.  As clear from Eq \\ref{Eq:PenDens}, this Penning fraction depends sensitively on the principal quantum number, and for all principal quantum numbers, on the initial Rydberg gas density.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .4 \\textwidth]{w2_spectra}\n   \\caption{Double-resonant spectra of nitric oxide Rydberg states in the $nf$ series converging to NO$^+$ $v=0$, $N^+=2$ (designated, $nf(2)$), derived from the late-peak signal obtained after a flight time of 400 $\\mu$s by scanning $\\omega_2$ for $\\omega_1$ tuned to NO A $^2\\Sigma^+$ $v=0$, $N'=0$ for initial $nf(2)$ densities from top to bottom of 0.07, 0.10, 0.13, 0.19, 0.27, 0.30, 0.32 and $3 \\times 10^{12}$ cm$^{3}$.  \n  }\n\\label{fig:w2_spectra}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFigure \\ref{fig:w2_spectra} shows a series of $\\omega_2$ late-signal excitation spectra for a set of initial densities.  Here, we see a clear consequence of the higher-order dependence of Penning fraction - and thus the NO$^+$ ion - NO$^*$ Rydberg molecule balance - on $n_0$, the $\\omega_2$-selected Rydberg gas initial principal quantum number.  This Penning-regulated NO$^+$ ion - NO$^*$ Rydberg molecule balance appears necessary as a critical factor in achieving the long ultracold plasma lifetime required to produce this signal.  We are progressing in theoretical work that explains the stability apparently conferred by this balance.  \n\n\n\\subsection{Bifurcation and arrested relaxation}\n\nAmbipolar expansion quenches electron kinetic energy as the initially formed plasma expands.  Core ions follow electrons into the wings of the Rydberg gas.  There, recurring charge exchange between NO$^+$ ions and NO$^*$ Rydberg molecules redistributes the ambipolar force of the expanding electron gas, equalizing ion and Rydberg velocities.  This momentum matching effectively channels electron energy through ion motion into the overall $\\pm x$ motion of gas volumes in the laboratory.  The internal kinetic energy of the plasma, which at this point is defined almost entirely by the ion-Rydberg relative motion, falls.  Spatial correlation develops, and over a period of 500 ns, the system forms the plasma/high-Rydberg quasi-equilibrium dramatically evidenced by the SFI results in Figure \\ref{fig:SFI}.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width= .4 \\textwidth]{Bifurcation.pdf}\n   \\caption{$x,y$ detector images of ultracold plasma volumes produced by 2:1 aspect ratio ellipsoidal Rydberg gases with selected initial state, $40f(2)$ after a flight time of 402 $\\mu$s over a distance of 575 mm.  Lower frame displays the distribution in $x$ of the charge integrated in $y$ and $z$.  Both images represent the unadjusted raw signal acquired in each case after 250 shots.  \n   }\n\\label{fig:bifurcation}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn the wings, momentum redistribution owing to cycles of ion-Rydberg charge transfer retards radial expansion \\cite{Pohl2003,PPR}.  By redirecting electron energy from ambipolar acceleration to $\\pm x$ plasma motion, NO$^+$ to NO$^*$ charge exchange dissipates electron thermal energy.  This redistribution of energy released in the avalanche of the Rydberg gas to plasma, causes the ellipsoidal Rydberg gas to bifurcate \\cite{Schulz-Weiling2016,Haenel2017}, forming very long-lived, separating charged-particle distributions.  We capture the electron signal from these recoiling volumes on an imaging detector as pictured in Figure \\ref{fig:bifurcation}.  Here, momentum matching preserves density and enables ions and Rydberg molecules to relax to positions that minimize potential energy, building spatial correlation.  \n\nThe semi-classical description of avalanche and relaxation outlined above forms an important point of reference from which to interpret our experimental observations.  The laser crossed molecular beam illumination geometry creates a Rydberg gas with a distinctively shaped high-density spatial distribution.  This initial condition has an evident effect on the evolution dynamics.  We have developed semi-classical models that explicitly consider the coupled rate and hydrodynamic processes governing the evolution from Rydberg gas to plasma using a realistic, ellipsoidal representation of the ion/electron and Rydberg densities \\cite{haenelCP}.  No combination of initial conditions can produce a simulation that conforms classically with the state of arrested relaxation we observe experimentally. \n\n\n\\subsection{A molecular ultracold plasma state of arrested relaxation}\n\nThus, we find that spontaneous avalanche to plasma splits the core of an ellipsoidal Rydberg gas of nitric oxide. As ambipolar expansion quenches the electron temperature of this core plasma, long-range, resonant charge transfer from ballistic ions to frozen Rydberg molecules in the wings of the ellipsoid quenches the ion-Rydberg molecule relative velocity distribution. This sequence of steps gives rise to a remarkable mechanics of self-assembly, in which the kinetic energy of initially formed hot electrons and ions drives an observed separation of plasma volumes. These dynamics redistribute ion momentum, efficiently channeling electron energy into a reservoir of mass-transport. This starts a process that evidently anneals separating volumes to a state of cold, correlated ions, electrons and Rydberg molecules. \n\nWe have devised a three-dimensional spin model to describe this arrested state of the ultracold plasma in terms of two, three and four-level dipole-dipole energy transfer interactions (spin flip-flops), together with Ising interactions that arise from the concerted pairwise coupling of resonant pairs of dipoles \\cite{SousMBL,SousNJP}.  \n\nThe Hamiltonian includes the effects of onsite disorder owing to the broad spectrum of states populated in the ensemble and the unique electrostatic environment of every dipole.  Extending ideas developed for simpler systems \\cite{Burin1,Sondhi}, one can make a case for slow dynamics, including an arrest in the relaxation of NO Rydberg molecules to predissociating states of lower principal quantum number.\n\nSystems of higher dimension ought to thermalize by energy transfer that spreads from rare but inevitable ergodic volumes (Griffiths regions) \\cite{Sarang2, Roeck_griffith, RareRegions_rev, Thermal_inclusions}.  However, a feature in the self-assembly of the molecular ultracold plasma may preclude destabilization by rare thermal domains:  Whenever the quenched plasma develops a delocalizing Griffiths region, the local predissociation of relaxing NO molecules promptly proceeds to deplete that region to a void of no consequence.\n\nIn summary, the classical dynamics of avalanche and bifurcation appear to create a quenched condition of low temperature and high disorder in which dipole-dipole interactions drive self-assembly to a localized state purified by the predissociation of thermal regions.  We suggest that this state of the quenched ultracold plasma offers an experimental platform for studying quantum many-body physics of disordered systems. \\\\\n\n\\section{Acknowledgments}\nThis work was supported by the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research (Grant No. FA9550-17-1-0343), together with the Natural Sciences and Engineering research Council of Canada (NSERC), the Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI) and the British Columbia Knowledge Development Fund (BCKDF). \n\n", "answers": ["It is the ratio of the average unscreened electron-electron potential energy to kinetic energy."], "length": 5086, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "7f8fc6a04f8be9000b41098aa0f8d7fbfd42e2aa43bf7997"}
{"input": "What types of sensors are now capable of estimating physical activity levels and physiological outcomes of older adults?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\nCognitive deficit of older adults is one of the biggest global public health challenges in elderly care. Approximately 5.2 million people of 65 and older are suffered with any form of cognitive impairments in United States in 2012 \\cite{stat12}. Dementia is one of the major causes of the cognitive impairments which is more acute among 85 and older population (50\\%) \\cite{stat12}. However, the costs (financial and time) of health care and long-term care for individuals with Alzheimer's (special form of dementia) or other dementias are substantial. For example, during 2016, about 15.9 million family and friends in United States provided 18.2 billion hours of unpaid assistance to those with cognitive impairments which is a contribution to the nation valued at \\$230.1 billion. One the other hand, total payments for all individuals with all form of cognitive impairments are estimated at \\$259 billion. Total annual payments for health care, long-term care and hospice care for people with Alzheimer's or other dementias are projected to increase from \\$259 billion in 2017 to more than \\$1.1 trillion in 2050. Among the above costs, a significant amount are relevant to clinical and diagnostic tests \\cite{stat17}. Although clinical and diagnostic tests have become more precise in identifying dementia, studies have shown that there is a high degree of underrecognition especially in early detection. However, there are many advantages to obtaining an early and accurate diagnosis when cognitive symptoms are first noticed as the root cause findings of impairment always lessen the progress of impairment status and sometimes symptoms can be reversible and cured.\n\nWith the proliferation of emerging ubiquitous computing technologies, many mobile and wearable devices have been available to capture continuous functional and physiological behavior of older adults. Wearable sensors are now capable of estimating number of steps being taken, physical activity levels, sleep patterns and physiological outcomes (heart rate, skin conductance) of older adults \\cite{sano15}. Ambient sensors also help capture the movement patterns of objects and humans for activity and behavior recognition \\cite{dawadi14,dawadi15}. Researchers also proved the existence of correlations between cognitive impairment and everyday task performance \\cite{dawadi14, akl15,alam16} as well as physiological symptoms \\cite{alam16,sano15}. Although current studies showed some successes in IoT-assisted cognitive health assessment in different domains individually, there are several existing challenges in developing and validating a fully automated multi-modal assessment model.\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item \\emph{Real-time IoT System}: A real-time IoT system must include a continuous and fault tolerant data streaming capability among central hub, wearable sensors and ambient sensors regardless of network communication protocol (WiFi, Ethernet, Bluetooth etc.) which are not available in existing researches.\n\\item \\emph{Multi-modal Context Fusion}: Though several offline clinically validated cognitive health assessment tools exist \\cite{wai03, starling99, krapp07, yesavage82, zung71}, there is no universally accepted method for IoT-assisted automatic cognitive health assessment in smart home environment that can fuse multi-modal sensor contexts altogether. For example, some researchers showed ambient sensors based Activities of Daily Livigin (ADLs) sequence pattern can signify the cognitive health status of older adults \\cite{akl15, dawadi15}. Researchers also showed wearable Electrodermal Activity pattern analysis may carry the significance of cognitive status \\cite{sano15}. However, for validation of IoT based cognitive health assessment, self-reported surveys, clinical diagnosis and observation based tools are used individually by prior researchers \\cite{akl15, dawadi15, sano15, alam16}.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nRegarding aforementioned challenges for the automation of cognitive health assessment, \\emph{AutoCogniSys} considers (i) reproducibility of our model in any smart home system consists of ambient motion sensors, wearable accelerometer (ACC) sensors, wearable Electrodermal Activity (EDA) and Photoplethysmography (PPG) sensors individually or combined streams; (ii) context awareness based on ambient motion sensors and wearable ACC sensors in any types of activities such as hand gestural, postural and complex ADLs; and (iii) high accuracy, i.e., a recall rate of over 90\\% with less than 5\\% false positive rate. More specifically, \\emph{AutoCogniSys} extends our existing work \\cite{alam16} in three dimensions,\n\n\\emph{(1) True Automation:} We first investigate the correlations of cognitive impairment with human activities and stress where we manually labeled activities, extract the corresponding physiological sensor (EDA and PPG) features of each activity, and use statistical method to find correlations. Then, we propose automatic complex activity recognition based on a Hierarchical Dynamic Bayesian Network (HDBN) model, fine-grained extraction of physiological sensor features and finally machine learning classification of cognitive impairment.\n\n\\emph{(2) Noises Elimination:} We define different types of noises on ACC, EDA and PPG sensors, propose extensive signal processing techniques to remove noises and show significant improvement can be achieved in cognitive impairment classification.\n\n\\emph{(3) Implementation and Evaluation:} Finally, we design and implement IoT system and analytic methods and minimize the human involvement to automate our proposed cognitive health assessment approach by considering effective smart home sensor customization and deployment, data collection, screening, cleaning and filtering, feature computation, normalization and classification, and activity  model training.\n\n\\textbf{Research Questions:} \\emph{AutoCogniSys} consequently tackles the following key research questions.\n\n$\\bullet$ Can we detect simultaneously the periodic rhythms of  both hand gestures and postural activities from wrist-worn ACC sensor signal for diverse population (population with same activity but diverse ways such as walking with walker, stretcher or normally)? If so, how can we incorporate the hand gesture, posture and ambient sensor data streams to help improve the ADLs recognition models?\n\n$\\bullet$ How can we exploit and relate the micro-activity features into noise free physiological sensor signals processing to automate cognitive health assessment process? What are the critical roles of clinical survey and technology guided assessment methodologies and their inter-relationships for automating the different intermediate steps of cognitive health assessment process?\n\nTo tackle these, we make the following \\textbf{key contributions}:\n\n$\\bullet$ We employ an extensive signal deconvolution technique that in conjunction with machine learning technique helps facilitate a wrist-worn ACC-based multi-label (hand gestural and postural) activity recognition for diverse population. We then leverage multi-label context sets with ambient and object sensor signals for complex activity recognition based on HDBN model.\n\n$\\bullet$ We propose a novel collaborative filter for EDA signal processing by postulating signal as a mixture of three components: \\emph{tonic phase, phasic phase} and \\emph{motion artifacts}, and employ convex optimization technique for filtering out the motion artifacts. We also propose a novel PPG signal processing technique to filter out the inherent motion artifacts and noises using improved Periodic Moving Average Filtering (PMAF) technique.\n\n$\\bullet$  We design and prototype an IoT system consisting of multiple devices (wearable wrist band, IP camera, object and ambient sensors) connected with central hub via WiFi, Ethernet and Bluetooth communication protocols. We collected data from 22 older adults living in a continuing care retirement community center in a very natural setting (IRB \\#HP-00064387).\n\n$\\bullet$ Finally, we employ statistical and machine learning techniques to jointly correlate the activity performance metrics and stress (EDA and PPG) features that helps achieve max. 93\\% of cognitive impairment status detection accuracy. We evaluate \\emph{AutoCogniSys} on 5 clinically validated offline assessment tools as ground truth.\n\\section{Related Works}\n\\emph{AutoCogniSys} builds on previous works on wearable devices based low-level (postural and hand gestural) activity recognition and their integration with ambient sensors to recognize complex ADLs, the underlying signal processing and applications on cognitive health assessment automation.\n\\subsection{Wearable Sensor Signal Processing}\nWearable sensors can be two types: physical and physiological. Physical sensors (accelerometer, gyroscope etc.) signal values change over the movements of the sensor devices. Physiological sensors change over physiological condition of body such as EDA changes over stress and PPG changes over heart rate. However, physical movements also impose noises on physiological sensor signals which is called \\emph{motion artifacts}.\n\\subsubsection{Physiological Signal Processing}\nA continuous and descrete decomposition of EDA, and time and frequency domain analytics of PPG signal have been investigated before to extract relevant physiological features which were contaminated with noises and motion artifacts \\cite{alam16}. \\cite{setz10} denoised and classified EDA from cognitive load and stress with accuracy higher than 80\\%. Though motion artifacts removal techniques such as exponential smoothing \\cite{hern11} and low-pass filters \\cite{poh10, hernandez14} provide significant improvement in filtering EDA signals, wavelet transforms offer more sophisticated refinement for any kind of physiological sensors such as electroencephalogram \\cite{krish06, zikov02}, electrocardiogram \\cite{erc06,alfa08}, and PPG \\cite{lee03}. \\cite{chen15} proposed a stationary wavelet transform (SWT) based motion artifacts removal technique. `cvxEDA' proposed  a convex optimization technique considering EDA as a mixture of white gaussian noise, tonic and phasic components where white gaussian noise includes motion artifacts and external noises \\cite{greco16}. \\emph{AutoCogniSys} intelligently combines SWT and `cvxEDA' together to remove noises and motion artifacts from EDA signal. On the other hand, it is more difficult to remove motion artifacts from PPG signal due to its periodicity of nature \\cite{wang13}. Researchers proposed different methods such as frequency analytics \\cite{garde13,wang13}, statistical analytics \\cite{peng14} and digital filter \\cite{lee10} to reduce noises and motion artifacts from PPG. \\emph{AutoCogniSys} used Periodic Moving Average Filter (PMAF) in this regard \\cite{lee07}.\n\\subsubsection{Physical Sensor Signal Processing}\nACC based hand gesture recognition has been explored by several researchers in past such as discrete hidden markov model \\cite{liu10}, artificial neural network \\cite{arce11}, weighted naive bayes and dynamic time warping \\cite{mace13}. Akl et. al. proposed 18 gesture dictionary based Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier \\cite{akl11}. Wrist-worn ACC based postural activity recognition approach has been proposed using Decision Tree, Random Forest, Support Vector Machines, K-Nearest Neighbors, Naive Bayes and deep neural networks \\cite{gj14, wang16}, the accuracy stagnates at 85\\% using SVM method \\cite{martin16}. However, neither of past works proposed any technique that can provide single body worn ACC sensor-based multiple body contexts recognition nor works efficiently for diverse posture say walking normally, with walker, with double walker or wheel chair. Our proposed 8-hand gesture recognition technique assisted sparse-deconvolution method improves classification performances on both normal and diverse postures. However, we incorporated hand gestures and postures in conjunction with ambient sensors into single-inhabitant HDBN model \\cite{alam16b} that provides significant improvement in complex activity recognition.\n\\subsection{Cognitive Health Assessment}\nSmart home environment has been used for providing automated health monitoring and assessment in the ageing population before \\cite{dawadi14, gong15, akl15, dawadi15}. `SmartFABER' proposed a non-intrusive sensor network based continuous smart home environmental sensor data acquisition and a novel hybrid statistical and knowledge-based technique to analyz the data to estimate behavioral anomalies for early detection of mild-cognitively impairment \\cite{riboni16}. \\cite{skubic15} presented an example of unobtrusive, continuous monitoring system for the purpose of assessing early health changes to alert caregivers about the potential signs of health hazards. Though, prior researches proposed a sequence of ambient motion sensor streams as complex activity components in activity based health assessment \\cite{dawadi14, gong15, akl15, dawadi15}, we consider inclusion of an wearable wrist-band with in-built ACC sensor to detect hand gesture and posture, augmenting with the ambient sensor readings to help recognize complex activities as well as cognitive health assessment of older adults. Additionally, we propose intelligent use of physiological features of skin through different physiological sensor signals (EDA, PPG) processing in daily activity tasks and incorporate context-awareness for automation of cognitive health assessment that have not been explored before.\n\\begin{figure}[!htb]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=flowchart.pdf,height=1.6in, width=3.5in}\n\\caption{Overall flow of \\emph{AutoCogniSys} pipeline.}\n   \\label{fig:overview}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\section{Overall Architecture}\nWe first investigate existing IoT-based cognitive health care frameworks that covers every aspects of wearable (physical, physiological) and ambient (passive infrared and object) sensor signals computing. \\emph{AutoCogniSys} is comprised of three component modules: (i)~sensing, (ii)~processing, and (iii)~analysis. The `sensing' module consists of clinical assessment tools (surveys, observation and clinical backgrounds) and sensing signals (ambient and wearable sensors). `Sensor processing' module is comprised of three sub-modules: a)~clinical assessment feature extraction from assessment tools; b)~ambient sensor feature extraction; and c)~wearable sensor processing (noise removal, segmentation, feature extraction, classification etc.). `Analysis' module is comprised of machine learning and statistical analytics-based score prediction of cognitive impairment. Automation of each module's functionality and inter-intra modular transactions without human interference can be called {\\it true automation} of cognitive health assessment. Fig.~\\ref{fig:overview} shows the overall flow of \\emph{AutoCogniSys} which is discussed in details in the following sections.\n\\subsection{Demographic Ground Truth Data Collection}\nCurrently in standard clinical practice and research, the most accurate evaluations of cognitive health assessment are one-to-one observation and supervision tasks/questionnaires for monitoring an individual's functional abilities and behavior \\cite{resnick15}. In the first stage of this pilot study, we have investigated current literatures and carefully chosen the clinically proven functional and behavioral health assessment survey tools \\cite{resnick15}. On the other hand, to cross check with the survey based evaluations, we have also chosen clinically justified observation based behavioral assessment methods. First, following the resident consent, our clinical research evaluator collects demographic and descriptive data (age, gender, race, ethnicity, marital status, education and medical commodities). She has performed two types of clinical assessments: (1) \\emph{Observation based} where the resident's cognition is assessed using the Saint Louis University Mental Status (SLUMS) scale \\cite{wai03}. (2) \\emph{Survey based} where five widely used and clinically well validated surveys are taken into account: (a) \\emph{Yale Physical Activity Survey} \\cite{starling99}; (b) \\emph{Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living}; (c) \\emph{Barthel Index of Activities of Daily Living} \\cite{krapp07}; (d) \\emph{Geriatric Depression Rating scale} \\cite{yesavage82}; and (e) \\emph{Zung Self-Rating Anxiety scale} \\cite{zung71}.\n\\subsection{Smart Environment Creation}\nFor an ideal IoT-based system, instrumenting and deploying it at each participant's natural living environment warrants for assembling a flexible set of hardware and software interfaces to ease the system configuration, setup, and network discovery processes. The sensor system placed in the residences of volunteers needs to meet several specific physiological signals and activity monitoring needs. However, we must confirm that the devices are reliable with potential for re-deployment as well as appear unintimidating to the participants. Inspired by the above requirements, we developed a real testbed IoT system, {\\it SenseBox}, by customizing Cloud Engine PogoPlug Mobile base station firmware to integrate with WiFi (connect ambient and object sensors) and Bluetooth (connect wristband) protocol. The smart home components are as follows: (i) PogoPlug base server with a continuous power supply, (ii) 3 binary Passive Infrared sensors in three different rooms (kitchen, livingroom and bedroom) to capture room level occupancy, (iii) 7 binary object sensors attached with closet door, entry door, telephone, broom, laundry basket, trash can and trash box, (iv) three IP cameras in the appropriate positions to collect the ground truth data and (v) an Empatica E4 \\cite{empatica} wrist-band (integrated sensors: PPG at 64 Hz, EDA at 4 Hz, Body temperature at 1 Hz and a triaxial ACC at 32 Hz) on the participant's dominating hand.\n\\section{Activity Recognition}\nWe aim to detect single wrist-worn ACC sensor based hand gesture and postural activities and insert these into an HDBN graphical model in conjunction with ambient and object sensor values for complex activity recognition. We consider the recognition problem asan activity tupple of $\\langle gesture,posture,ambient,object \\rangle$. Though, Alam et. al. provides significant performance improvement for single wrist-worn ACC sensor aided 18-hand gesture based postural activity recognition in lab environment \\cite{alam17}, it faces some practical challenges in real-time smart environment with older adults due to the diversity of their postures. For example, some older adults use walker, double walking sticks or wheel chair for walking in which cases collecting 18 hand gestures and corresponding postural activities for training requires endless efforts and carefulness. To reduce the complexity of ground truth labeling and later state space explosion for graphical model (HDBN), we propose to use rotational normalization method that can merge some hand-gestures subject to directional differences and forms an 8-hand gesture model. However, our proposed Feature Weight Naive Bayes (FWNB) classifier adds significant improvement on Alam et. al. proposed sparse-deconvolution method as well as recognition in diverse postural environment.\n\\begin{figure}[!htb]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=hand_gestures.pdf,height=0.5in, width=3in}\n   \\vspace{-.2in}\n\\caption{8 hand gesture dictionary with direction}\n   \\label{fig:hand_gestures}\n   \\vspace{-.2in}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\subsection{Hand Gesture Recognition}\n\\label{sec:hand_gesture}\n\\emph{AutoCogniSys} proposes an 8-gesture dictionary (as shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:hand_gestures}) and a Feature Weighted Naive Bayesian (FWNB) framework for building, modeling and recognizing hand gestures. The method comprises of the following steps: (i) \\emph{Preprocessing:} wrist-worn ACC sensor provided 3-axis data are passed through 0.4Hz low-pass filter to remove the data drift. (ii) \\emph{Rotation normalization:} Normalizing the rotation of hand gestures provides greater accuracy and allows for more realistic, orientation-independent motion. At first, we find the best fit plane of the acceleration vectors thus if the motion lies in a single plane, then the acceleration vectors of a closed shape should on average lie in that main plane. Then, we take all acceleration segments between points of inflection to form one single vector called reference vector that provides us the general direction of user's motion. After that, each vector is normalized relative to the reference vector. This normalization helps remove a lot of hand gestures from prior considered 18 hand gestures resulting a reduced dictionary of 8 gestures. (iii) \\emph{Feature Weighted Naive Bayesian model:} Naive Bayes classifier is light-weight and efficient technique for hand gesture recognition. We extract 12 ACC features \\cite{alam17} and calculate weight for each feature type based on the similarity of feature measures of the trained gestures (0$<$weight$<$1). While recognizing gestures, the proximity of each feature measure to the average trained feature measure of each gesture type is calculated by a normal distribution. Then, the proximity value is multiplied by the feature weight that was calculated in the training phase.  All of these multiplied values are added together and the system predicts the gesture type with the greatest value as the user gesture. In the learning data points, there should be static postural activities (such as sitting, lying etc.) to avoid unexpected noises over wrist-worn ACC sensors. In the final hand gesture dictionary, we save the reference vector as our signal dictionary.\n\\subsection{Postural Activity Recognition}\nIn normal lab environment, wrist-worn ACC sensor signal is a mixture (convolution) of actual hand gesture and postural activity relevant signals \\cite{alam17}. \\emph{AutoCogniSys} improves the idea by reducing the number of hand gestures and postural activities to 8 (as shown in Fig.\\ref{fig:hand_gestures}) using rotation normalization and 4 (walking, sitting, standing and lying). Then, we use sparse-deconvolution method (with 31\\% signal reconstruction error) to get Approximately Sparse Factor. The summary of the entire process is stated bellow:\n\n{\\it Building Deconvolution Method:} We first consider the wrist-worn ACC sensor signals (3-axis values) as a convolution of hand gesture and postural activity effects and build a deconvolution framework. The deconvolution framework takes a known signal (hand gesture effects) and a equalizer parameter ($\\lambda$) as input and provides an Approximately Sparse Factor signal (postural activity effects) as output. For 3-axis ACC signals, we need to learn associated 3 equalizer parameters for each hand gesture. Moreover, each equalizer parameter is involved with 4 postural activities that results a total 96 ($8\\times 3\\times 4$) equalizer parameters to learn. \n\n{\\it Learning Classification Model:} We use the Approximately Sparse Factor signal to extract 12 statistical features and SVM with sequential machine optimization (SMO) \\cite{cao06} for postural activity recognition.\n\n{\\it Prediction Model:} After recognizing the hand gestures following the method explained in Sec.~\\ref{sec:hand_gesture}, we take the corresponding reference vector as known signal and extract the Approximately Sparse Factor signals incorporating corresponding 3 equalizer parameters ($\\lambda$) for the sparse-deconvolution method. Then, we apply feature extraction and prior learned SMO based SVM classifier \\cite{cao06} to classify final postural activity. Fig.~\\ref{fig:deconvolution} illustrates a single axis example of the deconvolution.\n\n\\begin{figure}[!htb]\n\\begin{center}\n\n   \\epsfig{file=deconvolution.pdf,height=1.6in, width=3in}\n   \\vspace{-.15in}\n\\caption{Sample deconvolution example of X-axis. The raw x-axis of accelerometer signal, reference vector of the sample gesture and the extracted corresponding ASF signal of walking.}\n   \\label{fig:deconvolution}\n\\end{center}\n\\vspace{-.15in}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Complex Activity Recognition}\nWe build a HDBN based complex activity recognition framework for single inhabitant scenario smart home environment \\cite{alam16b} taking the advantage of detected hand gestural and postural activities along with the ambient and object sensor streams. At first, we obtain instant hand gestural and postural activities from our above proposed models, and additionally motion sensor and object sensor readings from our IoT-system for every time instant generating a 4-hierarchy of HDBN model. Considering the context set $\\langle gestural, postural, ambient,object\\rangle$ as a hierarchical activity structure (extending two 2-hierarchical HDBN \\cite{alam16b}), we build complex activity recognition model for single inhabitant scenario. Finally, we infer the most-likely sequence of complex activities (and their time boundaries), utilizing the well-known Expectation Maximization (EM) algorithm \\cite{dempster77} for training and the Viterbi algorithm \\cite{forney73} for run-time inference.\n\\section{Automatic Activity Features Estimation}\nThe effects of cognitive ability on daily activity performance have been studied before \\cite{dawadi14,akl15}. They experimentally and clinically validated that cognitive impairment highly reduces the daily activity performances and this activity performance can be computed as an indicator of cognitive ability status of older adults. The standard activity features refer to completeness of task (TC), sequential task ability (SEQ), interruption avoidance capabilities (INT) etc. In current behavioral science literature, the above activity features carry specific definition based on the sub-tasks involved with a complex activity \\cite{dawadi14,akl15}. Completeness of task refers to how many sub-tasks are missed by the participants. Sequential task ability refers to how many sequences of sub-tasks are missed referring the gerontologist defined standard sequences of the sub-task for the particular complex activity. Interruption avoidance capability refers to how many times the participants stop or interleave while doing any sub-task. The final goal of activity features estimation is to provide overall task score. The task score is proportional to the functional ability of participants in performance daily activities. Our behavioral scientist team, comprises with Nursing professor, gerontologist and retirement community caregivers, carefully discus, optimize and choose 87 sub-tasks in total for 13 complex activities.\n\nEach of the sub-task comprises with sequential occurrences of hand gesture and postural activities. However, no researchers ever considered hand gesture for activity features estimation due to complexity of multi-modal wearable and ambient sensors synchronization and multi-label activity classification \\cite{dawadi14,akl15}. \\emph{AutoCogniSys} exploited single wrist-worn sensor based hand gesture and postural activity recognition, and proposed an activity features (TC, SEQ and INT) estimation method including these two parameters in conjunction with object and ambient sensor features that provide significant improvement of cognitive health assessment of older adults.\n\\subsection{Machine Learning Based Complex Activity Features Estimation}\nIn current cognitive health assessment literature, complex activity features can be defined as $\\langle TC,SEQ,INT,TS\\rangle$. We used supervised method to estimate TC, SEQ and INT, and unsupervised method to estimate TS. We first, formulate the automated scoring as a supervised  machine learning problem in which machine learning algorithms learn a function that maps $\\langle${\\it hand gesture, posture, object, ambient sensor}$\\rangle$ feature set to the direct observation scores. We use bagging ensemble method to learn the mapping function and SMO based SVM \\cite{cao06} as base classifier. The learner averages by boostrapping individual numeric predictions to combine the base classifier predictions and generates an output for each data point that corresponds to the highest-probability label. We train three classifiers considering observation as ground truth for TC, SEQ and INT scores and test on the testing dataset. We derive unsupervised scores using dimensionality reduction technique for each feature set. First, we take all features of each activity, apply optimal discriminant analysis technique as a dimensionality reduction process \\cite{zhang09} and reduce the feature sets into single dimensional value which represents the automated task completeness scores of the particular user activity. A min-max normalization is applied that provides us a uniform range of the variables using $\nz_i=\\frac{x_i-min(x)}{max(x)-min(x)}$ equation where $x=\\{x1,\\ldots,x_n\\}$ and $z_i$ is $i^{th}$ normalized data. The final single dimensional score represents machine learning based TS score.\n\\section{Physiological Sensor Signals Processing}\nThe autonomic nervous system (ANS) restrains the body's physiological activities including the heart rate, skin gland secretion, blood pressure, and respiration. The ANS is divided into sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) branches. While SNS actuates the body's resources for action under arousal conditions, PNS attenuates the body to help regain the steady state. Mental arousal (say stress, anxiety etc.) activates the sweat gland causing the increment and reduction of  Skin Conductance on SNS and PNS physiological conditions respectively. However, Instant Heart Rate also has similar effect on SNS and PNS physiological condtions i.e., a higher value of heart rate is the effect of SNS and lower value is the outcome of PNS. EDA and PPG sensors are widely used to estimate the instant value of skin conductance and heart rate respectively \\cite{alam16}.\n\\subsection{EDA Sensor Signal Processing}\nEDA is the property of the human body that causes continuous variation in the electrical characteristics of the skin which varies with the state of sweat glands in the skin. There are three types of arousal: \\emph{cognitive, affective and physical}. \\emph{Cognitive} arousal occurs when a person tries to solve any problem using her cognitive ability. \\emph{Affective} arousal occurs when a person is worried, frightened or angry either doing daily activities or in resting position. On the other hand, \\emph{physical} arousal is related to the brain command to move bodily parts which is imposed on the total arousal as an artifact, called \\emph{motion artifact}. However, there are always some noises due to the weather conditions (temperature, humidity etc.) and device motion. This \\emph{motion artifact} can be the prime cause of signal contamination of physiological outcomes while performing daily activities which must be removed. \\emph{AutoCogniSys} proposes an EDA sensor signal processing method consists of three steps: (i) noise and motion artifacts removal, (ii) separation of tonic component and phasic component (explained later) from contamination free EDA signal and (iii) feature extraction on the response window.\n\\subsubsection{Motion Artifacts Removal}\nThere are many types of motion artifacts but the unsual steep rise is the mostly occured ones associated with EDA signal while performing daily activities \\cite{edel67}. We use well-known steep rising noises reduction technique, SWT \\cite{chen15}. We first consider EDA signal as a mixture of a slow variant tonic and fast variant phasic component, i.e., SWT coefficient is modeled as a mixture of two Gaussian components, phasic (close to zero valued signal) and tonic (high rising signal). After expanding EDA signal into multiple levels of scaling and wavelet coefficients, we choose adaptively a threshold limit at each level based on the statistical estimation of the wavelet coefficients' distribution, and employ that on the wavelet coefficients of all levels. Finally, an inverse wavelet transform technique is applied to the thresholded wavelet coefficients to obtain the artifacts free EDA signal. Fig~.\\ref{fig:eda_artifact_removal} shows a sample of raw and motion artifacts free EDA signal.\n\n\\begin{figure}[!htb]\n\\begin{center}\n\\vspace{-.1in}\n   \\epsfig{file=eda_signal_artifact.pdf,height=1.6in, width=3.5in}\n\\caption{Dashed line represents noisy EDA signal and solid red line represents \\emph{AutoCogniSys} proposed motion artifact free EDA signal}\n   \\label{fig:eda_artifact_removal}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\subsubsection{Convex Optimization Technique to EDA Deconvolution}\nAfter the motion artifact removal, we consider EDA as the sum of three components for $N$ sample: a slow tonic driver ($t$), fast (compact, bursty) non-negative sparse phasic driver ($r$) and a reminder error term ($\\epsilon_r$).\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:eda_signal}\ny = t + r + \\epsilon_r\n\\end{equation}\nThis additive error $\\epsilon_r$ is a White Gaussian Noise. The central problem associated with the deconvolution method is to get tonic $t$ component from the above equation. \\cite{greco16} showed that EDA signal deconvolution (separation of tonic, phasic and noise terms from EDA signal) is a quadratic optimization problem and defined tonic component as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:tonic}\nt = Bl + Cd,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $B$ is a tall matrix whose columns are cubic $B$-spline basis functions, $l$ is the vector of spline coefficients, $C$ is a $N\\times 2$ matrix, $d$ is a $2\\times 1$ vector with the offset and slope coefficients for the linear trend. The above equation is subject to the following optimization problem,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nminimize \\frac{1}{2} {||Mq + Bl + Cd- y||}^2_2 +\\alpha {||Aq||}_1 + \\frac{\\lambda}{2} {||l||}^2_2\\\\\nsubject\\;to\\; Aq \\geq 0\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $M$ and $A$ are tridiagonal matrices and $q$ is an auxiliary variable. After solving the above equation, we can get the optimal values for $\\{q,l,d\\}$ that can be used to obtain tonic component from the equation~\\ref{eq:tonic}. The reminder of the equation~\\ref{eq:eda_signal} ($r+\\epsilon_r$) is considered as a mixture of White Gaussian Noise ($\\epsilon_r$) and a fast variant phasic component ($r$). We employ butterworth low-pass filter (5Hz) and hanning smoothing with window size 4 (optimal) to remove $\\epsilon_r$ from phasic component ($r$).\n\\subsection{PPG Signal Processing}\nPPG is used mainly for measuring the oxygen saturation in the blood and blood volume changes in skin. An ideal PPG signal processing must contain the following steps: noise and motion artifacts removal, heart rate detection, heart rate variability estimation and feature extraction.\n\\subsubsection{PPG Signal Noise and Motion Artifacts Removal}\nSimilar to EDA signal, PPG signal is also contaminated with motion artifacts and noises. However, unlike EDA signal, PPG produce quasiperiodicity in a time series spectrum \\cite{mete30}. We use Periodic Moving Average Filter (PMAF) to remove motion artifacts and noises \\cite{lee07}. We first segment the PPG signal on periodic boundaries and then average the $m^{th}$ samples of each period. After filtering the input PPG signal with a 5-Hz $8^{th}$-order Butterworth low-pass filter, we estimate the maximum and minimum value of each period. The mean of each period are obtained from the maximum and minimum values applying the zero crossing method. These points of the means help determine the boundaries of each period. Then, interpolation or decimation is performed to ensure that each period had the same number of samples \\cite{lee07}. \n\\subsubsection{Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability Estimation}\nWe first apply PMAF on PPG signal to remove noises and motion artifacts, refine PPG by smoothing the signal using 1-dimensional Gaussian Filter and Convolution, calculate first derivative of the convoluted signal and finally find the differences between two consecutive peak values which is called HRV \\cite{sel08}. The occurrences of total peak values (R-peak or beat) in each minute is called Heart Rate (HR) with an unit of Beat Per Minute. The signal value property of HRV and HR are inversely proportional which means the mental arousal that increases HR should decrease HRV in the time segment window. Fig~\\ref{fig:ppg_artifact_removal} shows a sample of the noisy and filtered PPG signal and their corresponding Instant Heart Rate.\n\\begin{figure}[!htb]\n\\vspace{-.1in}\n\\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=ppg_artifact_removal.pdf,height=1.4in, width=3.5in}\n   \\vspace{-.15in}\n\\caption{Top figure illustrates the noisy signal (dotted line) and filtered signal from PPG sensor based on our filtering method. Bottom figure illustrates instant heart rate calculated from noisy signal (dotted line) and filtered signal}\n   \\label{fig:ppg_artifact_removal}\n\\end{center}\n\\vspace{-.15in}\n\\end{figure}\n\\subsection{Physiological Sensor Signal Feature Extraction}\nUsing the above mentioned methods, we removed the noises and motion artifacts from EDA and PPG signals and generated two time series signal from EDA (tonic and phasic components) and one time series signal from PPG (HRV). Then, we segment each of the time series signal based on our prior detected complex activities such that each response window starts and ends with the starting and ending points of each complex activity. We extract 7 statistical time-series features for EDA (as shown in Table~\\ref{tab:eda_features}) and 8 features for HRV (Table~\\ref{tab:hrv_features}) within the response window).\n\n\\begin{table}[!t]\n\\begin{center}\n\n\\renewcommand{\\arraystretch}{1}\n\\caption{EDA Features Within The Response Window}\n\\begin{scriptsize}\n\n\n\\label{tab:eda_features}\n\\begin{tabular}{|c|l|}\n\\hline\n\\bfseries Features& \\bfseries Description\\\\\n\\hline\nnSCR & Number of SCRs within response window (wrw)\\\\\n\\hline\nLatency & Response latency of first significant SCR wrw\\\\\n\\hline\nAmpSum & Sum of SCR-amplitudes of significant SCRs wrw\\\\\n\\hline\nSCR & Average phasic driver wrw\\\\\n\\hline\nISCR & Area (i.e. time integral) of phasic driver wrw\\\\\n\\hline\nPhasicMax & Maximum value of phasic activity wrw\\\\\n\\hline\nTonic & Mean tonic activity wrw\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{scriptsize}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\n\\begin{table}[!t]\n  \\begin{center}\n\\renewcommand{\\arraystretch}{1}\n\\vspace{-.3in}\n\\caption{Heart Rate Variability features}\n\\label{tab:hrv_features}\n\\begin{scriptsize}\n\\begin{tabular}{|c|l|}\n\n\\hline\n\\bfseries Feature& \\bfseries Description\\\\\n\\hline\n$\\overline{RR}$&Mean RR intervals\\\\\n\\hline\nSDNN&Standard deviation of RR intervals\\\\\n\\hline\nSDSD&Std of successive RR interval differences\\\\\n\\hline\nRMSSD&Root mean square of successive differences\\\\\n\\hline\nNN50&\\#successive intervals differing more than 50 ms\\\\\n\\hline\npNN50&relative amount of NN50\\\\\n\\hline\nHRVTI&Total number of RR intervals/height of the histogram\\\\\n\\hline\nTINN&Width of RR histogram through triangular interpolation\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{scriptsize}\n  \\end{center}\n\\end{table}\n\\section{Experimental Evaluation}\nIn this section, we explain our data collection, available benchmark dataset, baseline methods and evaluation.\n\\subsection{Datasets and Baseline Methods}\nWe validate and compare \\emph{AutoCogniSys} with baseline methods on both publicly available and our collected datasets.\n\\subsubsection{RCC Dataset: Collection and Ground Truth Annotation}\nFor collecting Retirement Community Center Dataset (RCC Dataset), we recruited 22 participants (19 females and 3 males) with age range from 77-93 (mean 85.5, std 3.92) in a continuing care retirement community with the appropriate institutional IRB approval and signed consent. The gender diversity in the recruited participants reflects the gender distribution (85\\% female and 15\\% male) in the retirement community facility. A trained gerontology graduate student evaluator completes surveys with participants to fill out the surveys. Participants are given a wrist band to wear on their dominant hand, and concurrently another trained IT graduate student have the IoT system setup in participants' own living environment (setup time 15-30 minutes). The participants are instructed to perform 13 \\emph{complex ADLs}. Another project member remotely monitors the sensor readings, videos and system failure status. The entire session lasts from 2-4 hours of time depending on participants' physical and cognitive ability.\n\nWe follow the standard protocol to annotate demographics and activities mentioned in the IRB. Two graduate students are engaged to annotate activities (postural, gestural and complex activity) whereas the observed activity performances are computed by the evaluator. Two more graduate students are engaged to validate the annotations on the videos. In overall, we are able to annotate 13 complex activities (total 291 samples) labeling for each participant; 8 hand gestures (total 43561 samples) and 4 postural activities (total 43561 samples) labeling. Annotation of postural and complex activities outcomes no difficulties from recorded videos. However, annotation of hand-gestures is extremely difficult in our scenario. We used video based hand tracker that can track and sketch wrist movements from a video episode \\cite{hugo14}. This sketching can help us significantly to identify which particular hand gesture is being performed in the time segment.\n\\subsubsection{EES Datasets: EDA and PPG Sensor Datasets}\nWe used Eight-Emotion Sentics (EES) dataset to validate \\emph{AutoCogniSys} proposed physiological signal processing approaches \\cite{picard01}. The dataset consists of measurements of four physiological signals (PPG/Blood Volume Pulse, electromyogram, respiration and Skin Conductance/EDA) and eight affective states (neutral, anger, hate, grief, love, romantic love, joy, and reverence). The study was taken once a day in a session lasting around 25 minutes for 20 days of recordings from an individual participant. We consider only PPG and EDA for all of the affective states in our study.\n\\subsubsection{Baseline Methods}\nThough no frameworks ever combined all modalities together into real-time automated cognitive health assessment, we evaluate \\emph{AutoCogniSys} performance by comparing the performances of its components individually with upto date relevant works. For hand gesture and postural activity recognition, we consider \\cite{alam17} proposed method as baseline. For complex activity recognition, we compare our hand gesture and postural activity classifiers aided HDBN model with three-level Dynamic Bayesian Network \\cite{zhu12} framework. For activity performance estimation, activity performance based cognitive health assessment; and EDA and PPG based cognitive health assessment, we have considered \\cite{alam16} proposed method as baseline.\n\\subsection{Activity Recognition Evaluation}\nThe standard definition for \\emph{accuracy} in any classification problem is $\\frac{TP+TN}{TP+TN+FP+FN}$ where $TP,TN,FP$ and $FN$ are defined as true positive, true negative, false positive and false negative. For complex activity recognition evaluation, we additionally consider \\emph{start/end duration error} as performance metric that can be explained as follows: consider that the true duration of ``cooking'' is 30 minutes (10:05 AM - 10:35 AM) and our algorithm predicts 29 minutes (10.10 - to 10.39 AM). Then, the start/end duration error is 9 minutes ($|$5 minutes delayed start$|$ + $|$4 minutes hastened end$|$), in an overall error of e.g., 30\\% (9/30=0.3). We measure cross-participant accuracy using leave-two-participants-out method for performance metrics, i.e., we take out two of the participants' data points from the entire dataset, train our proposed classification models, test the model accuracy on the two left-out participants relevant data points, and continue the process for entire dataset.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[!htb]\n\\begin{minipage}{0.45\\textwidth}\n\\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=hand_gesture_accuracy.pdf,height=1.6in, width=3in}\n\\caption{Feature Weighted Naive Bayes (FWNB) classification accuracy comparisons with baseline approaches (graphical signatures of all hand gestures are shown).}\n   \\label{fig:hand_gesture_accuracy}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\begin{minipage}{0.29\\textwidth}\n\\begin{center}\n\\vspace{-.12in}\n   \\epsfig{file=posture_accuracy_normal.pdf,height=1.6in, width=2.1in}\n\\caption{4-class postural level activity recognition performance and comparisons with baseline method}\n   \\label{fig:posture_accuracy_normal}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\begin{minipage}{0.25\\textwidth}\n \\begin{center}\n \\vspace{-.12in}\n   \\epsfig{file=posture_accuracy_extended.pdf,height=1.6in, width=2.1in}\n\\caption{6-class diverse postural activity recognition framework accuracy comparisons with the baseline approach.}\n   \\label{fig:posture_accuracy_extended}\n\\end{center}\n \\end{minipage}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nFig~\\ref{fig:hand_gesture_accuracy} displays Feature Weighted Naive Bayes (FWNB) based the 8-hand gestural activity recognition accuracies comparisons with the baseline methods which clearly depicts the outperformance of our method (5\\% improvement) with an overall accuracy of 92\\% (FP rate 6.7\\%) in RCC dataset. For postural activity recognition, dataset achieving 91\\% postural activity recognition accuracy (FP rate 9.5\\%) which outperforms the baseline approach significantly (8\\% improvement). Now, we expand the postural activities for RCC datasets into 3 diverse `walking' postures: `normal walking', `walking with walker', `walking with single stick' and the accuracy goes down to 88\\% (FP 7.9\\%). Fig.~\\ref{fig:posture_accuracy_normal} and Fig.~\\ref{fig:posture_accuracy_extended} illustrate 4-class postural and extended 6-class postural classifier accuracies respectively which clearly posit that \\emph{AutoCogniSys} outperforms in each case of postural activities as well as overall performances (8\\% and 7\\% improvement respectively).\n\nFor complex activity classification, we choose RCC dataset to train our HDBN model. Our leave-two-participants out method results an accuracy of 85\\% (FP Rate 3.6\\%, precision 84.2\\%, recall 84.5\\%, ROC Area 98.2\\%) with a start/end duration error of 9.7\\%. We run the entire evaluation for baseline complex activity recognition algorithm too achieving an overall accuracy of 78\\% (FP Rate 5.2\\%, precision 79.6\\%, recall 78.5\\%, ROC Area 82.7\\%) which is clearly lower performed method than our approach. Fig. \\ref{fig:complex_activity_roc} and Fig~\\ref{fig:complex_activity_accuracy} illustrate the ROC curve and each complex activity recognition accuracy comparisons with baseline method which depict the outperformance of our framework over baseline methods (7\\% improvement). Fig~\\ref{fig:complex_activity_accuracy} also shows that inclusion of postural activity improves the final complex activity recognition (4\\% improvement).\n \\begin{figure}  [!htb]\n  \\begin{minipage}{0.15\\textwidth}\n \\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=complex_activity_roc.pdf,height=1.4in, width=1.1in}\n\\caption{ROC curve for complex activity recognition}\n   \\label{fig:complex_activity_roc}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\begin{minipage}{0.33\\textwidth}\n\\begin{center}\n\n   \\epsfig{file=complex_activity_accuracy.pdf,height=1.4in, width=2.3in}\n\\caption{Complex ADLs recognition accuracy improvement and comparison with baseline \\cite{zhu12} and HMM based method}\n   \\label{fig:complex_activity_accuracy}\n\\end{center}\n\n\\end{minipage}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Quantification of Performance Score}\nTo characterize both the qualitative and quantitative health assessment performance scores, we start with four different feature groups ranging from both functional and physiological health measures: (i) observation based activity features, (ii) automatic activity performance features, (iii) EDA features and (iv) PPG features.\n\nIn \\emph{observation based activity features}, we design a complex activity set comprised of multiple subtasks which are involved with task {\\it interruption, completion and sequencing}. Participants are instructed to perform the complex activities while the trained evaluator observed the aforementioned functional activity performance measures. Each incorrect attempt of performance measure will be assigned one point thus higher score reflects lower performance of functional activities \\cite{dawadi14}. We first detect hand gesture and postural activities. Then, we feed the low-level activity contexts (gestural and postural) combined with ambient contexts (object and ambient motion sensor readings) into HDBN for single inhabitant model \\cite{alam16b} to recognize complex activities. The complex activity recognition framework provides both activity labels and activity window (start-end points). Then, we extract features of object sensor, ambient sensor, gestural activity and postural activity events for each activity window. The features are number of occurrences, mean number of occurrences, consecutive 1, 2, 3, $\\ldots$ 20 occurrences, top 10, 20, 30, $\\ldots$, 90 percentile etc (29 features in total). In \\emph{physiological features} we first detect 13 complex activities using HDBN algorithm which provides activity labels and activity window (start-end points), apply noise reduction, motion artifacts removal, extract 7 EDA features and 8 HRV features for each activity and take the mean of them over time (minutes) to get 15 (7+8) complex activity physiological features set for each participant. In summary, we extract 3 observation based activity features, 29 automatic activity performance features, 7 EDA features and 8 HRV features.\n\\subsection{Physiological Signal Processing Performance Evaluation}\nStandard evaluation technique should use both experimental and publicly available datasets to confirm the outperformance of the novel approaches. We first evaluate our physiological signal processing techniques using a publicly available dataset (EES Dataset \\cite{picard01}) to detect 8 human emotions. Then, in next section, we evaluate our methods in assessing cognitive health status of older adults using RCC dataset.\n\nFor EDA, we first apply SWT method to remove motion artifacts and noises. Then, we use cvxEDA method to separate tonic and phasic components of EDA. Then, we extract 7 EDA features on a sliding window of 4 seconds. Finally, we feed the 7 EDA features into a SMO based SVM algorithm \\cite{cao06}. We use 10-fold cross validation to classify eight emotions achieving 87\\% of overall accuracy (FP rate 6\\%). For PPG, we first apply our proposed PMAF based noises and motion artifacts removal technique. Then, we calculate HRV and perform time-domain feature extraction to extract 8 HRV features on a sliding window of 4 seconds. We feed these features into a SMO based SVM algorithm \\cite{cao06}. Our 10-fold cross validation shows accuracy of 79\\% (FP rate 11.5\\%) of detecting 8 emotions on EES Dataset. Fig. \\ref{fig:ees_eda} and Fig. \\ref{fig:ees_ppg} clearly depict that \\emph{AutoCogniSys} proposed EDA and PPG signal processing techniques significantly improve the accuracy over the baseline \\cite{alam16} method (10\\% and 12\\% improvement).\n\n\\begin{figure}[!htb]\n\\begin{minipage}{0.24\\textwidth}\n\\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=ees_eda.pdf,height=1.2in, width=1.8in}\n\\caption{(EES Databaset) EDA features based Eight Emotion classification accuracy comparisons with baseline method}\n   \\label{fig:ees_eda}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\begin{minipage}{0.23\\textwidth}\n\\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=ees_ppg.pdf,height=1.2in, width=1.7in}\n\\caption{(EES Dataset) PPG features based 8-Emotion classification accuracy comparisons with baseline method}\n   \\label{fig:ees_ppg}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{minipage}\n\n\\end{figure}\n\\subsection{Evaluation of Performance Scores}\nThe feature subsets used in the experimentation for observation and survey based clinical assessments and technology guided physiological and activity initiated health assessments are depicted in Table~\\ref{tab:feature_subset}. From our 6 demographics surveys, we find significant distributions in terms of cognition only for SLUMS Score (S-Score). Based on that, we divide our participants pool into three groups: \\emph{Not Cognitively Impaired (NCI), Mild Cognitively Impaired (MCI) and Cognitively Impaired (CI)} where the number of participants are $5$, $7$ and $10$ respectively.\n\\begin{table}[!t]\n\\begin{scriptsize}\n\n\n{\\centering \n\\renewcommand{\\arraystretch}{.6}\n\\caption{Feature Subsets}\n\\label{tab:feature_subset}\n\\begin{tabular}{|l|L{5.5cm}|}\n\\hline\n\\bfseries Feature& \\bfseries Description\\\\\n\\hline\nObservation & Task Completeness (TC), Sequencing (SEQ), Interruptions (INT)\\\\\n\\hline\nSurvey & SLUMS Score (S-Score), ZUNG Score (Z-Score), IADL Score (I-Score), Yale Score (YPAS), Barthel Score (B-Score), GDS Score (G-Score)\\\\\n\\hline\nEDA  and HRV & 7 and 8 Features\\\\\n\\hline\nActivity Performance& Supervised (TC, SEQ, INT), Unsupervised\\\\\n\\hline\nArousal& EDA and HRV features of each complex activity window\\\\\n\\hline\n\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\end{scriptsize}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[!htb]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=group_correlation.pdf,height=1in, width=3.3in}\n\\caption{\\emph{AutoCogniSys} Proposed Method Based Group Correlation analysis ( $r-value$) NCI, MCI and CI represent not cognitive, mild cognitive and cognitively impaired group of population. TC, INT, SEQ, EDA and HRV represent task completeness, interruption scores, sequencing scores, electrodermal activity features and heart rate variability features}\n   \\label{fig:group_correlation}\n\\end{center}\n\\vspace{-.2in}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[!htb]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=group_correlation_baseline.pdf,height=1in, width=3.3in}\n\\caption{Baseline \\cite{alam16} method based Group Correlation analysis ( $r-value$)}\n   \\label{fig:group_correlation_baseline}\n   \\vspace{-.25in}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Statistical Correlation Analysis of Cognitive Health}\nWe used Pearson correlation coefficients with significance on $p<0.05$* for individual feature and partial correlation coefficients with significance on $p<0.005$** for group of features correlation analysis. Fig. \\ref{fig:group_correlation} and Fig. \\ref{fig:group_correlation_baseline} show the group correlation analysis results based on \\emph{AutoCogniSys} proposed framework and baseline \\cite{alam16} framework respectively. It can be clearly depicted that our proposed framework improves the correlation with the ground truths.\n\\subsection{Machine Learning Classification of Cognitive Health}\nWe evaluate using machine learning classifiers to predict cognitive status of older adults using both individual modalities and combined features. We use leave-two-participants out method to train and test classification accuracy.\n\nWe first choose the individual activity features (machine learning method based interruption scores, sequencing scores, unsupervised scores) and their combined features to train and test cognitive impairment status classification for SMO based SVM algorithm \\cite{cao06}. The classification accuracies are 72\\%, 69\\%, 76\\% and 83\\% respectively. Then we consider 7 EDA-activity features and 8 HRV-activity features individually in training and testing phase of SMO based SVM algorithm \\cite{cao06} resulting 85\\% and 80\\% accuracy respectively.\n\n\\begin{figure}[!htb]\n\\begin{minipage}{0.24\\textwidth}\n\\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=combined_classification.pdf,height=1.2in, width=1.7in}\n   \\vspace{-.15in}\n\\caption{Individual and combined classification accuracies comparison with baseline method for cognitive impairment status detection}\n   \\label{fig:combined_classification}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\begin{minipage}{0.23\\textwidth}\n\\begin{center}\n   \\epsfig{file=each_activity_cognitive_assessment.pdf,height=1.2in, width=1.7in}\n\n\\caption{Machine learning based cognitive health assessment accuracy for each complex activity in terms of activity, EDA and HRV features.}\n   \\label{fig:each_activity_cognitive_assessment}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor combined classifier, we first applied sequential forward feature selection to find the best combinations of 1- 3 features for cognitive impairment classification group MCI, NCI and CI in terms of combined activity features (29 features), EDA-activity features (7 features) and HRV-activity features (8) features. Our final combined classifier (SMO based SVM algorithm \\cite{cao06}) provides an accuracy of {\\bf 93\\%} in detecting the cognitive impairment status of older adults. Fig. \\ref{fig:combined_classification} shows our proposed individual and combined methods outperform the baseline \\cite{alam16} significantly (13\\% improvement). Fig. \\ref{fig:each_activity_cognitive_assessment} shows the cognitive impairment status prediction accuracy for each modality (activity feature, EDA and HRV) per individual complex activity.\n\\subsection{Discussion}\nIf we exclude the postural activities from automated activity performance scoring, we find reduced statistical correlation with original task completeness performance for \\{NCI, MCI, CI\\} participant group (INT 0.53*, SEQ 0.21' and unsupervised 0.49'). However, if we skip our proposed motion artifact removal stage, we find reduced statistical correlation with \\{NCI, MCI\\} and \\{MCI, CI\\} groups of participants (EDA and HRV correlations respectively \\{0.51*, -0.51*\\} and \\{-0.53*,0.46\\}). To test our proposed motion artifacts removal impact on EDA signals more rigorously, we choose 5 random participants, engage one expert motion artifact annotator to annotate motion artifacts segment on each participant's first 30 minutes of complex dataset using recorded video and apply both baseline and our methods to detect motion artifact segments. While baseline method achieves 75.5\\% (FP rate 20.3\\%) accuracy in detecting motion artifact segments, \\emph{AutoCogniSys} outperforms achieving 89.9\\% (FP rate 8.9\\%) accuracy. In terms of experience, we have seen 100\\% acceptance of wearing wrist-band,  71\\% of acceptance for signing consent on using cameras and 0\\% failure rate of collecting continuous data.\n\\section{Conclusion}\nWe propose, \\emph{AutoCogniSys}, an IoT inspired design approach combining wearable and ambient sensors embedded smart home design, extensive signal processing, machine learning algorithms and statistical analytics to automate cognitive health assessment in terms of complex activity performances and physiological responses of daily events. Additionally, our postural activity detection approach in diverse population cum improved activity performance measurement and fundamental physiological sensor artifacts removal from physiological sensors help facilitate the automated cross-sectional cognitive health assessment of the older adults. Our efficient evaluation on each modality (physical, physiological and ambient) and each activity mode proves that any of the mode (say single activity and single sensor) also can provide significant improved cognitive health assessment measure.\n\n\n\n", "answers": ["Wearable sensors."], "length": 7670, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "34f9b2c3d79ced580687f9653a6908215f79b1405a918cd0"}
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{"input": "What are some potential applications of ferromagnetic semiconductors?", "context": "\\section{introduction}\nIn the past few years, the synthesis of ferromagnetic semiconductors has become a major challenge for spintronics. Actually, growing a magnetic and semiconducting material could lead to promising advances like spin injection into non magnetic semiconductors, or electrical manipulation of carrier induced magnetism in magnetic semiconductors \\cite{ohno00,Bouk02}. Up to now, major efforts have focused on diluted magnetic semiconductors (DMS) in which the host semiconducting matrix is randomly substituted by transition metal (TM) ions such as Mn, Cr, Ni, Fe or Co \\cite{Diet02}. However Curie temperatures ($T_{C}$) in DMS remain rather low and TM concentrations must be drastically raised in order to increase $T_{C}$ up to room temperature. That usually leads to phase separation and the formation of secondary phases. It was recently shown that phase separation induced by spinodal decomposition could lead to a significant increase of $T_{C}$ \\cite{Diet06,Fuku06}. For semiconductors showing $T_{C}$ higher than room temperature one can foresee the fabrication of nanodevices such as memory nanodots, or nanochannels for spin injection. Therefore, the precise control of inhomogeneities appears as a new challenge which may open a way to industrial applications of ferromagnetism in semiconductors.\n\nThe increasing interest in group-IV magnetic semiconductors can also be explained by their potential compatibility with the existing silicon technology. In 2002, carrier mediated ferromagnetism was reported in  MBE grown Ge$_{0.94}$Mn$_{0.06}$ films by Park \\textit{et al.} \\cite{Park02}. The maximum critical temperature was 116 K. Recently many publications indicate a significant increase of $T_{C}$ in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ material depending on growth conditions \\cite{Pint05,Li05,tsui03}. Cho \\textit{et al.} reported a Curie temperature as high as 285 K \\cite{Cho02}. \nTaking into account the strong tendency of Mn ions to form intermetallic compounds in germanium, a detailed investigation of the nanoscale structure is required. Up to now, only a few studies have focused on the nanoscale composition in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films. Local chemical inhomogeneities have been recently reported by Kang \\textit{et al.} \\cite{Kang05} who evidenced a micrometer scale segregation of manganese in large Mn rich stripes. Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ as well as Ge$_8$Mn$_{11}$ clusters embedded in a germanium matrix have been reported by many authors. However, Curie temperatures never exceed 300 K \\cite{Bihl06,Morr06,Pass06,Ahle06}. Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ clusters exhibit a Curie temperature of 296 K \\cite{Mass90}. This phase frequently observed in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films is the most stable (Ge,Mn) alloy. The other stable compound Ge$_8$Mn$_{11}$ has also been observed in nanocrystallites surrounded with pure germanium \\cite{Park01}. Ge$_8$Mn$_{11}$ and Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ phases are ferromagnetic but their metallic character considerably complicates their potential use as spin injectors.\nRecently, some new Mn-rich nanostructures have been evidenced in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ layers. Sugahara \\textit{et al.} \\cite{Sugh05} reported the formation of high Mn content (between 10 \\% and 20 \\% of Mn) amorphous Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_x$ precipitates  in a Mn-free germanium matrix. Mn-rich coherent cubic clusters were observed by Ahlers \\textit{et al.} \\cite{Ahle06} which exhibit a Curie temperatures below 200 K. Finally, high-$T_{C}$ ($>$ 400 K) Mn-rich nanocolumns have been evidenced \\cite{Jame06} which could lead to silicon compatible room temperature operational devices.\\\\\nIn the present paper, we investigate the structural and magnetic properties of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_x$ thin films for low growth temperatures ($<$ 200$^{\\circ}$C) and low Mn concentrations (between 1 \\% and 11 \\%). By combining TEM, x-Ray diffraction and SQUID magnetometry, we could identify different magnetic phases. We show that depending on growth conditions, we obtain either Mn-rich nanocolumns or Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters embedded in a germanium matrix. We discuss the structural and magnetic properties of these nanostructures as a function of manganese concentration and growth temperature. We also discuss the magnetic anisotropy of nanocolumns and  \nGe$_3$Mn$_5$ clusters. \n\n\\section{Sample growth}\n\nGrowth was performed using solid sources molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) by co-depositing Ge and Mn evaporated from standard Knudsen effusion cells.  Deposition rate was low ($\\approx$ 0.2 \\AA.s$^{-1}$). Germanium substrates were epi-ready Ge(001) wafers with a residual n-type doping and resistivity of 10$^{15}$ cm$^{-3}$ and 5 $\\Omega.cm$ respectively. After thermal desorption of the surface oxide, a 40 nm thick Ge buffer layer was grown at 250$^{\\circ}$C, resulting in a 2 $\\times$ 1 surface reconstruction as observed by reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) (see Fig. 1a). Next, 80 nm thick Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films were subsequently grown  at low substrate temperature (from 80$^{\\circ}$C to 200$^{\\circ}$C). Mn content has been determined by x-ray fluorescence measurements performed on thick samples ($\\approx$ 1 $\\mu m$ thick) and complementary Rutherford Back Scattering (RBS) on thin Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown on silicon. Mn concentrations range from 1 \\% to 11\\% Mn.\n\nFor Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown at substrate temperatures below 180$^{\\circ}$C, after the first monolayer (ML) deposition, the  2 $\\times$ 1 surface reconstruction almost totally disappears. After depositing few MLs, a slightly diffuse 1 $\\times$ 1 streaky RHEED pattern and a very weak 2 $\\times$ 1 reconstruction (Fig. 1b) indicate a predominantly two-dimensional growth. For growth temperatures above 180$^{\\circ}$C additional spots appear in the RHEED pattern during the Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ growth (Fig. 1c). These spots may correspond to the formation of very small secondary phase crystallites. The nature of these crystallites will be discussed below.\n\nTransmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations were performed using a JEOL 4000EX microscope with an acceleration voltage of 400 kV. Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM) was done using a JEOL 3010 microscope equipped with a Gatan Image Filter . Sample preparation was carried out by standard mechanical polishing and argon ion milling for cross-section investigations and plane views were prepared by wet etching with H$_3$PO$_4$-H$_2$O$_2$ solution \\cite{Kaga82}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n    \\includegraphics[width=.29\\linewidth]{./fig1a.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=.29\\linewidth]{./fig1b.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=.29\\linewidth]{./fig1c.eps}\n    \\caption{RHEED patterns recorded during the growth of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films: (a) 2 $\\times$ 1 surface reconstruction of the germanium buffer layer. (b) 1 $\\times$ 1 streaky RHEED pattern obtained at low growth temperatures ($T_g<$180$^{\\circ}$C). (c) RHEED pattern of a sample grown at $T_g=$180$^{\\circ}$C. The additional spots reveal the presence of Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ clusters at the surface of the film.}\n\\label{fig1}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{Structural properties \\label{structural}}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig2a.eps}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig2b.eps}\n\t \\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig2c.eps}\n\t \\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig2d.eps}\n    \\caption{Transmission electron micrographs of a Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film grown at 130$^{\\circ}$C and containing 6 \\% of manganese. (a) cross-section along the [110] axis : we clearly see the presence of nanocolumns elongated along the growth axis. (b) High resolution image of the interface between the Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film and the Ge buffer layer. The Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film exhibits the same diamond structure as pure germanium. No defect can be seen which could be caused by the presence of nanocolumns. (c) Plane view micrograph performed on the same sample confirms the columnar structure and gives the density and size distribution of nanocolumns. (d) Mn chemical map obtained by energy filtered transmission electron microcopy (EFTEM). The background was carefully substracted from pre-edge images. Bright areas correspond to Mn-rich regions.}\n\\label{fig2}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn samples grown at 130$^{\\circ}$C and containing 6 \\% Mn, we can observe vertical elongated nanostructures \\textit{i.e.} nanocolumns as shown in Fig. 2a. Nanocolumns extend through the whole Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film thickness. From the high resolution TEM image shown in Fig. 2b, we deduce their average diameter around 3 nm. Moreover in Fig. 2b, the interface between the Ge buffer layer and the Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film is flat and no defect propagates from the interface into the film. The Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film is a perfect single crystal in epitaxial relationship with the substrate. In Fig. 2c is shown a plane view micrograph of the same sample confirming the presence of nanocolumns in the film. From this image, we can deduce the size and density of nanocolumns. The nanocolumns density is 13000 $\\rm{\\mu m}^{-2}$ with a mean diameter of 3 nm which is coherent with cross-section measurements. In order to estimate the chemical composition of these nanocolumns, we further performed chemical mapping using EFTEM. In Fig. 2d we show a cross sectional Mn chemical map of the Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film. This map shows that the formation of nanocolumns is a consequence of Mn segregation. Nanocolumns are Mn rich and the surrounding matrix is Mn poor. However, it is impossible to deduce the Mn concentration in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ nanocolumns from this cross section. Indeed, in cross section observations, the columns diameter is much smaller than the probed film thickness and the signal comes from the superposititon of the Ge matrix and Mn-rich nanocolumns. In order to quantify Mn concentration inside the nanocolumns and inside the Ge matrix, EELS measurements (not shown here) have been performed in a plane view geometry \\cite{Jame06}. These observations revealed that the matrix Mn content is below 1 \\% (detection limit of our instrument). Measuring the surface occupied by the matrix and the nanocolumns in plane view TEM images, and considering the average Mn concentration in the sample (6 \\%), we can estimate the Mn concentration in the nanocolumns. The Mn concentration measured by EELS being between 0\\% and 1\\%, we can conclude that the Mn content in the nanocolumns is between 30 \\% and 38 \\%.\\\\\nFor samples grown between 80$^\\circ$C and 150$^\\circ$C cross section and plane view TEM observations reveal the presence of Mn rich nanocolumns surrounded with a Mn poor Ge matrix. In order to investigate the influence of Mn concentration on the structural properties of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films, ten samples have been grown at 100$^\\circ$C and at 150$^\\circ$C with Mn concentrations of 1.3 \\%, 2.3 \\%, 4 \\%, 7 \\% and 11.3 \\%. Their structural properties have been investigated by plane view TEM observations. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n    \\includegraphics[width=.98\\linewidth]{./fig3a.eps}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.45\\linewidth]{./fig3b.eps}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=.45\\linewidth]{./fig3c.eps}\n    \\caption{Nanocolumns size and density as a function of growth conditions. Samples considered have been grown at 100$^{\\circ}$C and 150$^{\\circ}$C respectively. (a) Mn concentration dependence of the size distribution. (b) columns density as a function of Mn concentration. (c) Volume fraction of the nanocolumns as a function of Mn concentration.}\n \\label{fig3}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor samples grown at 100$^\\circ$C with Mn concentrations below 5 \\% the nanocolumns mean diameter is 1.8$\\pm$0.2 nm. The evolution of columns density as a fonction of Mn concentration is reported in figure 3b. By increasing the Mn concentration from 1.3 \\% to 4 \\% we observe a significant increase of the columns density from 13000 to 30000 $\\rm{\\mu m}^{-2}$. For Mn concentrations higher than 5 \\% the density seems to reach a plateau corresponding to 35000 $\\rm{\\mu m}^{-2}$ and their diameter slightly increases from 1.8 nm at 4 \\% to 2.8 nm at 11.3 \\%. By plotting the volume fraction occupied by the columns in the film as a function of Mn concentration, we observe a linear dependence for Mn contents below 5 \\%. The non-linear behavior above 5 \\% may indicate that the mechanism of Mn incorporation is different in this concentration range, leading to an increase of Mn concentration in the columns or in the matrix. For samples grown at 100$^\\circ$C, nanocolumns are always fully coherent with the surrounding matrix (Fig. 4a). \n\nIncreasing the Mn content in the samples grown at 150$^\\circ$C from 1.3 \\% to 11.3 \\% leads to a decrease of the columns density (fig 3b). Moreover, their average diameter increases significantly and size distributions become very broad (see Fig. 3a). For the highest Mn concentration (11.3 \\%) we observe the coexistence of very small columns with a diameter of 2.5 nm and very large columns with a diameter of 9 nm. In samples grown at 150$^\\circ$C containing 11.3 \\% of Mn, the crystalline structure of nanocolumns is also highly modified. In plane view TEM micrographs, one can see columns exhibiting several different crystalline structures. We still observe some columns which are fully coherent with the Ge matrix like in the samples grown at lower temperature. Nevertheless, observations performed on these samples grown at 150$^\\circ$C and with 11.3\\% Mn reveal some uniaxially \\cite{Jame06} or fully relaxed columns exhibiting a misfit of 4 \\% between the matrix and the columns and leading to misfit dislocations at the interface between the column and the matrix (see fig. 4b). Thus we can conclude that coherent columns are probably in strong compression and the surrounding matrix in tension. On the same samples (T$_g$=150$^{\\circ}$C, 11.3\\% Mn), we also observe a large number of highly disordered nanocolumns leading to an amorphous like TEM contrast(fig. 4c).\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.31\\linewidth]{./fig4a.eps}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.31\\linewidth]{./fig4b.eps}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.31\\linewidth]{./fig4c.eps}\n    \\caption{Plane view high resolution transmission electron micrographs of different types of nanocolumns : (a) typical structure of a column grown at 100$^{\\circ}$C. The crystal structure is exactly the same as germanium . (b) Partially relaxed nanocolumn. One can see dislocations at the interface between the columns and the matrix leading to stress relaxation. (c) Amorphous nanocolumn. These columns are typical in samples grown at 150$^{\\circ}$C with high Mn contents.}\n \\label{fig4}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn conclusion, we have evidenced a complex mechanism of Mn incorporation in Mn doped Ge films grown at low temperature. In particular Mn incorporation is highly inhomogeneous. For very low growth temperatures (below 120$^\\circ$C) the diffusion of Mn atoms leads to the formation of Mn rich, vertical nanocolumns. Their density mostly depends on Mn concentration and their mean diameter is about 2 nm. These results can be compared with the theoretical predictions of Fukushima \\textit{et al.} \\cite{Fuku06}: they proposed a model of spinodal decomposition in (Ga,Mn)N and (Zn,Cr)Te based on layer by layer growth conditions and a strong pair attraction between Mn atoms which leads to the formation of nanocolumns. This model may also properly describe the formation of Mn rich nanocolumns in our samples. Layer by layer growth conditions can be deduced from RHEED pattern evolution during growth. For all the samples grown at low temperature, RHEED observations clearly indicate two-dimensional growth. Moreover, Ge/Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$/Ge heterostructures have been grown and observed by TEM (see Fig. 5). Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$/Ge (as well as Ge/Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$) interfaces are very flat and sharp thus confirming a two-dimensional, layer by layer growth mode. Therefore we can assume that the formation of Mn rich nanocolumns is a consequence of 2D-spinodal decomposition.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.7\\linewidth]{./fig5.eps}\n    \\caption{Cross section high resolution micrograph of a Ge/Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$/Ge/Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$/Ge heterostructure. This sample has been grown at 130 $^{\\circ}$C with 6\\% Mn. Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ layers are 15 nm thick and Ge spacers 5 nm thick. We clearly see the sharpness of both Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$/Ge and Ge/Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ interfaces. Mn segregation leading to the columns formation already takes place in very thin Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films.}\n\\label{fig5}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor growth temperatures higher than 160$^\\circ$C, cross section TEM and EFTEM observations (not shown here) reveal the coexistence of two Mn-rich phases: nanocolumns and Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ nanoclusters embedded in the germanium matrix. A typical high resolution TEM image is shown in figure 6. \nGe$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters are not visible in RHEED patterns for temperatures below 180$^\\circ$C. To investigate the nature of these clusters, we performed x-ray diffraction in $\\theta-2\\theta$ mode. Diffraction scans were acquired on a high resolution diffractometer using the copper K$_\\alpha$ radiation and on the GMT station of the BM32 beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF). Three samples grown at different temperatures and/or annealed at high temperature were investigated. The two first samples are Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown at 130$^\\circ$C and 170$^\\circ$C respectively. The third one has been grown at 130$^\\circ$C and post-growth annealed at 650$^\\circ$C. By analysing x-ray diffraction spectra, we can evidence two different crystalline structures. For the sample grown at 130$^\\circ$C, the $\\theta-2\\theta$ scan only reveals the (004) Bragg peak of the germanium crystal, confirming the good epitaxial relationship between the layer and the substrate, and the absence of secondary phases in the film in spite of a high dynamics of the order of 10$^7$. For both samples grown at 170$^\\circ$C and annealed at 650$^\\circ$C, $\\theta-2\\theta$ spectra are identical. In addition to the (004) peak of germanium, we observe three additional weak peaks. The first one corresponds to the (002) germanium forbidden peak which probably comes from a small distortion of the germanium crystal, and the two other peaks are respectively attributed to the (002) and (004) Bragg peaks of a secondary phase. The $c$ lattice parameter of Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ hexagonal crystal is 5.053 \\AA \\ \\cite{Fort90} which is in very good agreement with the values obtained from diffraction data for both (002) and (004) lines assuming that the $c$ axis of Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ is along the [001] direction of the Ge substrate.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.7\\linewidth]{./fig6.eps}\n\t\\caption{Cross section high resolution transmission electron micrograph of a sample grown at 170$^{\\circ}$C. We observe the coexistence of two different Mn-rich phases: Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ nanocolumns and Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ clusters.}\n\\label{fig6}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn summary, in a wide range of growth temperatures and Mn concentrations, we have evidenced a two-dimensional spinodal decomposition leading to the formation of Mn-rich nanocolumns in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films. This decomposition is probably the consequence of: $(i)$ a strong pair attraction between Mn atoms, $(ii)$ a strong surface diffusion of Mn atoms in germanium even at low growth temperatures and $(iii)$ layer by layer growth conditions. We have also investigated the influence of growth parameters on the spinodal decomposition: at low growth temperatures (100$^{\\circ}$C), increasing the Mn content leads to higher columns densities while at higher growth temperatures (150$^{\\circ}$C), the columns density remains nearly constant whereas their size increases drastically. By plotting the nanocolumns density as a function of Mn content, we have shown that the mechanism of Mn incorporation in Ge changes above 5 \\% of Mn. Finally, using TEM observations and x-ray diffraction, we have shown that Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ nanoclusters start to form at growth temperatures higher than 160$^\\circ$C.\n\n\\section{Magnetic properties \\label{magnetic}}\n\nWe have thoroughly investigated the magnetic properties of thin Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films for different growth temperatures and Mn concentrations. In this section, we focus on Mn concentrations between 2 \\% and 11 \\%. We could clearly identify four different magnetic phases in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films : diluted Mn atoms in the germanium matrix, low $T_{C}$ nanocolumns ($T_{C}$ $\\leq$ 170 K), high $T_{C}$ nanocolumns ($T_{C}$ $\\geq$ 400 K) and Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters ($T_{C}$ $\\thickapprox$ 300 K). The relative weight of each phase clearly depends on the growth temperature and to a lesser extend on Mn concentration. For low growth temperature ($<$ 120$^{\\circ}$C), we show that nanocolumns are actually made of four uncorrelated superparamagnetic nanostructures. Increasing T$_{g}$ above 120$^{\\circ}$C, we first obtain continuous columns exhibiting low $T_{C}$ ($<$ 170 K) and high $T_{C}$ ($>$ 400 K) for $T_{g}\\approx$130$^{\\circ}$C. The larger columns become ferromagnetic \\textit{i.e.} $T_{B}>T_{C}$. Meanwhile Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters start to form. Finally for higher $T_{g}$, the magnetic contribution from Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters keeps increasing while the nanocolumns signal progressively disappears.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.6\\linewidth]{./fig7a.eps}\n   \\includegraphics[width=.3\\linewidth]{./fig7b.eps}\n\\caption{(a) Temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization (in $\\mu_{B}$/Mn) of Ge$_{0.93}$Mn$_{0.07}$ samples for different growth temperatures. The magnetic field is applied in the film plane. The inset shows the temperature dependence of a sample grown at 130$^{\\circ}$C and annealed at 650$^{\\circ}$C for 15 minutes. After annealing, the magnetic signal mostly arises from Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters. (b) ZFC-FC measurements performed on Ge$_{0.93}$Mn$_{0.07}$ samples for different growth temperatures. The in-plane applied field is 0.015 T. The ZFC peak at low temperature ($\\leq$150 K) can be attributed to the superparamagnetic nanocolumns. This peak widens and shifts towards high blocking temperatures when increasing growth temperature. The second peak above 150 K in the ZFC curve which increases with increasing growth temperature is attributed to superparamagnetic Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters. The increasing ZFC-FC irreversibility at $\\approx$ 300 K is due to the increasing contribution from large ferromagnetic Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters. The nanocolumns signal completely vanishes after annealing at 650$^{\\circ}$C for 15 minutes.}\n\\label{fig7}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn Fig. 7a, the saturation magnetization at 2 Tesla in $\\mu_{B}$/Mn of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films with 7 \\% of Mn is plotted as a function of temperature for different growth temperatures ranging from $T_{g}$=90$^{\\circ}$C up to 160$^{\\circ}$C. The inset shows the temperature dependence of the magnetization at 2 Tesla after annealing at 650$^{\\circ}$C during 15 minutes. Figure 7b displays the corresponding Zero Field Cooled - Field Cooled (ZFC-FC) curves recorded at 0.015 Tesla. In the ZFC-FC procedure, the sample is first cooled down to 5 K in zero magnetic field and the susceptibility is subsequently recorded at 0.015 Tesla while increasing the temperature up to 400 K (ZFC curve). Then, the susceptibility is recorded under the same magnetic field while decreasing the temperature down to 5 K (FC curve). Three different regimes can be clearly distinguished. \\\\\nFor $T_{g}\\leq$120$^{\\circ}$C, the temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization remains nearly the same while increasing growth temperature. The overall magnetic signal vanishing above 200 K is attributed to the nanocolumns whereas the increasing signal below 50 K originates from diluted Mn atoms in the surrounding matrix. The Mn concentration dependence of the saturation magnetization is displayed in figure 8. For the lowest Mn concentration (4 \\%), the contribution from diluted Mn atoms is very high and drops sharply for higher Mn concentrations (7 \\%, 9 \\% and 11.3 \\%). Therefore the fraction of Mn atoms in the diluted matrix decreases with Mn concentration probably because Mn atoms are more and more incorporated in the nanocolumns. In parallel, the Curie temperature of nanocolumns increases with the Mn concentration reaching 170 K for 11.3 \\% of Mn. This behavior may be related to different Mn compositions and to the increasing diameter of nanocolumns (from 1.8 nm to 2.8 nm) as discussed in section \\ref{structural}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.7\\linewidth]{./fig8.eps}\n    \\caption{Temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization (in $\\mu_{B}$/Mn) of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown at 100$^{\\circ}$C plotted for different Mn concentrations: 4.1 \\%; 7 \\%; 8.9 \\% and 11.3 \\%.}\n\\label{fig8}\n\\end{figure}\n\nZFC-FC measurements show that the nanocolumns are superparamagnetic. The magnetic signal from the diluted Mn atoms in the matrix is too weak to be detected in susceptibility measurements at low temperature. In samples containing 4 \\% of Mn, ZFC and FC curves superimpose down to low temperatures. As we do not observe hysteresis loops at low temperature, we believe that at this Mn concentration nanocolumns are  superparamagnetic in the whole temperature range and the blocking temperature cannot be measured. For higher Mn contents, the ZFC curve exhibits a very narrow peak with a maximum at the blocking temperature of 15 K whatever the Mn concentration and growth temperature (see Fig. 7b). Therefore the anisotropy barrier distribution is narrow and assuming that nanocolumns have the same magnetic anisotropy, this is a consequence of the very narrow size distribution of the nanocolumns as observed by TEM. To probe the anisotropy barrier distribution, we have performed ZFC-FC measurements but instead of warming the sample up to 400 K, we stopped at a lower temperature $T_{0}$. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.6\\linewidth]{./fig9.eps}\n\\caption{Schematic drawing of the anisotropy barrier distribution n($E_{B}$) of superparamagnetic nanostructures. If magnetic anisotropy does not depend on the particle size, this distribution exactly reflects their magnetic size distribution. In this drawing the blocking temperature ($T_{B}$) corresponds to the distribution maximum. At a given temperature $T_{0}$ such that 25$k_{B}T_{0}$ falls into the anisotropy barrier distribution, the largest nanostructures with an anisotropy energy larger than 25$k_{B}T_{0}$ are blocked whereas the others are superparamagnetic.}\n\\label{fig9}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIf this temperature falls into the anisotropy barrier distribution as depicted in Fig. 9, the FC curve deviates from the ZFC curve. Indeed the smallest nanostructures have become superparamagnetic at $T_{0}$ and when decreasing again the temperature, their magnetization freezes along a direction close to the magnetic field and the FC susceptibility is higher than the ZFC susceptibility. Therefore any irreversibility in this procedure points at the presence of superparamagnetic nanostructures. The results are given in Fig. 10a. ZFC and FC curves clearly superimpose up to $T_{0}$=250 K thus the nanocolumns are superparamagnetic up to their Curie temperature and no Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters could be detected. Moreover for low $T_{0}$ values, a peak appears at low temperature in FC curves which evidences strong antiferromagnetic interactions between the nanocolumns \\cite{Chan00}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n    \\includegraphics[width=.35\\linewidth]{./fig10a.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=.63\\linewidth]{./fig10b.eps}\n\\caption{(a) ZFC-FC measurements performed on a Ge$_{0.887}$Mn$_{0.113}$ sample grown at 115$^{\\circ}$C. The in-plane applied field is 0.015 T. Magnetization was recorded up to different T$_{0}$ temperatures: 30 K, 50 K, 100 K, 150 K, 200 K and 250 K. Curves are shifted up for more clarity. (b) ZFC-FC curves for in-plane and out-of-plane applied fields (0.015 T).}\n\\label{fig10}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn order to derive the magnetic size and anisotropy of the Mn-rich nanocolumns embedded in the Ge matrix, we have fitted the inverse normalized in-plane (resp. out-of-plane) susceptibility: $\\chi_{\\parallel}^{-1}$ (resp. $\\chi_{\\perp}^{-1}$). The corresponding experimental ZFC-FC curves are reported in Fig. 10b. Since susceptibility measurements are performed at low field (0.015 T), the matrix magnetic signal remains negligible. In order to normalize susceptibility data, we need to divide the magnetic moment by the saturated magnetic moment recorded at 5 T. However the matrix magnetic signal becomes very strong at 5 T and low temperature so that we need to subtract it from the saturated magnetic moment using a simple Curie function. From Fig. 10b, we can conclude that nanocolumns are isotropic. Therefore to fit experimental data we use the following expression well suited for isotropic systems or cubic anisotropy: $\\chi_{\\parallel}^{-1}= \\chi_{\\perp}^{-1}\\approx 3k_{B}T/M(T)+\\mu_{0}H_{eff}(T)$. $k_{B}$ is the Boltzmann constant, $M=M_{s}v$ is the magnetic moment of a single-domain nanostructure (macrospin approximation) where $M_{s}$ is its magnetization and $v$ its volume. The in-plane magnetic field is applied along $[110]$ or $[-110]$ crystal axes. Since the nanostructures Curie temperature does not exceed 170 K, the temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization is also accounted for by writting $M(T)$. Antiferromagnetic interactions between nanostructures are also considered by adding an effective field estimated in the mean field approximation \\cite{Fruc02}: $\\mu_{0}H_{eff}(T)$.\nThe only fitting parameters are the maximum magnetic moment (\\textit{i.e.} at low temperature) per nanostructure: $M$ (in Bohr magnetons $\\mu_{B}$) and the maximum interaction field (\\textit{i.e.} at low temperature): $\\mu_{0}H_{eff}$.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.7\\linewidth]{./fig11.eps}\n\\caption{Temperature dependence of the inverse in-plane (open circles) and out-of-plane (open squares) normalized susceptibilities of a Ge$_{0.887}$Mn$_{0.113}$ sample grown at 115$^{\\circ}$C. Fits were performed assuming isotropic nanostructures or cubic anisotropy. Dashed line is for in-plane susceptibility and solid line for out-of-plane susceptibility.}\n\\label{fig11}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn Fig. 11, the best fits lead to $M\\approx$1250 $\\mu_{B}$ and $\\mu_{0}H_{eff}\\approx$102 mT for in-plane susceptibility and $M\\approx$1600 $\\mu_{B}$ and $\\mu_{0}H_{eff}\\approx$98 mT for out-of-plane susceptibility. It gives an average magnetic moment of 1425 $\\mu_{B}$ per column and an effective interaction field of 100 mT. Using this magnetic moment and its temperature dependence, magnetization curves could be fitted using a Langevin function and $M(H/T)$ curves superimpose for $T<$100 K. However, from the saturated magnetic moment of the columns and their density (35000 $\\rm{\\mu m}^{-2}$), we find almost 6000 $\\mu_{B}$ per column. Therefore, for low growth temperatures, we need to assume that nanocolumns are actually made of almost four independent elongated magnetic nanostructures. The effective field for antiferromagnetic interactions between nanostructures estimated from the susceptibility fits is at least one order of magnitude larger than what is expected from pure magnetostatic coupling. This difference may be due to either an additional antiferromagnetic coupling through the matrix which origin remains unexplained or to the mean field approximation which is no more valid in this strong coupling regime. As for magnetic anisotropy, the nanostructures behave as isotropic magnetic systems or exhibit a cubic magnetic anisotropy. First we can confirm that nanostructures are not amorphous otherwise shape anisotropy would dominate leading to out-of-plane anisotropy. We can also rule out a random distribution of magnetic easy axes since the nanostructures are clearly crystallized in the diamond structure and would exhibit at least a cubic anisotropy (except if the random distribution of Mn atoms within the nanostructures can yield random easy axes). Since the nanostructures are in strong in-plane compression (their lattice parameter is larger than the matrix one), the cubic symmetry of the diamond structure is broken and magnetic cubic anisotropy is thus unlikely. We rather believe that out-of-plane shape anisotropy is nearly compensated by in-plane magnetoelastic anisotropy due to compression leading to a \\textit{pseudo} cubic anisotropy. From the blocking temperature (15 K) and the magnetic volume of the nanostructures , we can derive their magnetic anisotropy constant using $Kv=25k_{B}T_{B}$: K$\\approx$10 kJ.m$^{-3}$ which is of the same order of magnitude as shape anisotropy.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n    \\includegraphics[width=.35\\linewidth]{./fig12a.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=.63\\linewidth]{./fig12b.eps} \n\\caption{(a) ZFC-FC measurements performed on a Ge$_{0.93}$Mn$_{0.07}$ sample grown at 122$^{\\circ}$C. The in-plane applied field is 0.015 T. Magnetization was recorded up to different T$_{0}$ temperatures: 50 K, 100 K, 150 K, 200 K and 250 K. Curves are shifted up for more clarity. (b) ZFC-FC curves for in-plane and out-of-plane applied fields  (0.015 T).}\n\\label{fig12}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor growth temperatures $T_{g}\\geq$120$^{\\circ}$C and Mn concentrations $\\geq$ 7 \\%, samples exhibit a magnetic signal above 200 K corresponding to Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters (see Fig. 7a). As we can see, SQUID measurements are much more sensitive to the presence of Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters, even at low concentration, than TEM and x-ray diffraction used in section \\ref{structural}. We also observe a sharp transition in the ZFC curve (see Fig. 7b, Fig. 12a and 12b): the peak becomes very large and is shifted towards high blocking temperatures (the signal is maximum at $T=$23 K). This can be easily understood as a magnetic percolation of the four independent nanostructures obtained at low growth temperatures into a single magnetic nanocolumn. Therefore the magnetic volume increases sharply as well as blocking temperatures. At the same time, the size distribution widens as observed in TEM. In Fig. 12a, we have performed ZFC-FC measurements at different $T_{0}$ temperatures. The ZFC-FC irreversibility is observed up to the Curie temperature of $\\approx$120 K meaning that a fraction of nanocolumns is ferromagnetic (\\textit{i.e.} $T_{B}\\geq T_{C}$).\nIn Fig. 12b, in-plane and out-of-plane ZFC curves nearly superimpose for $T\\leq$150 K due to the isotropic magnetic behavior of the nanocolumns: in-plane magnetoelastic anisotropy is still compensating out-of-plane shape anisotropy. Moreover the magnetic signal above 150 K corresponding to Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters that start to form in this growth temperature range is strongly anisotropic. This perpendicular anisotropy confirms the epitaxial relation: (0002) Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ $\\parallel$ (002) Ge discussed in Ref.\\cite{Bihl06}. The magnetic easy axis of the clusters lies along the hexagonal $c$-axis which is perpendicular to the film plane.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.35\\linewidth]{./fig13a.eps}\n   \\includegraphics[width=.63\\linewidth]{./fig13b.eps} \n\\caption{(a) ZFC-FC measurements performed on a Ge$_{0.887}$Mn$_{0.113}$ sample grown at 145$^{\\circ}$C. The in-plane applied field is 0.015 T. Magnetization was recorded up to different T$_{0}$ temperatures: 50 K, 100 K, 150 K, 200 K, 250 K and 300 K. Curves are shifted up for more clarity. (b) ZFC-FC curves for in-plane and out-of-plane applied fields (0.015 T).}\n\\label{fig13}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor growth temperatures $T_{g}\\geq$145$^{\\circ}$C the cluster magnetic signal dominates (Fig. 13b). Superparamagnetic nanostructures are investigated performing ZFC-FC measurements at different $T_{0}$ temperatures (Fig. 13a). The first ZFC peak at low temperature \\textit{i.e.} $\\leq$ 150 K is attributed to  low-$T_{C}$ nanocolumns ($T_{C}\\approx$130 K). This peak is wider than for lower growth temperatures and its maximum is further shifted up to 30 K. These results are in agreement with TEM observations: increasing $T_{g}$ leads to larger nanocolumns (\\textit{i.e.} higher blocking temperatures) and wider size distributions. ZFC-FC irreversibility is observed up to the Curie temperature due to the presence of ferromagnetic columns. The second peak above 180 K in the ZFC curve is attributed to Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters and the corresponding ZFC-FC irreversibility persisting up to 300 K means that some clusters are ferromagnetic. We clearly evidence the out-of-plane anisotropy of Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters and the isotropic magnetic behavior of nanocolumns (Fig. 13b). In this growth temperature range, we have also investigated the Mn concentration dependence of magnetic properties. \n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\\center\n    \\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig14a.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig14b.eps} \n\\caption{Temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization (in $\\mu_{B}$/Mn) of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown at 150$^{\\circ}$C plotted for different Mn concentrations: 2.3 \\%; 4 \\%; 7 \\%; 9 \\%; 11.3 \\%. (b) ZFC-FC measurements performed on Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown at 150$^{\\circ}$C. The in-plane applied field is 0.025 T for 2.3 \\% and 4 \\% and 0.015 T for 8 \\% and 11.3 \\%. }\n\\label{fig14}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn Fig. 14a, for low Mn concentrations (2.3 \\% and 4 \\%) the contribution from diluted Mn atoms in the germanium matrix to the saturation magnetization is very high and nearly vanishes for higher Mn concentrations (7 \\%, 9 \\% and 13 \\%) as observed for low growth temperatures. Above 7 \\%, the magnetic signal mainly comes from nanocolumns and Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters. We can derive more information from ZFC-FC measurements (Fig. 14b). Indeed, for 2.3 \\% of Mn, ZFC and FC curves nearly superimpose down to low temperature meaning that nanocolumns are superparamagnetic in the whole temperature range. Moreover the weak irreversibility arising at 300 K  means that some Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters have already formed in the samples even at very low Mn concentrations. For 4 \\% of Mn, we can observe a peak with a maximum at the blocking temperature (12 K) in the ZFC curve. We can also derive the Curie temperature of nanocolumns: $\\approx$45 K. The irresversibility arising at 300 K still comes from Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters. Increasing the Mn concentration above 7 \\% leads to: higher blocking temperatures (20 K and 30 K) due to larger nanocolumns and wider ZFC peaks due to wider size distributions in agreement with TEM observations (see Fig. 3a). Curie temperatures also increase (110 K and 130 K) as well as the contribution from Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters.\\\\\nFinally when increasing $T_{g}$ above 160$^{\\circ}$C, the nanocolumns magnetic signal vanishes and only Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters and diluted Mn atoms coexist. The overall magnetic signal becomes comparable to the one measured on annealed samples in which only Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters are observed by TEM (see Fig. 7a).\\\\\nThe magnetic properties of high-$T_{C}$ nanocolumns obtained for $T_{g}$ close to 130$^{\\circ}$C are discussed in detail in Ref.\\cite{Jame06}.\\\\\nIn conclusion, at low growth temperatures ($T_{g}\\leq$120$^{\\circ}$C), nanocolumns are made of almost 4 independent elongated magnetic nanostructures. For $T_{g}\\geq$120$^{\\circ}$C, these independent nanostructures percolate into a single nanocolumn sharply leading to higher blocking temperatures. Increasing $T_{g}$ leads to larger columns with a wider size distribution as evidenced by ZFC-FC measurements and given by TEM observations. In parallel, some Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters start to form and their contribution increases when increasing $T_{g}$. Results on magnetic anisotropy seems counter-intuitive. Indeed Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters exhibit strong out-of-plane anisotropy whereas nanocolumns which are highly elongated magnetic structures are almost isotropic. This effect is probably due to compensating in-plane magnetoelastic coupling (due to the columns compression) and out-of-plane shape anisotropy. \n\n\\section{Conclusion}\n\nIn this paper, we have investigated the structural and magnetic properties of thin Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown by low temperature molecular beam epitaxy. A wide range of growth temperatures and Mn concentrations have been explored. All the samples contain Mn-rich nanocolumns as a consequence of 2D-spinodal decomposition. However their size, crystalline structure and magnetic properties depend on growth temperature and Mn concentration. For low growth temperatures, nanocolumns are very small (their diameter ranges between 1.8 nm for 1.3 \\% of Mn and 2.8 nm for 11.3 \\% of Mn), their Curie temperature is rather low ($<$ 170 K) and they behave as almost four uncorrelated superparamagnetic nanostructures. Increasing Mn concentration leads to higher columns densities while diameters remain nearly unchanged. For higher growth temperatures, the nanocolumns mean diameter increases and their size distribution widens. Moreover the 4 independent magnetic nanostructures percolate into a single magnetic nanocolumn. Some columns are ferromagnetic even if Curie temperatures remain quite low. In this regime, increasing Mn concentration leads to larger columns while their density remains nearly the same. In parallel, Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ nanoclusters start to form in the film with their $c$-axis perpendicular to the film plane. In both temperature regimes, the Mn incorporation mechanism in the nanocolumns and/or in the matrix changes above 5 \\% of Mn and nanocolumns exhibit an isotropic magnetic behaviour due to the competing effects of out-of-plane shape anisotropy and in-plane magnetoelastic coupling. Finally for a narrow range of growth temperatures around 130$^{\\circ}$C, nanocolumns exhibit Curie temperatures higher than 400 K. Our goal is now to investigate the crystalline structure inside the nanocolumns, in particular the position of Mn atoms in the distorted diamond structure, which is essential to understand magnetic and future transport properties in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films.\n\n\\section{Aknowledgements}\nThe authors would like to thank Dr. F. Rieutord for grazing incidence x-ray diffraction measurements performed on the GMT station of BM32 beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility.\n\n", "answers": ["Spin injection into non magnetic semiconductors, or electrical manipulation of carrier induced magnetism in magnetic semiconductors."], "length": 5917, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "f9b9a553107eed5b994a9aaf07e8ccac487feaa8ff108ec6"}
{"input": "What is the average magnetic moment per column in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films?", "context": "\\section{introduction}\nIn the past few years, the synthesis of ferromagnetic semiconductors has become a major challenge for spintronics. Actually, growing a magnetic and semiconducting material could lead to promising advances like spin injection into non magnetic semiconductors, or electrical manipulation of carrier induced magnetism in magnetic semiconductors \\cite{ohno00,Bouk02}. Up to now, major efforts have focused on diluted magnetic semiconductors (DMS) in which the host semiconducting matrix is randomly substituted by transition metal (TM) ions such as Mn, Cr, Ni, Fe or Co \\cite{Diet02}. However Curie temperatures ($T_{C}$) in DMS remain rather low and TM concentrations must be drastically raised in order to increase $T_{C}$ up to room temperature. That usually leads to phase separation and the formation of secondary phases. It was recently shown that phase separation induced by spinodal decomposition could lead to a significant increase of $T_{C}$ \\cite{Diet06,Fuku06}. For semiconductors showing $T_{C}$ higher than room temperature one can foresee the fabrication of nanodevices such as memory nanodots, or nanochannels for spin injection. Therefore, the precise control of inhomogeneities appears as a new challenge which may open a way to industrial applications of ferromagnetism in semiconductors.\n\nThe increasing interest in group-IV magnetic semiconductors can also be explained by their potential compatibility with the existing silicon technology. In 2002, carrier mediated ferromagnetism was reported in  MBE grown Ge$_{0.94}$Mn$_{0.06}$ films by Park \\textit{et al.} \\cite{Park02}. The maximum critical temperature was 116 K. Recently many publications indicate a significant increase of $T_{C}$ in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ material depending on growth conditions \\cite{Pint05,Li05,tsui03}. Cho \\textit{et al.} reported a Curie temperature as high as 285 K \\cite{Cho02}. \nTaking into account the strong tendency of Mn ions to form intermetallic compounds in germanium, a detailed investigation of the nanoscale structure is required. Up to now, only a few studies have focused on the nanoscale composition in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films. Local chemical inhomogeneities have been recently reported by Kang \\textit{et al.} \\cite{Kang05} who evidenced a micrometer scale segregation of manganese in large Mn rich stripes. Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ as well as Ge$_8$Mn$_{11}$ clusters embedded in a germanium matrix have been reported by many authors. However, Curie temperatures never exceed 300 K \\cite{Bihl06,Morr06,Pass06,Ahle06}. Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ clusters exhibit a Curie temperature of 296 K \\cite{Mass90}. This phase frequently observed in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films is the most stable (Ge,Mn) alloy. The other stable compound Ge$_8$Mn$_{11}$ has also been observed in nanocrystallites surrounded with pure germanium \\cite{Park01}. Ge$_8$Mn$_{11}$ and Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ phases are ferromagnetic but their metallic character considerably complicates their potential use as spin injectors.\nRecently, some new Mn-rich nanostructures have been evidenced in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ layers. Sugahara \\textit{et al.} \\cite{Sugh05} reported the formation of high Mn content (between 10 \\% and 20 \\% of Mn) amorphous Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_x$ precipitates  in a Mn-free germanium matrix. Mn-rich coherent cubic clusters were observed by Ahlers \\textit{et al.} \\cite{Ahle06} which exhibit a Curie temperatures below 200 K. Finally, high-$T_{C}$ ($>$ 400 K) Mn-rich nanocolumns have been evidenced \\cite{Jame06} which could lead to silicon compatible room temperature operational devices.\\\\\nIn the present paper, we investigate the structural and magnetic properties of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_x$ thin films for low growth temperatures ($<$ 200$^{\\circ}$C) and low Mn concentrations (between 1 \\% and 11 \\%). By combining TEM, x-Ray diffraction and SQUID magnetometry, we could identify different magnetic phases. We show that depending on growth conditions, we obtain either Mn-rich nanocolumns or Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters embedded in a germanium matrix. We discuss the structural and magnetic properties of these nanostructures as a function of manganese concentration and growth temperature. We also discuss the magnetic anisotropy of nanocolumns and  \nGe$_3$Mn$_5$ clusters. \n\n\\section{Sample growth}\n\nGrowth was performed using solid sources molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) by co-depositing Ge and Mn evaporated from standard Knudsen effusion cells.  Deposition rate was low ($\\approx$ 0.2 \\AA.s$^{-1}$). Germanium substrates were epi-ready Ge(001) wafers with a residual n-type doping and resistivity of 10$^{15}$ cm$^{-3}$ and 5 $\\Omega.cm$ respectively. After thermal desorption of the surface oxide, a 40 nm thick Ge buffer layer was grown at 250$^{\\circ}$C, resulting in a 2 $\\times$ 1 surface reconstruction as observed by reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) (see Fig. 1a). Next, 80 nm thick Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films were subsequently grown  at low substrate temperature (from 80$^{\\circ}$C to 200$^{\\circ}$C). Mn content has been determined by x-ray fluorescence measurements performed on thick samples ($\\approx$ 1 $\\mu m$ thick) and complementary Rutherford Back Scattering (RBS) on thin Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown on silicon. Mn concentrations range from 1 \\% to 11\\% Mn.\n\nFor Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown at substrate temperatures below 180$^{\\circ}$C, after the first monolayer (ML) deposition, the  2 $\\times$ 1 surface reconstruction almost totally disappears. After depositing few MLs, a slightly diffuse 1 $\\times$ 1 streaky RHEED pattern and a very weak 2 $\\times$ 1 reconstruction (Fig. 1b) indicate a predominantly two-dimensional growth. For growth temperatures above 180$^{\\circ}$C additional spots appear in the RHEED pattern during the Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ growth (Fig. 1c). These spots may correspond to the formation of very small secondary phase crystallites. The nature of these crystallites will be discussed below.\n\nTransmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations were performed using a JEOL 4000EX microscope with an acceleration voltage of 400 kV. Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM) was done using a JEOL 3010 microscope equipped with a Gatan Image Filter . Sample preparation was carried out by standard mechanical polishing and argon ion milling for cross-section investigations and plane views were prepared by wet etching with H$_3$PO$_4$-H$_2$O$_2$ solution \\cite{Kaga82}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n    \\includegraphics[width=.29\\linewidth]{./fig1a.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=.29\\linewidth]{./fig1b.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=.29\\linewidth]{./fig1c.eps}\n    \\caption{RHEED patterns recorded during the growth of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films: (a) 2 $\\times$ 1 surface reconstruction of the germanium buffer layer. (b) 1 $\\times$ 1 streaky RHEED pattern obtained at low growth temperatures ($T_g<$180$^{\\circ}$C). (c) RHEED pattern of a sample grown at $T_g=$180$^{\\circ}$C. The additional spots reveal the presence of Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ clusters at the surface of the film.}\n\\label{fig1}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{Structural properties \\label{structural}}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig2a.eps}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig2b.eps}\n\t \\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig2c.eps}\n\t \\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig2d.eps}\n    \\caption{Transmission electron micrographs of a Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film grown at 130$^{\\circ}$C and containing 6 \\% of manganese. (a) cross-section along the [110] axis : we clearly see the presence of nanocolumns elongated along the growth axis. (b) High resolution image of the interface between the Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film and the Ge buffer layer. The Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film exhibits the same diamond structure as pure germanium. No defect can be seen which could be caused by the presence of nanocolumns. (c) Plane view micrograph performed on the same sample confirms the columnar structure and gives the density and size distribution of nanocolumns. (d) Mn chemical map obtained by energy filtered transmission electron microcopy (EFTEM). The background was carefully substracted from pre-edge images. Bright areas correspond to Mn-rich regions.}\n\\label{fig2}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn samples grown at 130$^{\\circ}$C and containing 6 \\% Mn, we can observe vertical elongated nanostructures \\textit{i.e.} nanocolumns as shown in Fig. 2a. Nanocolumns extend through the whole Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film thickness. From the high resolution TEM image shown in Fig. 2b, we deduce their average diameter around 3 nm. Moreover in Fig. 2b, the interface between the Ge buffer layer and the Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film is flat and no defect propagates from the interface into the film. The Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film is a perfect single crystal in epitaxial relationship with the substrate. In Fig. 2c is shown a plane view micrograph of the same sample confirming the presence of nanocolumns in the film. From this image, we can deduce the size and density of nanocolumns. The nanocolumns density is 13000 $\\rm{\\mu m}^{-2}$ with a mean diameter of 3 nm which is coherent with cross-section measurements. In order to estimate the chemical composition of these nanocolumns, we further performed chemical mapping using EFTEM. In Fig. 2d we show a cross sectional Mn chemical map of the Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ film. This map shows that the formation of nanocolumns is a consequence of Mn segregation. Nanocolumns are Mn rich and the surrounding matrix is Mn poor. However, it is impossible to deduce the Mn concentration in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ nanocolumns from this cross section. Indeed, in cross section observations, the columns diameter is much smaller than the probed film thickness and the signal comes from the superposititon of the Ge matrix and Mn-rich nanocolumns. In order to quantify Mn concentration inside the nanocolumns and inside the Ge matrix, EELS measurements (not shown here) have been performed in a plane view geometry \\cite{Jame06}. These observations revealed that the matrix Mn content is below 1 \\% (detection limit of our instrument). Measuring the surface occupied by the matrix and the nanocolumns in plane view TEM images, and considering the average Mn concentration in the sample (6 \\%), we can estimate the Mn concentration in the nanocolumns. The Mn concentration measured by EELS being between 0\\% and 1\\%, we can conclude that the Mn content in the nanocolumns is between 30 \\% and 38 \\%.\\\\\nFor samples grown between 80$^\\circ$C and 150$^\\circ$C cross section and plane view TEM observations reveal the presence of Mn rich nanocolumns surrounded with a Mn poor Ge matrix. In order to investigate the influence of Mn concentration on the structural properties of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films, ten samples have been grown at 100$^\\circ$C and at 150$^\\circ$C with Mn concentrations of 1.3 \\%, 2.3 \\%, 4 \\%, 7 \\% and 11.3 \\%. Their structural properties have been investigated by plane view TEM observations. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n    \\includegraphics[width=.98\\linewidth]{./fig3a.eps}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.45\\linewidth]{./fig3b.eps}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=.45\\linewidth]{./fig3c.eps}\n    \\caption{Nanocolumns size and density as a function of growth conditions. Samples considered have been grown at 100$^{\\circ}$C and 150$^{\\circ}$C respectively. (a) Mn concentration dependence of the size distribution. (b) columns density as a function of Mn concentration. (c) Volume fraction of the nanocolumns as a function of Mn concentration.}\n \\label{fig3}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor samples grown at 100$^\\circ$C with Mn concentrations below 5 \\% the nanocolumns mean diameter is 1.8$\\pm$0.2 nm. The evolution of columns density as a fonction of Mn concentration is reported in figure 3b. By increasing the Mn concentration from 1.3 \\% to 4 \\% we observe a significant increase of the columns density from 13000 to 30000 $\\rm{\\mu m}^{-2}$. For Mn concentrations higher than 5 \\% the density seems to reach a plateau corresponding to 35000 $\\rm{\\mu m}^{-2}$ and their diameter slightly increases from 1.8 nm at 4 \\% to 2.8 nm at 11.3 \\%. By plotting the volume fraction occupied by the columns in the film as a function of Mn concentration, we observe a linear dependence for Mn contents below 5 \\%. The non-linear behavior above 5 \\% may indicate that the mechanism of Mn incorporation is different in this concentration range, leading to an increase of Mn concentration in the columns or in the matrix. For samples grown at 100$^\\circ$C, nanocolumns are always fully coherent with the surrounding matrix (Fig. 4a). \n\nIncreasing the Mn content in the samples grown at 150$^\\circ$C from 1.3 \\% to 11.3 \\% leads to a decrease of the columns density (fig 3b). Moreover, their average diameter increases significantly and size distributions become very broad (see Fig. 3a). For the highest Mn concentration (11.3 \\%) we observe the coexistence of very small columns with a diameter of 2.5 nm and very large columns with a diameter of 9 nm. In samples grown at 150$^\\circ$C containing 11.3 \\% of Mn, the crystalline structure of nanocolumns is also highly modified. In plane view TEM micrographs, one can see columns exhibiting several different crystalline structures. We still observe some columns which are fully coherent with the Ge matrix like in the samples grown at lower temperature. Nevertheless, observations performed on these samples grown at 150$^\\circ$C and with 11.3\\% Mn reveal some uniaxially \\cite{Jame06} or fully relaxed columns exhibiting a misfit of 4 \\% between the matrix and the columns and leading to misfit dislocations at the interface between the column and the matrix (see fig. 4b). Thus we can conclude that coherent columns are probably in strong compression and the surrounding matrix in tension. On the same samples (T$_g$=150$^{\\circ}$C, 11.3\\% Mn), we also observe a large number of highly disordered nanocolumns leading to an amorphous like TEM contrast(fig. 4c).\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.31\\linewidth]{./fig4a.eps}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.31\\linewidth]{./fig4b.eps}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.31\\linewidth]{./fig4c.eps}\n    \\caption{Plane view high resolution transmission electron micrographs of different types of nanocolumns : (a) typical structure of a column grown at 100$^{\\circ}$C. The crystal structure is exactly the same as germanium . (b) Partially relaxed nanocolumn. One can see dislocations at the interface between the columns and the matrix leading to stress relaxation. (c) Amorphous nanocolumn. These columns are typical in samples grown at 150$^{\\circ}$C with high Mn contents.}\n \\label{fig4}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn conclusion, we have evidenced a complex mechanism of Mn incorporation in Mn doped Ge films grown at low temperature. In particular Mn incorporation is highly inhomogeneous. For very low growth temperatures (below 120$^\\circ$C) the diffusion of Mn atoms leads to the formation of Mn rich, vertical nanocolumns. Their density mostly depends on Mn concentration and their mean diameter is about 2 nm. These results can be compared with the theoretical predictions of Fukushima \\textit{et al.} \\cite{Fuku06}: they proposed a model of spinodal decomposition in (Ga,Mn)N and (Zn,Cr)Te based on layer by layer growth conditions and a strong pair attraction between Mn atoms which leads to the formation of nanocolumns. This model may also properly describe the formation of Mn rich nanocolumns in our samples. Layer by layer growth conditions can be deduced from RHEED pattern evolution during growth. For all the samples grown at low temperature, RHEED observations clearly indicate two-dimensional growth. Moreover, Ge/Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$/Ge heterostructures have been grown and observed by TEM (see Fig. 5). Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$/Ge (as well as Ge/Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$) interfaces are very flat and sharp thus confirming a two-dimensional, layer by layer growth mode. Therefore we can assume that the formation of Mn rich nanocolumns is a consequence of 2D-spinodal decomposition.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.7\\linewidth]{./fig5.eps}\n    \\caption{Cross section high resolution micrograph of a Ge/Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$/Ge/Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$/Ge heterostructure. This sample has been grown at 130 $^{\\circ}$C with 6\\% Mn. Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ layers are 15 nm thick and Ge spacers 5 nm thick. We clearly see the sharpness of both Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$/Ge and Ge/Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ interfaces. Mn segregation leading to the columns formation already takes place in very thin Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films.}\n\\label{fig5}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor growth temperatures higher than 160$^\\circ$C, cross section TEM and EFTEM observations (not shown here) reveal the coexistence of two Mn-rich phases: nanocolumns and Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ nanoclusters embedded in the germanium matrix. A typical high resolution TEM image is shown in figure 6. \nGe$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters are not visible in RHEED patterns for temperatures below 180$^\\circ$C. To investigate the nature of these clusters, we performed x-ray diffraction in $\\theta-2\\theta$ mode. Diffraction scans were acquired on a high resolution diffractometer using the copper K$_\\alpha$ radiation and on the GMT station of the BM32 beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF). Three samples grown at different temperatures and/or annealed at high temperature were investigated. The two first samples are Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown at 130$^\\circ$C and 170$^\\circ$C respectively. The third one has been grown at 130$^\\circ$C and post-growth annealed at 650$^\\circ$C. By analysing x-ray diffraction spectra, we can evidence two different crystalline structures. For the sample grown at 130$^\\circ$C, the $\\theta-2\\theta$ scan only reveals the (004) Bragg peak of the germanium crystal, confirming the good epitaxial relationship between the layer and the substrate, and the absence of secondary phases in the film in spite of a high dynamics of the order of 10$^7$. For both samples grown at 170$^\\circ$C and annealed at 650$^\\circ$C, $\\theta-2\\theta$ spectra are identical. In addition to the (004) peak of germanium, we observe three additional weak peaks. The first one corresponds to the (002) germanium forbidden peak which probably comes from a small distortion of the germanium crystal, and the two other peaks are respectively attributed to the (002) and (004) Bragg peaks of a secondary phase. The $c$ lattice parameter of Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ hexagonal crystal is 5.053 \\AA \\ \\cite{Fort90} which is in very good agreement with the values obtained from diffraction data for both (002) and (004) lines assuming that the $c$ axis of Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ is along the [001] direction of the Ge substrate.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n    \\center\n\t\\includegraphics[width=.7\\linewidth]{./fig6.eps}\n\t\\caption{Cross section high resolution transmission electron micrograph of a sample grown at 170$^{\\circ}$C. We observe the coexistence of two different Mn-rich phases: Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ nanocolumns and Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ clusters.}\n\\label{fig6}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn summary, in a wide range of growth temperatures and Mn concentrations, we have evidenced a two-dimensional spinodal decomposition leading to the formation of Mn-rich nanocolumns in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films. This decomposition is probably the consequence of: $(i)$ a strong pair attraction between Mn atoms, $(ii)$ a strong surface diffusion of Mn atoms in germanium even at low growth temperatures and $(iii)$ layer by layer growth conditions. We have also investigated the influence of growth parameters on the spinodal decomposition: at low growth temperatures (100$^{\\circ}$C), increasing the Mn content leads to higher columns densities while at higher growth temperatures (150$^{\\circ}$C), the columns density remains nearly constant whereas their size increases drastically. By plotting the nanocolumns density as a function of Mn content, we have shown that the mechanism of Mn incorporation in Ge changes above 5 \\% of Mn. Finally, using TEM observations and x-ray diffraction, we have shown that Ge$_3$Mn$_5$ nanoclusters start to form at growth temperatures higher than 160$^\\circ$C.\n\n\\section{Magnetic properties \\label{magnetic}}\n\nWe have thoroughly investigated the magnetic properties of thin Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films for different growth temperatures and Mn concentrations. In this section, we focus on Mn concentrations between 2 \\% and 11 \\%. We could clearly identify four different magnetic phases in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films : diluted Mn atoms in the germanium matrix, low $T_{C}$ nanocolumns ($T_{C}$ $\\leq$ 170 K), high $T_{C}$ nanocolumns ($T_{C}$ $\\geq$ 400 K) and Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters ($T_{C}$ $\\thickapprox$ 300 K). The relative weight of each phase clearly depends on the growth temperature and to a lesser extend on Mn concentration. For low growth temperature ($<$ 120$^{\\circ}$C), we show that nanocolumns are actually made of four uncorrelated superparamagnetic nanostructures. Increasing T$_{g}$ above 120$^{\\circ}$C, we first obtain continuous columns exhibiting low $T_{C}$ ($<$ 170 K) and high $T_{C}$ ($>$ 400 K) for $T_{g}\\approx$130$^{\\circ}$C. The larger columns become ferromagnetic \\textit{i.e.} $T_{B}>T_{C}$. Meanwhile Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters start to form. Finally for higher $T_{g}$, the magnetic contribution from Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters keeps increasing while the nanocolumns signal progressively disappears.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.6\\linewidth]{./fig7a.eps}\n   \\includegraphics[width=.3\\linewidth]{./fig7b.eps}\n\\caption{(a) Temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization (in $\\mu_{B}$/Mn) of Ge$_{0.93}$Mn$_{0.07}$ samples for different growth temperatures. The magnetic field is applied in the film plane. The inset shows the temperature dependence of a sample grown at 130$^{\\circ}$C and annealed at 650$^{\\circ}$C for 15 minutes. After annealing, the magnetic signal mostly arises from Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters. (b) ZFC-FC measurements performed on Ge$_{0.93}$Mn$_{0.07}$ samples for different growth temperatures. The in-plane applied field is 0.015 T. The ZFC peak at low temperature ($\\leq$150 K) can be attributed to the superparamagnetic nanocolumns. This peak widens and shifts towards high blocking temperatures when increasing growth temperature. The second peak above 150 K in the ZFC curve which increases with increasing growth temperature is attributed to superparamagnetic Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters. The increasing ZFC-FC irreversibility at $\\approx$ 300 K is due to the increasing contribution from large ferromagnetic Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters. The nanocolumns signal completely vanishes after annealing at 650$^{\\circ}$C for 15 minutes.}\n\\label{fig7}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn Fig. 7a, the saturation magnetization at 2 Tesla in $\\mu_{B}$/Mn of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films with 7 \\% of Mn is plotted as a function of temperature for different growth temperatures ranging from $T_{g}$=90$^{\\circ}$C up to 160$^{\\circ}$C. The inset shows the temperature dependence of the magnetization at 2 Tesla after annealing at 650$^{\\circ}$C during 15 minutes. Figure 7b displays the corresponding Zero Field Cooled - Field Cooled (ZFC-FC) curves recorded at 0.015 Tesla. In the ZFC-FC procedure, the sample is first cooled down to 5 K in zero magnetic field and the susceptibility is subsequently recorded at 0.015 Tesla while increasing the temperature up to 400 K (ZFC curve). Then, the susceptibility is recorded under the same magnetic field while decreasing the temperature down to 5 K (FC curve). Three different regimes can be clearly distinguished. \\\\\nFor $T_{g}\\leq$120$^{\\circ}$C, the temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization remains nearly the same while increasing growth temperature. The overall magnetic signal vanishing above 200 K is attributed to the nanocolumns whereas the increasing signal below 50 K originates from diluted Mn atoms in the surrounding matrix. The Mn concentration dependence of the saturation magnetization is displayed in figure 8. For the lowest Mn concentration (4 \\%), the contribution from diluted Mn atoms is very high and drops sharply for higher Mn concentrations (7 \\%, 9 \\% and 11.3 \\%). Therefore the fraction of Mn atoms in the diluted matrix decreases with Mn concentration probably because Mn atoms are more and more incorporated in the nanocolumns. In parallel, the Curie temperature of nanocolumns increases with the Mn concentration reaching 170 K for 11.3 \\% of Mn. This behavior may be related to different Mn compositions and to the increasing diameter of nanocolumns (from 1.8 nm to 2.8 nm) as discussed in section \\ref{structural}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.7\\linewidth]{./fig8.eps}\n    \\caption{Temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization (in $\\mu_{B}$/Mn) of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown at 100$^{\\circ}$C plotted for different Mn concentrations: 4.1 \\%; 7 \\%; 8.9 \\% and 11.3 \\%.}\n\\label{fig8}\n\\end{figure}\n\nZFC-FC measurements show that the nanocolumns are superparamagnetic. The magnetic signal from the diluted Mn atoms in the matrix is too weak to be detected in susceptibility measurements at low temperature. In samples containing 4 \\% of Mn, ZFC and FC curves superimpose down to low temperatures. As we do not observe hysteresis loops at low temperature, we believe that at this Mn concentration nanocolumns are  superparamagnetic in the whole temperature range and the blocking temperature cannot be measured. For higher Mn contents, the ZFC curve exhibits a very narrow peak with a maximum at the blocking temperature of 15 K whatever the Mn concentration and growth temperature (see Fig. 7b). Therefore the anisotropy barrier distribution is narrow and assuming that nanocolumns have the same magnetic anisotropy, this is a consequence of the very narrow size distribution of the nanocolumns as observed by TEM. To probe the anisotropy barrier distribution, we have performed ZFC-FC measurements but instead of warming the sample up to 400 K, we stopped at a lower temperature $T_{0}$. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.6\\linewidth]{./fig9.eps}\n\\caption{Schematic drawing of the anisotropy barrier distribution n($E_{B}$) of superparamagnetic nanostructures. If magnetic anisotropy does not depend on the particle size, this distribution exactly reflects their magnetic size distribution. In this drawing the blocking temperature ($T_{B}$) corresponds to the distribution maximum. At a given temperature $T_{0}$ such that 25$k_{B}T_{0}$ falls into the anisotropy barrier distribution, the largest nanostructures with an anisotropy energy larger than 25$k_{B}T_{0}$ are blocked whereas the others are superparamagnetic.}\n\\label{fig9}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIf this temperature falls into the anisotropy barrier distribution as depicted in Fig. 9, the FC curve deviates from the ZFC curve. Indeed the smallest nanostructures have become superparamagnetic at $T_{0}$ and when decreasing again the temperature, their magnetization freezes along a direction close to the magnetic field and the FC susceptibility is higher than the ZFC susceptibility. Therefore any irreversibility in this procedure points at the presence of superparamagnetic nanostructures. The results are given in Fig. 10a. ZFC and FC curves clearly superimpose up to $T_{0}$=250 K thus the nanocolumns are superparamagnetic up to their Curie temperature and no Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters could be detected. Moreover for low $T_{0}$ values, a peak appears at low temperature in FC curves which evidences strong antiferromagnetic interactions between the nanocolumns \\cite{Chan00}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n    \\includegraphics[width=.35\\linewidth]{./fig10a.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=.63\\linewidth]{./fig10b.eps}\n\\caption{(a) ZFC-FC measurements performed on a Ge$_{0.887}$Mn$_{0.113}$ sample grown at 115$^{\\circ}$C. The in-plane applied field is 0.015 T. Magnetization was recorded up to different T$_{0}$ temperatures: 30 K, 50 K, 100 K, 150 K, 200 K and 250 K. Curves are shifted up for more clarity. (b) ZFC-FC curves for in-plane and out-of-plane applied fields (0.015 T).}\n\\label{fig10}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn order to derive the magnetic size and anisotropy of the Mn-rich nanocolumns embedded in the Ge matrix, we have fitted the inverse normalized in-plane (resp. out-of-plane) susceptibility: $\\chi_{\\parallel}^{-1}$ (resp. $\\chi_{\\perp}^{-1}$). The corresponding experimental ZFC-FC curves are reported in Fig. 10b. Since susceptibility measurements are performed at low field (0.015 T), the matrix magnetic signal remains negligible. In order to normalize susceptibility data, we need to divide the magnetic moment by the saturated magnetic moment recorded at 5 T. However the matrix magnetic signal becomes very strong at 5 T and low temperature so that we need to subtract it from the saturated magnetic moment using a simple Curie function. From Fig. 10b, we can conclude that nanocolumns are isotropic. Therefore to fit experimental data we use the following expression well suited for isotropic systems or cubic anisotropy: $\\chi_{\\parallel}^{-1}= \\chi_{\\perp}^{-1}\\approx 3k_{B}T/M(T)+\\mu_{0}H_{eff}(T)$. $k_{B}$ is the Boltzmann constant, $M=M_{s}v$ is the magnetic moment of a single-domain nanostructure (macrospin approximation) where $M_{s}$ is its magnetization and $v$ its volume. The in-plane magnetic field is applied along $[110]$ or $[-110]$ crystal axes. Since the nanostructures Curie temperature does not exceed 170 K, the temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization is also accounted for by writting $M(T)$. Antiferromagnetic interactions between nanostructures are also considered by adding an effective field estimated in the mean field approximation \\cite{Fruc02}: $\\mu_{0}H_{eff}(T)$.\nThe only fitting parameters are the maximum magnetic moment (\\textit{i.e.} at low temperature) per nanostructure: $M$ (in Bohr magnetons $\\mu_{B}$) and the maximum interaction field (\\textit{i.e.} at low temperature): $\\mu_{0}H_{eff}$.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.7\\linewidth]{./fig11.eps}\n\\caption{Temperature dependence of the inverse in-plane (open circles) and out-of-plane (open squares) normalized susceptibilities of a Ge$_{0.887}$Mn$_{0.113}$ sample grown at 115$^{\\circ}$C. Fits were performed assuming isotropic nanostructures or cubic anisotropy. Dashed line is for in-plane susceptibility and solid line for out-of-plane susceptibility.}\n\\label{fig11}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn Fig. 11, the best fits lead to $M\\approx$1250 $\\mu_{B}$ and $\\mu_{0}H_{eff}\\approx$102 mT for in-plane susceptibility and $M\\approx$1600 $\\mu_{B}$ and $\\mu_{0}H_{eff}\\approx$98 mT for out-of-plane susceptibility. It gives an average magnetic moment of 1425 $\\mu_{B}$ per column and an effective interaction field of 100 mT. Using this magnetic moment and its temperature dependence, magnetization curves could be fitted using a Langevin function and $M(H/T)$ curves superimpose for $T<$100 K. However, from the saturated magnetic moment of the columns and their density (35000 $\\rm{\\mu m}^{-2}$), we find almost 6000 $\\mu_{B}$ per column. Therefore, for low growth temperatures, we need to assume that nanocolumns are actually made of almost four independent elongated magnetic nanostructures. The effective field for antiferromagnetic interactions between nanostructures estimated from the susceptibility fits is at least one order of magnitude larger than what is expected from pure magnetostatic coupling. This difference may be due to either an additional antiferromagnetic coupling through the matrix which origin remains unexplained or to the mean field approximation which is no more valid in this strong coupling regime. As for magnetic anisotropy, the nanostructures behave as isotropic magnetic systems or exhibit a cubic magnetic anisotropy. First we can confirm that nanostructures are not amorphous otherwise shape anisotropy would dominate leading to out-of-plane anisotropy. We can also rule out a random distribution of magnetic easy axes since the nanostructures are clearly crystallized in the diamond structure and would exhibit at least a cubic anisotropy (except if the random distribution of Mn atoms within the nanostructures can yield random easy axes). Since the nanostructures are in strong in-plane compression (their lattice parameter is larger than the matrix one), the cubic symmetry of the diamond structure is broken and magnetic cubic anisotropy is thus unlikely. We rather believe that out-of-plane shape anisotropy is nearly compensated by in-plane magnetoelastic anisotropy due to compression leading to a \\textit{pseudo} cubic anisotropy. From the blocking temperature (15 K) and the magnetic volume of the nanostructures , we can derive their magnetic anisotropy constant using $Kv=25k_{B}T_{B}$: K$\\approx$10 kJ.m$^{-3}$ which is of the same order of magnitude as shape anisotropy.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\center\n    \\includegraphics[width=.35\\linewidth]{./fig12a.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=.63\\linewidth]{./fig12b.eps} \n\\caption{(a) ZFC-FC measurements performed on a Ge$_{0.93}$Mn$_{0.07}$ sample grown at 122$^{\\circ}$C. The in-plane applied field is 0.015 T. Magnetization was recorded up to different T$_{0}$ temperatures: 50 K, 100 K, 150 K, 200 K and 250 K. Curves are shifted up for more clarity. (b) ZFC-FC curves for in-plane and out-of-plane applied fields  (0.015 T).}\n\\label{fig12}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor growth temperatures $T_{g}\\geq$120$^{\\circ}$C and Mn concentrations $\\geq$ 7 \\%, samples exhibit a magnetic signal above 200 K corresponding to Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters (see Fig. 7a). As we can see, SQUID measurements are much more sensitive to the presence of Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters, even at low concentration, than TEM and x-ray diffraction used in section \\ref{structural}. We also observe a sharp transition in the ZFC curve (see Fig. 7b, Fig. 12a and 12b): the peak becomes very large and is shifted towards high blocking temperatures (the signal is maximum at $T=$23 K). This can be easily understood as a magnetic percolation of the four independent nanostructures obtained at low growth temperatures into a single magnetic nanocolumn. Therefore the magnetic volume increases sharply as well as blocking temperatures. At the same time, the size distribution widens as observed in TEM. In Fig. 12a, we have performed ZFC-FC measurements at different $T_{0}$ temperatures. The ZFC-FC irreversibility is observed up to the Curie temperature of $\\approx$120 K meaning that a fraction of nanocolumns is ferromagnetic (\\textit{i.e.} $T_{B}\\geq T_{C}$).\nIn Fig. 12b, in-plane and out-of-plane ZFC curves nearly superimpose for $T\\leq$150 K due to the isotropic magnetic behavior of the nanocolumns: in-plane magnetoelastic anisotropy is still compensating out-of-plane shape anisotropy. Moreover the magnetic signal above 150 K corresponding to Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters that start to form in this growth temperature range is strongly anisotropic. This perpendicular anisotropy confirms the epitaxial relation: (0002) Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ $\\parallel$ (002) Ge discussed in Ref.\\cite{Bihl06}. The magnetic easy axis of the clusters lies along the hexagonal $c$-axis which is perpendicular to the film plane.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\\center\n   \\includegraphics[width=.35\\linewidth]{./fig13a.eps}\n   \\includegraphics[width=.63\\linewidth]{./fig13b.eps} \n\\caption{(a) ZFC-FC measurements performed on a Ge$_{0.887}$Mn$_{0.113}$ sample grown at 145$^{\\circ}$C. The in-plane applied field is 0.015 T. Magnetization was recorded up to different T$_{0}$ temperatures: 50 K, 100 K, 150 K, 200 K, 250 K and 300 K. Curves are shifted up for more clarity. (b) ZFC-FC curves for in-plane and out-of-plane applied fields (0.015 T).}\n\\label{fig13}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor growth temperatures $T_{g}\\geq$145$^{\\circ}$C the cluster magnetic signal dominates (Fig. 13b). Superparamagnetic nanostructures are investigated performing ZFC-FC measurements at different $T_{0}$ temperatures (Fig. 13a). The first ZFC peak at low temperature \\textit{i.e.} $\\leq$ 150 K is attributed to  low-$T_{C}$ nanocolumns ($T_{C}\\approx$130 K). This peak is wider than for lower growth temperatures and its maximum is further shifted up to 30 K. These results are in agreement with TEM observations: increasing $T_{g}$ leads to larger nanocolumns (\\textit{i.e.} higher blocking temperatures) and wider size distributions. ZFC-FC irreversibility is observed up to the Curie temperature due to the presence of ferromagnetic columns. The second peak above 180 K in the ZFC curve is attributed to Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters and the corresponding ZFC-FC irreversibility persisting up to 300 K means that some clusters are ferromagnetic. We clearly evidence the out-of-plane anisotropy of Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters and the isotropic magnetic behavior of nanocolumns (Fig. 13b). In this growth temperature range, we have also investigated the Mn concentration dependence of magnetic properties. \n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\\center\n    \\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig14a.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=.49\\linewidth]{./fig14b.eps} \n\\caption{Temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization (in $\\mu_{B}$/Mn) of Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown at 150$^{\\circ}$C plotted for different Mn concentrations: 2.3 \\%; 4 \\%; 7 \\%; 9 \\%; 11.3 \\%. (b) ZFC-FC measurements performed on Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown at 150$^{\\circ}$C. The in-plane applied field is 0.025 T for 2.3 \\% and 4 \\% and 0.015 T for 8 \\% and 11.3 \\%. }\n\\label{fig14}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn Fig. 14a, for low Mn concentrations (2.3 \\% and 4 \\%) the contribution from diluted Mn atoms in the germanium matrix to the saturation magnetization is very high and nearly vanishes for higher Mn concentrations (7 \\%, 9 \\% and 13 \\%) as observed for low growth temperatures. Above 7 \\%, the magnetic signal mainly comes from nanocolumns and Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters. We can derive more information from ZFC-FC measurements (Fig. 14b). Indeed, for 2.3 \\% of Mn, ZFC and FC curves nearly superimpose down to low temperature meaning that nanocolumns are superparamagnetic in the whole temperature range. Moreover the weak irreversibility arising at 300 K  means that some Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters have already formed in the samples even at very low Mn concentrations. For 4 \\% of Mn, we can observe a peak with a maximum at the blocking temperature (12 K) in the ZFC curve. We can also derive the Curie temperature of nanocolumns: $\\approx$45 K. The irresversibility arising at 300 K still comes from Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters. Increasing the Mn concentration above 7 \\% leads to: higher blocking temperatures (20 K and 30 K) due to larger nanocolumns and wider ZFC peaks due to wider size distributions in agreement with TEM observations (see Fig. 3a). Curie temperatures also increase (110 K and 130 K) as well as the contribution from Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters.\\\\\nFinally when increasing $T_{g}$ above 160$^{\\circ}$C, the nanocolumns magnetic signal vanishes and only Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters and diluted Mn atoms coexist. The overall magnetic signal becomes comparable to the one measured on annealed samples in which only Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters are observed by TEM (see Fig. 7a).\\\\\nThe magnetic properties of high-$T_{C}$ nanocolumns obtained for $T_{g}$ close to 130$^{\\circ}$C are discussed in detail in Ref.\\cite{Jame06}.\\\\\nIn conclusion, at low growth temperatures ($T_{g}\\leq$120$^{\\circ}$C), nanocolumns are made of almost 4 independent elongated magnetic nanostructures. For $T_{g}\\geq$120$^{\\circ}$C, these independent nanostructures percolate into a single nanocolumn sharply leading to higher blocking temperatures. Increasing $T_{g}$ leads to larger columns with a wider size distribution as evidenced by ZFC-FC measurements and given by TEM observations. In parallel, some Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters start to form and their contribution increases when increasing $T_{g}$. Results on magnetic anisotropy seems counter-intuitive. Indeed Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ clusters exhibit strong out-of-plane anisotropy whereas nanocolumns which are highly elongated magnetic structures are almost isotropic. This effect is probably due to compensating in-plane magnetoelastic coupling (due to the columns compression) and out-of-plane shape anisotropy. \n\n\\section{Conclusion}\n\nIn this paper, we have investigated the structural and magnetic properties of thin Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films grown by low temperature molecular beam epitaxy. A wide range of growth temperatures and Mn concentrations have been explored. All the samples contain Mn-rich nanocolumns as a consequence of 2D-spinodal decomposition. However their size, crystalline structure and magnetic properties depend on growth temperature and Mn concentration. For low growth temperatures, nanocolumns are very small (their diameter ranges between 1.8 nm for 1.3 \\% of Mn and 2.8 nm for 11.3 \\% of Mn), their Curie temperature is rather low ($<$ 170 K) and they behave as almost four uncorrelated superparamagnetic nanostructures. Increasing Mn concentration leads to higher columns densities while diameters remain nearly unchanged. For higher growth temperatures, the nanocolumns mean diameter increases and their size distribution widens. Moreover the 4 independent magnetic nanostructures percolate into a single magnetic nanocolumn. Some columns are ferromagnetic even if Curie temperatures remain quite low. In this regime, increasing Mn concentration leads to larger columns while their density remains nearly the same. In parallel, Ge$_{3}$Mn$_{5}$ nanoclusters start to form in the film with their $c$-axis perpendicular to the film plane. In both temperature regimes, the Mn incorporation mechanism in the nanocolumns and/or in the matrix changes above 5 \\% of Mn and nanocolumns exhibit an isotropic magnetic behaviour due to the competing effects of out-of-plane shape anisotropy and in-plane magnetoelastic coupling. Finally for a narrow range of growth temperatures around 130$^{\\circ}$C, nanocolumns exhibit Curie temperatures higher than 400 K. Our goal is now to investigate the crystalline structure inside the nanocolumns, in particular the position of Mn atoms in the distorted diamond structure, which is essential to understand magnetic and future transport properties in Ge$_{1-x}$Mn$_{x}$ films.\n\n\\section{Aknowledgements}\nThe authors would like to thank Dr. F. Rieutord for grazing incidence x-ray diffraction measurements performed on the GMT station of BM32 beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility.\n\n", "answers": ["1425 $\\mu_{B}$."], "length": 5906, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "583c9765ccee578fbc4e86090b48ca54163aa00fd5911cfe"}
{"input": "What is the effect of the proximity of superconductivity on the Kondo effect?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:Intro}\n\nThe exchange interactions control the magnetic order and properties of a vast number of materials\n\\cite{White2006Dec}\nand lead to many fascinating phenomena, such as various types of the Kondo effect \n\\cite{Kondo,NozieresBlandin,Pustilnik_Glazman}.\nDouble quantum dots (DQDs), and in general multi-impurity systems, constitute\na convenient and controllable playground,\nwhere nearly as much different exchange mechanisms compete with each other to\nshape the ground state of the system.\n\\emph{Local exchange} between the spin of a quantum dot (QD)\nand the spin of conduction band electrons gives rise to the\nKondo effect \\cite{Kondo,Hewson_book}. \n\\emph{Direct exchange} arriving with an additional side-coupled QD may destroy it or lead to the \ntwo-stage Kondo screening \\cite{Pustilnik_Glazman,Cornaglia,Granger,ZitkoBonca,ZitkoPRB2010,Ferreira}.\nIn a geometry where the two QDs contact the same lead, conduction band electrons \nmediate the \\emph{RKKY exchange} \\cite{RK,K,Y}. The RKKY interaction competes\nwith the Kondo effect and leads to the quantum phase transition of a still debated nature\n\\cite{Doniach,Jones,Affleck,Bork,Neel,KondoRKKYexp,Hans,Hans2,Fabian}.\nMoreover, in DQDs coupled in series also \\emph{superexchange} can alter the Kondo physics significantly\n\\cite{Zitko_2QDEx,Sela}.\n\nRecently, hybrid quantum devices, in which the interplay between various magnetic correlations\nwith superconductivity (SC) plays an important role, have become an important direction of research\n\\cite{hybridQDs,SCspintronics}. In particular, chains of magnetic atoms on SC surface have proven \nto contain self-organized Majorana quasi-particles and exotic spin textures\n\\cite{Braunecker,Klinovaja,Vazifeh,Yazdani},\nwhile hybrid DQD structures have been used to split the Cooper pairs coherently into two entangled \nelectrons propagating to separated normal leads \\cite{CPS1,CPS2,CPS4,CPS5,CPS9}.\nThe latter is possible due to non-local (\\emph{crossed}) Andreev reflections (CARs),\nin which each electron of a Cooper pair tunnels into different QD, and\nsubsequently to attached lead. Such processes give rise to an exchange mechanism \\cite{Yao},\nthat we henceforth refer to as \\emph{the CAR exchange}, which can greatly modify\nthe low-temperature transport behavior of correlated hybrid nanostructures.\n\nThe CAR exchange may be seen as RKKY-like interaction between\ntwo nearby impurities on SC surface \\cite{Yao}.\nThe effect can be understood as a consequence\nof spin-dependent hybridization of the Yu-Shiba-Rusinov (YSR)\nstates \\cite{Yu,Shiba,Rusinov} in SC contact,\ncaused both by the overlap of their wave functions\nand their coupling to Cooper-pair condensate.\nThis process is the most effective when the YSR states \nare close to the middle of the SC gap, {\\it e.g.} in the YSR-screened phase \\cite{YSRscreening}.\nThe mechanism presented here is essentially the same,\nyet in the considered regime can be understood\nperturbatively without referring to YSR states,\nas a consequence of the non-local pairing induced by SC electrode. \nIn particular, the presence of YSR bound states close to the Fermi level \nis not necessary for significant consequences for the Kondo physics, \nas long as some inter-dot pairing is present. \n\n\nThe proximity of SC induces pairing in QDs \\cite{RozhkovArovas,Buitelaar} \nand tends to suppress the Kondo effect if the superconducting energy gap $2\\Delta$ \nbecomes larger than the relevant Kondo temperature $T_K$ \n\\cite{Buitelaar2002Dec,adatomsSC,Kondo_vs_SC1,Kondo_vs_SC2,Zitko_Kondo-Andreev,Zitko_S-QD-N,IW_Sau,YSRscreening}.\nMoreover, the strength of SC pairing can greatly affect the Kondo physics in the sub-gap transport regime:\nFor QDs attached to SC and normal contacts, it can enhance the Kondo effect\n\\cite{DomanskiIW,KWIW,part1}, while\nfor DQD-based Cooper pair splitters, it tends to suppress both the $\\mathrm{SU}(2)$ and $\\mathrm{SU}(4)$ Kondo effects \\cite{IW_Kacper}.\nOur main result is that the non-local pairing induced by superconducting \nproximity effect, which gives rise to CAR exchange, can be the sole cause of the Kondo screening.\nMoreover, relatively small values of coupling to SC, $\\GS{}\\ll U$, are sufficient for the effect to occur.\nThis is in contrast to the DQD system considered in Ref.~\\cite{part1},\nwhere only one of the quantum dots is proximized, such that \nCAR exchange cannot arise,\nand the Kondo physics becomes qualitatively\naffected only for $\\GS{}\\sim U/2$.%\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[bt]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Fig1.png}\n\\caption{\n\t\t (a) Schematic of the considered system. Left/right (L/R) lead\n\t\t is coupled to the first quantum dot (QD1), while superconductor\n\t\t is attached to both QD1 and QD2.\n\t\t (b)-(d) illustrate an example of direct spin exchange:\n\t\t spin-up electron from the initial state (b) hops to the other QD (c) and spin-down electron \n\t\t hops back (d). Note, that the final state is in fact the same singlet state, \n\t\t only with opposite sign.\n\t\t (e)-(g) show an example of process contributing to crossed Andreev reflection (CAR) exchange.\n\t\t A Cooper pair from SC approaches DQD (e) and two singlets of the same charge \n\t\t are formed (f), before the Cooper pair is re-emitted (g).\n\t\t (h)-(j) present an example of RKKY process: an electron scattered off\n\t\t one QD (h) mediates the spin exchange towards the other (i), before it is finally scattered\n\t\t off there, too (j).\n\t\t }\n\\label{fig:system}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nIn this paper we discuss the CAR-induced Kondo screening in a setup comprising T-shaped DQD\nwith normal and superconducting contacts, see \\fig{system}(a).\nWe note that despite quite generic character of CAR exchange,\nand its presence in systems containing at least two localized electrons\ncoupled close to each other to the same SC bath,\nto best of our knowledge CAR-induced screening\nhas hardly been identified in previous studies\n\\cite{CPS1,CPS2,CPS4,CPS5,CPS9,IW_Kacper,IW_Sau,Zitko_Josephson,Zitko_S2QD,Martinek2017}.\nIn the system proposed here [\\fig{system}(a)], its presence is evident.\nMoreover, CAR exchange magnitude can be directly related to the relevant energy scales, such as the Kondo \ntemperature, which provides a fingerprint for quantitative experimental verification of our predictions. \n\nThe paper is organized as follows. In \\Sec{model} we describe the considered system \nand present the model we use to study it. In \\Sec{scales} the relevant energy scales are estimated\nto make the discussion of main results concerning CAR-induced Kondo effect in \\Sec{main} more clear. \nFinally, the influence of effects neglected in \\Sec{main} are presented in the following sections,\nincluding CAR exchange interplay with RKKY interaction (\\Sec{RKKY}), particle-hole asymmetry (\\Sec{asym}),\ncouplings asymmetry (\\Sec{x}) and reduced efficiency of CAR coupling (\\Sec{coef}). In summary,\nthe effects discussed in \\Sec{main} remain qualitatively valid in all these cases.\nThe paper is concluded in \\Sec{conclusions}.\n\n\n\\section{Model}\n\\label{sec:model}\n\nThe schematic of the considered system is depicted in \\fig{system}(a).\nIt contains two QDs attached to a common SC lead.\nOnly one of them (QD1) is directly attached to the left (L) and right (R) normal leads,\nwhile the other dot (QD2) remains coupled only through QD1.\nThe SC is modeled by the BCS Hamiltonian, \n$H_{\\mathrm{S}}=\\sum_{\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}\\xi_{\\mathbf{k}}a_{\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}^{\\dag}a_{\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}-\\Delta\\sum_{\\mathbf{k}}(a^\\dag_{\\mathbf{k}\\uparrow}a_{-\\mathbf{k}\\downarrow}^{\\dag}+a_{-\\mathbf{k}\\downarrow}a_{\\mathbf{k}\\uparrow})$,\nwith energy dispersion $\\xi_{\\mathbf{k}}$, energy gap $2\\Delta>0$ and $a_{\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}$ annihilation operator \nof electron possessing spin $\\sigma$ and momentum $\\mathbf{k}$. The coupling between\nSC and QDs is described by the hopping Hamiltonian \n$H_{\\mathrm{TS}}=\\sum_{i\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}v_{\\mathrm{S}i}(d^\\dagger_{i\\sigma}a^{}_{\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}+h.c.)$,\nwith $d^\\dagger_{i\\sigma}$ creating a spin-$\\sigma$ electron at QD$i$. The matrix element \n$v_{\\mathrm{S}i}$ and the normalized density of states of SC in normal state, $\\rho_{\\rm S}$, \ncontribute to the coupling of QD$i$ to SC electrode as $\\GS{i} = \\pi \\rho_{\\rm S} |v_{{\\rm S}i}|^2$. \nWe focus on the sub-gap regime, therefore, we integrate out SC degrees of freedom lying outside the energy gap \\cite{RozhkovArovas}.\nThis gives rise to the following effective Hamiltonian,\n$H_{\\mathrm{eff}}=H_{\\mathrm{SDQD}}+H_{\\rm L}+H_{\\rm R}+H_{\\rm T}$, \nwhere \n\\begin{eqnarray}\nH_{\\rm SDQD} \t& = & \n\t\t\t\t\\sum_{i\\sigma} \\varepsilon_{i} n_{i\\sigma} \n\t\t\t\t+\\sum_{i} U n_{i\\uparrow} n_{i\\downarrow} \n\t\t\t\t+U' (n_1-1)(n_2-1) \n\t\t\t\t\\nonumber\\\\\n\t\t\t\t&+&\\sum_\\sigma t(d^\\dagger_{1\\sigma}d^{}_{2\\sigma} + h.c.) \n\t\t\t\t+J \\vec{S}_1\\vec{S}_2\n\t\t\t\t\\nonumber\\\\\n\t\t\t\t&+&\\sum_{i} \\!\\!\\left[ \\Gamma_{{\\rm S}i} (d^\\dagger_{i\\uparrow} d^\\dagger_{i\\downarrow} \\!+\\! h.c.)\n\t\t\t\t+\\Gamma_{\\rm SX} (d^\\dagger_{i\\uparrow} d^\\dagger_{\\bar{i}\\downarrow} \\!+\\! h.c.) \\right]\n\t\\label{H_DQD} \n\\end{eqnarray}\nis the Hamiltonian of the SC-proximized DQD\n\\cite{IW_Kacper,Walldorf2018Feb}, with QD$i$ energy level $\\varepsilon_i$,\ninter-site (intra-site) Coulomb interactions $U'$ ($U$),\ninter-dot hopping $t$, and CAR coupling $\\GS{\\rm X}$.\n$n_{i\\sigma}=d^\\dagger_{i\\sigma}d^{}_{i\\sigma}$ denotes the electron number operator \nat QD$i$, $n_i=n_\\uparrow+n_\\downarrow$, and $\\bar{i}\\equiv 3-i$. \nOur model is strictly valid in the regime where $\\Delta$ is the largest \nenergy scale. Nevertheless, all discussed phenomena are\npresent in a full model for energies smaller than SC gap.\nMoreover, by eliminating other consequences of the presence of SC lead,\nour model pinpoints the fact that the non-local pairing is \nsufficient for the occurrence of the CAR exchange.\nThe presence of out-gap states shall result mainly in additional broadening of DQD energy levels,\nchanging the relevant Kondo temperatures.\nWe note that the procedure of integrating out out-gap states neglects the \nRKKY interaction mediated by SC lead and other possible indirect exchange mechanisms%\n \\footnote{\n Note, that by RKKY interaction we mean only such an effective exchange, \n which arises due to multiple scattering of a single electron or hole, see \\fig{system}(h)-(j).\n Other mechanisms leading to the total indirect exchange are considered separately.\n In particular, in the large gap limit, exchange described in Ref.~\\cite{Yao} is in fact reduced to\n the CAR exchange, and additional antiferromagnetic contribution would arise for finite gap.\n }. \nTo compensate for this,\nwe explicitly include the Heisenberg term $ J \\vec{S}_1\\vec{S}_2$ in\n$H_{\\rm SDQD}$, with $\\vec{S}_i$ denoting the spin operator of QD$i$\nand a Heisenberg coupling $J$ substituting the genuine RKKY exchange.\n\nThe normal leads are treated as reservoirs of noninteracting electrons,\n$H_{r}=\\sum_{\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}\\varepsilon_{r\\mathbf{k}}c^\\dagger_{r\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}c^{}_{r\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}$,\nwhere $c^{}_{r\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}$ annihilates an electron of spin \n$\\sigma$ and momentum $\\mathbf{k}$ in lead $r$ ($r={\\rm L,R}$) with the corresponding energy $\\varepsilon_{r\\mathbf{k}\\sigma}$.\nThe tunneling Hamiltonian reads,\n$H_{\\rm T} = \\sum_{r\\mathbf{k}\\sigma} v_{r} (d^\\dagger_{1\\sigma}c^{}_{r\\mathbf{k}\\sigma} + h.c.)$,\ngiving rise to coupling between lead $r$ and QD$i$ of strength $\\Gamma_r = \\pi \\rho_r |v_r|^2$,\nwith $\\rho_r$ the normalized density of states of lead $r$ and $v_r$ the \nlocal hopping matrix element, assumed momentum-independent.\nWe consider a wide-band limit, assuming constant $\\Gamma_r=\\Gamma/2$\nwithin the cutoff $\\pm D = \\pm 2U$ around the Fermi level. \n\nFor thorough analysis of the CAR exchange mechanism and its consequences\nfor transport, we determine the linear conductance between the two normal leads from\n\\begin{equation}\nG = \\frac{2e^2}{h} \\pi \\Gamma \\int \\left[ -\\frac{\\partial f_T}{\\partial\\omega} \\right] \\mathcal{A}(\\omega) {\\rm d} \\omega ,\n\\label{G}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $f_T$ is the Fermi function at temperature $T$,\nwhile $\\mathcal{A}(\\omega)$ denotes the normalized local spectral density \nof QD1 \\cite{fn1}.\nHenceforth, unless we state otherwise, we assume a maximal CAR coupling, \n$\\GS{\\rm X} = \\sqrt{\\GS{1}\\GS{2}}$ \\cite{IW_Kacper,Walldorf2018Feb},\n$\\GS{1}=\\GS{2}=\\GS{}$ and consider DQD tuned to the particle-hole symmetry point, \n$\\varepsilon_1=\\varepsilon_2=-U/2$. However, these assumptions are not crucial for the results presented\nhere, as discussed in Secs.~\\ref{sec:asym}-\\ref{sec:coef}.\n\n\\section{Estimation of relevant energy scales}\n\\label{sec:scales}\n\nSince we analyze a relatively complex system, let us build up the understanding of its behavior starting\nfrom the case of a QD between two normal-metallic leads, which can be obtained in our \nmodel by setting $t=\\GS{}=J=U'=0$. Then, the conductance as a function of temperature, $G(T)$, grows\nbelow the Kondo temperature $T_K$ and reaches maximum for $T\\to 0$, $G(T\\!=\\!0)=G_{\\rm max}$.\nAt particle-hole symmetry point, the unitary transmission is achieved, $G_{\\rm max}= G_0 = 2e^2/h$;\nsee short-dashed line in \\fig{G-T}(a).\nAn experimentally relevant definition of $T_K$ is that at $T=T_K$ \n$G(T)=G_{\\rm max}/2$. $T_K$ is exponentially small in \nthe local exchange $J_0 = 8\\Gamma / (\\pi \\rho U)$, and is approximated by\n$T_K \\approx D \\exp[-1/(\\rho J_0)]$ \\cite{Hewson_book}.\n\nThe presence of a second side-coupled QD, $t,U'>0$, significantly enriches the physics of the system \nby introducing direct exchange between QDs, see \\fig{system}(b-d).\nIn general, effective inter-dot exchange can be defined as energy difference between \nthe triplet and singlet states of isolated DQD, \n$J^{\\mathrm{eff}} = E_{S=1} - E_{\\rm GS}$. Unless $U$ becomes very large, superexchange can be neglected\n\\cite{Zitko_2QDEx} and $J^{\\mathrm{eff}}$ is determined by \\emph{direct exchange}, $J^{\\mathrm{eff}}\\approx 4t^2/(U-U')>0$.\nWhen the hopping $t$ is tuned small \\cite{CPS1}, one can expect $J^{\\mathrm{eff}}\\lesssim T_K$, which \nimplies the two-stage Kondo screening \\cite{Pustilnik_Glazman,Cornaglia}.\nThen, for $T \\ll T_K$, the local spectral density of QD1 serves as a band of width $\\sim T_K$ for QD2.\nThe spin of an electron occupying QD2 \nexperiences the Kondo screening below the associated Kondo temperature\n\\begin{equation}\nT^* = a T_K \\exp(- b T_K / J_{\\rm eff})\n\\label{Tstar}\n\\end{equation}\nwith $a$ and $b$ constants of order of unity \\cite{Pustilnik_Glazman,Cornaglia}.\nThis is reflected in conductance, which drops to $0$ with lowering $T$, maintaining characteristic \nFermi-liquid \n$G\\sim T^2$ dependence \\cite{Cornaglia}; see the curves indicated with squares \nin \\fig{G-T}(a). Similarly to $T_K$, experimentally relevant definition of $T^*$ is that \n$G(T\\!=\\!T^*) = G_{\\rm max}/2$. Even at the particle-hole \nsymmetry point $G_{\\rm max} < G_0$, because the single-QD strong-coupling fixed point \nis unstable in the presence of QD2 and $G(T)$ does not achieve $G_0$ exactly,\nbefore it starts to decrease.\n\n\nThe proximity of SC gives rise to two further exchange mechanisms that\ndetermine the system's behavior. First of all, the (conventional)\n\\emph{RKKY interaction} appears, $J \\sim \\GS{}^2$ \\cite{RK,K,Y}. \nMoreover, the \\emph{CAR exchange} emerges as a consequence of finite $\\GS{}$ \\cite{Yao}. \nIt can be understood on the basis \nof perturbation theory as follows. DQD in the inter-dot singlet state may absorb\nand re-emit a Cooper pair approaching from SC; see \\fig{system}(e)-(g). As a second-order\nprocess, it reduces the energy of the singlet, which is the ground state of isolated DQD.\nA similar process is not possible in the triplet state due to spin conservation.\nTherefore, the singlet-triplet energy splitting $J^{\\mathrm{eff}}$ is increased (or generated for $t=J=0$). \nMore precisely, the leading ($2$nd-order in $t$ and $\\GS{}$) terms\nin the total exchange are \n\\begin{equation}\nJ^{\\mathrm{eff}} \t\\approx \tJ + \\frac{4t^2}{U-U'+\\frac{3}{4}J} + \\frac{4\\GS{}^2}{U+U'+\\frac{3}{4}J}.\n\\label{Jeff}\n\\end{equation}\nUsing this estimation, one can predict $T^*$ for finite $\\GS{}$, $t$ and $J$ with \\eq{Tstar}.\nApparently, from three contributions corresponding to:\n(i) RKKY interaction, (ii) direct exchange and (iii) CAR exchange, only the first may bear a negative (ferromagnetic) sign.\nThe two other contributions always have an anti-ferromagnetic nature.\nMore accurate expression for $J^{\\mathrm{eff}}$ is derived in Appendix~\\ref{sec:downfolding}\n[see \\eq{A_J}] by the Hamiltonian down-folding procedure. The relevant terms differ \nby factors important only for large $\\GS{}/U$. \nFinally, it seems worth stressing that normal leads are not necessary for CAR exchange to occur.\nAt least one of them is inevitable for the Kondo screening though, and two symmetrically coupled \nnormal leads allow for measurement of the normal conductance.\n\n\nIt is also noteworthy that inter-dot Coulomb interactions\ndecrease the energy of intermediate states contributing to direct exchange \n[\\fig{system}(c)], while increasing the energy of intermediate\nstates causing the CAR exchange [\\fig{system}(f)].\nThis results in different dependence of corresponding terms in \\eq{Jeff} on $U'$.\nAs can be seen in \\figs{G-T}(b) and \\ref{fig:G-T}(c), it has a significant effect \non the actual values of $T^*$.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Fig2.pdf}\n\\caption{(a) Linear conductance $G$ as function of $T$ calculated for \n\t\t $\\varepsilon_1=\\varepsilon_2=-U/2$, $\\Gamma=U/5$, $U'=U/10$ and different situations, \n\t\t as indicated. The quantity $\\xi\\equiv\\sqrt{\\GS{}^2+t^2}$ is fixed \n\t\t for different curves drawn with the same dashing style.\n\t\t Note the logarithmic scale on both axes.\n\t\t %\n\t\t (b) Points show $T^*/T_K$ calculated by NRG from curves in subfigure (a). \n\t\t Lines present the fit to \\eq{Tstar} with $J^{\\mathrm{eff}}$ obtained from \\eq{Jeff}.\n\t\t %\n\t\t (c) The same as (b), only for $U'=0$.\n\t\t %\n\t\t (d) and (e) show the residual conductance $G_{\\mathrm{min}} \\equiv G(T \\!=\\! 0)$ as a function of\n\t\t $\\GS{}$ for $t=0$ (denoted \"CAR\") and $t=\\GS{}$ (denoted \"Both\"). \n\t\t Dotted line is a guide for eyes. $U'=U/10$ in (b) and (d) and $U'=0$ in (c) and (e).\n\t\t}\n\\label{fig:G-T}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{CAR exchange and Kondo effect}\n\\label{sec:main}\n\nTo verify \\eqs{Tstar}-(\\ref{Jeff}) we calculate $G$ using\naccurate full density matrix numerical renormalization group (NRG) technique \\cite{WilsonNRG,Weichselbaum,FlexibleDMNRG,fn2}.\nWe compare $U'=0$ case with experimentally relevant value $U'=U/10$ \\cite{Keller2013Dec}.\nWhile for two close adatoms on SC surface RKKY interactions may lead to prominent consequences\n\\cite{Klinovaja}, the conventional ({\\it i.e.} non-CAR) contribution should \nvanish rapidly when the inter-impurity distance $r$ exceeds a few lattice constants \\cite{RKKYrange,SC_RKKY}. \nMeanwhile, the CAR exchange may remain significant for $r$ of the order\nof coherence length of the SC contact \\cite{Yao}. Therefore, we first neglect the conventional RKKY coupling and analyze its consequences in Sec.~\\ref{sec:RKKY}.\n\nThe main results are presented in \\fig{G-T}(a), showing the temperature dependence of $G$\nfor different circumstances. \nFor reference, results for $\\GS{}=0$ are shown, exhibiting \nthe two-stage Kondo effect caused by \\emph{direct} exchange mechanism.\nAs can be seen in \\figs{G-T}(b) and \\ref{fig:G-T}(c), an excellent agreement of $T^*$ found from NRG calculations and \\eq{Tstar} \nis obtained with $a=0.42$ and $b=1.51$, the same for both $U'=0$ and $U'=U/10$. Note, \nhowever, that $J^{\\mathrm{eff}}$ is different in these cases, cf. \\eq{Jeff},\nand $U'$ leads to increase of $T^*$.\n\nFurthermore, for $t=0$ and $\\GS{}>0$ the two-stage Kondo effect caused solely by the \\emph{CAR\nexchange} is present; see \\fig{G-T}(a).\nExperimentally, this situation\ncorresponds to a distance between the two QDs smaller than the superconducting coherence length,\nbut large enough for the exponentially suppressed direct hopping to be negligible.\nWhile intuitively one could expect pairing to compete with any kind of magnetic ordering,\nthe Kondo screening induced by CAR exchange is a beautiful example of a superconductivity\nin fact leading to magnetic order, namely the formation of the Kondo singlet.\nThis CAR-exchange-mediated Kondo screening is our main finding.\nFor such screening, \\eq{Tstar} is still fulfilled with very similar \nparameters, $a=0.37$ ($a=0.35$) and $b=1.51$ ($b=1.50$) for $U'=0$ ($U'=U/10$),\ncorrespondingly; see \\figs{G-T}(b-c).\nMoreover, as follows from \\eq{Jeff}, $U'$ reduces CAR exchange, and therefore diminishes $T^*$.\nFor the same values of $J^{\\mathrm{eff}}$, the dependence of $G(T)$ for $t=0$ and $\\GS{}>0$ is hardly different \nfrom the one for $\\GS{}=0$ and $t>0$ for $T\\geq T^*$ (results not shown).\nHowever, $G(T)$ saturates at residual value $G_{\\mathrm{min}}$ as $T\\to 0$ only for finite\n$\\GS{}$, which at particle-hole symmetry makes $G_{\\mathrm{min}}$\nthe hallmark of SC proximity and the corresponding CAR exchange processes.\nFrom numerical results, one can estimate it as\n\\begin{equation}\nG_{\\mathrm{min}} = \\frac{e^2}{h} \\cdot c \\, \\frac{\\GS{}^2}{U^2} \n\t\\qquad {\\scriptstyle (\\GS{1}=\\GS{2}=\\GS{})} ,\n\\label{Gmin}\n\\end{equation}\nwith $c\\approx 2.25$, barely depending on $U'$ and getting smaller for $t>0$. \nThis is illustrated in \\figs{G-T}(d-e), where the dotted line corresponds to \\eq{Gmin} with $c=2.25$. \n\nLastly, in \\fig{G-T}(a) we also present the curves obtained for $t=\\GS{}$ chosen such, \nthat the quantity $\\xi=\\sqrt{t^2+\\GS{}^2}$ remains the same \nin all the cases.\nThis is to illustrate what happens when \\emph{both} (direct and CAR) exchange interactions are\npresent. \\fig{G-T}(c) clearly shows that $T^*$ remains practically unaltered for $U'=0$.\nThe comparison with \\fig{G-T}(b) proves that in this case it practically does not depend \non $U'$. The enhancement of direct exchange is compensated by the decrease of the CAR one. \nOn the contrary, $G_{\\mathrm{min}}$ decreases for larger $t$ below the estimation given by Eq.~(\\ref{Gmin}), \nas can be seen in \\figs{G-T}(d-e). \n\nWhile analyzing the results concerning $G_{\\mathrm{min}}(\\GS{})$ plotted in \\figs{G-T}(d-e) \none needs to keep in mind that $G_{\\mathrm{min}}$ is obtained at deeply cryogenic conditions. To illustrate\nthis better, $G(\\GS{})$ obtained for $t=0$ and $T=10^{-6}U$ is plotted with solid line \nin \\fig{3}. Clearly, for weak $\\GS{}$ the system exhibits rather conventional (single-stage)\nKondo effect with $G=G_{\\mathrm{max}}\\approx 2e^2/h$, while QD2 is effectively decoupled ($G_{\\mathrm{max}}<2e^2/h$\nin the proximity of SC lead \\cite{KWIW}). Only for larger values of $\\GS{}$\nthe CAR exchange is strong enough, such that $T^*>T$ and the dependence $G(\\GS{})$ continuously \napproaches the $T=0$ limit estimated by \\eq{Gmin} and presented in \\figs{G-T}(d-e).\n\n\\section{CAR-RKKY competition}\n\\label{sec:RKKY}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.98\\linewidth]{Fig3.pdf}\n\\caption{Linear conductance $G$ vs. $\\GS{}$ calculated\n\t\t for $t=0$, $\\Gamma=U/5$, $U'=U/10$, finite $T=10^{-6}U$\n\t\t and different values of RKKY coupling $J$, as indicated. \n\t\t Inset shows QD1 spectral function $\\mathcal{A}(\\omega)$ as a function of energy $\\omega$\n\t\t for points on $J=-0.1U$ curve, indicated with corresponding symbols.\n\t\t}\n\\label{fig:3}\n\\end{figure}\n\nLet us now discuss the effects introduced by the conventional RKKY interaction.\nWe choose $t=0$ for the sake of simplicity and\nanalyze a wide range of $\\GS{}$, starting from the case of anti-ferromagnetic \nRKKY interaction ($J>0$). Large $J>0$ leads to the formation of a molecular singlet in the \nnanostructure. This suppresses the conductance, unless $\\GS{}$ becomes of the order of $U/2$, \nwhen the excited states of DQD are all close to the ground state. This is illustrated \nby double-dotted line in \\fig{3}.\nSmaller value of $J>0$ causes less dramatic consequences, namely it just increases $J^{\\mathrm{eff}}$ according\nto \\eq{Jeff}, leading to enhancement of $T^*$, cf. \\eq{Tstar}. This is presented with\ndot-dashed line in \\fig{3}.\n\nThe situation changes qualitatively for ferromagnetic RKKY coupling, $J<0$.\nThen, RKKY exchange and CAR exchange have opposite signs and compete with each other.\nDepending on their magnitudes and temperature, one\nof the following scenarios may happen.\n\nFor $J^{\\mathrm{eff}} > 0$, {\\it i.e.} large enough $\\GS{}$, and $T<T^*$, the system is in the \nsinglet state due to the two-stage Kondo screening of DQD spins. $G(T\\!=\\!0)$ is reduced \nto $G_{\\mathrm{min}}$, which tends to increase for large negative $J$; see dashed lines in \\fig{3}. \nIn the inset to \\fig{3}, the spectral density of QD1 representative for this regime is plotted \nas curve indicated by triangle. It corresponds to a point on the $J=-0.1U$ curve in the main \nplot, also indicated by triangle. The dip in $\\mathcal{A}(\\omega)$ has width of order of $T^*$.\n\nFor finite $T$, there is always a range of sufficiently small $|J^{\\mathrm{eff}}|$, where QD2 becomes effectively\ndecoupled, and, provided $T<T_K$, $G$ reaches $G_{\\mathrm{max}}$ due to conventional Kondo effect \nat QD1. This is the case for sufficiently small $\\GS{}$ for $J=0$ or $J=-0.01U$, and in the narrow\nrange of $\\GS{}$ around the point indicated by a circle in \\fig{3} for $J=-0.1U$ (for $J=0.01U$, \nthe considered $T$ is close to $T^*$ and $G$ does not reach $G_{\\rm max}$). The conventional Kondo effect manifests itself with \na characteristic peak in $\\mathcal{A}(\\omega)$, as illustrated in the inset in \\fig{3} with line denoted by circle.\n\nFinally, large enough $J^{\\mathrm{eff}} < 0$ and low $T$, give rise to an effective ferromagnetic coupling of DQDs \nspins into triplet state. Consequently, the underscreened Kondo effect occurs \n\\cite{Mattis,NozieresBlandin} for weak $\\GS{}$ and, {\\it e.g.}, $J=-0.1U$; \nsee the point indicated by square in \\fig{3}.\nThis leads to $G=G_{\\mathrm{max}}$ and a peak in $\\mathcal{A}(\\omega)$, whose shape is significantly different from the\nKondo peak, cf. the curve denoted by square in the inset in \\fig{3}. \n\n\n\n\\section{Effects of detuning from the particle-hole symmetry point}\n\\label{sec:asym}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.98\\linewidth]{Fig4.pdf}\n\\caption{\n         (a) Linear conductance between the normal leads $G$ as a function of temperature $T$\n         for parameters corresponding to \\fig{G-T}(a) with $\\xi=U/10$, and additional curves for finite \n         detuning from particle-hole symmetry point, $\\delta_1=-\\delta_2$, \n         and two values of $\\xi=\\sqrt{t^2+\\GS{}^2}$, as indicated in the figure.\n         (b) $G_{\\mathrm{min}} \\equiv G(T \\!=\\! 0)$ as a function of QD1 detuning $\\delta_1$ for different\n         exchange mechanisms, $\\xi=U/10$ and $\\delta_2=\\pm\\delta_1$ (as indicated).\n\t\t}\n\\label{fig:asym}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAt PHS $G_{\\mathrm{min}}=G(T \\!=\\! 0)=0$ in the absence of superconducting lead, making $G_{\\mathrm{min}} > 0$ a hallmark\nof SC-induced two-stage Kondo effect. However, outside of PHS point $G_{\\mathrm{min}} > 0$ even in the case of \nthe two-stage Kondo effect caused by the direct exchange. \nExact PHS conditions are hardly possible in real systems, and the fine-tuning of the QD energy\nlevels to PHS point is limited to some finite accuracy.\nTherefore, there may appear a question, if the results obtained at PHS are of any importance for the\nrealistic setups. As we show below --- they are,\nin a reasonable range of detunings $\\delta_i=\\varepsilon_i +U/2$.\n\nIn \\fig{asym}(a) we present the $G(T)$ dependence in and outside the PHS, corresponding to \nparameters of \\fig{G-T}(a). \nClearly, for considered small values of $\\delta_1=\\delta_2=\\delta$, \n$G_{\\mathrm{min}}<10^{-3}e^2/h$ for direct exchange only, while $G_{\\mathrm{min}}$ in the presence of a superconductor is \nsignificantly increased and close to the PHS value. Furthermore, for $|\\delta_1| \\sim |\\delta_2| \n\\sim \\delta$, the residual conductance caused by the lack of PHS, $G_{\\mathrm{min}} \\approx e^2/h \\cdot (\\delta/U)^2$,\nwhich is a rapidly decreasing function in the vicinity of PHS point, as illustrated in \\fig{asym}(b)\nwith lines denoted by a square. Evidently, in the regime $|\\delta_i| < 0.01U$ the residual conductance\ncaused by SC is orders of magnitude larger, leading to the plateau in $G_{\\mathrm{min}}(\\delta_1)$ dependence,\nvisible in \\fig{asym}(b).\nTaking into account that the realistic values of $U$ in the semiconductor quantum dots are rather \nlarge, this condition seems to be realizable by fine-tuning of QD gate voltages.\n\nLastly, let us point out that while in the presence of only one exchange mechanism, \\emph{CAR} or\n\\emph{direct}, $G_{\\mathrm{min}}(\\delta_1)$ dependencies depicted in \\fig{asym}(b) are symmetrical with respect\nto sign change of $\\delta_1$, for \\emph{both} exchange mechanisms the dependence is non-symmetric. \n\n\\section{Effects of asymmetry of couplings to superconductor}\n\\label{sec:x}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.98\\linewidth]{Fig5.pdf}\n\\caption{\n\t\t (a) Linear conductance between the normal leads, $G$, as a function of temperature, $T$,\n\t\t for parameters corresponding to \\fig{G-T}(a) with $\\xi=U/10$, for different values \n\t\t of asymmetry coefficient $x$ [see \\eq{xGS}], in the presence of \\emph{CAR} exchange only.\n\t\t %\n\t\t (b) The second-stage Kondo temperature $T^*$ normalized by $T_K$ as a function of $x$, \n\t\t calculated with the aid of NRG (points) and a fit to \\eq{Tstar} (lines) \n\t\t with $J^{\\mathrm{eff}}$ from \\eq{Jeff}.\n\t\t %\n\t\t (c) The zero-temperature conductance $G_{\\mathrm{min}}$ as a function of QD1 coupling to SC lead, $\\GS{1}$,\n\t\t compiled from data obtained at different circumstances (as indicated in the legend)\n\t\t for different $x$. Dotted line corresponds to \\eq{Gmin2} with $c=2.25$.\n\t\t}\n\\label{fig:x}\n\\end{figure}\n\nSimilarly to PHS, the ideal symmetry in the coupling between respective QDs and SC lead is hardly possible\nin experimental reality. As shown below, it does not introduce any qualitatively new features.\nOn the other hand, it decreases the second stage Kondo temperature, which is already small, therefore,\nquantitative estimation of this decrease may be important for potential experimental approaches.\nTo analyze the effects of $\\GS{1}\\neq\\GS{2}$, we introduce the asymmetry parameter $x$ and extend\nthe definition of $\\GS{}$,\n\\beq\nx = \\frac{\\GS{1}-\\GS{2}}{\\GS{1}+\\GS{2}}, \\quad \\GS{} = \\frac{\\GS{1}+\\GS{2}}{2}.\n\\label{xGS}\n \\end{equation} \nNote, that even for a fixed $\\GS{}$, the actual CAR coupling $\\GS{\\rm X}=\\GS{}\\sqrt{1-x^2}$ decreases\nwith increasing $|x|$, which is a main mechanism leading to a decrease of $T^*$ outside the $x=0$ point\nvisible in \\figs{x}(a) and (b). To illustrate this, the curves corresponding to \\emph{both} exchange\nmechanisms were calculated using $x$-dependent $t=\\GS{\\rm X}$ instead of $t=\\xi/\\sqrt{2}$. \nTherefore, $\\xi$ was generalized for $x\\neq 0$ by setting $\\xi=\\sqrt{t^2(1-x^2)^{-1}+\\GS{}^2}$.\nClearly, in \\fig{x}(b) the curves for different exchange mechanisms are very similar and differ mainly \nby a constant factor, resulting from different influence of $U'$; see \\Sec{scales}. \nThe magnitude of $T^*$ changes is quite large, exceeding an order of magnitude for $x=\\pm 0.5$ \nand $\\xi=U/20$. Moreover, $T^* \\to 0$ for $x\\to\\pm 1$. Consequently, for strongly asymmetric\ndevices one cannot hope to observe the second stage of Kondo screening.\n\nA careful observer can note that the $T^*(x)$ dependency is not symmetrical; note for example different \n$T^*$ for $x=\\pm 0.5$ in \\fig{x}(a). This is caused by the dependence of the first stage Kondo temperature\n$T_K$ on $\\GS{1}$ \\cite{part1,DomanskiIW},\n\\beq\n\\widetilde{T}_K(\\GS{1}) = T_K \\cdot \\exp\\!\\left( \\frac{\\pi}{2} \\frac{\\GS{1}^2}{\\Gamma U}\\right).\n \\end{equation} \nHere, $T_K$ is, as earlier, defined in the absence of SC, while $\\widetilde{T}_K$ is a function \nof $\\GS{1}$, such that $G(\\widetilde{T}_K) = G_{\\rm max}(\\GS{1})/2$ in the absence of QD2. \nAs $\\widetilde{T}_K$ grows for increasing $\\GS{1}$ (or $x$), $T^*$ decreases according to \\eq{Tstar}. \nIts $\\GS{}$ dependence can be accounted for by small changes in the coefficients $a$ and $b$ in \\eq{Tstar}, \nas long as $x$ is kept constant. \n\nTo close the discussion of $T^*(x)$ dependence let us point out, that in \\eq{A_J} \nthere appears a correction to \\eq{Jeff} for $x\\neq 0$. However, it is very small due to additional\nfactor $\\GS{}^2/U^2$ in the leading order. Its influence on curves plotted in \\fig{x}(b) is hardly visible.\n\nIn turn, let us examine the $x$ dependence of the $T=0$ conductance $G_{\\mathrm{min}}$. As can be seen \nin \\fig{x}(a), it monotonically increases with $x$, as it crosses $x=0$ point. In fact, \\eq{Gmin}\ncan be generalized to\n\\beq\nG_{\\mathrm{min}} = \\frac{e^2}{h} \\cdot c \\, \\frac{\\GS{1}^2}{U^2} ,\n\\label{Gmin2}\n \\end{equation} \nwith $c\\approx 2.25$ (indicated by a dotted line in \\fig{x}(c)). Note that $G_{\\mathrm{min}}$ is proportional to \n$\\GS{1}^2=(x+1)^2 \\GS{}^2$, instead of simply $\\GS{}$, cf. \\eq{Gmin}. The values of $G_{\\mathrm{min}}$ obtained\nfrom all analyzed $G(T)$ dependencies for different $x$ have been compiled in \\fig{x}(c).\nIt is evident, that \\eq{Gmin2} is approximately fulfilled for all the considered cases.\n\nFinally, it seems noteworthy that the normal-lead coupling asymmetry, \n$\\Gamma_{\\rm L}\\neq \\Gamma_{\\rm R}$, is irrelevant for the results except for a constant factor\ndiminishing the conductance $G$ \\cite{KWIWJB-asym}.\n\n\n\n\\section{The role of CAR efficiency}\n\\label{sec:coef}\n\n\\begin{figure}[tb]\n\\includegraphics[width=0.98\\linewidth]{Fig6.pdf}\n\\caption{Linear conductance between the normal leads\n\t\t $G$ as a function of coupling to SC lead, $\\GS{}$, for indicated values of RKKY exchange $J$\n\t\t and the efficiency of CAR processes reduced by factor (a) $\\mathcal{C}=0.9$ and (b) $\\mathcal{C}=0.5$.\n\t\t Other parameters as in \\fig{3}.\n\t\t Insets: QD1 local spectral density $\\mathcal{A}(\\omega)$ as a function of energy $\\omega$\n\t\t for points on $J=-0.1U$ curve, indicated with corresponding symbols.\n\t\t} \n\\label{fig:C}\n\\end{figure}\n\nUp to this point we assumed $\\GS{\\rm X} = \\sqrt{\\GS{1}\\GS{2}}$, which is valid when the two \nquantum dots are much closer to each other than the coherence length in the superconductor.\nThis does not have to be the case in real setups, yet relaxing this assumption does not \nintroduce qualitative changes. Nevertheless, the model cannot be extended to inter-dot \ndistances much larger than the coherence length, where $\\GS{\\rm X}\\to 0$.\n\nTo quantitatively analyze the consequences of less effective Andreev coupling we define the \nCAR efficiency as $\\mathcal{C} \\equiv \\GS{\\rm X} / \\sqrt{\\GS{1}\\GS{2}}$ and analyze $\\mathcal{C} < 1$\nin the wide range of $\\GS{1}=\\GS{2}=\\GS{}$ and other parameters corresponding to \\fig{3}. \nThe results are presented in \\fig{C}.\n\nClearly, decreasing $\\mathcal{C}$ from $\\mathcal{C}=1$ causes diminishing of $\\GS{\\rm X}$, and consequently of CAR \nexchange. For a change as small as $\\mathcal{C}=0.9$, the consequences reduce to some shift of the \nconventional Kondo regime, compare \\fig{C}(a) with \\fig{3}. Stronger suppression of CAR may, \nhowever, increase the SC coupling necessary to observe the second stage of Kondo screening caused\nby CAR outside the experimentally achievable range, see \\fig{C}(b). Moreover, the reduced $T^*$\nleads to narrowing of the related local spectral density dip, while the\nincreased critical $\\GS{}$ necessary for the observation of the second stage of screening leads to the\nshallowing of the dip. This is visible especially in the inset in \\fig{C}(b).\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\n\\label{sec:conclusions}\n\nThe CAR exchange mechanism is present in any system comprising at least\ntwo QDs or magnetic impurities coupled to the same superconducting contact\nin a way allowing for crossed Andreev reflections.\nIn the considered setup, comprised of two quantum dots in a T-shaped geometry \nwith respect to normal leads and proximized by superconductor,\nit leads to the two-stage Kondo\nscreening even in the absence of other exchange mechanisms.\nThis CAR induced exchange screening is characterized by a residual \nlow-temperature conductance at particle-hole symmetric case.\nWe have also shown that the competition between CAR exchange and RKKY\ninteraction may result in completely different Kondo screening scenarios.\n\nThe presented results bring further insight into the low-temperature\nbehavior of hybrid coupled quantum dot systems, which hopefully could be verified\nwith the present-day experimental techniques.\nMoreover, non-local pairing is present also in bulk systems such as non-$s$-wave superconductors.\nThe question if an analogue of discussed CAR exchange may play a role there\nseems intriguing in the context of tendencies of many strongly correlated materials\nto possess superconducting and anti-ferromagnetic phases.\n\n\n\\begin{acknowledgments}\nThis work was supported by the National Science Centre in Poland through project no.\n2015/19/N/ST3/01030.\nWe thank J. Barna\\'{s} and T. Maier for valuable discussions.\n\\end{acknowledgments}\n\n\n\n\n", "answers": ["It tends to suppress the Kondo effect."], "length": 5009, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "917f18543035ee1b9161cded1d3352531dbf3b249b5f0a18"}
{"input": "How many underclassmen are on the NBA Draft Early-Entry List?", "context": "The Official 2006 NBA Draft Early-Entry List. 30 International Players, 62 underclassmen and one lone 5th year high school player make up this year's list, for a total of 93 early-entrants. Extensive commentary and early draft status projections are included.. For comparison, in 2005, 108 players declared (61 NCAA, 12 high school, 35 internationals), up from 94 in 2004, and 73 in 2003.\nThere were no major surprises on the early-entry list, besides a few mid-major, Division II and NAIA players that decided to enter, as well as 5th year high school player Clarence Holloway. Amongst the International players, Hrvoje Peric, Renaldas Seibutis, and Kyrylo Fesenko are considered mild surprises who could end up cracking the 2nd round. NCAA Lottery prospects Joakim Noah, Al Horford, Corey Brewer, Josh McRoberts, Brandon Rush and Tyler Hansbrough decided to sit this one out as expected, as did Marco Belinelli, Uros Tripkovic and Goran Dragic on the international front.\nAkbar Abdul-Ahad 6-0, PG, Idaho State Junior No Undrafted Averaged under 6 points in 20 minutes per game playing in the Big Sky. Being the first player on the NBA Draft Early-Entry list will likely go down as the highlight of his basketball career.\nArron Afflalo, 6-5, SG, UCLA Sophomore No Undrafted Afflalo initially told the LA media he’s returning to school, but after a deep run in the NCAA tournament-- more in spite of his play than because of it--Afflalo will be testing the waters. Afflalo has very average size, athleticism, perimeter shooting and ball-handling skills. He’s clearly receiving bad advice on where his stock lies.\nLaMarcus Aldridge, 6-11, PF/C, Texas Sophomore Yes Top 5 pick Aldridge made his announcement official to enter the draft some weeks ago. He will hire an agent soon (Arn Tellem?) and is considered a lock for the top 5 and a strong candidate for #1 overall.\nMorris Almond, 6-6, SG, Rice Junior No ??? Almond announced he’ll be entering the draft, without an agent. He might be the best scorer in the NCAA you’ve never heard about. His stats are terrific, despite being the sole focal point of opposing defenses, and he’s capable of scoring in a variety of ways, particularly with his jumper. He’s hoping for an invite to Orlando.\nRenaldo Balkman, 6-8, PF, South Carolina Junior No Undrafted After winning the NIT MVP award, Balkman has decided to see where he stands in the eyes of the NBA by testing the waters. He’s likely to find them downright freezing, as he’s a skinny and undersized power forward with little to no skills who came off the bench for a very average team.\nLarry Blair,6-1, SG, Liberty Junior No Undrafted The 22 point per game scorer Blair is attempting to get some exposure for himself by testing the waters.\nWill Blalock, Iowa State, 5-11, PG, Junior No Second round pick? Declared for the draft together with Curtis_Stinson after Iowa State’s coach was fired. Size is a big question mark. Will likely hope to attend the pre-draft camp in Orlando and try to show scouts he’s a 1st rounder. Likely returns for his senior year.\nJahsha Bluntt, 6-6, SG, Deleware State Junior No Undrafted Puts up fairly average numbers (14.6 ppg, 41% FG) in one of the worst conferences in America. Looking for exposure at the Orlando pre-draft camp but its highly unlikely to receive it.\nJosh Boone, 6-10, PF/C, UConn Junior No First round pick? Boone announced he’ll be entering the draft without an agent. An up and down season has left his stock in the air, and will likely force him to prove himself at the Orlando pre-draft camp. Would greatly benefit from a productive senior season as an offensive focal point now that UConn has lost almost all of its firepower from last year.\nRonnie Brewer, 6-6, PG/SG, Arkansas Junior No Lottery pick? After initially wavering a bit on his decision, Brewer announced he’ll be entering the draft without an agent in a press conference. Brewer is considered a likely late lottery pick to mid-first rounder pick, as his physical attributes and array of versatile skills on both ends of the floor are highly sought after.\nBobby Brown, 6-1, PG, Cal-State Fullerton Junior No First round pick? DraftExpress exclusively reported that Brown will be testing the waters. Still considered a bit of a sleeper because of the school he plays for, he will not be hiring an agent at this point. Some scouts are very high on his quickness and perimeter shooting ability and feel he will help his stock tremendously in private workouts.\nShannon Brown, 6-4, SG, Michigan State Junior No First round pick? As exclusively reported by DraftExpress, Brown will be testing the waters. He will likely conduct a number of workouts and attend the Orlando pre-draft camp to attempt and gauge where his stock lies. Scouts compare him to Celtic guard Tony Allen, but with a better attitude. He’s a very borderline first rounder in a draft that is stacked with shooting guards.\nDerek Burditt, 6-7, SG, Blinn Junior College Sophomore No Undrafted Unknown Junior College prospect. Not ranked as one of the top 25 JUCO players in the country, averaged around 17 points per game. Not burning his draft card as he’s not yet an NCAA player, so really doesn’t have much to lose, or gain.\nLeroy Dawson, 6-2, SG, Emporia State Junior No Undrafted Anonymous Division II player from the MIAA conference. 2nd team all conference, averaged 20 points per game. Like MANY on this list, only declaring because he can and has nothing to lose.\nTravis DeGroot, 6-4, SG, Delta State Junior No Undrafted Plays in a strong Division II conference, but is at best only the 3rd best prospect on his own team after Jasper Johnson and Jeremy Richardson, and is therefore not a prospect at all.\nGuillermo Diaz, 6-2, PG/SG, Miami Junior Yes First round pick? As reported by DraftExpress all year long, Diaz decided to forgo his senior year of college by hiring an agent, Miami based Jason Levien. One of the top athletes and shooters in the draft, which makes for an intriguing combination.\nCem Dinc, 6-10, SF/PF, Indiana Freshman No Undrafted As exclusively reported by DraftExpress, Dinc will be testing the waters. The coach that recruited him and then never played him, Mike Davis, resigned, so it would not shock anyone to see Dinc return to play in Europe and become automatically eligible next year after pulling out of this year’s draft.\nQuincy Douby, 6-3, PG/SG, Rutgers Junior No First round pick As exclusively reported by DraftExpress, Douby sent out his paperwork to enter the draft. NBA scouts are all over the board on him, with some saying they consider him a 2nd round pick and others saying they would not be surprised if he ended up in the lottery. Terrific shooter and shot creator, averaged 28 ppg in the Big East conference. A real sleeper who will likely play in Orlando.\nMike Efevberha, 6-5, SG, Cal State Northridge Junior ??? Undrafted Ramona Shelburne of the LA Daily News reported that Efevberha will be testing the waters. Efevberha was the leading scorer in the country until he had a falling out with his coach and saw his playing time reduced significantly. He’ll likely be looking for an invite to the Orlando pre-draft camp, and does not appear to be likely to head back to school.\nCarl Elliot, 6-4, PG, George Washington Junior No Undrafted Elliot is using his use it or lose it draft card as a junior to get some exposure for himself through workouts and try to figure out where he stands in the eyes of the NBA. Elliot has excellent size for the PG position, but is still lacking plenty of all-around polish. His senior year will be essential to his development as a player. Reportedly has a family to support, which makes his decision tough considering how old he is already, despite only being a junior.\nJordan Farmar, 6-2, PG, UCLA Sophomore No First round pick? Farmar was the engine that led his team to the Finals of the NCAA tournament, and the only player that showed up once they got there. He is one of the top playmakers in the country, a Steve Nash type point guard, but his average athleticism, defense and outside shooting means he’s only a bubble first-rounder. DraftExpress has been on his bandwagon since day one at UCLA, but is the NBA on it too?\nNick Fazekas, 6-11, PF, Nevada Junior No First round pick? Fazekas announced he’ll be entering the draft without an agent and will likely return to Nevada if it looks like he’s not going to be a first round pick. If he’s not a first rounder this year, it’s hard to imagine him ever being one since there isn’t much left for him to accomplish individually in the NCAA. An interesting candidate for the pre-draft camp in Orlando.\nThomas Gardner, 6-5, SG, Missouri Junior No Second round pick? The St. Louis Post Dispatch reported that Gardner will enter the draft. Firing of underachieving Missouri coach Quin Snyder appeared to be the straw the broke the camel’s back. Gardner will have to hope to get invited to Orlando, but moving into the first round appears unlikely without an incredible performance there.\nRudy Gay, 6-8, SF, UConn Sophomore Yes Top 10 pick Gay announced he’s leaving UConn at a press conference on campus, with Coach Calhoun by his side. He will hire an agent eventually. Size, length, incredible talent and athleticism means he might have the most upside of any player in this draft. Does he have the fire to capitalize on it though?\nReggie George, 6-10, PF, Robert Morris Chicago (NAIA) Junior No Undrafted Transfer from Iowa State had a nice season in the NAIA and is looking to capitalize on it by gaining some exposure for himself.\nDaniel Gibson, 6-2, PG/SG, Texas Sophomore ??? Second round pick As exclusively reported by DraftExpress, Gibson will be entering the draft. There appears to be a conflict between Gibson and Texas regarding what his role will be next year, specifically whether or not he’ll be playing the point, meaning it’s unclear whether or not he’ll be returning. Gibson will likely go to Orlando to help him decide what his next step is. Showing off some PG skills will be essential there.\nAaron Gray, 7-0, Center, Pitt Junior No First round pick? After a disappointing end to his season, being outplayed by Patrick O’Bryant in the NCAA tournament, Gray has put that behind him and entered his name in the draft without an agent. He’s yet another underclassmen with huge questions marks about his pro potential that will likely have to go to the Orlando pre-draft camp to show he is worthy of a first round pick. Made some great strides this year, but still has a ways to go, especially conditioning-wise.\nLeShawn Hammett 6-0, PG, St. Francis Junior No Undrafted Undersized combo guard played only 7 minutes in the mighty Northeast Conference before being suspended indefinitely for conduct detrimental to team. The NBA is clearly the only goal left for him to achieve.\nBrandon Heath, 6-3, PG/SG, San Diego State Junior No Second round pick? Streaky shooting combo guard Heath announced the he will test the NBA draft process this summer, and is hoping for an invite to the Orlando pre-draft camp. MWC player of the year; has a lot of wrinkles to his game that need to be ironed out before he can legitimately think about the NBA.\nTedric Hill, 6-10, PF, Gulf Coast Community College Sophomore Yes Undrafted Ineligible to return to school after flunking out of college once again. Has bounced around over the past few years, and received some early hype from wannabe draftniks such as Gregg Doyel (CBS-Sportsline) and Sam Smith (Chicago Tribune) who compare him to Kevin Garnett. Very athletic we're told, but has absolutely no idea how to play the game. Has no chance of being drafted without an amazing showing at the Orlando pre-draft camp.\nClarence Holloway 7-0, Center, IMG Academy (Prep School) 5th year High School No Undrafted Lone high school player in this year’s age-limit depleted draft. Former Louisville commit never got eligible for college and was always considered too slow and heavy to make much of an impact anyway. Reportedly lost weight and improved his grades this past year at IMG and is currently being recruited by UConn, Kansas State and Oklahoma, amongst others.\nEkene Ibekwe, 6-9, PF, Maryland Junior No Undrafted Sources told DraftExpress exclusively that Ibekwe will be testing the waters. Likely only making this move because he can, as his chances of being drafted are very low. Athletic and long, but still lacking any type of polish.\nDonald Jeffers, 6-8, PF, Roxbury Community College Sophomore No Undrafted Anonymous junior college player.\nAlexander Johnson, 6-9, PF, Florida State Junior Yes First round pick? Sources told DraftExpress, that Johnson will be hiring an agent, mainly because he is already 23 years old. He’s considered intriguing because of his strength, raw offensive tools and freakish athleticism at the 4 position, and could work his way into the 1st round with strong workouts.\nDavid Johnson, 6-7, PF, Clinton Junior College Sophomore No Undrafted 6-7 JUCO power forward who averaged 2 points and 3 rebounds per game.\nTrey Johnson, 6-5, SG, Jackson State Junior No Undrafted Small school prolific scorer and one of the most accurate perimeter shooters in the country will attempt to draw some more attention to himself by testing the waters this summer. Johnson is hoping for a chance to prove himself in the Orlando pre-draft camp in June.\nCoby Karl, 6-4, PG/SG, Boise State Junior No Undrafted Son of Denver Nuggets head Coach George Karl put up nice numbers (17 ppg, 5 rebs, 4 assists, 39.5% 3P) in the underrated WAC conference. Had surgery in March to remove a cancerous lump from his thyroid.\nMark Konecny, 6-10, Center, Lambuth (NAIA) Junior No Undrafted Transfer from Syracuse with mediocre production is looking for any type of exposure he can get before he graduates next season.\nKyle Lowry, 6-1, PG, Villanova Sophomore No First round pick NCAA tournament performance showed that he definitely needs another year, but regardless, Lowry is in. For now it’s without an agent. Considering the lack of quality point guard prospects in this draft, Lowry is likely a first round pick. Says he will attend the Orlando pre-draft camp if invited.\nAleks Maric, 6-11, Center, Nebraska Sophomore No Undrafted As exclusively reported by DraftExpress, Maric will be testing the waters. What may have played a role in this is the fact that the assistant coach that recruited him at Nebraska, Scott Spinelli, just moved on to Wichita State. Maric is considered a very average athlete who is still very raw and is therefore likely to go undrafted should he decide to stay in. Thanks to his Croatian passport, there is money waiting for him overseas if he chooses to take it.\nJaphet McNeil, 5-10, PG, East Carolina Junior No Undrafted Severely undersized PG averaged 4 points and 5.6 assists in watered down Conference USA.\nPaul Millsap, 6-8, PF, Louisiana Tech Junior Yes First round pick? As expected, Millsap has declared his intentions to enter the NBA draft, and according to sources hired an agent as well. Millsap has likely achieved just about everything he can in college at this point, and will land somewhere in the 20-40 part of the draft depending on workouts and measurements.\nMatt Mitchell, 6-0, PG, Southern University-New Orleans Junior No Undrafted Anonymous NAIA player.\nAdam Morrison, 6-8, SF, Gonzaga Junior Yes Top 5 pick As DraftExpress exclusively reported that Morrison will be declaring for the draft and hiring Chicago based agent Mark Bartelstein. Morrison, the top scorer in college basketball, is expected to be a top 5 pick and potentially the #1 pick overall. Questions linger about his athleticism and defense, but no one questions his passion, talent or feel for the game.\nPatrick O'Bryant, 7-0, Center, Bradley Sophomore Likely First round pick NBA sources in Portsmouth told DraftExpress exclusively that O’Bryant will be testing the waters without an agent, but is likely to go all the way once he hears that he’s a lock for the 1st round. His steady improvement, strong sophomore season, outstanding NCAA tournament and considerable upside means he’s probably gone. O'Bryant since confirmed both DraftExpresss reports, particularly the one about hiring an agent in the Tri-State area (Andy Miller) should he decide to go all the way.\nEvan Patterson, 6-7, SF, Texas Wesleyan Junior No Undrafted Mediocre numbers (11 ppg, 2 rebs) in a mediocre Southland conference.\nDanilo Pinnock, 6-5, SG, George Washington Junior No Undrafted The extremely athletic Pinnock has told GW’s student paper he’ll be testing the waters. Pinnock will attempt to capitalize on his team’s success this year by potentially attending the NBA pre-draft camp in Orlando. Pinnock will have to show better ball-handling and perimeter shooting ability than he did during the regular season.\nLeon Powe, 6-7, PF, Cal Sophomore No Second round pick Powe announced he’ll be testing the waters in a statement released by Cal. Where he ends up being projected depends heavily on how his knee checks out. Powe is already considered a serious tweener by NBA scouts, and had a hard time this season gaining back much of the explosiveness he had earlier in his career. Could realistically go undrafted should he decide to stay in.\nRichard Roby, 6-5, SG, Colorado Sophomore Likely Second round pick As first indicated by DraftExpress Roby has decided to test the waters. Disappeared against any major competition he went up against, particularly towards the end of the season. Roby will likely have to put on weight in the next few months and show off his perimeter stroke in the Orlando pre-draft camp. Sources tell us that he is on the verge of making a huge mistake by hiring an agent.\nRajon Rondo, 6-2, PG, Kentucky Sophomore Yes First round pick As expected, Rondo has decided to enter the NBA draft, and has also hired an agent, Bill Duffy. Despite an inconsistent sophomore season, most scouts we’ve spoken to still had him as at least the #2 point guard on their board because of his intriguing upside. Workouts will be huge for him.\nBlake Schilb, 6-7, SG/SF, Loyola Chicago Junior No Undrafted Declared his intentions to enter the draft, without an agent, and is hoping for an invite to Orlando. Schlib is sorely lacking in the quickness and explosiveness departments that scouts demand from swingman prospects, but he makes up for it with his skill set to a certain extent. Regardless, sources tell us he won’t be invited to Orlando, meaning he has to go back to school.\nMustafa Shakur, 6-4, PG, Arizona Junior No Second round pick? According to the Arizona Star, Shakur will likely enter his name in the draft, without an agent. Lute Olson confirmed it, saying he is not concerned about it. Shakur is hoping for an Orlando invite to show what he thinks he couldn’t at Point Guard U.\nCedric Simmons, 6-9, PF/C, NC State Sophomore No First round pick? Simmons is reportedly \"exploring his options,\" in regards to the 2006 NBA draft, but will do so without an agent. Nice size, frame, length, athleticism and defensive skills make him a very intriguing prospect.\nMarcus Slaughter, 6-8, PF, San Diego State Junior Yes Second round pick? After burning his lone draft card a year early last June, despite being considered a marginal prospect, Slaughter has announced that he will be hiring agent Dan Fegan and forfeiting his remaining college eligibility. Slaughter’s father thinks that “There was nothing else for Marcus to do at San Diego State.” Many would disagree with that.\nCurtis Stinson, 6-3, PG/SG, Iowa State Junior Yes Second round pick After swearing up and down last month that he has no intention on entering the draft, Stinson did just that. His coach Wayne Morgan, who he was very close to, was fired, resulting in him hiring agent Kevin Bradbury. The 23 year old combo guard will have to go to the Orlando pre-draft camp and impress if he wants to come close to being a 1st rounder.\nTyrus Thomas, 6-9, PF, LSU Freshman Yes Top 5 pick As DraftExpress exclusively reported Thomas called a press conference to announce his intentions to enter the 2006 NBA draft, as well as hire agents Brian Elfus and Mike Siegel. SEC Freshman of the year could be the most athletic player in the draft, as well as the player with the most overall upside.\nPJ Tucker, 6-5, SF, Texas Junior No Second round pick As reported all year long by DraftExpress, Tucker will be entering the draft without an agent. Considering that he’s a 6-5 combo forward with tremendous skills, his stock widely fluctuates depending on who is being asked. Phenomenal basketball player, but is severely lacking in 2-3 inches of height. Will likely need a strong showing at the Orlando pre-draft camp to have a legitimate shot at the 1st round. Some scouts compare him to Bonzi Wells.\nJunior No Undrafted Undersized Division II post player has no chance of being drafted despite 20+8 averages.\nIan Vouyoukas, 6-10, Center, St. Louis Junior ??? Undrafted Vouyoukas declared his intentions to enter the draft, supposedly without an agent. Sources in Europe tell us he is likely to return to Greece to take a large contract offer from a first division team once he realizes he has no chance of being drafted. Vouyoukas is a nice mid-major big man who has improved somewhat in his junior season, but does not possess the necessary combination of athleticism and size required of an NBA center.\nDarius Washington, 6-2, PG, Memphis Sophomore Likely First round pick? DraftExpress exclusively reported that Washington will be in the draft. It appears that he’ll be hiring an agent as well, despite not being anywhere near a lock for the first round.\nAlbert Weber, 6-3, SG, Connors State Sophomore No Undrafted Transfer from Alabama led his conference in scoring and is considered one of the top Junior College players in the country. Not officialy an NCAA player yet, and has not committed to any school yet, so really doesn't stand much to lose (or gain) from this move.\nMarcus Williams, 6-3, PG, UConn Junior Yes Late Lottery-Mid-First As expected, Williams is expected to announce that he’s hired Calvin Andrews of BDA Sports Management as his agent at a press conference next week. A strong junior season and outstanding NCAA tournament, establishing himself as one of the purest playmakers in the nation, means he’s likely one of the first PGs taken.\nAndriy Agafonov, 6-8, PF, Khimik 1986 Ukraine Undrafted Ukrainian power forward played 15 minutes and scored 6 points with 4.4 rebounds per game playing for FIBA EuroCup participants, and is declaring in hopes of getting his name out as he has one more draft card to burn after this before becoming automatically eligible.\nNemanja Aleksandrov, 7-0, SF/PF, KK Reflex 1987 Serbia & Montenegro ??? American agent has been telling us all year that he’s likely to enter. Still hasn’t played a game this year after taking slow recovery process from torn ACL. Once regarded as a prodigy and potential #1 overall pick, but injuries mean he hasn’t played in nearly two years and is now considered damaged goods. Might just look for an attractive team to guarantee him in the 2nd round and develop him in the NBDL.\nPape-Philippe Amagou, 6-1, PG, Le Mans 1985 France ??? Amagou’s American agent has informed us that he will enter the NBA Draft this year, and participate in the Reebok Eurocamp in Treviso. Shares playmaking duties and spotlight with fellow early-entrant Yannick Bokolo.\nAndrea Bargnani, 7-0, PF, Benetton Treviso 1985 Italy Top 5 pick Bargnani's Italian agent Stefano Meller told DraftExpress in Portsmouth that the Italian star power forward will definitely be entering the NBA draft. Bargnani is in the process of hiring an American agent and the only question is how long will it take for him to make it over to the US after Benetton finishes up in the Italian playoffs, which could last as far as mid-June. He is expected to be a top 5 pick with a shot at going #1 depending on how the lottery plays out. Considered a phenomenal talent thanks to his excellent size, perimeter skills and athleticism relative to height.\nYannick Bokolo, 6-3, PG/SG, Le Mans 1985 France ??? Terrific athlete who is still making the transition to playing the point full time.\nCarlos Cedeno, 6-5, SG, Guaiqueries 1985 Venezuela Undrafted Relatively unknown Venezuelan player. Has some international experience at the junior levels.\nTadija Dragicevic, 6-8, PF, Red Star Belgrade 1986 Serbia & Montenegro Undrafted Undersized power forward barely played in the Adriatic League this past season.\nLior Eliyahu, 6-9, SF/PF, Galil Elyon 1985 Israel Second round pick? Prolific and athletic Israeli combo forward will be entering the NBA draft this year looking for certain guarantees from an NBA team in the 1st or 2nd round. Eliyahu is still in the Israeli army and will stay overseas for another year regardless of what happens. He'll be represented by the American agency Entersport in the United States. A midseason injury set him back from being the top Israeli player in the league despite his youth.\nRudy Fernández, 6-5, SG, DKV Joventut 1985 Spain First round pick? Has some minor buyout issues to deal with to make sure he can stay in the draft. Excellent season in Spain has him projected as a pretty solid first round pick. Improved outside shooting, and still the same excellent athlete, passer, defender and all-around player he’s always been. Still very skinny too.\nKyrylo Fesenko, 6-11, PF, Azovmash 1986 Ukraine Second Round Pick More to come.\nRafael Hettsheimeir, 6-9, Center, Akasvayu Girona 1986 Brazil Undrafted Undersized Brazilian center did not overly impress at the Nike Hoop Summit, showing that he will likely lack mobility until he takes off some weight.\nMarko Lekic, 6-11, PF, Atlas 1985 Serbia & Montenegro ??? American agent Marc Cornstein, Lekic told us he’ll be putting his name in the draft this year once again. Still a bit of an unknown, numbers are fairly average in the Serbian YUBA league.\nDamir Markota, 6-11, SF/PF, Cibona Zagreb 1985 Croatia Second round pick American agent Marc Cornstein told us Markota will definitely be putting his name in the draft once again. He had a breakout season in the Euroleague and Adriatic league before a groin injury slowed him down and eventually forced him to have minor surgery. Likely won’t be able to come to the States until very late in the process. Does not have a buyout.\nMickael Mokongo, 5-11, PG, Chalon 1986 France ??? DraftExpress was exclusively informed he’ll be in the draft. Considered a talented athlete, but lack of size and the fact that he missed a large chunk of the season due to injury means his draft stock is very much up in the air still.\nBrad Newley, 6-6, SG, 1985 Australia Second round pick Newely has told the Australian media that he’s entering the draft. Hired Philadelphia based agent Leon Rose. Scouts who saw him play in Argentina last summer like his athleticism. Desperately lacking exposure, but agent appears to be unwilling to provide him with it.\nOleksiy Pecherov, 6-11, PF, Racing Basket 1985 Ukraine Second round pick DraftExpress received indication that Pecherov will be entering his name in the draft after a nice 2nd half regular season in France. Pecherov has his draft card in hand one year before he becomes automatically eligible, meaning he has nothing to lose. Has some nice skills facing the basket, but is still very soft and underdeveloped.\nHrvoje Peric, 6-8, SF, KK Split 1985 Croatia Second round pick? Good athlete who is still coming into his own as a basketball player. Did not play in the Adriatic League this season. Definitely needs at least another year in Europe, but could use the exposure that declaring for the draft provides.\nKosta Perovic, 7-2, Center, Partizan 1985 Serbia & Montenegro Undrafted? DraftExpress has been told that Partizan needs Perovic to be drafted this year to relieve them of his 500,000$ salary next year as well as help them financially with buyout money for their budget. Unfortunately this is happening about 3 years too late as we’ve seen little to no improvement from Perovic over that span.\nGeorgios Printezis, 6-9, PF, Olympiakos 1985 Greece Undrafted Greek power forward played 9 minutes and scored 4 points per game playing for a Euroleague team, and is declaring in hopes of getting his name out before he becomes automatically eligible next year.\nMilovan Rakovic, 6-10, PF, Atlas 1985 Serbia & Montenegro ??? American agent Marc Cornstein told us Rakovic will be putting his name in the draft. Still an unknown player, puts up nice numbers on occasion in the fairly weak Serbian YUBA league.\nAlexandr Rindin, 7-5, Center, Gala Baku 1985 Azerbaijan Undrafted Huge body, complete unknown. 5 points, 5 rebounds per game in FIBA Europe Cup.\nSergio Rodríguez, 6-3, PG, Estudiantes 1986 Spain First round pick Rodríguez’s agent in the States told DraftExpress exclusively he’ll be in the draft, likely for good if he gets a commitment in the 1st round. A disappointing start to his season both in Spain and the ULEB cup made this European prodigy point guard fall on most team’s draft boards, but Rodríguez picked things up substantially towards the end of the year and is now playing terrific basketball. Weak NCAA PG crop could put him in the lottery with good workouts.\nDusan Sakota, 6-10, SF/PF, Panathinaikos 1986 Greece Undrafted Fairly unathletic perimeter oriented big man was in the draft last year already. Plays for one of the best teams in Europe and rarely sees the floor for meaningful minutes.\nRenaldas Seibutis 6-5, SG, Olympiakos 1985 Lithuania Undrafted One of the most productive players in Europe in his age group considering the level he plays at. Important cog on an excellent team, but lacks athleticism and isn’t as good of a shooter as you would hope at this point in his career.\nSaer Sene, 7-0, Center, Pepinster 1986? Senegal First round pick? Freakishly long and athletic African prospect who played extremely well at the Nike Hoop Summit. Many question his age and lack of productivity in the very average Belgian league A player teams will want to look at closely.\nSidiki Sidibe, 7-1, Center, Levallois 1985 France ??? 7-1, 265 pound volleyball player and former Kansas State commit will be in this year’s draft according to his American agent. Too raw to get any playing time whatsoever in French 2nd division.\nTiago Splitter, 7-0, PF/C, Tau Vitoria 1985 Brazil Lottery pick Splitter’s American agent Herb Rudoy told DraftExpress exclusively he’s entering the draft Splitter is having a terrific season in both the ACB Spanish League and the Euroleague, but lack of buyout in his contract means he might not be able to stay in. CBA rules allow him to withdraw and become automatically eligible next season. Tau Vitoria’s president was quoted saying Splitter will be back in Spain next season.\nSun Yue, 6-9, PG/SF, Aoshen 1985 China Second round pick? Super talented tall point guard with decent athleticism and nice defensive skills. Lacks strength and outside shooting ability. Level of competition is mediocre in American semi-pro ABA league, which makes him an intriguing candidate for Orlando pre-draft camp.\nAli Traore, 6-9, PF, Roanne 1985 France ??? Puts up nice numbers in France. Will participate at the Reebok Eurocamp in Treviso.\nEjike Ugboaja, 6-8, PF, Union Bank Lagos 1985 Nigeria Undrafted Plays for Nigerian National Team.\nGoran Dragic, 6-4, PG, Geoplin Slovan 1986 Agent initially notified us that Dragic will be entering the draft, but in the end decided to keep him out. His buyout was always a question mark.\nLeigh Enobakhare, 6-10, Center, Oostende 1986 Agent Ugo Udezue from BDA Sports Management told us that Enobakhare will be entering the draft. In the end he must have heard that he is not considered a prospect at all, and decided to keep him out of the draft.\nCartier Martin, 6-8, SF/PF, Kansas State Junior Martin pondered entering his name in the draft, especially after the firing of Kansas State coach Jim Wooldridge.\nNick Young, 6-6, SG, USC Sophomore Young told the LA Daily News in February that he’s staying at USC for another year.\nD.J. Strawberry, 6-5, SG/SF, Maryland Junior Strawberry initially intended to test the waters, but eventually ended up not doing so once he found out that his chances of being drafted are almost non-existent.\nAl Thornton, 6-7, SF/PF, Florida State Sophomore Implied earlier on in the year that he might put his name in, but sources recently told us it appears that he will return for his senior year. Tallahassee media backs this up.\nMarcus Williams (AZ), 6-8, SG/SF, Arizona Freshman After initially appearing to be gone after numerous “definitive” reports, Williams surprised everyone and thrilled Arizona fans by announcing in a press conference he’ll be returning for his sophomore year.\nJosh McRoberts, 6-11, PF, Duke Freshman After being upset by LSU in the Sweet Sixteen, McRoberts was quoted saying “I’ll be at Duke next year.”. Duke issued a press release a month later confirming this.\nYi Jianlian, 7-0, PF, Guangdong 1987? International Jianlian announced in a press conference that he’ll be staying in China. A CBA official was also quoted on this matter, sounding as if they were the main factor for him staying put.\nAcie Law, 6-3, PG, Texas A&M Junior After a fantastic showing in the NCAA tournament, Law helped his NBA draft stock considerably but will return for his senior year where A&M is expected to make a run at possibly winning the Big 12.\nJoakim Noah, 6-11, PF/C, Florida Sophomore Huge 2nd half regular of the regular season and NCAA tournament boosted his stock into as high as the top 5. Noah came out and said afterwards he’s staying regardless.\nAl Horford, 6-9, PF, Florida Sophomore Horford indicated all season long that he’s staying “at least one more year,” but playing extremely well in winning the national championship gave him a realistic chance at being a lottery pick. Regardless, Horford announced he'll return.\nCorey Brewer, 6-8, SF, Florida Sophomore Brewer indicated all season long that he’s staying “at least one more year,” but a terrific performance in the NCAA tournament gave him a realistic chance at being a top 20 pick. Regardless, Brewer announced he'll return.\nGlen Davis, 6-8, Center, LSU Sophomore Davis announced he’ll be returning to LSU immediately after an absolutely horrendous showing in the Final Four which exposed all of his glaring weaknesses. Made it official as an LSU press conference alongside Tyrus Thomas.\nJason Smith, 7-0, PF/C, Colorado State Sophomore Smith announced that he’s returning for his junior year, stating that \"a little further down the road, it [the NBA] might be in my plans. I'm continuing to concentrate on my academics and see how I can help CSU as much as possible.\"\nJermareo Davidson, 6-10, PF, Alabama Junior > After burning his lone draft card a year early last June, Davidson considered entering the draft again, but eventually made the right decision in announcing he’ll be returning for his senior year.\nRichard Hendrix, 6-8, PF, Alabama Freshman Told Alabama media after NCAA tournament loss that he’ll be back in Tuscaloosa next year.\nJa'Vance Coleman, 6-3, SG, Fresno State Junior Testing the waters according to the Fresno Bee. Whoops, no he’s not.\nSean Singletary, 5-11, PG, Virginia Sophomore Singletary told The Daily Progress in early February that he’s returning.", "answers": ["62."], "length": 5970, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "f9e0095ae38b9c36aac766c4b82f41be5b7560ce8e544675"}
{"input": "What is the maximum radius of the emitting region for the black body model?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\nThe publicly available XMM-Newton slew data covers to date around 35\\%\nof the sky. The soft band (0.2$-$2 keV) sensitivity limit of the slews\n(6$\\times10^{-13}$\\,ergs cm$^{-2}$ s$^{-1}$) is close to that of the\nROSAT All-Sky Survey (RASS; Voges et al.\\ 1999), and in the medium\n(2$-$12 keV) band, the slew data goes significantly deeper\n(4$\\times10^{-12}$\\,ergs cm$^{-2}$ s$^{-1}$) than all other previous\nlarge area surveys. Over 7700 individual sources have so far been\ndetected to a positional accuracy of 8\\arcsec.  For details on the\nthe construction and\ncharacteristics of the first released XMM-Newton slew survey\ncatalogue, see Saxton et al. (2008). For details of the initial\nscience results from the slew survey, see Read et al. (2006).\n\nThe comparison of XMM-Newton slew data with the RASS is now giving,\nfor the first time, the opportunity to find exotic, extreme\nhigh-variability X-ray bursting objects, e.g. tidal disruption\ncandidates (Esquej et al. 2007), and also Galactic novae, flare stars,\nand flaring white dwarfs, plus eclipsing binaries, AGN and blazars. It\nis only with such a large-area survey as the XMM-Newton Slew Survey,\nthat transient events as these have a chance of being caught.\n\nOne such rare event, XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933, which we here show to be\na new Classical Nova, was discovered in an XMM-Newton slew from 18th\nJuly 2006 at a very high count rate of 23.3\\,ct s$^{-1}$ (EPIC-pn:\n0.2$-$2\\,keV). \n\nClassical novae (see Bode \\& Evans 2008 for a review) occur in\ninteracting binary systems consisting of a white dwarf primary star\nand a lower-mass secondary star. The nova itself is a cataclysmic\nnuclear explosion caused by the accretion of material (via Roche Lobe\noverflow or wind accretion) from the secondary star onto the surface\nof the white dwarf; here the pressure and temperature at the base of\nthe accreted material becomes sufficient to trigger a thermonuclear\nrunaway. A recent review of the thermonuclear processes powering\nclassical novae can be found in Starrfield et al.\\ (2008).  The\naccreted material is partially expelled, obscuring the X-ray emission\nfrom the surface of the white dwarf. At later stages, the ejected\nmaterial expands further and becomes optically thin, revealing the\nnuclear burning on the surface of the white dwarf.  This emission\npeaks in the soft X-ray regime and it is known as the super-soft\nsource (SSS) state (Krautter 2008). Models of the classical nova SSS\nstate can be found in Tuchman \\& Truran (1998) and Sala \\& Hernanz\n(2005).\n\nThough many classical novae have been observed in X-rays in their SSS\nstates (Ness et al.\\ (2007) for example discuss several examples observed with\nSwift), it is in the optical band, early in their outbursts, that\nclassical novae are almost always discovered. This is because they are\nintrinsically optically bright and easily found in inexpensive\nwide-area shallow surveys.  XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 is very unusual\ntherefore in that it has been discovered, as we shall see, later in\nits evolution, in the SSS X-ray state.\n\nIn this paper we describe the XMM-Newton slew observations\n(Section~2), and the follow-up X-ray observations by the Swift XRT\n(Section~3) and XMM-Newton (Section~4). Multiwavelength observations\nwith Swift-UVOT, Magellan and ASAS are described in Section~5. We then\npresent a discussion of the results (Section~6), and conclusions.\n\n\n\n\\begin{table*}[t]\n  \\caption[]\n  {Details of the four XMM-Newton Slew observations and the single (Rev.\\,1378) \n    dedicated XMM-Newton pointed observation. XMM-Newton revolution, date and observation ID \n    are tabulated, together with the 0.2$-$2.0\\,keV X-ray properties of XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933;  \n    position, background-subtracted counts, exposure, count-rate, and detection likelihood. For the \n    Rev.\\,1378 dedicated observation, these properties are given for all the EPIC cameras combined.  \n    For the slew observations, only the EPIC-pn values are given. In the first two slews the source \n    was not detected, and upper limits are shown in the table.}\n  \\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{lccccrrrr}\n\\hline\nRev  & Date & Obs.\\,ID & RA(J2000)   & Dec(J2000) & Counts         & Exposure & Count rate  & Lik. \\\\ \n     & (UT) &        &     &            &                & (s) & (s$^{-1}$)  &      \\\\ \\hline \n 351 (slew) & 07/11/01 &  9035100003  &        &               & $<$3.6     & 8.8 & $<$0.41 & $<$$\\sim$8      \\\\\n 750 (slew) & 12/01/04 &  9075000003  &        &               & $<$3.2     & 17.3 & $<$0.18 & $<$$\\sim$8      \\\\  \n1210 (slew )& 18/07/06 &  9121000003  & 06:06:36.2 & -69:49:33 & 228.8$\\pm$14.1 & 9.8 & 23.4$\\pm$1.4 & 1777.1   \\\\ \n1246 (slew) & 28/09/06 &  9121460003  & 06:06:36.5 & -69:49:38 &  12.9$\\pm$2.4  & 3.4 &  3.8$\\pm$0.7 &   54.7   \\\\\n\\vspace{-3.5mm}\\\\\n\\hline \n1378 (pointed) & 19/06/07 &  0510010501  & 06:06:36.5 & -69:49:37 & 1511.0$\\pm$44.8 & 8940.0 &  0.20$\\pm$0.01 & 4630.4          \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\label{slewtable}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\\section{XMM-Newton slew observations}\n\nXMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 was discovered in XMM-Newton slew 9121000003\nfrom revolution 1210 on 18th July 2006. Details of the standard\nXMM-Newton slew data reduction and analysis used, plus the\nsource-searching and catalogue cross-correlation etc., are presented\nin Saxton et al.  (2008).\n\nThe source passed through the EPIC-pn detector in 14\\,s, at a small\noff-axis angle, such that an effective vignetting-corrected soft band\n(0.2$-$2\\,keV) exposure time of 9.8\\,s was achieved.  A total of 229\nsource counts lie within a radius of 20\\arcsec, yielding a (EPIC-pn:\n0.2$-$2\\,keV) count rate of 23.4\\,ct s$^{-1}$.\n\nThe source is seen to have no cross-correlation identifications in the\nRASS, and no other multiwavelength candidates within 30\\arcsec\\ in\nSimbad\\footnote{http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/},\nNED\\footnote{http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/index.html}, and\nHEASARC\\footnote{http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/}. The position of the\nsource in the sky is such that it lies apparently at the outer eastern\nedge of the LMC.\n\nXMM-Newton has slewed over this region of sky a number of times, and\nthough nothing was detected in previous slews from 7th November 2001\nand 12th January 2004, the source was seen again on 28th September\n2006 (rev.\\,1246, 72 days after the rev.\\,1210 discovery), at the same\nposition, but at a reduced flux level (3.8\\,ct s$^{-1}$; EPIC-pn:\n0.2$-$2\\,keV).  i.e. it had reduced in flux by a factor of $\\approx$6\nin 72 days. XMM-Newton has not slewed over this area of sky since\nrev.\\,1246. Details of the relevant XMM-Newton slews, together with\nthe (0.2$-$2\\,keV) EPIC-pn source position, detected source counts,\ncount rate and detection likelihood are given in\nTable~\\ref{slewtable}.\n\nThe fact that XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933 is detected in the total-band\n(0.2$-$12\\,keV) and the soft-band (0.2$-$2\\,keV), whilst effectively\nzero counts are seen in the hard-band (2$-$12\\,keV), is immediately\nindicative of the source being very soft. \n\nThe moderately high count rate indicates that the spectrum is affected\nby pile-up (the on-axis limit is 6\\,ct s$^{-1}$ for EPIC-pn full-frame\nmode\n\\footnote{http://xmm.esac.esa.int/external/xmm\\_user\\_support/documentation\n  /uhb\\_2.5/index.html}). This distorts the spectrum and makes\nquantitative spectral analysis of the slew data difficult. We\nminimized these effects by following the standard procedure, i.e.\nignoring the central part of the Point Spread Function (PSF), and\nextracted an event spectrum (containing single and double events) of\nthe source from within an annulus of 5\\arcsec$-$30\\arcsec\\ radius,\ncentred on the source position. Unresolved problems associated with\nthe motion of sources across the detector still exist within slew\ndata, and approximations currently have to be made when calculating\nthe associated effective area and detector response matrix files. In\norder to perform qualitative spectral analysis, an effective area file\nwas generated by averaging the individual core-removed effective area\nfiles at 9 different positions along the detector track made by the\nsource. This accounts for the removal of the piled-up core, and takes\nthe vignetting and PSF variations into account to a good\napproximation.  Individual BACKSCAL values have been set by hand, as\nhave the EXPOSURE values, estimated by calculating the distance\ntravelled by the source in detector coordinates and finding the time\ntaken to do this, given a 90\\,deg\\,hr$^{-1}$ slew speed, then\nsubtracting the appropriate fractions for chip gaps and bad pixels.\nFor the response matrix, we used the equivalent canned detector\nresponse matrix for the vignetting-weighted average source position,\nfor single plus double events and for full-frame mode:\nepn\\_ff20\\_sdY6\\_v6.9.rmf. A background spectrum was extracted from a\nmuch larger circular region close to the source and at a similar\noff-axis angle.\n\nTo fit the slew spectral data, and indeed all the high-energy spectra\nin the present paper, the\nXSPEC\\footnote{http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xanadu/xspec/}\nspectral fitting package has been used. As $\\chi^2$ minimization is\nnot valid when fitting spectra of low statistical quality, for the\nfitting of the slew spectrum (and all the spectral fitting in the\npresent paper), C-statistics have been used. To take into account the\nabsorbing column along the line of sight, the {\\em wabs} model with\nthe {\\em wilm} cosmic abundance table (Wilms et al.\\ 2000) has been\nused throughout the paper. All the errors quoted in the present paper\nare 90\\% confidence intervals, unless otherwise stated.\n\nThe rev.\\,1210 slew spectrum shows that the source is very soft, and\nappears consistent with a 63$_{-10}^{+12}$\\,eV black body, absorbed by\na hydrogen column density of\n8.2$_{-4.1}^{+5.4}\\times10^{20}$\\,cm$^{-2}$. The fit is good, with a\nP-statistic value of 0.11, obtained via the XSPEC {\\em goodness}\ncommand for this fit, based on 5000 random simulations. The best-fit\nhydrogen column is equal to the full Galactic hydrogen column in the\ndirection of the source (8.0$\\pm{1.1}\\times10^{20}$\\,cm$^{-2}$; Dickey\n\\& Lockman, 1990, calculated via the FTOOL {\\em\n  nh}\\footnote{http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/lheasoft/ftools/fhelp/nh.txt}).\nThe slew spectrum, plus the best fit simple black body model and the\ndeviations from the model, are shown in Fig.\\,\\ref{slewspec}. The\nobserved count rate corresponds to a (0.2$-$2\\,keV) flux, corrected\nfor the removal of the saturated PSF core, of\n4.8$^{+2.7}_{-1.6}\\times10^{-11}$\\,ergs cm$^{-2}$ s$^{-1}$ (an\nincrease in flux over the RASS upper limit, assuming the same spectral\nmodel, by a factor of more than 500).\n\nSimple power-law, thermal Bremmstrahlung, and other optically thin hot\nplasma models are unable to fit the spectrum adequately well.  Given\nthat we later are able to identify the source as a nova (Section~5.2),\nthen the black-body model will likely be a good approximation.\nFurthermore, as we have obtained here a moderate number of slew\ncounts, the more physically realistic, though more complex atmosphere\nmodel for CO white dwarfs of MacDonald \\& Vennes (1991), provided by\nK.\\,Page (private communication), was attempted.  This model, used\ne.g. to model the nova V1974 Cyg (Balman et al.\\ 1998), yielded a\nmarginal fit (and not formally a more statistically significant fit;\nP-statistic = 0.03, based on 5000 random simulations), with an\neffective temperature of 70$^{+8}_{-6}$\\,eV, an $N_{\\rm H}$ of\n3.7$^{+3.2}_{-2.5}$$\\times$$10^{20}$\\,cm$^{-2}$, and a PSF-corrected\n(0.2$-$2\\,keV) flux of 4.5$^{+1.3}_{-1.8}\\times10^{-11}$\\,ergs\ncm$^{-2}$ s$^{-1}$. Note that a smaller $N_{\\rm H}$ (though perhaps\nstill consistent with the full Galactic hydrogen column) is now\nobtained using the white dwarf atmosphere model. (Note that the\nMacDonald \\& Vennes (1991) ONe white dwarf atmosphere model was also\nattempted, but yielded a marginally worse fit than the CO white dwarf\natmosphere model; only the CO atmosphere model has been used in the\nsubsequent analysis).\n\nIt is well known (e.g. Krautter et al.\\ 1996) that, because of the\nenergy-dependent opacity in the white dwarf atmosphere, fits to super\nsoft source novae spectra with black body models give larger fluxes\nand lower temperatures than atmosphere models fit to the same spectra,\nand this is seen in the present case. Thus the black body model\nrequires a larger $N_{\\rm H}$ to fit the same data than the atmosphere\nmodel, as is seen. \n\nThe model normalizations, corrected for the removal\nof the saturated PSF core, can be used to derive an approximate\ndistance to the source.  If we assume a typical emitting region for\nthe white dwarf atmosphere to be of spherical radius 10$^{9}$\\,cm,\nthen, for the black body model, this distance turns out to be\n20$^{+31}_{-10}$\\,kpc. The effects discussed above however can lead to\nusage of the black body model giving rise to an underestimation of the\ndistance.  For the white dwarf atmosphere model, a larger distance of\n71$^{+27}_{-23}$\\,kpc is obtained. Both estimates are consistent with\nthe distance to the LMC ($\\sim$50\\,kpc, see Section~6), and assuming a\ndistance of 50\\,kpc, the black body derived flux corresponds to a\n(pile-up corrected) 0.2$-$2\\,keV X-ray luminosity of\n1.4$^{+0.8}_{-0.5}\\times10^{37}$\\,ergs s$^{-1}$.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[bb=100 20 575 700,clip,width=6.0cm,angle=270]{12082f1.ps}\n\\caption{XMM-Newton Slew spectrum of XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933 from\n  XMM-Newton revolution 1210.  The data points (crosses; adjacent data\n  bins having been grouped together for the plot to have a significance of at least\n  3) have been fitted with a black body model (kT=63\\,eV; see text).\n  The solid line shows the best fit to the spectrum. The ratio of the\n  data to the best fit model is shown in the lower panel.}\n\\label{slewspec}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\section{Swift XRT X-ray observations}\n\nWe requested and received a prompt observation with Swift of this\nsource before it moved out of the Swift visibility window in April\n2007. We received over 14\\,ksec of Swift-XRT time in 7\nseparate observations and the details of these observations are listed\nin Table~\\ref{xrttable}. All of the observations were in photon\ncounting mode and none of the observations showed any times of\nsignificant high-BG flux. In none of the observations did the source\nposition coincide with any of the dead (micrometeorite-induced)\ndetector columns. The analysis has been performed using HEASOFT\nv6.1.2. The individual XRT observations were astrometrically-corrected\nand then stacked to ascertain a best Swift-XRT position $-$ this was\nfound to be 06 06 37.00 -69 49 33.9 (with a 90\\% error radius of\n4.0\\arcsec). Source counts were then extracted from each observation\nfrom a circle of radius of 40\\arcsec\\ at this position. Background\ncounts were extracted from each observation from large-radius\noff-source circles close to the source position. Source counts and\ncount rates for the individual XRT observations are given in\nTable~\\ref{xrttable}.\n\n\n\\begin{table}\n  \\caption[]{Details of the Swift-XRT observations (observation ID, observation date and \n    cleaned exposure time) are tabulated, together with the total (0.2$-$2.0\\,keV) background-subtracted \n    counts and count rate from XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933 (see text).}\n  \\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{ccrrr}\n\\hline\nID          & Date     & Exp. & Counts       & Count rate       \\\\ \n            &   (UT)   &  (s) &              & (s$^{-1}$)        \\\\ \\hline \n00030895001 & 28/02/07 & 1955 & 23.9$\\pm$5.1 & 0.0122$\\pm$0.0026  \\\\\n00030895002 & 07/03/07 & 1796 & 15.8$\\pm$4.2 & 0.0088$\\pm$0.0024 \\\\\n00030895003 & 08/03/07 & 1651 & 10.9$\\pm$3.6 & 0.0066$\\pm$0.0022 \\\\\n00030895004 & 08/03/07 & 2547 & 20.6$\\pm$4.8 & 0.0081$\\pm$0.0019 \\\\\n00030895005 & 10/03/07 & 2550 & 29.5$\\pm$5.7 & 0.0116$\\pm$0.0022 \\\\\n00030895006 & 20/03/07 &  552 &  8.6$\\pm$3.2 & 0.0156$\\pm$0.0057 \\\\\n00030895007 & 22/03/07 & 3391 & 24.4$\\pm$5.4 & 0.0072$\\pm$0.0016 \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\label{xrttable}\n\\end{table}\n\nThe observation naturally fell into three time-separated groups, those\nof obs.\\,1, obs.\\,2-5 and obs.\\,6-7. A similar analysis applied to\nthese groups (where the statistics are improved) gives rise to source\ncounts and count rates of 76.7$\\pm$9.3\\,counts and\n0.0090$\\pm$0.0011\\,ct~s$^{-1}$ (for obs.\\,2-5), and\n33.0$\\pm$6.2\\,counts and 0.0084$\\pm$0.0016\\,ct~s$^{-1}$ (for\nobs.\\,6-7). (Analysis of all the data together yields\n133.6$\\pm$12.3\\,counts and 0.0092$\\pm$0.0009\\,ct~s$^{-1}$). \n\nA spectrum was extracted from all the Swift-XRT data from a 40\\arcsec\\\nradius circle, using grades 0$-$12, centred on the Swift-XRT position.\nA background spectrum was extracted again from all the Swift-XRT data,\nfrom large-radius off-source circles close to the source position. An\nARF file was created using {\\em xrtmkarf} and the appropriate RMF\n(swxpc0to12\\_20010101v008.rmf) from the Swift-XRT Calibration Database\nwas obtained.\n\nStandard spectral models were again fit to the spectral data using\nXSPEC. Again, C-statistics were used, as was the {\\em wabs} absorption\nmodel with the {\\em wilm} cosmic abundance table. It was again \nobvious that only a very soft spectrum would be appropriate for the\ndata, and the only simple model that was able to fit the data\nadequately was a black-body model of temperature\n$kT$=$59^{+14}_{-10}$\\,eV, with an absorbing hydrogen column of\n9.5$^{+5.0}_{-3.9}$$\\times$$10^{20}$\\,cm$^{-2}$. No sufficiently constrained parameters could\nbe obtained using the CO white dwarf atmosphere model (MacDonald \\&\nVennes 1991). The Swift-XRT spectrum, together with the best-fit black\nbody model is shown in Fig.\\,\\ref{xrtspec}. The corresponding\n(0.2$-$2.0\\,keV) flux is 2.7$^{+0.7}_{-1.2}\\times10^{-13}$\\,ergs\ncm$^{-2}$ s$^{-1}$ (i.e. a reduction by more than a factor 100 from\nthe XMM-Newton slew discovery flux), and the X-ray luminosity, for the\nassumed distance of 50\\,kpc, is 8.0$^{+2.2}_{-3.5}\\times10^{34}$\\,ergs\ns$^{-1}$.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[bb=100 15 580 710,clip,width=6.0cm,angle=270]{12082f2.ps}\n\\caption{Swift-XRT spectrum from XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933. The data\n  points (crosses; adjacent data bins having been grouped together for\n  the plot to have a significance of at least 3) have been fitted with\n  a black body model (kT=59\\,eV; see text). The source has faded by a\n  factor of $>100$ since the XMM-Newton revolution 1210 slew\n  discovery. The solid line show the best fit to the spectra.  The\n  ratio of the data to the best fit model is shown in the lower panel.\n}\n\\label{xrtspec}\n\\end{figure}\n\nA cautious estimate of the size of the emitting region can be obtained\nfrom the model normalization; the assumed distance of 50\\,kpc yields a\nmaximum radius of 4.5$\\times$10$^{8}$\\,cm (the fit normalization is\nessentially unconstrained at the lower bound).  Though great care\nshould be taken in interpreting this result, as the black body model\nis possibly overestimating the luminosity, this obtained radius is\nstill consistent with that of moderately massive ($>$1.1$M_{\\odot}$)\nwhite dwarfs (Hamada \\& Salpeter 1961), i.e.\\,the whole white dwarf\nsurface may still be emitting at 59\\,eV.\n\n\\section{Dedicated XMM-Newton observations}\n\nWe were granted an XMM-Newton Target of Opportunity (ToO) observation,\nonce the source became again visible to XMM-Newton, and a 10\\,ks\nXMM-Newton EPIC observation was made on 19th June 2007 (see\nTable~\\ref{slewtable}). All the XMM-Newton EPIC data, i.e.  the data\nfrom the two MOS cameras and the single pn camera, were taken in\nfull-frame mode with the thin filter in place.  These data from the\nthree EPIC instruments have been reprocessed using the standard\nprocedures in XMM-Newton SAS (Science Analysis System) $-$ v.7.1.0.\nPeriods of high-background, of which there were very few, were\nfiltered out of each dataset by creating a high-energy 10$-$15\\,keV\nlightcurve of single events over the entire field of view, and\nselecting times when this lightcurve peaked above 0.75\\,ct s$^{-1}$\n(for pn) or 0.25\\,ct s$^{-1}$ (for MOS). This resulted in\n$\\approx$9.4(8.0)\\,ks of low-background MOS(pn) data. Details of this dedicated\nXMM-Newton observation, together with source position, and\n(0.2$-$2\\,keV) all-EPIC combined (pn, MOS1, MOS2) detected source\ncounts, count rate and detection likelihood are given in\nTable~\\ref{slewtable}.\n\nSource spectra, containing single and double events, were extracted\nfrom the datasets from circles (none of the data were now piled up)\ncentred on the source position. An extraction radius, estimated from\nwhere the radial surface brightness profile was seen to fall to the\nsurrounding background level, was set to 30\\arcsec. Background spectra\nwere extracted from each cleaned dataset from a 40\\arcsec$-$80\\arcsec\\\nannulus centred on the source position. Point sources seen to\ncontaminate these larger-area background spectra were removed from the\nbackground spectra to a radius of 60\\arcsec. ARF files were created\nfor the source spectra, and were checked to confirm that the correct\nextraction area calculations had been performed. Finally RMF response\nfiles were generated.\n \nStandard spectral models were again fit to the spectral data using\nXSPEC. Once again it was obvious that only a very soft model would fit the data; the only\nsimple model that was able to fit the data well (a P-statistic = 0.17,\nbased on 5000 random simulations) was a black-body model of\ntemperature $kT$=70$^{+3}_{-4}$\\,eV, with an absorbing hydrogen column\nof 6.9$^{+1.0}_{-1.6}\\times10^{20}$\\,cm$^{-2}$. The spectrum, together with this best-fit\nmodel are shown in Fig.\\,\\ref{xmmspec}. The corresponding\n(0.2$-$2.0\\,keV) flux is only marginally less than the Swift-XRT value\nat 2.2$^{+0.8}_{-0.9}\\times10^{-13}$\\,ergs cm$^{-2}$ s$^{-1}$ and the\nX-ray luminosity (for the assumed distance of 50\\,kpc) is\n6.7$^{+2.5}_{-2.8}\\times10^{34}$\\,ergs s$^{-1}$.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[bb=110 15 570 705,clip,width=6.0cm,angle=270]{12082f3.ps}\n\\caption{XMM-Newton ToO spectrum from XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933. The\n  data points (crosses; adjacent data bins having been grouped\n  together for the plot to have a significance of at least 3)) have\n  been fitted again with a black body model (kT=70\\,eV) (see text).\n  EPIC-pn data is shown in black, with EPIC-MOS1 in red and EPIC-MOS2\n  in green. The solid lines show the best fit to the spectra.  The\n  ratios of the data to the best fit model are shown in the lower\n  panel.}\n\\label{xmmspec}\n\\end{figure}\n\nGiven that, in this XMM-Newton ToO observation, we had obtained a\nlarger number of counts ($\\raisebox{-1mm}{$\\stackrel{>}{\\sim}$}$1500 over the 3 EPIC cameras), the\nphysically more realistic CO white dwarf atmosphere model (MacDonald \\&\nVennes 1991) was also attempted. This yielded a marginal fit (and formally\na no more statistically significant fit; P-statistic = 0.04, based on\n5000 random simulations), with an effective temperature of\n73$^{+3}_{-2}$\\,eV, and an $N_{\\rm H}$ of\n3.4$^{+0.8}_{-0.8}$$\\times$$10^{20}$\\,cm$^{-2}$. Again, usage of the black body model results\nin a larger fitted $N_{\\rm H}$ and a lower fitted temperature than\nwith the atmosphere model. \n\n\nAs before, the model normalization can be used to obtain a cautious\nestimate of the size of the emitting region. For the assumed distance\nof 50\\,kpc, then the black body model returns an emitting region\nradius of only 1.3$\\pm$0.2$\\times$10$^{8}$\\,cm.  Again care should be\ntaken, as this may be an overestimation, the black body model having\nperhaps overestimated the luminosity. For the white dwarf atmosphere\nmodel, a smaller radius of 0.4$\\pm$0.1$\\times$10$^{8}$\\,cm is\nobtained. Note further that the assumption of a larger distance (see\nSection~6) would result in a proportionally larger emitting radius.\nThe range in allowed radius therefore is quite large, and it is not\nimpossible for for the whole of the white dwarf surface to be emitting\nat 70\\,eV. If this is the case, then the white dwarf would have to be\nat the high end of the mass range ($>$1.2$M_{\\odot}$; Hamada \\&\nSalpeter 1961). It may be the case then that we are at this point at,\nor close to the end of the SSS phase, where the effective temperature\nhas reached a maximum (Sala \\& Hernanz 2005), as is tentatively seen\nin the spectral fitting results, and where the photospheric radius has\nreached a minimum, close to the white dwarf radius.\n\n\n\\subsection{X-ray variability}\n\nThe full (XMM-Newton slew plus Swift-XRT plus XMM-Newton ToO) X-ray\nlightcurve of XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933 is shown in\nFig.\\,\\ref{lightcurve}. The calculated (0.2$-$2.0\\,keV) flux values\nare shown plotted against the number of days since the rev.\\,1210\nXMM-Newton Slew discovery. The first two data points are the\nrev.\\,1210 and the rev.\\,1246 XMM-Newton Slew observations. Then the\nthree nested Swift-XRT points are shown and finally the XMM-Newton ToO\nobservation. The level of RASS upper limit is shown to the bottom\nleft. The (0.2$-$2.0\\,keV) X-ray flux is seen to have dropped by more\nthan two orders of magnitude in 230 days since the discovery, but is\nthen seen to have levelled off for the next 120 days, at a level still\n$\\approx$3 times that of the RASS. Finally, no evidence for any\nshort-term variability (using time bins down to 100\\,s) is seen in the\nhighest statistic continuous X-ray lightcurve (the $\\approx$8.0\\,ksec\nbackground-filtered EPIC-pn lightcurve) obtained from the 19/06/07\nXMM-Newton observation.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[bb=60 60 550 454,clip,width=8.7cm]{12082f4.ps}\n\\caption{The full X-ray lightcurve of XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933. Plotted\n  are the calculated (0.2$-$2.0\\,keV) flux values versus time. The\n  first point is the rev.\\,1210 XMM-Newton Slew observation, then the\n  rev.\\,1246 XMM-Newton Slew observation. The three nested Swift-XRT points\n  are shown next and finally the XMM-Newton ToO observation. The RASS upper\n  limit is shown bottom left. }\n\\label{lightcurve}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\section{Multi-wavelength Follow-up}\n\n\\subsection{Swift UVOT}\n\nFor the Feb/Mar 2007 Swift observations, we arranged for both the\nSwift UVOT-B filter and the UVOT-UVW2 filters to be used in an\napproximate exposure time ratio of 1:5, thus ensuring roughly equal\nnumbers of counts in the two bands (though there is a spectral type\ndependency here). Swift UVOT images in these two filters of the area\nof sky around XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933 are shown in Fig.\\,\\ref{uvot}.\n\nPrior to the Swift UVOT observations, a `best-guess' to the possible\ncandidate optical/IR counterpart would have been the USNO-A2.0 source\n0150-04066298 (B~mag: 17.4, R~mag: 16.1), seen 4\\arcsec\\ south of the\nXMM-Newton slew position. The UVOT images however immediately showed\nthat the optically fainter source at position RA, Dec (J2000) = 06 06\n36.4, -69 49 34.3 (error radius: ~0.5\\arcsec) was a very strong UVW2\nsource and very blue, and was very likely the true counterpart to\nXMMSL1~J060636.2-694933. (The UVW2 filter spans approximately\n800\\AA\\,, centred at $\\approx$1900\\AA)\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[bb=-82 210 695 585,clip,width=8.7cm]{12082f5.ps}\n\\caption{Swift UVOT images of the field around XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933 from observation\n  00030895002. Left shows the UVOT B-filter and right shows the the\n  UVOT UVW2-filter. The large circle is a 20\\arcsec\\ radius circle around\n  the XMM-Newton Slew position. The small circle in the UVW2 image around the\n  bright source is reproduced in the B image, indicating that a faint\n  optical source is also visible at this position.}\n\\label{uvot}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe Swift UVOT pipeline processed data were analysed using the UVOT\nphotometry package {\\em uvotsource} released with\nFTOOLs\\footnote{http://heasarc.nasa.gov/lheasoft/ftools/ftools\\_menu.html}.\nThis package performs aperture photometry on pre-specified source and\nbackground regions, accounting for photometric- (via PSF fitting) and\ncoincidence loss- effects using the UVOT calibration files. Source\ncounts were extracted using a 5\\arcsec\\ radius aperture centred on the\nsource, while for the background we used a 10\\arcsec\\ radius aperture\nlocated in a nearby source-free region.  We used a larger background\naperture to effectively smooth over the modulo-8 fixed pattern noise\npresent in UVOT observations and to improve the statistics of the\nbackground counts. Source counts were converted to UVOT UV-magnitudes\nusing the UVW2 zero-point calibration released with version~2.8 (Build\n22) of the CALDB. The source is seen (see Fig.\\,\\ref{uvotlc}) to be\nroughly constant over the short duration of the Swift observations,\nwith a suggestion of a decline towards the end. This is in keeping\nwith the general form of the X-ray lightcurve (Fig.\\,\\ref{lightcurve})\nat this time.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[bb=80 70 535 380,clip,width=8.7cm]{12082f6.ps}\n\\caption{Variation of the UVW2 magnitude of the bright UV source\n  during the Swift observations. The same time axis as\n  Fig.\\,\\ref{lightcurve} has been used to aid comparison, and a zoom\n  is also shown. The UVW2 filter was only employed during observations\n  00030895002, 00030895004, 00030895005, 00030895006 \\& 00030895007\n  (hence the points span the dates 07/03/07 to 22/03/07). The errors here are 1-$\\sigma$. }\n\\label{uvotlc}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIt is possible to include the UVOT-detected flux with the XRT spectrum\ndescribed in Section~3. UVOT files, created using {\\em uvot2pha} for\nthe five observations (00030895002, 00030895004, 00030895005,\n00030895006 \\& 00030895007) where the UVW2 filter was employed, were\nincorporated into {\\em xspec}, along with the appropriate response\nfile (swuw2\\_20041120v104.rsp) from the Swift-XRT Calibration\nDatabase. We attempted to fit a single black-body spectrum to the\nSwift-XRT+UV data (again using C-statistics, the {\\em wabs} absorption\nmodel and the {\\em wilm} cosmic abundance table, plus the inclusion of\nthe {\\em xspec-redden} component to model the absorption in the UV\nband). The best fit however, with a much lower temperature of\n$kT$=$36^{+3}_{-4}$\\,eV, is a very poor fit to the data; we obtain a\n{\\em goodness} P-statistic value of 0.00, based on 5000 random\nsimulations. This notwithstanding, a flux in the UVW2\n(1.57$-$7.77\\,eV) band of 3.5$\\pm{0.2}\\times10^{-13}$\\,ergs cm$^{-2}$\ns$^{-1}$ can be obtained, corresponding to a UVW2 luminosity, for the\nassumed distance of 50\\,kpc, of 1.0$\\pm{0.1}\\times10^{35}$\\,ergs\ns$^{-1}$.\n\nThe very poor single black-body fit above, plus the large change in\nfitted temperature is strongly suggestive that a model other than, or\nin addition to the XRT-derived kT=59\\,eV black body model (Section~3)\nshould be used to describe the UVW2 data. As we have no UV data other\nthan in the UVW2 filter, all that can be done is to apply the\nXRT-derived black body model to the UVW2+XRT data, and in doing this,\na large flux excess with respect to the XRT-derived black body model\nis seen in the UVW2 band. This is shown in Fig.\\ref{xrtuvotspec}. This\nexcess in UV emission (most of the $10^{35}$\\,ergs s$^{-1}$ discussed\nabove) is likely due to a combination of residual post-nova nuclear\nburning on the surface of the white dwarf, plus accretion in the disk,\nincluding from emission lines. The situation is likely to be rather\ncomplex, depending on the structure of both the ejecta and the\naccretion disk, and is beyond the scope of the present work, where we\nonly have sparse UV data.  For a review of the UV emission from\nclassical novae, see Shore (2008).\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[bb=100 15 580 710,clip,width=6.0cm,angle=270]{12082f7.ps}\n\\caption{Swift-XRT spectrum (black) from XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933, plus\n  the best-fit black-body model to this spectrum (Section~3; Fig.\\,2),\n  but extending into the UV to the Swift-UVOT UVW2 flux points (coloured)\n  (see text). The data points are plotted such that adjacent data\n  bins have been grouped together to have a significance of at least\n  3. The solid line show the best fit to the Swift-XRT spectrum. The\n  ratio of the data to the best fit model is shown in the lower\n  panel.}\n\\label{xrtuvotspec}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsection{Magellan optical observations}\n\nOn Nov.~13, 14, and 15, 2007, XMMSL1~J060636.2--694933 was observed\nwith the Low--Dispersion Survey Spectrograph 3 (LDSS3) mounted on the\nMagellan Clay telescope. Images were obtained through the Sloan\n$g^\\prime$, $r^\\prime$ and $i^\\prime$ filters. On Nov.~15, 2007\nconditions were photometric and the Landolt field RU 149A was observed\nto flux calibrate the data in the $g^\\prime$, $r^\\prime$ and\n$i^\\prime$--bands.  The Landolt (1992) magnitudes of the standards\nwere converted to Sloan magnitudes using the transformations presented\nin Smith et al.\\ (2002). All the images were debiased and flatfielded\nusing dome flatfield frames. We applied aperture photometry on each of\nthe images using DAOPHOT in \\textsc{IRAF}\\footnote{\\textsc {iraf} is\n  distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories} to\ncompute the instrumental magnitudes of the stars. Differential\nphotometry of the optical counterpart to XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933\n(marked by an arrow in Fig.~\\ref{magellan}) was performed with respect\nto the field star (marked with a `c' in Fig.~\\ref{magellan}). This was the\nbrightest isolated and unsaturated star common to all frames.  The\ncalibrated brightness of this comparison star is $g'= 18.42 \\pm 0.04$,\n$r'= 17.85 \\pm 0.06$ and $i'=17.58 \\pm 0.07$.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[bb=35 215 575 575,clip,width=8.7cm]{12082f8.ps}\n\\caption{Magellan Clay LDSS3 finder chart. The counterpart to\n  XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 (and the bright Swift-UVOT UVW2-filter\n  source; Figs.\\ref{uvot}\\&\\ref{uvotlc}) is marked with an arrow. The comparison star is\n  shown marked with a 'c'.}\n\\label{magellan}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn addition to the imaging observations described above, we have\nobtained spectroscopic observations on Nov.~13, 14, and 15, 2007 using\nthe VPH All grism, which has 660 lines per mm, and employing a\n1\\arcsec\\ wide slit. This set-up provides a mean dispersion of 2\\AA\\,\nper pixel. For a slit width of 1 arcsecond and a mean seeing close to\n1\\arcsec, the mean spectral resolution is $\\approx$10\\AA. On Nov.~13, 2007\nwe took 4 exposures of 450\\,s each, on Nov.~14, 2007 we took 2\nexposures of 900\\,s each, and on Nov.~15, 2007 we took one 1200\\,s\nexposure with the slit at the parallactic angle. The spectra were bias\nand flatfield corrected, and extracted in \\textsc{IRAF}. The\ninstrumental response was corrected using the spectrophotometric flux\ncalibrators LTT 3218 (Nov.~13), H600 (Nov.~14) and LTT 9293 (Nov.~15).\nSignificant differences in the flux around H$\\alpha$ are apparent with\nthe flux being 50\\% higher during the Nov.~15, 2007 with respect to\nthe Nov.~13, 2007 observations. Since there is no evidence for\nbrightening in the $r^\\prime$ images we attribute the difference to\nthe fact that the source was not observed at the parallactic angle on\nNov.~13 and 14, 2007. We exported the one dimensional spectra to the\nspectral analysis software package \\textsc{molly} for further\nanalysis.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[bb=70 30 600 800,clip,width=6.8cm,angle=270]{12082f9.ps}\n\\caption{Magellan Clay averaged optical spectrum of the optical source\n  associated with XMMSL1 J060636.2-694933. The flux scaling is\n  approximate. The prominent strong emission lines are marked (see\n  text). }\n\\label{optspec}\n\\end{figure}\n\nWe have averaged all spectra (see Fig.~\\ref{optspec}). We find several\nstrong emission lines. The strongest of these emission lines are best\ninterpreted as due to [OIII] 4958.9\\AA\\, and 5006.9\\AA\\,, He~II at\n4685.8\\AA\\, and a blend of the H$\\alpha$ plus the [NII] at 6548.1\\AA\\,\nand 6583.4\\AA\\,, lines found often in novae (Williams 1992). In this\ncase the main [OIII] lines appear redshifted by approximately 2000\\,km\ns$^{-1}$. We interprete this as due to clumpy outflows in the nova\nshell. The integrated light from different outflowing parts can also\nexplain the substructure that is present in the [OIII] lines. The\noutflow velocities that we obtain for the H$\\alpha$ and H$\\beta$ lines\nis $\\approx$350\\,km s$^{-1}$, hence less than that for the [OIII]\nlines.  Note that, if XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 does reside within the\nLMC, then the systematic line-of-sight recession velocity of the LMC,\n262$\\pm$3.4\\,km~s$^{-1}$ (van der Marel et al.\\ 2002), should be taken\ninto account; i.e.\\,a good fraction of the observed H$\\alpha$ and H$\\beta$\nrecession would then be due to the recession of the LMC itself.\n\n\\subsection{Long-term Optical light curve}\n\nAnalysis of archival robotic optical survey data from 3-minute CCD\nexposures (pixel size 14\\arcsec.8), obtained with a 70\\,mm (200\\,mm\nfocal length) f/2.8 telephoto lens in the course of the All Sky\nAutomated Survey (ASAS; Pojmanski 2002) show that the visual magnitude\nof this source rose from m$_{V}\\raisebox{-1mm}{$\\stackrel{>}{\\sim}$}$14 to m$_{V}$$\\approx$12 between\nSep.~18, 2005 and Sep.~30, 2005, and then declined rapidly thereafter (see\nFig.\\ref{optlc}). ASAS did not detect any significant emission from\nthe source after around November 2005, the source having dimmed below\nthe limiting magnitude of ASAS.\n\nThe decline from the brightest data point ($\\approx$2.2 magnitudes in\n10 days, then a further $\\sim$1.3 magnitudes in 46 days) suggests that\nthis is a nova of the 'very fast' speed class (Warner 1995, Downes\net al.\\ 2001). We estimate that the time that the light curve takes to\ndecline 2 magnitudes below maximum observed brightness is\n8$\\pm$2\\,days (see Section~6).\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[bb=30 78 453 549,clip,width=7.8cm,angle=270]{12082f10.ps}\n\\caption{All Sky Automated Survey V-band magnitudes of the optical counterpart \nto XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933, during outburst (late September 2005) and afterwards.}\n\\label{optlc}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\section{Discussion}\n\nThe optical spectrum, showing lines of [OIII] 4958.9\\AA\\, and\n5006.9\\AA\\,, He~II at 4685.8\\AA\\, and a blend of the H$\\alpha$ plus\n[NII] at 6548.1\\AA\\, and 6583.4\\AA\\, suggests that\nXMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 was a nova, observed (in Nov 2007) in the late\nA$_{0}$ auroral phase. The fact that the observed [OIII] lines are not\nin the more usual, optically thin 3:1 ratio, can be explained in terms\nof a clumpy outflow scenario, whereby individual clumps of both\nrest-frame and redward-shifted material are observed, and the\nsuperposition of these account for the observed [OIII] ratio (note\nfurther that density enhancements can change observed [OIII] ratios to\nmore like $\\sim$1:1). Clumps of material are often seen in nova ejecta\n(e.g. Shara et al.\\ 1997), and outflows of speeds around 2000\\,km\ns$^{-1}$ are not uncommon in novae (e.g. in nova LMC 1991; Schwartz\net al.\\ 2001).\n\nXMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 was likely at its onset (in Oct 2005) a very\nfast, Fe~{\\sc ii} nova (Section~3 and Williams et al.\\ 1991; Williams\net al.\\ 1994). An accurate classification now however is not possible,\nso late after maximum brightness. The soft ($kT_{\\rm\n  eff}$$\\approx$60--70\\,eV) X-ray spectrum indicates that the nova was\nin a super-soft source (SSS) state (Krautter 2008) during its\ndiscovery (in July 2006), and throughout its X-ray decline (by more\nthan two orders of magnitude) in the observations of Sept 2006, March\n2007 and June 2007.  Such a state originates from nuclear burning on\nthe surface of the white dwarf, and measurements of the intensity,\nduration, and temperature can be used to estimate the distance to the\nnova and the mass of the white dwarf (e.g. Balman et al.\\ 1998; Lanz\net al.\\ 2005). Indeed, we believe (Section~4) that the white dwarf\nwithin XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 may be quite massive\n($>$1.2$M_{\\odot}$).\n\nAs discussed earlier, classical novae are almost always discovered\noptically in the early phases of their outbursts.\nXMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 is very unusual therefore in that it has been\ndiscovered first in X-rays. As such, it is useful to compare it with\nXMMSL1~J070542.7-381442 (also known as V598 Pup; Read et al.\\ 2008),\nanother nova recently discovered (in X-rays) in the XMM-Newton slew\nsurvey. With a peak $m_{V}$ of $\\ltsim12$, XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 is\nnot a particularly bright nova (c.f. V598 Pup, which reached an\nm$_{V}$ of $\\raisebox{-1mm}{$\\stackrel{<}{\\sim}$}$4), and so it is not surprising that it went\nunnoticed, only being discovered in X-rays during the later (here\n291\\,days after the outburst), optically thin nebular phase, when\nclassical novae are typically observed as soft X-ray sources. Though\nthis delay should be taken as a upper limit, it is long when compared\nto V598 Pup ($\\raisebox{-1mm}{$\\stackrel{<}{\\sim}$}$127 days), but may instead be more similar to the\ndelays of $\\sim$200 days seen in V1974 Cyg (Krautter et al.\\ 1996),\n$\\sim$6 months of V382 Vel (Orio et al.\\ 2002), and 6$-$8 months of\nV1494 Aql (Drake et al.\\ 2003). In their X-ray monitoring of optical\nnovae in M31, Pietsch et al.\\ (2007) detect 11 out of 34 novae in\nX-rays within a year after their optical outbursts. Seven novae are\nseen to be X-ray bright, several (3$-$9) years after outburst, and\nthree novae showed very short X-ray outbursts, starting within\n50\\,days of outburst, but lasting only two to three months.\nXMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 therefore is not particularly unusual.\n\nA method to estimate the distance to the nova is to use the relation\nbetween the absolute magnitude at maximum brightness and the time that\nthe light curve takes to decline 2 magnitudes below maximum\nbrightness, $t_{2}$ (Della Valle \\& Livio 1995). We have no\ninformation over the 12 days between the data point of maximum\nbrightness and the lower limit prior to this (Fig.\\,\\ref{optlc}), and\ntherefore we have no exact outburst date, nor exact apparent\nmagnitude at outburst.  Assuming for the moment though that we have\ncaught the outburst exactly in the Sep.~30, 2005 observation, then we\ncan estimate (Sect.~5.3) $t_{2}$ to be 8$\\pm$2\\,days, and using this,\nwe can estimate (Della Valle \\& Livio 1995) the absolute magnitude at\nmaximum brightness $M_{V}$ to be --8.7$\\pm$0.6. An absolute magnitude\nof $M_{V}$=--8.7 implies a peak luminosity $\\sim$7 times the Eddington\nluminosity for a 1\\,$M_{\\odot}$ white dwarf. This is quite typical of\nnovae.\n\nWith $A_{V}$=0.39$^{+0.05}_{-0.09}$ (90\\% error), as derived (Predehl\n\\& Schmitt 1995) from $N_{\\rm\n  H}$=6.9$^{+1.0}_{-1.6}\\times10^{20}$\\,cm$^{-2}$ (from the highest\nstatistic spectral fit; the XMM-Newton ToO observation), and with\n$M_{V}$=--8.7$\\pm$0.6, and a peak $m_{V}$ of 12.0, we can derive a\ndistance to XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 of 115$^{+43}_{-30}$\\,kpc.  As\ndiscussed above however, we are unsure as to the exact outburst date\nand the maximum brightness at outburst. Our assumed peak $m_{V}$ of\n12.0 is almost certainly an underestimation. Although we have no\ninformation in the 12 days prior to Sep.~30, 2005, a simple linear\nextrapolation of the early October lightcurve back prior to Sep.~30,\n2005 suggests that the actual peak $m_{V}$ was somewhere between 9 and\n12. The corresponding distance estimates are then between 29 and\n115\\,kpc (with a mid-point $m_{V}$=10.5 value yielding a distance\nestimate of 58\\,kpc). Many methods have been used to estimate the\ndistance to the LMC (e.g.  Kovacs 2000, Nelson et al.\\ 2000), but a\nvalue of around 50\\,kpc appears to be quite robust. Our distance\nestimate is certainly consistent with that of the LMC, though the\nerrors are quite large.  It does appear to be the case however, that\nour distance estimate places the source far outside of our own Galaxy.\nThis, together with the source's position on the sky (at the eastern\nedge of the LMC) and the sizable ($\\sim$Galactic) X-ray hydrogen\ncolumn densities obtained from the spectral fits, suggest strongly\nthat XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 lies within the LMC itself.  Note further\nthat the (pile-up corrected) spectral model normalizations to the\ninitial Slew discovery data (Sect.~2) also imply an approximate\ndistance to XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933 of $\\sim$50\\,kpc.\n\nThe source had, at the time of the slew detection, an absorbed\n(0.2$-$2\\,keV) X-ray flux of 4.8$^{+2.7}_{-1.6}\\times10^{-11}$\\,ergs\ncm$^{-2}$ s$^{-1}$, corresponding to a 0.2$-$2\\,keV X-ray luminosity\n(at 50\\,kpc) of 1.4$^{+0.8}_{-0.5}\\times10^{37}$\\,ergs s$^{-1}$.\nAssuming instead for the moment a distance more like 100\\,kpc (though\nthis is thought to be well beyond the LMC, e.g. Kovacs 2000), then the\n(0.2$-$2\\,keV) X-ray luminosity of\n5.7$^{+3.0}_{-1.9}\\times$$10^{37}$\\,erg s$^{-1}$ obtained is at the high end of the X-ray luminosities of\nclassical SSS-phase novae discussed e.g.\\,in Orio et al.\\ (2002) and\nNess et al.\\ (2007). As discussed though, we have very likely missed\nthe outburst peak, and as such, our more probable assumed distance of\n50\\,kpc gives rise to a more typical SSS-phase X-ray luminosity.  The\nluminosities of 7$-$8$\\times$$10^{34}$\\,erg s$^{-1}$, obtained during\nthe Swift and pointed XMM-Newton observations, are more typical of\nnovae at later times, when the emission can also sometimes be\ndescribed by a thermal plasma, rather than a black-body type spectrum,\nor a more mixed spectrum, due to the complex structure of the ejecta\nand the accretion disk (Krautter 2008, Shore 2008).\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\n\nA bright X-ray source, XMMSL1~J060636.2-694933, was detected in an\nXMM-Newton slew on 18 July 2006 at a position where no previous X-ray\nsource had been seen. The XMM-Newton slew data, plus follow-up dedicated\nXMM-Newton and Swift observations, plus optical imaging and\nspectroscopic data acquired with the Magellan Clay telescope and \nAll-Sky Automated Survey (ASAS) data were used to classify the new object\nas a nova, and to examine its properties. The primary conclusions are\nas follows:\n\n  \\begin{itemize}\n\n  \\item The soft X-ray spectrum indicates that the nova was in a\n    super-soft source (SSS) state at its discovery in July 2007\n    (XMM-Newton slew) and through its X-ray decline (by over two\n    orders of magnitude) in September 2006 (XMM-Newton slew), March\n    2007 (Swift) and June 2007 (XMM-Newton).\n\n  \\item The Magellan optical spectrum (Nov 2007) of the source\n    indicates that it was very likely then a nova in the late\n    A$_{0}$ auroral phase.\n\n  \\item The very fast optical decline (ASAS) during the nova's onset\n    (Oct 2005), indicates that the initial nova was likely of speed class\n    'very fast'.\n\n  \\item The very fast speed, together with the absolute magnitude at\n    maximum brightness and the X-ray absorption, give rise to a\n    distance to the source far beyond our own Galaxy. The large\n    distance, together with the source's position in the sky, at the\n    eastern edge of the LMC, and the spectral information from the\n    X-ray data, are very suggestive that the nova is situated within\n    the LMC itself.\n\n  \\item Analysis of XMM-Newton slew data is continuing to provide a\n    powerful means of finding new X-ray transient objects.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\begin{acknowledgements}\n\n  The XMM-Newton project is an ESA Science Mission with instruments\n  and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States and the USA\n  (NASA). The XMM-Newton project is supported by the Bundesministerium\n  f\\\"ur Wirtschaft und Technologie/Deutsches Zentrum f\\\"ur Luft- und\n  Raumfahrt (BMWI/DLR, FKZ 50 OX 0001), the Max-Planck Society and the\n  Heidenhain-Stiftung. AMR and PE acknowledge the support of STFC\n  funding, and PGJ of the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific\n  Research. The ASAS project is supported by the N2030731/1328 grant\n  from the MNiSzW. We thank the referee (G.\\,Sala) for very useful\n  comments and several references that have improved the paper\n  notably. We thank Kim Page for providing the white dwarf atmosphere\n  model, and we thank her and Graham Wynn for useful discussions. The\n  use of the spectral analysis software package \\textsc{molly} written\n  by Tom Marsh is also acknowledged. MM acknowledges support by a\n  Miller Institute Research Fellowship during the time in which part\n  of the work was completed.\n\n\\end{acknowledgements}\n\n", "answers": ["4.5x10^8 cm."], "length": 7021, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "0da7747b164232cac911a34f6d0421028b27db0ce70e26a7"}
{"input": "What do dendritic spines contain?", "context": "JoVE | Peer Reviewed Scientific Video Journal - Methods and Protocols\nA role for thrombospondin-1 deficits in astrocyte-mediated spine and synaptic pathology in Downs syndrome. Octavio Garcia, Maria Torres, Pablo Helguera, Pinar Coskun, Jorge Busciglio.\nPUBLISHED: 07-02-2010\tDowns syndrome (DS) is the most common genetic cause of mental retardation. Reduced number and aberrant architecture of dendritic spines are common features of DS neuropathology. However, the mechanisms involved in DS spine alterations are not known. In addition to a relevant role in synapse formation and maintenance, astrocytes can regulate spine dynamics by releasing soluble factors or by physical contact with neurons. We have previously shown impaired mitochondrial function in DS astrocytes leading to metabolic alterations in protein processing and secretion. In this study, we investigated whether deficits in astrocyte function contribute to DS spine pathology.\nAnalysis of Dendritic Spine Morphology in Cultured CNS Neurons Authors: Deepak P. Srivastava, Kevin M. Woolfrey, Peter Penzes. Published: 07-13-2011 JoVE Neuroscience\nDendritic spines are the sites of the majority of excitatory connections within the brain, and form the post-synaptic compartment of synapses. These structures are rich in actin and have been shown to be highly dynamic. In response to classical Hebbian plasticity as well as neuromodulatory signals, dendritic spines can change shape and number, which is thought to be critical for the refinement of neural circuits and the processing and storage of information within the brain. Within dendritic spines, a complex network of proteins link extracellular signals with the actin cyctoskeleton allowing for control of dendritic spine morphology and number. Neuropathological studies have demonstrated that a number of disease states, ranging from schizophrenia to autism spectrum disorders, display abnormal dendritic spine morphology or numbers. Moreover, recent genetic studies have identified mutations in numerous genes that encode synaptic proteins, leading to suggestions that these proteins may contribute to aberrant spine plasticity that, in part, underlie the pathophysiology of these disorders. In order to study the potential role of these proteins in controlling dendritic spine morphologies/number, the use of cultured cortical neurons offers several advantages. Firstly, this system allows for high-resolution imaging of dendritic spines in fixed cells as well as time-lapse imaging of live cells. Secondly, this in vitro system allows for easy manipulation of protein function by expression of mutant proteins, knockdown by shRNA constructs, or pharmacological treatments. These techniques allow researchers to begin to dissect the role of disease-associated proteins and to predict how mutations of these proteins may function in vivo.\nPlay ButtonIsolation and Culture of Mouse Cortical AstrocytesAuthors: Sebastian Schildge, Christian Bohrer, Kristina Beck, Christian Schachtrup. Institutions: University of Freiburg , University of Freiburg .Astrocytes are an abundant cell type in the mammalian brain, yet much remains to be learned about their molecular and functional characteristics. In vitro astrocyte cell culture systems can be used to study the biological functions of these glial cells in detail. This video protocol shows how to obtain pure astrocytes by isolation and culture of mixed cortical cells of mouse pups. The method is based on the absence of viable neurons and the separation of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia, the three main glial cell populations of the central nervous system, in culture. Representative images during the first days of culture demonstrate the presence of a mixed cell population and indicate the timepoint, when astrocytes become confluent and should be separated from microglia and oligodendrocytes. Moreover, we demonstrate purity and astrocytic morphology of cultured astrocytes using immunocytochemical stainings for well established and newly described astrocyte markers. This culture system can be easily used to obtain pure mouse astrocytes and astrocyte-conditioned medium for studying various aspects of astrocyte biology.Neuroscience, Issue 71, Neurobiology, Cellular Biology, Medicine, Molecular Biology, Anatomy, Physiology, brain, mouse, astrocyte culture, astrocyte, fibroblast, fibrinogen, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan, neuronal regeneration, cell culture, animal model50079Play ButtonImaging Dendritic Spines of Rat Primary Hippocampal Neurons using Structured Illumination MicroscopyAuthors: Marijn Schouten, Giulia M. R. De Luca, Diana K. Alatriste González, Babette E. de Jong, Wendy Timmermans, Hui Xiong, Harm Krugers, Erik M. M. Manders, Carlos P. Fitzsimons. Institutions: University of Amsterdam, University of Amsterdam.Dendritic spines are protrusions emerging from the dendrite of a neuron and represent the primary postsynaptic targets of excitatory inputs in the brain. Technological advances have identified these structures as key elements in neuron connectivity and synaptic plasticity. The quantitative analysis of spine morphology using light microscopy remains an essential problem due to technical limitations associated with light's intrinsic refraction limit. Dendritic spines can be readily identified by confocal laser-scanning fluorescence microscopy. However, measuring subtle changes in the shape and size of spines is difficult because spine dimensions other than length are usually smaller than conventional optical resolution fixed by light microscopy's theoretical resolution limit of 200 nm.\nSeveral recently developed super resolution techniques have been used to image cellular structures smaller than the 200 nm, including dendritic spines. These techniques are based on classical far-field operations and therefore allow the use of existing sample preparation methods and to image beyond the surface of a specimen. Described here is a working protocol to apply super resolution structured illumination microscopy (SIM) to the imaging of dendritic spines in primary hippocampal neuron cultures. Possible applications of SIM overlap with those of confocal microscopy. However, the two techniques present different applicability. SIM offers higher effective lateral resolution, while confocal microscopy, due to the usage of a physical pinhole, achieves resolution improvement at the expense of removal of out of focus light. In this protocol, primary neurons are cultured on glass coverslips using a standard protocol, transfected with DNA plasmids encoding fluorescent proteins and imaged using SIM. The whole protocol described herein takes approximately 2 weeks, because dendritic spines are imaged after 16-17 days in vitro, when dendritic development is optimal. After completion of the protocol, dendritic spines can be reconstructed in 3D from series of SIM image stacks using specialized software.Neuroscience, Issue 87, Dendritic Spine, Microscopy, Confocal, Fluorescence, Neurosciences, hippocampus, primary neuron, super resolution microscopy, structured illumination microscopy (SIM), neuroscience, dendrite51276Play ButtonSetting-up an In Vitro Model of Rat Blood-brain Barrier (BBB): A Focus on BBB Impermeability and Receptor-mediated TransportAuthors: Yves Molino, Françoise Jabès, Emmanuelle Lacassagne, Nicolas Gaudin, Michel Khrestchatisky. Institutions: VECT-HORUS SAS, CNRS, NICN UMR 7259.The blood brain barrier (BBB) specifically regulates molecular and cellular flux between the blood and the nervous tissue. Our aim was to develop and characterize a highly reproducible rat syngeneic in vitro model of the BBB using co-cultures of primary rat brain endothelial cells (RBEC) and astrocytes to study receptors involved in transcytosis across the endothelial cell monolayer. Astrocytes were isolated by mechanical dissection following trypsin digestion and were frozen for later co-culture. RBEC were isolated from 5-week-old rat cortices. The brains were cleaned of meninges and white matter, and mechanically dissociated following enzymatic digestion. Thereafter, the tissue homogenate was centrifuged in bovine serum albumin to separate vessel fragments from nervous tissue. The vessel fragments underwent a second enzymatic digestion to free endothelial cells from their extracellular matrix. The remaining contaminating cells such as pericytes were further eliminated by plating the microvessel fragments in puromycin-containing medium. They were then passaged onto filters for co-culture with astrocytes grown on the bottom of the wells. RBEC expressed high levels of tight junction (TJ) proteins such as occludin, claudin-5 and ZO-1 with a typical localization at the cell borders. The transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) of brain endothelial monolayers, indicating the tightness of TJs reached 300 ohm·cm2 on average. The endothelial permeability coefficients (Pe) for lucifer yellow (LY) was highly reproducible with an average of 0.26 ± 0.11 x 10-3 cm/min. Brain endothelial cells organized in monolayers expressed the efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp), showed a polarized transport of rhodamine 123, a ligand for P-gp, and showed specific transport of transferrin-Cy3 and DiILDL across the endothelial cell monolayer. In conclusion, we provide a protocol for setting up an in vitro BBB model that is highly reproducible due to the quality assurance methods, and that is suitable for research on BBB transporters and receptors.Medicine, Issue 88, rat brain endothelial cells (RBEC), mouse, spinal cord, tight junction (TJ), receptor-mediated transport (RMT), low density lipoprotein (LDL), LDLR, transferrin, TfR, P-glycoprotein (P-gp), transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER),51278Play ButtonInducing Plasticity of Astrocytic Receptors by Manipulation of Neuronal Firing RatesAuthors: Alison X. Xie, Kelli Lauderdale, Thomas Murphy, Timothy L. Myers, Todd A. Fiacco. Institutions: University of California Riverside, University of California Riverside, University of California Riverside.Close to two decades of research has established that astrocytes in situ and in vivo express numerous G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that can be stimulated by neuronally-released transmitter. However, the ability of astrocytic receptors to exhibit plasticity in response to changes in neuronal activity has received little attention. Here we describe a model system that can be used to globally scale up or down astrocytic group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) in acute brain slices. Included are methods on how to prepare parasagittal hippocampal slices, construct chambers suitable for long-term slice incubation, bidirectionally manipulate neuronal action potential frequency, load astrocytes and astrocyte processes with fluorescent Ca2+ indicator, and measure changes in astrocytic Gq GPCR activity by recording spontaneous and evoked astrocyte Ca2+ events using confocal microscopy. In essence, a “calcium roadmap” is provided for how to measure plasticity of astrocytic Gq GPCRs. Applications of the technique for study of astrocytes are discussed. Having an understanding of how astrocytic receptor signaling is affected by changes in neuronal activity has important implications for both normal synaptic function as well as processes underlying neurological disorders and neurodegenerative disease.Neuroscience, Issue 85, astrocyte, plasticity, mGluRs, neuronal Firing, electrophysiology, Gq GPCRs, Bolus-loading, calcium, microdomains, acute slices, Hippocampus, mouse51458Play ButtonInhibitory Synapse Formation in a Co-culture Model Incorporating GABAergic Medium Spiny Neurons and HEK293 Cells Stably Expressing GABAA ReceptorsAuthors: Laura E. Brown, Celine Fuchs, Martin W. Nicholson, F. Anne Stephenson, Alex M. Thomson, Jasmina N. Jovanovic. Institutions: University College London.Inhibitory neurons act in the central nervous system to regulate the dynamics and spatio-temporal co-ordination of neuronal networks. GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) is the predominant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. It is released from the presynaptic terminals of inhibitory neurons within highly specialized intercellular junctions known as synapses, where it binds to GABAA receptors (GABAARs) present at the plasma membrane of the synapse-receiving, postsynaptic neurons. Activation of these GABA-gated ion channels leads to influx of chloride resulting in postsynaptic potential changes that decrease the probability that these neurons will generate action potentials. During development, diverse types of inhibitory neurons with distinct morphological, electrophysiological and neurochemical characteristics have the ability to recognize their target neurons and form synapses which incorporate specific GABAARs subtypes. This principle of selective innervation of neuronal targets raises the question as to how the appropriate synaptic partners identify each other. To elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms, a novel in vitro co-culture model system was established, in which medium spiny GABAergic neurons, a highly homogenous population of neurons isolated from the embryonic striatum, were cultured with stably transfected HEK293 cell lines that express different GABAAR subtypes. Synapses form rapidly, efficiently and selectively in this system, and are easily accessible for quantification. Our results indicate that various GABAAR subtypes differ in their ability to promote synapse formation, suggesting that this reduced in vitro model system can be used to reproduce, at least in part, the in vivo conditions required for the recognition of the appropriate synaptic partners and formation of specific synapses. Here the protocols for culturing the medium spiny neurons and generating HEK293 cells lines expressing GABAARs are first described, followed by detailed instructions on how to combine these two cell types in co-culture and analyze the formation of synaptic contacts. Neuroscience, Issue 93, Developmental neuroscience, synaptogenesis, synaptic inhibition, co-culture, stable cell lines, GABAergic, medium spiny neurons, HEK 293 cell line52115Play ButtonTwo-Photon in vivo Imaging of Dendritic Spines in the Mouse Cortex Using a Thinned-skull PreparationAuthors: Xinzhu Yu, Yi Zuo. Institutions: University of California, Santa Cruz.In the mammalian cortex, neurons form extremely complicated networks and exchange information at synapses. Changes in synaptic strength, as well as addition/removal of synapses, occur in an experience-dependent manner, providing the structural foundation of neuronal plasticity. As postsynaptic components of the most excitatory synapses in the cortex, dendritic spines are considered to be a good proxy of synapses. Taking advantages of mouse genetics and fluorescent labeling techniques, individual neurons and their synaptic structures can be labeled in the intact brain. Here we introduce a transcranial imaging protocol using two-photon laser scanning microscopy to follow fluorescently labeled postsynaptic dendritic spines over time in vivo. This protocol utilizes a thinned-skull preparation, which keeps the skull intact and avoids inflammatory effects caused by exposure of the meninges and the cortex. Therefore, images can be acquired immediately after surgery is performed. The experimental procedure can be performed repetitively over various time intervals ranging from hours to years. The application of this preparation can also be expanded to investigate different cortical regions and layers, as well as other cell types, under physiological and pathological conditions.Neuroscience, Issue 87, dendritic spine, mouse cortex, in vivo, two-photon microscopy, thinned-skull, imaging51520Play ButtonModeling Astrocytoma Pathogenesis In Vitro and In Vivo Using Cortical Astrocytes or Neural Stem Cells from Conditional, Genetically Engineered MiceAuthors: Robert S. McNeill, Ralf S. Schmid, Ryan E. Bash, Mark Vitucci, Kristen K. White, Andrea M. Werneke, Brian H. Constance, Byron Huff, C. Ryan Miller. Institutions: University of North Carolina School of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine.Current astrocytoma models are limited in their ability to define the roles of oncogenic mutations in specific brain cell types during disease pathogenesis and their utility for preclinical drug development. In order to design a better model system for these applications, phenotypically wild-type cortical astrocytes and neural stem cells (NSC) from conditional, genetically engineered mice (GEM) that harbor various combinations of floxed oncogenic alleles were harvested and grown in culture. Genetic recombination was induced in vitro using adenoviral Cre-mediated recombination, resulting in expression of mutated oncogenes and deletion of tumor suppressor genes. The phenotypic consequences of these mutations were defined by measuring proliferation, transformation, and drug response in vitro. Orthotopic allograft models, whereby transformed cells are stereotactically injected into the brains of immune-competent, syngeneic littermates, were developed to define the role of oncogenic mutations and cell type on tumorigenesis in vivo. Unlike most established human glioblastoma cell line xenografts, injection of transformed GEM-derived cortical astrocytes into the brains of immune-competent littermates produced astrocytomas, including the most aggressive subtype, glioblastoma, that recapitulated the histopathological hallmarks of human astrocytomas, including diffuse invasion of normal brain parenchyma. Bioluminescence imaging of orthotopic allografts from transformed astrocytes engineered to express luciferase was utilized to monitor in vivo tumor growth over time. Thus, astrocytoma models using astrocytes and NSC harvested from GEM with conditional oncogenic alleles provide an integrated system to study the genetics and cell biology of astrocytoma pathogenesis in vitro and in vivo and may be useful in preclinical drug development for these devastating diseases.Neuroscience, Issue 90, astrocytoma, cortical astrocytes, genetically engineered mice, glioblastoma, neural stem cells, orthotopic allograft51763Play ButtonPaired Whole Cell Recordings in Organotypic Hippocampal SlicesAuthors: Chantelle Fourie, Marianna Kiraly, Daniel V. Madison, Johanna M. Montgomery. Institutions: University of Auckland, Stanford University.Pair recordings involve simultaneous whole cell patch clamp recordings from two synaptically connected neurons, enabling not only direct electrophysiological characterization of the synaptic connections between individual neurons, but also pharmacological manipulation of either the presynaptic or the postsynaptic neuron. When carried out in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures, the probability that two neurons are synaptically connected is significantly increased. This preparation readily enables identification of cell types, and the neurons maintain their morphology and properties of synaptic function similar to that in native brain tissue. A major advantage of paired whole cell recordings is the highly precise information it can provide on the properties of synaptic transmission and plasticity that are not possible with other more crude techniques utilizing extracellular axonal stimulation. Paired whole cell recordings are often perceived as too challenging to perform. While there are challenging aspects to this technique, paired recordings can be performed by anyone trained in whole cell patch clamping provided specific hardware and methodological criteria are followed. The probability of attaining synaptically connected paired recordings significantly increases with healthy organotypic slices and stable micromanipulation allowing independent attainment of pre- and postsynaptic whole cell recordings. While CA3-CA3 pyramidal cell pairs are most widely used in the organotypic slice hippocampal preparation, this technique has also been successful in CA3-CA1 pairs and can be adapted to any neurons that are synaptically connected in the same slice preparation. In this manuscript we provide the detailed methodology and requirements for establishing this technique in any laboratory equipped for electrophysiology.Neuroscience, Issue 91, hippocampus, paired recording, whole cell recording, organotypic slice, synapse, synaptic transmission, synaptic plasticity51958Play ButtonImaging Intracellular Ca2+ Signals in Striatal Astrocytes from Adult Mice Using Genetically-encoded Calcium IndicatorsAuthors: Ruotian Jiang, Martin D. Haustein, Michael V. Sofroniew, Baljit S. Khakh. Institutions: University of California Los Angeles, University of California Los Angeles.Astrocytes display spontaneous intracellular Ca2+ concentration fluctuations ([Ca2+]i) and in several settings respond to neuronal excitation with enhanced [Ca2+]i signals. It has been proposed that astrocytes in turn regulate neurons and blood vessels through calcium-dependent mechanisms, such as the release of signaling molecules. However, [Ca2+]i imaging in entire astrocytes has only recently become feasible with genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) such as the GCaMP series. The use of GECIs in astrocytes now provides opportunities to study astrocyte [Ca2+]i signals in detail within model microcircuits such as the striatum, which is the largest nucleus of the basal ganglia. In the present report, detailed surgical methods to express GECIs in astrocytes in vivo, and confocal imaging approaches to record [Ca2+]i signals in striatal astrocytes in situ, are described. We highlight precautions, necessary controls and tests to determine if GECI expression is selective for astrocytes and to evaluate signs of overt astrocyte reactivity. We also describe brain slice and imaging conditions in detail that permit reliable [Ca2+]i imaging in striatal astrocytes in situ. The use of these approaches revealed the entire territories of single striatal astrocytes and spontaneous [Ca2+]i signals within their somata, branches and branchlets. The further use and expansion of these approaches in the striatum will allow for the detailed study of astrocyte [Ca2+]i signals in the striatal microcircuitry.Neuroscience, Issue 93, astrocyte, calcium, striatum, GECI, GCaMP3, AAV2/5, stereotaxic injection, brain slice, imaging51972Play ButtonMethods to Assess Subcellular Compartments of Muscle in C. elegansAuthors: Christopher J. Gaffney, Joseph J. Bass, Thomas F. Barratt, Nathaniel J. Szewczyk. Institutions: University of Nottingham.Muscle is a dynamic tissue that responds to changes in nutrition, exercise, and disease state. The loss of muscle mass and function with disease and age are significant public health burdens. We currently understand little about the genetic regulation of muscle health with disease or age. The nematode C. elegans is an established model for understanding the genomic regulation of biological processes of interest. This worm’s body wall muscles display a large degree of homology with the muscles of higher metazoan species. Since C. elegans is a transparent organism, the localization of GFP to mitochondria and sarcomeres allows visualization of these structures in vivo. Similarly, feeding animals cationic dyes, which accumulate based on the existence of a mitochondrial membrane potential, allows the assessment of mitochondrial function in vivo. These methods, as well as assessment of muscle protein homeostasis, are combined with assessment of whole animal muscle function, in the form of movement assays, to allow correlation of sub-cellular defects with functional measures of muscle performance. Thus, C. elegans provides a powerful platform with which to assess the impact of mutations, gene knockdown, and/or chemical compounds upon muscle structure and function. Lastly, as GFP, cationic dyes, and movement assays are assessed non-invasively, prospective studies of muscle structure and function can be conducted across the whole life course and this at present cannot be easily investigated in vivo in any other organism.Developmental Biology, Issue 93, Physiology, C. elegans, muscle, mitochondria, sarcomeres, ageing52043Play ButtonImproved Preparation and Preservation of Hippocampal Mouse Slices for a Very Stable and Reproducible Recording of Long-term PotentiationAuthors: Agnès Villers, Laurence Ris. Institutions: University of Mons.Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a type of synaptic plasticity characterized by an increase in synaptic strength and believed to be involved in memory encoding. LTP elicited in the CA1 region of acute hippocampal slices has been extensively studied. However the molecular mechanisms underlying the maintenance phase of this phenomenon are still poorly understood. This could be partly due to the various experimental conditions used by different laboratories. Indeed, the maintenance phase of LTP is strongly dependent on external parameters like oxygenation, temperature and humidity. It is also dependent on internal parameters like orientation of the slicing plane and slice viability after dissection.\nThe optimization of all these parameters enables the induction of a very reproducible and very stable long-term potentiation. This methodology offers the possibility to further explore the molecular mechanisms involved in the stable increase in synaptic strength in hippocampal slices. It also highlights the importance of experimental conditions in in vitro investigation of neurophysiological phenomena.Neuroscience, Issue 76, Neurobiology, Anatomy, Physiology, Biomedical Engineering, Surgery, Memory Disorders, Learning, Memory, Neurosciences, Neurophysiology, hippocampus, long-term potentiation, mice, acute slices, synaptic plasticity, in vitro, electrophysiology, animal model50483Play ButtonIn Vivo Modeling of the Morbid Human Genome using Danio rerioAuthors: Adrienne R. Niederriter, Erica E. Davis, Christelle Golzio, Edwin C. Oh, I-Chun Tsai, Nicholas Katsanis. Institutions: Duke University Medical Center, Duke University, Duke University Medical Center.Here, we present methods for the development of assays to query potentially clinically significant nonsynonymous changes using in vivo complementation in zebrafish. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are a useful animal system due to their experimental tractability; embryos are transparent to enable facile viewing, undergo rapid development ex vivo, and can be genetically manipulated.1 These aspects have allowed for significant advances in the analysis of embryogenesis, molecular processes, and morphogenetic signaling. Taken together, the advantages of this vertebrate model make zebrafish highly amenable to modeling the developmental defects in pediatric disease, and in some cases, adult-onset disorders. Because the zebrafish genome is highly conserved with that of humans (~70% orthologous), it is possible to recapitulate human disease states in zebrafish. This is accomplished either through the injection of mutant human mRNA to induce dominant negative or gain of function alleles, or utilization of morpholino (MO) antisense oligonucleotides to suppress genes to mimic loss of function variants. Through complementation of MO-induced phenotypes with capped human mRNA, our approach enables the interpretation of the deleterious effect of mutations on human protein sequence based on the ability of mutant mRNA to rescue a measurable, physiologically relevant phenotype. Modeling of the human disease alleles occurs through microinjection of zebrafish embryos with MO and/or human mRNA at the 1-4 cell stage, and phenotyping up to seven days post fertilization (dpf). This general strategy can be extended to a wide range of disease phenotypes, as demonstrated in the following protocol. We present our established models for morphogenetic signaling, craniofacial, cardiac, vascular integrity, renal function, and skeletal muscle disorder phenotypes, as well as others. Molecular Biology, Issue 78, Genetics, Biomedical Engineering, Medicine, Developmental Biology, Biochemistry, Anatomy, Physiology, Bioengineering, Genomics, Medical, zebrafish, in vivo, morpholino, human disease modeling, transcription, PCR, mRNA, DNA, Danio rerio, animal model50338Play ButtonDirect Imaging of ER Calcium with Targeted-Esterase Induced Dye Loading (TED)Authors: Samira Samtleben, Juliane Jaepel, Caroline Fecher, Thomas Andreska, Markus Rehberg, Robert Blum. Institutions: University of Wuerzburg, Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology, Martinsried, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich.Visualization of calcium dynamics is important to understand the role of calcium in cell physiology. To examine calcium dynamics, synthetic fluorescent Ca2+ indictors have become popular. Here we demonstrate TED (= targeted-esterase induced dye loading), a method to improve the release of Ca2+ indicator dyes in the ER lumen of different cell types. To date, TED was used in cell lines, glial cells, and neurons in vitro. TED bases on efficient, recombinant targeting of a high carboxylesterase activity to the ER lumen using vector-constructs that express Carboxylesterases (CES). The latest TED vectors contain a core element of CES2 fused to a red fluorescent protein, thus enabling simultaneous two-color imaging. The dynamics of free calcium in the ER are imaged in one color, while the corresponding ER structure appears in red. At the beginning of the procedure, cells are transduced with a lentivirus. Subsequently, the infected cells are seeded on coverslips to finally enable live cell imaging. Then, living cells are incubated with the acetoxymethyl ester (AM-ester) form of low-affinity Ca2+ indicators, for instance Fluo5N-AM, Mag-Fluo4-AM, or Mag-Fura2-AM. The esterase activity in the ER cleaves off hydrophobic side chains from the AM form of the Ca2+ indicator and a hydrophilic fluorescent dye/Ca2+ complex is formed and trapped in the ER lumen. After dye loading, the cells are analyzed at an inverted confocal laser scanning microscope. Cells are continuously perfused with Ringer-like solutions and the ER calcium dynamics are directly visualized by time-lapse imaging. Calcium release from the ER is identified by a decrease in fluorescence intensity in regions of interest, whereas the refilling of the ER calcium store produces an increase in fluorescence intensity. Finally, the change in fluorescent intensity over time is determined by calculation of ΔF/F0.Cellular Biology, Issue 75, Neurobiology, Neuroscience, Molecular Biology, Biochemistry, Biomedical Engineering, Bioengineering, Virology, Medicine, Anatomy, Physiology, Surgery, Endoplasmic Reticulum, ER, Calcium Signaling, calcium store, calcium imaging, calcium indicator, metabotropic signaling, Ca2+, neurons, cells, mouse, animal model, cell culture, targeted esterase induced dye loading, imaging50317Play ButtonPreparation of Dissociated Mouse Cortical Neuron CulturesAuthors: Lutz G. W. Hilgenberg, Martin A. Smith. Institutions: University of California, Irvine (UCI).This video will guide you through the process for generating cortical neuronal cultures from late embryo and early postnatal mouse brain. These cultures can be used for a variety of applications including immunocytochemistry, biochemistry, electrophysiology, calcium and sodium imaging, protein and/or RNA isolation. These cultures also provide a platform to study the neuronal development of transgenic animals that carry a late embryonic or postnatal lethal gene mutation. The procedure is relatively straight forward, requires some experience in tissue culture technique and should not take longer than two to three hours if you are properly prepared. Careful separation of the cortical rind from the thalamo-cortical fiber tract will reduce the number of unwanted non-neuronal cells. To increase yields of neuronal cells triturate the pieces of the cortical tissue gently after the enzyme incubation step. This is imperative as it prevents unnecessary injury to cells and premature neuronal cell death. Since these cultures are maintained in the absence of glia feeder cells, they also offer an added advantage of growing cultures enriched in neurons.Neuroscience, Issue 10, cellular, molecular, neurobiology, neuron, calcium/sodium imaging, primary cultures, mouse562Play ButtonAnalysis of Schwann-astrocyte Interactions Using In Vitro AssaysAuthors: Fardad T. Afshari, Jessica C. Kwok, James W. Fawcett. Institutions: University of Cambridge.Schwann cells are one of the commonly used cells in repair strategies following spinal cord injuries. Schwann cells are capable of supporting axonal regeneration and sprouting by secreting growth factors 1,2 and providing growth promoting adhesion molecules 3 and extracellular matrix molecules 4. In addition they myelinate the demyelinated axons at the site of injury 5.\nHowever following transplantation, Schwann cells do not migrate from the site of implant and do not intermingle with the host astrocytes 6,7. This results in formation of a sharp boundary between the Schwann cells and astrocytes, creating an obstacle for growing axons trying to exit the graft back into the host tissue proximally and distally. Astrocytes in contact with Schwann cells also undergo hypertrophy and up-regulate the inhibitory molecules 8-13.\nIn vitro assays have been used to model Schwann cell-astrocyte interactions and have been important in understanding the mechanism underlying the cellular behaviour.\nThese in vitro assays include boundary assay, where a co-culture is made using two different cells with each cell type occupying different territories with only a small gap separating the two cell fronts. As the cells divide and migrate, the two cellular fronts get closer to each other and finally collide. This allows the behaviour of the two cellular populations to be analyzed at the boundary. Another variation of the same technique is to mix the two cellular populations in culture and over time the two cell types segregate with Schwann cells clumped together as islands in between astrocytes together creating multiple Schwann-astrocyte boundaries.\nThe second assay used in studying the interaction of two cell types is the migration assay where cellular movement can be tracked on the surface of the other cell type monolayer 14,15. This assay is commonly known as inverted coverslip assay. Schwann cells are cultured on small glass fragments and they are inverted face down onto the surface of astrocyte monolayers and migration is assessed from the edge of coverslip.\nBoth assays have been instrumental in studying the underlying mechanisms involved in the cellular exclusion and boundary formation. Some of the molecules identified using these techniques include N-Cadherins 15, Chondroitin Sulphate proteoglycans(CSPGs) 16,17, FGF/Heparin 18, Eph/Ephrins19.\nThis article intends to describe boundary assay and migration assay in stepwise fashion and elucidate the possible technical problems that might occur.Cellular Biology, Issue 47, Schwann cell, astrocyte, boundary, migration, repulsion2214Play ButtonQuantifying Synapses: an Immunocytochemistry-based Assay to Quantify Synapse NumberAuthors: Dominic M. Ippolito, Cagla Eroglu. Institutions: Duke University, Duke University.One of the most important goals in neuroscience is to understand the molecular cues that instruct early stages of synapse formation. As such it has become imperative to develop objective approaches to quantify changes in synaptic connectivity. Starting from sample fixation, this protocol details how to quantify synapse number both in dissociated neuronal culture and in brain sections using immunocytochemistry. Using compartment-specific antibodies, we label presynaptic terminals as well as sites of postsynaptic specialization. We define synapses as points of colocalization between the signals generated by these markers. The number of these colocalizations is quantified using a plug in Puncta Analyzer (written by Bary Wark, available upon request, c.eroglu@cellbio.duke.edu) under the ImageJ analysis software platform. The synapse assay described in this protocol can be applied to any neural tissue or culture preparation for which you have selective pre- and postsynaptic markers. This synapse assay is a valuable tool that can be widely utilized in the study of synaptic development.Neuroscience, Issue 45, synapse, immunocytochemistry, brain, neuron, astrocyte2270Play ButtonPreparation of Acute Hippocampal Slices from Rats and Transgenic Mice for the Study of Synaptic Alterations during Aging and Amyloid PathologyAuthors: Diana M. Mathis, Jennifer L. Furman, Christopher M. Norris. Institutions: University of Kentucky College of Public Health, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, University of Kentucky College of Medicine.The rodent hippocampal slice preparation is perhaps the most broadly used tool for investigating mammalian synaptic function and plasticity. The hippocampus can be extracted quickly and easily from rats and mice and slices remain viable for hours in oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid. Moreover, basic electrophysisologic techniques are easily applied to the investigation of synaptic function in hippocampal slices and have provided some of the best biomarkers for cognitive impairments. The hippocampal slice is especially popular for the study of synaptic plasticity mechanisms involved in learning and memory. Changes in the induction of long-term potentiation and depression (LTP and LTD) of synaptic efficacy in hippocampal slices (or lack thereof) are frequently used to describe the neurologic phenotype of cognitively-impaired animals and/or to evaluate the mechanism of action of nootropic compounds. This article outlines the procedures we use for preparing hippocampal slices from rats and transgenic mice for the study of synaptic alterations associated with brain aging and Alzheimer's disease (AD)1-3. Use of aged rats and AD model mice can present a unique set of challenges to researchers accustomed to using younger rats and/or mice in their research. Aged rats have thicker skulls and tougher connective tissue than younger rats and mice, which can delay brain extraction and/or dissection and consequently negate or exaggerate real age-differences in synaptic function and plasticity. Aging and amyloid pathology may also exacerbate hippocampal damage sustained during the dissection procedure, again complicating any inferences drawn from physiologic assessment. Here, we discuss the steps taken during the dissection procedure to minimize these problems. Examples of synaptic responses acquired in \"healthy\" and \"unhealthy\" slices from rats and mice are provided, as well as representative synaptic plasticity experiments. The possible impact of other methodological factors on synaptic function in these animal models (e.g. recording solution components, stimulation parameters) are also discussed. While the focus of this article is on the use of aged rats and transgenic mice, novices to slice physiology should find enough detail here to get started on their own studies, using a variety of rodent models.Neuroscience, Issue 49, aging, amyloid, hippocampal slice, synaptic plasticity, Ca2+, CA1, electrophysiology2330Play ButtonMesenteric Artery Contraction and Relaxation Studies Using Automated Wire MyographyAuthors: Lakeesha E. Bridges, Cicely L. Williams, Mildred A. Pointer, Emmanuel M. Awumey. Institutions: North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina Central University, Durham, Wake Forest University School of Medicine.Proximal resistance vessels, such as the mesenteric arteries, contribute substantially to the peripheral resistance. These small vessels of between 100-400 μm in diameter function primarily in directing blood flow to various organs according to the overall requirements of the body. The rat mesenteric artery has a diameter greater than 100 μm. The myography technique, first described by Mulvay and Halpern1, was based on the method proposed by Bevan and Osher2. The technique provides information about small vessels under isometric conditions, where substantial shortening of the muscle preparation is prevented. Since force production and sensitivity of vessels to different agonists is dependent on the extent of stretch, according to active tension-length relation, it is essential to conduct contraction studies under isometric conditions to prevent compliance of the mounting wires. Stainless steel wires are preferred to tungsten wires because of oxidation of the latter, which affects recorded responses3.The technique allows for the comparison of agonist-induced contractions of mounted vessels to obtain evidence for normal function of vascular smooth muscle cell receptors.\nMedicine, Issue 55, cardiovascular, resistant arteries, contraction, relaxation, myography3119Play ButtonVisualization and Genetic Manipulation of Dendrites and Spines in the Mouse Cerebral Cortex and Hippocampus using In utero ElectroporationAuthors: Emilie Pacary, Matilda A. Haas, Hendrik Wildner, Roberta Azzarelli, Donald M. Bell, Djoher Nora Abrous, François Guillemot. Institutions: MRC National Institute for Medical Research, National Institute for Medical Research, Université de Bordeaux.In utero electroporation (IUE) has become a powerful technique to study the development of different regions of the embryonic nervous system 1-5. To date this tool has been widely used to study the regulation of cellular proliferation, differentiation and neuronal migration especially in the developing cerebral cortex 6-8. Here we detail our protocol to electroporate in utero the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus and provide evidence that this approach can be used to study dendrites and spines in these two cerebral regions.\nFinally, IUE provides a useful tool to identify functional interactions between genes involved in dendrite, spine and/or synapse development. Indeed, in contrast to other gene transfer methods such as virus, it is straightforward to combine multiple RNAi or transgenes in the same population of cells. In summary, IUE is a powerful method that has already contributed to the characterization of molecular mechanisms underlying brain function and disease and it should also be useful in the study of dendrites and spines.Neuroscience, Issue 65, Developmental Biology, Molecular Biology, Neuronal development, In utero electroporation, dendrite, spines, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, gain and loss of function4163Play ButtonImaging Analysis of Neuron to Glia Interaction in Microfluidic Culture Platform (MCP)-based Neuronal Axon and Glia Co-culture SystemAuthors: Haruki Higashimori, Yongjie Yang. Institutions: Tufts University, Tufts Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences.Proper neuron to glia interaction is critical to physiological function of the central nervous system (CNS). This bidirectional communication is sophisticatedly mediated by specific signaling pathways between neuron and glia1,2 . Identification and characterization of these signaling pathways is essential to the understanding of how neuron to glia interaction shapes CNS physiology. Previously, neuron and glia mixed cultures have been widely utilized for testing and characterizing signaling pathways between neuron and glia. What we have learned from these preparations and other in vivo tools, however, has suggested that mutual signaling between neuron and glia often occurred in specific compartments within neurons (i.e., axon, dendrite, or soma)3. This makes it important to develop a new culture system that allows separation of neuronal compartments and specifically examines the interaction between glia and neuronal axons/dendrites. In addition, the conventional mixed culture system is not capable of differentiating the soluble factors and direct membrane contact signals between neuron and glia. Furthermore, the large quantity of neurons and glial cells in the conventional co-culture system lacks the resolution necessary to observe the interaction between a single axon and a glial cell.\nIn this study, we describe a novel axon and glia co-culture system with the use of a microfluidic culture platform (MCP). In this co-culture system, neurons and glial cells are cultured in two separate chambers that are connected through multiple central channels. In this microfluidic culture platform, only neuronal processes (especially axons) can enter the glial side through the central channels. In combination with powerful fluorescent protein labeling, this system allows direct examination of signaling pathways between axonal/dendritic and glial interactions, such as axon-mediated transcriptional regulation in glia, glia-mediated receptor trafficking in neuronal terminals, and glia-mediated axon growth. The narrow diameter of the chamber also significantly prohibits the flow of the neuron-enriched medium into the glial chamber, facilitating probing of the direct membrane-protein interaction between axons/dendrites and glial surfaces.Neuroscience, Issue 68, Molecular Biology, Cellular Biology, Biophysics, Microfluidics, Microfluidic culture platform, Compartmented culture, Neuron to glia signaling, neurons, glia, cell culture4448Play ButtonFluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) of Fluorescence Tagged Proteins in Dendritic Spines of Cultured Hippocampal NeuronsAuthors: Chan-Ying Zheng, Ronald S. Petralia, Ya-Xian Wang, Bechara Kachar. Institutions: National Institutes of Health, Bethesda.FRAP has been used to quantify the mobility of GFP-tagged proteins. Using a strong excitation laser, the fluorescence of a GFP-tagged protein is bleached in the region of interest. The fluorescence of the region recovers when the unbleached GFP-tagged protein from outside of the region diffuses into the region of interest. The mobility of the protein is then analyzed by measuring the fluorescence recovery rate. This technique could be used to characterize protein mobility and turnover rate.\nThis FRAP protocol shows how to perform a basic FRAP experiment as well as how to analyze the data.Neuroscience, Issue 50, Spine, FRAP, hippocampal neurons, live cell imaging, protein mobility2568Play ButtonPrimary Neuronal Cultures from the Brains of Late Stage Drosophila PupaeAuthors: Beatriz Sicaeros, Jorge M. Campusano, Diane K. O'Dowd. Institutions: University of California, Irvine (UCI).In this video, we demonstrate the preparation of primary neuronal cultures from the brains of late stage Drosophila pupae. The procedure begins with the removal of brains from animals at 70-78 hrs after puparium formation. The isolated brains are shown after brief incubation in papain followed by several washes in serum-free growth medium. The process of mechanical dissociation of each brain in a 5 ul drop of media on a coverslip is illustrated. The axons and dendrites of the post-mitotic neurons are sheered off near the soma during dissociation but the neurons begin to regenerate processes within a few hours of plating. Images show live cultures at 2 days. Neurons continue to elaborate processes during the first week in culture. Specific neuronal populations can be identified in culture using GAL4 lines to drive tissue specific expression of fluorescent markers such as GFP or RFP. Whole cell recordings have demonstrated the cultured neurons form functional, spontaneously active cholinergic and GABAergic synapses. A short video segment illustrates calcium dynamics in the cultured neurons using Fura-2 as a calcium indicator dye to monitor spontaneous calcium transients and nicotine evoked calcium responses in a dish of cultured neurons. These pupal brain cultures are a useful model system in which genetic and pharmacological tools can be used to identify intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence formation and function of central synapses.", "answers": ["They are rich in actin and have been shown to be highly dynamic."], "length": 6654, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "4214e20df9d299bae4fb9ba8d1b4792d516812e86960009c"}
{"input": "How does the conduction gap depend on the strain direction?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\n\nIn spite of being an attractive material with excellent electronic properties \\cite{ahcn09},  practical applications of graphene as in conventional semiconductor devices are still questionable due to its gapless nature. In particular, the ON/OFF current ratio is low while the saturation of current is poor in pristine graphene transistors \\cite{schw10}. Many efforts of bandgap engineering in graphene \\cite{yhan07,khar11,lher13,jbai10,zhan09} have been made to solve these issues. The pioneer technique proposed \\cite{yhan07} is to cut 2D graphene sheets into 1D narrow nanoribons. In 2D graphene sheets, some options as Bernal-stacking of graphene on hexagonal boron nitride substrate \\cite{khar11}, nitrogen-doped graphene \\cite{lher13}, graphene nanomesh lattice \\cite{jbai10,berr13} and Bernal-stacking bilayer graphene \\cite{zhan09} have been explored. However, the possibility to open a sizable bandgap in graphene as large as those of standard semiconductors is still very unlikely. In particular, it requires a very good control of lattice geometry and edge disorder in narrow graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) \\cite{quer08} and in graphene nanomesh lattices \\cite{hung13}, while the bandgap opening in bilayer graphene by a perpendicular electric field may not be large enough for realistic applications \\cite{fior09}. Other methods should be further verified by experiments.\n\n\\begin{figure}[!t]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=2.8in]{Fig01.pdf}\n\\caption{Schematic of unstrained/strained graphene junctions investigated in this work.}\n\\label{fig_sim1}\n\\end{figure}\n\nOn the other hand, graphene was experimentally demonstrated to be able to sustain a much larger strain than conventional semiconductors, making it a promising candidate for flexible electronics (see in a recent review \\cite{shar13}). Indeed, strain engineering has been suggested to be an alternative approach to modulating efficiently the electronic properties of graphene nanomaterials. In particular, the bandgap has periodic oscillations in the armchair GNRs \\cite{ylu210} while the spin polarization at the ribbon edges (and also the bandgap) can be modulated by the strain in the zigzag cases. In 2D graphene sheets, a finite gap can open under large strains, otherwise, it may remain close to zero but the Dirac points are displaced \\cite{cocc10,per209,pere09,huan10}. Many interesting electrical, optical, and magnetic properties induced by strain in graphene have been also explored, e.g. see in \\cite{bunc07,pere09,kuma12,per010,pell10,guin10,tlow10,zhai11}.\n\nBesides, local strain is a good option to improve the electrical performance of graphene devices \\cite{pere09,ylu010,fuji10,juan11,baha13}. For instance, it has been shown to enhance the ON current in a GNR tunneling FET \\cite{ylu010} and to fortify the transport gap in GNR strained junctions \\cite{baha13}. In a recent work \\cite{hung14}, we have investigated the effects of uniaxial strain on the transport in 2D unstrained/strained graphene junctions and found that due to the strain-induced shift of Dirac points, a significant conduction gap of a few hundreds meV can open with a small strain of a few percent. This type of strained junction was then demonstrated to be an excellent candidate to improve the electronic operation of graphene transistors. It hence motivates us to further investigate the properties of this conduction gap so as to optimize the performance of graphene devices. On the one hand, the effects of strain should be, in principle, dependent on its applied direction. On the other hand, because the appearance of conduction gap is a consequence of the shift of Dirac points along the $k_y$-axis, it is predicted that this gap should also depend on the transport direction. Note that here, Oy (Ox) - axis is assumed to be perpendicular (parallel) to the transport direction. The effects of both strain and transport directions will be clarified systematically in the current work.\n\n\\section{Model and calculations}\n\nIn this work, the $\\pi$-orbital tight binding model constructed in \\cite{per209} is used to investigate the electronic transport through the graphene strained junctions schematized in Fig. 1. The Hamiltonian is ${H_{tb}} = \\sum\\nolimits_{nm} {{t_{nm}}c_n^\\dag {c_m}}$ where $t_{nm}$ is the hopping energy between nearest neighbor \\emph{n}th and \\emph{m}th atoms. The application of a uniaxial strain of angle $\\theta$ causes the following changes in the $C-C$ bond vectors:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n {{\\vec r}_{nm}}\\left( \\sigma \\right) &=& \\left\\{ {1 + {M_s}\\left( \\sigma, \\theta \\right)} \\right\\}{{\\vec r}_{nm}}\\left( 0 \\right) \\\\\n {M_s}\\left( \\sigma, \\theta \\right) &=& \\sigma \\left[ {\\begin{array}{*{20}{c}}\n {{{\\cos }^2}\\theta  - \\gamma {{\\sin }^2}\\theta }&{\\left( {1 + \\gamma } \\right)\\sin \\theta \\cos \\theta }\\\\\n {\\left( {1 + \\gamma } \\right)\\sin \\theta \\cos \\theta }&{{{\\sin }^2}\\theta  - \\gamma {{\\cos }^2}\\theta }\n \\end{array}} \\right] \\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $\\sigma$ represents the strain and $\\gamma \\simeq 0.165$ is the Poisson ratio \\cite{blak70}. The hopping parameters are defined as $t_{nm} \\left( \\sigma \\right) = t_0 \\exp\\left[-3.37\\left(r_{nm} \\left( \\sigma \\right) /r_0 - 1\\right)\\right]$, where the hopping energy $t_0 = -2.7$ $eV$ and the bond length $r_{nm} \\left( 0 \\right) \\equiv r_0 = 0.142$ $nm$ in the unstrained case. Therefore, there are three different hoping parameters $t_{1,2,3}$ corresponding to three bond vectors ${\\vec r}_{1,2,3}$, respectively, in the strained graphene part of the structure (see Fig. 1). Here, we assume a 1D profile of applied strain, i.e., the strain tensor is a function of position along the transport direction Ox while it is constant along the Oy-axis. The transport direction, $\\phi$, and strain direction, $\\theta$, are determined as schematized in Fig. 1. Based on this tight binding model, two methods described below can be used to investigate the conduction gap of the considered strained junctions.\n\n\\textbf{Green's function calculations.} First, we split the graphene sheet into the smallest possible unit cells periodically repeated along the Ox/Oy directions with the indices $p/q$, respectively (similarly, see the details in \\cite{hung12}). The tight-binding Hamiltonian can therefore be expressed in the following form:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{H_{tb}} = \\sum\\limits_{p,q} {\\left( {{H_{p,q}} + \\sum\\limits_{{p_1},{q_1}} {{H_{p,q \\to p_1,q_1}}} } \\right)}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $H_{p,q}$ is the Hamiltonian of cell $\\{p,q\\}$, and $H_{p,q \\to p_1,q_1}$ denotes the coupling of cell $\\{p,q\\}$ to its nearest neighbor cell $\\{p_1,q_1\\}$. We then Fourier transform the operators in Eq. (2) as follows:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n {c_{p,q}} = \\frac{1}{{\\sqrt {{M_{cell}}} }}\\sum\\limits_{{\\kappa_y}} {{e^{i{q\\kappa_y}}}} {{\\hat c}_{p,{\\kappa_y}}},\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $M_{cell}$ is the number of unit cells and $\\kappa_y \\equiv k_y L_y$ with the size $L_y$ of unit cells along the Oy direction. The Hamiltonian (2) is finally rewritten as a sum of $\\kappa_y$-dependent 1D-components:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{H_{tb}} &=& \\sum\\limits_{{\\kappa_y}} {\\hat H\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)} \\\\\n\\hat H\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right) &=& \\sum\\limits_p {{{\\hat H}_{p \\to p - 1}}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right) + {{\\hat H}_p}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right) + {{\\hat H}_{p \\to p + 1}}}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right) \\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nWith this Hamiltonian form, the Green's function formalism can be easily applied to compute transport quantities in the graphene strained junction with different transport directions. In particular, the conductance at zero temperature is determined as:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n \\mathcal{G} \\left( \\epsilon \\right) = \\frac{{e^2 W}}{{\\pi h L_y}}\\int\\limits_{BZ} {d{\\kappa_y} \\mathcal{T}\\left( {\\epsilon, {\\kappa_y}} \\right)}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $\\mathcal{T}\\left( {\\epsilon,{\\kappa_y}} \\right)$ is the transmission probability computed from the Green's functions. The integration over $\\kappa_y$ is performed in the whole first Brillouin zone. As in ref. \\cite{hung13}, the gap of conductance (conduction gap) is then measured from the obtained data of conductance.\n\n\\textbf{Bandstructure analyses.} To determine the conduction gap of strained junctions, we find that another simple way based on the analysis of graphene bandstructures could be efficiently used. It is described as follows. Since the conductance is computed from Eq. (5), the appearance of conduction gap is essentially governed by the gaps of transmission probability, which is determined from the energy gaps in the unstrained and strained graphene sections. These energy gaps can be defined directly from the graphene bandstructures. Therefore, our calculation has two steps, similar to that in \\cite{hung14}. From the graphene bandstructures obtained using the tight-binding Hamiltonian above, we first look for the energy gaps $E_{unstrain}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)$ and $E_{strain}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)$ for a given $\\kappa_y$ of two graphene sections. The maximum of these energy gaps determines the gap $E_{junc}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)$ of transmission probability through the junction. Finally, the conduction gap $E_{cond.gap}$ is obtained by looking for the minimum value of $E_{junc}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)$ when varying $\\kappa_y$ in the whole Brillouin zone.\n\nIn particular, the energy bands of strained graphene are given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n E\\left( {\\vec k} \\right) =  \\pm \\left| {{t_1}{e^{i\\vec k{{\\vec a}_1}}} + {t_2}{e^{i\\vec k{{\\vec a}_2}}} + {t_3}} \\right|\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the plus/minus sign corresponds to the conduction/valence bands, respectively. For a given direction $\\phi$ of transport, in principle, the vectors $\\vec L_{x,y}$ defining the sizes of unit cell along the Ox and Oy directions, respectively, can be always expressed as ${\\vec L_x} = {n_1}{\\vec a_1} + {n_2}{\\vec a_2}$ and ${\\vec L_y} = {m_1}{\\vec a_1} + {m_2}{\\vec a_2}$ with $\\cos \\phi = \\frac{{{{\\vec L}_x}\\vec L_x^0}}{{{L_x}L_x^0}}$ and $\\sin \\phi = \\frac{{{{\\vec L}_x}\\vec L_y^0}}{{{L_x}L_y^0}}$ while $\\vec L_{x,y}^0 = {\\vec a_1} \\pm {\\vec a_2}$. Note that $n_{1,2}$ and $m_{1,2}$ are integers while $\\frac{{{m_1}}}{{{m_2}}} =  - \\frac{{{n_1} + 2{n_2}}}{{{n_2} + 2{n_1}}}$, i.e., ${\\vec L_{x}} {\\vec L_{y}} = 0$. In other words, we have the following expressions\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{{{\\vec a}_1} = \\frac{{ - {m_2}{{\\vec L}_x} + {n_2}{{\\vec L}_y}}}{{{n_2}{m_1} - {n_1}{m_2}}};\\,\\,\\,{{\\vec a}_2} = \\frac{{{m_1}{{\\vec L}_x} - {n_1}{{\\vec L}_y}}}{{{n_2}{m_1} - {n_1}{m_2}}}}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nOn this basis, the energy bands can be rewritten in terms of $\\kappa_{x, y} = \\vec k \\vec L_{x,y} \\left( { \\equiv {k_{x,y}}{L_{x,y}}} \\right)$ by substituting Eqs. (7) into Eq. (6). This new form of energy bands is finally used to compute the conduction gap of strained junctions.\n\nAs a simple example, in the case of $\\phi = 0$ (armchair direction), we calculate the conduction gap as follows. First, Eq. (6) is rewritten in the form\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n E_{\\phi = 0}\\left( {\\vec \\kappa} \\right) =  \\pm \\left| {{t_1}{e^{i\\kappa_y/2}} + {t_2}{e^{ - i\\kappa_y/2}} + {t_3}{e^{ - i\\kappa_x/2}}} \\right|\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwith the vectors $\\vec L_{x,y} \\equiv \\vec L_{x,y}^0$. Using this new form, the energy gap of strained graphene for a given $\\kappa_y$ is determined as\n\\begin{equation}\n{E_{strain}^{gap}}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right) = 2 \\left| {\\sqrt {{{\\left( {{t_1} - {t_2}} \\right)}^2} + 4{t_1}{t_2}{{\\cos }^2}\\frac{{{\\kappa_y}}}{2}}  + {t_3}} \\right|\n\\end{equation}\nwhile ${E_{unstrain}^{gap}}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)$ is given by the same formula with $t_1$ = $t_2$ = $t_3$ $\\equiv$ $t_0$. The gap of transmission probability through the junction is then determined as ${E_{junc}^{gap}}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right) = \\max \\left[ {E_{unstrain}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right),E_{strain}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)} \\right]$ and, finally, the conduction gap is given by ${E_{cond.gap}} = \\min \\left[ {E_{junc}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)} \\right]$ for $\\kappa_y$ in the whole Brillouin zone.\n\nWe would like to notice that the Green's function calculations and the banstructure analyses give the same results of conduction gap in the junctions where the transition region between unstrained and strained graphene sections is long enough, i.e., larger than about 5 to 6 nm. In the case of short length, as discussed in \\cite{baha13,hung14}, this transition zone can have significant effects on the transmission between propagating states beyond the energy gaps and hence can slightly enlarge the gap of conductance, compared to the results obtained from the bandstructure calculations.\n\n\\section{Results and discussion}\n\n\\begin{figure}[!t]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=3.0in]{Fig02.pdf}\n\\caption{Dependence of graphene bandgap (in the unit of eV) on the applied strain and its direction: tensile (a) and compressive (b). The radius from the central point indicates the strain strength ranging from 0 (center) to 30 $\\%$ (edge of maps) while the graphene lattice is superimposed to show visibly the strain direction. The orange circle corresponds to the strains of $\\sigma = 23 \\%$.}\n\\label{fig_sim2}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[!t]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=3.4in]{Fig03.pdf}\n\\caption{Conductance ($G_0 = e^2W/hL_y$) as a function of energy in graphene strained junctions for $\\sigma = 4 \\%$ with different strain directions. The transport along the armchair direction ($\\phi = 0$) is considered. The data obtained in a uniformly strained graphene is displayed for the comparison.}\n\\label{fig_sim6}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure*}[!t]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=5.8in]{Fig04.pdf}\n\\caption{Local density of states (left panels) and corresponding transmission coefficient (right panels) for three different wave-vectors $k_y$ obtained in an unstrained/strained graphene junction of $\\sigma = 4 \\%$, and $\\theta \\equiv \\phi = 0$. On the top is a schematic of graphene bandedges illustrating the strain-induced shift of Dirac points along the $k_y$-direction.}\n\\label{fig_sim4}\n\\end{figure*}\n\\begin{figure*}[!t]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=5.6in]{Fig05.pdf}\n\\caption{Maps of conduction gap in unstrained/strained graphene junctions: tensile (a,c) and compressive cases (b,d). The transport is along the armchair $\\phi = 0$ (a,b) and zigzag $\\phi = 30^\\circ$ directions (c,d). The strain strength ranges from 0 (center) to 6 $\\%$ (edge of maps) in all cases.}\n\\label{fig_sim4}\n\\end{figure*}\nFirst, we re-examine the formation of the bandgap of graphene under a uniaxial strain. From Eq. (9), it is shown that a strain-induced finite-bandgap appears only if ${E_{strain}^{gap}}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right) > 0$ for all $k_y$ in the first Brillouin zone, i.e., ${k _y} \\in \\left[ { - \\frac{\\pi}{L_y}, \\frac{\\pi}{L_y}} \\right]$, otherwise, the bandgap remains zero. Hence, the condition for the bandgap to be finite is either\n\\begin{equation*}\n \\left| {{t_1} - {t_2}} \\right| > \\left| {{t_3}} \\right|\\,\\,\\,\\,\\,{\\rm{OR}}\\,\\,\\,\\,\\,\\left| {{t_3}} \\right| > \\left| {{t_1} + {t_2}} \\right|\n\\end{equation*}\nand the corresponding values of bandgap are\n\\begin{equation*}\n {E_{gap}} = 2\\left( {\\left| {{t_1} - {t_2}} \\right| - \\left| {{t_3}} \\right|} \\right)\\,\\,\\,\\,\\,{\\rm{OR}}\\,\\,\\,\\,\\,2\\left( {\\left| {{t_3}} \\right| - \\left| {{t_1} + {t_2}} \\right|} \\right)\n\\end{equation*}\nThis result was actually reported in \\cite{per209,hase06}. We remind as displayed in Fig. 2(a) that a finite bandgap opens only for strain larger than $\\sim 23 \\%$ and the zigzag (not armchair) is the preferred direction for bandgap opening under a tensile strain \\cite{per209}. We extend our investigation to the case of compressive strain and find  (see in Fig. 2(b)) that (i) the same gap threshold of $\\sigma \\simeq 23 \\%$ is observed but (ii) the preferred direction to open the gap under a compressive strain is the armchair, not the zigzag as the case of tensile strain. This implies that the properties of graphene bandstructure at low energy should be qualitatively the same when applying strains of $\\left\\{ {\\sigma ,\\theta } \\right\\}$ and of $\\left\\{ {-\\sigma ,\\theta + 90^\\circ} \\right\\}$. This feature can be understood by considering, for example, strains of $\\left\\{ {\\sigma , \\theta = 0} \\right\\}$ and of $\\left\\{ {-\\sigma , \\theta = 90^\\circ} \\right\\}$. Indeed, these strains result in the same qualitative changes on the bond-lengths, i.e., an increased bond-length $r_3$ and reduced bond-lengths $r_{1,2}$. However, for the same strain strength, because of the exponential dependence of hoping energies on the bond-lengths, the compressive strain generally induces a larger bandgap than the tensile one, as can be seen when comparing the data displayed in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b). To conclude, we would like to emphasize that a large strain is necessary to open a bandgap in graphene. This could be an issue for practical applications, compared to the use of graphene strained junctions explored in \\cite{hung14}.\n\nWe now go to explore the properties of conduction gap in the graphene strained junctions. In Fig. 3, we display the conductance as a function of energy computed from Eq. (5) using the Green's function technique. As discussed above, a small strain of a few percent (e.g., 4 $\\%$ here) can not change the gapless character of graphene, i.e., there is no gap of conductance in the case of uniformly strained graphene. However, similar to that reported in \\cite{hung14}, a significant conduction-gap of a few hundreds meV can open in the unstrained/strained graphene junctions. The appearance of this conduction gap, as mentioned previously, is due to the strain-induced shift of Dirac points and is explained as follows. Actually, the strain causes the lattice deformation and can result in the deformation of graphene bandstructure. Therefore, the bandedges as a function of wave-vector $k_y$ in unstrained and strained graphene can be illustrated schematically as in the top panel of Fig. 4. As one can see, the shift of Dirac points leads to the situation where there is no value of $\\kappa_y$, for which the energy gaps $E_{unstrain}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)$ and $E_{strain}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)$ are simultaneously equal to zero. This means that the transmission probability always shows a finite gap for any $\\kappa_y$. For instance, the energy gap is zero (or small) in the unstrained (resp. strained) graphene section but finite in the strained (resp. unstrained) one in the vicinity of Dirac point $k_y = K_{unstrain}$ (resp. $K_{strain}$). Accordingly, as illustrated in the pictures of LDOS in the left panels of Fig. 4 and confirmed in the corresponding transmissions in the right panels, clear gaps of transmission are still obtained. Far from these values of $k_y$, $E_{unstrain}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)$ and $E_{strain}^{gap}\\left( {{\\kappa_y}} \\right)$ are both finite (e.g., see the LDOS plotted for $k_y = K_{gap}$) and hence a finite gap of transmission also occurs. On this basis, a finite gap of conductance is achieved. More important, Fig. 3 shows that besides the strength of strain, the strain effect is also strongly dependent on the applied direction. For instance, the conduction gap takes the values of $\\sim$ 295, 172 and 323 meV for $\\theta = 0$, $30^\\circ$ and $90^\\circ$, respectively.\n\nBelow, we will discuss the properties of the conduction gap with respect to the strain, its applied direction, and the direction of transport. Note that due to the lattice symmetry, the transport directions $\\phi$ and $\\phi + 60^\\circ$ are equivalent while the applied strain of angle $\\theta$ is identical to that of $\\theta + 180^\\circ$. Hence, the data obtained for $\\phi$ ranging from $-30^\\circ$ to $30^\\circ$ and $\\theta  \\in \\left[ {0^\\circ ,180^\\circ } \\right]$ covers the properties of conduction gap in all possible cases.\n\nIn Fig. 5, we present the maps of conduction gap with respect to the strain and its applied direction in two particular cases: the transport is either along the armchair ($\\phi = 0$) or the zigzag ($\\phi = 30^\\circ$) directions. Both tensile and compressive strains are considered. Let us first discuss the results obtained in the armchair case. Figs. 5(a,b) show that (i) a large conduction gap up to about 500 meV can open with a strain of 6 $\\%$ and (ii) again the conduction gap is strongly $\\theta$-dependent, in particular, its peaks occur at $\\theta = 0$ or $90^\\circ$ while the gap is zero at $\\theta \\approx 47^\\circ$ and $133^\\circ$ for tensile strain and at $\\theta \\approx 43^\\circ$ and $137^\\circ$ for compressive strain. In principle, the conduction gap is larger if the shift of Dirac points in the $\\kappa_y$-axis is larger, as discussed above about Figs. 3-4. We notice that the strain-induced shifts can be different for the six Dirac points of graphene \\cite{kitt12} and the gap is zero when there is any Dirac point observed at the same $\\kappa_y$ in the two graphene sections. From Eq. (9), we find that the Dirac points are determined by the following equations:\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n  {\\cos}\\frac{\\kappa_y}{2} &=& \\pm \\frac{1}{2}\\sqrt{\\frac{{t_3^2 - {{\\left( {{t_1} - {t_2}} \\right)}^2}}}{{{t_1}{t_2}}}}, \\\\\n  \\cos \\frac{{\\kappa_x}}{2} &=& \\frac{{{t_1} + {t_2}}}{{\\left| {{t_3}} \\right|}}\\cos \\frac{{\\kappa_y}}{2},\\,\\,\\,\\sin \\frac{{\\kappa_x}}{2} = \\frac{{{t_2} - {t_1}}}{{\\left| {{t_3}} \\right|}}\\sin \\frac{{\\kappa_y}}{2},\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nwhich simplify into ${\\cos}\\frac{\\kappa_y}{2} = \\pm \\frac{1}{2}$ and, respectively, $\\cos \\left( {\\frac{{{\\kappa _x}}}{2}} \\right) = \\mp 1$ in the unstrained case. Hence, the zero conduction gap is obtained if\n\\begin{equation*}\n  \\frac{{t_3^2 - {{\\left( {{t_1} - {t_2}} \\right)}^2}}}{{4{t_1}{t_2}}} = \\frac{1}{4}\n\\end{equation*}\nAdditionally, it is observed that the effects of a strain $\\{\\sigma,\\theta\\}$ are qualitatively similar to those of a strain $\\{-\\sigma,\\theta+90^\\circ\\}$, i.e., the peaks and zero values of conduction gap are obtained at the same $\\theta$ in these two situations. To understand this, we analyze the strain matrix $M_s \\left(\\sigma,\\theta\\right)$ and find that in the case of small strains studied here, there is an approximate relationship between the bond lengths under these two strains, given by \\[{r \\left( \\sigma, \\theta \\right)} - {r \\left( -\\sigma, \\theta + 90^\\circ\\right)} \\simeq \\sigma \\left( {1 - \\gamma } \\right) r_0,\\] which is $\\theta$-independent for all \\emph{C-C} bond vectors. It implies that there is a fixed ratio between the hopping energies $t_i \\left( \\sigma, \\theta \\right)$ and $t_i \\left( -\\sigma, \\theta + 90^\\circ\\right)$ and hence there is the similar shift of Dirac points in these two cases.\n\\begin{figure}[!t]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=3.4in]{Fig06.pdf}\n\\caption{Map showing the dependence of conduction gap on the directions ($\\theta,\\phi$) for $\\sigma = 4 \\%$. The top is a diagram illustrating the rotation of Dirac points in the \\emph{k}-space with the change in the transport direction $\\phi$.}\n\\label{fig_sim6}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure*}[!t]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=5.5in]{Fig07.pdf}\n\\caption{Maps of conduction gap obtained in tensile/compressive strained junctions. The transport along the armchair/zigzag directions is considered in (a,b)/(c,d), respectively. The strains $\\sigma_c = -2 \\%$ and $\\sigma_t = 2 \\%$ are applied in (a,c) while $\\sigma_c = -1 \\%$ and $\\sigma_t = 3 \\%$ in (b,d).}\n\\label{fig_sim4}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nWe now go to analyze the properties of conduction gap shown in Figs. 5(c,d) where the transport is along the zigzag direction $\\phi = 30^\\circ$. In fact, the conduction gap in this case can reach a value as high as that of the case of $\\phi = 0$ but has different $\\theta$-dependence. In particular, the conduction gap has peaks at $\\theta \\approx 47^\\circ$ and $133^\\circ$ for tensile strain and at $\\theta \\approx 43^\\circ$ and $137^\\circ$ for compressive strain, where it is zero in the case of $\\phi = 0$. It is also equal to zero at $\\theta = 0$ and $\\theta = 90^\\circ$ where the peaks of conduction gap occur in the latter case of $\\phi = 0$. The relationship between these two transport directions can be explained as follows. On the one hand, based on the analyses above for $\\phi = 0$, we find that for a given strength of strain, a maximum shift of Dirac points along the $k_y$-axis corresponds to a minimum along the $k_x$-one and vice versa when varying the strain direction $\\theta$. On the other hand, as schematized in the top of Fig. 6 below, the change in the transport direction results in the rotation of the first Brillouin zone, i.e., the $k_x$ (resp. $k_y$) axis in the case of $\\phi = 30^\\circ$ is identical to the $k_y$ (resp. $k_x$) axis in the case of $\\phi = 0$. These two features explain essentially the opposite $\\theta$-dependence of conduction gap for $\\phi = 30^\\circ$, compared to the case of $\\phi = 0$ as mentioned. Again, we found the same qualitative behavior of conduction gap when applying the strains of $\\{\\sigma,\\theta\\}$ and $\\{-\\sigma,\\theta+90^\\circ\\}$.\n\nNext, we investigate the conduction gap with respect to different transport directions $\\phi$. We display a ($\\theta,\\phi$)-map of conduction gap for $\\sigma = 4 \\%$ in Fig. 6 and, in the top, an additional diagram illustrating the rotation of Dirac points in the $k-$space with the change in the transport direction. It is clearly shown that (i) a similar scale of conduction gap is obtained for all different transport directions, (ii) there is a smooth and continuous shift of $E_{cond.gap}-\\theta$ behavior when varying $\\phi$, and (iii) the same behavior of $E_{cond.gap}$ is also observed when comparing the two transport directions of $\\phi$ and $\\phi+30^\\circ$, similarly to the comparison above between $\\phi = 0^\\circ$ and $30^\\circ$. The data plotted in Fig. 6 additionally shows that $E_{cond.gap}$ takes the same value in both cases of $\\{\\phi,\\theta\\}$ and $\\{-\\phi,-\\theta\\}$ with a remark that the strains of $-\\theta$ and $180^\\circ-\\theta$ are identical. Moreover, the values of $\\theta$ and $\\phi$, for which the conduction gap has a peak or is equal to zero, have an almost linear relationship. In particular, the relationship for conduction gap peaks is approximately given by $\\theta = \\theta_A - \\eta_s \\phi$. For tensile strains, $\\eta_s$ takes the values of $\\sim 1.5667$ and $1.4333$ for $\\theta_A = 0$ and $90^\\circ$, respectively. On the opposite, it is about $1.4333$ and $1.5667$ for $\\theta_A = 0$ and $90^\\circ$, respectively, for compressive strain cases. All these features are consequences of the rotation of Dirac points in the $k$-space with respect to the transport direction $\\phi$ as illustrated in the diagram on the top and the lattice symmetry of graphene.\n\nFinally, we investigate other junctions based on compressive and tensile strained graphene sections. The idea is that in this type of strained junction, the shifts of Dirac points are different in two graphene sections of different strains, which offers the possibilities to use smaller strains to achieve a similar conduction gap, compared to the case of unstrained/strained junction. In Fig. 7, we display the maps of conduction gap with respect to the directions of compressive ($\\theta_c$) and tensile ($\\theta_t$) strains in two cases of transport direction $\\phi = 0$ (armchair) and $30^\\circ$ (zigzag) for given strain strengths. Indeed, as seen in Fig. 7(a,b), with smaller strains $\\left\\{ {{\\sigma _c},{\\sigma _t}} \\right\\} = \\left\\{ { - 2\\% ,2\\% } \\right\\}$ or $\\left\\{ { - 1\\% ,3\\% } \\right\\}$, similar conduction gap of about 310 meV can be achieved (see Figs. 7(a,b)) while it requires a strain of 4 $\\%$ in the unstrained/strained junctions discussed above. However, since the shift of Dirac points is strongly dependent on the direction of applied strains and the transport direction, the properties of conduction gap are more complicated than in the latter case. In particular, our calculations show that the preferred transport directions to achieve a large conduction gap are close to the armchair one. Otherwise, the conduction gap is generally smaller, similarly to the data for $\\phi = 30^\\circ$ compared to $\\phi = 0$, as shown in Fig. 7. Additionally, it is shown that the preferred directions of applied strains in the case of $\\phi = 0$ are close to ${\\theta _c} \\equiv {\\theta _t} = 0$ or $90^\\circ$.\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\n\nBased on the tight binding calculations, we have investigated the effects of uniaxial strain on the transport properties of graphene strained junctions and discuss systematically the possibilities of achieving a large conduction gap with respect to the strain, its applied direction and the transport direction. It has been shown that due to the strain-induced deformation of graphene lattice and hence of graphene bandstructure, a finite conduction gap higher than 500 meV can be achieved for a strain of only 6 $\\%$. Moreover, as a consequence of the shift of Dirac points along the $k_y$-axis, the conduction gap is strongly dependent not only on the strain strength but also on the direction of applied strain and the transport direction. A full picture of these properties of conduction gap has been presented and explained. The study hence could be a good guide for the use of this type of unstrained/strained graphene junction in electronic applications.\n\n\\textbf{\\textit{Acknowledgment.}} This research in Hanoi is funded by Vietnam National Foundation for Science and Technology Development (NAFOSTED) under grant number 103.02-1012.42. We also acknowledges the French ANR for financial support under the projects NANOSIM-GRAPHENE (Grant no. ANR-09-NANO-016) and MIGRAQUEL (Grant no. ANR-10-BLAN-0304).\n\n", "answers": ["Peaks occur at certain strain directions, while the gap is zero at others."], "length": 4334, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "69ea47e54e2cedec193247f452f5d3bbef2566a93f1dd353"}
{"input": "Who is responsible for carrying out the functions assigned under the act?", "context": "Bare Acts Live\nHimachal Pradesh Town and Country Planning Act, 1977\nHimachal Pradesh Town And Country Planning Rules, 1978\n3. Form of Notice.\n4. Manner of publication of notice.\n5. Manner of publication of Regional Plan.\n6. Notice of Modifications in Regional Plan.\n7. Manner of publication of existing land-use map.\n8. Manner of publication of approved Interim Development Plan.\n9. Manner of publication of draft development plan.\n10. Manner of publication of approved development plan.\n11. Intention of development undertaken on behalf of Union or State Government.\n12. Form of application for permission for development of land by others.\n13. Form of permission.\n14. Manner of communication of order under sub-section (4) of Section 31.\n16. Notice by owner to purchase interest in land.\n17. Manner of communication of revocation and modification permission to development.\n20. Preparation of town development scheme.\n21. Acquisition of land.\n22. Mode of levy.\n23. Power to borrow money.\n24. Terms and conditions subject to which loans may be raised by the Special area Development Authority.\n1. Short title, extent, commencement and application.\n3. Director and other officers.\n4. Establishment of regions.\n5. Director to prepare regional plan.\n6. Survey.\n7. Contents of regional plan.\n8. Preparation of regional plan.\n9. Finalisation of regional plan.\n10. Restriction on use of land or development thereof.\n11. Exclusion from claims of amount in certain cases.\n12. Review of regional plan.\n13. Planning area.\n14. Director to prepare development plans.\n15. Existing land use maps.\n16. Freezing of land use.\n17. Interim development plans.\n18. Development plan.\n19. Publication of draft development plan.\n20. Sanction of development plans.\n21. Director to prepare sectoral plan.\n22. Contents of sectoral plan.\n23. Provisions of sections 19 and 20 to apply to sectoral plan.\n24. Review of development plan and sectoral plan.\n25. Director to control land use.\n26. Conformity with development plan.\n27. Prohibition of development without permission.\n28. Development undertaken on behalf of Union or State Government.\n29. Development by local authority or by any authority constituted under this Act.\n30. Application for permission for development by others.\n30A. Exemption from development permission in rural areas falling within Planning or Special Area.\n30B. Exemption in respect of development of certain lands or buildings.\n31. Grant or refusal of permission.\n34. Lapse of permission.\n35. Obligation to acquire land.\n36. Deletion of reservation of designated land from draft or final development plan.\n37. Power of revocation and modification or permission to development.\n38. Penalty for unauthorised development or for use otherwise than in conformity with development plan.\n39. Power to require removal of unauthorised development.\n40. Establishment of Town and Country Development Authority.\n41. Incorporation of Town and Country Development Authority.\n42. Constitution of Town and Country Development Authority.\n42A. Constitution of Town and Country Development Authority for the Capital Town of Himachal Pradesh.\n43. Term of office of Chairman and other members.\n44. Resignation of members and filling of casual vacancy.\n45. Remuneration of Chairman.\n46. Leave of absence and appointment etc. of acting Chairman.\n47. Meeting of Town and Country Development Authority.\n48. Chief Executive Officer.\n49. Other officers and servants.\n50. Conditions of service of Chief Executive Officer and other officers and servants.\n51. Town development schemes.\n53. Power to revise the development schemes.\n54. Power of State Government to give Directions.\n55. Restriction on land use and development.\n56. Lapse of scheme.\n57. Town development scheme public purpose.\n58. Acquisition of land for Town and Country Development Authority.\n59. Developments.\n60. Disposal of land, buildings and other development works.\n61. Development charges.\n63. Fund of Town and Country Development Authority.\n64. Annual budget.\n66. Constitution of special areas.\n67. Special area Development Authority.\n68. Incorporation of Special Area Development Authority.\n70. Functions.\n71. Powers.\n72. Fund of Special Area Development Authority.\n73. Annual estimates.\n74. Power of State Government of supervision and control.\n76. Power of Government to review plans etc. for ensuring conformity.\n78. Dissolution of authorities.\n79. Right of entry.\n80. Jurisdiction of Court.\n82. Member and officers to be public servants.\n83. Suit and other proceedings.\n84. Vacancy not to invalidate proceedings.\n85. Member to continue till successor enters upon office.\n86. Interpretation of regional plan etc.\n87. Powers to moke rules.\n89. Power to lay the rules and regulations.\nThe Himachal Pradesh Town and Country Planning Act, 1977\n(as amended by Amendment Act No. 22 of 1983)\nAmended by Act No. 8 of 2009\nAct published in the Rajpatra, Extraordinary, dated the 30th September, 1977 vide Law Department Notification No. LLR-D(6)5/77, dated the 22nd September, 1977.\nAn Act to make provision for planning and development and use of land; to make better provision for the preparation of development plans and sectoral plans with a view to ensuring that town planning schemes are made in a proper manner and their execution is made effective; to constitute the Town and Country and Development Authority for proper implementation of town and country development plan; to provide for the development and administration of special areas through the Special Area Development Authority; to make provision for the compulsory acquisition of land required for the purpose of the development plans and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.\nBe it enacted by the Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly in the Twenty-eighth Year of the Republic of India as follows:-\n1. Short title, extent, commencement and application. - (1) This Act may be called the Himachal Pradesh Town and Country Planning Act, 1977.\n(3) It shall come into force on such date as the State Government may, by notification, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different areas and for different provisions of this Act.\n(4) Nothing in this Act shall apply to-\n(a) lands comprised within a cantonment under the Cantonments Act, 1924; (2 of 1924).\n(b) lands owned, hired or requisitioned by the Central Government for the purpose of naval, military and air force works;\n(c) lands under the control of railway administration for the purpose of construction and maintenance of works under Chapter III of the Indian Railways Act, 1890; (9 of 1890) and\n(d) lands owned by any department of the Central Government where operational constructions are going on.\n(a) \"agriculture\" includes horticulture, farming, raising of annual or periodical crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers, grass, fodder, trees or any kind of cultivation of soil, the reserving of land for fodder, grazing or thatching areas, breeding and keeping of livestock including cattle, horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, breeding of fish and keeping of bees, and the use of land ancillary to the farming of land, but does not include-\n(i) keeping of cattle purely for the purpose of milking and selling the milk and milk products,\n(ii) a garden which is an appendage of buildings, and the expression \"agricultural\" shall be construed accordingly;\n(b) \"amenity\" includes roads and streets, water and electric supply, open spaces, parks, recreational area, natural feature, playgrounds, street lighting, drainage, sewerage and other utilities, services and conveniences;\n(c) \"building\" includes any structure or erection, or part of a structure or erection, which is intended to be used for residential, industrial, commercial or other purposes, whether in actual use or not;\n(d) \"building operation\" includes-\n(i) erection or re-erection of a building or any part thereof,\n(ii) roofing or re-roofing of any part of building or an open space,\n(iii) any material alteration or enlargement of a building,\n(iv) any such alteration of a building as is likely to alter its drainage or sanitary arrangements, or materially affect its security,\n(v) the construction of a door opening on any street or land not belonging to the owner;\n(e) \"commercial use\" means the use of any land or building or part thereof for the purpose of carrying on any trade, business or profession, or sale or exchange of goods of any type whatsoever and includes running of with a view to make profit hospitals, nursing homes, infirmaries, educational institutions, hostels, restaurants and boarding houses not being attached to any educational institutions, sarais and also includes the use of any land or building for storage of goods or as buildings for storage of goods or as an office whether attached to an industry or otherwise;\n(f) \"court\" means the principal civil court of original jurisdiction in the district;\n(g) \"development\" with its grammatical variations means the carrying out of a building, engineering, mining or other operations in, on, over or under land, or the making of any material change in any building or land or in the use of either, and includes sub-division of any land;\n(h) \"development plan\" means interim development plan or development plan prepared under this Act;\n(i) \"director\" means the Director of Town and Country Planning appointed under this Act;\n(j) \"existing land use map� means a map indicating the use to which lands in any specified area are put at the time of preparing the map, and includes the register prepared, with the map giving details of land-use;\n(k) \"land\" includes benefits to arise out of land and things attached to the earth or permanently fastened to anything attached to the earth;\n(l) \"member\" means a member of a Town and Country Development Authority or a Special Area Development Authority, as the case may be, and includes a Chairman thereof;\n(m) \"occupier\" includes-\n(i) a tenant,\n(ii) an owner in occupation of or otherwise using his land,\n(iii) a rent free tenant,\n(iv) a licensee, and\n(v) any person liable to pay to the owner, damages for the use and occupation of the land;\n(n) \"owner\" includes a mortgagee in possession, a person who for the time being is receiving or is entitled to receive, or has received, the rent or premium for any land whether on his own account or on behalf of or for the further benefit of any other person or as an agent, trustee, guardian or receiver for any other person or for religious or charitable institutions or who would receive the rent or be entitled to receive the rent or premium if the land were to be let and includes a head of a Government department, General Manager of a Railway and the Chief Executive Officer, by whatever name designated, or a local authority, statutory authority, company, corporation or undertaking in respect of properties under their control;\n(o) \"planning area\" means any area declared to be planning area under this Act;\n(p) \"region\" means any area established to be a region under this Act;\n(q) \"regional plan\" means a plan for the region prepared under this Act and approved by the State Government;\n(r) \"sector\" means any sector of a planning area for which, under the development plan, a detailed sectoral plan is prepared;\n(s) \"slum area\" means any predominantly residential area, where the dwellings which by reason of dilapidation, over-crowding, faulty arrangement of design, lack of ventilation, light or sanitary facilities or any combination of these factors are detrimental to safety, health or moral and which is defined by a development plan as a slum area;\n(t) \"special area\" means a special area designated as such under section 66;\n(u) \"Special Area Development Authority� means an authority constituted under section 67;\n(v) \"Town Development Scheme\" means a scheme prepared for the implementation of the provisions of a development plan by the Town and Country Development Authority; and\n(w) \"Town and Country Development Authority\" means an authority established under section 40.\nDirector of Town and Country Planning\n3. Director and other officers. - (1) After the commencement of this Act the State Government shall, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint an officer for the purpose of carrying out functions assigned to him under this Act, as the Director of Town and Country Planning for the State and may appoint such other categories of officers as it may deem fit.\n(2) The Director shall exercise such powers and perform such duties as are conferred or imposed upon him by or under this Act and the officers appointed to assist the Director shall, within such area as the State Government may specify, exercise such powers and perform such duties conferred and imposed on the Director by or under this Act as the State Government may, by special or general order, direct.\n(3) The officers appointed to assist the Director shall be subordinate to him and shall work under his guidance, supervision and control.\n4. Establishment of regions. - (1) The State Government may, by notification,-\n(a) declare any area in the State to be a region for the purposes of this Act;\n(b) define the limits of such area; and\n(c) specify the name by which such region shall be known.\n(2) The State Government may, by notification, alter the name of any such region and on such alteration, any reference in any law or instrument or other document to the region shall be deemed to be a reference to the region as re-named unless expressly otherwise provided or the context so requires.\n(3) The State Government may, by notification,-\n(a) alter the limits of a region so as to include therein or exclude therefrom Such area as may be specified in the notification;\n(b) amalgamate two or more regions so as to form one region;\n(c) divide any region into two or more region; or\n(d) declare that the whole or part of the area comprising a region shall cease to be a region or part thereof.\n5. Director to prepare regional plan. - Subject to the provisions of this Act and the rules made thereunder, it shall be the duty of the Director-\n(i) to carry out a survey of the regions;\n(ii) to prepare an existing land use map; and\n(iii) to prepare a regional plan.\n6. Survey. - (1) The Director shall, with a view to prepare the existing land use map, and other maps as are necessary for the purpose of regional plan,-\n(a) carry out such surveys as may be necessary;\n(b) obtain from any department of Government and any local authority such maps, survey reports and land records as may be necessary for the purpose.\n(2) It shall be the duty of every Government department and local authority to furnish, as soon as may be possible, maps, reports and record, as may be required by the Director.\n7. Contents of regional plan. - The regional plan shall indicate the manner in which land in the region should be used, the phasing of development, the net work of communications and transport, the proposals for conservation and development of natural resources, and in particular-\n(a) allocation of land to such purposes as residential, industrial; agricultural or as forests or for mineral exploitation;\n(b) reservation of open spaces for recreational purposes, gardens, tree belts, and animal sanctuaries;\n(c) access or development of transport and communication facilities such as roads, railways, water ways, and the allocation and development of airports;\n(d) requirements and suggestions for development of public utilities such as water supply, drainage and electricity;\n(e) allocation of areas to be developed as \"Special Areas� wherein new towns, townships, large industrial estates or any other type of large development projects may be established;\n(f) landscaping and the preservation of areas in their natural state,\n(g) measures relating to the prevention of erosion, including rejuvenation of forest areas;\n(h) proposals relating to irrigation, water supply or flood control works.\n8. Preparation of regional plan. - (1) After preparation of the existing land use map, the Director shall cause to be prepared a draft regional plan and publish it by making a copy thereof available for inspection and publishing a notice in such form and manner as may be prescribed inviting objections and suggestions from any person with respect to the draft plan before such date as may be specified in the notice, such date not being earlier than sixty days from the publication of the notice. Such notice shall specify in regard to the draft plan the following particulars, namely-\n(a) the existing land use map and the narrative report thereon;\n(b) a narrative report supported by necessary map and charts explaining the provisions of the draft plan;\n(c) a note indicating the priorities assigned to works included in the draft plan and the phasing of the programme of development as such;\n(d) a notice on the role being assigned to different departments of Government, the Town and Country Development Authorities; the Special Area Development Authorities, and the Local Authorities in the enforcement and implementation of draft plan.\n(2) The Director shall consider all the objections and suggestions received by him within the period specified in the notice under sub-section (1) and shall, after giving a reasonable opportunity to all persons affected thereby of being heard, prepare the regional plan containing such modifications, if any, as he considers necessary and submit it to the State Government for approval together with all connected documents, plans, maps and charts.\n9. Finalisation of regional plan. - (1) The State Government may approve the draft regional plan submitted under section 8 with or without modification or reject or return the same to the Director for reconsideration.\n(2) Immediately after the draft regional plan is approved under sub-section (1) the State Government shall publish in such manner, as may be prescribed, a notice stating that the regional plan has been approved and mentioning a place where a copy of the plan may be inspected at all reasonable hours and shall specify therein a date on which the regional plan shall come into operation:\nProvided that where the State Government approves the draft regional plan with modifications, it shall not be published, unless the State Government having published such modifications in the Official Gazette along with a notice inviting objections and suggestions thereon, within a period of not less than thirty days from the date of publication of such notice have considered the objections and suggestions after giving a reasonable opportunity of being heard to persons affected thereby.\n10. Restriction on use of land or development thereof. - (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, on or after the date of publication of the draft regional plan, no person, authority, department of Government or any other person shall change the use of land for any purpose other than agriculture, or carry out any development in respect of any land contrary to the provisions of the draft plan, without the prior approval of the Director or any officer next to him authorised by the Director, in this behalf.\n(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in any law for the time being in force, the permission referred to in sub-section (1) shall not be granted otherwise than in conformity with the provision of the draft or final plan and no permission, if granted, shall be construed to confer any legal right whatsoever on the person seeking the permission.\n(3) If any work is carried out in contravention of the provisions of this section, the Municipal Corporation or Municipal Committee within its local area, and the Collector in area outside such local areas, may cause such work to be removed or demolished at the cost of the defaulter, which shall be recovered from him in the same manner as an arrear of land revenue:\nProvided that no action shall be taken under this sub-section unless the person concerned is given a reasonable opportunity of being heard and a notice calling upon him to remove or demolish the work within a time specified therein.\n(4) Any person aggrieved by the order of the Municipal Corporation, Municipal Committee or Collector, as the case may be, calling upon to remove or demolish the work may prefer an appeal to the Director within fifteen days of the receipt of the notice under sub-section (3) and the order of the Director in such appeal shall be final.\n11. Exclusion from claims of amount in certain cases. - Where the regional plan assigns a particular land use to a certain areas and any land situate therein is already put to such use, subject to substantially similar restrictions in force under any other law which was in force on the date on which restrictions were imposed by or under this Act and if amount in respect of such restrictions have already been paid under any such other law which was in force for the time being in respect of the property or any right or interest therein to the claimant, or any predecessor in interest of the claimant, the owner shall not be entitled to any further amount on account of injury or damage caused to his rights by reasons of the restrictions placed on the use of the land under the provisions of this Act.\n12. Review of regional plan. - (1) The Director may, on his own motion or if so required by the State Government, at any time after a regional plan has come into operation, undertake the review and evaluation of the regional plan and make such modification in it as may be justified by the circumstances.\n(2) The foregoing provisions of this Chapter shall, so far as they can be made applicable, apply to the modifications under sub-section (1) as these provisions apply in relation to the preparation, publication and approval of a regional plan.\nPlanning Area and Development Plans\n13. Planning area. - (1) The State Government may, by notification, constitute planning areas for the purposes of this Act and define the limits thereof.\n(2) The State Government may, by notification.-\n(a) alter the limits of a planning area so as to include therein or excluse therefrom such area as may be specified in the notification;\n(b) amalgamate two or more planning areas so as to constitute one planning area;\n(c) divide any planning area into two or more planning areas;\n(d) declare that the whole or part of the area constituting the planning area shall cease to be a planning area or part thereof.\n14. Director to prepare development plans. - Subject to the provisions of this Act and the rules made thereunder, the Director shall-\n(a) prepare an existing land use map;\n(b) prepare an interim development plan;\n(c) prepare a development plan;\n(d) prepare a sectoral plan;\n(e) carry such surveys and inspections and obtain such pertinent reports from government departments, local authorities and public institutions as may be necessary for the preparation of the plans;\n(f) perform such duties and functions as are supplemental, incidental, and consequential to any of the foregoing functions or as may be assigned by the State Government for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this Act.\n15. Existing land use maps. - (1 )The Director shall carryout the survey and prepare an existing land use map and, forthwith publish the same in such manner as may be prescribed together with public notice of the preparation of the map and of the place or places where the copies may be inspected, inviting objections and suggestions in writing from any person with respect thereto within thirty days from the date of publication of such notice.\n(2) After the expiry of the period specified in the notice published under sub-section (1), the Director may, after allowing a reasonable opportunity of being heard to all such persons who have filed the objections or suggestions, make such modifications therein as may be considered desirable.\n(3) As soon as may be after the map is adopted with or without modifications the Director shall publish a public notice of the adoption of the map and the place or places where the copies of the same may be inspected.\n(4) A copy of the notice shall also be published in the Official Gazette and it shall be conclusive evidence of the fact that the map has been duly prepared and adopted.\n16. Freezing of land use. - On the publication of the existing land use map under section 15-\n(a) no person shall institute or change the use of any land or carry out any development of land for any purpose other than that indicated in the existing land use map without the permission in writing of the Director;\nProvided that the Director shall not refuse permission if the change is for the purpose of agriculture;\n(b) no local authority or any officer or other authority shall, not withstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, grant permission for the change in use of land otherwise than as indicated in the existing land use map without the permission in writing of the Director;\n[(c) no Registrar or the Sub-Registrar, appointed under the Indian Registration Act, 1908, shall, in any planning area constituted under section 13, register any deed or document of transfer of any sub-division of land by way of sale, gift, exchange, lease or mortgage with possession, unless the sub-division of land is duly approved by the Director, subject to such rules as may be framed in this behalf by the State Government:]\nProvided that the Registrar or the Sub-Registrar may register any transfer,-\n(i) where the land is owned by a person and the transfer is made without involving any further divisions;\n(ii) where the partition/sub-division of land is made in a Joint Hindu Family;\n(iii) where the lease is made in relation to a part or whole of a building;\n(iv) where the mortgage is made for procuring the loans for construction or improvements over the land either from the Government or from any other financial institution constituted or established under any law for the time being in force or recognised by the State Government.\n17. Interim development plans. - As soon as may be, after the declaration of a planning area, the Director shall, within such time as may be necessary, prepare, after consultation with local authorities concerned, if any, and submit to the State Government an interim development plan for the planning area or any of its parts and such other area or areas contiguous or adjacent to the planning areas as the State Government may direct to be included in the interim development plan.\n(2) The interim development plan shall-\n(a) indicate broadly the land use proposed in the planning area;\n(b) allocate broadly areas or sector of land for-\n(i) residential, industrial, commercial or agricultural purposes,\n(ii) open spaces, parks and gardens, green belts, zoological gardens and play-grounds,\n(iii) public institutions and offices,\n(iv) such special purposes as the Director may deem fit;\n(c) lay down the pattern of National and State Highways connecting the planning area with the rest of the region, ring roads, arterial roads and the major roads within the planning areas;\n(d) provide for the location of airports, railway stations, bus termini and indicate the proposed extension and development of railways and canals;\n(e) make proposals for general land scaping and preservation of natural areas;\n(f) project the requirement of the planning area of such amenities and utilities as water, drainage, electricity and suggest their fulfilment;\n(g) propose broad based regulations for sectoral development, by way of guide-lines, within each sector of the location, height, size of buildings and structures, open spaces, court-yards and the use to which such buildings and structures and land may be put;\n(h) lay down the board-based traffic circulation patterns in a city;\n(i) suggest architectural control features, elevation and frontage of buildings and structures;\n(j) indicate measures for flood control, prevention of air and water pollution, disposal of garbage and general environmental control.\n(3) Subject to provisions of the rules made under this Act for regulating the form and contents of the interim development plan any such plan shall include such maps and such descriptive matter as may be necessary to explain and illustrate the proposals in the interim development plan.\n(4) As soon as may be, after the submission of the interim development plan, under sub-section (1) the State Government may either approve the interim development plan or may approve it with such modification as it may consider necessary.\n(5) The State Government shall publish the interim development plan as approved under sub-section (4) in the Official Gazette. The interim development plan shall come into operation from the date of its publication in the Official Gazette and shall be binding on all local authorities functioning within the planning areas.\n18. Development plan. - A development plan shall -\n(a) indicate broadly the land use proposed in the planning areas;\n(b) allocate broadly areas or sector of land for,-\n(c) lay down the pattern of National and State Highways connecting the planning area with the rest of the region, ring roads, arterial roads, and the major roads within the planning area;\n(d) provide for the location of airports, railway stations, bus termini and indicate the proposed extension and development of railways;\n(g) propose broad-based regulations for sectoral development, by way of guide-line, within each sector of the location, height, size of buildings and structures, open spaces, court-yards and the use to which such buildings and structures and land may be put;\n(h) lay down the broad-based traffic circulation patterns in a city;\n19. Publication of draft development plan. - (1) The Director shall forthwith publish the draft development plan prepared under section 18 in such manner as may be prescribed together with a notice of the preparation of the draft development plan and the place or places where the copies may be inspected, inviting objections and suggestions in writing from any person with respect thereto, within thirty days from the date of publication of such notice Such notice shall specify in regard to the draff development plan the following particulars, namely:-\n(i) the existing land use maps;\n(ii) a narrative report, supported by maps and charts, explaining the provisions of the draft development plan;\n(iii) the phasing of implementation of the draft development plan as suggested by the Director,\n(iv) the provisions for enforcing the draft development plan and stating the manner in which permission to development may be obtained;\n(v) an approximate estimate of the cost of land acquisition for public purposes and the cost of works involved in the implementation of the plan.\n(2) The Director shall, not later than ninety days after the date of expiry of the notice period under sub-section (1), consider all the objections and suggestions as may be received within the period specified in the notice under sub-section (1)and shall, after giving reasonable opportunity to all persons affected thereby of being heard, make such modifications in the draft development plans as he may consider necessary, and submit, not later than six months after the publication of the draft development plan, the plan so modified, to the State Government for approval together with all connected documents, plans, maps and charts.\n20. Sanction of development plans. - (1) As soon as may be after the submission of the development plan under section 19 the State Government may either approve the development plan or may approve it with such modifications as it may consider necessary or may return it to the Director to modify the same or to prepare a fresh plan in accordance with such directions as it may issue in this behalf.\n(2) Where the State Government approves the development plan with modifications, the State Government shall, by a notice, published in the Official Gazette, invite objections and suggestions in respect of such modifications within a period of not less than thirty days from the date of publication of the notice in the Official Gazette.\n(3) After considering objections and suggestions and after giving a hearing to the persons desirous of being heard the State Government may confirm the modification in the development plan.\n(4) The State Government shall publish the development plan as approved, under the foregoing provisions in the Official Gazette and shall along with the plan publish a public notice, in such manner as may be prescribed, of the approval of the development plan and the place or places where the copies of the approved development plan may be inspected.\n(5) The development plan shall come into operation from the date of publication thereof in the Official Gazette and as from such date shall be binding on all Development Authorities constituted under this Act and all local authorities functioning within the planning area.\n(6) After the coming into operation of the development plan, the interim development plan shall stand modified or altered to the extent the proposals in the development plan are at variance with the interim development plan.\nSectoral Plan\n21. Director to prepare sectoral plan. - The Director may, on his own motion, at any time after the publication of the development plan, or thereafter if so required by the State Government shall, within six months of such requisition, prepare a sectoral plan.\n22. Contents of sectoral plan. - (1) The sectoral plan shall enlarge the details of land use as indicated in the development plan and shall -\n(a) indicate the land liable to acquisition for public purpose or the purposes of the Union Government, the State Government, the Town and Country Development Authority, the Special Area Development Authority, the local authority or any other authority established by or under any enactment for the time being in force.\nProvided that no land shall be so designated unless the acquisition proceedings are likely to be completed within ten years of the preparation of the plan;\n(b) define in detail and provide for areas reserved for agriculture, public and semi-public open spaces, parks, playgrounds, gardens, recreational areas, green belts and natural reserves;\n(c) allocate in detail areas or sectors for residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural and other purposes;\n(d) define and provide for the complete road and street pattern for the present and in the future and indicate the traffic circulation;\n(e) lay down in detail the projected road and street improvement;\n(f) indicate and provide for areas reserved for public buildings, institutions and civic developments;\n(g) assess, make projections for and provide for the future requirements of amenities, services and utilities such as municipal, transport, electricity, water and drainage;\n(h) prescribe in detail the sectoral regulations for each sector, with a view to facilitating on individual layout and regulating the location, height, number of storeys and the size of buildings and other structures, the size of the court-yards, courts and other open spaces and the use of the buildings, structures and land;\n(i) define areas which have been badly laid out or areas which have developed so as to form slums, and provide for their proper development and/or relocation;\n(j) designate areas for future development and expansion;\n(k) indicate the phasing of the programme of development.\n(2) The sectoral plan may and if possible shall, indicate -\n(a) control over architectural features; elevation and frontage of buildings and structures; and\n(b) the details of development of specific areas for housing, shopping centres, industrial areas, educational and cultural institutions and civic centres.\n23. Provisions of sections 19 and 20 to apply to sectoral plan. - The provisions of sections 19 and 20 shall apply for the preparation, publication, approval and operation of sectoral plan as they apply in respect of the development plan.\n24. Review of development plan and sectoral plan. - The Director may on his own motion or if so required by the State Government shall, at any time after the sectoral plan has come into operation, undertake a review and evaluation of the development plan and sectoral plan.\n(2) The foregoing provisions of sections 19, 20 and 23 shall, so far as may be apply to the modification under sub-section (1) as those provisions apply in relation to the preparation, publication and approval of a development plan or a sectoral plan.\nControl of Development And Use of Land\n25. Director to control land use. - The overall control of development and the use of land in the planning area shall, as from the date of publication in the Official Gazette of a notification by the State Government, vest in the Director.\n26. Conformity with development plan. - (1) After coming into force of the development plan, the use and development of land shall conform to the provisions of the development plan:\nProvided that the Director may, at his discretion, permit the continued use of land for the purpose for which it was being used at the time of the coming into Operation of the development plan.\nProvided further that such permission shall not be granted for a period exceeding seven years from the date of coming into operation of the development plan.\n27. Prohibition of development without permission. - After coming into operation of the development plan, no person shall change the use of any land or carry out any development of land without the permission in writing of the Director.\nProvided that no such permission shall be necessary -\n(a) for carrying out works for the maintenance, repair or alteration of any building which does not materially alter the external appearance of the building;\n(b) for carrying out work for the improvement or maintenance of a highway, road or public street by the Union or State Government or an authority established under this Act or by a local authority having jurisdiction, provided that such maintenance or improvement does not change the road alignment contrary to the provisions of the development plan;\n(c) for the purpose of inspecting, repairing or renewing any drain, sewers, mains, pipes, cables, telephone or other apparatus including the breaking open of any street or other land for that purpose;\n(d) for the excavation or soil shaping in the interest of agriculture;\n(e) for restoration of land to its normal use where land has been used temporarily for any other purposes.\n(f) for use for any purpose incidental to the use of building for human habitation, or any other building or land attached to such buildings;\n(g) for the construction of a road intended to give access to land solely for agricultural purposes\n28. Development undertaken on behalf of Union or State Government. - (1) When the Union Government or the State Government intends to carry out development of any land for the purpose of its departments or offices or authorities, the officer-in-charge thereof shall inform in writing to the Director the intention of the Government to do so, giving full particulars thereof, accompanied by such documents and plans as may be prescribed at least thirty days before undertaking such development.\n(2) Where the Director raises any objection to the proposed development on the ground that the development is not in conformity with the provisions of the development plan, the officer shall,-\n(i) make necessary modification in the proposals for development to meet the objections raised by the Director, or\n(ii) submit the proposal for development together with the objections raised by the Director to the State Government for decision:\nProvided that where no modification is proposed by the Director within thirty days of the receipt of the proposed plan by the Government, the plan will be presumed to have been approved.\n(3) The State Government, on receipt of the proposals for development together with the objections of the Director shall, approve the proposals with or without modifications or direct the officer to make such modifications in the proposals as it considers necessary in the circumstances.\n(4) The decision of the State Government under sub-section (3) shall be final and binding.\n29. Development by local authority or by any authority constituted under this Act. - Where a local authority or any authority specially constituted under this Act intends to carry out development on any land for the purpose of that authority, the procedure applicable to the Union or State Government, under section 28 shall, mutatis' mutandis, apply in respect of such authority.\n30. Application for permission for development by others. - (1) Any person, not being the Union Government, State Government, a local authority or a special authority constituted under this Act intending to carry out any development on any land, shall make an application in writing to the Director for permission, in such form and containing such particulars and accompanied by such documents as may be prescribed.\n(2) Such application shall also be accompanied by such fee as may be prescribed.\n[30A. Exemption from development permission in rural areas falling within Planning or Special Area. - (1) Any person who owns land in rural areas, falling within Planning or Special Areas wherein neither Interim Development Plan nor Development Plan has been notified, shall be exempted from permission under this Act for the following development activities up to the limits as may be prescribed: -\n(i) Residential activities such as farm-houses and residential houses up to three storeys, cattle shed, toilet, septic tank, kitchen, store, parking shed or garage and rain shelter;\n(ii) Commercial activities such as basic commercial activities like shops of general merchandise, cobbler, barber, tailoring, fruit, vegetable, tea or sweet, eating places and dhabas, chemist and farm produce sale depot;\n(iii) Service Industries such as cottage or house-hold, service industries like carpentry, knitting, weaving, blacksmith, goldsmith, atta-chakki with capacity up to five horse-power, water mill, agriculture equipments or machinery repair, electrical, electronic and house-hold appliances;\n(iv) Public amenities such as public amenities like panchayat offices, schools, mahila mandals, yuvak mandals, community halls, post offices, dispensaries and clinics (including health, veterinary and Indian System of Medicines) information technology kiosks, patwar khanas, guard huts, anganwaries, electricity and telephone installations and connections, roads and paths, ropeways, water tanks, rain harvesting tanks, overhead or underground water tan.", "answers": ["The Director of Town and Country Planning is responsible for carrying out the functions assigned under the act."], "length": 6958, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "a8da0d2585bb54d571a2ab4a539b61eef56b5e271692be42"}
{"input": "How is electricity used in everyday life?", "context": "For other uses, see Electricity (disambiguation).\n\"Electric\" redirects here. For other uses, see Electric (disambiguation).\nLightning is one of the most dramatic effects of electricity.\nElectricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge. In early days, electricity was considered as being not related to magnetism. Later on, many experimental results and the development of Maxwell's equations indicated that both electricity and magnetism are from a single phenomenon: electromagnetism. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges and many others.\nThe presence of an electric charge, which can be either positive or negative, produces an electric field. The movement of electric charges is an electric current and produces a magnetic field.\nWhen a charge is placed in a location with a non-zero electric field, a force will act on it. The magnitude of this force is given by Coulomb's law. Thus, if that charge were to move, the electric field would be doing work on the electric charge. Thus we can speak of electric potential at a certain point in space, which is equal to the work done by an external agent in carrying a unit of positive charge from an arbitrarily chosen reference point to that point without any acceleration and is typically measured in volts.\nelectronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies.\nElectrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Even then, practical applications for electricity were few, and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that electrical engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society, becoming a driving force for the Second Industrial Revolution. Electricity's extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society.\nLong before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the \"Thunderer of the Nile\", and described them as the \"protectors\" of all other fish. Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Several ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by catfish and electric rays, and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects. Patients suffering from ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning ra‘ad (رعد) applied to the electric ray.\nAncient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers. Thales of Miletus made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BCE, from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic, in contrast to minerals such as magnetite, which needed no rubbing. Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. According to a controversial theory, the Parthians may have had knowledge of electroplating, based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad Battery, which resembles a galvanic cell, though it is uncertain whether the artifact was electrical in nature.\nBenjamin Franklin conducted extensive research on electricity in the 18th century, as documented by Joseph Priestley (1767) History and Present Status of Electricity, with whom Franklin carried on extended correspondence.\nElectricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert wrote De Magnete, in which he made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the New Latin word electricus (\"of amber\" or \"like amber\", from ἤλεκτρον, elektron, the Greek word for \"amber\") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words \"electric\" and \"electricity\", which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646.\nFurther work was conducted in the 17th and early 18th centuries by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray and C. F. du Fay. Later in the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a metal key to the bottom of a dampened kite string and flown the kite in a storm-threatened sky. A succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature. He also explained the apparently paradoxical behavior of the Leyden jar as a device for storing large amounts of electrical charge in terms of electricity consisting of both positive and negative charges.\nIn 1791, Luigi Galvani published his discovery of bioelectromagnetics, demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which neurons passed signals to the muscles. Alessandro Volta's battery, or voltaic pile, of 1800, made from alternating layers of zinc and copper, provided scientists with a more reliable source of electrical energy than the electrostatic machines previously used. The recognition of electromagnetism, the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena, is due to Hans Christian Ørsted and André-Marie Ampère in 1819–1820. Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821, and Georg Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827. Electricity and magnetism (and light) were definitively linked by James Clerk Maxwell, in particular in his \"On Physical Lines of Force\" in 1861 and 1862.\nWhile the early 19th century had seen rapid progress in electrical science, the late 19th century would see the greatest progress in electrical engineering. Through such people as Alexander Graham Bell, Ottó Bláthy, Thomas Edison, Galileo Ferraris, Oliver Heaviside, Ányos Jedlik, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Charles Algernon Parsons, Werner von Siemens, Joseph Swan, Reginald Fessenden, Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse, electricity turned from a scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modern life.\nIn 1887, Heinrich Hertz:843–44 discovered that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper that explained experimental data from the photoelectric effect as being the result of light energy being carried in discrete quantized packets, energising electrons. This discovery led to the quantum revolution. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for \"his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". The photoelectric effect is also employed in photocells such as can be found in solar panels and this is frequently used to make electricity commercially.\nThe first solid-state device was the \"cat's-whisker detector\" first used in the 1900s in radio receivers. A whisker-like wire is placed lightly in contact with a solid crystal (such as a germanium crystal) to detect a radio signal by the contact junction effect. In a solid-state component, the current is confined to solid elements and compounds engineered specifically to switch and amplify it. Current flow can be understood in two forms: as negatively charged electrons, and as positively charged electron deficiencies called holes. These charges and holes are understood in terms of quantum physics. The building material is most often a crystalline semiconductor.\nThe solid-state device came into its own with the invention of the transistor in 1947. Common solid-state devices include transistors, microprocessor chips, and RAM. A specialized type of RAM called flash RAM is used in USB flash drives and more recently, solid-state drives to replace mechanically rotating magnetic disc hard disk drives. Solid state devices became prevalent in the 1950s and the 1960s, during the transition from vacuum tubes to semiconductor diodes, transistors, integrated circuit (IC) and the light-emitting diode (LED).\nThe presence of charge gives rise to an electrostatic force: charges exert a force on each other, an effect that was known, though not understood, in antiquity.:457 A lightweight ball suspended from a string can be charged by touching it with a glass rod that has itself been charged by rubbing with a cloth. If a similar ball is charged by the same glass rod, it is found to repel the first: the charge acts to force the two balls apart. Two balls that are charged with a rubbed amber rod also repel each other. However, if one ball is charged by the glass rod, and the other by an amber rod, the two balls are found to attract each other. These phenomena were investigated in the late eighteenth century by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, who deduced that charge manifests itself in two opposing forms. This discovery led to the well-known axiom: like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract.\nThe force acts on the charged particles themselves, hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface. The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is given by Coulomb's law, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse-square relation to the distance between them.:35 The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to the strong interaction, but unlike that force it operates over all distances. In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force, the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 1042 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together.\nStudy has shown that the origin of charge is from certain types of subatomic particles which have the property of electric charge. Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature. The most familiar carriers of electrical charge are the electron and proton. Experiment has shown charge to be a conserved quantity, that is, the net charge within an electrically isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system. Within the system, charge may be transferred between bodies, either by direct contact, or by passing along a conducting material, such as a wire.:2–5 The informal term static electricity refers to the net presence (or 'imbalance') of charge on a body, usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together, transferring charge from one to the other.\nThe charge on electrons and protons is opposite in sign, hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive. By convention, the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative, and that by protons positive, a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin. The amount of charge is usually given the symbol Q and expressed in coulombs; each electron carries the same charge of approximately −1.6022×10−19 coulomb. The proton has a charge that is equal and opposite, and thus +1.6022×10−19 coulomb. Charge is possessed not just by matter, but also by antimatter, each antiparticle bearing an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle.\nThe movement of electric charge is known as an electric current, the intensity of which is usually measured in amperes. Current can consist of any moving charged particles; most commonly these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes a current. Electric current can flow through some things, electrical conductors, but will not flow through an electrical insulator.\nBy historical convention, a positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains, or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part. Current defined in this manner is called conventional current. The motion of negatively charged electrons around an electric circuit, one of the most familiar forms of current, is thus deemed positive in the opposite direction to that of the electrons. However, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction, or even in both directions at once. The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation.\nThe process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction, and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal, and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids, or through plasmas such as electrical sparks. While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second,:17 the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light, enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires.\nCurrent causes several observable effects, which historically were the means of recognising its presence. That water could be decomposed by the current from a voltaic pile was discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800, a process now known as electrolysis. Their work was greatly expanded upon by Michael Faraday in 1833. Current through a resistance causes localised heating, an effect James Prescott Joule studied mathematically in 1840.:23–24 One of the most important discoveries relating to current was made accidentally by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, when, while preparing a lecture, he witnessed the current in a wire disturbing the needle of a magnetic compass. He had discovered electromagnetism, a fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetics. The level of electromagnetic emissions generated by electric arcing is high enough to produce electromagnetic interference, which can be detrimental to the workings of adjacent equipment.\nIn engineering or household applications, current is often described as being either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). These terms refer to how the current varies in time. Direct current, as produced by example from a battery and required by most electronic devices, is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a circuit to the negative.:11 If, as is most common, this flow is carried by electrons, they will be travelling in the opposite direction. Alternating current is any current that reverses direction repeatedly; almost always this takes the form of a sine wave.:206–07 Alternating current thus pulses back and forth within a conductor without the charge moving any net distance over time. The time-averaged value of an alternating current is zero, but it delivers energy in first one direction, and then the reverse. Alternating current is affected by electrical properties that are not observed under steady state direct current, such as inductance and capacitance.:223–25 These properties however can become important when circuitry is subjected to transients, such as when first energised.\nThe concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday. An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field. The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses, and like it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance. However, there is an important difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion. Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero. Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker.\nA hollow conducting body carries all its charge on its outer surface. The field is therefore zero at all places inside the body.:88 This is the operating principal of the Faraday cage, a conducting metal shell which isolates its interior from outside electrical effects.\nThe principles of electrostatics are important when designing items of high-voltage equipment. There is a finite limit to the electric field strength that may be withstood by any medium. Beyond this point, electrical breakdown occurs and an electric arc causes flashover between the charged parts. Air, for example, tends to arc across small gaps at electric field strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimetre. Over larger gaps, its breakdown strength is weaker, perhaps 1 kV per centimetre. The most visible natural occurrence of this is lightning, caused when charge becomes separated in the clouds by rising columns of air, and raises the electric field in the air to greater than it can withstand. The voltage of a large lightning cloud may be as high as 100 MV and have discharge energies as great as 250 kWh.\nA pair of AA cells. The + sign indicates the polarity of the potential difference between the battery terminals.\nThe concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work. The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point. It is usually measured in volts, and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity.:494–98 This definition of potential, while formal, has little practical application, and a more useful concept is that of electric potential difference, and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points. An electric field has the special property that it is conservative, which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant: all paths between two specified points expend the same energy, and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated.:494–98 The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term voltage sees greater everyday usage.\nFor practical purposes, it is useful to define a common reference point to which potentials may be expressed and compared. While this could be at infinity, a much more useful reference is the Earth itself, which is assumed to be at the same potential everywhere. This reference point naturally takes the name earth or ground. Earth is assumed to be an infinite source of equal amounts of positive and negative charge, and is therefore electrically uncharged—and unchargeable.\nElectric potential is a scalar quantity, that is, it has only magnitude and not direction. It may be viewed as analogous to height: just as a released object will fall through a difference in heights caused by a gravitational field, so a charge will 'fall' across the voltage caused by an electric field. As relief maps show contour lines marking points of equal height, a set of lines marking points of equal potential (known as equipotentials) may be drawn around an electrostatically charged object. The equipotentials cross all lines of force at right angles. They must also lie parallel to a conductor's surface, otherwise this would produce a force that will move the charge carriers to even the potential of the surface.\nØrsted's discovery in 1821 that a magnetic field existed around all sides of a wire carrying an electric current indicated that there was a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. Moreover, the interaction seemed different from gravitational and electrostatic forces, the two forces of nature then known. The force on the compass needle did not direct it to or away from the current-carrying wire, but acted at right angles to it. Ørsted's slightly obscure words were that \"the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner.\" The force also depended on the direction of the current, for if the flow was reversed, then the force did too.\nØrsted did not fully understand his discovery, but he observed the effect was reciprocal: a current exerts a force on a magnet, and a magnetic field exerts a force on a current. The phenomenon was further investigated by Ampère, who discovered that two parallel current-carrying wires exerted a force upon each other: two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to each other, while wires containing currents in opposite directions are forced apart. The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and forms the basis for the international definition of the ampere.\nThis relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important, for it led to Michael Faraday's invention of the electric motor in 1821. Faraday's homopolar motor consisted of a permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury. A current was allowed through a wire suspended from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into the mercury. The magnet exerted a tangential force on the wire, making it circle around the magnet for as long as the current was maintained.\nExperimentation by Faraday in 1831 revealed that a wire moving perpendicular to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends. Further analysis of this process, known as electromagnetic induction, enabled him to state the principle, now known as Faraday's law of induction, that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop. Exploitation of this discovery enabled him to invent the first electrical generator in 1831, in which he converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy. Faraday's disc was inefficient and of no use as a practical generator, but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism, a possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work.\nItalian physicist Alessandro Volta showing his \"battery\" to French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in the early 19th century.\nThe ability of chemical reactions to produce electricity, and conversely the ability of electricity to drive chemical reactions has a wide array of uses.\nElectrochemistry has always been an important part of electricity. From the initial invention of the Voltaic pile, electrochemical cells have evolved into the many different types of batteries, electroplating and electrolysis cells. Aluminium is produced in vast quantities this way, and many portable devices are electrically powered using rechargeable cells.\nA basic electric circuit. The voltage source V on the left drives a current I around the circuit, delivering electrical energy into the resistor R. From the resistor, the current returns to the source, completing the circuit.\nAn electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path (a circuit), usually to perform some useful task.\nElectric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second.\nElectricity generation is often done with electric generators, but can also be supplied by chemical sources such as electric batteries or by other means from a wide variety of sources of energy. Electric power is generally supplied to businesses and homes by the electric power industry. Electricity is usually sold by the kilowatt hour (3.6 MJ) which is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours. Electric utilities measure power using electricity meters, which keep a running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer. Unlike fossil fuels, electricity is a low entropy form of energy and can be converted into motion or many other forms of energy with high efficiency.\nElectronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes, optoelectronics, sensors and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies. The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible and electronics is widely used in information processing, telecommunications, and signal processing. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a regular working system.\nToday, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control. The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of solid state physics, whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems come under electronics engineering.\nThus, the work of many researchers enabled the use of electronics to convert signals into high frequency oscillating currents, and via suitably shaped conductors, electricity permits the transmission and reception of these signals via radio waves over very long distances.\nEarly 20th-century alternator made in Budapest, Hungary, in the power generating hall of a hydroelectric station (photograph by Prokudin-Gorsky, 1905–1915).\nIn the 6th century BC, the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus experimented with amber rods and these experiments were the first studies into the production of electrical energy. While this method, now known as the triboelectric effect, can lift light objects and generate sparks, it is extremely inefficient. It was not until the invention of the voltaic pile in the eighteenth century that a viable source of electricity became available. The voltaic pile, and its modern descendant, the electrical battery, store energy chemically and make it available on demand in the form of electrical energy. The battery is a versatile and very common power source which is ideally suited to many applications, but its energy storage is finite, and once discharged it must be disposed of or recharged. For large electrical demands electrical energy must be generated and transmitted continuously over conductive transmission lines.\nElectrical power is usually generated by electro-mechanical generators driven by steam produced from fossil fuel combustion, or the heat released from nuclear reactions; or from other sources such as kinetic energy extracted from wind or flowing water. The modern steam turbine invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884 today generates about 80 percent of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources. Such generators bear no resemblance to Faraday's homopolar disc generator of 1831, but they still rely on his electromagnetic principle that a conductor linking a changing magnetic field induces a potential difference across its ends. The invention in the late nineteenth century of the transformer meant that electrical power could be transmitted more efficiently at a higher voltage but lower current. Efficient electrical transmission meant in turn that electricity could be generated at centralised power stations, where it benefited from economies of scale, and then be despatched relatively long distances to where it was needed.\nSince electrical energy cannot easily be stored in quantities large enough to meet demands on a national scale, at all times exactly as much must be produced as is required. This requires electricity utilities to make careful predictions of their electrical loads, and maintain constant co-ordination with their power stations. A certain amount of generation must always be held in reserve to cushion an electrical grid against inevitable disturbances and losses.\nElectricity is a very convenient way to transfer energy, and it has been adapted to a huge, and growing, number of uses. The invention of a practical incandescent light bulb in the 1870s led to lighting becoming one of the first publicly available applications of electrical power. Although electrification brought with it its own dangers, replacing the naked flames of gas lighting greatly reduced fire hazards within homes and factories. Public utilities were set up in many cities targeting the burgeoning market for electrical lighting. In the late 20th century and in modern times, the trend has started to flow in the direction of deregulation in the electrical power sector.\nThe resistive Joule heating effect employed in filament light bulbs also sees more direct use in electric heating. While this is versatile and controllable, it can be seen as wasteful, since most electrical generation has already required the production of heat at a power station. A number of countries, such as Denmark, have issued legislation restricting or banning the use of resistive electric heating in new buildings. Electricity is however still a highly practical energy source for heating and refrigeration, with air conditioning/heat pumps representing a growing sector for electricity demand for heating and cooling, the effects of which electricity utilities are increasingly obliged to accommodate.\nElectricity is used within telecommunications, and indeed the electrical telegraph, demonstrated commercially in 1837 by Cooke and Wheatstone, was one of its earliest applications. With the construction of first intercontinental, and then transatlantic, telegraph systems in the 1860s, electricity had enabled communications in minutes across the globe. Optical fibre and satellite communication have taken a share of the market for communications systems, but electricity can be expected to remain an essential part of the process.\nThe effects of electromagnetism are most visibly employed in the electric motor, which provides a clean and efficient means of motive power. A stationary motor such as a winch is easily provided with a supply of power, but a motor that moves with its application, such as an electric vehicle, is obliged to either carry along a power source such as a battery, or to collect current from a sliding contact such as a pantograph. Electrically powered vehicles are used in public transportation, such as electric buses and trains, and an increasing number of battery-powered electric cars in private ownership.\nElectronic devices make use of the transistor, perhaps one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century, and a fundamental building block of all modern circuitry. A modern integrated circuit may contain several billion miniaturised transistors in a region only a few centimetres square.\nA voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current through the tissues, and although the relationship is non-linear, the greater the voltage, the greater the current. The threshold for perception varies with the supply frequency and with the path of the current, but is about 0.1 mA to 1 mA for mains-frequency electricity, though a current as low as a microamp can be detected as an electrovibration effect under certain conditions. If the current is sufficiently high, it will cause muscle contraction, fibrillation of the heart, and tissue burns. The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes electricity a particular hazard. The pain caused by an electric shock can be intense, leading electricity at times to be employed as a method of torture. Death caused by an electric shock is referred to as electrocution. Electrocution is still the means of judicial execution in some jurisdictions, though its use has become rarer in recent times.\nElectricity is not a human invention, and may be observed in several forms in nature, a prominent manifestation of which is lightning. Many interactions familiar at the macroscopic level, such as touch, friction or chemical bonding, are due to interactions between electric fields on the atomic scale. The Earth's magnetic field is thought to arise from a natural dynamo of circulating currents in the planet's core. Certain crystals, such as quartz, or even sugar, generate a potential difference across their faces when subjected to external pressure. This phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity, from the Greek piezein (πιέζειν), meaning to press, and was discovered in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie. The effect is reciprocal, and when a piezoelectric material is subjected to an electric field, a small change in physical dimensions takes place.\n§Bioelectrogenesis in microbial life is a prominent phenomenon in soils and sediment ecology resulting from anaerobic respiration. The microbial fuel cell mimics this ubiquitous natural phenomenon.\nSome organisms, such as sharks, are able to detect and respond to changes in electric fields, an ability known as electroreception, while others, termed electrogenic, are able to generate voltages themselves to serve as a predatory or defensive weapon. The order Gymnotiformes, of which the best known example is the electric eel, detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated from modified muscle cells called electrocytes. All animals transmit information along their cell membranes with voltage pulses called action potentials, whose functions include communication by the nervous system between neurons and muscles. An electric shock stimulates this system, and causes muscles to contract. Action potentials are also responsible for coordinating activities in certain plants.\nIn the 19th and early 20th century, electricity was not part of the everyday life of many people, even in the industrialised Western world. The popular culture of the time accordingly often depicted it as a mysterious, quasi-magical force that can slay the living, revive the dead or otherwise bend the laws of nature. This attitude began with the 1771 experiments of Luigi Galvani in which the legs of dead frogs were shown to twitch on application of animal electricity. \"Revitalization\" or resuscitation of apparently dead or drowned persons was reported in the medical literature shortly after Galvani's work. These results were known to Mary Shelley when she authored Frankenstein (1819), although she does not name the method of revitalization of the monster. The revitalization of monsters with electricity later became a stock theme in horror films.\nAs the public familiarity with electricity as the lifeblood of the Second Industrial Revolution grew, its wielders were more often cast in a positive light, such as the workers who \"finger death at their gloves' end as they piece and repiece the living wires\" in Rudyard Kipling's 1907 poem Sons of Martha. Electrically powered vehicles of every sort featured large in adventure stories such as those of Jules Verne and the Tom Swift books. The masters of electricity, whether fictional or real—including scientists such as Thomas Edison, Charles Steinmetz or Nikola Tesla—were popularly conceived of as having wizard-like powers.\nWith electricity ceasing to be a novelty and becoming a necessity of everyday life in the later half of the 20th century, it required particular attention by popular culture only when it stops flowing, an event that usually signals disaster. The people who keep it flowing, such as the nameless hero of Jimmy Webb’s song \"Wichita Lineman\" (1968), are still often cast as heroic, wizard-like figures.\nAmpère's circuital law, connects the direction of an electric current and its associated magnetic currents.\n^ Diogenes Laertius. R.D. Hicks (ed.). \"Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book 1 Chapter 1 \". Perseus Digital Library. Tufts University. Retrieved 5 February 2017. Aristotle and Hippias affirm that, arguing from the magnet and from amber, he attributed a soul or life even to inanimate objects.\n^ Aristotle. Daniel C. Stevenson (ed.). \"De Animus (On the Soul) Book 1 Part 2 (B4 verso)\". The Internet Classics Archive. Translated by J.A. Smith. Retrieved 5 February 2017. Thales, too, to judge from what is recorded about him, seems to have held soul to be a motive force, since he said that the magnet has a soul in it because it moves the iron.\n^ a b c Guarnieri, M. (2014). \"Electricity in the age of Enlightenment\". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 8 (3): 60–63. doi:10.1109/MIE.2014.2335431.\n^ Srodes, James (2002), Franklin: The Essential Founding Father, Regnery Publishing, pp. 92–94, ISBN 0-89526-163-4 It is uncertain if Franklin personally carried out this experiment, but it is popularly attributed to him.\n^ a b Guarnieri, M. (2014). \"The Big Jump from the Legs of a Frog\". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 8 (4): 59–61, 69. doi:10.1109/MIE.2014.2361237.\n^ Hertz, Heinrich (1887). \"Ueber den Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung\". Annalen der Physik. 267 (8): S. 983–1000. Bibcode:1887AnP...267..983H. doi:10.1002/andp.18872670827.\n^ \"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921\". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2013-03-16.\n^ John Sydney Blakemore, Solid state physics, pp. 1–3, Cambridge University Press, 1985 ISBN 0-521-31391-0.\n^ Richard C. Jaeger, Travis N. Blalock, Microelectronic circuit design, pp. 46–47, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003 ISBN 0-07-250503-6.\n^ \"The repulsive force between two small spheres charged with the same type of electricity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centres of the two spheres.\" Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, Histoire de l'Academie Royal des Sciences, Paris 1785.\n^ Sewell, Tyson (1902), The Elements of Electrical Engineering, Lockwood, p. 18 . The Q originally stood for 'quantity of electricity', the term 'electricity' now more commonly expressed as 'charge'.\n^ a b Berkson, William (1974), Fields of Force: The Development of a World View from Faraday to Einstein, Routledge, p. 370, ISBN 0-7100-7626-6 Accounts differ as to whether this was before, during, or after a lecture.\n^ \"Lab Note #105 EMI Reduction – Unsuppressed vs. Suppressed\". Arc Suppression Technologies. April 2011. Retrieved March 7, 2012.\n^ Almost all electric fields vary in space. An exception is the electric field surrounding a planar conductor of infinite extent, the field of which is uniform.\n^ Paul J. Nahin (9 October 2002). Oliver Heaviside: The Life, Work, and Times of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6909-9.\n^ \"The Bumpy Road to Energy Deregulation\". EnPowered. 2016-03-28.\n^ a b c d e f g h Van Riper, op.cit., p. 71.\nLook up electricity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\nBasic Concepts of Electricity chapter from Lessons In Electric Circuits Vol 1 DC book and series.", "answers": ["Electricity is used for transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation."], "length": 6202, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "b5b0eb150f44a4d7641b9adf9267ca0c2492ea46626449b3"}
{"input": "What are some reasons for the lack of data sharing in archaeobotany?", "context": "Sowing the Seeds of Future Research: Data Sharing, Citation and Reuse in Archaeobotany\nReading: Sowing the Seeds of Future Research: Data Sharing, Citation and Reuse in Archaeobotany\nUniversity of Oxford, GB\nLisa is a post-doctoral research fellow at All Souls College, University of Oxford. Her publications include the co-authored volume The Rural Economy of Roman Britain (Britannia Monographs, 2017). Her research interests are focussed on agricultural practices in the later prehistoric and Roman period and the utilisation of archaeobotanical data to investigate human-plant relationships.\nThe practices of data sharing, data citation and data reuse are all crucial aspects of the reproducibility of archaeological research. This article builds on the small number of studies reviewing data sharing and citation practices in archaeology, focussing on the data-rich sub-discipline of archaeobotany. Archaeobotany is a sub-discipline built on the time-intensive collection of data on archaeological plant remains, in order to investigate crop choice, crop husbandry, diet, vegetation and a wide range of other past human-plant relationships. Within archaeobotany, the level and form of data sharing is currently unknown. This article first reviews the form of data shared and the method of data sharing in 239 articles across 16 journals which present primary plant macrofossil studies. Second, it assesses data-citation in meta-analysis studies in 107 articles across 20 journals. Third, it assesses data reuse practices in archaeobotany, before exploring how these research practices can be improved to benefit the rigour and reuse of archaeobotanical research.\nKeywords: Archaeobotany, Data reuse, Data sharing, Open science\nHow to Cite: Lodwick, L., 2019. Sowing the Seeds of Future Research: Data Sharing, Citation and Reuse in Archaeobotany. Open Quaternary, 5(1), p.7. DOI: http://doi.org/10.5334/oq.62\nAccepted on 29 May 2019 Submitted on 25 Mar 2019\nArchaeology is a discipline built on the production and analysis of quantitative data pertaining to past human behaviour. As each archaeological deposit is a unique occurrence, ensuring that the data resulting from excavation and analysis are preserved and accessible is crucially important. Currently, there is a general perception of a low level of data sharing and reuse. Such a low level of data availability would prevent the assessment of research findings and the reuse of data in meta-analysis (Kansa & Kansa 2013; Moore & Richards 2015). As observed across scientific disciplines, there is a major problem in the reproduction of scientific findings, commonly known as the ‘replication crisis’ (Costello et al. 2013). A range of intersecting debates contribute to this, including access to academic findings (open access), open data, access to software and access to methodologies, which can be broadly grouped as open science practices. Without these, the way that scientific findings can be verified and built upon is impaired. Questions of reproducibility have been raised in recent years in archaeology, with considerations of a range of practices which can improve the reproducibility of findings, and a recent call for the application of open science principles to archaeology (Marwick et al. 2017). Discussion has so far focussed on access to grey literature (Evans 2015), data sharing (Atici et al. 2013), data citation practices (Marwick & Pilaar Birch 2018) and computational reproducibility (Marwick 2017), with a focus on lithics, zooarchaeological evidence, and archaeological site reports.\nQuantitative assessments of current levels of data sharing, data citation and reuse remain limited in archaeology. The focus of evaluation has been on the uptake of large-scale digital archives for the preservation and dissemination of digital data, such as the Archaeology Data Service (ADS), utilised by developer-led and research projects, and recommended for use by many research funders in the UK (Richards 2002; Wright and Richards 2018). Much less focus has been paid to the data-sharing practices of individuals or small-groups of university-based researchers who may be disseminating their research largely through journal articles. Recent work on the availability of data on lithics assemblages found a low level of data sharing (Marwick & Pilaar Birch 2018) and there are perceptions of low levels of data reuse (Huggett 2018; Kintigh et al. 2018). Within zooarchaeology numerous studies have explored issues of data sharing and reuse (Kansa & Kansa 2013, 2014), and the sub-discipline is seen as one of the most advanced areas of archaeology in regards to open science (Cooper & Green 2016: 273). Beyond zooarchaeology, however, explicit discussion has remained limited.\nThis paper assesses data sharing and reuse practices in archaeology through the case study of archaeobotany – a long established sub-discipline within archaeology which has well-established principles of data recording. Archaeobotany is an interesting case study for data sharing in archaeology as it straddles the division of archaeology between scientific and more traditional techniques. Quantitative data on archaeological plant remains are also of interest to a range of other fields, including ecology, environmental studies, biology and earth sciences. The key issues of data sharing and data reuse (Atici et al. 2013) have been touched upon in archaeobotany over the past decade within broader discussions on data quality (Van der Veen, Livarda & Hill 2007; Van der Veen, Hill & Livarda 2013). These earlier studies focussed on the quality and availability of archaeobotanical data from developer-funded excavations in Britain and Cultural Resource Management in North America (Vanderwarker et al. 2016: 156). However, no discussion of data-sharing and reuse in academic archaeobotany occurred. A recent review of digital methods in archaeobotany is the notable exception, with discussions of the challenges and methods of data sharing (Warinner & d’Alpoim Guedes 2014).\nCurrently, we have no evidence for the levels of data sharing and reuse within archaeobotany. This article provides the first quantitative assessment of 1) data publication in recent archaeobotanical journal articles 2) data citation in recent archaeobotanical meta-analysis 3) the reuse of archaeobotanical datasets, in order to assess whether practices need to change and how such changes can take place.\n2. Data Publication and Re-use Practices in Archaeobotany\n2.1. History of data production and publication\nArchaeobotanical data falls within the category of observational data in archaeology (Marwick & Pilaar Birch 2018). Archaeobotanical data is considered as the quantitative assessment of plant macrofossils present within a sample from a discrete archaeological context, which can include species identification, plant part, levels of identification (cf. – confer or “compares to”), and a range of quantification methods including count, minimum number of individuals, levels of abundance and weight (Popper 1988). Archaeobotanical data is usually entered into a two-way data table organised by sample number. Alongside the counts of individual taxa, other information is also necessary to interpret archaeobotanical data, including sample volume, flot volume, charcoal volume, flot weight, level of preservation, sample number, context number, feature number, feature type and period. Beyond taxonomic identifications, a range of other types of data are increasingly gathered on individual plant macrofossils (morphometric measurements, isotopic values, aDNA).\nArchaeobotanical training places a strong emphasis on recording data on a sample-by-sample basis (Jacomet & Kreuz 1999: 138–139; Jones & Charles 2009; Pearsall 2016: 97–107). Time-consuming methodologies utilised in the pursuit of accurate sample-level data recording include sub-sampling and splitting samples into size fractions and counting a statistically useful number of items per sample (Van der Veen & Fieller 1982). The creation of sample-level data means analysis is often undertaken on the basis of individual samples, for instance the assessment of crop-processing stages and weed ecological evidence for crop husbandry practices. The analysis of sample level data also enables archaeobotanical finds to be integrated alongside contextual evidence from archaeological sites. Requirements for the publication of this data are in place in some archaeological guidelines, for instance current Historic England guidelines for archaeological practice in England (Campbell, Moffett & Straker 2011: 8).\nFrom the earliest archaeobotanical reports, such as Reid’s work at Roman Silchester, the sample from which plant remains were recovered was noted (Lodwick 2017a), but often results were reported as a list of taxa, or long catalogues of detailed botanical descriptions with seed counts, such as Knörzer’s work at Neuss (Knörzer 1970). Early systematic archaeobotanical reports displayed data within in-text tables, for example Jones’s work at Ashville (Jones 1978) and the two-way data table has been the standard form of reporting archaeobotanical data ever since. Often data tables are presented within book chapters or appendices, but the financial, space and time constraints of book publishing are limiting. Furthermore, there is the perception that specialist data was not necessary for publication (Barker 2001). Hence, alternative methods of the dissemination of specialist archaeological data were pursued in the later twentieth century.\nFrom the 1980s, archaeobotanical data tables were often consigned to microfiche following a Council for British Archaeology and Department of Environment report (Moore & Richards 2015: 31), with the example of the excavation of Roman Colchester where the contents of all archaeobotanical samples were available on microfiche (Murphy 1992). An alternative in the 2000s was providing data tables on CD Rom as seen, for instance, in the CD accompanying the study of a Roman farmstead in the Upper Thames Valley (Robinson 2007) or the One Poultry excavations in London (Hill and Rowsome 2011). Meanwhile, the inception of the Archaeology Data Service, a digital repository for heritage data, in 1996 meant archaeological datasets were increasingly digitally archived, for instance the data from the Channel Tunnel Rail Link Project (Foreman 2018) or a recent large-scale research excavation at Silchester (University of Reading 2018). In these cases, archaeobotanical data is available to download as a .csv file.\nWhilst the data publication strategy of large excavations was shifting, the availability of data from post-excavation assessment reports has remained challenging. So-called ‘grey literature’ results from the initial evaluation stage of developer-funded investigations and accompanying post-excavation assessment often contain a semi-quantitative evaluation of archaeobotanical samples on a scale of abundance. Whilst paper reports were initially deposited with county Historic Environment Records, a process of digitisation focussing on the Roman period has meant many pdfs are now available through the ADS (Allen et al. 2018), whilst born-digital reports are now deposited through OASIS (Online AccesS to the Index of archaeological investigationS), as part of the reporting process (Evans 2015), althought the extent to which specialist appendices are included is variable.\nThese varying ‘publication’ strategies means archaeobotanical data is often available somewhere for recent developer-funded excavations and large-scale developer-funded excavations, even if much of this data is as a printed table or .pdf file (Evans 2015; Evans and Moore 2014). However, academic journals are typically perceived as the most high-status publication venue for archaeobotanical data, and a crucial publication venue for academics in order to comply with institutional requirements and the norms of career progression. Aside from the problem of access to pay-walled journals by those without institutional subscriptions to all journals, the publication of primary data alongside research articles faces various problems, from the outright lack of inclusion of data, to problematic curation of supplementary data and a lack of peer review of data (Costello et al. 2013; Warinner and d’Alpoim Guedes 2014: 155; Whitlock, 2011). The extent of these problems for archaeobotany is currently unknown. Given the growth in archaeobotanical data production as methodologies are introduced into many new regions and periods over the last decade, it is vital that we know whether the mass of new data being produced is made available and is being reused.\nRecent important advances within archaeobotanical data sharing have focussed on the construction of the ARBODAT database, developed by Angela Kreuz at the Kommission für Archäologische Landesforschung in Hessen. The database is used by a range of researchers in Germany, the Czech Republic, France and England (Kreuz & Schäfer 2002). Data sharing enabled by the use of this database has facilitated research on Neolithic agriculture in Austria, Bulgaria and Germany (Kreuz et al. 2005), and Bronze Age agriculture in Europe (Stika and Heiss 2012). The use of this database makes data integration between specialists easier due to the shared data structure and metadata description, but often the primary archaeobotanical data is not made publicly available.\n2.2. Meta-analysis in archaeobotany\nBeyond the need to preserve information, a key reason for the formal sharing of archaeobotanical data is in its reuse to facilitate subsequent research. There has been a long-standing concern within archaeobotany with the need to aggregate datasets and identify temporal and spatial patterns. The palaeobotanist Clement Reid maintained his own database of Quaternary plant records in the late nineteenth century (Reid 1899), which formed the foundation of Godwin’s Quaternary database (Godwin 1975). Mid-twentieth century studies of prehistoric plant use compiled lists of archaeobotanical materials incorporating full references and the location of the archive (Jessen & Helbaek 1944). The International Work Group for Palaeoethnobotany was itself founded in 1968 in part with the aim to compile archaeobotanical data, first realised through the publication of Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany (Van Zeist, Wasylikowa & Behre 1991), and subsequently through the publication of annual lists of new records of cultivated plants (Kroll 1997).\nTo take England as an example, regional reviews produced by state heritage authorities have provided catalogues of archaeobotanical datasets in particular time periods and regions (e.g. Murphy 1998). When one archaeobotanist has undertaken the majority of study within a region, pieces of synthesis within books have provided a relatively comprehensive review, for instance in the Thames Valley, UK (Lambrick & Robinson 2009). Over the last decade regional synthesis has occurred within several funded reviews which produced catalogues of sites with archaeobotanical data (Lodwick 2014; McKerracher 2018; Parks 2012) and a series of funded projects in France have enabled regional synthesis (Lepetz & Zech-Matterne 2017). However, many of these reviews are not accompanied by an available underlying database, and draw upon reports which are themselves hard to access.\nThrough the 1990s and 2000s, a series of databases were constructed in order to collate data from sites in a particular region and facilitate synthetic research. However, these databases have all placed the role of data archiving onto later projects specifically funded to collate data, rather than sourcing datasets at the time of publication. Such a model is unsustainable, and is unlikely to result in all available datasets being compiled. The Archaeobotanical Computer Database (ABCD), published in 1996 in the first issue of Internet Archaeology, contained much of the archaeobotanical data from Britain available at the time of publication, largely at the level of individual samples. The database was compiled between 1989 and 1994 and is still accessible through the accompanying online journal publication (Tomlinson & Hall 1996). The ABCD made major contributions to recent reviews of the Roman and Medieval periods (Van der Veen, Livarda & Hill 2008; Van der Veen, Hill & Livarda 2013). However, the database could only be centrally updated, with the online resource remaining a static version, lacking much of the new data produced subsequent to the implementation of PPG16 in 1990. The ADEMNES database, created through a research project undertaken at the Universities of Freiburg and Tübingen, contains data from 533 eastern Mediterranean and Near Eastern sites (Riehl & Kümmel 2005). Kroll has maintained the Archaeobotanical Literature Database to accompany the Vegetation History and Archaeobotany articles (Kroll 2005) now accessible as a database (Kirleis & Schmültz 2018). Numerous other databases have collated archaeobotanical studies, including the COMPAG project (Fuller et al. 2015), the Cultural Evolution of Neolithic Europe project (Colledge 2016), RADAR in the Netherlands (van Haaster and Brinkkemper 1995), BRAIN Botanical Records of Archaeobotany Italian Network (Mercuri et al. 2015) and CZAD – Archaeobotanical database of Czech Republic (CZAD 2019).\nThe majority of databases have a restricted regional coverage, whilst research-project driven period-specific databases provide overlapping content. Whilst there are a wide range of archaeobotanical databases available, few contain primary datasets (other than the ABCD) which can be downloaded as .csv files. Data which is most commonly available are bibliographic references per site, with some indications of mode of preservation, quantity of archaeobotanical data, and sometimes taxa present. The databases do not inter-relate to each other, and function primarily as bibliographic sources enabling researchers to find comparative sites or to identify published datasets which need to be re-tabulated prior to meta-analysis. The IWGP website curates a list of resources, but otherwise the resources are often disseminated through the archaeobotany jiscmail list.\nBeyond the aim of cataloguing archaeobotanical data within a region and period, meta-analysis is often used in archaeobotany to identify spatial and chronological trends in a range of past human activities, for instance crop choice, crop husbandry practices, plant food consumption, the trade in luxury foods or the use of plants in ritual. Meta-analysis can be undertaken on the basis of simple presence/absence data per site, but in order for such analysis to be rigorous and comparable, sample-level data must be utilised. For instance, sample-level data is required for meta-studies, in order to identify high-quality samples of unmixed crops for weed ecology analysis (Bogaard 2004), to assess the importance of context in the evaluation of wild plant foods (Wallace et al. 2019), or to use volumetric measurements as a proxy for scale (Lodwick 2017b). The reuse of archaeobotanical data also extends to include datasets used as “controls” in commonly used forms of statistical analysis, for instance Jones’s weed data from Amorgos, Greece, which is utilised as a control group in discriminant analysis of crop-processing stage (Jones 1984), and ethnographic observations of crop items in different crop-processing stages (Jones 1990).\n2.3. Open data principles and solutions\nDebates over issues of data publication and meta-analysis have been on-going across scientific disciplines over the last decade (Editors 2009), and have been summarised within principles of open science, as recently set out in relation to archaeology (Marwick et al. 2017). Open Data is one of the three core principles for promoting transparency in social science (Miguel et al. 2014). The FAIR principles, developed by representatives from academia, industry, funding agencies, industry and publishers, provide four principles which data sharing should meet for use by both humans and machines – Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability, and Reusability (Wilkinson et al. 2016). A recent report assessing the adoption and impact of FAIR principles across academia in the UK included archaeology as a case study (Allen and Hartland 2018: 46). It reported how the ADS was often used to archive data, but that “The journal itself provides the “story” about the data, the layer that describes what the data is, how it was collected and what the author thinks it means.” The report also raises the problem that smaller projects may not have the funding to utilise the ADS, meaning that other repositories are utilised. Increasingly, archaeological data is made available through a wide range of data repositories (OSF, Mendeley Data, Zenodo, Open Context), university data repositories (e.g. ORA-Data), or social networking sites for academics (Academia.edu, ResearchGate). More widely in archaeology, some have observed that archaeological data is rarely published (Kintigh et al. 2014), and recent reviews have reported low levels of data sharing (Huggett 2018; Marwick & Pilaar Birch 2018). A closely related issue is that of data reuse. Responsible reuse of primary data encourages the sharing of primary data (Atici et al. 2013), but levels of data reuse in archaeology are thought to remain low (Huggett 2018). Principles for responsible data citation in archaeology have recently been developed summarising how datasets should be cited (Marwick & Pilaar Birch 2018).\nIn order to assess the current status of data sharing, citation and data re-use in archaeobotany, a review was undertaken of the publication of primary data and the publication of meta-analysis in major archaeological journals over the last ten years, building on recent pilot studies within archaeology (Marwick & Pilaar Birch 2018). The review of academic journals provided a contrast to recent assessments of archaeobotanical data deriving from developer-funded archaeology (Lodwick 2017c; Van der Veen, Hill & Livarda 2013). Journal articles have been selected as the focus of this study as the provision of online supplementary materials in the majority of journals and the ability to insert hyperlinks to persistent identifiers (eg a DOI) to link to datasets available elsewhere should not limit the publication of data and references. Much archaeobotanical data is also published elsewhere, especially from projects not based in the university sector, that is commercial or community archaeology in the UK. Archaeobotanical datasets emanating from this research are more commonly published through monographs, county journal articles, and unpublished (or grey literature) reports, but these are beyond the scope of the current review.\nAll journal articles were included which represent the principle reporting of a new archaeobotanical assemblage. The selected journals fall within three groups. First, what is considered the specialist archaeobotanical journal (Vegetation History and Archaeobotany (VHA)). Second, archaeological science journals (Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, Environmental Archaeology, The Holocene, Journal of Archaeological Science (JAS), Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (JASR), Journal of Ethnobiology, Quaternary International, Journal of Wetland Archaeology), which can be considered as specialist sub-disciplinary journals which should be maintaining data-quality. Third, general archaeology journals (Antiquity, Journal of Field Archaeology, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, Journal of World Prehistory). Finally, the broader cross-disciplinary journals PLoS One and Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) were included. Published articles from the past ten years (2009–2018) have been analysed in order to assess the availability of plant macrofossil data. This ten-year period brackets the period where most archaeological journals have moved online and adopted supplementary materials.\nData citation in synthetic studies has been assessed in the same range of publications. The extent of data reuse ranges from the analysis of whole sample data to the presence/absence of individual crops. The location of a data citation has been assessed in the same range of publications, with the addition of journals where occasional research incorporating archaeobotanical data is featured (Britannia, Journal of Archaeological Research, Ethnobiology Letters, Medieval Archaeology, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, World Archaeology). The underlying dataset for the analysis is available in Lodwick 2019.\n4.1. Primary data sharing\nHere, the location of primary archaeobotanical data, that is sample level counts of macroscopic plant remains, was assessed for 239 journal articles across 16 journals (Lodwick 2019 Table 1). Figure 1 shows the results grouped by journal. Overall, only 56% of articles shared their primary data. In, Antiquity, JAS, JASR, PLOS One, Quaternary International and VHA, the highest proportion of publications did not include their primary data, that is to say that the sample-by-sample counts of plant macrofossils was not available. This level of data is comparable to the findings of other pilot studies in archaeology. Marwick and Pilaar Birch found a data sharing rate of 53% from 48 articles published in Journal of Archaeological Science in Feb – May 2017 (Marwick & Pilaar Birch 2018: 7), and confirm previous assertions that data is often withheld in archaeology (Kansa 2012: 499). This is better than some disciplines, with a 9% data sharing rate on publication found across high impact journal science publications (n = 500) (Alsheikh-Ali et al. 2011) and 13% in biology, chemistry, mathematics and physics (n = 4370) (Womack 2015), yet still indicates that nearly half of articles did not include primary data. Primary archaeobotanical data is more likely to be shared in archaeobotanical and archaeological science journals than general archaeology journals. However, within the primary archaeobotanical journal, VHA, 51% of articles do not include their primary data (Figure 1).\nChart showing the location of primary archaeobotanical data by journal in primary archaeobotanical data publications.\nWhere primary data was not shared, the data which was available ranged from summary statistics, typically counts or frequencies, reported either by site, site phase, or feature group. Figure 2 summarises these results by year, showing that there is a gradient within articles not sharing their full ‘raw’ data, from those only provided sample counts on one aspect of the archaeobotanical assemblage, to those only presenting data graphically or within discussion. Beyond full data, the most common form of data shared is either summary counts per site or summary counts per feature or phase. Whilst this data does enable some level of reuse, the results of any sample-level data analysis presented within an article cannot be verified, and the data cannot be reused for crop-processing or weed ecology analysis which requires sample level data. Furthermore, such data would have been collected on a sample-by-sample basis, but this information is lost from the resulting publication.\nChart showing the form of archaeobotanical data shared by year in primary archaeobotanical data publications.\nThe forms in which data are made available vary across journals. The sharing of primary data within an article remains the most common data sharing form in archaeobotany (Figure 1). Data tables in text require manual handling to extract data, in journals such as VHA, whilst in other journals in-text tables can be downloaded as .csv files. These however would not be citable as a separate dataset. Supplementary datasets are the third most common form of data sharing. Indeed, the use of electronic supplementary material has been advocated recently for by some journals, such as the Journal of Archaeological Science (Torrence, Martinón-Torres & Rehren 2015). Microsoft Excel spreadsheets are the most common form of supplementary data, followed by .pdfs and then word documents (Figure 1). Both .xlsx and .docx are proprietary file formats, and not recommended for long term archiving or open science principles. There is no indication of improvement over the last decade in the form of data sharing. In 2018, 50% of articles did not share their primary data, and where the data was shared, it was in proprietary forms (.docx, .xlsx) or those that do not easily facilitate data reuse (.pdf) (Figure 3).\nChart showing the location of archaeobotanical data from 2009–2018 in primary archaeobotanical data publications.\nJust one of the articles included in this review incorporated a dataset archived in a repository (Farahani 2018), in contrast to the substantial growth in data repositories across academic disciplines (Marcial & Hemminger 2010). Other examples provide the underlying data for monograph publications, such as that of the archaeobotanical data from Gordion, Turkey (Marston 2017a, 2017b), Silchester, UK (Lodwick 2018; University of Reading 2018) and Vaihingen, Germany (Bogaard 2011a; Bogaard, 2011b).\nSeveral of the journals that have been assessed have research data policies. In the case of Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, sufficient papers have been surveyed to assess the impact of the research data policy on the availability of data. Figure 4 show the proportion of data sharing formats through time just for VHA (note the small sample size). The introduction of a research data policy in 2016 encouraging data sharing in repositories has not resulted in any datasets being shared in that format. Of the 10 articles published in PLOS One after the introduction of a clear research data policy in 2014, 4 did not contain primary data. However, elsewhere, journals with no research data policy, such as Antiquity, has one of the lower levels of data sharing (Figure 1).\nChart showing the location of primary archaeobotanical data in Vegetation History and Archaeobotany.\nThere are various reasons for why a primary dataset may be lacking. The option of providing supplementary datasets has been available in many of the journals here since before the start of the surveyed period (e.g. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany in 2004), and so cannot be a reason for the absence of data publication in this journal while it may be a reason in other journals. Reasons suggested for a lack of data sharing within archaeology include technological limitations, and resistance amongst some archaeologists to making their data available due to cautions of exposing data to scrutiny, lost opportunities of analysis before others use it and loss of ‘capital’ of data (Moore & Richards 2015: 34–35). Furthermore, control over how data tables is presented (taxa ordering, summary data presented) may also contribute to the preferential publishing of data within journal articles. Another factor to consider is the emphasis on the creation of new data through archaeological research (Huvila 2016). The creation of a new archaeobotanical dataset through primary analysis is a key form of training in archaeobotany, and the perception of the value of the reuse of other previously published archaeobotanical journals may be low, hence not encouraging the sharing of well-documented datasets. Excellent exams of data reuse have resulted in influential studies (Bogaard 2004; Riehl 2008; Wallace et al. 2019), and would hopefully encourage further data sharing in the future.\nGiven that there are numerous examples of meta-analysis which do take place in archaeobotany, it seems likely that the prevalent form of data sharing is through informal data sharing between individual specialists. However, this does not improve access to data in the long term, and is inefficient and time consuming, with large potential for data errors (Kansa & Kansa 2013), and relies on personal networks, which are likely to exclude some researchers. The absence of primary data in many archaeobotanical publications thus inhibits the verification of patterns observed within a dataset, and strongly limits the re-use potential of a dataset.\n4.2. Data citation\nOne of the common arguments for increasing data sharing is an associated increase in the citation of the articles which have data available. Here, the data citation practices of meta-analyses of plant macrofossil data undertaken over the last decade have been reviewed. 20 journals were consulted, including a wider range of period-specific journals, and 107 articles were assessed (Lodwick 2019 Table 2). Data citation was assessed as ‘in text’ or ‘in table’ to refer to when the citation and the bibliographic reference were within the article, as ‘in supplementary data’ when the citation and reference were within the supplementary materials, and as ‘no citation’ when no citation and reference was provided.\n21% of articles (n = 22) did not contain any citations to the underlying studies. 16% (n = 17) contained citations within supplementary data files. 50% of articles (n = 53) contained a citation within a table within the main article, and 14% (n = 15) contained citations within the main text. For the 21% of articles without data citations, the results of these studies could not be reproduced without consulting individual authors. The papers supplying the underlying data also received no credit for producing these datasets. Where articles contain citations within the main article (in text or table), full credit is provided to the underlying studies, a citation link is created through systems such as google scholar, and the study can be easily built upon in the future. Where the citation is provided within supplementary data, the original studies do receive attribution, but are not linked to so easily.\nThrough time, there is a steady decrease in the proportion of studies without citations to the underlying data, whereby of the 17 meta-analysis articles published in 2018, only one had no data citations. In comparison, in 2009, 3 out of 8 meta-analysis articles contained no data citation (Figure 6). Overall this is a more positive outlook on the reuse of published data, but the consistent presence of articles lacking data citation indicates that improvements are needed. Reasons for a lack of data citation may include restrictions on word counts imposed by journals, a lack of technical knowledge in making large databases available, or the wish to hold on to a dataset to optimise usage. Considering the type of journal (Figure 5), levels of data citation are worse in general archaeology journals, with sub-disciplinary journals showing slightly better levels of data citation. In particular VHA has a lack of consistency in where data citations are located.\nChart showing the location of data citations in meta-analysis journal articles by journal type.\nChart showing the location of data citations in meta-analysis journal articles from 2009–2018.\n4.3. Reuse of archived archaeobotanical datasets\nThe majority of data citations assessed in the previous section are to articles or book chapters rather than data-sets. The ADS currently hosts 66 data archives which have been tagged as containing plant macro data, deriving mainly from developer-funded excavations but also some research excavations. However, in some of these the plant macro data is contained within a pdf. As, the archiving of archaeobotanical datasets in data repositories is still at an early stage, the reuse of these datasets is assessed here on a case-by-case basis. The archaeobotanical dataset from the Neolithic site of Vaihingen, Germany (Bogaard 2011b) has not been cited on google scholar. Metrics are provided through the ADS, showing this dataset has been downloaded 56 times with 477 individual visits (as of 25/2/19). The archaeobotanical dataset from Gordion by Marston has no citations on Google Scholar (Marston 2017b), neither does the Giza botanical database (Malleson & Miracle 2018), but these are both very recently archived datasets. In contrast, the Roman Rural Settlement Project dataset, which includes site-level archaeobotanical data, has received greater levels of use, with 12 citations in Google Scholar, over 40,000 file downloads, and over 35,000 visits (Allen et al. 2018) and the archaeobotanical computer database (Tomlinson & Hall 1996) has been cited 44 times, and is the major dataset underpinning other highly-cited studies (Van der Veen, Livarda & Hill 2008; Van der Veen, Hill & Livarda 2013). Whilst there is clearly precedence for the reuse of archaeobotanical databases, current data citation practices within archaeobotany do not yet appear to be formally citing individual datasets, meaning an assessment of the reuse of archived archaeobotanical datasets is challenging.\n5. Steps Forward\nThis review of data sharing, citation, and reuse practices in archaeobotany has found medium levels of data sharing, good levels of data citation, but so far limited levels of reuse of archived data sets. This picture is similar across archaeology, in part attributed to the status of archaeology as a small-science, where data-sharing takes place ad-hoc (Marwick & Pilaar Birch 2018). Here, recommendations are discussed for improving these data practices within archaeobotany, of applicability more widely in archaeology.\nClearly an important step is improving the sharing of plant macrofossil data. Given the reasonable small size of most archaeobotanical datasets (a .csv file < 1mb), and a lack of ethical conflicts, there seems to be few reasons why the majority of archaeobotanical data couldn’t be shared. In the case of developer-funded derived data, issues of commercial confidentiality could limit the sharing of data. A key stage is establishing why levels of data sharing are not higher. Issues within archaeobotany may include the conflict between having to publish results within excavation monographs, which may take some time to be published, and have limited visibility due to high purchase costs and no digital access, and the need to publish journal articles for career progression within academia. The production of an archaeobotanical dataset is very time-consuming, and interim publication on notable aspects of an assemblage may be considered as a necessary publication strategy. More broadly, one important aspect is issues of equity in access to digital archiving resources (Wright & Richards 2018), such as differential access to funds, training and knowledge. A recent study in Sweden found that we need to know concerns, needs, and wishes of archaeologists in order to improve preservation of archaeological data (Huvila 2016), especially when control of ones data may be linked to perceptions of job security. In order to make improvements in data sharing and reuse across archaeology, we need improved training in data sharing and the reuse of data in higher education (Touchon & McCoy 2016; Cook et al. 2018), improved training in data management (Faniel et al. 2018), and crucially, the necessary software skills to make the reuse of archived datasets attainable (Kansa & Kansa 2014: 91). Examples of good practice in archaeobotany are the Vaihingen and Gordion datasets which demonstrate how datasets can be archived in data repositories to accompany a monograph (Bogaard 2011b; Marston 2017b), whilst Farahani (2018) provides an excellent example of a journal article, where the primary data is supplied as a .csv in a cited data repository along with the R script for the analysis.\nIn tandem with the need to encourage authors to share their data, is the need for journals to create and implement research data policies. Given the existence of research data policies in many of the journals included here, this reflects other findings of the poor enforcement of data policies by journals (Marwick & Pilaar Birch 2018), supporting arguments that journals should not be relied upon to make data accessible, and data should instead by deposited in digital repositries. In order to implement change in data sharing, there is a role to play for learned societies and academic organisation in lobbying funding bodies, prioritising data sharing in research projects. A key step is through journal editorial boards, and the enforcement of any pre-existing research data policies (Nosek et al. 2015). Revi", "answers": ["Technological limitations, resistance to exposing data to scrutiny, and desire to hold onto data for personal use."], "length": 6097, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "aeb6cb26b11fc386727a529761d9d233ec7ba8dea9800b0f"}
{"input": "How are thalassemias classified?", "context": "Thalassaemia minor | definition of Thalassaemia minor by Medical dictionary\nThalassaemia minor | definition of Thalassaemia minor by Medical dictionary\nhttps://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Thalassaemia+minor\n(redirected from Thalassaemia minor)\nRelated to Thalassaemia minor: thalassaemia major\nThalassemia describes a group of inherited disorders characterized by reduced or absent amounts of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein inside the red blood cells. There are two basic groups of thalassemia disorders: alpha thalassemia and beta thalassemia. These conditions cause varying degrees of anemia, which can range from insignificant to life threatening.\nAll types of thalassemias are considered quantitative diseases of hemoglobin, because the quantity of hemoglobin produced is reduced or absent. Usual adult hemoglobin is made up of three components: alpha globin, beta globin, and heme. Thalassemias are classified according to the globin that is affected, hence the names alpha and beta thalassemia. Although both classes of thalassemia affect the same protein, the alpha and beta thalassemias are distinct diseases that affect the body in different ways.\nBeta thalassemia may be the most best-known type of thalassemia and is also called Cooley's anemia. It is caused by a change in the gene for the beta globin component of hemoglobin. Beta thalassemia causes variable anemia that can range from moderate to severe, depending in part on the exact genetic change underlying the disease. Beta thalassemia can be classified based on clinical symptoms. Beta thalassemia major usually causes severe anemia that can occur within months after birth. If left untreated, severe anemia can result in insufficient growth and development, as well as other common physical complications that can lead to a dramatically decreased life-expectancy. Fortunately, in developed countries beta thalassemia is usually identified by screening in the newborn period, before symptoms have developed. Children who are identified early can be started on ongoing blood transfusion therapy as needed. Although transfusion therapy prevents many of the complications of severe anemia, the body is unable to eliminate the excess iron contained in the transfused blood. Over time, the excess iron deposits in tissues and organs, resulting in damage and organ failure. Another medication must be administered to help the body eliminate the excess iron and prevent iron-over-load complications. Beta thalassemia intermedia describes the disease in individuals who have moderate anemia that only requires blood transfusions intermittently, if at all.\nAlpha thalassemia is the result of changes in the genes for the alpha globin component of hemoglobin. There are two main types of alpha thalassemia disease: hemoglobin H disease and alpha thalassemia major. The two diseases are quite different from beta thalassemia as well as from one another. Individuals with hemoglobin H disease can experience events of hemolytic anemia—anemia caused by the rapid breakdown of the red blood cells. These events are thought to be triggered by various environmental causes, such as infection and/or exposure to certain chemicals. Hemoglobin H disease is in most cases milder than beta thalassemia. It does not generally require transfusion therapy. Alpha thalassemia major is a very serious disease that results in severe anemia that begins even before birth. Most affected babies do not survive to be born or die shortly after birth.\nThe thalassemias are among the most common genetic diseases worldwide. Both alpha and beta thalassemia have been described in individuals of almost every ancestry, but the conditions are more common among certain ethnic groups. Unaffected carriers of all types of thalassemia traits do not experience health problems. In fact, the thalassemia trait is protective against malaria, a disease caused by blood-borne parasites transmitted through mosquito bites. According to a widely accepted theory, most genetic changes—mutations—that cause thalassemia occurred multiple generations ago. Coincidentally, these mutations increased the likelihood that carriers would survive malaria infection. Survivors passed the mutation onto their offspring, and the trait became established throughout areas where malaria is common. As populations migrated, so did the thalassemia traits.\nBeta thalassemia trait is seen most commonly in people with the following ancestry: Mediterranean (including North African, and particularly Italian and Greek), Middle Eastern, Indian, African, Chinese, and Southeast Asian (including Vietnamese, Laotian, Thai, Singaporean, Filipino, Cambodian, Malaysian, Burmese, and Indonesian). Alpha-thalassemia trait is seen with increased frequency in the same ethnic groups. However, there are different types of alpha thalassemia traits within these populations. The frequency of hemoglobin H disease and alpha thalassemia major depends on the type of alpha thalassemia trait. The populations in which alpha thalassemia diseases are most common include Southeast Asians and Chinese (particularly Southern Chinese).\nIt is difficult to obtain accurate prevalence figures for various types of thalassemia within different populations. This difficulty arises due to testing limitations in determining exact genetic diagnoses, as well as the fact that many studies have focused on small, biased hospital populations.\nTwo studies reflect prevalence figures that can be helpful counseling families and determining who to screen for beta thalassemia. Between the years of 1990 and 1996, the State of California screened more than 3.1 million infants born in the state for beta thalassemia. Approximately 1 in 114,000 infants had beta thalassemia major, with prevalence rates being highest among Asian Indians (about one in 4,000), Southeast Asians (about one in 10,000), and Middle Easterners (about one in 7,000). Another type of beta thalassemia disease, E/beta thalassemia, was represented in approximately one in 110,000 births, all of which occurred in families of Southeast Asian ancestry. Among Southeast Asians, the prevalence of E/beta thalassemia was approximately one in 2,600 births. This is in keeping with the observation that hemoglobin E trait carrier rates are relatively high within the Southeast Asian population: 16% in a study of 768 immigrants to California, and up to 25% in some specific Southeast Asian populations such as Cambodians. While these California studies address some of the limitations of earlier population studies, the pattern observed in California is expected to be different in other areas of the United States and the world. For example, Italians are underrepresented in this population when compared to the population of the East Coast of the United States.\nDetermining prevalence figures for alpha thalassemia is even more difficult due to increased limitations in diagnostic testing. All types of alpha thalassemia disease are most common among people of Southeast Asian and Chinese descent, for reasons that become clearer with an understanding of the underlying genetics of alpha thalassemia. One study of 500 pregnant women in Northern Thailand estimated a frequency of one in 500 pregnancies affected by alpha thalassemia major, for example. Prevalence of alpha thalassemia disease is significantly lower in the United States primarily because of immigration patterns; although at least one state, California, has observed growing hemoglobin H disease incidence rates that are high enough to justify universal newborn screening for the condition.\nHumans normally make several types of the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin. An individual's stage in development determines whether he or she makes primarily embryonic, fetal, or adult hemoglobins. All types of hemoglobin are made of three components: heme, alpha (or alpha-like) globin, and beta (or beta-like) globin. All types of thalassemia are caused by changes in either the alpha- or beta-globin gene. These changes cause little or no globin to be produced. The thalassemias are, therefore, considered quantitative hemoglobin diseases. All types of thalassemias are recessively inherited, meaning that a genetic change must be inherited from both the mother and the father. The severity of the disease is influenced by the exact thalassemia mutations inherited, as well as other genetic and environmental factors. There are rare exceptions, notably with beta thalassemia, where globin gene mutations exhibit a dominant pattern of inheritance in which only one gene needs to be altered in order to see disease expression. Scientists continue to study the causes. For instance, a new mutation for alpha-thalassemia was discovered for the first time among Iranian patients in 2004.\nBETA-THALASSEMIA. Most individuals have two normal copies of the beta globin gene, which is located on chromosome 11 and makes the beta globin component of normal adult hemoglobin, hemoglobin A. There are approximately 100 genetic mutations that have been described that cause beta thalassemia, designated as either beta0 or beta + mutations. No beta globin is produced with a beta0 mutation, and only a small fraction of the normal amount of beta globin is produced with a beta + mutation.\nWhen an individual has one normal beta globin gene and one with a beta thalassemia mutation, he or she is said to carry the beta thalassemia trait. Beta thalassemia trait, like other hemoglobin traits, is protective against malaria infection. Trait status is generally thought not to cause health problems, although some women with beta thalassemia trait may have an increased tendency toward anemia during pregnancy.\nWhen two members of a couple carry the beta thalassemia trait, there is a 25% chance that each of their children will inherit beta thalassemia disease by inheriting two beta thalassemia mutations, one from each parent. The clinical severity of the beta thalassemia disease—whether an individual has beta thalassemia intermedia or beta thalassemia major—will depend largely on whether the mutations inherited are beta0 thalassemia or beta + thalassemia mutations. Two beta0 mutations generally lead to beta thalassemia major, and two beta+ thalassemia mutations generally lead to beta thalassemia intermedia. Inheritance of one beta0 and one beta + thalassemia mutation tends to be less predictable.\nAlthough relatively uncommon, there are other thalassemia-like mutations that can affect the beta globin gene. Hemoglobin E is the result of a substitution of a single nucleotide. This change results in a structurally altered hemoglobin that is produced in decreased amounts. Therefore, hemoglobin E is unique in that it is both a quantitative (i.e. thalassemia-like) and qualitative trait. When co-inherited with a beta thalassemia trait, it causes a disease that is almost indistinguishable from beta thalassemia disease. Large deletions around and including the beta globin gene can lead to delta/beta thalassemia or hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin (HPFH). Interestingly, delta/beta thalassemia trait behaves very similarly to beta thalassemia trait in its clinical manifestations. However, HPFH trait does not tend to cause hemoglobin disease when co-inherited with a second thalassemia or other beta globin mutation.\nALPHA-THALASSEMIA. Most individuals have four normal copies of the alpha globin gene, two copies on each chromosome 16. These genes make the alpha globin component of normal adult hemoglobin, which is called hemoglobin A. Alpha globin is also a component of fetal hemoglobin and the other major adult hemoglobin called hemoglobin A2. Mutations of the alpha globin genes are usually deletions of the gene, resulting in absent production of alpha globin. Since there are four genes (instead of the usual two) to consider when looking at alpha globin gene inheritance, there are several alpha globin types that are possible.\nAbsence of one alpha globin gene leads to a condition known as silent alpha thalassemia trait. This condition causes no health problems and can be detected only by special genetic testing. Alpha thalassemia trait occurs when two alpha globin genes are missing. This can occur in two ways. The genes may be deleted from the same chromosome, causing the 'cis' type of alpha thalassemia trait. Alternately, they may be deleted from different chromosomes, causing the 'trans' type of alpha thalassemia trait. In both instances, there are no associated health problems, although the trait status may be detected by more routine blood screening.\nHemoglobin H disease results from the deletion of three alpha globin genes, such that there is only one functioning gene. Typically, this can occur when one parent carries the silent alpha thalassemia trait, and the other parent carries the 'cis' type of the alpha thalassemia trait. In this situation, there is a 25% chance for hemoglobin H disease in each of such a couple's children.\nHemoglobin H disease-like symptoms can also be a part of a unique condition called alpha thalassemia mental retardation syndrome. Alpha thalassemia mental retardation syndrome can be caused by a deletion of a significant amount of chromosome 16, affecting the alpha globin genes. This is usually not inherited, but rather occurs sporadically in the affected individual. Affected individuals have mild hemoglobin H disease, mild-to-moderate mental retardation, and characteristic facial features. This syndrome can also occur as a sex-linked form in which a mutation is inherited in a particular gene on the X-chromosome. This gene influences alpha globin production, as well as various other developmental processes. Individuals affected with this form of the syndrome tend to have more severe mental retardation, delayed development, nearly absent speech, characteristic facial features, and genital-urinary abnormalities. The remaining discussion will focus only on aspects of hemoglobin H disease.\nAlpha thalassemia major results from the deletion of all four alpha globin genes, such that there are no functioning alpha globin genes. This can occur when both parents carry the 'cis' type of the alpha thalassemia trait. In this situation, there is a 25% chance for alpha thalassemia major in each of such a couple's children.\nBeta thalassemia major is characterized by severe anemia that can begin months after birth. In the United States and other developed countries beta thalassemia is identified and treated early and effectively. Therefore, the following discussion of symptoms applies primarily to affected individuals in the past and unfortunately in some underdeveloped countries now. If untreated, beta thalassemia major can lead to severe lethargy, paleness, and delays in growth and development. The body attempts to compensate by producing more blood, which is made inside the bones in the marrow. However, this is ineffective without the needed genetic instructions to make enough functioning hemoglobin. Instead, obvious bone expansion and changes occur that cause characteristic facial and other changes in appearance, as well as increased risk of fractures. Severe anemia taxes other organs in the body—such as the heart, spleen, and liver—which must work harder than usual. This can lead to heart failure, as well as enlargement and other problems of the liver and spleen. When untreated, beta thalassemia major generally results in childhood death, usually due to heart failure. In 2004, the first known heart attack associated with beta thalassemia major was reported. Fortunately, in developed countries diagnosis is usually made early, often before symptoms have begun. This allows for treatment with blood transfusion therapy, which can prevent most of the complications of the severe anemia caused by beta thalassemia major. Individuals with beta thalassemia intermedia have a more moderate anemia that may only require treatment with transfusion intermittently, such as when infections occur and stress the body. As a person with beta thalassemia intermedia gets older, however, the need for blood transfusions may increase to the point that they are required on a regular basis. When this occurs their disease becomes more similar to beta thalassemia major. Other genetic and environmental factors can influence the course of the disease as well. For example, co-inheritance of one or two alpha thalassemia mutations can tend to ameliorate some of the symptoms of beta thalassemia disease, which result in part from an imbalance in the amount of alpha- and beta-globin present in the red blood cells.\nHemoglobin h disease\nAbsence of three alpha globin genes causes an imbalance of alpha and beta globin proteins in the red blood cells. The excess beta globin proteins tend to come together to form hemoglobin H, which is unable to release oxygen to the tissues. In addition, hemoglobin H tends to precipitate out in the cells, causing damage to the red blood cell membrane. When affected individuals are exposed to certain drugs and chemicals known to make the membrane more fragile, the cells are thought to become vulnerable to breakdown in large numbers, a complication called hemolytic anemia. Fever and infection are also considered to be triggers of hemolytic anemia in hemoglobin H disease. This can result in fatigue, paleness, and a yellow discoloration of the skin and whites of eyes called jaundice. Usually, the anemia is mild enough not to require treatment. Severe anemia events may require blood transfusion, however, and are usually accompanied by such other symptoms as dark feces or urine and abdominal or back pain. These events are uncommon in hemoglobin H disease, although they occur more frequently in a more serious type of hemoglobin H disease called hemoglobin H/Constant Spring disease. Individuals effected with this type of hemoglobin H disease are also more likely to have enlargement of and other problems with the spleen.\nAlpha thalassemia major\nBecause alpha globin is a necessary component of all major hemoglobins and some minor hemoglobins, absence of all functioning alpha globin genes leads to serious medical consequences that begin even before birth. Affected fetuses develop severe anemia as early as the first trimester of pregnancy. The placenta, heart, liver, spleen, and adrenal glands may all become enlarged. Fluid can begin collecting throughout the body as early as the start of the second trimester, causing damage to developing tissues and organs. Growth retardation is also common. Affected fetuses usually miscarry or die shortly after birth. In addition, women carrying affected fetuses are at increased risk of developing complications of pregnancy and delivery. Up to 80% of such women develop toxemia, a disturbance of metabolism that can potentially lead to convulsions and coma. Other maternal complications include premature delivery and increased rates of delivery by cesarean section, as well as hemorrhage after delivery.\nThalassemia may be suspected if an individual shows signs that are suggestive of the disease. In all cases, however, laboratory diagnosis is essential to confirm the exact diagnosis and to allow for the provision of accurate genetic counseling about recurrence risks and testing options for parents and affected individuals. Screening is likewise recommended to determine trait status for individuals of high-risk ethnic groups.\nThe following tests are used to screen for thalassemia disease and/or trait:\nhemoglobin electrophoresis with quantitative hemoglobin A2 and hemoglobin F\nfree erythrocyte-protoporphyrin (or ferritin or other studies of serum iron levels)\nA complete blood count will identify low levels of hemoglobin, small red blood cells, and other red blood cell abnormalities that are characteristic of a thalassemia diagnosis. Since thalassemia trait can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from iron deficiency, tests to evaluate iron levels are important. A hemoglobin electrophoresis is a test that can help identify the types and quantities of hemoglobin made by an individual. This test uses an electric field applied across a slab of gel-like material. Hemoglobins migrate through this gel at various rates and to specific locations, depending on their size, shape, and electrical charge. Isoelectric focusing and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) use similar principles to separate hemoglobins and can be used instead of or in various combinations with hemoglobin electrophoresis to determine the types and quantities of hemoglobin present. Hemoglobin electrophoresis results are usually within the normal range for all types of alpha thalassemia. However, hemoglobin A2 levels and sometimes hemoglobin F levels are elevated when beta thalassemia disease or trait is present. Hemoglobin electrophoresis can also detect structurally abnormal hemoglobins that may be co-inherited with a thalassemia trait to cause thalassemia disease (i.e., hemoglobin E) or other types of hemoglobin disease (i.e., sickle hemoglobin). Sometimes DNA testing is needed in addition to the above screening tests. This can be performed to help confirm the diagnosis and establish the exact genetic type of thalassemia.\nDiagnosis of thalassemia can occur under various circumstances and at various ages. Several states offer thalassemia screening as part of the usual battery of blood tests done for newborns. This allows for early identification and treatment. Thalassemia can be identified before birth through the use of prenatal diagnosis. Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) can be offered as early as 10 weeks of pregnancy and involves removing a sample of the placenta made by the baby and testing the cells. CVS carries a risk of causing a miscarriage that is between 0.5%-1%. Amniocentesis is generally offered between 15 and 22 weeks of pregnancy, but can sometimes be offered earlier. Two to three tablespoons of the fluid surrounding the baby is removed. This fluid contains fetal cells that can be tested. The risk of miscarriage associated with amniocentesis ranges from 0.33-0.5%. Pregnant woman and couples may choose prenatal testing in order to prepare for the birth of a baby that may have thalassemia. Alternately, knowing the diagnosis during pregnancy allows for the option of pregnancy termination. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) is a relatively new technique that involves in-vitro fertilization followed by genetic testing of one cell from each developing embryo. Only the embryos unaffected by sickle cell disease are transferred back into the uterus. PGD is currently available on a research basis only and is relatively expensive.\nIndividuals with beta thalassemia major receive regular blood transfusions, usually on a monthly basis. This helps prevent severe anemia and allows for more normal growth and development. Transfusion therapy does have limitations, however. Individuals can develop reactions to certain proteins in the blood—called a transfusion reaction. This can make locating appropriately matched donor blood more difficult. Although blood supplies in the United States are very safe, particularly relative to the past and to other areas of the world, there remains an increased risk of exposure to such blood-borne infections as hepatitis. Additionally, the body is not able to get rid of the excess iron that accompanies each transfusion. An additional medication called desferoxamine is administered, usually five nights per week over a period of several hours, using an automatic pump that can be used during sleep or taken anywhere the person goes. This medication is able to bind to the excess iron, which can then be eliminated through urine. If desferoxamine is not used regularly or is unavailable, iron overload can develop and cause tissue damage and organ damage and failure. The heart, liver, and endocrine organs are particularly vulnerable. Desferoxamine itself may rarely produce allergic or toxic side effects, including hearing damage. Signs of desferoxamine toxicity are screened for and generally develop in individuals who overuse the medication when body iron levels are sufficiently low. Overall, however, transfusion and desferoxamine therapy have increased the life expectancy of individuals with the most severe types of beta thalassemia major to the 4th or 5th decade. This can be expected to improve with time and increased developments in treatment, as well as for those with more mild forms of the disease.\nNew treatments offer additional options for some individuals with beta thalassemia major. There are various medications that target the production of red blood cells (i.e. erythropoeitin) or fetal hemoglobin (i.e. hydroxyurea and butyrate). Their effectiveness in ameliorating the severity of beta thalassemia is currently being investigated. Another promising new treatment is bone marrow transplantation, in which the bone marrow of an affected individual is replaced with the bone marrow of an unaffected donor. If successful, this treatment can provide a cure. However, there is an approximately 10-15% chance the procedure could be unsuccessful (i.e. the thalassemia returns); result in complications (i.e. graft-versus-host disease); or result in death. The risk for specific individuals depends on current health status, age, and other factors. Because of the risks involved and the fact that beta thalassemia is a treatable condition, transplant physicians require a brother or sister donor who has an identically matched tissue type, called HLA type. HLA type refers to the unique set of proteins present on each individual's cells, which allows the immune system to recognize \"self\" from \"foreign.\" HLA type is genetically determined, so there is a 25% chance for two siblings to be a match. Transplant physicians and researchers are also investigating ways to improve the safety and effectiveness of bone marrow transplantation. Using newborn sibling umbilical cord blood—the blood from the placenta that is otherwise discarded after birth but contains cells that can go on to make bone marrow—seems to provide a safer and perhaps more effective source of donor cells. Donors and recipients may not have to be perfect HLA matches for a successful transplant using cord blood cells. Trials are also underway to determine the effectiveness of \"partial transplants,\" in which a safer transplant procedure is used to replace only a percentage of the affected individual's bone marrow. Other possible treatments on the horizon may include gene therapy techniques aimed at increasing the amount of normal hemoglobin the body is able to make.\nHemoglobin H disease is a relatively mild form of thalassemia that may go unrecognized. It is not generally considered a condition that will reduce one's life expectancy. Education is an important part of managing the health of an individual with hemoglobin H disease. It is important to be able to recognize the signs of severe anemia that require medical attention. It is also important to be aware of the medications, chemicals, and other exposures to avoid due to the theoretical risk they pose of causing a severe anemia event. When severe anemia occurs, it is treated with blood transfusion therapy. For individuals with hemoglobin H disease, this is rarely required. For those with the hemoglobin H/Constant Spring form of the disease, the need for transfusions may be intermittent or ongoing, perhaps on a monthly basis and requiring desferoxamine treatment. Individuals with this more severe form of the disease may also have an increased chance of requiring removal of an enlarged and/or overactive spleen.\nAnemia — A blood condition in which the level of hemoglobin or the number of red blood cells falls below normal values. Common symptoms include paleness, fatigue, and shortness of breath.\nBilirubin — A yellow pigment that is the end result of hemoglobin breakdown. This pigment is metabolized in the liver and excreted from the body through the bile. Bloodstream levels are normally low; however, extensive red cell destruction leads to excessive bilirubin formation and jaundice.\nBone marrow — A spongy tissue located in the hollow centers of certain bones, such as the skull and hip bones. Bone marrow is the site of blood cell generation.\nBone marrow transplantation — A medical procedure used to treat some diseases that arise from defective blood cell formation in the bone marrow. Healthy bone marrow is extracted from a donor to replace the marrow in an ailing individual. Proteins on the surface of bone marrow cells must be identical or very closely matched between a donor and the recipient.\nDesferoxamine — The primary drug used in iron chelation therapy. It aids in counteracting the life-threatening buildup of iron in the body associated with long-term blood transfusions.\nGlobin — One of the component protein molecules found in hemoglobin. Normal adult hemoglobin has a pair each of alpha-globin and beta-globin molecules.\nHeme — The iron-containing molecule in hemoglobin that serves as the site for oxygen binding.\nHemoglobin — Protein-iron compound in the blood that carries oxygen to the cells and carries carbon dioxide away from the cells.\nHemoglobin A — Normal adult hemoglobin that contains a heme molecule, two alpha-globin molecules, and two beta-globin molecules.\nHemoglobin electrophoresis — A laboratory test that separates molecules based on their size, shape, or electrical charge.\nHepatomegaly — An abnormally large liver.\nHLA type — Refers to the unique set of proteins called human leukocyte antigens. These proteins are present on each individual's cell and allow the immune system to recognize 'self' from 'foreign'. HLA type is particularly important in organ and tissue transplantation.\nHydroxyurea — A drug that has been shown to induce production of fetal hemoglobin. Fetal hemoglobin has a pair of gamma-globin molecules in place of the typical beta-globins of adult hemoglobin. Higher-than-normal levels of fetal hemoglobin can ameliorate some of the symptoms of thalassemia.\nIron overload — A side effect of frequent blood transfusions in which the body accumulates abnormally high levels of iron. Iron deposits can form in organs, particularly the heart, and cause life-threatening damage.\nJaundice — Yellowing of the skin or eyes due to excess of bilirubin in the blood.\nMutation — A permanent change in the genetic material that may alter a trait or characteristic of an individual, or manifest as disease, and can be transmitted to offspring.\nPlacenta — The organ responsible for oxygen and nutrition exchange between a pregnant mother and her developing baby.\nRed blood cell — Hemoglobin-containing blood cells that transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues. In the tissues, the red blood cells exchange their oxygen for carbon dioxide, which is brought back to the lungs to be exhaled.\nScreening — Process through which carriers of a trait may be identified within a population.\nSplenomegaly — Enlargement of the spleen.\nBecause alpha thalassemia major is most often a condition that is fatal in the prenatal or newborn period, treatment has previously been focused on identifying affected pregnancies in order to provide appropriate management to reduce potential maternal complications. Pregnancy termination provides one form of management. Increased prenatal surveillance and early treatment of maternal complications is an approach that is appropriate for mothers who wish to continue their pregnancy with the knowledge that the baby will most likely not survive. In recent years, there have been a handful of infants with this condition who have survived long-term. Most of these infants received experimental treatment including transfusions before birth, early delivery, and even bone marrow transplantation before birth, although the latter procedure has not yet been successful. For those infants that survive to delivery, there seems to be an increased risk of developmental problems and physical effects, particularly heart and genital malformations. Otherwise, their medical outlook is similar to a child with beta thalassemia major, with the important exception that ongoing, life-long blood transfusions begin right at birth.\nAs discussed above, the prognosis for individuals with the most serious types of thalassemia has improved drastically in the last several years following recent medical advances in transfusion, chemo-, and transplantation therapy. Advances continue and promise to improve the life expectancy and quality of life further for affected individuals.\n\"First Known Heart Attack Associated With Beta-thalassemia Major Reported.\" Heart Disease Weekly February 22, 2004: 10.\n\"Novel Alpha-thalassemia Mutations Identified.\" Hematology Week January 26, 2004: 19.\nChildren's Blood Foundation. 333 East 38th St., Room 830, New York, NY 10016-2745. (212) 297-4336. cfg@nyh.med.cornell.edu.\nCooley's Anemia Foundation, Inc. 129-09 26th Ave. #203, Flushing, NY 11354. (800) 522-7222 or (718) 321-2873. http://www.thalassemia.org.\nMarch of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation. 1275 Mamaroneck Ave., White Plains, NY 10605. (888) 663-4637. resourcecenter@modimes.org. http://www.modimes.org.\nNational Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. PO Box 30105, Bethseda, MD 20824-0105. (301) 592-8573. nhlbiinfo@rover.nhlbi.nih.gov. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov.\nNational Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD). PO Box 8923, New Fairfield, CT 06812-8923. (203) 746-6518 or (800) 999-6673. Fax: (203) 746-6481. http://www.rarediseases.org.\nBojanowski J. \"Alpha Thalassemia Major: The Possibility of Long-Term Survival.\" Pamphlet from the Northern California Comprehensive Thalassemia Center. (1999).\nChildren's Hospital Oakland, Northern California Comprehensive Thalassemia Center website. http://www.thalassemia.com.\nCooley's Anemia Foundation, Inc. website. http://www.thalassemia.org/gohome.html.\nJoint Center for Sickle Cell and Thalassemic Disorders website. http://cancer.mgh.harvard.edu/medOnc/sickle.htm.\n[thal″ah-se´me-ah]\na heterogeneous group of hereditary hemolytic anemias marked by a decreased rate of synthesis of one or more hemoglobin polypeptide chains, classified according to the chain involved (α, β, δ); the two major categories are α- and β-thalassemia.\nα-thalassemia (alpha-thalassemia) that caused by diminished synthesis of alpha chains of hemoglobin. The homozygous form is incompatible with life, the stillborn infant displaying severe hydrops fetalis. The heterozygous form may be asymptomatic or marked by mild anemia.\nβ-thalassemia (beta-thalassemia) that caused by diminished synthesis of beta chains of hemoglobin. The homozygous form is called t. major and the heterozygous form is called t. minor.\nthalassemia ma´jor the homozygous form of β-thalassemia, in which hemoglobin A is completely absent; it appears in the newborn period and is marked by hemolytic, hypochromic, microcytic anemia; hepatosplenomegaly; skeletal deformation; mongoloid facies; and cardiac enlargement.\nthalassemia mi´nor the heterozygous form of β-thalassemia; it is usually asymptomatic, but there may be mild anemia.\nsickle cell–thalassemia a hereditary anemia involving simultaneous heterozygosity for hemoglobin S and thalassemia.\nthal·as·se·mi·a\n, thalassanemia (thal'ă-sē'mē-ă, thă-las-ă-nē'mē-ă),\nAny of a group of inherited disorders of hemoglobin metabolism in which there is impaired synthesis of one or more of the polypeptide chains of globin; several genetic types exist, and the corresponding clinical picture may vary from barely detectable hematologic abnormality to severe and fatal anemia.\n[G. thalassa, the sea, + haima, blood]\n/thal·as·se·mia/ (thal″ah-se´me-ah) a heterogeneous group of hereditary hemolytic anemias marked by a decreased rate of synthesis of one or more hemoglobin polypeptide chains, classified according to the chain involved (α, β, δ); the two major categories are α- and β-thalassemia.\nα-thalassemia that caused by diminished synthesis of alpha chains of hemoglobin. The homozygous form is incompatible with life, the stillborn infant displaying severe hydrops fetalis. The heterozygous form may be asymptomatic or marked by mild anemia.\nβ-thalassemia that caused by diminished synthesis of beta chains of hemoglobin. The homozygous form is called t. major and the heterozygous form is called t. minor.\nthalassemia ma´jor the homozygous form of &#x03B2;, in which hemoglobin A is completely absent; it appears in the newborn period and is marked by hemolytic, hypochromic, microcytic anemia, hepatosplenomegaly, skeletal deformation, mongoloid facies, and cardiac enlargement.\nthalassemia mi´nor the heterozygous form of &#x03B2;, usually asymptomatic, although there is sometimes mild anemia.\n(thăl′ə-sē′mē-ə)\nAn inherited form of anemia occurring chiefly among people of Mediterranean descent, caused by faulty synthesis of part of the hemoglobin molecule. Also called Mediterranean anemia.\nthal′as·se′mic adj.\n[thal′əsē′mē·ə]\nEtymology: Gk, thalassa, sea, a + haima, without blood\nproduction and hemolytic anemia characterized by microcytic, hypochromic red blood cells. Thalassemia is caused by inherited deficiency of alpha- or beta-globin synthesis. See also hemochromatosis, hemosiderosis.\nBeta thalassemia, clinical thalassemia, Cooley's anemia, Mediterranean anemia, thalassemia major Hematology A group of genetic diseases by underproduction of hemoglobin due to mutations in the beta globin gene, which is more common in Mediterraneans Heredity Parents are carriers–heterozygotes; one in 4 children is homozygous for the mutation and thus has full-blown disease Clinical See Anemia. Cf Sickle cell anemia.\nα-thalassemia\nHemoglobin Barts Hematology An inherited condition caused by a defect in the synthesis of the Hb α chain; Hb Barts hemoglobinopathy is characterized by the presence of 4 gamma chains; it is more common in southeast Asians; the most severe form of alpha thalassemia causes stillbirth due to hydrops fetalis Heredity Parents are carriers–heterozygotes; one in 4 children is homozygous for the mutation and thus has full-blown disease Clinical Pallor, fatiguability, FTT, fever, infections, diarrhea Management Transfusions\nThalassemia major Hematology A hemoglobinopathy caused by a defect in the synthesis of Hb β chain Clinical Pallor, fatigability, FTT, fever due to infections, diarrhea, bone deformities, hepatosplenomegaly Management Transfusions, but iron overload can damage the heart, liver, and endocrine systems, ergo iron chelation–early use of deferiprone, deferoxamine ↓ transfusion-related iron overload and may protect against DM, cardiac disease, early death\nδ-thalassemia\nHematology A condition characterized by a defect of Hb A2–α2δ2; because Hb A2 comprises only 3% of the circulating Hb, even its complete absence; δ-thalassemia has little clinical or hematologic impact\nγ-thalassemia\nHematology A condition characterized by a defect of gamma–γ Hb chains found in Hb F–α2γ2; because Hb F is present primarily in the fetus and newborns, it is rarely seen outside of the neonatal period, but may cause transient neonatal hemolytic anemia.\n, thalassanemia (thal'ă-sē'mē-ă, -ă-să-nē'mē-ă)\nAny of a group of inherited disorders of hemoglobin metabolism in which there is impaired synthesis of one or more of the polypeptide chains of globin; several genetic types exist, and the corresponding clinical picture may vary from barely detectable hematologic abnormality to severe and fatal anemia. People of Mediterranean, extraction are more often affected than others by this type of anemia.\nSynonym(s): thalassaemia, thalassanaemia.\nAny of a group of inherited disorders of hemoglobin metabolism with impaired synthesis of one or more polypeptide chains of globin; several genetic types exist.\n<a href=\"https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Thalassaemia+minor\">thalassemia</a>\nBarts hemoglobin\nbeta hemoglobinopathy\nbeta-delta thalassemia\nbeta-thalassaemia\nBite Cell\nblack gallstone\nI know of a couple, totally unrelated and unbeknownst to them, who are silent carriers of Thalassaemia minor.\nPakistan: Genetic factor: All in the genes\nBut, unfortunately, when one person with thalassaemia minor carrier happens to marry another with the same diagnosis, there is a strong possibility that their child would be thalassaemia major, as happened in the case of Taneja.\n' My life depends upon a monthly blood transfusion '\n0] thalassaemia demonstrates variable severity, ranging from a condition similar to [beta] thalassaemia minor to something approaching thalassaemia major.\nA retrospective review of homozygous haemoglobin E patients\nThal, Alan P.\nthalame\nthalamencephalic\nthalamencephalon\nthalamic\nthalamic fasciculus\nthalamic nucleus\nthalamic pain syndrome\nthalamic peduncle\nthalamic radiation\nthalamo-\nthalamocoele\nthalamocortical\nthalamocortical fibers\nthalamogeniculate artery\nthalamolenticular\nthalamoperforating artery\nthalamostriate radiation\nthalamotuberal artery\nThalassaemia minor\nthalassaemiaor Cooley's disease\nthalassemic facies\nthalasso-\nThalassobacter\nThalassobacter utilis\nthalassoplankton\nthalassoposia\nthalidomide neuropathy\nThalidomider\nthallium poisoning\nThalarctos\nTHALAS\nThalasaemia\nThalassaemia Association of Malaysia\nthalassaemia major\nThalassaemias\nthalassaemic\nthalassanaemia\nThalassemia Action Group\nThalassemia Clinical Research Network\nthalassemia syndrome", "answers": ["According to the globin that is affected (alpha or beta)."], "length": 6101, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "df53ff06fbc99dbae6bfe13a946420321d4542480eeb56f3"}
{"input": "What does the paper aim to solve?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Generalized Pole-Residue Method for Dynamic Analysis of Nonlinear Systems based on Volterra Series\nPublish Date: March 7, 2023\nAuthor List: Qianying Cao (from State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology), Anteng Chang (from College of Engineering, Ocean University of China), Junfeng Du (from College of Engineering, Ocean University of China), Lin Lu (from State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology)\n\nFigure\n\nFig. 1: Procedure to compute the response by a combination of Volterra series and Laguerre polynomials\nFig. 2: Linear frequency response function: (a) Modulus of H 1 (ω), (b) phase angle of H 1 (ω)\nFig. 6: Comparison of h 1 (t) based on the analytical and reconstructed by Laguerre polynomials\nFig. 11: Response for Case 1: (a) comparison between the proposed method and Runge-Kutta method, (b) contribution of the three components\nFig. 18: Comparison of original excitations and reconstructed results: (a) Case 1, (b) Case 2 (c) Case 3\nFig. 19: Response to irregular excitation for Case 1: (a) comparison between the proposed method and Runge-Kutta method, (b) contribution of the three components\nFig. 23: Input-output dataset used to identify Volterra series: (a) input excitation, (b) output response\nFig. 26: Comparison of responses between the predicted and numerical results: (a) response to regular excitation, (b) response to irregular excitation\nParameter values of the irregular excitation\n\nabstract\n\nDynamic systems characterized by second-order nonlinear ordinary differential equations appear in many fields of physics and engineering. To solve these kinds of problems, time-consuming stepby-step numerical integration methods and convolution methods based on Volterra series in the time domain have been widely used.\nIn contrast, this work develops an efficient generalized pole-residue method based on the Volterra series performed in the Laplace domain. The proposed method involves two steps: (1) the Volterra kernels are decoupled in terms of Laguerre polynomials, and (2) the partial response related to a single Laguerre polynomial is obtained analytically in terms of the pole-residue method.\nCompared to the traditional pole-residue method for a linear system, one of the novelties of the pole-residue method in this paper is how to deal with the higher-order poles and their corresponding coefficients. Because the proposed method derives an explicit, continuous response function of time, it is much more efficient than traditional numerical methods.\nUnlike the traditional Laplace domain method, the proposed method is applicable to arbitrary irregular excitations. Because the natural response, forced response and cross response are naturally obtained in the solution procedure, meaningful mathematical and physical insights are gained. In numerical studies, systems with a known equation of motion and an unknown equation of motion are investigated.\nFor each system, regular excitations and complex irregular excitations with different parameters are studied. Numerical studies validate the good accuracy and high efficiency of the proposed method by comparing it with the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method.\n\nIntroduction\n\nMost real dynamic systems, as encountered in mechanical and civil engineering, are inherently nonlinear and include geometric nonlinearities, nonlinear constitutive relations in material or nonlinear resistances, etc. . Nonlinear problems are attracting increasing attention from engineers and scientists.\nThis work focuses on solving nonlinear system vibration problems, i.e., computing transient responses of nonlinear oscillators under arbitrary irregular excitations based on a combination of a pole-residue operation and Volterra series. Because Volterra series are single-valued, the scope of the present study is restricted to nonlinear behaviours without bifurcations .\nTo analyse nonlinear vibration problems, researchers have performed extensive studies and developed various mathematical methods. Popular methods include step-by-step numerical integration methods in the time domain, such as the Runge-Kutta method. This kind of method not only requires a small time-step resolution for obtaining high-precision solutions but also is prone to numerical instability .\nFor a long response with small time steps, the time domain methods are very costly in computational time. Volterra series is another widely used method, which is the extension of the Duhamel integral for linear systems . Volterra series can reproduce many nonlinear phenomena, but they are very complex due to higher-dimensional convolution integrals .\nSince 1980's, significant progress has been made in the general area of the Volterra series. The reader is referred to Ref. for a quite thorough literature review on the relevant topics. After 2017, most papers focus on Volterra series identification. De Paula and Marques proposed a method for the identification of Volterra kernels, which was based on time-delay neural networks.\nSon and Kim presented a method for a direct estimation of the Volterra kernel coefficients. Dalla Libera et al. introduced two new kernels for Volterra series identification. Peng et al. used the measured response to identify the kernel function and performed the nonlinear structural damage detection. Only a few papers concentrated on simplifying the computation of convolution integrals.\nTraditional methods for computing convolution integrals involved in the Volterra series have been performed in three distinct domains: time, frequency and Laplace. The time domain method based on Volterra series refers to discrete time convolution methods, which also suffer computational cost problems .\nBoth the frequency domain method and the Laplace domain method based on the Volterra series consist of three steps: (1) Volterra series are transformed into an algebraic equation in the frequency domain or Laplace domain; the algebraic equation is solved by purely algebraic manipulations; and (3) the solution in Step ( ) is transformed back to the time domain.\nMany researchers have used the frequency domain method to compute the responses of nonlinear systems. Billings et al. developed a new method for identifying the generalized frequency response function (GFRF) of nonlinear systems and then predicted the nonlinear response based on these GFRFs. Carassale et al. introduced a frequency domain approach for nonlinear bridge aerodynamics and aeroelasticity.\nHo et al. computed an output frequency domain function of a nonlinear damped duffing system modelled by a Volterra series under a sinusoidal input. Kim et al. identified the higher order frequency response functions by using the nonlinear autoregressive with exogenous input technique and the harmonic probing method.\nThis type of frequency domain method is much more efficient than the time domain method due to the fast Fourier transform algorithm. However, the frequency domain method not only is limited by frequency resolutions but also suffers from leakage problems due to the use of discrete Fourier transforms. In addition, the frequency domain method calculates only a steady-state response.\nA natural response generated by initial conditions and a cross response caused by interactions between a system and an excitation are ignored. In contrast, the Laplace domain method can calculate all response components because initial conditions are considered in the computational procedure. However, it has been restricted to analytical operations for simple excitations, such as sinusoidal excitations and exponential excitations .\nThe proposed method falls into the category of the Volterra series method computed in the Laplace domain. Unlike the traditional Laplace domain method, the proposed method is applicable to arbitrary irregular excitations. Because the proposed method follows a similar path as a pole-residue method for linear systems , the proposed method to solve nonlinear system vibration problems is called the generalized pole-residue method.\nThe main concept of the pole-residue method developed by Hu et al. was that the poles and residues of the response could be easily obtained from those of the input and system transfer function to obtain the closed-form response solution of linear systems. This method included three steps: (1) writing the system transfer function into pole-residue form; (2) writing the excitation into pole-residue form by the Prony-SS method; (3) computing the poles and residues of the response by an algebraic operation based on those from system and excitation.\nCompared to Hu et al. , which was regarded as an efficient tool to compute responses of linear systems, the generalized pole-residue method in this paper is introduced to compute responses of nonlinear systems. The proposed method involves two steps: (1) the Volterra kernels are decoupled in terms of Laguerre polynomials, and (2) the partial response related to a single Laguerre polynomial is obtained analytically in terms of the pole-residue method.\nCompared to the traditional pole-residue method for a linear system, one of the novelties of the generalized pole-residue method is how to deal with the higher-order poles and their corresponding coefficients. Similar to the Taylor series, the Volterra series representation is an infinite series, and convergence conditions are needed to assure that the representation is meaningful.\nBecause the proposed method is based on the Volterra series, only the system with convergent Volterra series representation can be treated by the proposed method. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the nonlinear response is modelled by a Volterra series, and Volterra kernel functions are decoupled by Laguerre polynomials.\nThen, the pole-residue method for computing explicit responses is developed in Section 3. Numerical studies and discussions are given in Section 4. Finally, the conclusions are drawn in Section 5.\n\nResponse calculation based on Volterra series\n\nA nonlinear oscillator, whose governing equation of motion is given by where z(t, y, ẏ) represents an arbitrary nonlinear term; m, c, and k are the mass, damping and linear stiffness, respectively; y(t), ẏ(t) and ÿ(t) are the displacement, velocity and acceleration, respectively; and f (t) is the time-dependent excitation.\nIf the energy of excitation f (t) is limited, the nonlinear response under zero initial conditions (i.e., zero displacement and zero velocity) can be represented by the Volterra series : where N is the order of Volterra series and In Eq. 3, h 1 (τ ) is called the first-order Volterra kernel function, which represents the linear behaviour of the system; h n (τ 1 , . . .\n, τ n ) for n > 1 are the higher-order Volterra kernel functions, which describe the nonlinear behaviour of the system. The complete formulation of y(t) includes infinite series where the labour of calculating the n th term increases quickly with the growth of n. Fortunately, the response accuracy may be ensured by the first several order Volterra series.\nThis is proved here in numerical studies. The commonly known Laguerre polynomials are represented as : where p i is the order of the Laguerre polynomials and a i is the damping rate. The Laguerre polynomials satisfy the orthogonal relationship expressed as: By using Laguerre polynomials, the Volterra kernel function h n (t 1 , . . .\n, t n ) in Eq. 3 can be decoupled as follows : where the coefficient is computed resorting to the orthogonal relationship in Eq. 5: Substituting Eq. 6 into Eq. 3 yields . . . The above operation that uses the Laguerre polynomials to decouple Volterra higher order kernel functions has been well-developed.\nThe reader is referred to Refs. for details about the adopted technique. After decoupling Volterra higher order kernel functions in time, one can regroup Eq. 8 into: . . . By denoting Eq. 9 becomes The above procedure to compute the nonlinear response by a combination of Volterra series and Laguerre polynomials is schematically shown in Fig. .\nVolterra kernel functions h n (t 1 , . . . , t n ) can be obtained by either an equation of motion or measured input-output signals. To derive a closedform solution of the response, we must obtain a closed-form solution of x i (t) first. In the following presentation, a closed-form solution of the aforementioned x i (t) and y n (t) is derived by using the pole-residue method.\n3. Pole-residue method for calculating x i (t) and y n (t) Performing the Laplace transform of x i (t) in Eq. 10 yields where in which Eq. 13 includes a single pole and several higher-order poles. For k = 0, −a i is a single pole, and b p i (0) is a corresponding coefficient, namely, the residue. For k > 0, −a i are higher-order poles, and b p i (k) are corresponding coefficients.\nFor an irregular excitation signal f (t) of a finite duration of T , it can always be approximated into a pole-residue form by using the complex exponential signal decomposition method-Prony-SS : where N ℓ is the number of components; α ℓ and λ ℓ are constant coefficients, which either are real numbers or occur in complex conjugate pairs.\nWe define λ ℓ = −δ ℓ + iΩ ℓ , where Ω ℓ is the excitation frequency and δ ℓ is the damping factor of the ℓ th component. We denote α ℓ = A ℓ e iθ ℓ , where A ℓ is the amplitude and θ ℓ is the sinusoidal initial phase in radians. Taking the Laplace transform of Eq. 15 yields Note that the concept of the Prony-SS method is similar to that of a principal component method.\nA smooth excitation usually requires just several terms to achieve a good approximation. For high irregular loadings, including more terms would achieve a better approximation. Substituting Eqs. 13 and 16 into Eq. 12 yields Expressing xi (s) in its pole-residue form yields where λ ℓ are simple poles, and the corresponding residues are easily obtained by\nand −a i are higher-order poles, and the corresponding coefficients are firstly derived as: By taking the inverse Laplace transform of Eq. 18, a closed-form solution is obtained: Substituting Eqs. 11 and 21 into Eq. 2 yields Theoretically speaking, the proposed method for deriving the closed-form solution of the nonlinear response is applicable to any order of the Volterra series.\nFor practical engineering, usually only the first several order responses dominate. By setting up N = 2, Eq. 22 can be simplified into three components: where the natural response, which is only related to system poles, is given by and the cross response, which is related to both system poles and excitation poles, is given by\nand the forced response, which is related only to excitation poles, is given by The first term in Eq. 26 is the first-order forced response governed by the excitation frequency, i.e., the imaginary part of the pole λ ℓ . The second term corresponds to the second-order nonlinear forced response, which includes the sum frequency and difference frequency responses governed by λ ℓ + λ j .\nEq. 26 straightforwardly offers visible information about the possible nonlinear vibrations by the cooperation of excitation frequencies. Particularly, consider a sinusoidal excitation f (t) = sin ω r t, which can be expressed as f (t) = γe λt + γ * e λ * t , where γ = −0.5i and λ = iω r . Substituting these values into Eq.\n26, the second term of Eq. 26 is simplified as where the first term is the difference frequency response, and the second term is the sum frequency response.\n\nNumerical studies\n\nIn practical engineering, some systems have an accurate equation of motion. Additionally, some systems have difficulty constructing their equations of motion because of complex nonlinear dynamic behaviours and uncertain system parameters. In this article, a system with a known equation of motion is called a known system, and a system with an unknown equation of motion is called an unknown system for simplicity.\nIn this section, two numerical studies are presented. The first study verifies the proposed method using a known nonlinear oscillator, and the second study demonstrates the applicability of the proposed method to an unknown system. Throughout the numerical studies, the unit system is the metre-kilogramme-second (MKS) system; for conciseness, explicit units for quantities are omitted.\n\nA known nonlinear system\n\nThis study chooses a nonlinear oscillator written as: where mass m = 1, damping c = 1, linear stiffness k 1 = 10, quadratic stiffness k 2 = 20 and cubic stiffness k 3 = 20. It is a case that has been studied in a previously published article . The linear natural frequency of the system ω 0 = k 1 /m = 3.16 and the damping ratio ζ = c/(2mω 0 ) = 15.8%.\nThis kind of oscillator occurs in many engineering problems, such as a model of fluid resonance in a narrow gap between large vessels . In the model, k 1 y represents the linear restoring force of the fluid, and k 2 y 2 and k 3 y 3 are respectively the quadratic and cubic nonlinear restoring forces of the fluid.\n\nVolterra kernel functions\n\nGenerally, the first several order responses dominate the total response of a system. Hence, the order of the Volterra series in Eq. 22 is chosen to be 3, namely, N = 3. For computing the first three order responses from Eq. 22, the first three order Volterra kernel functions need to be known. Since Volterra kernel functions and corresponding frequency response functions are related by a specific Fourier transform pair, we can first write the first three orders of frequency response functions directly from Eq. 28.\nThen, Volterra kernel functions are obtained by the inverse Fourier transform. Based on the harmonic probing algorithm , the linear frequency response function (LFRF) H 1 (ω), the quadratic frequency response function (QFRF) H 2 (ω 1 , ω 2 ) and the cubic frequency response function (CFRF) H 3 (ω 1 , ω 2 , ω 3 ) are analytically given by:\nand Figures show H 1 (ω), H 2 (ω 1 , ω 2 ) and H 3 (ω 1 , ω 2 , ω 3 ), respectively, which agree well with those reported in Ref. . As expected, the modulus of H 1 (ω) in Fig. peaks near the linear natural frequency ω 0 , and the phase angle decreases monotonically from 0 to -π with increasing frequency.\nFigure shows the sum frequency QFRF, where the energy converges along the line of ω 1 +ω 2 ≈ ω 0 . Therefore, when the sum frequency of a two-tone excitation equals the linear resonant frequency, the second-order response may reach its maximum. Additionally, those pairs of excitations in line ω 1 + ω 2 ≈ ω 0 may produce non-negligible vibration magnitudes due to second-order nonlinear effects.\nFor the difference frequency QFRF in Fig. (b), the energy converges along two main lines, i.e., ω 1 ≈ ω 0 and ω 2 ≈ ω 0 . Figures show moduli of H 3 (ω, ω, ω) and H 3 (ω, ω, −ω), which are diagonal terms of the sum frequency CFRF and the difference frequency CFRF, respectively. While the modulus of H 3 (ω, ω, ω) peaks near ω ≈ ω 0 /3 and ω 0 , that of H 3 (ω, ω, −ω) peaks near ω ≈ ω 0 with a small hump around ω ≈ ω 0 /2.\nValues at ω ≈ ω 0 /3 and ω 0 /2 may be magnified by higher-order stiffness terms in Eq. 28. By performing the inverse fast Fourier transform to Eqs. 29-31, the corresponding linear impulse response function h 1 (t), quadratic impulse response function h 2 (t 1 , t 2 ) and cubic impulse response function h 3 (t 1 , t 2 , t 3 ) are obtained.\nHere, h 1 (t) and h 2 (t 1 , t 2 ) are plotted in Figs. , respectively, and h 3 (t, t, t) is shown in Fig. . In the numerical implementation, Eqs. 29-31 have been utilized with the frequency interval ∆ω = 0.1, number of frequency components N n = 1025, and cut-off frequencies 102.4 and −102.4. For decoupling Volterra kernel functions by using Laguerre polynomials, the damping rate and number of Laguerre polynomials for each order Volterra kernel function need to be determined (see Eqs. 4 and 6).\nIn this example, we set a 1 = a 2 = a 3 = 2 and R 1 = R 2 = R 3 = 24 because coefficients c p 1 ...pn become very small when R n > 24, n = 1, 2, 3. According to Eq. 7, the coefficients of the first three order Volterra kernel functions are calculated, which are shown in Figs. 9 and 10. For convenience, Fig. plots only c p 1 p 2 p 3 for p 3 = 0.\nWith the increase of the order of Laguerre polynomials, coefficients in Figs. 9 and 10 gradually decrease, which illustrates how the first several orders of Laguerre polynomials dominate all orders of the Volterra kernel function. With the known Laguerre polynomials and corresponding coefficients, Volterra kernel functions are reconstructed by Eq. 6.\nFor comparison, reconstructed Volterra kernel functions are also plotted in Figs. . The reconstructed results agree well with the analytical values, which verifies the accuracy of the decomposition.\n\nSinusoidal excitation\n\nFrom Eq. 28, we consider a sinusoidal excitation where A and Ω are the amplitude and the frequency, respectively. Five cases of A and Ω are shown in Table . Excitation frequencies in Cases 1 and 2 are larger than the linear natural frequency (ω 0 ≈ 3.16), those in Case 3 are very close to ω 0 , and those in Cases 4 and 5 are smaller than ω 0 .\nAll cases have same amplitudes. The poles of a sinusoidal excitation are λ 1,2 = ±iΩ, and the residues are α 1,2 = ∓iA/2. Numerical values of excitation poles and residues for different cases are listed in Table . Table : Parameter values, poles and residues of the sinusoidal excitation Substituting poles and residues of the excitation, as well as those of the system into Eqs.\n20 and 19, response coefficients β p i ,k corresponding to system poles −a i and response coefficients γ p i ,ℓ corresponding to excitation poles λ ℓ are calculated, respectively. According to Eq. 22, the first three orders of responses for each case in Table are calculated. Figures )-15(a) show the comparison of responses obtained by the proposed method and the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method with ∆t = 10 −4 .\nFor Cases 1 and 2, the first-order responses agree well with the total responses obtained by the Runge-Kutta method, and the higher-order responses only slightly improve the transient parts. For Cases 3-5, the sum of the first three orders of responses is in good agreement with the Runge-Kutta solution.\nWhen the response nonlinearity increases, higher-order responses need to be considered. In other words, the proposed method can accurately compute the nonlinear responses by choosing a small number N of Volterra series terms. Figures )-15(b) show the contributions of the three response components for the five cases.\nIn each case, the first-order response is the most dominant component, and the contributions of secondand third-order responses are much less than those of the first-order response. Especially for Cases 1 and 2, whose excitation frequencies are far from the linear natural frequency, second-and thirdorder responses are close to zero.\nThis may be because the QFRF and CFRF approach zero when the frequency is larger than 4 rad/s (see Figs. ). Furthermore, the mean values of the first-order responses are approximately zero, and those of the second-order responses are always smaller than zero, which are the difference frequency components in Eq. 27.\nMoreover, it is clearly observed that second-order responses for Cases 3-5 exhibit a periodic oscillation with a period near half of that for the first-order response, which is excited by the sum frequency component of the excitation (see second part of Eq. 27). Compared with steady-state solutions of first-and second-order responses, those of third-order responses in Cases 3-5 are no longer single regular motions.\nBy performing the FFT, frequency spectra of these three third-order responses are shown in Fig. . We find that these three third-order responses are all dominated by their own fundamental harmonic component and the third harmonic (triple frequency) component. Figure shows the computational time to calculate the response of the oscillator for Case 1 by the proposed method, the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method and the convolution method.\nThe proposed method, which has an explicit solution, is much more efficient in computational time than the latter two methods, which need small time steps to obtain high-precision solutions. In particular, the efficiency of the proposed method increases with the length of the response time. Computation time (sec.)\nt=0.02s Convolution, t=0.02s Convolution, t=0.001s Runge-Kutta, t=0.001s Fig. : Comparison of computation efficiency of the proposed method, the fourth-fifth order Runge-Kutta method and the convolution method regular loading in Case 1\n\nIrregular excitation\n\nIn Eq. 28, considering an irregular excitation consisting of several cosine functions where N f is the number of cosine components; A n , Ω n and θ n are the amplitude, frequency and phase angle of the n th component, respectively. Table lists three cases of these parameters. In each case, the amplitudes of all components are the same, and phase angles θ n uniformly distributed between 0 and 2π are randomly generated.\nTo decompose the excitation into a pole-residue form, the Prony-SS method is used, whose concept is similar to that of a principal component method. The readers are referred to Ref. for details. The chosen rank of each case is also shown in Table . Figure shows the comparison of original excitations and reconstructed results of these three cases, which all have excellent agreement.\nshow the results computed by the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method. In all cases, the sums of the first three orders of responses agree well with those obtained by the Runge-Kutta method. The contributions of the first three orders of responses for each case are plotted in Figs. )-21(b). Similarly, the system vibration is dominated by the first-order response.\nHowever, the contributions of second-and third-order significantly grow with increasing excitation magnitude and frequency number. Furthermore, when the magnitude of the nonlinear response becomes large, sharp troughs are present. This phenomenon may be induced by the nonlinear stiffness. While the first-order response fails to capture these troughs, the higher-order responses successfully capture these troughs.\nFigure plots the computational time to calculate the response of the oscillator for the irregular loading in Case 1 by the proposed method and the fourth-fifth order Runge-Kutta method, respectively. While the fourth-fifth order Runge-Kutta method is more efficient under a small response length, the proposed method becomes much more efficient when the response length is larger than about 130 s.\nIn addition, the proposed method obtains the explicit response solution, so one can directly obtain the response value at a specific time t p instead of integrating from 0 to t p for traditional numerical methods. Computation time (sec.) Proposed, t=0.02s Runge-Kutta, t=0.001s Fig. : Comparison of computation efficiency of the method and the fourth-fifth order Runge-Kutta method for irregular loading in Case 1\n\nAn unknown nonlinear\n\nTo check the applicability of the proposed method to an unknown nonlinear system, a known input excitation and its corresponding response are used to identify its Volterra kernel functions. When the Volterra kernel functions are known, we can follow the procedure in Section 4.1 to predict system responses.\nIn this study, the input excitation is white noise with a constant power spectrum S 0 = 0.001, and the corresponding response is obtained by solving Eq. 28 by the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method, which is shown in Fig. . From Section 4.1, we determine that the sum of the first two orders of responses agrees well with the total response.\nIn this study, the order of Volterra series N is chosen to be 2, damping rates of Laguerre polynomials are a 1 = a 2 = 2, and numbers of Laguerre polynomials are R 1 = R 2 = 24. To estimate the first two orders of Volterra kernel functions, a matrix equation is constructed using excitation data and response data.\nBy using the least square method to solve this matrix equation, coefficients c p 1 and c p 1 p 2 in Eq. 8 are identified. Figure plots c p 1 and c p 1 p 2 , respectively, which have good agreement with the exact results in Fig. . Then, the first two order Volterra kernel functions are constructed by Eq. 6.\nCompared with the exact results in Figs. , the identified Volterra kernel functions in Fig. completely agree well with the exact solutions. Note that the white noise excitation, which can excite more frequency components of the response, is chosen to obtain good Volterra kernel functions. A regular excitation f (t) = sin(πt) and an irregular excitation f (t) = N f n=1 A n cos(Ω n t + θ n ) with A n = 0.3 and Ω n varying from 0 to 40 with equal interval 1 are chosen as input excitations.\nThe predicted responses, along with results obtained by the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method, are shown in Fig. . In both cases, the proposed method accurately predicts system responses. As presented in Eq. 23, a nonlinear response is the sum of three terms: natural response y s (t), forced response y f (t) and cross response y c (t).\nThese individual terms, as well as their sum to two excitations, are shown in Figs. 27 and 28, respectively. As shown in Figs. and 28, both first-and second-order responses include the natural response y s (t) and the forced response y f (t), but the cross response y c (t) only exists in second-order responses.\nWhen t becomes larger, both y s (t) and y c (t) diminish due to the presence of system damping, and the total response is entirely governed by y f (t). Moreover, we notice some features at t = 0 for these components, including y s (0) = −y f (0) for the first-order response and y s (0) + y f (0) = −y c (0) for the second-order response, which are due to imposed zero initial conditions.\n\nConclusions\n\nConsidering arbitrary irregular excitations, an efficient generalized pole-residue method to compute the nonlinear dynamic response modelled by the Volterra series was developed. A core of the proposed method was obtaining poles and corresponding coefficients of Volterra kernel functions, then those of each order response modelled by each order Volterra series.\nOnce the poles and corresponding coefficients of Volterra kernel functions and excitations were both available, the remaining derivation could follow a similar pole-residue method that had been developed for ordinary linear oscillators. To obtain the poles and corresponding coefficients of Volterra kernel functions, two steps were included: (1) using Laguerre polynomials to decouple higher-order Volterra kernel functions with respect to time and (2) obtaining poles and corresponding coefficients of Laguerre polynomials in the Laplace domain.\nBecause the proposed method gave an explicit, continuous response function of time, it was much more efficient than traditional numerical methods. Moreover, many meaningful physical and mathematical insights were gained because not only each order response but also the natural response, the forced response and the cross response of each order were obtained in the solution procedure.\nTo demonstrate that the proposed method was not only suitable for a system with a known equation of motion but also applicable to a system with an unknown equation of motion, two numerical studies were conducted. For each study, regular excitations and complex irregular excitations with different parameters were investigated.\nThe efficiency of the proposed method was verified by the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method. This paper only computes the response under zero initial conditions. The response under non-zero initial conditions will be investigated in our future work.", "answers": ["The paper aims to solve nonlinear system vibration problems efficiently."], "length": 5225, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "37dfd65b9a8316b9569875b8bcfc5a8bd65e044a88b2e894"}
{"input": "What are some fields in which the inverse problem is encountered?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\nGiven a data set and a model with some unknown parameters, the inverse problem aims to find the values of the model parameters that best fit the data.  \nIn this work, in which we focus on systems of interacting elements,\n the inverse problem concerns  the statistical inference\n of the underling interaction network and of its coupling coefficients from observed data on the dynamics  of the system. \n Versions of this problem are encountered in physics, biology (e.g., \\cite{Balakrishnan11,Ekeberg13,Christoph14}), social sciences and finance (e.g.,\\cite{Mastromatteo12,yamanaka_15}), neuroscience (e.g., \\cite{Schneidman06,Roudi09a,tyrcha_13}), just to cite a few, and are becoming more and more important due to the increase in the amount of data available from these fields.\\\\\n \\indent \n A standard approach used in statistical inference is to predict the interaction couplings by maximizing the likelihood function.\n This technique, however, requires the evaluation of the  \n \n   partition function that, in the most general case, concerns a number of computations scaling exponentially with the system size.\n  \n  \n    Boltzmann machine learning uses Monte Carlo sampling to compute the gradients of the Log-likelihood looking for stationary points \\cite{Murphy12} but this method is computationally manageable only for small systems. A series of faster approximations, such as naive mean-field, independent-pair approximation \\cite{Roudi09a, Roudi09b}, inversion of TAP equations \\cite{Kappen98,Tanaka98}, small correlations expansion \\cite{Sessak09}, adaptive TAP \\cite{Opper01}, adaptive  cluster expansion \\cite{Cocco12} or Bethe approximations \\cite{Ricci-Tersenghi12, Nguyen12}  have, then, been developed. These techniques take as input means and correlations of observed variables and most of them assume a fully connected graph as underlying connectivity network, or expand  around it by perturbative dilution.  In most cases, network reconstruction turns out to  be not accurate for small data sizes and/or when couplings are  strong or, else, if the original interaction network is sparse.\\\\\n\\indent\n A further method, substantially improving performances for small data, is the so-called Pseudo-Likelyhood Method (PLM) \\cite{Ravikumar10}. In Ref. \\cite{Aurell12} Aurell and Ekeberg performed a comparison between PLM and some of the just mentioned mean-field-based algorithms on the pairwise interacting Ising-spin  ($\\sigma = \\pm 1$) model, showing how PLM performs sensitively better, especially on sparse graphs and in the high-coupling limit, i.e., for low temperature.\n \n In this work, we aim at performing statistical inference  on a model whose interacting variables are continuous $XY$ spins, i.e., $\\sigma \\equiv \\left(\\cos \\phi,\\sin \\phi\\right)$ with $\\phi \\in [0, 2\\pi )$. The developed tools can, actually, be also straightforward applied  to the $p$-clock model  \\cite{Potts52} where the phase $\\phi$ takes discretely equispaced $p$ values  in the $2 \\pi$ interval, $\\phi_a =  a 2 \\pi/p$, with $a= 0,1,\\dots,p-1$. The $p$-clock model, else called vector Potts model, gives a hierarchy of discretization of the $XY$ model as $p$ increases. For $p=2$, one recovers the Ising model, for $p=4$ the Ashkin-Teller model \\cite{Ashkin43}, for $p=6$ the ice-type model \\cite{Pauling35,Baxter82} and the eight-vertex model \\cite{Sutherland70,Fan70,Baxter71} for $p=8$.  \nIt turns out to be very useful also for numerical implementations of the continuous $XY$ model. \nRecent analysis on the multi-body $XY$ model has shown that for a limited number of discrete phase values ($p\\sim 16, 32$) the thermodynamic critical properties of the $p\\to\\infty$ $XY$ limit are promptly recovered \\cite{Marruzzo15, Marruzzo16}.  \nOur main motivation to study statistical inference is that these kind of models have recently turned out to be rather useful in describing the behavior of optical systems, \nincluding standard mode-locking lasers \\cite{Gordon02,Gat04,Angelani07,Marruzzo15} and random lasers \\cite{Angelani06a,Leuzzi09a,Antenucci15a,Antenucci15b,Marruzzo16}. \nIn particular, the inverse problem on the pairwise XY model analyzed here might be of help in recovering images from light propagated through random media. \n\n\n      This paper is organized as follows: in Sec. \\ref{sec:model} we introduce the general model  and we discuss its  derivation also  as a model for light transmission through random scattering media. \n    In Sec. \\ref{sec:plm} we introduce the PLM with $l_2$ regularization  and with decimation, two variants of the PLM respectively introduced in Ref. \\cite{Wainwright06} and \\cite{Aurell12} for the inverse Ising problem. \n    Here, we analyze these techniques for continuous $XY$ spins and we test them on thermalized data generated by Exchange Monte Carlo numerical simulations of the original model dynamics. In Sec. \\ref{sec:res_reg} we  present the results related to the PLM-$l_2$. In Sec. \\ref{sec:res_dec} the results related to the PLM with decimation are reported and its performances are compared to the PLM-$l_2$ and to a variational mean-field method analyzed in Ref. \\cite{Tyagi15}. In Sec. \\ref{sec:conc}, we outline conclusive remarks and perspectives.\n\n        \\section{The leading $XY$ model}\n      \\label{sec:model}\n The leading model we are considering is defined, for a system of $N$ angular $XY$ variables, by the Hamiltonian \n \\begin{equation}\n  \\mathcal{H} = - \\sum_{ik}^{1,N} J_{ik} \\cos{\\left(\\phi_i-\\phi_k\\right)} \n  \\label{eq:HXY}\n \n  \\end{equation} \n  \n  The $XY$ model is well known in statistical mechanics, displaying important physical\n  insights, starting from the Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless\n  transition in two dimensions\\cite{Berezinskii70,Berezinskii71,Kosterlitz72} and moving to, e.g., the\n  transition of liquid helium to its superfluid state \\cite{Brezin82}, the roughening transition of the interface of a crystal in equilibrium with its vapor \\cite{Cardy96}. In presence of disorder and frustration \\cite{Villain77,Fradkin78} the model has been adopted to describe synchronization problems as the Kuramoto model \\cite{Kuramoto75} and in the theoretical modeling of Josephson junction arrays \\cite{Teitel83a,Teitel83b} and arrays of coupled lasers \\cite{Nixon13}.\n  Besides several derivations and implementations of the model in quantum and classical physics, equilibrium or out of equilibrium, ordered or fully frustrated systems, Eq. (\\ref{eq:HXY}), in its generic form,\n  has found applications also in other fields. A rather fascinating example being the behavior of starlings flocks  \\cite{Reynolds87,Deneubourg89,Huth90,Vicsek95, Cavagna13}.\n  Our interest on the $XY$ model resides, though, in optics. Phasor and phase models with pairwise and  multi-body interaction terms can, indeed, describe the behavior of electromagnetic modes in both linear and nonlinear optical systems in the analysis of problems such as light propagation and lasing \\cite{Gordon02, Antenucci15c, Antenucci15d}. As couplings are strongly frustrated, these models turn out to be especially useful to the study of optical properties in random media \\cite{Antenucci15a,Antenucci15b}, as in the noticeable case of random lasers \\cite{Wiersma08,Andreasen11,Antenucci15e}  and they might as well be applied to linear scattering problems, e.g., propagation of waves in opaque systems or disordered fibers. \n  \n  \n  \\subsection{A propagating wave model}\n  We briefly mention a derivation of the model as a proxy for the propagation of light through random linear media. \n Scattering of light is held responsible to obstruct our view and make objects opaque. Light rays, once that they enter the material, only exit  after getting scattered multiple times within the material. In such a disordered medium, both the direction and the phase of the propagating waves are random. Transmitted light \n yields a disordered interference pattern typically  having low intensity, random phase and almost no resolution, called a speckle. Nevertheless, in recent years it has been realized that disorder is rather a blessing in disguise \\cite{Vellekoop07,Vellekoop08a,Vellekoop08b}. Several experiments have made it possible to control the behavior of light and other optical processes in a given random disordered medium,  \n by exploiting, e.g.,  the tools developed for wavefront shaping to control the propagation of light and to engineer the confinement of light \\cite{Yilmaz13,Riboli14}.\n \\\\\n \\indent\n In a linear dielectric medium, light propagation can be described through a part of the scattering matrix, the transmission matrix $\\mathbb{T}$, linking the outgoing to the incoming fields. \n Consider the case in which there are $N_I$ incoming channels and $N_O$ outgoing ones; we can indicate with $E^{\\rm in,out}_k$ the input/output electromagnetic field phasors of channel $k$. In the most general case, i.e., without making any particular assumptions on the field polarizations, each light mode and its polarization polarization state can be represented by means of the $4$-dimensional Stokes vector. Each $ t_{ki}$ element of $\\mathbb{T}$, thus, is a $4 \\times 4$ M{\\\"u}ller matrix. If, on the other hand, we know that the source is polarized and the observation is made on the same polarization, one can use a scalar model and adopt Jones calculus \\cite{Goodman85,Popoff10a,Akbulut11}:\n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n E^{\\rm out}_k = \\sum_{i=1}^{N_I}  t_{ki} E^{\\rm in}_i \\qquad \\forall~ k=1,\\ldots,N_O\n \\label{eq:transm}\n \\end{eqnarray}\n  We recall that the elements of the transmission matrix are random complex coefficients\\cite{Popoff10a}. For the case of completely unpolarized modes, we can also use a scalar model similar to Eq. \\eqref{eq:transm}, but whose variables are  the intensities of the outgoing/incoming fields, rather than the fields themselves.\\\\ \nIn the following, for simplicity, we will consider Eq. (\\ref{eq:transm}) as our starting point,\nwhere $E^{\\rm out}_k$, $E^{\\rm in}_i$ and $t_{ki}$ are all complex scalars. \nIf Eq. \\eqref{eq:transm} holds for any $k$, we can write:\n  \\begin{eqnarray}\n  \\int \\prod_{k=1}^{N_O} dE^{\\rm out}_k \\prod_{k=1}^{N_O}\\delta\\left(E^{\\rm out}_k - \\sum_{j=1}^{N_I}  t_{kj} E^{\\rm in}_j \\right) = 1\n  \\nonumber\n  \\\\\n  \\label{eq:deltas}\n  \\end{eqnarray}\n\n Observed data are a noisy representation of the true values of the fields. Therefore, in inference problems it is statistically more meaningful to take that noise into account in a probabilistic way, \n rather than looking  at the precise solutions of the exact equations (whose parameters are unknown). \n To this aim we can introduce Gaussian distributions whose limit for zero variance are the Dirac deltas in Eq. (\\ref{eq:deltas}).\n Moreover, we move to consider the ensemble of all possible solutions of Eq. (\\ref{eq:transm}) at given $\\mathbb{T}$, looking at  all configurations of input fields. We, thus, define the function:\n \n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n  Z &\\equiv &\\int_{{\\cal S}_{\\rm in}} \\prod_{j=1}^{N_I}  dE^{\\rm in}_j \\int_{{\\cal S}_{\\rm out}}\\prod_{k=1}^{N_O} dE^{\\rm out}_k \n  \\label{def:Z}\n\\\\\n    \\times\n  &&\\prod_{k=1}^{N_O}\n   \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\pi \\Delta^2}}  \\exp\\left\\{-\\frac{1}{2 \\Delta^2}\\left|\n  E^{\\rm out}_k -\\sum_{j=1}^{N_I}  t_{kj} E^{\\rm in}_j\\right|^2\n\\right\\} \n\\nonumber\n \\end{eqnarray}\n   We stress that the integral of Eq. \\eqref{def:Z} is not exactly a Gaussian integral. Indeed, starting from Eq. \\eqref{eq:deltas}, two constraints on the electromagnetic field intensities must be taken into account. \n\n  The space of solutions is  delimited by the total power ${\\cal P}$ received by system, i.e., \n  ${\\cal S}_{\\rm in}: \\{E^{\\rm in} |\\sum_k I^{\\rm in}_k = \\mathcal{P}\\}$, also implying  a constraint on the total amount of energy that is transmitted through the medium, i. e., \n  ${\\cal S}_{\\rm out}:\\{E^{\\rm out} |\\sum_k I^{\\rm out}_k=c\\mathcal{P}\\}$, where the attenuation factor  $c<1$ accounts for total losses.\n  As we will see more in details in the following, being interested in inferring the transmission matrix through the PLM, we can omit to explicitly include these terms in Eq. \\eqref{eq:H_J} since they do not depend on $\\mathbb{T}$ not adding any information on the gradients with respect to the elements of $\\mathbb{T}$.\n  \n Taking the same number of incoming and outcoming channels, $N_I=N_O=N/2$, and  ordering the input fields in the first $N/2$ mode indices and the output fields in the last $N/2$ indices, we can drop the ``in'' and ``out'' superscripts and formally write $Z$  as a partition function\n    \\begin{eqnarray}\n        \\label{eq:z}\n && Z =\\int_{\\mathcal S} \\prod_{j=1}^{N} dE_j \\left(   \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\pi \\Delta^2}} \\right)^{N/2} \n \\hspace*{-.4cm} \\exp\\left\\{\n  -\\frac{ {\\cal H} [\\{E\\};\\mathbb{T}] }{2\\Delta^2}\n  \\right\\}\n  \\\\\n&&{\\cal H} [\\{E\\};\\mathbb{T}] =\n-  \\sum_{k=1}^{N/2}\\sum_{j=N/2+1}^{N} \\left[E^*_j t_{jk} E_k + E_j t^*_{kj} E_k^* \n\\right]\n \\nonumber\n\\\\\n&&\\qquad\\qquad \\qquad + \\sum_{j=N/2+1}^{N} |E_j|^2+ \\sum_{k,l}^{1,N/2}E_k\nU_{kl} E_l^*\n \\nonumber\n \\\\\n \\label{eq:H_J}\n &&\\hspace*{1.88cm } = - \\sum_{nm}^{1,N} E_n J_{nm} E_m^*\n \\end{eqnarray}\n where ${\\cal H}$ is a real-valued function by construction, we have introduced the effective input-input coupling matrix\n\\begin{equation}\nU_{kl} \\equiv \\sum_{j=N/2+1}^{N}t^*_{lj} t_{jk} \n \\label{def:U}\n \\end{equation}\n and the whole interaction matrix reads (here $\\mathbb{T} \\equiv \\{ t_{jk} \\}$)\n \\begin{equation}\n \\label{def:J}\n \\mathbb J\\equiv \\left(\\begin{array}{ccc|ccc}\n \\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}\\\\\n \\phantom{()}&-\\mathbb{U} \\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&{\\mathbb{T}}&\\phantom{()}\\\\\n\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}\\\\\n \\hline\n\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}\\\\\n \\phantom{()}& \\mathbb   T^\\dagger&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}& - \\mathbb{I} &\\phantom{()}\\\\\n\\phantom{a}&\\phantom{a}&\\phantom{a}&\\phantom{a}&\\phantom{a}&\\phantom{a}\\\\\n \\end{array}\\right)\n \\end{equation}\n \n Determining the electromagnetic complex amplitude configurations that minimize the {\\em cost function} ${\\cal H}$, Eq.  (\\ref{eq:H_J}),  means to maximize the overall distribution peaked around the solutions of the transmission Eqs. (\\ref{eq:transm}). As the variance $\\Delta^2\\to 0$, eventually, the initial set of Eqs. (\\ref{eq:transm}) are recovered. The ${\\cal H}$ function, thus, plays the role of an Hamiltonian and  $\\Delta^2$ the role of a noise-inducing temperature. The exact numerical problem corresponds to the zero temperature limit of the statistical mechanical problem. Working with real data, though, which are noisy, a finite ``temperature''\n  allows for a better representation of the ensemble of solutions to the sets of equations of continuous variables. \n  \n\n  \n  \n  Now, we can express every phasor in Eq. \\eqref{eq:z}  as $E_k = A_k e^{\\imath \\phi_k}$. As a working hypothesis we will consider the intensities $A_k^2$ as either homogeneous or as \\textit{quenched} with respect to phases.\nThe first condition occurs, for instance, to the input intensities $|E^{\\rm in}_k|$ produced by a phase-only spatial light modulator (SLM) with homogeneous illumination \\cite{Popoff11}.\nWith \\textit{quenched} here we mean, instead, that the intensity of each mode is the same for every solution of Eq. \\eqref{eq:transm} at fixed $\\mathbb T$.\nWe stress that, including intensities in the model does not preclude the inference analysis but it is out of the focus of the present work and will be considered elsewhere. \n\nIf all intensities are uniform in input and in output, this amount to a constant rescaling for each one of the four sectors of matrix $\\mathbb J$ in Eq. (\\ref{def:J}) that will not change the properties of the matrices.\nFor instance, if the original transmission matrix is unitary, so it will be the rescaled one and the matrix $\\mathbb U$ will be  diagonal.\nOtherwise, if intensities are \\textit{quenched}, i.e., they can be considered as constants in Eq. (\\ref{eq:transm}),\nthey are inhomogeneous with respect to phases. The generic Hamiltonian element will, therefore, rescale as \n  \\begin{eqnarray}\n  E^*_n J_{nm} E_m = J_{nm} A_n A_m e^{\\imath (\\phi_n-\\phi_m)} \\to J_{nm} e^{\\imath (\\phi_n-\\phi_m)}\n  \\nonumber\n  \\end{eqnarray}\n  and the properties of the original  $J_{nm}$ components are not conserved  in the rescaled one. In particular, we have no argument, anymore, to possibly set the rescaled $U_{nm}\\propto \\delta_{nm}$.\n  Eventually, we end up with the complex couplings $XY$ model, whose real-valued Hamiltonian is written as\n \\begin{eqnarray}\n  \\mathcal{H}& = &  - \\frac{1}{2} \\sum_{nm} J_{nm} e^{-\\imath (\\phi_n - \\phi_m)}  + \\mbox{c.c.} \n    \\label{eq:h_im}\n\\\\    &=&  - \\frac{1}{2} \\sum_{nm} \\left[J^R_{nm} \\cos(\\phi_n - \\phi_m)+\n  J^I_{nm}\\sin (\\phi_n - \\phi_m)\\right] \n  \\nonumber\n \\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $J_{nm}^R$ and $J_{nm}^I$ are the real and imaginary parts of $J_{nm}$. Being $\\mathbb J$  Hermitian, $J^R_{nm}=J^R_{mn}$ is symmetric and $J_{nm}^I=-J_{mn}^I$ is skew-symmetric.\n\n\\begin{comment}\n\\textcolor{red}{\nF: comment about quenched:\nI think that to obtain the XY model, it is not necessary that the intensities are strictly quenched (that is also a quite unfeasible situation, I guess).\nIndeed eq (2) does not deal with the dynamics of the modes, but just connect the in and out ones.\nFor this, what it is necessary to have the XY model, it is that the intensities are always the same on the different samples\n(so that the matrix $t_{ij}$ is the same for different phase data). If the intensities are fixed, then they can be incorporated in $t_{ij}$ and eq (2) can be written just for phases as described. \\\\\n}\n\\end{comment}\n\n\n  \\section{Pseudolikelihood Maximization}\n  \\label{sec:plm}\nThe inverse problem consists in the reconstruction of the parameters $J_{nm}$ of the Hamiltonian, Eq. (\\ref{eq:h_im}).  \nGiven a set of $M$ data configurations of $N$ spins\n $\\bm\\sigma = \\{ \\cos \\phi_i^{(\\mu)},\\sin \\phi_i^{(\\mu)} \\}$, $i = 1,\\dots,N$ and $\\mu=1,\\dots,M$, we want to \\emph{infer} the couplings:\n \\begin{eqnarray}\n\\bm \\sigma  \\rightarrow  \\mathbb{J} \n\\nonumber\n \\end{eqnarray}\n With this purpose in mind,\n in the rest of this section we implement the working equations for the techniques used. \n In order to test our methods, we generate the input data, i.e., the configurations, by Monte-Carlo simulations of the model.\n The joint probability distribution of the $N$ variables $\\bm{\\phi}\\equiv\\{\\phi_1,\\dots,\\phi_N\\}$, follows the Gibbs-Boltzmann distribution:\n \\begin{equation}\\label{eq:p_xy}\n P(\\bm{\\phi}) = \\frac{1}{Z} e^{-\\beta \\mathcal{H\\left(\\bm{\\phi}\\right)}} \\quad \\mbox{ where } \\quad Z = \\int \\prod_{k=1}^N d\\phi_k  e^{-\\beta \\mathcal{H\\left(\\bm{\\phi}\\right)}}  \n \\end{equation}\n and where we denote $\\beta=\\left( 2\\Delta^2 \\right)^{-1}$ with respect to Eq. (\\ref{def:Z}) formalism.\n In order to stick to usual statistical inference notation, in the following we will rescale the couplings by a factor $\\beta / 2$: $\\beta J_{ij}/2 \\rightarrow J_{ij}$. \n The main idea of the PLM is to work with the conditional probability distribution of one variable $\\phi_i$ given all other variables, \n $\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i}$:\n \n  \\begin{eqnarray}\n\t\\nonumber\n   P(\\phi_i | \\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i}) &=& \\frac{1}{Z_i} \\exp \\left \\{ {H_i^x (\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i})\n  \t\\cos \\phi_i + H_i^y (\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i}) \\sin \\phi_i } \\right \\}\n\t\\\\\n \\label{eq:marginal_xy}\n\t&=&\\frac{e^{H_i(\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i}) \\cos{\\left(\\phi_i-\\alpha_i(\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i})\\right)}}}{2 \\pi I_0(H_i)}\n  \\end{eqnarray}\n  where $H_i^x$ and $H_i^y$ are defined as\n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n   H_i^x (\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i})  &=& \\sum_{j (\\neq i)} J^R_{ij} \\cos \\phi_j  - \\sum_{j  (\\neq i) } J_{ij}^{I} \\sin \\phi_j \\phantom{+  h^R_i} \\label{eq:26} \\\\\n   H_i^y  (\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i})  &=&  \\sum_{j  (\\neq i)} J^R_{ij}  \\sin \\phi_j  + \\sum_{j  (\\neq i) } J_{ij}^{I}   \\cos \\phi_j \\phantom{ + h_i^{I} }\\label{eq:27}\n   \\end{eqnarray}\nand $H_i= \\sqrt{(H_i^x)^2 + (H_i^y)^2}$, $\\alpha_i = \\arctan H_i^y/H_i^x$   and we introduced the modified Bessel function of the first kind:\n  \\begin{equation}\n  \\nonumber\n   I_k(x) = \\frac{1}{2 \\pi}\\int_{0}^{2 \\pi} d \\phi e^{x \\cos{ \\phi}}\\cos{k \\phi}\n  \\end{equation}\n  \n   Given $M$ observation samples $\\bm{\\phi}^{(\\mu)}=\\{\\phi^\\mu_1,\\ldots,\\phi^\\mu_N\\}$, $\\mu = 1,\\dots, M$, the\n   pseudo-loglikelihood for the variable $i$ is given by the logarithm of Eq. (\\ref{eq:marginal_xy}),\n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n   \\label{eq:L_i}\n   L_i &=& \\frac{1}{M}  \\sum_{\\mu = 1}^M  \\ln P(\\phi_i^{(\\mu)}|\\bm{\\phi}^{(\\mu)}_{\\backslash i})\n   \\\\\n   \\nonumber\n   & =&  \\frac{1}{M}  \\sum_{\\mu = 1}^M  \\left[ H_i^{(\\mu)} \\cos( \\phi_i^{(\\mu)} - \\alpha_i^{(\\mu)}) - \\ln  2 \\pi I_0\\left(H_i^{(\\mu)}\\right)\\right] \\, .\n    \\end{eqnarray}\nThe underlying idea of PLM is that an approximation of the true parameters of the model is obtained for values that maximize the functions $L_i$.\nThe specific maximization scheme differentiates the different techniques.\n\n\n   \n   \n   \\subsection{PLM with $l_2$ regularization}\n   Especially for the case of sparse graphs, it is useful to add a regularizer, which prevents the maximization routine to move towards high values of \n   $J_{ij}$ and $h_i$ without converging. We will adopt an $l_2$ regularization so that the Pseudolikelihood function (PLF) at site $i$  reads:\n   \\begin{equation}\\label{eq:plf_i}\n  {\\cal L}_i = L_i\n  - \\lambda \\sum_{i \\neq j} \\left(J_{ij}^R\\right)^2 - \\lambda \\sum_{i \\neq j} \\left(J_{ij}^I\\right)^2  \n   \\end{equation}\n   with $\\lambda>0$.\n   Note that the values of $\\lambda$ have to be chosen arbitrarily, but not too large, in order not to overcome $L_i$.\n   The standard implementation of the PLM consists in maximizing each ${\\cal L}_i$, for $i=1\\dots N$, separately. The expected values of the couplings are then:\n   \\begin{equation}\n   \\{ J_{i j}^*\\}_{j\\in \\partial i} :=  \\mbox{arg max}_{ \\{ J_{ij} \\}}\n    \\left[{\\cal L}_i\\right]\n   \\end{equation}\n   In this way, we obtain two estimates for the coupling $J_{ij}$, one from maximization of ${\\cal L}_i$, $J_{ij}^{(i)}$, and another one from ${\\cal L}_j$, say $J_{ij}^{(j)}$.\n    Since the original Hamiltonian of the $XY$ model is Hermitian, we know that the real part of the couplings is symmetric while the imaginary part is skew-symmetric. \n   \n     The final estimate for $J_{ij}$ can then be obtained  averaging the two results:\n  \n  \n  \n   \\begin{equation}\\label{eq:symm}\n   J_{ij}^{\\rm inferred} = \\frac{J_{ij}^{(i)} + \\bar{J}_{ij}^{(j)}}{2} \n   \\end{equation}\n   where with $\\bar{J}$ we indicate the complex conjugate.\n   It is worth noting that the pseudolikelihood $L_i$, Eq. \\eqref{eq:L_i}, is characterized by the\n   following properties: (i) the normalization term of Eq.\\eqref{eq:marginal_xy} can be\n   computed analytically at odd with the {\\em full} likelihood case that\n   in general require a computational time which scales exponentially\n   with the size of the systems; (ii) the $\\ell_2$-regularized pseudolikelihood\n   defined in Eq.\\eqref{eq:plf_i} is strictly concave (i.e. it has a single\n   maximizer)\\cite{Ravikumar10}; (iii) it is consistent, i.e. if $M$ samples are\n   generated by a model $P(\\phi | J*)$ the maximizer tends to $J*$\n   for $M\\rightarrow\\infty$\\cite{besag1975}. Note also that (iii) guarantees that  \n   $|J^{(i)}_{ij}-J^{(j)}_{ij}| \\rightarrow 0$ for $M\\rightarrow \\infty$.\n   In Secs. \\ref{sec:res_reg}, \\ref{sec:res_dec} \n   we report the results obtained and we analyze the performances of the PLM having taken the configurations from Monte-Carlo simulations of models whose details are known.\n   \n\n   \n   \\subsection{PLM with decimation}\n   Even though the PLM with $l_2$-regularization allows to dwell the inference towards the low temperature region and in the low sampling case with better performances that mean-field methods, in some situations some couplings are overestimated and not at all symmetric. Moreover, in the technique there is the bias of the $l_2$ regularizer.\n   Trying to overcome these problems, Decelle and Ricci-Tersenghi introduced a new method \\cite{Decelle14}, known as PLM + decimation: the algorithm maximizes the sum of the $L_i$,\n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n    {\\cal L}\\equiv \\frac{1}{N}\\sum_{i=1}^N \\mbox{L}_i\n    \\end{eqnarray}  \n    and, then, it recursively set to zero couplings which are estimated very small. We expect that as long as we are setting to zero couplings that are unnecessary to fit the data, there should be not much changing on ${\\cal L}$. Keeping on with decimation, a point is reached where ${\\cal L}$ decreases abruptly indicating  that relevant couplings are being decimated and under-fitting is taking place.\n   Let us define  by $x$  the fraction of non-decimated couplings. To have a quantitative measure for the halt criterion of the decimation process, a tilted ${\\cal L}$ is defined as,\n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n  \\mathcal{L}_t &\\equiv& \\mathcal{L}  - x \\mathcal{L}_{\\textup{max}} - (1-x) \\mathcal{L}_{\\textup{min}} \\label{$t$PLF} \n   \\end{eqnarray}\n   where \n   \\begin{itemize}\n   \\item $\\mathcal{L}_{\\textup{min}}$ is the pseudolikelyhood of a model with independent variables. In the XY case: $\\mathcal{L}_{\\textup{min}}=-\\ln{2 \\pi}$.\n   \\item\n   $\\mathcal{L}_{\\textup{max}}$ is the pseudolikelyhood in the fully-connected model and it is maximized over all the $N(N-1)/2$ possible couplings. \n   \\end{itemize}\n   At the first step, when $x=1$, $\\mathcal{L}$ takes value $\\mathcal{L}_{\\rm max}$ and  $\\mathcal{L}_t=0$. On the last step, for an empty graph, i.e., $x=0$, $\\mathcal{L}$ takes the value $\\mathcal{L}_{\\rm min}$ and, hence, again $\\mathcal{L}_t =0$. \n   In the intermediate steps, during the decimation procedure, as $x$ is decreasing from $1$ to $0$, one observes firstly that $\\mathcal{L}_t$ increases linearly and, then, it displays an abrupt decrease indicating that from this point on relevant couplings are being decimated\\cite{Decelle14}. In Fig. \\ref{Jor1-$t$PLF} we give an instance of this behavior for the 2D short-range XY model with ordered couplings. We notice that the maximum point of $\\mathcal{L}_t$ coincides with the minimum point of the reconstruction error, the latter defined as \n   \\begin{eqnarray}\\label{eq:errj}\n   \\mbox{err}_J \\equiv \\sqrt{\\frac{\\sum_{i<j} (J^{\\rm inferred}_{ij} -J^{\\rm true}_{ij})^2}{N(N-1)/2}} \\label{err}\n   \\end{eqnarray}\n  We stress that the ${\\cal L}_t$ maximum is obtained ignoring the underlying graph, while the err$_J$ minimum can be evaluated once the true graph has been reconstructed. \n   \n     \\begin{figure}[t!]\n   \t\\centering\n   \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor1_dec_tPLF_new.eps}\n   \t\\caption{The tilted likelyhood ${\\cal L}_t$ curve and the reconstruction error vs the number of decimated couplings  for an ordered, real-valued J on 2D XY model with $N=64$ spins. The peak of ${\\cal L}_t$ coincides with the dip of the error.}  \n   \t\\label{Jor1-$t$PLF}\n   \\end{figure} \n       \n   \n   In the next sections we will show the results obtained on the  $XY$ model analyzing the performances of the two methods and comparing them also with a mean-field method \\cite{Tyagi15}.\n   \n  \n    \n   \\section{Inferred couplings with PLM-$l_2$}\n    \\label{sec:res_reg}\n    \\subsection{$XY$ model with real-valued couplings}\n    \n    In order to obtain the vector of couplings, $J_{ij}^{\\rm inferred}$ the function $-\\mathcal{L}_i$ is minimized through the vector of derivatives ${\\partial \\mathcal{L}_i}/\\partial J_{ij}$. The process is repeated for all the couplings obtaining then a fully connected adjacency matrix. The results here presented are obtained with $\\lambda = 0.01$.\n   For the minimization we have used the MATLAB routine \\emph{minFunc\\_2012}\\cite{min_func}. \n      \n      \\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \t\\centering\n    \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor11_2D_l2_JR_soJR_TPJR}\n    \t\\caption{Top panels: instances of single site coupling reconstruction for the case of $N=64$ XY spins on a 2D lattice with ordered $J$ (left column) and bimodal distributed $J$ (right column). \n    \t\n    \tBottom panels: sorted couplings.}\n    \t\\label{PL-Jor1}\n    \\end{figure}\n\n   \nTo produce the data by means of numerical Monte Carlo simulations a system with $N=64$  spin variables  is considered on a deterministic 2D lattice with periodic boundary conditions. \nEach spin has then connectivity $4$, i.e., we expect to infer an adjacency matrix with $N c = 256$ couplings different from zero. \nThe dynamics of the simulated model is based on the Metropolis algorithm and parallel tempering\\cite{earl05} is used to speed up the thermalization of the system.\nThe thermalization is tested looking at the average energy over logarithmic time windows and\nthe acquisition of independent configurations\nstarts only after the system is well thermalized.\n\n   For the values of the couplings we considered two cases: an ordered case, indicated in the figure as  $J$ ordered (e.g., left column of Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor1}) where the couplings can take values $J_{ij}=0,J$, with $J=1$, \n   and a quenched disordered case, indicated in the figures as  $J$ disordered (e.g., right column of Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor1})\n   where the couplings can take also  negative values, i.e., \n    $J_{ij}=0,J,-J$, with a certain probability.  The results here presented were obtained with bimodal distributed $J$s: \n   \n    $P(J_{ij}=J)=P(J_{ij}=-J)=1/2$.  The performances of the PLM have shown not to depend on $P(J)$. \n   \n    We recall that in Sec. \\ref{sec:plm} we used the temperature-rescaled notation, i.e., $J_{ij}$ stands for $J_{ij}/T$. \n   \n    To analyze the performances of the PLM, in Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor1} the inferred couplings, $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm inf}$, are shown on top of the original couplings,  $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm true}$.\n     The first figure (from top) in the left column shows  the $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm inf}$ (black) and the $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm tru}$ (green) for a given spin\n     at temperature $T/J=0.7$ and number of samples  $M=1024$. PLM appears to reconstruct the correct couplings, though zero couplings are always given a small inferred non-zero value. \n     In the left column of Fig.  \\ref{PL-Jor1},  both the $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm{inf}}$ and the $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm{tru}}$ are sorted in decreasing order and plotted on top of each other. \n     We can clearly see that $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm inf}$ reproduces the expected step function. Even though the jump is smeared, the difference between inferred couplings corresponding to the set of non-zero couplings \n     and to the set of zero couplings can be clearly appreciated.\n     Similarly, the plots in the right column of Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor1} show the results obtained for the case with  bimodal disordered couplings, for the same working temperature and number of samples. \n     In particular, note that the algorithm infers half positive and half negative couplings, as expected.\n     \n     \n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor11_2D_l2_errJ_varT_varM}\n\\caption{Reconstruction error $\\mbox{err}_J$, cf. Eq. (\\ref{eq:errj}), plotted as a function of temperature (left) for three values of the number of samples $M$ and  as a function $M$ (right) for three values of temperature in the ordered system, i.e., $J_{ij}=0,1$. \nThe system size is $N=64$.}\n\\label{PL-err-Jor1}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn order to analyze the effects of the number of samples and of the temperature regimes, we plot in Fig. \\ref{PL-err-Jor1} the reconstruction error, Eq. (\\ref{err}), as a function of temperature for three different sample sizes $M=64,128$ and $512$. \nThe error is seen to sharply rise al low temperature, incidentally, in the ordered case, for  $T<T_c \\sim 0.893$, which is the Kosterlitz-Thouless transition temperature of the 2XY model\\cite{Olsson92}. \n However, we can see that if only $M=64$ samples are considered, $\\mbox{err}_J$ remains high independently on the working temperature. \n In the right plot of Fig. \\ref{PL-err-Jor1},  $\\mbox{err}_J$ is plotted as a function of $M$ for three different working temperatures $T/J=0.4,0.7$ and $1.3$. As we expect, \n $\\mbox{err}_J$  decreases as $M$ increases. This effect was observed also with mean-field inference techniques on the same model\\cite{Tyagi15}.\n\nTo better understand the performances of the algorithms, in Fig. \\ref{PL-varTP-Jor1} we show several True Positive (TP) curves obtained for various values of $M$ at three different temperatures $T$. As $M$ is large and/or temperature is not too small,  we are able to reconstruct correctly all the couplings present in the system (see bottom plots).\nThe True Positive curve displays how many times the inference method finds a true link of the original network  as a function of the index of the vector of sorted absolute value of reconstructed couplings $J_{ij}^{\\rm inf}$. \nThe index $n_{(ij)}$ represents the related spin couples $(ij)$. The TP curve is obtained as follows: \nfirst  the values $|J^{\\rm inf}_{ij}|$ are sorted in descending order and  the spin pairs $(ij)$ are ordered according to the sorting position of $|J^{\\rm inf}_{ij}|$. Then,\n     \ta cycle over the ordered set of pairs $(ij)$, indexed by $n_{(ij)}$, is performed, comparing with the original network coupling $J^{\\rm true}_{ij}$ and verifying whether it is zero or not. The true positive curve is computed as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mbox{TP}[n_{(ij)}]= \\frac{\\mbox{TP}\\left[n_{(ij)}-1\\right] (n_{ij}-1)+ 1 -\\delta_{J^{\\rm true}_{ij},0}}{n_{(ij)}}\n\\end{equation}\nAs far as $J^{\\rm true}_{ij} \\neq 0$, TP$=1$. As soon as the true coupling of a given $(ij)$ couple in the sorted list is zero, the TP curve departs from one. \nIn our case, where the connectivity per spin of the original system is  $c=4$ and there are $N=64$ spins, we know that we will have  $256$ non-zero couplings.  \n     \tIf the inverse problem is successful, hence, we expect a steep decrease of the TP curve when  $n_{ij}=256$ is overcome.\n\nIn Fig. \\ref{PL-varTP-Jor1}\nit is  shown that,  almost independently of $T/J$, the TP score improves as $M$ increases. Results are plotted for three different temperatures, $T=0.4,1$ and $2.2$, with increasing number of samples $M = 64, 128,512$ and $1024$ (clockwise). \nWe can clearly appreciate the improvement in temperature if the size of the data-set is not very large: for small $M$, $T=0.4$ performs better. \nWhen $M$ is high enough (e.g., $M=1024$), instead, the TP curves do not appear to be strongly influenced by the temperature.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor11_2D_l2_TPJR_varT_varM}\n\t\\caption{TP  curves  for 2D short-range ordered $XY$ model with $N=64$ spins at three different values of $T/J$ with increasing - clockwise from top - $M$.}\n\t\\label{PL-varTP-Jor1} \n\\end{figure} \n\n\\subsection{$XY$ model with complex-valued couplings}\nFor the complex $XY$ we have to contemporary  infer $2$ apart coupling matrices,  $J^R_{i j}$ and $J^I_{i j}$.  As before, a system of $N=64$ spins is considered on a 2D lattice.\nFor the couplings we have considered both ordered and bimodal disordered cases.\nIn Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor3}, a single row of the matrix $J$ (top) and the whole sorted couplings (bottom) are displayed for the ordered model (same legend as in Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor1}) for the real, $J^R$ (left column), and the imaginary part, $J^I$.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\t\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor3_l2_JRJI_soJRJI_TPJRJI}\n\t\\caption{Results related to the ordered complex XY model with $N=64$ spins on a  2D lattice. Top: instances of  single site reconstruction for the real, JR (left column), and\n\t\tthe imaginary, JI (right column), part of $J_{ij}$. Bottom: sorted values of JR (left) and JI (right).}\n\t\t\n\t\\label{PL-Jor3}\n\\end{figure}\n \n \n  \\section{PLM with Decimation}\n \\label{sec:res_dec}\n \n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n   \t\\centering\n   \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor1_dec_tPLF_varT_varM}\n    \t\\caption{Tilted Pseudolikelyhood, ${\\cal L}_t$, plotted as a function of decimated couplings. Top: Different ${\\cal L}_t$ curves obtained for different values of $M$ plotted on top of each other. Here $T=1.3$. The black line indicates the expected number of decimated couplings, $x^*=(N (N-1) - N c)/2=1888$. As we can see, as $M$ increases, the maximum point of ${\\cal L}_t$ approaches $x^*$. Bottom: Different ${\\cal L}_t$ curves obtained for different values of T with $M=2048$. We can see that, with this value of $M$, no differences can be appreciated on the maximum points of the different  ${\\cal L}_t$ curves.}\n   \t\\label{var-$t$PLF}\n   \\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor1_dec_tPLF_peak_statistics_varM_prob.eps}\n    \t\\caption{Number of most likely decimated couplings, estimated by the maximum point of $\\mathcal{L}_t$, as a function of the number of samples $M$. We can clearly see that the maximum point of $\\mathcal{L}_t$ tends toward $x^*$, which is the right expected number of zero couplings in the system.}  \n    \t\\label{PLF_peak_statistics}\n    \\end{figure}\n      \n      For the ordered real-valued XY model we show in Fig. \\ref{var-$t$PLF}, top panel, the outcome on the tilted pseudolikelyhood, $\\mathcal{L}_t$ Eq. \\eqref{$t$PLF}, of the progressive decimation: from a fully connected lattice  down to an empty lattice. The figure shows the behaviour of $\\mathcal{L}_t$ for three different data sizes $M$. A clear data size dependence of the maximum point of  $\\mathcal{L}_t$, signalling the most likely value for decimation, is shown. For small $M$ the most likely number of  couplings is overestimated and for increasing $M$ it tends to the true value, as displayed in Fig. \\ref{PLF_peak_statistics}.  In the bottom panel of Fig. \\ref{var-$t$PLF} we display instead different \n $\\mathcal{L}_t$ curves obtained for three different values of $T$.\n  Even though the values of $\\mathcal{L}_t$ decrease with increasing temperature, the value of the most likely number of decimated couplings appears to be quite independent on $T$ with $M=2048$ number of samples.\nIn Fig. \\ref{fig:Lt_complex} we eventually display the tilted pseudolikelyhood for a 2D network with complex valued ordered couplings, where the decimation of the real and imaginary coupling matrices proceeds in parallel, that is, \nwhen a real coupling is small enough to be decimated its imaginary part is also decimated, and vice versa.\nOne can see that though the apart errors for the real and imaginary parts are different in absolute values, they display the same dip, to be compared with the maximum point of $\\mathcal{L}_t$.\n     \n       \\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \t\\centering\n      \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor3_dec_tPLF_new}\n      \t\\caption{Tilted Pseudolikelyhood, ${\\cal L}_t$, plotted with the reconstruction errors for the XY model with $N=64$ spins on a 2D lattice. These results refer to the case of  ordered and complex valued couplings. The full (red) line indicates ${\\cal L}_t$. The dashed (green) \n      \t\tand the dotted (blue) lines show the reconstruction errors (Eq. \\eqref{eq:errj}) obtained for the real and the imaginary couplings respectively. We can see that both ${\\rm err_{JR}}$ and ${\\rm err_{JI}}$ have a minimum at $x^*$.}\n          \t\\label{fig:Lt_complex}\n    \\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n   \t\\centering\n   \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor1_dec_JR_soJR_TPJR}\n   \t\\caption{XY model on a 2D lattice with $N=64$ sites and real valued couplings. The graphs show the inferred (dashed black lines) and true couplings (full green lines) plotted on top of each other. The left and right columns refer to the\n   \t\t cases of ordered and bimodal disordered couplings, respectively. Top figures: single site reconstruction, i.e., one row of the matrix $J$. Bottom figures: couplings are plotted sorted in descending order.}  \n   \t\\label{Jor1_dec}\n   \\end{figure}\n   \n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \t\\centering\n    \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor3_dec_JRJI_soJRJI_TPJRJI}\n    \t\\caption{XY model on a 2D lattice with $N=64$ sites and ordered complex-valued couplings.\n    \t\tThe inferred and true couplings are plotted on top of each other. The left and right columns show the real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the couplings. Top figures refer to a single site reconstruction, i.e., one row of the matrix $J$. Bottom figures report the couplings sorted in descending order.}\n    \t\\label{Jor3_dec}\n    \\end{figure}\n    \n       \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n       \\begin{figure}[t!]\n     \t\\centering\n     \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{MF_PL_Jor1_2D_TPJR_varT}\n     \t\\caption{True Positive curves obtained with the three techniques: PLM with decimation, (blue) dotted line,  PLM with $l_2$ regularization, (greed) dashed line, and mean-field, (red) full line.  These results refer to real valued ordered couplings with $N=64$ spins on a 2D lattice. The temperature is here $T=0.7$ while the four graphs refer to different sample sizes: $M$ increases clockwise.}\n     \t\\label{MF_PL_TP}\n     \\end{figure}\n    \n    \\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \t\\centering\n    \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{MF_PL_Jor1_2D_errJ_varT_varM}\n    \t\\caption{Variation of reconstruction error, ${\\rm err_J}$, with respect to temperature as obtained with the three different techniques, see Fig. \\ref{MF_PL_TP}, for four different sample size:  clockwise from top   $M=512,1024, 2048$ and $4096$.} \n    \t\\label{MF_PL_err}\n    \\end{figure}\n    \n     Once the most likely network has been identified through the decimation procedure, we perform the same analysis displayed in Fig. \\ref{Jor1_dec}  for ordered and then quenched disordered real-valued couplings\nand in Fig. \\ref{Jor3_dec} for  complex-valued ordered couplings.  In comparison to the results shown in Sec. \\ref{sec:res_reg},\n  the PLM with decimation leads to rather cleaner results. In Figs. \\ref{MF_PL_err} and \\ref{MF_PL_TP} we compare the performances of the PLM with decimation in respect to ones of the PLM with $l_2$-regularization. These two techniques are also analysed in respect to a mean-field technique previously implemented on the same XY systems\\cite{Tyagi15}.\n  \n    For what concerns the network of connecting links, in Fig. \\ref{MF_PL_TP} we compare the TP curves obtained with the three techniques. The results refer to the case of ordered and real valued couplings, but similar behaviours were obtained for the other cases analysed. \n  The four graphs are related to different sample sizes, with $M$ increasing clockwise. When $M$ is high enough, all techniques reproduce the true network. \n  However, for lower values of $M$ the performances of the PLM with $l_2$ regularization and with decimation drastically overcome those ones of the previous mean field technique. \n  In particular, for $M=256$ the PLM techniques still reproduce the original network while the mean-field method fails to find more than half of the couplings. \n  When $M=128$, the network is clearly reconstructed only through the PLM with decimation while the PLM with $l_2$ regularization underestimates the couplings. \n  Furthermore, we notice that the PLM method with decimation is able to clearly infer the network of interaction even when $M=N$ signalling that it could be considered also in the under-sampling regime $M<N$.  \n \n \nIn Fig. \\ref{MF_PL_err} we compare the temperature behaviour of the reconstruction error.\nIn can be observed that for all temperatures and for all sample sizes  the reconstruction error, ${\\rm err_J}$, (plotted here in log-scale) obtained with the PLM+decimation is always smaller than \nthat one obtained with the other techniques. The temperature behaviour of ${\\rm err_J}$ agrees with the one already observed for Ising spins in \\cite{Nguyen12b} and for XY spins  in \\cite{Tyagi15} with a mean-field approach:  ${\\rm err_J}$ displays a minimum around $T\\simeq 1$ and then it increases for very lower $T$; however,\n the error obtained with the PLM with decimation is several times smaller  than the error estimated by the other methods.\n\n\n\n \n \n\n     \n     \\section{Conclusions}\n     \\label{sec:conc}\n\n\nDifferent statistical inference methods have been applied to the inverse problem of the XY model.\nAfter a short review of techniques based on pseudo-likelihood and their formal generalization to the model we have tested their performances against data generated by means of Monte Carlo numerical simulations of known instances\nwith diluted, sparse, interactions.\n\nThe main outcome is that the best performances are obtained by means of the  pseudo-likelihood method combined with decimation. Putting to zero (i.e., decimating) very weak bonds, this technique turns out to be very precise for  problems whose real underlying interaction network is sparse, i.e., the number of couplings per variable does not scale with number of variables.\nThe PLM + decimation method is compared to the PLM + regularization method, with $\\ell_2$ regularization and to a mean-field-based method. The behavior of the quality of the network reconstruction is analyzed by looking at the overall sorted couplings and at the single site couplings, comparing them with the real network, and at the true positive curves in all three approaches. In the PLM +decimation method, moreover, the identification of the number of decimated bonds at which the tilted pseudo-likelihood is maximum allows for a precise estimate of the total number of bonds. Concerning this technique, it is also shown that the network with the most likely number of bonds is also the one of least reconstruction error, where not only the prediction of the presence of a bond is estimated but also its value.\n\nThe behavior of the inference quality in temperature and in the size of data samples is also investigated, basically confirming the low $T$ behavior hinted by Nguyen and Berg \\cite{Nguyen12b} for the Ising model. In temperature, in particular, the reconstruction error curve displays a minimum at a low temperature, close to the critical point in those cases in which a critical behavior occurs, and a sharp increase as temperature goes to zero. The decimation method, once again, appears to enhance this minimum of the reconstruction error of almost an order of magnitude with respect to other methods.\n \nThe techniques displayed and the results obtained in this work can be of use in any of the many systems whose theoretical representation is given by Eq. \\eqref{eq:HXY} or Eq. \\eqref{eq:h_im}, some of which are recalled in Sec. \\ref{sec:model}. In particular, a possible application can be the field of light waves propagation through random media and the corresponding problem of the  reconstruction of an object seen through an opaque medium or a disordered optical fiber \\cite{Vellekoop07,Vellekoop08a,Vellekoop08b, Popoff10a,Akbulut11,Popoff11,Yilmaz13,Riboli14}.\n\n \t", "answers": ["Physics, biology, social sciences, finance, and neuroscience are some fields in which the inverse problem is encountered."], "length": 6308, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "c18fe208b75f8f5b4214e2cb17420d75bf525e176e425fc0"}
{"input": "How does the performance of the PLM with decimation compare to other methods?", "context": "\\section{Introduction}\nGiven a data set and a model with some unknown parameters, the inverse problem aims to find the values of the model parameters that best fit the data.  \nIn this work, in which we focus on systems of interacting elements,\n the inverse problem concerns  the statistical inference\n of the underling interaction network and of its coupling coefficients from observed data on the dynamics  of the system. \n Versions of this problem are encountered in physics, biology (e.g., \\cite{Balakrishnan11,Ekeberg13,Christoph14}), social sciences and finance (e.g.,\\cite{Mastromatteo12,yamanaka_15}), neuroscience (e.g., \\cite{Schneidman06,Roudi09a,tyrcha_13}), just to cite a few, and are becoming more and more important due to the increase in the amount of data available from these fields.\\\\\n \\indent \n A standard approach used in statistical inference is to predict the interaction couplings by maximizing the likelihood function.\n This technique, however, requires the evaluation of the  \n \n   partition function that, in the most general case, concerns a number of computations scaling exponentially with the system size.\n  \n  \n    Boltzmann machine learning uses Monte Carlo sampling to compute the gradients of the Log-likelihood looking for stationary points \\cite{Murphy12} but this method is computationally manageable only for small systems. A series of faster approximations, such as naive mean-field, independent-pair approximation \\cite{Roudi09a, Roudi09b}, inversion of TAP equations \\cite{Kappen98,Tanaka98}, small correlations expansion \\cite{Sessak09}, adaptive TAP \\cite{Opper01}, adaptive  cluster expansion \\cite{Cocco12} or Bethe approximations \\cite{Ricci-Tersenghi12, Nguyen12}  have, then, been developed. These techniques take as input means and correlations of observed variables and most of them assume a fully connected graph as underlying connectivity network, or expand  around it by perturbative dilution.  In most cases, network reconstruction turns out to  be not accurate for small data sizes and/or when couplings are  strong or, else, if the original interaction network is sparse.\\\\\n\\indent\n A further method, substantially improving performances for small data, is the so-called Pseudo-Likelyhood Method (PLM) \\cite{Ravikumar10}. In Ref. \\cite{Aurell12} Aurell and Ekeberg performed a comparison between PLM and some of the just mentioned mean-field-based algorithms on the pairwise interacting Ising-spin  ($\\sigma = \\pm 1$) model, showing how PLM performs sensitively better, especially on sparse graphs and in the high-coupling limit, i.e., for low temperature.\n \n In this work, we aim at performing statistical inference  on a model whose interacting variables are continuous $XY$ spins, i.e., $\\sigma \\equiv \\left(\\cos \\phi,\\sin \\phi\\right)$ with $\\phi \\in [0, 2\\pi )$. The developed tools can, actually, be also straightforward applied  to the $p$-clock model  \\cite{Potts52} where the phase $\\phi$ takes discretely equispaced $p$ values  in the $2 \\pi$ interval, $\\phi_a =  a 2 \\pi/p$, with $a= 0,1,\\dots,p-1$. The $p$-clock model, else called vector Potts model, gives a hierarchy of discretization of the $XY$ model as $p$ increases. For $p=2$, one recovers the Ising model, for $p=4$ the Ashkin-Teller model \\cite{Ashkin43}, for $p=6$ the ice-type model \\cite{Pauling35,Baxter82} and the eight-vertex model \\cite{Sutherland70,Fan70,Baxter71} for $p=8$.  \nIt turns out to be very useful also for numerical implementations of the continuous $XY$ model. \nRecent analysis on the multi-body $XY$ model has shown that for a limited number of discrete phase values ($p\\sim 16, 32$) the thermodynamic critical properties of the $p\\to\\infty$ $XY$ limit are promptly recovered \\cite{Marruzzo15, Marruzzo16}.  \nOur main motivation to study statistical inference is that these kind of models have recently turned out to be rather useful in describing the behavior of optical systems, \nincluding standard mode-locking lasers \\cite{Gordon02,Gat04,Angelani07,Marruzzo15} and random lasers \\cite{Angelani06a,Leuzzi09a,Antenucci15a,Antenucci15b,Marruzzo16}. \nIn particular, the inverse problem on the pairwise XY model analyzed here might be of help in recovering images from light propagated through random media. \n\n\n      This paper is organized as follows: in Sec. \\ref{sec:model} we introduce the general model  and we discuss its  derivation also  as a model for light transmission through random scattering media. \n    In Sec. \\ref{sec:plm} we introduce the PLM with $l_2$ regularization  and with decimation, two variants of the PLM respectively introduced in Ref. \\cite{Wainwright06} and \\cite{Aurell12} for the inverse Ising problem. \n    Here, we analyze these techniques for continuous $XY$ spins and we test them on thermalized data generated by Exchange Monte Carlo numerical simulations of the original model dynamics. In Sec. \\ref{sec:res_reg} we  present the results related to the PLM-$l_2$. In Sec. \\ref{sec:res_dec} the results related to the PLM with decimation are reported and its performances are compared to the PLM-$l_2$ and to a variational mean-field method analyzed in Ref. \\cite{Tyagi15}. In Sec. \\ref{sec:conc}, we outline conclusive remarks and perspectives.\n\n        \\section{The leading $XY$ model}\n      \\label{sec:model}\n The leading model we are considering is defined, for a system of $N$ angular $XY$ variables, by the Hamiltonian \n \\begin{equation}\n  \\mathcal{H} = - \\sum_{ik}^{1,N} J_{ik} \\cos{\\left(\\phi_i-\\phi_k\\right)} \n  \\label{eq:HXY}\n \n  \\end{equation} \n  \n  The $XY$ model is well known in statistical mechanics, displaying important physical\n  insights, starting from the Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless\n  transition in two dimensions\\cite{Berezinskii70,Berezinskii71,Kosterlitz72} and moving to, e.g., the\n  transition of liquid helium to its superfluid state \\cite{Brezin82}, the roughening transition of the interface of a crystal in equilibrium with its vapor \\cite{Cardy96}. In presence of disorder and frustration \\cite{Villain77,Fradkin78} the model has been adopted to describe synchronization problems as the Kuramoto model \\cite{Kuramoto75} and in the theoretical modeling of Josephson junction arrays \\cite{Teitel83a,Teitel83b} and arrays of coupled lasers \\cite{Nixon13}.\n  Besides several derivations and implementations of the model in quantum and classical physics, equilibrium or out of equilibrium, ordered or fully frustrated systems, Eq. (\\ref{eq:HXY}), in its generic form,\n  has found applications also in other fields. A rather fascinating example being the behavior of starlings flocks  \\cite{Reynolds87,Deneubourg89,Huth90,Vicsek95, Cavagna13}.\n  Our interest on the $XY$ model resides, though, in optics. Phasor and phase models with pairwise and  multi-body interaction terms can, indeed, describe the behavior of electromagnetic modes in both linear and nonlinear optical systems in the analysis of problems such as light propagation and lasing \\cite{Gordon02, Antenucci15c, Antenucci15d}. As couplings are strongly frustrated, these models turn out to be especially useful to the study of optical properties in random media \\cite{Antenucci15a,Antenucci15b}, as in the noticeable case of random lasers \\cite{Wiersma08,Andreasen11,Antenucci15e}  and they might as well be applied to linear scattering problems, e.g., propagation of waves in opaque systems or disordered fibers. \n  \n  \n  \\subsection{A propagating wave model}\n  We briefly mention a derivation of the model as a proxy for the propagation of light through random linear media. \n Scattering of light is held responsible to obstruct our view and make objects opaque. Light rays, once that they enter the material, only exit  after getting scattered multiple times within the material. In such a disordered medium, both the direction and the phase of the propagating waves are random. Transmitted light \n yields a disordered interference pattern typically  having low intensity, random phase and almost no resolution, called a speckle. Nevertheless, in recent years it has been realized that disorder is rather a blessing in disguise \\cite{Vellekoop07,Vellekoop08a,Vellekoop08b}. Several experiments have made it possible to control the behavior of light and other optical processes in a given random disordered medium,  \n by exploiting, e.g.,  the tools developed for wavefront shaping to control the propagation of light and to engineer the confinement of light \\cite{Yilmaz13,Riboli14}.\n \\\\\n \\indent\n In a linear dielectric medium, light propagation can be described through a part of the scattering matrix, the transmission matrix $\\mathbb{T}$, linking the outgoing to the incoming fields. \n Consider the case in which there are $N_I$ incoming channels and $N_O$ outgoing ones; we can indicate with $E^{\\rm in,out}_k$ the input/output electromagnetic field phasors of channel $k$. In the most general case, i.e., without making any particular assumptions on the field polarizations, each light mode and its polarization polarization state can be represented by means of the $4$-dimensional Stokes vector. Each $ t_{ki}$ element of $\\mathbb{T}$, thus, is a $4 \\times 4$ M{\\\"u}ller matrix. If, on the other hand, we know that the source is polarized and the observation is made on the same polarization, one can use a scalar model and adopt Jones calculus \\cite{Goodman85,Popoff10a,Akbulut11}:\n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n E^{\\rm out}_k = \\sum_{i=1}^{N_I}  t_{ki} E^{\\rm in}_i \\qquad \\forall~ k=1,\\ldots,N_O\n \\label{eq:transm}\n \\end{eqnarray}\n  We recall that the elements of the transmission matrix are random complex coefficients\\cite{Popoff10a}. For the case of completely unpolarized modes, we can also use a scalar model similar to Eq. \\eqref{eq:transm}, but whose variables are  the intensities of the outgoing/incoming fields, rather than the fields themselves.\\\\ \nIn the following, for simplicity, we will consider Eq. (\\ref{eq:transm}) as our starting point,\nwhere $E^{\\rm out}_k$, $E^{\\rm in}_i$ and $t_{ki}$ are all complex scalars. \nIf Eq. \\eqref{eq:transm} holds for any $k$, we can write:\n  \\begin{eqnarray}\n  \\int \\prod_{k=1}^{N_O} dE^{\\rm out}_k \\prod_{k=1}^{N_O}\\delta\\left(E^{\\rm out}_k - \\sum_{j=1}^{N_I}  t_{kj} E^{\\rm in}_j \\right) = 1\n  \\nonumber\n  \\\\\n  \\label{eq:deltas}\n  \\end{eqnarray}\n\n Observed data are a noisy representation of the true values of the fields. Therefore, in inference problems it is statistically more meaningful to take that noise into account in a probabilistic way, \n rather than looking  at the precise solutions of the exact equations (whose parameters are unknown). \n To this aim we can introduce Gaussian distributions whose limit for zero variance are the Dirac deltas in Eq. (\\ref{eq:deltas}).\n Moreover, we move to consider the ensemble of all possible solutions of Eq. (\\ref{eq:transm}) at given $\\mathbb{T}$, looking at  all configurations of input fields. We, thus, define the function:\n \n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n  Z &\\equiv &\\int_{{\\cal S}_{\\rm in}} \\prod_{j=1}^{N_I}  dE^{\\rm in}_j \\int_{{\\cal S}_{\\rm out}}\\prod_{k=1}^{N_O} dE^{\\rm out}_k \n  \\label{def:Z}\n\\\\\n    \\times\n  &&\\prod_{k=1}^{N_O}\n   \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\pi \\Delta^2}}  \\exp\\left\\{-\\frac{1}{2 \\Delta^2}\\left|\n  E^{\\rm out}_k -\\sum_{j=1}^{N_I}  t_{kj} E^{\\rm in}_j\\right|^2\n\\right\\} \n\\nonumber\n \\end{eqnarray}\n   We stress that the integral of Eq. \\eqref{def:Z} is not exactly a Gaussian integral. Indeed, starting from Eq. \\eqref{eq:deltas}, two constraints on the electromagnetic field intensities must be taken into account. \n\n  The space of solutions is  delimited by the total power ${\\cal P}$ received by system, i.e., \n  ${\\cal S}_{\\rm in}: \\{E^{\\rm in} |\\sum_k I^{\\rm in}_k = \\mathcal{P}\\}$, also implying  a constraint on the total amount of energy that is transmitted through the medium, i. e., \n  ${\\cal S}_{\\rm out}:\\{E^{\\rm out} |\\sum_k I^{\\rm out}_k=c\\mathcal{P}\\}$, where the attenuation factor  $c<1$ accounts for total losses.\n  As we will see more in details in the following, being interested in inferring the transmission matrix through the PLM, we can omit to explicitly include these terms in Eq. \\eqref{eq:H_J} since they do not depend on $\\mathbb{T}$ not adding any information on the gradients with respect to the elements of $\\mathbb{T}$.\n  \n Taking the same number of incoming and outcoming channels, $N_I=N_O=N/2$, and  ordering the input fields in the first $N/2$ mode indices and the output fields in the last $N/2$ indices, we can drop the ``in'' and ``out'' superscripts and formally write $Z$  as a partition function\n    \\begin{eqnarray}\n        \\label{eq:z}\n && Z =\\int_{\\mathcal S} \\prod_{j=1}^{N} dE_j \\left(   \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\pi \\Delta^2}} \\right)^{N/2} \n \\hspace*{-.4cm} \\exp\\left\\{\n  -\\frac{ {\\cal H} [\\{E\\};\\mathbb{T}] }{2\\Delta^2}\n  \\right\\}\n  \\\\\n&&{\\cal H} [\\{E\\};\\mathbb{T}] =\n-  \\sum_{k=1}^{N/2}\\sum_{j=N/2+1}^{N} \\left[E^*_j t_{jk} E_k + E_j t^*_{kj} E_k^* \n\\right]\n \\nonumber\n\\\\\n&&\\qquad\\qquad \\qquad + \\sum_{j=N/2+1}^{N} |E_j|^2+ \\sum_{k,l}^{1,N/2}E_k\nU_{kl} E_l^*\n \\nonumber\n \\\\\n \\label{eq:H_J}\n &&\\hspace*{1.88cm } = - \\sum_{nm}^{1,N} E_n J_{nm} E_m^*\n \\end{eqnarray}\n where ${\\cal H}$ is a real-valued function by construction, we have introduced the effective input-input coupling matrix\n\\begin{equation}\nU_{kl} \\equiv \\sum_{j=N/2+1}^{N}t^*_{lj} t_{jk} \n \\label{def:U}\n \\end{equation}\n and the whole interaction matrix reads (here $\\mathbb{T} \\equiv \\{ t_{jk} \\}$)\n \\begin{equation}\n \\label{def:J}\n \\mathbb J\\equiv \\left(\\begin{array}{ccc|ccc}\n \\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}\\\\\n \\phantom{()}&-\\mathbb{U} \\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&{\\mathbb{T}}&\\phantom{()}\\\\\n\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}\\\\\n \\hline\n\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}\\\\\n \\phantom{()}& \\mathbb   T^\\dagger&\\phantom{()}&\\phantom{()}& - \\mathbb{I} &\\phantom{()}\\\\\n\\phantom{a}&\\phantom{a}&\\phantom{a}&\\phantom{a}&\\phantom{a}&\\phantom{a}\\\\\n \\end{array}\\right)\n \\end{equation}\n \n Determining the electromagnetic complex amplitude configurations that minimize the {\\em cost function} ${\\cal H}$, Eq.  (\\ref{eq:H_J}),  means to maximize the overall distribution peaked around the solutions of the transmission Eqs. (\\ref{eq:transm}). As the variance $\\Delta^2\\to 0$, eventually, the initial set of Eqs. (\\ref{eq:transm}) are recovered. The ${\\cal H}$ function, thus, plays the role of an Hamiltonian and  $\\Delta^2$ the role of a noise-inducing temperature. The exact numerical problem corresponds to the zero temperature limit of the statistical mechanical problem. Working with real data, though, which are noisy, a finite ``temperature''\n  allows for a better representation of the ensemble of solutions to the sets of equations of continuous variables. \n  \n\n  \n  \n  Now, we can express every phasor in Eq. \\eqref{eq:z}  as $E_k = A_k e^{\\imath \\phi_k}$. As a working hypothesis we will consider the intensities $A_k^2$ as either homogeneous or as \\textit{quenched} with respect to phases.\nThe first condition occurs, for instance, to the input intensities $|E^{\\rm in}_k|$ produced by a phase-only spatial light modulator (SLM) with homogeneous illumination \\cite{Popoff11}.\nWith \\textit{quenched} here we mean, instead, that the intensity of each mode is the same for every solution of Eq. \\eqref{eq:transm} at fixed $\\mathbb T$.\nWe stress that, including intensities in the model does not preclude the inference analysis but it is out of the focus of the present work and will be considered elsewhere. \n\nIf all intensities are uniform in input and in output, this amount to a constant rescaling for each one of the four sectors of matrix $\\mathbb J$ in Eq. (\\ref{def:J}) that will not change the properties of the matrices.\nFor instance, if the original transmission matrix is unitary, so it will be the rescaled one and the matrix $\\mathbb U$ will be  diagonal.\nOtherwise, if intensities are \\textit{quenched}, i.e., they can be considered as constants in Eq. (\\ref{eq:transm}),\nthey are inhomogeneous with respect to phases. The generic Hamiltonian element will, therefore, rescale as \n  \\begin{eqnarray}\n  E^*_n J_{nm} E_m = J_{nm} A_n A_m e^{\\imath (\\phi_n-\\phi_m)} \\to J_{nm} e^{\\imath (\\phi_n-\\phi_m)}\n  \\nonumber\n  \\end{eqnarray}\n  and the properties of the original  $J_{nm}$ components are not conserved  in the rescaled one. In particular, we have no argument, anymore, to possibly set the rescaled $U_{nm}\\propto \\delta_{nm}$.\n  Eventually, we end up with the complex couplings $XY$ model, whose real-valued Hamiltonian is written as\n \\begin{eqnarray}\n  \\mathcal{H}& = &  - \\frac{1}{2} \\sum_{nm} J_{nm} e^{-\\imath (\\phi_n - \\phi_m)}  + \\mbox{c.c.} \n    \\label{eq:h_im}\n\\\\    &=&  - \\frac{1}{2} \\sum_{nm} \\left[J^R_{nm} \\cos(\\phi_n - \\phi_m)+\n  J^I_{nm}\\sin (\\phi_n - \\phi_m)\\right] \n  \\nonumber\n \\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $J_{nm}^R$ and $J_{nm}^I$ are the real and imaginary parts of $J_{nm}$. Being $\\mathbb J$  Hermitian, $J^R_{nm}=J^R_{mn}$ is symmetric and $J_{nm}^I=-J_{mn}^I$ is skew-symmetric.\n\n\\begin{comment}\n\\textcolor{red}{\nF: comment about quenched:\nI think that to obtain the XY model, it is not necessary that the intensities are strictly quenched (that is also a quite unfeasible situation, I guess).\nIndeed eq (2) does not deal with the dynamics of the modes, but just connect the in and out ones.\nFor this, what it is necessary to have the XY model, it is that the intensities are always the same on the different samples\n(so that the matrix $t_{ij}$ is the same for different phase data). If the intensities are fixed, then they can be incorporated in $t_{ij}$ and eq (2) can be written just for phases as described. \\\\\n}\n\\end{comment}\n\n\n  \\section{Pseudolikelihood Maximization}\n  \\label{sec:plm}\nThe inverse problem consists in the reconstruction of the parameters $J_{nm}$ of the Hamiltonian, Eq. (\\ref{eq:h_im}).  \nGiven a set of $M$ data configurations of $N$ spins\n $\\bm\\sigma = \\{ \\cos \\phi_i^{(\\mu)},\\sin \\phi_i^{(\\mu)} \\}$, $i = 1,\\dots,N$ and $\\mu=1,\\dots,M$, we want to \\emph{infer} the couplings:\n \\begin{eqnarray}\n\\bm \\sigma  \\rightarrow  \\mathbb{J} \n\\nonumber\n \\end{eqnarray}\n With this purpose in mind,\n in the rest of this section we implement the working equations for the techniques used. \n In order to test our methods, we generate the input data, i.e., the configurations, by Monte-Carlo simulations of the model.\n The joint probability distribution of the $N$ variables $\\bm{\\phi}\\equiv\\{\\phi_1,\\dots,\\phi_N\\}$, follows the Gibbs-Boltzmann distribution:\n \\begin{equation}\\label{eq:p_xy}\n P(\\bm{\\phi}) = \\frac{1}{Z} e^{-\\beta \\mathcal{H\\left(\\bm{\\phi}\\right)}} \\quad \\mbox{ where } \\quad Z = \\int \\prod_{k=1}^N d\\phi_k  e^{-\\beta \\mathcal{H\\left(\\bm{\\phi}\\right)}}  \n \\end{equation}\n and where we denote $\\beta=\\left( 2\\Delta^2 \\right)^{-1}$ with respect to Eq. (\\ref{def:Z}) formalism.\n In order to stick to usual statistical inference notation, in the following we will rescale the couplings by a factor $\\beta / 2$: $\\beta J_{ij}/2 \\rightarrow J_{ij}$. \n The main idea of the PLM is to work with the conditional probability distribution of one variable $\\phi_i$ given all other variables, \n $\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i}$:\n \n  \\begin{eqnarray}\n\t\\nonumber\n   P(\\phi_i | \\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i}) &=& \\frac{1}{Z_i} \\exp \\left \\{ {H_i^x (\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i})\n  \t\\cos \\phi_i + H_i^y (\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i}) \\sin \\phi_i } \\right \\}\n\t\\\\\n \\label{eq:marginal_xy}\n\t&=&\\frac{e^{H_i(\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i}) \\cos{\\left(\\phi_i-\\alpha_i(\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i})\\right)}}}{2 \\pi I_0(H_i)}\n  \\end{eqnarray}\n  where $H_i^x$ and $H_i^y$ are defined as\n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n   H_i^x (\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i})  &=& \\sum_{j (\\neq i)} J^R_{ij} \\cos \\phi_j  - \\sum_{j  (\\neq i) } J_{ij}^{I} \\sin \\phi_j \\phantom{+  h^R_i} \\label{eq:26} \\\\\n   H_i^y  (\\bm{\\phi}_{\\backslash i})  &=&  \\sum_{j  (\\neq i)} J^R_{ij}  \\sin \\phi_j  + \\sum_{j  (\\neq i) } J_{ij}^{I}   \\cos \\phi_j \\phantom{ + h_i^{I} }\\label{eq:27}\n   \\end{eqnarray}\nand $H_i= \\sqrt{(H_i^x)^2 + (H_i^y)^2}$, $\\alpha_i = \\arctan H_i^y/H_i^x$   and we introduced the modified Bessel function of the first kind:\n  \\begin{equation}\n  \\nonumber\n   I_k(x) = \\frac{1}{2 \\pi}\\int_{0}^{2 \\pi} d \\phi e^{x \\cos{ \\phi}}\\cos{k \\phi}\n  \\end{equation}\n  \n   Given $M$ observation samples $\\bm{\\phi}^{(\\mu)}=\\{\\phi^\\mu_1,\\ldots,\\phi^\\mu_N\\}$, $\\mu = 1,\\dots, M$, the\n   pseudo-loglikelihood for the variable $i$ is given by the logarithm of Eq. (\\ref{eq:marginal_xy}),\n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n   \\label{eq:L_i}\n   L_i &=& \\frac{1}{M}  \\sum_{\\mu = 1}^M  \\ln P(\\phi_i^{(\\mu)}|\\bm{\\phi}^{(\\mu)}_{\\backslash i})\n   \\\\\n   \\nonumber\n   & =&  \\frac{1}{M}  \\sum_{\\mu = 1}^M  \\left[ H_i^{(\\mu)} \\cos( \\phi_i^{(\\mu)} - \\alpha_i^{(\\mu)}) - \\ln  2 \\pi I_0\\left(H_i^{(\\mu)}\\right)\\right] \\, .\n    \\end{eqnarray}\nThe underlying idea of PLM is that an approximation of the true parameters of the model is obtained for values that maximize the functions $L_i$.\nThe specific maximization scheme differentiates the different techniques.\n\n\n   \n   \n   \\subsection{PLM with $l_2$ regularization}\n   Especially for the case of sparse graphs, it is useful to add a regularizer, which prevents the maximization routine to move towards high values of \n   $J_{ij}$ and $h_i$ without converging. We will adopt an $l_2$ regularization so that the Pseudolikelihood function (PLF) at site $i$  reads:\n   \\begin{equation}\\label{eq:plf_i}\n  {\\cal L}_i = L_i\n  - \\lambda \\sum_{i \\neq j} \\left(J_{ij}^R\\right)^2 - \\lambda \\sum_{i \\neq j} \\left(J_{ij}^I\\right)^2  \n   \\end{equation}\n   with $\\lambda>0$.\n   Note that the values of $\\lambda$ have to be chosen arbitrarily, but not too large, in order not to overcome $L_i$.\n   The standard implementation of the PLM consists in maximizing each ${\\cal L}_i$, for $i=1\\dots N$, separately. The expected values of the couplings are then:\n   \\begin{equation}\n   \\{ J_{i j}^*\\}_{j\\in \\partial i} :=  \\mbox{arg max}_{ \\{ J_{ij} \\}}\n    \\left[{\\cal L}_i\\right]\n   \\end{equation}\n   In this way, we obtain two estimates for the coupling $J_{ij}$, one from maximization of ${\\cal L}_i$, $J_{ij}^{(i)}$, and another one from ${\\cal L}_j$, say $J_{ij}^{(j)}$.\n    Since the original Hamiltonian of the $XY$ model is Hermitian, we know that the real part of the couplings is symmetric while the imaginary part is skew-symmetric. \n   \n     The final estimate for $J_{ij}$ can then be obtained  averaging the two results:\n  \n  \n  \n   \\begin{equation}\\label{eq:symm}\n   J_{ij}^{\\rm inferred} = \\frac{J_{ij}^{(i)} + \\bar{J}_{ij}^{(j)}}{2} \n   \\end{equation}\n   where with $\\bar{J}$ we indicate the complex conjugate.\n   It is worth noting that the pseudolikelihood $L_i$, Eq. \\eqref{eq:L_i}, is characterized by the\n   following properties: (i) the normalization term of Eq.\\eqref{eq:marginal_xy} can be\n   computed analytically at odd with the {\\em full} likelihood case that\n   in general require a computational time which scales exponentially\n   with the size of the systems; (ii) the $\\ell_2$-regularized pseudolikelihood\n   defined in Eq.\\eqref{eq:plf_i} is strictly concave (i.e. it has a single\n   maximizer)\\cite{Ravikumar10}; (iii) it is consistent, i.e. if $M$ samples are\n   generated by a model $P(\\phi | J*)$ the maximizer tends to $J*$\n   for $M\\rightarrow\\infty$\\cite{besag1975}. Note also that (iii) guarantees that  \n   $|J^{(i)}_{ij}-J^{(j)}_{ij}| \\rightarrow 0$ for $M\\rightarrow \\infty$.\n   In Secs. \\ref{sec:res_reg}, \\ref{sec:res_dec} \n   we report the results obtained and we analyze the performances of the PLM having taken the configurations from Monte-Carlo simulations of models whose details are known.\n   \n\n   \n   \\subsection{PLM with decimation}\n   Even though the PLM with $l_2$-regularization allows to dwell the inference towards the low temperature region and in the low sampling case with better performances that mean-field methods, in some situations some couplings are overestimated and not at all symmetric. Moreover, in the technique there is the bias of the $l_2$ regularizer.\n   Trying to overcome these problems, Decelle and Ricci-Tersenghi introduced a new method \\cite{Decelle14}, known as PLM + decimation: the algorithm maximizes the sum of the $L_i$,\n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n    {\\cal L}\\equiv \\frac{1}{N}\\sum_{i=1}^N \\mbox{L}_i\n    \\end{eqnarray}  \n    and, then, it recursively set to zero couplings which are estimated very small. We expect that as long as we are setting to zero couplings that are unnecessary to fit the data, there should be not much changing on ${\\cal L}$. Keeping on with decimation, a point is reached where ${\\cal L}$ decreases abruptly indicating  that relevant couplings are being decimated and under-fitting is taking place.\n   Let us define  by $x$  the fraction of non-decimated couplings. To have a quantitative measure for the halt criterion of the decimation process, a tilted ${\\cal L}$ is defined as,\n   \\begin{eqnarray}\n  \\mathcal{L}_t &\\equiv& \\mathcal{L}  - x \\mathcal{L}_{\\textup{max}} - (1-x) \\mathcal{L}_{\\textup{min}} \\label{$t$PLF} \n   \\end{eqnarray}\n   where \n   \\begin{itemize}\n   \\item $\\mathcal{L}_{\\textup{min}}$ is the pseudolikelyhood of a model with independent variables. In the XY case: $\\mathcal{L}_{\\textup{min}}=-\\ln{2 \\pi}$.\n   \\item\n   $\\mathcal{L}_{\\textup{max}}$ is the pseudolikelyhood in the fully-connected model and it is maximized over all the $N(N-1)/2$ possible couplings. \n   \\end{itemize}\n   At the first step, when $x=1$, $\\mathcal{L}$ takes value $\\mathcal{L}_{\\rm max}$ and  $\\mathcal{L}_t=0$. On the last step, for an empty graph, i.e., $x=0$, $\\mathcal{L}$ takes the value $\\mathcal{L}_{\\rm min}$ and, hence, again $\\mathcal{L}_t =0$. \n   In the intermediate steps, during the decimation procedure, as $x$ is decreasing from $1$ to $0$, one observes firstly that $\\mathcal{L}_t$ increases linearly and, then, it displays an abrupt decrease indicating that from this point on relevant couplings are being decimated\\cite{Decelle14}. In Fig. \\ref{Jor1-$t$PLF} we give an instance of this behavior for the 2D short-range XY model with ordered couplings. We notice that the maximum point of $\\mathcal{L}_t$ coincides with the minimum point of the reconstruction error, the latter defined as \n   \\begin{eqnarray}\\label{eq:errj}\n   \\mbox{err}_J \\equiv \\sqrt{\\frac{\\sum_{i<j} (J^{\\rm inferred}_{ij} -J^{\\rm true}_{ij})^2}{N(N-1)/2}} \\label{err}\n   \\end{eqnarray}\n  We stress that the ${\\cal L}_t$ maximum is obtained ignoring the underlying graph, while the err$_J$ minimum can be evaluated once the true graph has been reconstructed. \n   \n     \\begin{figure}[t!]\n   \t\\centering\n   \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor1_dec_tPLF_new.eps}\n   \t\\caption{The tilted likelyhood ${\\cal L}_t$ curve and the reconstruction error vs the number of decimated couplings  for an ordered, real-valued J on 2D XY model with $N=64$ spins. The peak of ${\\cal L}_t$ coincides with the dip of the error.}  \n   \t\\label{Jor1-$t$PLF}\n   \\end{figure} \n       \n   \n   In the next sections we will show the results obtained on the  $XY$ model analyzing the performances of the two methods and comparing them also with a mean-field method \\cite{Tyagi15}.\n   \n  \n    \n   \\section{Inferred couplings with PLM-$l_2$}\n    \\label{sec:res_reg}\n    \\subsection{$XY$ model with real-valued couplings}\n    \n    In order to obtain the vector of couplings, $J_{ij}^{\\rm inferred}$ the function $-\\mathcal{L}_i$ is minimized through the vector of derivatives ${\\partial \\mathcal{L}_i}/\\partial J_{ij}$. The process is repeated for all the couplings obtaining then a fully connected adjacency matrix. The results here presented are obtained with $\\lambda = 0.01$.\n   For the minimization we have used the MATLAB routine \\emph{minFunc\\_2012}\\cite{min_func}. \n      \n      \\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \t\\centering\n    \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor11_2D_l2_JR_soJR_TPJR}\n    \t\\caption{Top panels: instances of single site coupling reconstruction for the case of $N=64$ XY spins on a 2D lattice with ordered $J$ (left column) and bimodal distributed $J$ (right column). \n    \t\n    \tBottom panels: sorted couplings.}\n    \t\\label{PL-Jor1}\n    \\end{figure}\n\n   \nTo produce the data by means of numerical Monte Carlo simulations a system with $N=64$  spin variables  is considered on a deterministic 2D lattice with periodic boundary conditions. \nEach spin has then connectivity $4$, i.e., we expect to infer an adjacency matrix with $N c = 256$ couplings different from zero. \nThe dynamics of the simulated model is based on the Metropolis algorithm and parallel tempering\\cite{earl05} is used to speed up the thermalization of the system.\nThe thermalization is tested looking at the average energy over logarithmic time windows and\nthe acquisition of independent configurations\nstarts only after the system is well thermalized.\n\n   For the values of the couplings we considered two cases: an ordered case, indicated in the figure as  $J$ ordered (e.g., left column of Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor1}) where the couplings can take values $J_{ij}=0,J$, with $J=1$, \n   and a quenched disordered case, indicated in the figures as  $J$ disordered (e.g., right column of Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor1})\n   where the couplings can take also  negative values, i.e., \n    $J_{ij}=0,J,-J$, with a certain probability.  The results here presented were obtained with bimodal distributed $J$s: \n   \n    $P(J_{ij}=J)=P(J_{ij}=-J)=1/2$.  The performances of the PLM have shown not to depend on $P(J)$. \n   \n    We recall that in Sec. \\ref{sec:plm} we used the temperature-rescaled notation, i.e., $J_{ij}$ stands for $J_{ij}/T$. \n   \n    To analyze the performances of the PLM, in Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor1} the inferred couplings, $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm inf}$, are shown on top of the original couplings,  $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm true}$.\n     The first figure (from top) in the left column shows  the $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm inf}$ (black) and the $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm tru}$ (green) for a given spin\n     at temperature $T/J=0.7$ and number of samples  $M=1024$. PLM appears to reconstruct the correct couplings, though zero couplings are always given a small inferred non-zero value. \n     In the left column of Fig.  \\ref{PL-Jor1},  both the $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm{inf}}$ and the $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm{tru}}$ are sorted in decreasing order and plotted on top of each other. \n     We can clearly see that $\\mathbb{J}^R_{\\rm inf}$ reproduces the expected step function. Even though the jump is smeared, the difference between inferred couplings corresponding to the set of non-zero couplings \n     and to the set of zero couplings can be clearly appreciated.\n     Similarly, the plots in the right column of Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor1} show the results obtained for the case with  bimodal disordered couplings, for the same working temperature and number of samples. \n     In particular, note that the algorithm infers half positive and half negative couplings, as expected.\n     \n     \n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor11_2D_l2_errJ_varT_varM}\n\\caption{Reconstruction error $\\mbox{err}_J$, cf. Eq. (\\ref{eq:errj}), plotted as a function of temperature (left) for three values of the number of samples $M$ and  as a function $M$ (right) for three values of temperature in the ordered system, i.e., $J_{ij}=0,1$. \nThe system size is $N=64$.}\n\\label{PL-err-Jor1}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn order to analyze the effects of the number of samples and of the temperature regimes, we plot in Fig. \\ref{PL-err-Jor1} the reconstruction error, Eq. (\\ref{err}), as a function of temperature for three different sample sizes $M=64,128$ and $512$. \nThe error is seen to sharply rise al low temperature, incidentally, in the ordered case, for  $T<T_c \\sim 0.893$, which is the Kosterlitz-Thouless transition temperature of the 2XY model\\cite{Olsson92}. \n However, we can see that if only $M=64$ samples are considered, $\\mbox{err}_J$ remains high independently on the working temperature. \n In the right plot of Fig. \\ref{PL-err-Jor1},  $\\mbox{err}_J$ is plotted as a function of $M$ for three different working temperatures $T/J=0.4,0.7$ and $1.3$. As we expect, \n $\\mbox{err}_J$  decreases as $M$ increases. This effect was observed also with mean-field inference techniques on the same model\\cite{Tyagi15}.\n\nTo better understand the performances of the algorithms, in Fig. \\ref{PL-varTP-Jor1} we show several True Positive (TP) curves obtained for various values of $M$ at three different temperatures $T$. As $M$ is large and/or temperature is not too small,  we are able to reconstruct correctly all the couplings present in the system (see bottom plots).\nThe True Positive curve displays how many times the inference method finds a true link of the original network  as a function of the index of the vector of sorted absolute value of reconstructed couplings $J_{ij}^{\\rm inf}$. \nThe index $n_{(ij)}$ represents the related spin couples $(ij)$. The TP curve is obtained as follows: \nfirst  the values $|J^{\\rm inf}_{ij}|$ are sorted in descending order and  the spin pairs $(ij)$ are ordered according to the sorting position of $|J^{\\rm inf}_{ij}|$. Then,\n     \ta cycle over the ordered set of pairs $(ij)$, indexed by $n_{(ij)}$, is performed, comparing with the original network coupling $J^{\\rm true}_{ij}$ and verifying whether it is zero or not. The true positive curve is computed as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mbox{TP}[n_{(ij)}]= \\frac{\\mbox{TP}\\left[n_{(ij)}-1\\right] (n_{ij}-1)+ 1 -\\delta_{J^{\\rm true}_{ij},0}}{n_{(ij)}}\n\\end{equation}\nAs far as $J^{\\rm true}_{ij} \\neq 0$, TP$=1$. As soon as the true coupling of a given $(ij)$ couple in the sorted list is zero, the TP curve departs from one. \nIn our case, where the connectivity per spin of the original system is  $c=4$ and there are $N=64$ spins, we know that we will have  $256$ non-zero couplings.  \n     \tIf the inverse problem is successful, hence, we expect a steep decrease of the TP curve when  $n_{ij}=256$ is overcome.\n\nIn Fig. \\ref{PL-varTP-Jor1}\nit is  shown that,  almost independently of $T/J$, the TP score improves as $M$ increases. Results are plotted for three different temperatures, $T=0.4,1$ and $2.2$, with increasing number of samples $M = 64, 128,512$ and $1024$ (clockwise). \nWe can clearly appreciate the improvement in temperature if the size of the data-set is not very large: for small $M$, $T=0.4$ performs better. \nWhen $M$ is high enough (e.g., $M=1024$), instead, the TP curves do not appear to be strongly influenced by the temperature.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor11_2D_l2_TPJR_varT_varM}\n\t\\caption{TP  curves  for 2D short-range ordered $XY$ model with $N=64$ spins at three different values of $T/J$ with increasing - clockwise from top - $M$.}\n\t\\label{PL-varTP-Jor1} \n\\end{figure} \n\n\\subsection{$XY$ model with complex-valued couplings}\nFor the complex $XY$ we have to contemporary  infer $2$ apart coupling matrices,  $J^R_{i j}$ and $J^I_{i j}$.  As before, a system of $N=64$ spins is considered on a 2D lattice.\nFor the couplings we have considered both ordered and bimodal disordered cases.\nIn Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor3}, a single row of the matrix $J$ (top) and the whole sorted couplings (bottom) are displayed for the ordered model (same legend as in Fig. \\ref{PL-Jor1}) for the real, $J^R$ (left column), and the imaginary part, $J^I$.  \n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\t\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor3_l2_JRJI_soJRJI_TPJRJI}\n\t\\caption{Results related to the ordered complex XY model with $N=64$ spins on a  2D lattice. Top: instances of  single site reconstruction for the real, JR (left column), and\n\t\tthe imaginary, JI (right column), part of $J_{ij}$. Bottom: sorted values of JR (left) and JI (right).}\n\t\t\n\t\\label{PL-Jor3}\n\\end{figure}\n \n \n  \\section{PLM with Decimation}\n \\label{sec:res_dec}\n \n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n   \t\\centering\n   \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor1_dec_tPLF_varT_varM}\n    \t\\caption{Tilted Pseudolikelyhood, ${\\cal L}_t$, plotted as a function of decimated couplings. Top: Different ${\\cal L}_t$ curves obtained for different values of $M$ plotted on top of each other. Here $T=1.3$. The black line indicates the expected number of decimated couplings, $x^*=(N (N-1) - N c)/2=1888$. As we can see, as $M$ increases, the maximum point of ${\\cal L}_t$ approaches $x^*$. Bottom: Different ${\\cal L}_t$ curves obtained for different values of T with $M=2048$. We can see that, with this value of $M$, no differences can be appreciated on the maximum points of the different  ${\\cal L}_t$ curves.}\n   \t\\label{var-$t$PLF}\n   \\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor1_dec_tPLF_peak_statistics_varM_prob.eps}\n    \t\\caption{Number of most likely decimated couplings, estimated by the maximum point of $\\mathcal{L}_t$, as a function of the number of samples $M$. We can clearly see that the maximum point of $\\mathcal{L}_t$ tends toward $x^*$, which is the right expected number of zero couplings in the system.}  \n    \t\\label{PLF_peak_statistics}\n    \\end{figure}\n      \n      For the ordered real-valued XY model we show in Fig. \\ref{var-$t$PLF}, top panel, the outcome on the tilted pseudolikelyhood, $\\mathcal{L}_t$ Eq. \\eqref{$t$PLF}, of the progressive decimation: from a fully connected lattice  down to an empty lattice. The figure shows the behaviour of $\\mathcal{L}_t$ for three different data sizes $M$. A clear data size dependence of the maximum point of  $\\mathcal{L}_t$, signalling the most likely value for decimation, is shown. For small $M$ the most likely number of  couplings is overestimated and for increasing $M$ it tends to the true value, as displayed in Fig. \\ref{PLF_peak_statistics}.  In the bottom panel of Fig. \\ref{var-$t$PLF} we display instead different \n $\\mathcal{L}_t$ curves obtained for three different values of $T$.\n  Even though the values of $\\mathcal{L}_t$ decrease with increasing temperature, the value of the most likely number of decimated couplings appears to be quite independent on $T$ with $M=2048$ number of samples.\nIn Fig. \\ref{fig:Lt_complex} we eventually display the tilted pseudolikelyhood for a 2D network with complex valued ordered couplings, where the decimation of the real and imaginary coupling matrices proceeds in parallel, that is, \nwhen a real coupling is small enough to be decimated its imaginary part is also decimated, and vice versa.\nOne can see that though the apart errors for the real and imaginary parts are different in absolute values, they display the same dip, to be compared with the maximum point of $\\mathcal{L}_t$.\n     \n       \\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \t\\centering\n      \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor3_dec_tPLF_new}\n      \t\\caption{Tilted Pseudolikelyhood, ${\\cal L}_t$, plotted with the reconstruction errors for the XY model with $N=64$ spins on a 2D lattice. These results refer to the case of  ordered and complex valued couplings. The full (red) line indicates ${\\cal L}_t$. The dashed (green) \n      \t\tand the dotted (blue) lines show the reconstruction errors (Eq. \\eqref{eq:errj}) obtained for the real and the imaginary couplings respectively. We can see that both ${\\rm err_{JR}}$ and ${\\rm err_{JI}}$ have a minimum at $x^*$.}\n          \t\\label{fig:Lt_complex}\n    \\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n   \t\\centering\n   \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor1_dec_JR_soJR_TPJR}\n   \t\\caption{XY model on a 2D lattice with $N=64$ sites and real valued couplings. The graphs show the inferred (dashed black lines) and true couplings (full green lines) plotted on top of each other. The left and right columns refer to the\n   \t\t cases of ordered and bimodal disordered couplings, respectively. Top figures: single site reconstruction, i.e., one row of the matrix $J$. Bottom figures: couplings are plotted sorted in descending order.}  \n   \t\\label{Jor1_dec}\n   \\end{figure}\n   \n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \t\\centering\n    \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{Jor3_dec_JRJI_soJRJI_TPJRJI}\n    \t\\caption{XY model on a 2D lattice with $N=64$ sites and ordered complex-valued couplings.\n    \t\tThe inferred and true couplings are plotted on top of each other. The left and right columns show the real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the couplings. Top figures refer to a single site reconstruction, i.e., one row of the matrix $J$. Bottom figures report the couplings sorted in descending order.}\n    \t\\label{Jor3_dec}\n    \\end{figure}\n    \n       \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n       \\begin{figure}[t!]\n     \t\\centering\n     \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{MF_PL_Jor1_2D_TPJR_varT}\n     \t\\caption{True Positive curves obtained with the three techniques: PLM with decimation, (blue) dotted line,  PLM with $l_2$ regularization, (greed) dashed line, and mean-field, (red) full line.  These results refer to real valued ordered couplings with $N=64$ spins on a 2D lattice. The temperature is here $T=0.7$ while the four graphs refer to different sample sizes: $M$ increases clockwise.}\n     \t\\label{MF_PL_TP}\n     \\end{figure}\n    \n    \\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \t\\centering\n    \t\\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{MF_PL_Jor1_2D_errJ_varT_varM}\n    \t\\caption{Variation of reconstruction error, ${\\rm err_J}$, with respect to temperature as obtained with the three different techniques, see Fig. \\ref{MF_PL_TP}, for four different sample size:  clockwise from top   $M=512,1024, 2048$ and $4096$.} \n    \t\\label{MF_PL_err}\n    \\end{figure}\n    \n     Once the most likely network has been identified through the decimation procedure, we perform the same analysis displayed in Fig. \\ref{Jor1_dec}  for ordered and then quenched disordered real-valued couplings\nand in Fig. \\ref{Jor3_dec} for  complex-valued ordered couplings.  In comparison to the results shown in Sec. \\ref{sec:res_reg},\n  the PLM with decimation leads to rather cleaner results. In Figs. \\ref{MF_PL_err} and \\ref{MF_PL_TP} we compare the performances of the PLM with decimation in respect to ones of the PLM with $l_2$-regularization. These two techniques are also analysed in respect to a mean-field technique previously implemented on the same XY systems\\cite{Tyagi15}.\n  \n    For what concerns the network of connecting links, in Fig. \\ref{MF_PL_TP} we compare the TP curves obtained with the three techniques. The results refer to the case of ordered and real valued couplings, but similar behaviours were obtained for the other cases analysed. \n  The four graphs are related to different sample sizes, with $M$ increasing clockwise. When $M$ is high enough, all techniques reproduce the true network. \n  However, for lower values of $M$ the performances of the PLM with $l_2$ regularization and with decimation drastically overcome those ones of the previous mean field technique. \n  In particular, for $M=256$ the PLM techniques still reproduce the original network while the mean-field method fails to find more than half of the couplings. \n  When $M=128$, the network is clearly reconstructed only through the PLM with decimation while the PLM with $l_2$ regularization underestimates the couplings. \n  Furthermore, we notice that the PLM method with decimation is able to clearly infer the network of interaction even when $M=N$ signalling that it could be considered also in the under-sampling regime $M<N$.  \n \n \nIn Fig. \\ref{MF_PL_err} we compare the temperature behaviour of the reconstruction error.\nIn can be observed that for all temperatures and for all sample sizes  the reconstruction error, ${\\rm err_J}$, (plotted here in log-scale) obtained with the PLM+decimation is always smaller than \nthat one obtained with the other techniques. The temperature behaviour of ${\\rm err_J}$ agrees with the one already observed for Ising spins in \\cite{Nguyen12b} and for XY spins  in \\cite{Tyagi15} with a mean-field approach:  ${\\rm err_J}$ displays a minimum around $T\\simeq 1$ and then it increases for very lower $T$; however,\n the error obtained with the PLM with decimation is several times smaller  than the error estimated by the other methods.\n\n\n\n \n \n\n     \n     \\section{Conclusions}\n     \\label{sec:conc}\n\n\nDifferent statistical inference methods have been applied to the inverse problem of the XY model.\nAfter a short review of techniques based on pseudo-likelihood and their formal generalization to the model we have tested their performances against data generated by means of Monte Carlo numerical simulations of known instances\nwith diluted, sparse, interactions.\n\nThe main outcome is that the best performances are obtained by means of the  pseudo-likelihood method combined with decimation. Putting to zero (i.e., decimating) very weak bonds, this technique turns out to be very precise for  problems whose real underlying interaction network is sparse, i.e., the number of couplings per variable does not scale with number of variables.\nThe PLM + decimation method is compared to the PLM + regularization method, with $\\ell_2$ regularization and to a mean-field-based method. The behavior of the quality of the network reconstruction is analyzed by looking at the overall sorted couplings and at the single site couplings, comparing them with the real network, and at the true positive curves in all three approaches. In the PLM +decimation method, moreover, the identification of the number of decimated bonds at which the tilted pseudo-likelihood is maximum allows for a precise estimate of the total number of bonds. Concerning this technique, it is also shown that the network with the most likely number of bonds is also the one of least reconstruction error, where not only the prediction of the presence of a bond is estimated but also its value.\n\nThe behavior of the inference quality in temperature and in the size of data samples is also investigated, basically confirming the low $T$ behavior hinted by Nguyen and Berg \\cite{Nguyen12b} for the Ising model. In temperature, in particular, the reconstruction error curve displays a minimum at a low temperature, close to the critical point in those cases in which a critical behavior occurs, and a sharp increase as temperature goes to zero. The decimation method, once again, appears to enhance this minimum of the reconstruction error of almost an order of magnitude with respect to other methods.\n \nThe techniques displayed and the results obtained in this work can be of use in any of the many systems whose theoretical representation is given by Eq. \\eqref{eq:HXY} or Eq. \\eqref{eq:h_im}, some of which are recalled in Sec. \\ref{sec:model}. In particular, a possible application can be the field of light waves propagation through random media and the corresponding problem of the  reconstruction of an object seen through an opaque medium or a disordered optical fiber \\cite{Vellekoop07,Vellekoop08a,Vellekoop08b, Popoff10a,Akbulut11,Popoff11,Yilmaz13,Riboli14}.\n\n \t", "answers": ["It outperforms mean-field methods and the PLM with $l_2$ regularization in terms of reconstruction error and true positive rate."], "length": 6312, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "f3374a1971e3cfb4f241e04b82d5016d892e9e32a4aa2b53"}
{"input": "What are the symptoms of vitamin K deficiency?", "context": "Vitamin K - Wikipedia\n(Redirected from Vitamin k)\nThis article needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2015)\nThis article is about the family of vitamers. For vitamin K1 the form usually used as a supplement, see Phytomenadione.\nVitamin K structures. MK-4 and MK-7 are both subtypes of K2.\nVitamin K deficiency, Warfarin overdose\nVitamin K is a group of structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamins the human body requires for complete synthesis of certain proteins that are prerequisites for blood coagulation and which the body also needs for controlling binding of calcium in bones and other tissues. The vitamin K-related modification of the proteins allows them to bind calcium ions, which they cannot do otherwise. Without vitamin K, blood coagulation is seriously impaired, and uncontrolled bleeding occurs. Low levels of vitamin K also weaken bones and promote calcification of arteries and other soft tissues[citation needed].\nChemically, the vitamin K family comprises 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (3-) derivatives. Vitamin K includes two natural vitamers: vitamin K1 and vitamin K2.[1] Vitamin K2, in turn, consists of a number of related chemical subtypes, with differing lengths of carbon side chains made of isoprenoid groups of atoms.\nVitamin K1, also known as phylloquinone, is made by plants, and is found in highest amounts in green leafy vegetables because it is directly involved in photosynthesis. It may be thought of as the plant form of vitamin K. It is active as a vitamin in animals and performs the classic functions of vitamin K, including its activity in the production of blood-clotting proteins. Animals may also convert it to vitamin K2.\nBacteria in the gut flora can also convert K1 into vitamin K2. In addition, bacteria typically lengthen the isoprenoid side chain of vitamin K2 to produce a range of vitamin K2 forms, most notably the MK-7 to MK-11 homologues of vitamin K2. All forms of K2 other than MK-4 can only be produced by bacteria, which use these forms in anaerobic respiration. The MK-7 and other bacterially derived forms of vitamin K2 exhibit vitamin K activity in animals, but MK-7's extra utility over MK-4, if any, is unclear and is a matter of investigation.\nThree synthetic types of vitamin K are known: vitamins K3, K4, and K5. Although the natural K1 and all K2 homologues and synthetic K4 and K5 have proven nontoxic, the synthetic form K3 (menadione) has shown toxicity.[2]\n1.2 Cardiovascular health\n1.4 Coumarin poisoning\n4.1 Conversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2\n4.2 Vitamin K2\n6 Absorption and dietary need\n7 Dietary reference intake\n10 Biochemistry\n10.1 Function in animals\n10.2 Gamma-carboxyglutamate proteins\n10.3 Methods of assessment\n10.4 Function in bacteria\n11 Injection in newborns\n11.3 Controversy\nA review of 2014 concluded that there is positive evidence that monotherapy using MK-4, one of the forms of Vitamin K2, reduces fracture incidence in post-menopausal women with osteoporosis, and suggested further research on the combined use of MK-4 with bisphosphonates. In contrast, an earlier review article of 2013 concluded that there is no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation helps prevent osteoporosis or fractures in postmenopausal women.[3]\nA Cochrane systematic review of 2006 suggested that supplementation with Vitamin K1 and with MK4 reduces bone loss; in particular, a strong effect of MK-4 on incident fractures among Japanese patients was emphasized.[4]\nA review article of 2016 suggested to consider, as one of several measures for bone health, increasing the intake of foods rich in vitamins K1 and K2.[5]\nCardiovascular health[edit]\nAdequate intake of vitamin K is associated with the inhibition of arterial calcification and stiffening,[6] but there have been few interventional studies and no good evidence that vitamin K supplementation is of any benefit in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease.[7]\nOne 10-year population study, the Rotterdam Study, did show a clear and significant inverse relationship between the highest intake levels of menaquinone (mainly MK-4 from eggs and meat, and MK-8 and MK-9 from cheese) and cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in older men and women.[8]\nVitamin K has been promoted in supplement form with claims it can slow tumor growth; there is however no good medical evidence that supports such claims.[9]\nCoumarin poisoning[edit]\nVitamin K is part of the suggested treatment regime for poisoning by rodenticide (coumarin poisoning).[10]\nAlthough allergic reaction from supplementation is possible, no known toxicity is associated with high doses of the phylloquinone (vitamin K1) or menaquinone (vitamin K2) forms of vitamin K, so no tolerable upper intake level (UL) has been set.[11]\nBlood clotting (coagulation) studies in humans using 45 mg per day of vitamin K2 (as MK-4)[12] and even up to 135 mg per day (45 mg three times daily) of K2 (as MK-4),[13] showed no increase in blood clot risk. Even doses in rats as high as 250 mg/kg, body weight did not alter the tendency for blood-clot formation to occur.[14]\nUnlike the safe natural forms of vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 and their various isomers, a synthetic form of vitamin K, vitamin K3 (menadione), is demonstrably toxic at high levels. The U.S. FDA has banned this form from over-the-counter sale in the United States because large doses have been shown to cause allergic reactions, hemolytic anemia, and cytotoxicity in liver cells.[2]\nPhylloquinone (K1)[15][16] or menaquinone (K2) are capable of reversing the anticoagulant activity of the anticoagulant warfarin (tradename Coumadin). Warfarin works by blocking recycling of vitamin K, so that the body and tissues have lower levels of active vitamin K, and thus a deficiency of vitamin K.\nSupplemental vitamin K (for which oral dosing is often more active than injectable dosing in human adults) reverses the vitamin K deficiency caused by warfarin, and therefore reduces the intended anticoagulant action of warfarin and related drugs.[17] Sometimes small amounts of vitamin K are given orally to patients taking warfarin so that the action of the drug is more predictable.[17] The proper anticoagulant action of the drug is a function of vitamin K intake and drug dose, and due to differing absorption must be individualized for each patient.[citation needed] The action of warfarin and vitamin K both require two to five days after dosing to have maximum effect, and neither warfarin or vitamin K shows much effect in the first 24 hours after they are given.[18]\nThe newer anticoagulants dabigatran and rivaroxaban have different mechanisms of action that do not interact with vitamin K, and may be taken with supplemental vitamin K.[19][20]\nVitamin K2 (menaquinone). In menaquinone, the side chain is composed of a varying number of isoprenoid residues. The most common number of these residues is four, since animal enzymes normally produce menaquinone-4 from plant phylloquinone.\nA sample of phytomenadione for injection, also called phylloquinone\nThe three synthetic forms of vitamin K are vitamins K3 (menadione), K4, and K5, which are used in many areas, including the pet food industry (vitamin K3) and to inhibit fungal growth (vitamin K5).[21]\nConversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2[edit]\nVitamin K1 (phylloquinone) – both forms of the vitamin contain a functional naphthoquinone ring and an aliphatic side chain. Phylloquinone has a phytyl side chain.\nThe MK-4 form of vitamin K2 is produced by conversion of vitamin K1 in the testes, pancreas, and arterial walls.[22] While major questions still surround the biochemical pathway for this transformation, the conversion is not dependent on gut bacteria, as it occurs in germ-free rats[23][24] and in parenterally-administered K1 in rats.[25][26] In fact, tissues that accumulate high amounts of MK-4 have a remarkable capacity to convert up to 90% of the available K1 into MK-4.[27][28] There is evidence that the conversion proceeds by removal of the phytyl tail of K1 to produce menadione as an intermediate, which is then condensed with an activated geranylgeranyl moiety (see also prenylation) to produce vitamin K2 in the MK-4 (menatetrione) form.[29]\nVitamin K2[edit]\nMain article: Vitamin K2\nVitamin K2 (menaquinone) includes several subtypes. The two subtypes most studied are menaquinone-4 (menatetrenone, MK-4) and menaquinone-7 (MK-7).\nVitamin K1, the precursor of most vitamin K in nature, is a stereoisomer of phylloquinone, an important chemical in green plants, where it functions as an electron acceptor in photosystem I during photosynthesis. For this reason, vitamin K1 is found in large quantities in the photosynthetic tissues of plants (green leaves, and dark green leafy vegetables such as romaine lettuce, kale and spinach), but it occurs in far smaller quantities in other plant tissues (roots, fruits, etc.). Iceberg lettuce contains relatively little. The function of phylloquinone in plants appears to have no resemblance to its later metabolic and biochemical function (as \"vitamin K\") in animals, where it performs a completely different biochemical reaction.\nVitamin K (in animals) is involved in the carboxylation of certain glutamate residues in proteins to form gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residues. The modified residues are often (but not always) situated within specific protein domains called Gla domains. Gla residues are usually involved in binding calcium, and are essential for the biological activity of all known Gla proteins.[30]\nAt this time[update], 17 human proteins with Gla domains have been discovered, and they play key roles in the regulation of three physiological processes:\nBlood coagulation: prothrombin (factor II), factors VII, IX, and X, and proteins C, S, and Z[31]\nBone metabolism: osteocalcin, also called bone Gla protein (BGP), matrix Gla protein (MGP),[32] periostin,[33] and the recently discovered Gla-rich protein (GRP).[34][35]\nVascular biology: growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6)[36]\nUnknown function: proline-rich γ-carboxyglutamyl proteins (PRGPs) 1 and 2, and transmembrane γ-carboxy glutamyl proteins (TMGs) 3 and 4.[37]\nLike other lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D and E), vitamin K is stored in the fatty tissue of the human body.\nAbsorption and dietary need[edit]\nPrevious theory held that dietary deficiency is extremely rare unless the small intestine was heavily damaged, resulting in malabsorption of the molecule. Another at-risk group for deficiency were those subject to decreased production of K2 by normal intestinal microbiota, as seen in broad spectrum antibiotic use.[38] Taking broad-spectrum antibiotics can reduce vitamin K production in the gut by nearly 74% in people compared with those not taking these antibiotics.[39] Diets low in vitamin K also decrease the body's vitamin K concentration.[40] Those with chronic kidney disease are at risk for vitamin K deficiency, as well as vitamin D deficiency, and particularly those with the apoE4 genotype.[41] Additionally, in the elderly there is a reduction in vitamin K2 production.[42]\nThe National Academy of Medicine (NAM) updated an estimate of what constitutes an adequate intake (AI) for vitamin K in 2001. The NAM does not distinguish between K1 and K2 – both are counted as vitamin K. At that time there was not sufficient evidence to set the more rigorous estimated average requirement (EAR) or recommended dietary allowance (RDA) given for most of the essential vitamins and minerals. The current daily AIs for vitamin K for adult women and men are 90 μg and 120 μg respectively. The AI for pregnancy and lactation is 90 μg. For infants up to 12 months the AI is 2–2.5 μg, and for children aged 1 to 18 years the AI increases with age from 30 to 75 μg. As for safety, the FNB also sets tolerable upper intake levels (known as ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of vitamin K no UL is set, as evidence for adverse effects is not sufficient. Collectively EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as dietary reference intakes.[43] The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and did not set an UL.[44]\nFor U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percentage of daily value (%DV). For vitamin K labeling purposes the daily value was 80 μg, but as of May 2016 it has been revised upwards to 120 μg. A table of the pre-change adult daily values is provided at reference daily intake. Food and supplement companies have until 28 July 2018 to comply with the change.\nSee also: Vitamin K2 § Dietary sources\nK1 (μg)[45]\nKale, cooked\nCollards, cooked\nCollards, raw\nSwiss chard, cooked\nSwiss chard, raw\nTurnip greens, raw\nRomaine lettuce, raw\nTable from \"Important information to know when you are taking: Warfarin (Coumadin) and Vitamin K\", Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health Drug Nutrient Interaction Task Force.[46]\nVitamin K1 is found chiefly in leafy green vegetables such as dandelion greens (which contain 778.4 μg per 100 g, or 741% of the recommended daily amount), spinach, swiss chard, lettuce and Brassica vegetables (such as cabbage, kale, cauliflower, broccoli, and brussels sprouts) and often the absorption is greater when accompanied by fats such as butter or oils; some fruits, such as avocados, kiwifruit and grapes, are also high in vitamin K. By way of reference, two tablespoons of parsley contains 153% of the recommended daily amount of vitamin K.[47] Some vegetable oils, notably soybean oil, contain vitamin K, but at levels that would require relatively large calorie consumption to meet the USDA-recommended levels.[48] colonic bacteria synthesize a significant portion of humans' vitamin K needs; newborns often receive a vitamin K shot at birth to tide them over until their colons become colonized at five to seven days of age from the consumption of breast milk.\nThe tight binding of vitamin K1 to thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts makes it less bioavailable. For example, cooked spinach has a 5% bioavailability of phylloquinone, however, fat added to it increases bioavailability to 13% due to the increased solubility of vitamin K in fat.[49]\nMain article: Vitamin K deficiency\nAverage diets are usually not lacking in vitamin K, and primary deficiency is rare in healthy adults. Newborn infants are at an increased risk of deficiency. Other populations with an increased prevalence of vitamin K deficiency include those who suffer from liver damage or disease (e.g. alcoholics), cystic fibrosis, or inflammatory bowel diseases, or have recently had abdominal surgeries. Secondary vitamin K deficiency can occur in people with bulimia, those on stringent diets, and those taking anticoagulants. Other drugs associated with vitamin K deficiency include salicylates, barbiturates, and cefamandole, although the mechanisms are still unknown. Vitamin K1 deficiency can result in coagulopathy, a bleeding disorder.[50]Symptoms of K1 deficiency include anemia, bruising, nosebleeds and bleeding of the gums in both sexes, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women.\nOsteoporosis[51][52] and coronary heart disease[53][54] are strongly associated with lower levels of K2 (menaquinone). Vitamin K2 (as menaquinones MK-4 through MK-10) intake level is inversely related to severe aortic calcification and all-cause mortality.[8]\nFunction in animals[edit]\nMechanism of action of vitamin K1.\nThe function of vitamin K2 in the animal cell is to add a carboxylic acid functional group to a glutamate (Glu) amino acid residue in a protein, to form a gamma-carboxyglutamate (Gla) residue. This is a somewhat uncommon posttranslational modification of the protein, which is then known as a \"Gla protein\". The presence of two −COOH (carboxylic acid) groups on the same carbon in the gamma-carboxyglutamate residue allows it to chelate calcium ions. The binding of calcium ions in this way very often triggers the function or binding of Gla-protein enzymes, such as the so-called vitamin K-dependent clotting factors discussed below.\nWithin the cell, vitamin K undergoes electron reduction to a reduced form called vitamin K hydroquinone, catalyzed by the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR).[55] Another enzyme then oxidizes vitamin K hydroquinone to allow carboxylation of Glu to Gla; this enzyme is called gamma-glutamyl carboxylase[56][57] or the vitamin K-dependent carboxylase. The carboxylation reaction only proceeds if the carboxylase enzyme is able to oxidize vitamin K hydroquinone to vitamin K epoxide at the same time. The carboxylation and epoxidation reactions are said to be coupled. Vitamin K epoxide is then reconverted to vitamin K by VKOR. The reduction and subsequent reoxidation of vitamin K coupled with carboxylation of Glu is called the vitamin K cycle.[58] Humans are rarely deficient in vitamin K1 because, in part, vitamin K1 is continuously recycled in cells.[59]\nWarfarin and other 4-hydroxycoumarins block the action of VKOR.[60] This results in decreased concentrations of vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone in tissues, such that the carboxylation reaction catalyzed by the glutamyl carboxylase is inefficient. This results in the production of clotting factors with inadequate Gla. Without Gla on the amino termini of these factors, they no longer bind stably to the blood vessel endothelium and cannot activate clotting to allow formation of a clot during tissue injury. As it is impossible to predict what dose of warfarin will give the desired degree of clotting suppression, warfarin treatment must be carefully monitored to avoid overdose.\nGamma-carboxyglutamate proteins[edit]\nMain article: Gla domain\nThe following human Gla-containing proteins (\"Gla proteins\") have been characterized to the level of primary structure: blood coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII, IX, and X, anticoagulant proteins C and S, and the factor X-targeting protein Z. The bone Gla protein osteocalcin, the calcification-inhibiting matrix Gla protein (MGP), the cell growth regulating growth arrest specific gene 6 protein (Gas6), and the four transmembrane Gla proteins (TMGPs), the function of which is at present unknown. Gas6 can function as a growth factor to activate the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase and stimulate cell proliferation or prevent apoptosis in some cells. In all cases in which their function was known, the presence of the Gla residues in these proteins turned out to be essential for functional activity.\nGla proteins are known to occur in a wide variety of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. The venom of a number of Australian snakes acts by activating the human blood-clotting system. In some cases, activation is accomplished by snake Gla-containing enzymes that bind to the endothelium of human blood vessels and catalyze the conversion of procoagulant clotting factors into activated ones, leading to unwanted and potentially deadly clotting.\nAnother interesting class of invertebrate Gla-containing proteins is synthesized by the fish-hunting snail Conus geographus.[61] These snails produce a venom containing hundreds of neuroactive peptides, or conotoxins, which is sufficiently toxic to kill an adult human. Several of the conotoxins contain two to five Gla residues.[62]\nMethods of assessment[edit]\nVitamin K status can be assessed by:\nThe prothrombin time (PT) test measures the time required for blood to clot. A blood sample is mixed with citric acid and put in a fibrometer; delayed clot formation indicates a deficiency. This test is insensitive to mild deficiency, as the values do not change until the concentration of prothrombin in the blood has declined by at least 50%.[63]\nUndercarboxylated prothrombin (PIVKA-II); in a study of 53 newborns, found \"PT (prothrombin time) is a less sensitive marker than PIVKA II\",[64] and as indicated above, PT is unable to detect subclinical deficiencies that can be detected with PIVKA-II testing.\nPlasma phylloquinone was found to be positively correlated with phylloquinone intake in elderly British women, but not men,[65] but an article by Schurgers et al. reported no correlation between FFQ[further explanation needed] and plasma phylloquinone.[66]\nUrinary γ-carboxyglutamic acid responds to changes in dietary vitamin K intake. Several days are required before any change can be observed. In a study by Booth et al., increases of phylloquinone intakes from 100 μg to between 377 and 417 μg for five days did not induce a significant change. Response may be age-specific.[67]\nUndercarboxylated osteocalcin (UcOc) levels have been inversely correlated with stores of vitamin K[68] and bone strength in developing rat tibiae. Another study following 78 post-menopausal Korean women found a supplement regimen of vitamins K and D, and calcium, but not a regimen of vitamin D and calcium, was inversely correlated with reduced UcOc levels.[69]\nFunction in bacteria[edit]\nMany bacteria, such as Escherichia coli found in the large intestine, can synthesize vitamin K2 (menaquinone-7 or MK-7, up to MK-11),[70] but not vitamin K1 (phylloquinone). In these bacteria, menaquinone transfers two electrons between two different small molecules, during oxygen-independent metabolic energy production processes (anaerobic respiration).[71] For example, a small molecule with an excess of electrons (also called an electron donor) such as lactate, formate, or NADH, with the help of an enzyme, passes two electrons to menaquinone. The menaquinone, with the help of another enzyme, then transfers these two electrons to a suitable oxidant, such fumarate or nitrate (also called an electron acceptor). Adding two electrons to fumarate or nitrate converts the molecule to succinate or nitrite plus water, respectively.\nSome of these reactions generate a cellular energy source, ATP, in a manner similar to eukaryotic cell aerobic respiration, except the final electron acceptor is not molecular oxygen, but fumarate or nitrate. In aerobic respiration, the final oxidant is molecular oxygen (O2), which accepts four electrons from an electron donor such as NADH to be converted to water. E. coli, as facultative anaerobes, can carry out both aerobic respiration and menaquinone-mediated anaerobic respiration.\nInjection in newborns[edit]\nThe blood clotting factors of newborn babies are roughly 30–60% that of adult values; this may be due to the reduced synthesis of precursor proteins and the sterility of their guts. Human milk contains 1–4 μg/L of vitamin K1, while formula-derived milk can contain up to 100 μg/L in supplemented formulas. Vitamin K2 concentrations in human milk appear to be much lower than those of vitamin K1. Occurrence of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the first week of the infant's life is estimated at 0.25–1.7%, with a prevalence of 2–10 cases per 100,000 births.[72] Premature babies have even lower levels of the vitamin, so they are at a higher risk from this deficiency.\nBleeding in infants due to vitamin K deficiency can be severe, leading to hospitalization, blood transfusions, brain damage, and death. Supplementation can prevent most cases of vitamin K deficiency bleeding in the newborn. Intramuscular administration is more effective in preventing late vitamin K deficiency bleeding than oral administration.[73][74]\nAs a result of the occurrences of vitamin K deficiency bleeding, the Committee on Nutrition of the American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended 0.5–1 mg of vitamin K1 be administered to all newborns shortly after birth.[74]\nIn the UK vitamin K supplementation is recommended for all newborns within the first 24 hours.[75] This is usually given as a single intramuscular injection of 1 mg shortly after birth but as a second-line option can be given by three oral doses over the first month.[76]\nControversy arose in the early 1990s regarding this practice, when two studies suggested a relationship between parenteral administration of vitamin K and childhood cancer,[77] however, poor methods and small sample sizes led to the discrediting of these studies, and a review of the evidence published in 2000 by Ross and Davies found no link between the two.[78] Doctors reported emerging concerns in 2013,[79] after treating children for serious bleeding problems. They cited lack-of newborn vitamin K administration, as the reason that the problems occurred, and recommended that breastfed babies could have an increased risk unless they receive a preventative dose.\nIn the early 1930s, Danish scientist Henrik Dam investigated the role of cholesterol by feeding chickens a cholesterol-depleted diet.[80] He initially replicated experiments reported by scientists at the Ontario Agricultural College (OAC).[81] McFarlane, Graham and Richardson, working on the chick feed program at OAC, had used chloroform to remove all fat from chick chow. They noticed that chicks fed only fat-depleted chow developed hemorrhages and started bleeding from tag sites.[82] Dam found that these defects could not be restored by adding purified cholesterol to the diet. It appeared that – together with the cholesterol – a second compound had been extracted from the food, and this compound was called the coagulation vitamin. The new vitamin received the letter K because the initial discoveries were reported in a German journal, in which it was designated as Koagulationsvitamin. Edward Adelbert Doisy of Saint Louis University did much of the research that led to the discovery of the structure and chemical nature of vitamin K.[83] Dam and Doisy shared the 1943 Nobel Prize for medicine for their work on vitamin K (K1 and K2) published in 1939. Several laboratories synthesized the compound(s) in 1939.[84]\nFor several decades, the vitamin K-deficient chick model was the only method of quantifying vitamin K in various foods: the chicks were made vitamin K-deficient and subsequently fed with known amounts of vitamin K-containing food. The extent to which blood coagulation was restored by the diet was taken as a measure for its vitamin K content. Three groups of physicians independently found this: Biochemical Institute, University of Copenhagen (Dam and Johannes Glavind), University of Iowa Department of Pathology (Emory Warner, Kenneth Brinkhous, and Harry Pratt Smith), and the Mayo Clinic (Hugh Butt, Albert Snell, and Arnold Osterberg).[85]\nThe first published report of successful treatment with vitamin K of life-threatening hemorrhage in a jaundiced patient with prothrombin deficiency was made in 1938 by Smith, Warner, and Brinkhous.[86]\nThe precise function of vitamin K was not discovered until 1974, when three laboratories (Stenflo et al.,[87] Nelsestuen et al.,[88] and Magnusson et al.[89]) isolated the vitamin K-dependent coagulation factor prothrombin (factor II) from cows that received a high dose of a vitamin K antagonist, warfarin. It was shown that, while warfarin-treated cows had a form of prothrombin that contained 10 glutamate (Glu) amino acid residues near the amino terminus of this protein, the normal (untreated) cows contained 10 unusual residues that were chemically identified as γ-carboxyglutamate (Gla). The extra carboxyl group in Gla made clear that vitamin K plays a role in a carboxylation reaction during which Glu is converted into Gla.\nThe biochemistry of how vitamin K is used to convert Glu to Gla has been elucidated over the past thirty years in academic laboratories throughout the world.\n^ \"Vitamin K Overview\". University of Maryland Medical Center. ^ a b Higdon, Jane (Feb 2008). \"Vitamin K\". Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. Retrieved 12 Apr 2008. ^ Hamidi, M. S.; Gajic-Veljanoski, O.; Cheung, A. M. (2013). \"Vitamin K and bone health\". Journal of Clinical Densitometry (Review). 16 (4): 409–413. doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2013.08.017. 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PMC 413996. PMID 140652. ^ Shearer, M. J. (Jan 1995). \"Vitamin K\". Lancet. 345 (8944): 229–234. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(95)90227-9. PMID 7823718. ^ Greer, J. P.; Foerster, J.; Lukens, J. N.; Rodgers, G. M.; Paraskevas, F.; Glader, B. (eds.). Wintrobe's Clinical Hematology (11th ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkens. ^ a b American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus Newborn. (Jul 2003). \"Controversies concerning vitamin K and the newborn. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn\" (PDF). Pediatrics. 112 (1.1): 191–192. doi:10.1542/peds.112.1.191. PMID 12837888. ^ Logan, S.; Gilbert, R. (1998). \"Vitamin K For Newborn Babies\" (PDF). Department of Health. Retrieved 12 Oct 2014. ^ \"Postnatal care: Routine postnatal care of women and their babies [CG37]\". www.nice.org.uk. NICE. Jul 2006. Retrieved 12 Oct 2014. ^ Parker, L.; Cole, M.; Craft, A. W.; Hey, E. N. (1998). \"Neonatal vitamin K administration and childhood cancer in the north of England: retrospective case-control study\". BMJ (Clinical Research Edition). 316 (7126): 189–193. doi:10.1136/bmj.316.7126.189. PMC 2665412. PMID 9468683. ^ McMillan, D. D. (1997). \"Routine administration of vitamin K to newborns\". Paediatric Child Health. 2 (6): 429–431. ^ \"Newborns get rare disorder after parents refused shots\". Having four cases since February just at Vanderbilt was a little bit concerning to me ^ Dam, C. P. H. (1935). \"The Antihaemorrhagic Vitamin of the Chick: Occurrence And Chemical Nature\". Nature. 135 (3417): 652–653. doi:10.1038/135652b0. ^ Dam, C. P. H. (1941). \"The discovery of vitamin K, its biological functions and therapeutical application\" (PDF). Nobel Prize Laureate Lecture. ^ McAlister, V. C. (2006). \"Control of coagulation: a gift of Canadian agriculture\" (PDF). Clinical and Investigative Medicine. 29 (6): 373–377. ^ MacCorquodale, D. W.; Binkley, S. B.; Thayer, S. A.; Doisy, E. A. (1939). \"On the constitution of Vitamin K1\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 61 (7): 1928–1929. doi:10.1021/ja01876a510. ^ Fieser, L. F. (1939). \"Synthesis of Vitamin K1\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 61 (12): 3467–3475. doi:10.1021/ja01267a072. ^ Dam, C. P. H. (12 Dec 1946). \"The discovery of vitamin K, its biological functions and therapeutical application\" (PDF). Nobel Prize lecture. ^ Warner, E. D.; Brinkhous, K. M.; Smith, H. P. (1938). \"Bleeding Tendency of Obstructive Jaundice\". Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine. 37 (4): 628–630. doi:10.3181/00379727-37-9668P. ^ Stenflo, J; Fernlund, P.; Egan, W.; Roepstorff, P. (Jul 1974). \"Vitamin K dependent modifications of glutamic acid residues in prothrombin\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (7): 2730–2733. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.7.2730. PMC 388542. PMID 4528109. ^ Nelsestuen, G. L.; Zytkovicz, T. H.; Howard, J. B. (Oct 1974). \"The mode of action of vitamin K. Identification of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid as a component of prothrombin\" (PDF). Journal of Biological Chemistry. 249 (19): 6347–6350. PMID 4214105. ^ Magnusson, S.; Sottrup-Jensen, L.; Petersen, T. E.; Morris, H. R.; Dell, A. (Aug 1974). \"Primary structure of the vitamin K-dependent part of prothrombin\". FEBS Letters. 44 (2): 189–193. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(74)80723-4. PMID 4472513. Bibliography[edit]\nRhéaume-Bleue, Kate (2012). Vitamin K2 and the Calcium Paradox. John Wiley & Sons, Canada. ISBN 1-118-06572-7. External links[edit]\n\"Vitamin K: Another Reason to Eat Your Greens\". v\nTPP / ThDP (B1)\nFMN, FAD (B2)\nNAD+, NADH, NADP+, NADPH (B3)\nCoenzyme A (B5)\nPLP / P5P (B6)\nTHFA / H4FA, DHFA / H2FA, MTHF (B9)\nAdoCbl, MeCbl (B12)\nPhylloquinone (K1), Menaquinone (K2)\nnon-vitamins\nCoenzyme B\nHeme / Haem (A, B, C, O)\nMolybdopterin/Molybdenum cofactor\nTHMPT / H4MPT\nFe2+, Fe3+\nvitamins: see vitamins\nAntihemorrhagics (B02)\n(coagulation)\nPhytomenadione (K1)\nMenadione (K3)\nintrinsic: IX/Nonacog alfa\nVIII/Moroctocog alfa/Turoctocog alfa\nextrinsic: VII/Eptacog alfa\ncommon: X\nII/Thrombin\nI/Fibrinogen\nXIII/Catridecacog\ncombinations: Prothrombin complex concentrate (II, VII, IX, X, protein C and S)\nCarbazochrome\nthrombopoietin receptor agonist (Romiplostim\nEltrombopag)\nTetragalacturonic acid hydroxymethylester\nEpinephrine/Adrenalone\namino acids (Aminocaproic acid\nAminomethylbenzoic acid)\nserpins (Aprotinin\nAlfa1 antitrypsin\nCamostat).", "answers": ["Symptoms of vitamin K deficiency include anemia, bruising, nosebleeds, bleeding of the gums, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women."], "length": 7146, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "ad753e5807afddae5d0a133de86b5224cb074edfcc9477bf"}
{"input": "What is the definition of mobile device management (MDM)?", "context": "Hospitals as critical infrastructures has been historically dependent on various types of devices and equipment that are being revolutionized with digitalized solutions. The digitalization of conventional healthcare equipment is added with the new inclusion of numerous new devices for data collection, analysis, communication, and so on. All in all, the futures digital hospitals in 5G will be exponentially more data-dependent and digital-intensive. For that, this paper looks to theorize how the security scenario in a futures digital hospital would look like, and what relevant business possibilities could emerge for cybersecurity providers in the healthcare context. In this paper, we open up discussions on business possibilities relevant to Internet of Things-mobile device management for critical infrastructures such as future digital hospital. We apply business models as a conceptual lens to analyze how cybersecurity business could evolve for 5G enabled IoT-Mobile device management providers as a cybersecurity vendor.\nThe healthcare sector has progressed significantly since the introduction of Internet and proliferation of network technologies . Among many issues, the use of data, availability of data, data mass, and access control of data in healthcare remain are critical for keeping healthcare services trustworthy and secure for the end users, both hospital staff and the patients. Disruptions in healthcare services would have severe effects on people’s lives. However, as hospital managers and professionals need to design their data-dependent and digital-intensive networks in a manner, which is highly secure, they also should provide the basis for uninterrupted service for business sustainability. Security is often observed as a tradeoff between risk and business gains . Investing in security is important in order to secure business-critical systems and data for meeting business goals and eventually for creating competitive advantage [3, 4].\nInnovative technologies have the power to disrupt industries and prompt business transformation . The coming of fifth generation (5G) of telecommunications networks is seen to result in this kind of disruption. As we are gradually moving towards 5G, it is worthwhile to theorize how the security scenario in a futures digital hospital would look like, and what relevant business possibilities could emerge from cybersecurity in the healthcare context. From this perspective, in this paper, we open up discussions on business possibilities relevant to Internet of Things mobile device management for critical infrastructures such as future digital hospital. We apply business models as a conceptual lens to analyze how cybersecurity business could evolve for 5G enabled IoT device management providers as a cybersecurity vendor.\nA futures digital hospital facility is envisioned to consist tech-aided advanced critical medical devices, intelligent information systems, digital communication tools, hundreds of handheld mobile devices (smartphones, tablets), wireless clinical wearables, in addition to thousands of smart IoT nodes [6, 7]. These devices should be fully integrated to improve staff productivity, hospital functions, patient safety and privacy, and, overall improve patient experience through secure and reliable healthcare services. However, inclusion of these various kinds of digital devices to the hospital context make the overall device network quite complex and heterogeneous . Thus, from a critical infrastructures view point, to manage, configure, update and secure the immense fleet of digital devices besides all the high-tech medical equipment, the futures digital hospital will need to redefine device management policy and services .\nMobile device management (MDM) systems are usually referred to “support centralized control of an entire fleet of mobile devices (smartphones and tablets) and mobile applications by applying and ensuring pre-defined configuration settings” [8, 9]. In the scope of this paper, we broadly use the term IoT-MDM to refer to a device management system that is capable of managing, configuring and updating both handheld mobile devices and IoT devices in combination in a centralized manner. We will briefly open up the concept of MDM and IoT-MDM.\nThe purpose of this study is to identify business potential for IoT-MDM service providers as cybersecurity vendor in the context of the future digital hospital. In doing so, we apply the concept of business model in order to make sense of a ICT-oriented business environment . Among various available conceptualizations, business model is considered as a boundary-spanning unit of analysis that explain the underlying business logic and the value creation and value capturing logic of an organization [11–15].\nTraditionally, device management has been associated with management and configuration of handheld mobile devices , thus, mobile device management (MDM). Gartner  perceives MDM software to be a policy tool to configure and manage mobile handheld devices. They also mark that MDM services need to ensure security in reference to connectivity and content that is being transmitted. Along with surge of smart mobile devices, the Internet of Things (IoT) is growing large during the last few years and promises to flood the market with billions of devices in the coming years too . Zhang et al.  states scalability, transparency and reliability as important issues that differentiates IoT from the conventional Internet. To that end, there are several IoT platforms available currently in the market for managing, updating and configuring IoT nodes, e.g. IBM Bluemix, Cumulocity, ARM mbed OS, etc. . However, the transition raises the question about the differences and similarities between MDM and IoT device management as approaches.\nTakalo  marks MDM and IoT device management to be quite close on a conceptual level: both need solution for automated management of large device fleets consisting different form factors, device models, and operating system. Additionally, such systems conceptually needs to support various communication channels like: WiFi, cellular network and Ethernet. However, on practical level, MDM is more strictly controlled by operating systems and device vendors. IoT device management, on the other hand, is characterized by multiple operating systems, multiple hardware platform variations, non-complete standards, multiple communication methods and protocols. This agile approach allows the coexistence of various types of devices and nodes in the same environment. Recently, services are appearing where MDM and IoT device management are brought together under the same platform, which in a way reduces the complexity in device management and also improves the overall security of the system.\nWhile we are still in early phase of mass IoT deployment and 5G deployment is approaching, it is important to revisit some of the key security threats that has been identified in recent literature relevant mainly to IoT. Zhang et al. [19, 21] identified privacy preservation as a critical issue for information security in IoT ecosystems. They further state that conventional naming, identification and authentication policies need to be improved and rather needs approaching differently. Farooq et al.  look at the four layer generic IoT architecture consisting perception layer, network layer, middle-ware layer & application layer. Additionally, they offer a list of security challenges for each layer. Some of the key challenges are: unauthorized access, tag cloning, eavesdropping, spoofing, RF jamming, sinkhole attack, sleep deprivation attack, denial of service attack, malicious code injection, man-in-the-middle attack, spear-phishing attack, sniffing attack. Backman et al.  state, a comprehensive security solution needs to address endpoint security, management and monitoring security, and secure data distribution and storage.\nOrtbach et al.  enumerate the drivers for adoption of MDM in organization through a quantitative analysis, reflecting three broad drivers: organization, environment, and technology. From organizational perspective, the company size, mobile IT usage, employee innovativeness with IT and BYOD (bring your own device) culture were identified as important drivers. From environmental viewpoint, regulations and other business partner influence are significant drivers for MDM adoption. Finally, from technology point of view, perceived security benefits and perceived cost of the service seems to affect the managerial attitude towards MDM adoption.\nMDM systems are today a very common tool to manage users’ devices. With MDM, all mobile device types, tablets and PCs with typical operating systems can be controlled centrally . It is often thought that MDM can manage only mobile phones, but actually the MDM framework includes also users’ identities and profiles. This makes MDM a viable tool for organizations to manage their employees identities, user profiles, all devices, all applications and security controls under same system.\nFrom an emerging technology perspective, SDN (software-defined network)/NFV (network functions virtualization) based 5G Slicing will challenge some of the traditional MDM features . Especially end-to-end security from device to IT cloud is difficult to realize with MDM. Of course, it is possible to force the use of VPN in mobile device with MDM, but many aspects of communications security will be still unsolved. Thus, 5G slicing provides new tools to control and manage the end-to-end communications flow with network functions (VNFs). In the advent of IoT, this is particularly important since the billions of IoT devices of the 2020s will have only a minimal processing power and memory compared to the smart phones of today. These IoT devices may connect to network only once a month and communicate only with network edge cloud servers. Therefore, managing these new IoT devices cannot be done with conventional MDM systems of today.\nFortunately, many features of MDM can be provided by dedicated 5G slices and their VNFs. If e.g. a IoT device does not have the latest anti-virus updates, the network slice may still provide the isolation and security controls so that the IoT device can send the metering data. Moreover, if the IP flow from the IoT device includes other than actual metering data, eg. due to malware in IoT device, this IP flow can be analyzed and filtered by slice specific VNFs before passing it to IoT could.\nAs a summary, it can be argued that SDN/NFV based 5G Slicing will provide new tools for security management, and, when combined with IoT-MDM system functionalities, together these can deliver a better device management framework for different kinds of user devices of the 2020s.\nHospital organizations are considered as critical infrastructure (CI) to nation states [3, 25]. As a critical infrastructure, hospital organizations are prone to security threats that can affect health policies, public health, healthcare services, surgical procedures, electronic patient records, patient privacy, doctor-patient communication, etc. Lehto and Ahokangas  notes, new technology (e.g. next generation mobile networks, smart data storage, IoT) adoption of CIs increases the cybersecurity touchpoints and hence making the CIs more vulnerable. Broadly, from cybersecurity perspective, the hospital organizations in future will be vulnerable from management perspective (e.g. organizing healthcare services, managing huge amount of patient data, clinical data, medication data, communication between health professional and patients etc.), healthcare service delivery perspective (e.g. in an unwelcoming case of denial of service attacks in hospital context: like wannacry), network perspective (e.g. security of the overall hospital network), and last but not the least from an individual privacy perspective (e.g. individual patient records, healthcare professional logs, etc.).\nA futures digital hospital will consist various advanced technologies, such as critical medical devices, intelligent information systems and digital communication tools, which are fully integrated to improve staff productivity, hospital operations, patient safety, and the overall patient experience. Among them, many will be wireless mobile devices, wireless wearables and thousands of smart IoT devices for various kinds of measurements .\nInnovations help transform healthcare in forms of advanced telecommunications techonology, new drugs and treatments like biological sensor pills or implants, new medical devices, social media interation, etc. [1, 6, 7]. In future, hospitals and surgical tools will be revolutionized with intelligence and connectivity i.e. providing more assistive functions by sensors, processors, data collection, software algorithms and interfaces which are, for example, embedded in the tools that will support surgeon’s decision-making in action . Robotic-assisted Surgery (RAS) can be considered as a good example of such transformation. The rapid adoption of Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS) and today’s information revolution not only improves the surgical outcomes and patient’s life but also changes the patient-physician relationship.\n‘Smart’ i.e. IoT-based technologies are going to intellectualize medical devices and service systems into Smart Hospitals. Smart hospitals extrapolate from totally digitalized and automated data collection, tracking and delivery between systems, devices, patients, and health professionals and organization . In future, it is also envisioned that virtual hospitals and personalized medication will become part of patient care. Patients will be able to visit virtual hospitals or e-clinincs for clinical purposes without the presence of health professionals, but procedures and communication are managed via remote management and telemedicine solutions .\nOther features that futures digital hospitals will include: use of different AR (augmented reality) and VR (virtual reality) applications for healthcare related purposes. While VR applications are quickly evolving in the gaming industry, some applications are deemed suitable in hospital environment too. Patients can be introduced to hospital environment through VR solutions, which can reduce patient stress prior to surgical procedures . Another application of VR in healthcare has been identified as rehabilitation support for temporary physical disabilities and mental trauma. Further, AR solutions can help patients navigate within a large hospital complex.\nThe term, Business model, has had its root in information systems (IS) and information communication technology (ICT) since the late 1970s originating from business informatics. However, it came into management and strategic management literature as a research interest from the mid-1990s [29, 30]. Although business model had its roots in IS and ICT, the amount of research work on cyber security as a context is still quite negligible harnessing the potential of business model concept.\nThe concept of business models lies at the intersection of entrepreneurship and strategy, it can be observed as a bridge between abstract strategies and the practical implementation of strategic decisions and actions amidst the uncertainties of the modern business context [11–14, 31]. For instance, Zott and Amit  conceptualize business model as a ‘boundary-spanning’ set of activities aimed at creating and appropriating value. Morris et al.  viewed the concept of the business model as a set of decisions related to the venture strategy, architecture, and economics of firm (value creation and capture) that need addressing to create sustainable competitive advantage in the chosen markets and specific contexts.\nAs a boundary-spanning unit of analysis, business models , connects an organization with its business environment, other organizations, customers, individuals and society as well; with the overall ecosystem at large [34, 35]. Trying to bridge business models and cyber security under current context, there are two core issues. First, as almost all of the entities operating within the digital sphere face multifaceted cyber threats, how can business model approach help organizations to respond to such situations? Second, how can business model approach help to identify opportunities and monetize security in future 5G? In the next two sub-chapters, we present two business model approaches that are suitable for ICT contexts, and, can help find answers to the above mentioned questions.\nAs the mobile telecommunications industry advanced, so did business model related discussions in the literature about extending organizational boundaries through vertical and horizontal integration in industries . Around this, Wirtz et al.  offered four mutually exclusive business models classifying Internet based business models to be precise. According to Wirtz et al. , these business models present in Web 2.0 are related to connection, content, context, and commerce. Building further, Yrjölä et al.  interpreted these business models as chronological layers, where “lower” layer business models are pre-requisites for the “higher” layer business models to exist.\nFigure 1 The layered 4C ICT business models archetypes [Adapted from 35, 37, 38].\nThe first layer is concerned with connection-related business model where a stakeholder provides connection services . Connection- related business models are relevant to connectivity for all sorts of devices and nodes through various communication channels, e.g. PCs, smartphones, tablets, IoT devices, etc. The second layer is the business model focusing on monetizing content. At the content layer, all sorts of online content services (e.g. mobile video streaming) are classified (i.e. relevant, up-to-date and interesting) and are accessible conveniently for the end user. The content might be peer-to-peer/user-oriented contents (i.e. exchange of personal content), and web browsing content (audio, video, text etc.).\nThe third, context, layer concerns the ability to create and monetize user, content, equipment/user device and system profiles and turn (big) data into meaningful information and knowledge through systemic virtual contextualization. The fourth layer concerns commerce, the ability to monetize any or all of the connection, content, or context specific resources, actors or activities related to the ongoing communications. At this layer, we identify business, consumer and public/government types of communications . Thus, B2B (business-to-business), B2C and B2G communications as well as C2B, C2C and C2G or G2B, G2C and G2G communications may be monetized at this layer.\nCasdesus-Masanell and Llanes’s  offers different software business models based on the openness of core software and extension software offering. According to the mixed source software business model approach, services can be: open source (open core- open extension), open core (open core- closed extension), open extensions (closed core- open extension) and proprietary (closed core- closed extension). Although this model was offered specifically suiting the software industry, we argue that similar approach can be useful in other ICT contexts to scale up value offering by adjusting cooperation and industrial partnering model.\nFigure 2 Mixed source business model approach [Adapted form 40].\nDepending on individual organization’s choice of mixed source options, it should eventually translate the value creation and value capture logic of the firm. Casadesus-Masanell & Llanes  argues that purely proprietary models results in higher captured value for organizations but lessens the scope of value creation for users. In contrast, purely open source models can deliver the maximum value to customers but reduce captured value. The key for organizations is to locate the best mix of openness-closeness for an optimum level of value capture and creation. From the business model elements collection, the mixed source approach explain key partners, key activities, key resources and technologies used. From a strategic perspective, this approach to business modeling helps an organization to find a way to scale up or down its business activities.\nThis study concerns business possibilities of IoT and mobile device management in the context of futures digital hospital. Since future is elusive and the speed of technology advancements has been rapid during recent decades, we consider the most suitable method for conducting this research to be through qualitative approach. Qualitative methods helps with flexibility and sensitivity to the context that is less explored, and it can facilitate understanding of how things work in a particularly complex setting . We adopt a single qualitative case study approach for this research to explain underlying business potential of a scantly explored industrial context within the existing literature .\nInterview 1 Pediatric Surgery Administration, teaching, hospital development, technology and innovations Pediatric surgery patient journey, concept development of futures digital hospital, digitalization in healthcare.\nWorkshop 1 Network specialists, operator service provider, cybersecurity expert Business opportunity creation, new market exploration, security aspects Digitalization in healthcare, security business opportunities in health domain, business modeling.\nWorkshop 2 Operator service provider, cybersecurity expert Business opportunity creation, new market exploration, security aspects Digitalization in healthcare, security business opportunities in health domain, business modeling.\nTable 1 summarizes the data used for this research. The empirical data used for this study was collected through two streams. First, in order to build the conceptual case of future digital hospitals, five interviews were conducted with pediatric surgery specialists, a nurse, and a general physician from two hospital districts in Finland. These semi-structured interviews were organized between April and May 2016. These interviews also focused on understanding the journey path in a pediatrics surgery case to clarify suitability of digitalization in the future. However, in the scope of this paper, we do not discuss the patient journey pediatrics surgery in detail. Second, we explored the cybersecurity and business perspectives in two workshops that were organized with telecommunications and cybersecurity experts from the industry. One of the workshops were organized in November 2016. The other workshop took place in August 2017. While the futures digital hospital context from a security perspective relates more towards hospital management and network functionality, the IoT devices and mobile devices perspective is closer to end user security needs. This paper focuses on the cyber security related business opportunities through IoT-MDM systems/services that broadly covers the above mentioned domains. Findings and analysis from the interviews and workshops are presented next.\nIn this section, we present our analysis in four steps. First, we briefly discuss the relevance of Internet business models (4C)  to the context of the study, addressing how this approach can help cybersecurity providers identify business opportunities in IoT-MDM. Second, we present a 4-quadrant matrix reflecting four different 5G security-provisioning scenarios, which are also relevant to IoT-MDM. Then, we connect each scenario back to business models by applying a mixed-source business model approach  and identify different possible business models for each kind of cybersecurity provider. Finally, we connect the overall discussion back to the case of future digital hospital.\nThe 4C business model archetypes helps decoding the boundaries between multiple business models operating either in the same verticals of the ecosystem or in the same horizontals. These archetypes can provide with a basis to classify and analyze business models of suppliers, competitors, and, at the same time, business models of customers. For this case, the 4C business model archetypes are mostly relevant for cybersecurity providers and IoT-MDM system/service providers as a tool to analyze customer business models and identify customer needs, the hospital management style. These customer needs can eventually be turned around as business opportunities. While IoT-MDM systems and services are not only concerned about cybersecurity, there is room for service providers to customize and tailor services based on customer needs. These service providers either can target customers from one layer (connection/content/context/commerce) across multiple industries, or, they can also target a specific industry (e.g. healthcare) create customized services for all the layers in that industry.\nTo make sense of the overall cybersecurity provisioning for future 5G, we created the 4-quadrant matrix (Figure 3) by identifying major security drivers for new business creation in future 5G. These scenarios were created in workshops with telecommunication & cybersecurity experts from the industry. While these service provisioning scenarios are relevant to overall 5G, they are also significantly related to the case of IoT-MDM system/services.\nFigure 3 Scenarios for 5G cybersecurity provisioning [Adapted from 35].\nAs a result, we find four major drivers of security, which potentially will come with new business opportunities in the 5G era. Device driven security comprises distributed and D2D security techniques. Platform driven security will focus on centralized and D2D security techniques. Whereas, network infrastructure driven security should focus on centralized and infrastructure security methods. Lastly, location driven security should harness distributed and infrastructure security techniques.\nIn a quest to identify potential business entities operating in each of the quadrants relevant to device management, we recognize a ‘secure device manufacturer/provider’ focuses on device-driven security. Currently, multiple device manufacturers are developing devices where security features are built-in, regardless of which network or websites the users are accessing. This built-in security can be offered to multiple kinds of devices including smartphones, tablets, pcs, wearables, and even to IoT devices with communication and computation capability. These secure devices are built in a way that it will control access to potentially harmful networks, websites, and content; even without any commercially available security applications installed. However, when a customer enterprise (e.g. the future digital hospital) is buying a fleet of hundreds of such secure devices, the question raises how to manage and configure all these devices from time-to-time. In such a case, even the secure devices will need IoT-MDM services for proper management and seamless upgrading when needed.\nFor the platform-driven security, we observe a ‘traditional IoT-MDM system provider’ can be a good example. In many cases, IoT-MDM system providers are selling there device management systems to enterprises directly. And, in other cases, they are selling the service through MNO’s bundled with connectivity and/or infrastructure. While as network infrastructure-driven security, a ‘mobile network operator/carrier’ or a ‘network infrastructure vendor’ can build own IoT-MDM system to offer their clients as well. And, finally, a location-specific micro operator can offer location-driven security. Micro operators offer mobile connectivity combined with specific, local services. The operation of a micro operator is spatially confined to either its premises or to a defined area of operation. As a part of the location-specific services, these micro operators can also offer IoT-MDM services for the users through outsourcing.\nFurther, we attempt to connect the aforementioned classification and examples of different players offering IoT-MDM services with the mixed source business model approach. Table 2 summarizes our understanding on how each kind of cybersecurity provider can open and mix the core value creation logic for end users. As mentioned previously, the mixed-source business model options are: open source (open core, open extensions), open core (open core, closed extensions), open extensions (closed core, open extensions), and proprietary (closed core, closed extensions). In relation to these mixed-source options, we analyze the plausible options for each of the four distinct cybersecurity providers in the context of this study.\nSecure device manufacturer/provider Secure devices Proprietary (own device, own IoT-MDM platform), Open extensions (own device, outsourced IoT-MDM service).\nFrom a secure device manufacturer perspective, device business can be considered as the core operation whereas IoT-MDM services would be extended solution. A secure device manufacturer/provider can have either a proprietary model or an open extensions model. In the proprietary model, the secure device manufacturer will offer their own devices alongwith their own IoT-MDM system/service. This is a viable case in a sense that customers who are purchasing the fleet of secure devices might prefer the IoT-MDM service from the same vendor, which is ideally less risk prone. Generally, when a customer organization buys a fleet of secure devices, they would expect the device management functions to be offered by the same service provider since integration of multiple systems/interfaces might increase vulnerability and reduce the customer’s confidence on the system. However, in practice, not all secure device manufacturer will specialize in automated device management solutions, and new R&D expenses to develop the IoT-MDM systems could result to be financially unfeasible. So, the second option for a secure device manufacturer is to have an open extensions model, where they will still offer the secure devices but outsource the IoT-MDM services to other vendors.\nA micro operator’s core business relates to location specific network, while they are offering additional location specific services as extensions. Ideally, a micro operator’s business model in this case can be considered to be open source. At one hand micro operators are dependent on appropriate available spectrum resources on carriers and NIVs, and on the other hand, outsourcing the IoT-MDM services to other vendors seems more economically feasible than building own system. In contrast, a traditional IoT-MDM system/ service provider can have either a direct-open extensions business model or an indirect-open extensions business model. Unlike the other three archetypes in this discussion, IoT-MDM system/services are the core business for this kind of actor, as device and network related issues can be considered as extensions. An IoT-MDM system/service provider is characteristically dependent on connectivity providers, i.e. MNOs, NIVs. In a direct-open extensions business model, while they are selling the IoT-MDM service directly to the end users, they are using the operator connectivity, but delivering their core value directly. Alternatively, in an indirect-open extensions business model, these IoT-MDM vendors can sell the services through MNOs/NIVs/device vendors to the end users.\nFinally, a mobile network operator can either have an open extensions business model, or less likely a proprietary business model for IoT-MDM services. In an open extensions business model, operators will offer own connectivity to end users while outsourcing the IoT-MDM service to vendors. In very few cases though, operators might have their own IoT-MDM system on offering and thus they can sell both connectivity and IoT-MDM service as a proprietary bundle.\nLooking back at the case of futures digital hospital, it is deemed to comprise various advanced technology-aided devices, let it be for clinical purposes or communications purpose that support healthcare. With the presence of devices like smartphones, tablets, wearables, connected TVs, VR touchpoints, AR touchpoints, robotic assistance for surgeries, thousands of smart IoT devices, makes the overall device network of the digital hospital complex and need automated centralized management. This centralized management of numerous IoT and mobile devices can be delivered through IoT-MDM system/services. Using the IoT-MDM system/service, the hospital organization can configure, secure, and time-to-time update their device network.\nWhile procuring IoT-MDM services, the above analysis shows that futures digital hospitals can source it either directly from IoT-MDM service providers or through MNOs. Alternatively, if a digital hospital also plays the role of a micro operator, besides offering other location-specific services, the micro operator can also offer device management services by sourcing it from other vendors. In other cases, the future digital hospital can procure fleet of secure devices for the hospital from whom they can also source the device management service as a bundle. From the 4C business models perspective, the hospital organization seems to be a single organizational entity where different activities can be categorized in the 4C layers. Cybersecurity providers can specify and address such issues to highlight and customize their service offering for the future digital hospital.\nIn this article, we have looked at the futures digital hospital context from a device management perspective, and attempted to portray business model options based on how to create and capture economic value from cybersecurity business. Though in this research, we adopt a high-level stance on cybersecurity from a technical perspective, the overall discussions on business potential are relevant to issues like information security, communication security, storage security, security at vulnerable touchpoints in hospital context (end user interface layer, IoT nodes, system layer, network layer).\nFutures digital hospitals will be vulnerable to cybersecurity threats because of its data-dependency and digital-intensive device network. Thus, the business opportunity for cybersecurity providers in this case can be considered as the need for automated and centralized IoT-MDM service. To that end, this paper presents four distinct players who can provide such service to a critical infrastructure like a digital hospital. The mixed-source business model options further open up multiple alternatives that each type of vendor can consider while tailoring services for the future digital hospital . This paper also connects the 4C ICT business model archetypes to cybersecurity business context which can be used as an analytical tool to identify customer needs and scope for value creation .\nAcademically, this work contributes by filling up the void in discussing business models for cybersecurity as an industry. In addition, in the existing literature the hospital context has also been less discussed from a cybersecurity business perspective. From an industrial point of view, the business model options discussed in this research are timely and relevant to the market context and need. As mentioned, the mixed source business model options show how cybersecurity providers can extend their offering for different kinds of need for the hospital context based on their core businesses. This study can prove to be helpful for cybersecurity business entities and at the same time hospital managers. The scope of this paper explains business potential of cybersecurity vendors to an emerging industry from a higher level. In this paper, authors do not attempt to analyze the technical aspect of cyber security provisioning in healthcare context, however that is a forthcoming research possibility of this study. Also, since this research is based on a conceptual phenomenon, thus its empirical validation, both qualitatively and quantitatively is still yet to come, which can be considered as a limitation of the study.\nAll in all, we consider that applying a business perspective to IoT-MDM systems can solve many challenges of a modern mobile IT environment, not only in healthcare but also in other kinds of critical infrastructures . These IoT-MDM systems can be provided by various kind of vendors through a balanced and timely business model.\nThis study has been supported by the DIMECC Cyber Trust – Digital cyber security program.\n Lehto, I., and Ahokangas, P. (2017). “Mobile Security Business Models for Critical Infrastructures – An Ecosystemic Approach”, in Proceedings of the 24th Nordic Academy of Management Conference 2017, Bodo, Norway.\n Loebbecke, C., and Picot, A. (2015). 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(2015). “Critical infrastructure protection: requirements and challenges for the 21st century”, in International Journal of Critical Infrastructure Protection, 8, 53–66.\n Sutherland, J., and van den Heuvel, W. J. A. M. (2006). Towards an intelligent hospital environment: adaptive workflow in the OR of the future. In System Sciences, 2006. HICSS’06, in Proceedings of the 39th Annual Hawaii International Conference, 5, 100b–100b. IEEE.\n Haq, M. M. (2008). U.S. Patent No. 7,412,396. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.\n Spector, N. D., Cull, W., Daniels, S. R., Gilhooly, J., Hall, J., Horn, I., and Stanton, B. F. (2014). Gender and generational influences on the pediatric workforce and practice. Pediatrics, 133, 1112–1121.\n Wirtz, B. W. (2011). Business model management. Design–Instrumente–Erfolgsfaktoren von Geschäftsmodellen, 2.\n Gomes, J. F., Ahokangas, P., and Owusu, K. A. (2016). Business modeling facilitated cyber preparedness. Int. J. Business & Cyber Security, 1, 54–67.\n Richardson, J. (2008). The business model: an integrative framework for strategy execution. Strategic change, 17, 133–144.\n Morris, M., Schindehutte, M., and Allen, J. (2005). The entrepreneur’s business model: toward a unified perspective. J. Business Res. 58, 726–735.\n Zott, C., Amit, R., and Massa, L. (2011). The business model: recent developments and future research. J. Manage. 37, 1019–1042.\n Gomes, J.F., Iivari, M., Ahokangas, P., Isotalo, L., Sahlin, B., and Melen, J. (Forthcoming, in press), Cyber security business models in 5G. Comprehensive guide to 5G security, Wiley Publishers, London.\n Ballon, P. (2007). Business modelling revisited: the configuration of control and value. info, 9, 6–19.\n Yrjölä, S., Ahokangas, P., and Matinmikko, M. (2015). Evaluation of recent spectrum sharing concepts from business model scalability point of view. In Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks (DySPAN, in 2015 IEEE International Symposiu, 241–250. IEEE.\n Ahokangas, P., Moqaddamerad, S., Matinmikko, M., Abouzeid, A., Atkova, I., Gomes, J. F., and Iivari, M. (2016). Future micro operators business models in 5G. The Business & Management Review, 7, 143.\n Mitola, J., Guerci, J., Reed, J., Yao, Y. D., Chen, Y., Clancy, T., and Guo, Y. (2014). Accelerating 5G QoE via public-private spectrum sharing. IEEE Communications Magazine, 52, 77–85.\n Casadesus-Masanell, R., and Llanes, G. (2011). Mixed source. Manage. Sci. 57, 1212–1230.\n Mason, J. (2002). Qualitative researching. Sage.\n Miles, M. B., and Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Sage.\nJulius Francis Gomes is pursuing his Ph.D. in international business from the University of Oulu. He currently works at the Oulu Business School as a Doctoral Student to research the futuristic business models for digital intensive industries. His research focuses on using business models as a mean to look in to future industries. He is interested to research business ecosystems in different contexts like cyber security, healthcare, future’s network etc. with a business model perspective. He received his M.Sc. (2015) in international business from the University of Oulu. Prior to that he acquired MBA (2011) specializing in managing information systems in business applications. Previously, he has also enjoyed about three years in a top tier bank in Bangladesh as a channel innovator.\nMarika Iivari is a postdoctoral researcher at the Martti Ahtisaari Institute within Oulu Business School. She defended her doctoral dissertation on business models in ecosystemic contexts. She holds M.Sc. in International Business from the Ulster University, Northern Ireland. Her research interests are in the areas of open innovation, business models and strategy in the context of innovation ecosystems and smart cities, digital and ICT business ecosystems. She has been involved in several research projects around 5G and the Internet of Things, most recently in the health care sector. She is also an active member of the Business Model Community, the Open Innovation Community and the Society for Collaborative Networks.\nPetri Ahokangas received his M.Sc. (1992) and D.Sc. (1998) degrees from the University Vaasa, Finland. He is currently Adjunct Professor (International software entrepreneurship) and Senior research fellow at Martti Ahtisaari Institute, Oulu Business School, University of Oulu, Finland. His research interests are in how innovation and technological change affect international business creation, transformation, and strategies in highly technology – intensive or software – intensive business domains. He has over 100 publications in scientific journals, books, conference proceedings, and other reports. He is actively working in several ICT-focused research consortia leading the business-related research streams.\nLauri Isotalo has received his M.Sc. from Helsinki University of Technology (currently Aalto University) in 1992. He has also a postgraduate Diploma in Business Administration. At first Lauri worked in Nokia Corp. in Mobile Technology & System Marketing unit specializing in Intelligent Networks. In 1992 he joined Elisa Corp. where he has held several managerial positions in value added services business, system and process security and mobile network development. Since 2005 Lauri has also led Elisa SME teams in various international collaboration projects and acquired a deep knowledge of the cyber security of legacy telecommunication networks, ip core, access networks, user terminals and modern virtualized data center IT platforms/cloud systems. From 2014 Lauri has headed SDN&NFV development in Elisa.\nRiikka Niemelä, M.Sc., MHSc., is a cross-disciplinary health-tech professional who obtained her degrees in Electrical Engineering (Master of Science) and Medical technology (Master of Health Sciences) from the University of Oulu, Finland. After R&D engineering, she worked as a research assistant to research the national eHealth development of the Finnish healthcare. Thereafter, she has been researching and promoting the adaptation of connected health technologies in surgical processes of a Nordic future hospital, resulting in scientific publications. Currently, she works as a project manager in Tuttlingen, Germany – the world center of Medical Technology – to generate R&D and innovation projects in cooperation with the ICT and LifeScience companies from Oulu, Finland. Her aim is to promote the digitalization and internationalization of the both high-tech regions and to generate innovations serving the increasing demands for healthcare.\nJournal of ICT, Vol. 5_1, 107–128.", "answers": ["Centralized control of mobile devices and applications."], "length": 6706, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "c60792f391b389a1c44b0a8f62f4a792d9ed82286b1b7f95"}
{"input": "Can the denoiser be applied to circuits with non-Clifford noise?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Compressed quantum error mitigation\nPublish Date: 10 May 2023\nAuthor List: Maurits Tepaske (from Physikalisches Institut, Universität Bonn), David Luitz (from Physikalisches Institut, Universität Bonn)\n\nFigure\n\nFIG.3.The out-of-time-ordered correlator C otoc i=L/2,j (t) as a function of the operator position j and time t, for the infinite temperature initial state, for a denoised second-order Trotter supercircuit with Trotter depth Mtrot = 32 and denoiser depth M = 2.We consider evolution times t = 0.5, 1, ..., 5, for the periodic L = 14 Heisenberg chain that is affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise with p = 0.01.\nFIG. 4. The complex eigenvalues λ of the noisy second-order Trotter supercircuit with Mtrot = 16 at time t = 1 (left), the corresponding optimized denoiser with M = 4 (center), and the denoised Trotter supercircuit (right).The Trotter circuit is for a L = 6 Heisenberg model with PBC, and all twoqubit channels are affected by depolarizing noise with p = 0.0046.The unit circle, on which unitary eigenvalues must lie, is shown in black, and the noiseless eigenvalues are shown as blue bars.It is evident that the denoiser recovers all the noiseless eigenvalues from the noisy circuit.\nFIG. 2. The complex eigenvalues λ of the noisy second-order Trotter supercircuit with Mtrot = 16 at time t = 1 (left), the corresponding optimized denoiser with M = 4 (center), and the denoised Trotter supercircuit (right).The Trotter circuit is for a L = 6 Heisenberg model with PBC, and all twoqubit channels are affected by depolarizing noise with p = 0.036.The unit circle, on which unitary eigenvalues must lie, is shown in black, and the noiseless eigenvalues are shown as blue bars.It is clear that the denoiser recovers with high accuracy the noiseless eigenvalues from the noisy circuit.\nFIG. 3. The half-chain channel entanglement entropy S at different two-qubit depolarizing noise strengths p, for a secondorder Trotter supercircuit with Mtrot = 16 and t = 2, for a M = 4 denoiser.The Trotter circuit is for a Heisenberg model with PBC of size L = 6.The different curves correspond to the different supercircuits, i.e. the noisy supercircuit, the denoiser, the corresponding denoised supercircuit, and the noiseless variant.\nFIG. 4. The out-of-time-ordered correlator C otoc i=L/2,j (t) as a function of the operator position j and stacked time t, for the infinite temperature initial state, for a denoised secondorder Trotter supercircuit with Trotter depth Mtrot = 32 and denoiser depth M = 2.It is optimized at t = 2 and stacked up to ten times.The calculations are for the periodic L = 14 Heisenberg chain that is affected by two-qubit depolarization with p = 0.01.The denoiser is affected by the same noise.\nFIG.6.The distribution of the ZZ angle α of M = 2 denoisers (top panels) and M = 8 denoisers (bottom panels), with the lightest color corresponding to the denoiser for the Trotter supercircuit with t = 0.5, and the darkest color with t = 5.As usual, we consider the Heisenberg model on a periodic chain, and second-order Trotter supercircuits with depths Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64, which together with the denoiser is affected by a two-qubit depolarizing noise with p = 0.01.The panels are arranged as Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 for top left, top right, bottom left, bottom right, respectively.\nFIG. 7. The sampling overhead γ of the optimized denoisers from Fig. 2 of the main text, with denoiser depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and Trotter depths Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 at times t = 0.5, 1, ..., 5, for the Heisenberg model on a chain with PBC affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise with p = 0.01.The panels are arranged as Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 for top left, top right, bottom left, bottom right, respectively.\nFIG.8.The domain wall magnetization Z dw after evolving a periodic density wall |dw |dw * with the denoised second-order Trotter supercircuits D C from Fig.2of the main text.These supercircuits have various Trotter depths Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64, denoiser depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and evolution times t = 0.5, 1, ..., 5, for the periodic L = 14 Heisenberg chain that is affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise of strength p = 0.01.The denoiser is affected by the same noise.The non-denoised results are labelled with M = 0 and the noiseless results with p = 0.The panels are arranged as Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 for top left, top right, bottom left, bottom right, respectively.We see that the denoiser allows us to recover the noiseless behavior.\n\nabstract\n\nWe introduce a quantum error mitigation technique based on probabilistic error cancellation to eliminate errors which have accumulated during the application of a quantum circuit. Our approach is based on applying an optimal \"denoiser\" after the action of a noisy circuit and can be performed with an arbitrary number of extra gates.\nThe denoiser is given by an ensemble of circuits distributed with a quasiprobability distribution. For a simple noise model, we show that efficient, local denoisers can be found, and we demonstrate their effectiveness for the digital quantum simulation of the time evolution of simple spin chains. Introduction.\n-Quantum information processing has been theoretically shown to hold great promises, and quantum algorithms were developed which can in principle achieve an exponential speed-up over their classical counterparts, both for general purpose computing and quantum simulation . However, present day quantum computing prototypes still suffer from significant noise processes which hinder the execution of many potentially groundbreaking quantum algorithms .\nNontrivial quantum algorithms typically require large sequences of quantum gates, each of which introduces dissipation and hence an overall loss of coherence, eventually rendering the results useless. Until quantum error correction becomes practical, quantum error mitigation seems to be more feasible to increase the accuracy of expectation values.\nHere the goal is to induce the (partial) cancellation of errors that stem from noisy quantum gates by extending the circuit corresponding to the desired algorithm with an ensemble of gates , sampled from a quasiprobability distribution. The traditional way to accomplish this is with the gatewise method from , where noise is mitigated by inverting the noise channel of each gate separately, i.e. the cancellation of errors is performed for each gate on its own.\nHere the local noise channel is approximated in a way such that it can be easily inverted analytically, e.g. using Pauli twirling . Gates are then sampled from the inverted noise channel by interpreting it as a quasiprobability distribution. Because in this gate-wise approach every noisy gate has to be modified separately, the sign problem is exponentially large in the number of gates, limiting the practicality of the mitigation.\nThe success of the gate-wise approach resulted in a large body of work concerning these methods , including extensions for simultaneous mitigation of multiple gates by Pauli-twirling entire layers or variationally constructing a mitigating matrix product operator . In principle, errors during the execution of a circuit can propagate and accumulate.\nThese propagated errors * david.luitz@uni-bonn.de ≈ C\n\nC\n\nFIG. 1. An example of the quantum error mitigation procedure used in this work for the time evolution of the wave function of a spin chain. The ideal second-order Trotter supercircuit C of depth Mtrot = 1 (light blue) is approximated by applying a denoiser D of depth M = 1 (red) to the noisy Trotter supercircuit C (dark blue).\nBecause the denoiser is applied after fully executing the noisy Trotter supercircuit, it represents an approximate inverse of the global noise channel with a precision tunable by the depth of the denoiser. can potentially blow up and lead to large errors for the circuit as a whole . Here we introduce a mitigation technique that takes into account the propagation of errors, can be performed with a tunable number of extra gates, and works for non-Clifford local noise channels since the inversion of the accumulated global noise channel is implicit.\nWe first execute the targeted noisy circuit completely, letting the noise propagate and accumulate, and only afterwards we apply an extra random circuit sampled from a quasiprobability distribution. We call the corresponding ensemble of random circuits a denoiser, and we construct it such that upon averaging the accumulated errors cancel.\nEssentially, the denoiser inverts a global noise channel. Since we will construct it as a local brickwall circuit, following the classical preprocessing approach from , we call this compressed quantum error mitigation. Method. -Due to the inevitable coupling of a quantum processor to its environment, every qubit operation is affected by noise.\nTherefore, the simplest technique to minimize the impact of the resulting noise is to minimize the number of operations when performing a quantum algorithm. In we showed that many-body time evolution operators can be efficiently compressed into brick-wall circuits with high fidelity per gate. In this Letter, we consider the noise explicitly by treating quantum operations as (generally non-unitary) quantum channels, corresponding to completely positive and trace preserving (CPTP) maps .\nFor example, instead of a noiseless two-qubit gate G, which acts on a quantum state |ρ in superoperator form as G|ρ = G⊗G * |ρ , we get the noisy channel G = N G, where the noise channel N implements the two-qubit noise . These channels are used to construct a \"supercircuit\" C = N G i=1 Gi , consisting of N G channels, which is affected by multi-qubit accumulated noise.\nThis supercircuit encodes an ensemble of circuits . For simplicity, we assume that the noisy channels Gi in each half brickwall layer are lattice inversion and translation invariant, such that we can construct a denoiser with these properties, limiting the number of variational parameters. The purpose of quantum error mitigation is to modify the ensemble of circuits described by C in a way that we can use it to obtain the noiseless expectation values.\nIn superoperator language, we do this by following the supercircuit C with a denoiser supercircuit D, such that D C is as close to the noiseless supercircuit C = C ⊗ C * as possible. Here C is the target unitary circuit. Because the noise channel N is non-unitary, hence making the supercircuit C non-unitary, we need to use a non-unitary denoiser to retrieve the unitary C.\nWe illustrate the mitigation procedure in Fig. , where a denoiser with one layer is used to mitigate errors for a second-order Trotter supercircuit with one layer. This circuit architecture is commonly used to simulate the time evolution of a quantum many-body system, until some time t, with controllable precision , and we will use it to benchmark the denoiser.\nIn practice, we cannot directly implement a supercircuit, and so we have to utilize its interpretation as an ensemble of circuits. Essentially, after executing a shot of the noisy circuit we sample the denoiser and apply it. The goal is to construct the denoiser in a way that averaging over many of its samples cancels the accumulated errors and gives us a good approximation of the noiseless expectation values.\nIt should be noted that our approach requires more gate applications on the quantum processor than with the gate-wise scheme, since there each sample from the mitigation quasiprobability distribution can be absorbed into the original circuit, whereas our approach increases the circuit depth. We take this into account by imposing the same noise on the denoiser.\nFurthermore, within our scheme, the dimensionality of the quasiprobabilistic mitigating ensemble can be controlled, in contrast to the gate-wise approach where it is equal to the gate count. To facilitate the stochastic interpretation we parameterize each two-qubit denoiser channel G i as a sum of CPTP maps, such that we can sample the terms in this sum and execute the sampled gate on the quantum processor.\nConcretely, we use a trace preserv-ing sum of a unitary and a non-unitary channel. For the unitary part we take a two-qubit unitary channel U( φ i ) = U ( φ i ) ⊗ U * ( φ i ), with U ( φ i ) a two-qubit unitary gate parameterized by φ i . For this we take the two-qubit ZZ rotation exp(−iα(σ z ⊗ σ z )) with angle α, which can be obtained from native gates on current hardware , and dress it with four general one-qubit unitaries, only two of which are independent if we want a circuit that is space inversion symmetric around every bond.\nThe resulting gate has 7 real parameters φ i . For the non-unitary part, which is essential because D has to cancel the non-unitary accumulated noise to obtain the noiseless unitary circuit, we use a general onequbit measurement followed by conditional preparation channel M( , with V a general one-qubit unitary and each κ i a 3-dimensional vector, resulting in a real 9-dimensional ζ i .\nThis yields the two-qubit correlated measurement M( With these parts we construct the parameterization with coefficients η i ∈ R that satisfy η 0 + η 1 = 1 because G i is trace preserving. Note that here the tensor product symbol corresponds to combining two one-qubit channels to make a two-qubit channel, whereas in most of the paper it is used to link the column and row indices of a density matrix.\nWe construct the denoiser from the noisy channels Gi = N G i . With this parameterization one denoiser channel has 17 independent real parameters, such that a denoiser of depth M , i.e. consisting of M brickwall layers, has 34M real parameters (we use one unique channel per half brickwall layer). For reference, a general channel has 544M parameters.\nTo determine the mitigated expectation values we use the full expression where |ρ 0 is the initial state and |1 is the vectorized identity operator on the full Hilbert space. To evaluate this on a quantum processor, we use the stochastic interpretation of (1) to resample . In particular, from each channel (1) we get a unitary with probability p 0 = |η 0 |/γ and a measurement followed by conditional preparation with probability p 1 = |η 1 |/γ.\nHere γ = |η 0 | + |η 1 | is the sampling overhead, which characterizes the magnitude of the sign problem from negative η i . For quasiprobability distributions, i.e. with γ > 1, every denoiser sample has an extra sign sgn(η) = N G g=1 sgn(η g ), 2. The normalized distance between the denoised Trotter supercircuit D C and the noiseless Trotter supercircuit C (top panels), at evolution times t = 0.5, 1, ..., 5, and the twopoint z-spin correlator C zz i=L/2,j=L/2 (t) of a spin on the middle site at times 0 and t (bottom panels), for the infinite temperature initial state.\nWe consider denoisers with depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and second-order Trotter circuits with depths Mtrot = 16, 32, 64. In the top panels we use a Heisenberg chain with L = 8, and in the bottom panels with L = 14, both with periodic boundary conditions. All gates are affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise with p = 0.01.\nThe non-denoised results are labelled with M = 0, and the noiseless values with p = 0. where sgn(η g ) is the sign of the sampled coefficient of the gth channel. γ = 1 means that all signs are positive. Observables Ô p=0 for the noiseless circuit are then approximated by resampling the observables from the denoiser ensemble\nwhere γ = N G g=1 γ g is the overall sampling overhead, with γ g the overhead of the gth gate. Clearly, a large γ implies a large variance of Ô p=0 for a given number of samples, with accurate estimation requiring the cancellation of large signed terms. The number of samples required to resolve this cancellation of signs is bounded by Hoeffding's inequality, which states that a sufficient number of samples to estimate Ô p=0 with error δ at probability 1 − ω is bounded by (2γ 2 /δ 2 ) ln(2/ω) .\nSince γ scales exponentially in γ g , it is clear that a denoiser with large M and γ 1 will require many samples. We observed that decompositions with γ > 1 are crucial for an accurate denoiser. Restricting to γ = 1 leads to large infidelity and no improvement upon increasing the number of terms in or the depth M of the denoiser.\nSimply put, probabilistic error cancellation of gate noise introduces a sign problem and it is crucial to find optimal parameterizations (1) which minimize γ to make the approach scalable. This issue arises in all high performance error mitigation schemes , because the inverse of a physical noise channel is unphysical and cannot be represented as a positive sum over CPTP maps.\nThis is clearly visible in the spectra of the denoiser, which lies outside the unit circle (cf. Fig. ). This makes the tunability of the number of gates in each denoiser sample a crucial ingredient, which allows control over the sign problem, because we can freely choose the η i in . For the parametrization (1) of denoiser channels, we try to find a set of parameters for error mitigation by minimizing the normalized Frobenius distance between the noiseless and denoised supercircuits\nwhich bounds the distance of output density matrices and becomes zero for perfect denoising. We carry out the minimization of on a classical processor, using gradient descent with the differential programming algorithm from . Instead of explicitly calculating the accumulated global noise channel and subsequently inverting it, we approximate the noiseless supercircuit C with the denoised supercircuit D C, effectively yielding a circuit representation D of the inverse noise channel.\nResults. -To benchmark the denoiser we apply it to the second-order Trotter circuits of the spin-1/2 Heisenberg chain with periodic boundary conditions (PBC) where is the Pauli algebra acting on the local Hilbert space of site i. A second-order Trotter circuit for evolution time t with depth M trot consists of M trot − 1 half brickwall layers with time step t/M trot and two layers with half time step .\nWe consider circuits that are affected by uniform depolarizing noise with probability p for simplicity, but our approach can be used for any non-Clifford noise. The two-qubit noise channel is which acts on neighboring qubits i and i + 1 and is applied to each Trotter and denoiser gate, and p = 0.01 unless stated otherwise.\nWe study circuits with depths M trot = 16, 32, 64 for evolution times t = 0.5, 1, ..., 5, and denoisers D with depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8. In the top panels of Fig. we show (4) for a chain of size L = 8 as a function of time t. Here it can be seen that even for M trot = 32 a denoiser with M = 1 already improves by roughly an order of magnitude at all considered t.\nDepending on M trot and t, further increasing M lowers , with the biggest improvements occurring for high precision Trotter circuits with large depth M trot = 64 and short time t = 0.5, where the Trotter gates are closer to the identity than in the other cases. At the other extreme, for M trot = 16 the improvements are relatively small upon increasing M > 2. In all cases the denoiser works better at early times than at late times, again indicating that it is easier to denoise Trotter gates that are relatively close to the identity.\nTo probe the accuracy of the denoiser on quantities that do not enter the optimization, as a first test we consider the two-point correlator between spins at different times where we have chosen the infinite temperature initial state, and C(t) is the Trotter supercircuit for time t. In the bottom panels of Fig. we show C zz i=L/2,j=L/2 (t) for the supercircuits from the upper panels, now for a L = 14 chain.\nHere we see that at M trot = 16 we can retrieve the noiseless values already with M = 1, but that increasing M trot makes this more difficult. At M trot = 64 we see larger deviations, and improvement upon increasing M is less stable, but nonetheless we are able to mitigate errors to a large extent. As a further test, we compute the out-of-time-ordered correlator (OTOC) ]\nIn Fig. we show the results for i = L/2, for a Trotter circuit with depth M trot = 32 and a denoiser with depth M = 2. Here we see that a denoiser with M M trot is able to recover the light-cone of correlations, which are otherwise buried by the noise. In the Supplementary Material we consider how the denoiser performs at different noise levels p, and how the denoised supercircuits perform under stacking.\nThere we also calculate domain wall magnetization dynamics, and show the distribution of the optimized denoiser parameters and the sampling overhead associated to the denoiser as a whole. In Fig. we show the eigenvalues of the noisy supercircuits for a noisy second-order Trotter supercircuit with M trot = 16 at t = 1 (left), the corresponding optimized denoiser with M = 4 (center), and the denoised supercircuit (right).\nThe eigenvalues λ of a unitary supercircuit lie on the unit circle, and in the presence of dissipation they are pushed to the center. We see that the spectrum of the denoiser lies outside the unit circle, making it an unphysical channel which cures the effect of the noise on the circuit, such that the spectrum of the denoised circuit is pushed back to the unit circle.\nThe noiseless eigenvalues are shown as blue bars, making it clear that the denoiser is able to recover the noiseless eigenvalues from the noisy circuit. In the Supplementary Material we show the spectra for a p = 0.036 denoiser, where we observe a clustering of eigenvalues reminiscent of Refs. . There we also investigate the channel entropy of the various supercircuits .\nConclusion. -We have introduced a probabilistic error cancellation scheme, where a classically determined denoiser mitigates the accumulated noise of a (generally non-Clifford) local noise channel. The required number of mitigation gates, i.e. the dimensionality of the corresponding quasiprobability distribution, is tunable and the parameterization of the corresponding channels provides control over the sign problem that is inherent to probabilistic error cancellation.\nWe have shown that a denoiser with one layer can already significantly mitigate errors for second-order Trotter circuits with up to 64 layers. This effectiveness of low-depth compressed circuits for denoising, in contrast with the noiseless time evolution operator compression from , can be understood from the non-unitarity of the denoiser channels.\nIn particu-lar, measurements can have non-local effects, since the measurement of a single qubit can reduce some highly entangled state (e.g. a GHZ state) to a product state, whereas in unitary circuits the spreading of correlations forms a light-cone. To optimize a denoiser with convenience at L > 8, the optimization can be formulated in terms of matrix product operators or channels , which is convenient because the circuit calculations leading to the normalized distance and its gradient are easily formulated in terms of tensor contractions and singular value decompositions .\nThis provides one route to a practical denoiser, which is relevant because the targeted noiseless circuit and the accompanying noisy variant in (4) need to be simulated classically, confining the optimization procedure to limited system sizes with an exact treatment or limited entanglement with tensor networks.\nNonetheless, we can use e.g. matrix product operators to calculate (4) for some relatively small t, such that the noiseless and denoised supercircuits in (4) have relatively small entanglement, and then stack the final denoised supercircuit on a quantum processor to generate classically intractable states.\nAnalogously, we can optimize the channels exactly at some classically tractable size and then execute them on a quantum processor with larger size. Both approaches are limited by the light-cone of many-body correlations, as visualized in Fig. , because finite-size effects appear when the light-cone width becomes comparable with system size.\n1. The normalized distance (left) and z spin correlator C zz i=L/2,j=L/2 (right), for a second-order Trotter supercircuit of depth Mtrot = 16 for time t = 1, affected by various twoqubit depolarizing errors p. We compare the values obtained with and without a denoiser, i.e. M > 0 and M = 0, to the noiseless values (p = 0).\nThe denoiser is affected by the same noise as the Trotter circuit. We consider denoisers with depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and we use a L = 8 Heisenberg chain with PBC for the normalized distance, while for the correlator we use L = 14. * david.luitz@uni-bonn.de to observe that even for larger noise strength p, the local observable C zz improves significantly even with denoisers of depth M = 1.\nFor large noise strengths, we generally see that the optimization of the denoiser becomes difficult, leading to nonmonotonic behavior as a function of p, presumably because we do not find the global optimum of the denoiser. It is interesting to analyze the spectra of the supercircuits considered in this work.\nAs mentioned in the main text, the spectrum of the ideal, unitary supercircuit C lies on the unit circle. The comparison to this case is therefore instructive. In the main text, we showed an example of the spectra in Fig. for moderate noise strength. Here, we show additional data for stronger noise p = 0.036 in Fig. for a denoiser with M = 4 layers, optimized to mitigate errors for a second-order Trotter supercircuit with M trot = 16 layers at time t = 1.\nThe eigenvalues λ of the noisy supercircuit C are clustered close to zero, far away from the unit circle (except for λ = 1), showing that the circuit is strongly affected by the noise. To mitigate the impact of the noise, the denoiser consequently has to renormalize the spectrum strongly. If it accurately represents the inverse of the global noise channel, its spectrum has to lie far outside the unit circle, which is the case.\nInterestingly, we observe a clustering of eigenvalues which is reminiscent to the spectra found in . By comparison to these works, we suspect that this is due to the local nature of the denoiser, and warrants further investigation. The right panel of Fig. shows the result of the denoiser, pushing the eigenvalues back to the unit circle, nearly with the exact same distribution along the circle as the noiseless eigenvalues (blue bars).\nDue to the strong noise, this is not achieved perfectly, and it is clear that this cannot work in principle if the global noise channel has a zero eigenvalue. The complexity of an operator can be quantified by its operator entanglement entropy . Here we calculate the half-chain channel entanglement entropy S of the noiseless C, noisy C, denoiser D, and denoised D C supercircuits.\nWe define S as the entanglement entropy of the state that is related to a supercircuit C via the Choi-Jamio lkowski isomorphism, i.e. ψ C = χ C /N , where the process matrix χ ab,cd C = C ac,bd is simply a reshaped supercircuit and N ensures normalization. Then we have S = −Tr [ψ C ln ψ C ]. This entropy measure is a particular instance of the \"exchange entropy\", which characterizes the information exchange between a quantum system and its environment .\nIn Fig. we plot the various S for a second-order Trotter circuit with M trot = 16 at t = 2, for a denoiser with M = 4, both affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise with p ∈ [10 −3 , 10 −1 ]. The Trotter circuit is for a Heisenberg model with L = 6 and PBC. We see that at large p, the noise destroys entanglement in the noisy supercircuit, and that the denoiser S increases to correct for this, such that the denoised supercircuit recovers the noiseless S.\nHere we investigate how denoised supercircuits perform upon repeated application. We optimize the denoiser for a Trotter supercircuit for a fixed evolution time t. Then, to reach later times, we stack the denoised supercircuit n times to approximate the evolution up to time nt: In Fig. we stack a denoised t = 1 supercircuit up to n = 20 times and calculate the correlation function, defined in the main text, for the middle site.\nWe consider Trotter depths M trot = 8, 16, 32, 64 and denoiser depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, for a L = 14 Heisenberg chain with p = 0.01 depolarizing two-qubit noise. The noisy results correspond to M = 0 and the noiseless results to p = 0. In Fig. we calculate the OTOC, defined in the main text, with stacked time evolution for a denoised t = 2 supercircuit with M trot = 32 and M = 2, stacked up to ten times.\nWe see that the stacked supercircuit performs very well, and the additional precision obtained by using deep denoisers (M = 8) pays off for long evolution times, where we see convergence to the exact result (black dashed lines in Fig. ) as a function of M . FIG. . The two-point z-spin correlator C zz i=L/2,j=L/2 (t) of a spin on the middle site at times 0 and t, for the infinite temperature initial state, for denoised second-order Trotter supercircuits that are optimized at evolution time t = 1 and then stacked up to twenty times.\nWe use Trotter depths Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 and denoiser depths M = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8. The calculations were performed for a periodic Heisenberg model with L = 14 and PBC, affected by two-qubit depolarizing noise with strength p = 0.01, which also affects the denoiser. The non-denoised results are labelled with M = 0, and the noiseless results with p = 0.\nThe panels are arranged as Mtrot = 8, 16, 32, 64 for top left, top right, bottom left, bottom right, respectively. The costliest and most noise-susceptible operation is the two-qubit ZZ rotation with angle α, which is the foundation of the unitary piece in our channel parameterization, defined in the main text.\nFor completeness, we here present the α angles of the optimized denoisers. The results are shown in Fig. , which contains histograms for the channel count N G versus α. The histograms are stacked, with the lightest color corresponding to the angles of the denoiser at t = 0.5 and the darkest at t = 5. The top four panels are for a denoiser with M = 2 and the bottom four with M = 8.\nWe consider M trot = 8, 16, 32, 64. We see that in both cases the distribution widens upon increasing M trot , indicating that the unitary channels start deviating more from the identity. Moreover, while the M = 2 denoisers in all cases except M trot = 64 have ZZ contributions close to the identity, this is clearly not the case for M = 8.\nFor simplicity, we did not focus on obtaining denoisers with the smallest sampling overhead γ, which is required to minimize the sign problem and hence ease the sampling of mitigated quantities. Instead, we let the optimization freely choose the η i in the denoiser parameterization, as defined in the main text.\nIn Fig. we show the sampling overhead of the denoisers from Fig. of the main text. We see that for M = 1 and M = 2 the sampling overhead is relatively small and uniform across the different t, whereas for M > 2 the optimization sometimes yields a denoiser with large γ and other times with small γ. This could be related to the difference in α distributions from Fig. .\nThe large fluctuations of γ appears to stem from the difficulty in finding optimal deep denoisers, and our optimization procedure likely only finds a local minimum in these cases. Here C(t) is the Trotter supercircuit for time t. In Fig. we show Z dw for the circuits from Fig.", "answers": ["Yes, the denoiser works for non-Clifford local noise channels."], "length": 5389, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "13b04172d2261a0c9545a0e3670c1c43105ccab41ce1a726"}
{"input": "Why is it important for the sides of the fuselage to be sloped (tumbled home)?", "context": "Probably one of the most frustrating things about building experimental aircraft, especially when starting with a minimum of pre-fabricated parts, is to start building and ending up with an unexpected result. Every builder starts a new project by wanting it to go \"perfectly.\" So when things aren't going well, especially at the beginning, the frustration can lead to an unfinished airplane.\nThis is the first article in a series dedicated to helping builders of the Rand Robinson KR series planes build a straight and true fuselage -- the first part of the construction process. Borrowing from modern boatbuliding techniques, focus will be on the KR-2S, but the principles apply to the entire lineup of KR-1 & KR-2 series planes.\nWhile building the KR-2(s) a common surprise is encountered by builders when the completed fuselage sides are laid into position to form the fuselage box section. With many hours spent building the sides flat, finding the once straight longerons that now bow up from the building surface, form a most dissatisfying \"banana\" shape. Especially when using the preformed fiberglass parts, this curve in the top longeron is not acceptable. The builder is left wondering what went wrong and no amount of clamping or brute force forming will solve the problem to any degree of satisfaction. The problem is not the builder's fault. The solution starts by understanding the three dimensional relationship of the assembled parts being built.\nFirst understand that the plans show the finished form of the plane. They show the \"projected\" form as you would expect to see it if viewing an actual plane from the top, ends and from the side. Since the sides are sloped (flared) outward, looking from the side, the distances given by measuring the profile drawing are \"foreshortened\" and don't give the proper shape for building the fuselage with a flat top longeron. What needs to be done is to \"develop\" the \"true\" distances and shape of the flat panel so that when it is curved into position, the longerons lay flat.\nSecond, understand that the dimensions called for in the plans put a twist in the sides that tends to work the panel in two directions of curvature. This twist makes the panel \"undevelopable\" meaning that that shape cannot be unrolled into an equivalent flat shape. This is important when laying out the side and bottom panels onto flat plywood. To illustrate this, try forming a piece of paper around a soda can. The paper can be formed flat around the can either straight or at a diagonal to it's length. It has only one direction of curvature and is by definition \"developable\". Now try to form the same piece of paper around a baseball. It won't lie flat on the surface without some deformation (folding, wrinkling or tearing) of the paper. The ball has curvature in more that one direction and is a \"compounded\" shape. Paper (or plywood) can only be readily formed in developable shapes as opposed to aluminum or other metal which can accept in plane deformation. A developable surface is needed to lay out a curved surface when the materials used can't be deformed with any degree of in-plane strain.\nInitially, the fuselage sides are laid out flat with reference to the top longeron measured to a straight chalk line. The bowing problem starts when the side panels are bent and sloped to form the fuselage box section. If the sides were not sloped (tumbled home), the section formed would be cylindrical and the longerons would lie flat. Since the sides are tumbled home, the section formed is now conical. When a conical shape is cut with a plane (building surface) not perpendicular to it's axis, the shape formed is elliptical -- exactly what happens with the top longeron. When it's built flat, bent to form a cylindrical section, and sloped to form a conical section, it takes on an elliptical shape firewall to tailstock.\nThis method borrows heavily from proven techniques used in the marine trades. It should be stressed at this point that although the layout procedure is not complicated, it is important to take your time. If the layout is not going well initially, start over! Better to erase layout errors now than to have them built it and cause surprises later.\nLayout to ensure a fair and true fuselage starts by drawing a reference line (baseline) on the building surface. Refer to figures 2 & 3 and use a wire guide to draw a very straight baseline. About 500 lbs. Of tension should be adequate. One could use a chalk line, but we're talking airplanes here, not house framing.\nThe main layout difference is that the baseline isn't used as a reference for the top longeron. The baseline references the mid point of the firewall for the developed (and true dimensioned) side panel. Although the baseline will still be the reference, the top and bottom longerons will be laid separately.\nLayout differences don't end there. Each of the stations (vertical members) will be laid out with a calculated separation so that when the panels are formed into position, they land on the spacing called for in the plans. Another major difference is that the bottom & side panels are applied after forming the fuselage box section. This is mainly to obtain the ability to \"fair\" the side and bottom surfaces and insure a straight and true shape.\nRefer to figure 1 for the layout of the new developed side panel. The firewall (station a) is layed out perpendicular to the baseline. Longitudinal (station) measurements are given along the length of the baseline from the firewall. Vertical dimensions are given to reference the angle and breadths of the station at the baseline.\nNotice that the top longeron is bowed outward and that the stations are spaced slightly greater than called out in the plans. When the panels are formed into the box frame section ,they will work into the dimensions specified in the plans.\nStrike a centerline, longer than is needed on the building surface using a wire guide. Draw off the firewall line perpendicular to the centerline at one end.\nUsing the distances listed in the balloons, mark them off on the centerline. Distances are measured to the nearest sixteenth of an inch. Take time to mark them off carefully. Don't mark off the distances in a cumulative fashion. Use the firewall as a common reference.\nUsing the angles listed at each station, mark off a station line longer than is needed. The angles are measured to the nearest hundredth of a degree. Take time to mark them off carefully.\nAt each station, start by marking off each short (bottom longeron) line distance from the centerline. Use your set of trammels or beam compass for doing this. Mark the intersection of the short line with the station line.\nAt each station, mark off each long (top longeron) line distance from the intersection of the short line distance and the station line. Again the trammels or beam compass is best for completing this step. Mark the intersection of the long line distance with the station line.\nUsing the longeron as a batten, trace out the inside and outside curves of the longeron. After the batten is secure, in between each station, fasten a keeper block inside and outside to preserve the shape of the longeron taking care to avoid potential future interference with the diagonal members to be installed later. The fairing blocks can be removed or left in place if they won't interfere with building. The vertical station members and their diagonals can now be measured and positioned. Remember to refer to the plans for the material thickness direction.\nAfter vertical and diagonal members are cut and fitted, take time to draw their outlines on the building surface to cut down on time and confusion when laying out the opposite side.\nFinishing the side panel is accomplished in a manner similar to that called for in the handbook with the exception that the side and bottom skin panels will be attached later.\nThe next article in the series will discuss jigging and building techniques to ensure alignment and straightness of the flat built side panels. Also covered will be building a \"strongback\" jig to assure alignment of the side panels when they are formed into their final shape.\nPart 3 in the series will cover assembly of the side panels using the jigs. Some joint details will be discussed that will ensure a stronger and more fair fuselage assembly. Also covered will be the layout & attachment of the side and bottom ply skins.\nU.S. Mail: Densmore Associates, inc.\nANSI \"D\" size, computer generated plots of all the layout drawings in this series are available from the author for $30 plus postage & handling. Full (true size) scale plots may be made available depending on demand.\n\"Scarfing\" is the practice of splicing plywood so that short pieces of plywood can be used to span long distances. On the KR, it is required on both the fuselage skins and spar webs. The angle of the splice should be 10 to 12 degrees to maintain strength across the joint. Also, joints should coincide with structural members, such as spar webs or fuselage truss members.\nThis scarfer is made by mating a regular plunge router (this one costs about $50) to a table saw. Obviously, you really only need a table saw to cut the chamfer, but it does make a nice heavy table for scarfing. You could just as easily use a large work table as the base.First, set the table saw for a 5.5 degree cut (for a 1:12 joint, or 6.5 degree cut for a 10:1 joint), and run a 1 x 6 through on edge to chamfer a corner on the board. Then drill the board for three router mounting holes (two are countersunk) and connect the assembly to the table saw with two 1/4 inch bolts. Use a long (2-3 inch) straight cutting bit to do the cutting. Adjust the bit so it doesn't interfere with your table top, and go to town. Keep pressure on the plywood to ensure contact with the table while you're scarfing. Make sure you feed your material from the same end as you would if you were sawing, or the router will take your plywood away from you and put a big dent in your garage door.\nIn the late 60's Ken Rand and Stuart Robinson were working as flight system engineers for Douglas Avionics. Ken was working as an electrical engineer, having previously worked for Sperry as an autopilots project engineer, while Stu's degree was in aeronautical engineering from Northrop University. They were two of the guys at the end of the DC-8,9, and 10 assembly lines responsible for correcting some of the nits and picks in various systems before delivery to the customer.\nThey both wanted to build a fast, inexpensive airplane which was also economical to maintain. Several designs were considered, and plans were bought first for the Jeanie's Teenie and then the Taylor Monoplane. The Monoplane was more to their liking, but would require some modification to fit their needs. A cooperative redesign effort ensued, with virtually no dimensions left untouched. Only the basic fuselage structure, airfoil, and powerplant were retained. The tail shape was Stu's, and came directly from the big DC-8s parked on the ramp outside his office window. The landing gear was designed by Ken, after seeing the gear on a Dewey Bird at Santa Paula airport.\nKen was killed in his KR2 a short time later while flying over Cajon Pass in what was apparently a bad weather / low fuel accident. Ken's wife Jeanette became owner of RR overnight, and stepped up to keep the plans and parts coming. Much of the engineering needs are handled by Bill Marcy of Denver, who's been helping out since early '79.\nTo date, almost 6000 KR1, 9200 KR2, and 760 KR2S plan sets have been sold. 1200 KR2s are estimated to be flying, with 5 KR2Ss now in the air. Much of the development work done on KR's is now done by the builders themselves. KR builders tend to be innovative, which leads to some interesting modifications. Some of the mods that work eventually creep into the plans. The KR2S is a case in point. Many builders who'd heard of the pitch sensitivity and tight cabin of the KR2 began to build an enlarged version, with the length determined by the most commonly available longeron material. The result is a KR2 that is stretched 2\" between firewall and main spar, and 14\" behind the main spar. Higher gross weights dictated more wing area, with the new standard becoming the Diehl wing skin. Those who plan to carry passengers commonly stretch the cabin width a few inches, although 1.5 inches is the limit if you still want to use RR's premolded parts.\nMike Stearns addresses the KR Forum crowd.\nThis year's KR Forum featured guest speakers Mike Stearns, Steve Trentman, and Bill Marcey. Mike Stearns spoke on several topics, including the many sources for KR and homebuilding information available on the Internet. He also mentioned KRNet, the list server devoted entirely to KR aircraft, as well as several notable World Wide Web home pages. He also brought a sample of the new Rand Robinson wing skins with him, and discussed their high temperature core prepreg construction. His KR2S will receive the first set, which is currently being installed at Hinson Composites.\nSteve Trentman spoke on his turbine installation. It uses a turbine engine which saw duty as an A7 attack jet starter engine. Total weight is about 85 pounds, while putting out around 90 horsepower. There is a small stockpile of these engines available from government surplus. sources. This engine can only be throttled back to 52% power, which leads to some pretty interesting landings. One inflight failure has been logged so far, with very little damage to the aircraft. More on this exciting development in next month's issue of KROnline.\nLes Palmer's KR2 N202LP won Best KR2, Best Engine Installation, and People's Choice awards at the 1995 KR Gathering at Columbia, TN. After researching the KR series, and reading Neil Bingham's \"A Critical Analysis of the KR2\" (Jan 88 Sport Aviation), Les decided to build his as a single seater, stretched 24\" in the tail, while maintaining a stock width firewall. His fuselage is made from Douglas fir, which weighs in at 4 lbs heavier than if constructed from spruce. It is skinned with 1/8\" birch plywood. Spars are covered with plywoood on both fore and aft sides, ala KR2S. Diehl wing skins provide the lift. Horizontal stabilizer and elevator were stretched 7\" longer on each side, while the vertical stabilizer and rudder were stretched 8\" taller. . The fuselage to cowling junction was made more graceful by adding 1.5 inches to the height of the firewall end of the fuselage sides.\nLes's canopy is a Dragonfly, using a four linkage system to swing forward when opening. The canopy frame fits snugly into a recess in the foward deck, providing an excellent wind and water seal. The fiberglass work is exemplary.\nSeating is luxurious for one.\nThe cowling is also a work of art, and uses NACA ducts for efficiency. Female molds were made for all the fiberglass parts on Les's plane, so he could proabably be persuaded to make more, if demand dictates. Les also machines a multitude of KR aluminum and steel parts which he now offers for sale.\nThe firewall was reinforced with aluminum brackets and angles bolted between the longerons in anticipation of the 200 lb Subaru EA-81 engine installation. His 100 HP Asian version is outfitted with an American Holley 5200 caburetor and manifold. It uses a PSRU of Les's own design, featuring two spur gears with a 1.69:1 reduction ratio and a toothed belt. Other than tapping the crank for larger bolts to mount the redrive, no other engine modifications were required. Also, this is probably the only air conditioned KR2 on the planet. The prop is a 60/63 Hegy.\nOriginally built as a taildragger, the fixed gear is made from 4130 steel tubing. Custom cast 6.00x6 aluminum wheels and steel rotors are mated with 6\" Cleveland calipers for braking. An early taxi test accident damaged the main gear, and prompted Les to change to tricycle gear. Again, he designed his own fiberglass main gear, and uses a Diehl nose wheel fork with a 4130 strut and 6\" wheel up front.\nEarly tests revealed cooling problems, which prompted a radiator move from the firewall to a lower cowling location.\nThe first flight was almost a disaster, as test pilot Randy Smith lost power right after takeoff. He managed a 180 with a safe downwind landing with only minor nosewheel pant damage. The culprit proved to be a spark plug with too much reach, which was quickly remedied. Subsequent flights have shown water temp to be about 210 degrees, oil temp is 220-230, and airspeed is about 180 mph.\nShopping for the Partially Built KR.\nThis story starts about twenty years ago when I first started looking at the KR-2 as the plane I'd like to build. The only problem at that time was a lack of money, lack of knowledge, and a lack of job stability. I liked the design, except for the low ground clearance of the retractable gear and that a KR was going to be a tight fit for me to fly.\nOver the past twenty years I've owned a number of planes, but still always wanted to build my own. I needed one that would fit me, my budget requirements, and have the speed and performance that I wanted. When \"KITPLANES\" published the article featuring Roy Marsh's new KR-2S, it was the first I had heard of any major modifications or improvements to the same old KR design. I believe that article and Roy Marsh's workmanship have probably been the greatest boon to Rand Robinson (RR) in the last twenty years. It certainly caught my eye! Here was the same design I had decided I wanted to build twenty years ago, with all of the improvements I wanted. It was sitting on fixed gear with some reasonable ground clearance. It had the capability to be built large enough to accommodate me. It has enough prefab parts available that it didn't have to be 100% scratch built if I decided to hurry the project along. And it had the speed I wanted. I knew that Roy's published speeds were probably not realistic expectations for the average KR, but after knocking around for the last three years in my Champ, anything over 90 mph seems pretty fast to me.\nAfter purchasing the info kit and the sales video from Rand Robinson, the next step after deciding for sure to build this plane was to order the KR-2 plans and the KR-2S addendum. I finally got my plans and was putting together my first order to start the plane, when my partner in the Champ pointed out that there was a partially completed KR-2S for sale in Trade-a-plane. My initial answer was \"No, I don't even want to look at it. I want to build my own from scratch.\" My partner insisted that for the advertised price and the fact that it wasn't too far away, I ought to at least give the guy a call and investigate it. \"No, I don't think I want to buy someone else's problems,\" I persisted. That night I went home and crunched up some numbers on the calculator and finally came to the conclusion that for the sake of my budget for the next several years, I really should give this guy a call.\nThree days later, I flew to his place about 400 miles away to take a look at his project. At this point I should probably mention that I consider myself to be fairly knowledgeable about airplane construction, although the vast majority of my experience is with tube and fabric. The rest of this article deals with what I looked for and more importantly what I missed and have had to repair in the last year since I purchased the project.\nWhen we went to the seller's house, I found that the left wing was built using the Dan Diehl wing skins and the right wing skins were leaning against the wall inside the house. Also the canopy was in the house with the canopy covered with paper and tape. I wanted to inspect the fuselage first, so off we went to the shop.\nThere I found a fuselage sitting on it's gear painted in primer gray. The first step was to inspect the quality of workmanship of what could be seen as it sat. The interior of the fuselage looked as if it had been built with a great deal of care. The fit and finish of all of the interior wood was very nice. Even the gussets looked like they had been painstakingly perfectly fitted. The glass work on the turtle back also looked very precise and clean. It was evenly faired into the vertical and horizontal stabs. The tail also appeared to be well built with the exception of a depression directly over the front and rear spars in the horizontal stabs. He explained that when he moved recently, that he had shot the plane with gray primer to protect it from the weather since he wouldn't have ready access to a shop to put it in right away. It ended up sitting out in the hot south Texas summer sun for a few weeks before he got a shop rented to work in. That caused the glass (or possibly the foam inside the horizontal stab) to swell, except that it held onto the spar, so it was slightly ballooned in front of and behind the spars. His recommendation was to fill it back smooth with micro.\nI also found a small linear crack in the lower left wing spar cap on the left wing stub. It appeared to be from over tightening the rear spar wing attach fitting bolts. His explanation was that the crack wasn't important because the rear spars only job is to keep the wings from folding back. I also noticed that the holes for attaching the outer wing to the wing stub were badly rounded out on the rear spar. He explained that the Diehl wing skins require the rear spar to be swept slightly more forward than the stock wings. This won't allow you to use the rear spar attach fittings from RR and that I would need to fabricate a new set of rear spar attach fittings.\nI also found that the aileron bellcranks were not built or installed as per plans, but found that they looked professional. I couldn't check for function since the right bellcrank and sheeve wasn't installed, the left wing also wasn't installed, and the right wing didn't exist yet.\nNext we pulled the inspection panels off of the fuselage and tail and looked at everything I could see with a good flashlight. I didn't find anything else that might be questionable about the fuselage except for a cracked elevator trim tab that was damaged when it fell off it's hanging place on the wall.\nNext we spent some time going over his builders log and builders photo album. I still hadn't seen anything that would dissuade me from buying this project.\nAt this point it was starting to get late and my ride down needed to get airborne for the flight home. I needed to make a decision about whether I wanted this project or not, but I hadn't inspected the wings and canopy yet. I took a cursory look at the left wing and saw lots on micro built up on it and some bubbles in the leading edge, but nothing that looked seriously wrong to my amateur eye. The right wing was only a set of spars in the shop and the Diehl wing skins in the house, so there wasn't much to look at there. The canopy was wrapped in paper and tape, so there wasn't much to look at there either. I decided that even if there were serious problems in the wing that was built, I would be money ahead to go ahead and buy the project. For the advertised price, I could build a new set of wings and still be way ahead financially. We negotiated a final price, shook hands, took my ride to the airport, and started off in search of a U-haul to haul the project home.\nNow, at this point, some of you are thinking about what I surely must have forgotten to inspect and why didn't I take a local A & P or EAA member along for the ride. First of all, I don't know any mechanics locally that have any experience with glass and our EAA chapter of which I am VP is woefully lacking in fiberglass knowledge. Secondly, as you will see, I missed plenty. Some by ignorance, some by just not looking close enough.\nNow for a list of the problems that I found over the last year and a few of the fixes that I came up with.\nI found that the lower set of rear spar attach fittings on the left rear spar were installed backwards with the longer spaced hole towards the fuselage. Since this is the same place that also had the cracked spar cap, it required a major change. Also in the same area he had drilled through the rear spar with a hole saw to create a place for the aileron cable to pass through and managed to cut out the second from the outside vertical brace in the spar. Then he chose to install the aileron bellcranks in front of the rear spar, and cut another hole through the rear spar for the aileron push rod. He also managed to cut out the outside vertical brace in the spar. Since the holes were already drilled through the spar, the choices were to either cut out that section of spar cap and scarf a new piece in, cut the whole rear spar carrythrough out of the fuselage including ruining the left lower wing skin, or do something else creative to reinforce the spar cap and install a custom built set of attach fittings.\nI also found that after I built and installed the right side wing stub ribs and skin that the aileron bellcrank setup would not work as installed. The cable that crosses between the two bellcranks had a sharp uphill from the sheeve to the bellcrank in the last 12 inches on either side. This combined with the radius that the bellcranks turn caused the cross cable to pull up tight when the ailerons were pushed to either end of their travel, but allowed the cables to go very slack when the ailerons were centered. Also the Aileron pushrods needed to pass directly through the lower set of rear wing attach fittings to attach to the aileron. This whole rear spar and aileron bellcrank setup was going to either have to be redesigned or cut out and built to plans. The bottom line is that the problems I observed when I inspected this part were much more serious than expected when I had to fix it.\nI decided that I had to remove the rear fittings from the left wing to be replaced with the new set that my neighborhood machinist was cutting out for me. When I put the wing on the work bench to start removing the rear fittings, I thought I had better take a closer look at the bubbles in the leading edge. I found that as I pushed on the leading edge, it delaminated between the glass lay-up on top and the upper and lower wing skin edges that were floxed together underneath. I concluded that that area had to come apart and took a belt sander to the leading edge. What I found was that the leading edge had been floxed together and glassed over, but the mold release had never been scrubbed off the leading edge of the wing. It peeled apart for rebuild quite easily.\nWhen I got back to removing the rear spar attach fittings, I noticed that the woodwork inside the wing looked awfully dull. The reason was that the wing had been closed up without varnishing any of the woodwork. This was rectified with a small hole saw, a number of extensions and a modified undercoating sprayer.\nI also found that the aluminum drain fitting in the bottom of the left wing tank had been glassed into place upside down. The tapered pipe threads were tapered the wrong way to install the draincock into the tank. Retapping the fitting the right direction seemed to be a good fix for that problem.\nWhen I finally got around to attaching the wing to the fuselage, I found that the front spar attach fittings were badly misaligned. Although they could be forced into alignment, I didn't think I needed that kind of preload on the main spar fittings. This problem was fixed by calling on my local neighborhood machinist to build me an aligning fixture and reaming the attach holes to the next larger size and ordering the new sized bolts.\nOn the fuselage I found that although it had new Cleveland wheels and brakes on it, one of the brakes had a severe wobble to it. I must complement the manufacturers for taking care of that problem. One call to the Cleveland factory and they shipped me a new set of wheels and brakes even though the receipt for this set was over four years old and in the original builders name. Their only concern was that this set had never been placed in service yet.\nI chose to sand the load of micro off the left wing to see what it was covering. When I got down to the glass, I found that there was no glass for the aft inch and a half of the underside of the wing in front of the aileron hinge. With the Diehl wing skins, you build the wings, then cut the ailerons out of trailing edge of the wing. He had mismeasured and cut too much material off the bottom side of the trailing edge in front of the aileron. It was filled by floxing a piece of spruce into the gap to fill the space between the back edge of the fiberglass and the aileron mount. I chose to wrap the trailing edge of that wing, and the other wing to match with a couple of lay-ups of glass.\nWhen I sanded the primer off the aforementioned damaged trim tab, I found that the hinge was floxed to the leading edge of the foam insides of the tab, but not the glass. I also chose to wrap the front of the trim tab with a lay-up of glass.\nI decided to pull the paper off the canopy and take a look at it before I'm ready to bolt it on and fly. The original builder had blown his own canopy and after some of the previous problems, I was beginning to have some concerns about not having looked it over closely enough. The canopy turned out to have been blow a little too large. It ended up with a little larger bubble for headroom, which I didn't object to. However, it had more headroom on the right side than the left. Yes, it was just a little bit lopsided. The main problem was that the canopy is stretched thin enough that it can be easily pushed in with one hand when the weather is warm.. My fear was that this is just thin enough that it may decide to lay on my head or in my lap when flying on a warm day. It will have to be replaced.\nI'm sure that many that are reading this could see several of the potential problems before I mentioned them, but some others may not have and I'm sure that there could have been many other problems that didn't but could have existed on this project. This is also not intended to be critical of the gentleman that started this project as many parts of it, especially the wood work are better than I could have done and much of his work is outstanding. I prefer to think that I'll end up with a better plane with his woodwork combined with my glasswork. This article is intended to feature some of the problems that you may run into in buying someone else's project.\nThe final question is, knowing what I have found over the past year, would I have still purchased this project. The answer is yes, but primarily because the price was right in that I am still money and work ahead of where I would be if I had started the project from scratch. There are a few things that I would have done differently, but nothing that I can't live with. Although I won't be able to say that I built it all from scratch, I have built and rebuild enough of the plane that I should have no problem qualifying under the 51% rule.\nYou can send comments directly to the author via e-mail at \"jscott@LANL.GOV\".\nHere is an brief explanation of how I built my turtledecks. The jig was constructed from scrap plywood and a few 1x4s that I ripped into stringers. I made two temporary bulkheads from the plywood, one for each end. Remember the forward bulkhead needs to be shaped in a way that will closely match the aft end of your canopy frame. Make an aft bulkhead by placing a straight edge at the top of your forward bulkhead and the trailing edge of your horizontal stabilizer. This will give you an idea of how tall your aft bulkhead needs to be. As far as location, I placed my aft bulkhead just forward of the lower/front of my vertical fin. I constructed the jig on the fuselage, it is glued together with automotive bondo.\nAfter the bulkheads were bondoed to the fuselage I used the stringers that I ripped from the 1x4s and bondoed them to the bulkheads. This gave me a male form to cover with thin plastic or posterboard. I stapled two layers of posterboard to the jig(thin plastic would work better). The posterboard wraps down two inches onto the fuselage. After I was satisfied with the way it looked, I then covered the entire thing with duct tape (fiberglass will not stick to duct tape) On top of this I wetout one layer of tri-ply cloth (22oz) that I had left over from an earlier project, and one layer of 8oz. bid. Remember to mask off your fuselage so you don't get epoxy on it. If you are not familiar with composite lay-ups, you should plan on razor cutting your lay-ups 4 to 6 hours after wetout while the lay-up is still soft enough to cut with a razorblade.\nAfter the lay-up cured (2 or 3 days) it was removed from the jig, and the jig was removed from the fuselage and discarded. (be careful, the bondo sticks very well to the spruce, you could splinter your wood during removal) I now have a fiberglass skin that tends to hold the shape of the jig but is still flexible enough to work with. I made two bulkheads out of 1/4 last-a-foam (AS&S) using the plywood formers from the jig as a guide. I covered these foam bulkheads with one 8oz layer of glass on each side, with a glass to glass edge on the bottom. After cure these bulkheads were bondoed into place (to the fuselage)and the fiberglass skin was pulled down tight and floxed to the bulkheads. When the flox cured the bondo joints were broken, again being careful not to harm the wood. The turtledeck was removed from the fuselage and 2 inch tapes added to the bulkheads inside and out.\nAt this point the turtledeck looked great and only weighed about 5lbs. but I noticed you could deform the skin by pushing hard on the outside. So I flipped the turtledeck over and from 1/4 inch last-a-foam, I cut two inch wide strips that would run the entire length, forward and aft inside the turtledeck. In effect these would act as composite stringers, I made enough of these two inch wide strips to make up three stringers. One down the center (sort of a backbone) and one on each side of the \"backbone\" half the distance to the edge of the turtledeck. I sanded the edge of the foam so that when covered with a layer of bid @ 45degrees there would be a nice transition from the turtledeck skin up onto the foam and then back onto the turtledeck I scuff sanded and glued the foam stringers in with micro. I covered the foam stringers with one layer of 8oz bid @ 45degrees.", "answers": ["The sides of the fuselage are sloped to create a conical section when the fuselage is formed."], "length": 6250, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "41e27260a12cc40a778f8c1ba8bf643ee655871a458e5e1c"}
{"input": "How does the scoring engine generate a stream of content for the channel?", "context": "A system and method for generating a stream of content for a channel. The channel application includes a content categorizer, a scoring engine and a channel engine. The content categorizer categorizes new content items received from heterogeneous data sources. The channel engine identifies a channel category for a user based at least in part on at least one of a historical trend and a user activity. The scoring engine queries the new content items based on the channel category and at least one other channel attribute. The scoring engine retrieves candidate content items that include the channel category and the other channel attribute. The scoring engine then generates a stream of content from the candidate content items for the channel.\nThis application claims priority under 35 USC §120 to U.S. application Ser. No. 13/225,209, entitled, “Generating a Stream of Content for a Channel,” filed on Sep. 2, 2011, and claims priority under 35 USC §119(e) to U.S. Application No. 61/424,636, entitled “Scoring Stream Items with Models Based on User Interests” filed Dec. 18, 2010, the entireties of which are herein incorporated by reference.\nThe specification relates to a system and method for generating a stream of content for a channel. In particular, the specification relates to generating a stream of content for a channel based on user interests and historical trends.\nMany consumers of digital media have two somewhat contradictory goals: keep apprised of information in the areas they already find interesting and discover new content that is also enjoyable. Keeping apprised of information can become burdensome in the digital age because there is so much information. Hence, there is a need to present the best and most relevant information, without overwhelming the consumer. Furthermore, consumers have varied interests depending on the time of a year or a day. As a result, there is also a need to cater to the time dependent changes in the consumer's interests while presenting information. Similarly, discovering new content is difficult when the consumer is overburdened with existing content.\nPrior attempts to solve these problems allow consumers to create personalized sections in feed aggregation websites that are defined by keywords. Often, these personalized sections present any item that includes the keywords even though the item is not of interest to the consumer, per se. In another method, consumers are allowed to manually subscribe to Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds from multiple websites. This method often leads to the consumer viewing multiple items which contain redundant information.\nIn some examples, the specification describes a system and method for generating a stream of content for a channel using a channel application. The channel application includes a processing unit, a model generation engine, a scoring engine, a collaborative filtering engine, a content categorizer, a channel engine, and a user interface engine. The model generation engine generates a model that is used to determine suggestions for channels. The content categorizer categorizes new content items received from heterogeneous data sources. The channel engine identifies a channel category for a user based on at least one of a historical trend and a user activity. The historical trend is at least one of an increase in a number of new content items for a content category, an increase in a number of times one of the new content items is accessed and an event. A scoring engine queries the new content items based on the channel category and at least one other channel attribute. The scoring engine receives candidate content items that include the channel category and the at least one other channel attribute. The scoring engine then generates a stream of content from the candidate content items for the channel. The scoring engine transmits the stream of content to the channel engine, which generates a channel.\nIn one embodiment, the user interface engine generates a user interface for the user to define the channel category and the channel attribute. The scoring engine queries the new content items based on the user defined channel category and channel attribute and then generates the stream of content. In another embodiment, the channel engine enables the user to subscribe to an existing channel.\nIn one embodiment, the channel engine enables the user to share the channel with at least one of a friend of the user, a community, a group, and an internet user.\nThe specification is illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings in which like reference numerals are used to refer to similar elements.\nFIG. 1A is a high-level block diagram illustrating one embodiment of a system for generating a stream of content for a channel.\nFIG. 1B is a block diagram illustrating one embodiment of a channel application.\nFIG. 2 is a high-level block diagram illustrating another embodiment of a system for generating a stream of content for a channel.\nFIG. 3A is a block diagram of one embodiment of the channel engine in more detail.\nFIG. 3B is a block diagram of one embodiment of the scoring engine in more detail.\nFIG. 4 is a graphic representation of a user interface that displays the stream of content of a channel.\nFIG. 5 is a graphic representation of a user interface that allows a user to define or customize a channel.\nFIG. 6 is a flow diagram of one embodiment of a method for generating a stream of content for a channel.\nFIG. 7 is a flow diagram of another embodiment of a method for generating a stream of content for a channel.\nA system and method for generating a stream of content for a channel is described below. In the following description, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the specification. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art that the embodiments can be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, structures and devices are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid obscuring the specification. For example, the specification is described in one embodiment below with reference to user interfaces and particular hardware. However, the description applies to any type of computing device that can receive data and commands, and any peripheral devices providing services.\nSome portions of the detailed descriptions that follow are presented in terms of algorithms and symbolic representations of operations on data bits within a computer memory. These algorithmic descriptions and representations are the means used by those skilled in the data processing arts to most effectively convey the substance of their work to others skilled in the art. An algorithm is here, and generally, conceived to be a self consistent sequence of steps leading to a desired result. The steps are those requiring physical manipulations of physical quantities. Usually, though not necessarily, these quantities take the form of electrical or magnetic signals capable of being stored, transferred, combined, compared, and otherwise manipulated. It has proven convenient at times, principally for reasons of common usage, to refer to these signals as bits, values, elements, symbols, characters, terms, numbers, or the like.\nIt should be borne in mind, however, that all of these and similar terms are to be associated with the appropriate physical quantities and are merely convenient labels applied to these quantities. Unless specifically stated otherwise as apparent from the following discussion, it is appreciated that throughout the description, discussions utilizing terms such as “processing,” “computing,” “calculating,” “determining,” “displaying,” or the like, refer to the action and processes of a computer system, or similar electronic computing device, that manipulates and transforms data represented as physical (electronic) quantities within the computer system's registers and memories into other data similarly represented as physical quantities within the computer system memories or registers or other such information storage, transmission or display devices.\nThe specification also relates to an apparatus for performing the operations herein. This apparatus may be specially constructed for the required purposes, or it may comprise a general-purpose computer selectively activated or reconfigured by a computer program stored in the computer. Such a computer program may be stored in a computer readable storage medium, such as, but not limited to, any type of disk including floppy disks, optical disks, CD-ROMs, and magnetic disks, read-only memories (ROMs), random access memories (RAMs), EPROMs, EEPROMs, magnetic or optical cards, flash memories including USB keys with non-volatile memory, or any type of media suitable for storing electronic instructions, each coupled to a computer system bus.\nAn embodiment can take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment containing both hardware and software elements. A preferred embodiment is implemented in software, which includes but is not limited to firmware, resident software, microcode, etc.\nFurthermore, an embodiment can take the form of a computer program product accessible from a computer-usable or computer-readable medium providing program code for use by or in connection with a computer or any instruction execution system. For the purposes of this description, a computer-usable or computer readable medium can be any apparatus that can contain, store, communicate, propagate, or transport the program for use by or in connection with the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device.\nFIG. 1A illustrates a block diagram of a system 100 for generating a stream of content for a channel according to one embodiment. The system 100 includes user devices 115 a, 115 n that are accessed by users 125 a, 125 n, a social network server 101, a third party server 107, a ratings server 139, an email server 141, an entertainment server 137, and a search server 135. The ratings server 139 includes websites for rating places, people or objects (e.g. Google Hotpot). The entertainment server 137 includes websites with entertaining information, such as news articles. In FIG. 1A and the remaining figures, a letter after a reference number, such as “115 a” is a reference to the element having that particular reference number. A reference number in the text without a following letter, such as “115,” is a general reference to any or all instances of the element bearing that reference number. In the illustrated embodiment, these entities are communicatively coupled via a network 105.\nIn one embodiment, the channel application 103 a is operable on the social network server 101, which is coupled to the network via signal line 104. The social network server 101 also contains a social network application 109 and a social graph 179. Although only one social network server 101 is shown, persons of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that multiple social network servers 101 may be present. A social network is any type of social structure where the users are connected by a common feature, for example, Google+. The common feature includes friendship, family, work, an interest, etc. The common features are provided by one or more social networking systems, such as those included in the system 100, including explicitly-defined relationships and relationships implied by social connections with other online users, where the relationships form a social graph 179. In some examples, the social graph 179 reflects a mapping of these users and how they are related.\nIn another embodiment, the channel application 103 b is stored on a third-party server 107, which is connected to the network via signal line 106. The third-party server 107 includes software for generating a website (not shown). In one embodiment, the notifying application generates a user interface that is incorporated into the website. Although only one third-party server 107 is shown, persons of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that multiple third-party servers 107 may be present.\nIn yet another embodiment, the channel application 103 c is stored on a user device 115 a, which is connected to the network via signal line 108. The user device 115 a is any computing device that includes a memory and a processor, such as a personal computer, a laptop, a smartphone, a cellular phone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), etc. The user 125 a interacts with the user device 115 a via signal line 110. Although only two user devices 115 a, 115 n are illustrated, persons of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that any number of user devices 115 n are available to any number of users 125 n.\nThe network 105 is a conventional type, wired or wireless, and may have any number of configurations such as a star configuration, token ring configuration or other configurations known to those skilled in the art. Furthermore, the network 105 may comprise a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN) (e.g., the Internet), and/or any other interconnected data path across which multiple devices may communicate. In yet another embodiment, the network 105 may be a peer-to-peer network. The network 105 may also be coupled to or includes portions of a telecommunications network for sending data in a variety of different communication protocols. In yet another embodiment, the network 105 includes Bluetooth communication networks or a cellular communications network for sending and receiving data such as via short messaging service (SMS), multimedia messaging service (MMS), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), direct data connection, WAP, email, etc. While only one network 105 is coupled to the user devices 115 a, 115 n, the social network server 101, and the third party server 107, in practice any number of networks 105 can be connected to the entities.\nThe channel application 103 receives data for generating a stream of content for a channel from heterogeneous data sources. In one embodiment, the channel application 103 receives data from a third-party server 107, a social network server 101, user devices 115 a, 115 n, a search server 135 that is coupled to the network 105 via signal line 136, an entertainment server 137 that is coupled to the network 105 via signal line 138, a ratings server 139 that is coupled to the network 105 via signal line 140 and an email server 141 that is coupled to the network 105 via signal line 142. In one embodiment, the search server 135 includes a search engine 143 for retrieving results that match search terms from the Internet. In one embodiment, the search engine 143 is powered by Google®. In one embodiment, the channel application 103 generates a model based on the data from the heterogeneous data sources, identifies a channel category based on a user's activities and historical trends, receives candidate content items that include the channel category from heterogeneous data sources, scores the candidate content items by comparing them to the model, and generates a stream of content for the channel.\nReferring now to FIG. 1B, the channel application 103 is shown in detail. FIG. 1B is a block diagram of a computing device 200 that includes the channel application 103, a memory 237 and a processor 235. In one embodiment, the computing 200 device is a social network server 101. In another embodiment, the computing device 200 is a third party server 107. In yet another embodiment, the computing device 200 is a user device 115 a.\nThe processor 235 comprises an arithmetic logic unit, a microprocessor, a general purpose controller, or some other processor array to perform computations and provide electronic display signals to a display device. The processor 235 is coupled to the bus 220 for communication with the other components via signal line 236. Processor 235 processes data signals and may comprise various computing architectures including a complex instruction set computer (CISC) architecture, a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) architecture, or an architecture implementing a combination of instruction sets. Although only a single processor is shown in FIG. 1B, multiple processors may be included. The processing capability may be limited to supporting the display of images and the capture and transmission of images. The processing capability might be enough to perform more complex tasks, including various types of feature extraction and sampling. It will be obvious to one skilled in the art that other processors, operating systems, sensors, displays, and physical configurations are possible.\nThe memory 237 stores instructions and/or data that may be executed by processor 235. The memory 237 is coupled to the bus 220 for communication with the other components via signal line 238. The instructions and/or data may comprise code for performing any and/or all of the techniques described herein. The memory 237 may be a dynamic random access memory (DRAM) device, a static random access memory (SRAM) device, flash memory, or some other memory device known in the art. In one embodiment, the memory 237 also includes a non-volatile memory or similar permanent storage device and media such as a hard disk drive, a floppy disk drive, a CD-ROM device, a DVD-ROM device, a DVD-RAM device, a DVD-RW device, a flash memory device, or some other mass storage device known in the art for storing information on a more permanent basis.\nIn one embodiment, the channel application 103 comprises a processing unit 202, a model generation engine 207, a scoring engine 211, a collaborative filtering engine 217, a content categorizer 250, a channel engine 240, and a user interface engine 260 that are coupled to a bus 220.\nThe processing unit 202 is software including routines for receiving information about a user's interests, activities and social connections and for storing the information in the memory 237. In one embodiment, the processing unit 202 is a set of instructions executable by the processor 235 to provide the functionality described below for processing the information. In another embodiment, the processing unit 202 is stored in the memory 237 of the computing device 200 and is accessible and executable by the processor 235. In either embodiment, the processing unit 202 is adapted for cooperation and communication with the processor 235, the model generation engine 207, and other components of the computing device 200 via signal line 222.\nThe processing unit 202 obtains information about users from user input and/or prior actions of a user across a range of heterogeneous data sources including search (such as web, video, news, maps, alerts), entertainment (such as news, video, a personalized homepage, blogs, a reader, gadget subscriptions), social activity (such as interactions through email, profile information, text messaging such as short message service (SMS), microblogs, geographical locations, comments on photos, a social graph and other social networking information), and activity on third-party sites (such as websites that provide ratings, reviews and social networks where users indicate that they approve of content). This information is obtained, for example, from a user's search history, browsing history and other interactions with the Internet. The processing unit 202 stores the information with a designation of the source of the information.\nIn one embodiment, there are multiple processing units 202 that each receive data from a different heterogeneous data source. In another embodiment, the user information is received by the same processing unit 202. The processing unit 202 transmits the user information to memory 237 for storage. In one embodiment, the memory 237 partitions the user information from each heterogeneous data source in a separate data storage location. In another embodiment, the user information from heterogeneous data sources is stored in the same location in the memory 237. In yet another embodiment, the memory 237 partitions the model and the stream of content into separate storage locations as well.\nThe model generation engine 207 is software including routines for retrieving the user information from the memory 237 and generating a model based on the user information. In one embodiment, the model generation engine 207 is a set of instructions executable by the processor 235 to provide the functionality described below for generating the model. In another embodiment, the model generation engine 207 is stored in the memory 237 of the computing device 200 and is accessible and executable by the processor 235. In either embodiment, the model generation engine 207 is adapted for cooperation and communication with the processor 235, the processing unit 202, the scoring engine 211, the channel engine 240 and other components of the computing device 200 via signal line 224.\nThe model generation engine 207 receives user information from a variety of sources including, for example, queries, clicks, news clicks, gadgets, email interactions, etc., extracts features from the information and generates a model based on the extracted features. The model determines the relevance of items to users, along with floating point values to indicate the extent to which the relevance holds. Examples include liking a source, a primary location and a list of interests. The interests are generated from explicit information and inferred information. Explicit information is derived, for example, from a user's list of interests on a social network or indicating that they liked a particular content item. Inferred information takes into account a user's activities.\nThe model generation engine 207 will infer that a user is interested in a particular subject, for example, if the subject matter appears in search terms. For example, the model generation engine 207 infers that a user who searches for information about different types of butterflies is interested in butterflies. The model generation engine 207 can even infer information based on the user's friends' activities. For example, content items that interest the user's friends might also interest the user. As a result, in one embodiment, the model includes the user's friends' interests.\nIn one embodiment, the model generation engine 207 also generates a model that contains several pieces of global meta-information about the user's consumption patterns including how frequently the user consumes the stream of content of a channel and global statistics on how likely the user is to reshare various types of items. Lastly, the model includes a sequence of weights and multipliers that are used to make predictions about the user's likelihood of clicking on, sharing or otherwise engaging with stream items.\nThe model generation engine 207 generates the model from the user information across the heterogeneous data sources. In one embodiment, the model generation engine 207 builds extensions to the model that employ the patterns of behavior of other users. For example, the model predicts the user's behavior based on the reaction of similar users. All the data that is derived from other users is anonymized before it is incorporated into the model.\nIn one embodiment, the model generation engine 207 generates a model based on user information, for example, based on the user's search history or third-party accounts. Alternatively, the model generation engine 207 receives periodic updates (one hour, one day, one week, etc.) from the heterogeneous data sources and in turn updates the model.\nIn yet another embodiment, the model generation engine 207 generates a model each time it receives a request for generating a stream of content for a channel. The advantage of this method is that the newest updates are included and the model is current. The disadvantage is that generating the model and then comparing the candidate content items to the model to generate the stream of content takes more time than comparing the candidate content items to a pre-existing model. The model generation engine 207 transmits the model to memory 237 for storage.\nThe content categorizer 250 is software including routines for receiving and categorizing new content items from heterogeneous sources according to at least one category and other features. In one embodiment, the content categorizer 250 is a set of instructions executable by the processor 235 to provide the functionality described below for receiving and categorizing new content items. In another embodiment, the content categorizer 250 is stored in the memory 237 of the computing device 200 and is accessible and executable by the processor 235. In either embodiment, the content categorizer 250 is adapted for cooperation and communication with the processor 235, the scoring engine 211 and other components of the computing device 200 via signal line 227.\nThe content categorizer 250 receives new content items from heterogeneous data sources and annotates them with specific tags, such as features, global scores, etc. In this embodiment, the heterogeneous data sources include a search engine 143, an entertainment server 137, an email server 141, a ratings server 139, a social network server 101, and a third-party server 107. Once the items are annotated, the content categorizer 250 indexes each new content item based on the features and stores the content items in the memory 237. The new content items, in one embodiment, are indexed according to an identification format (MediaType#UniqueItemID, for example, “YOUTUBE#video_id” and “NEWS#doc_id”), an item static feature column that holds an item's static features (title, content, content classification, context, etc.), an item dynamic feature column that holds an item's dynamic features (global_score, number of clicks, number of following, etc.), a source (src) static feature column where the source is a publisher of an item (magazine in news, video uploading in YouTube, etc.) and a src dynamic feature column that holds the source's dynamic features. The content categorizer 250 categorizes the new content items to make their retrieval more efficient and fast.\nThe channel engine 240 is software including routines for generating a channel for a user. In one embodiment, the channel engine 240 is a set of instructions executable by the processor 235 to provide the functionality described below for generating a channel for a user. In another embodiment, the channel engine 240 is stored in the memory 237 of the computing device 200 and is accessible and executable by the processor 235. In either embodiment, the channel engine 240 is adapted for cooperation and communication with the processor 235, the scoring engine 211, the model generation engine 207, the user interface engine 240, and other components of the computing device 200 via signal line 230.\nIn one embodiment, the channel engine 240 identifies a channel category for a user based on historical trends and the user's activities, interests and social connections. The channel engine 240 submits a request for a stream of content that includes the channel category and channel attributes to the scoring engine 211. The channel engine 240 then receives a stream of content from the scoring engine 211 and generates the channel. The generated channel is either public or private depending on the user's settings. The channel engine 240 is explained in greater detail below with regard to FIG. 3A.\nThe scoring engine 211 is software including routines for generating a stream of content for a channel. In one embodiment, the scoring engine 211 is a set of instructions executable by the processor 235 to provide the functionality described below for globally scoring content items and for generating a stream of content for a channel. In another embodiment, the scoring engine 211 is stored in the memory 237 of the computing device 200 and is accessible and executable by the processor 235. In either embodiment, the scoring engine 211 is adapted for cooperation and communication with the processor 235, the processing unit 202, the collaborative filtering engine 217, the model generation engine 207, the channel engine 240 and other components of the computing device 200 via signal line 228.\nIn one embodiment, the scoring engine 211 receives the request from the channel engine 240 and queries the new content items stored in memory 237. In another embodiment, the scoring engine 211 directly queries the heterogeneous data sources. The scoring engine 211 receives candidate content items that include the channel category and the channel attributes. The scoring engine 211 then compares the candidate content items to the model to determine whether the user would find the candidate content items interesting.\nIn one embodiment, the scoring engine 211 first performs the query and then compares the results to the model to determine whether the user would find them interesting. In another embodiment, these steps are performed simultaneously. In yet another embodiment, the scoring engine 211 compares candidate content items to the model and then filters the results according to the subject matter of the queries. The scoring engine 211 is explained in greater detail below with regard to FIG. 3B.\nThe collaborative filtering engine 217 is software including routines for generating additional candidate content items for the channel through collaborative filtering and transmitting the additional candidate content items to the scoring engine 211 that were derived from collaborative filtering. In one embodiment, the collaborative filtering engine 217 is a set of instructions executable by the processor 235 to provide the functionality described below for generating additional candidate content items for the channel. In another embodiment, the collaborative filtering engine 217 is stored in the memory 237 of the computing device 200 and is accessible and executable by the processor 235. In either embodiment, the collaborative filtering engine 217 is adapted for cooperation and communication with the processor 235, the scoring engine 211 and other components of the computing device via signal line 226.\nThe collaborative filtering engine 217 obtains additional candidate content items that are socially relevant from a stream of content derived from people with whom the user has a relationship and transmits them to the scoring engine 211. For example, the stream of content is derived from friends in a social network such as the social network application 109 or people that the user frequently emails. The more important that the person appears to be to the user, the more likely that the user will be interested in the candidate content item. Thus, in one embodiment, the collaborative filtering engine 217 applies a weight to candidate content items based on the social relationship of the user to the friend. For example, users that are friends receive higher weights than candidate content items from second generation friends of the user (i.e., a friend of a friend). In one embodiment, the collaborative filtering engine 217 receives information about relationships between users from the social graph 179.\nThe collaborative filtering engine 217 increases the weights applied to candidate content items from friends when the user positively responds to the items. For example, if the user comments on the item or indicates that the user found the item interesting, the collaborative filtering engine 217 increase the weight so that more candidate content items from the friend become part of the stream of content.\nThe user interface engine 260 is software including routines for generating a user interface that, when rendered on a browser, displays a channel generated for a user and enables the user to customize the channel. In one embodiment, the user interface engine 260 is a set of instructions executable by the processor 235 to provide the functionality described below for generating a user interface. In another embodiment, the user interface engine 260 is stored in the memory 237 of the computing device 200 and is accessible and executable by the processor 235. In either embodiment, the user interface engine 260 is adapted for cooperation and communication with the processor 235, the channel engine 240 and other components of the computing device 200 via signal line 232.\nThe user interface engine 260 receives instructions from the channel engine 240 for generating a display. The user interface includes options for viewing a channel, requesting a new channel, modifying the user interests, and following suggested channels.\nFIG. 2 is a high-level block diagram illustrating another embodiment of a system for generating a stream of content for a channel. In this embodiment, the components of the channel application 103 are divided among various servers so that the information is efficiently processed. The system includes a search server 135, an entertainment server 137, a ratings server 139, an email server 141, a content categorizer 250, a data storage server 265, a model server 255, a scoring server 262, a social network server 101, a user device 115, and a channel application 103.\nA content categorizer 250 crawls the heterogeneous data sources (search server 135, entertainment server 137, ratings server 139, and email server 141) are crawled for new content items by the content categorizer 250 or the new content items are directly transmitted to the content categorizer 250.\nThe content categorizer 250 categorizes the new content items as mentioned above with regards to FIG. 1B and stores them in the database 267 of the data storage server 265. The content categorizer 240 also includes a processing unit 202 for processing user information (activities, interests and social connections). In one embodiment, the processing unit 202 stores the database 267.\nIn one embodiment, the data storage server 265 dynamically phases out the old content items. For example, news items expire after 24 hours, videos expire after 48 hours and feeds are kept for 24 hours or only the 10 most recent items, whichever is larger, etc.\nThe content categorizer 250 also transmits the new content items to the scoring server 262 for a global user ranking. The global scores are transmitted from the scoring server 262 to the data storage server 265, which stores the global scores in association with the new content items. The global scores are helpful for organizing the new content items in the data storage server 265 according to the more popular items.\nTurning now to the model server 255, the model server 255 receives the user's activity, interests and social connections from the processing unit 202 or the data storage server 265. The model generation engine 207 generates a model based on user input and/or prior actions. The model server 255 transmits a model to the scoring server 262 and the channel application 103 periodically or upon request.\nThe channel application 103 includes a channel engine 240 and a user interface engine 260. In one embodiment, the channel engine 240 requests the model from the model server 255 and identifies a channel category that a user would find interesting. The channel engine 240 then transmits a request for a stream of content to the scoring server 262. The channel engine 240 receives the stream of content from the scoring server 262 and generates the channel. The user interface engine 260 generates a user interface for displaying a user interface that includes the channel and transmits it to the user device 115. In addition, the user interface engine 260 generates a user interface to allow the user to customize the channel or define a new channel. These user interfaces are explained in greater detail below with regard to FIGS. 4-5.\nIn one embodiment, the channel engine 240 transmits a query based on the channel category to the scoring server 262. The scoring server 262 queries and receives candidate content items from the data storage server 265. The scoring server 262 also queries and receives candidate content items from the social network server 101. The candidate content items from the social network server 101 are pre-scored by the collaborative filtering engine 217 and, in one embodiment, the unread candidate content items are saved to a cache on the social network server 101. These items are saved to a cache because the quantity of social updates can be large enough that performing the scoring during write time enables faster reads.\nIn one embodiment, the scoring engine 211 requests the model from the model server 255. The scoring server 262 then compares the candidate content items to the model and scores the candidate content items. The scoring engine 211 compares the candidate content items received from the social network server 101 to the model and rescores them according to the model. In another embodiment, the scoring engine 211 scores the candidate content items according to the category and any keywords associated with a channel. In either embodiment, the scoring engine 211 generates a stream of content based on the scored candidate content items and transmits the stream of content to the channel application 103.\nReferring now to FIG. 3A, one embodiment of a channel engine 240 is shown in more detail. The channel engine 240 includes a historical analyzer 372, a category identifier 374, a subscription module 376 and a channel generator 378 that are each coupled to signal line 230.\nThe historical analyzer 372 is used to identify when a user will be interested in a particular category. The historical analyzer 372 identifies, for example, a time of the day or a year that a user will be interested in a category by analyzing historical trends associated with the category. In one embodiment, the historical analyzer 372 performs such analyses by measuring the increase or decrease in the number of new content items that are categorized under a content category or by measuring an increase or decrease in the number of times a new content item is accessed. For example, the number of times a tutorial on filing taxes is accessed would be very high during February-April. In another embodiment, the historical analyzer 372 also keeps track of events such as holidays, festivals, etc. Tracking such events is advantageous as, for example, many users might be interested in costume rentals during Halloween or camping during the Memorial Day and July 4th weekends.\nThe category identifier 374 identifies a channel category for a user based on the user's interests, activities and social connections. In one embodiment, the category identifier 374 requests the model generated by the model generation engine 207 to identify the channel category. For example, the category identifier 374 identifies sports cars as a channel category because it is an explicit interest of the user. The category identifier 374 suggests channels including a source, a category, keywords, a media type, a size of a content item, and a location for a channel. For example, for a user that is interested in foreign politics, especially relations between the United States and China, the category identifier 374 suggests the category of U.S. and Chinese relations (e.g., entity=“us_china_relations”), keywords such as trade and deficit because the user is particularly interested in the economic aspect of the relationship between China and the United States, a source such as The Economist (source=“economist.com”) because the user prefers The Economist over U.S. media outlets and the media being news articles because the user does not enjoy viewing videos.\nIn one embodiment, the category identifier 374 uses the analyses of the historical analyzer 374 for identifying a channel category for the user. This is advantageous as a user who has searched for US taxes might not be interested in knowing about it throughout the year, but it is beneficial for the user to have a separate channel for US taxes during the tax filing season. In yet another embodiment, the category identifier 374 uses contextual cues of the user for identifying channel categories. For example, the category identifier 374 identifies skiing in Switzerland as a channel category because winter sports is listed as an interest of the user and the user's current IP address is in Switzerland.\nThe subscription module 376 enables a user to subscribe to existing channels that are public. In one embodiment, the subscription module 376 enables a user to subscribe to a pre-defined channel (such as breaking news, most popular videos, updates from a social group, etc.). The channel application 103 generates the stream of content for pre-defined channels based on global scores of the new content items. Subscribing to pre-defined channels such as breaking news is advantageous as it helps the user to keep apprised of current information and discover new interests. Furthermore, because in one embodiment the breaking news channel is personalized since the content items are compared to a model for the user, the breaking news channel is more relevant than simply a list of popular or recent news items.\nIn another embodiment, the subscription module 376 enables a user to subscribe to another user's channel (a friend, a famous person, etc.) that is public. Subscribing to another user's channel is advantageous because, for example, a user who is interested in the stock market will benefit by viewing the stream of content that is viewed by a famous stock market analyst. In yet another embodiment, the subscription module 376 enables the user to search for channels that are public using the search engine 143. The subscription module 376, suggests such channels that are viewed by other users based on the interests of the user. In another embodiment, the subscription module 376 communicates with the collaborative filtering engine 217 to suggest channels viewed by other users with whom the user has a relationship.\nThe channel generator 378 submits a request for a stream of content for a channel to the scoring engine 211. The request includes the channel category identified by the category identifier 374 and channel attributes. The channel attributes include any attribute known to a person with ordinary skill in the art such as a source, presence of keywords, absence of keywords, a media type, a location, a time, a size of a content item, a date, etc. In one embodiment, the channel category and the channel attributes are defined by the user. In another embodiment, channel generator 378 defines the channel attributes for the channel category based on the user's preferences and activities. For example, if a user always reads news articles and seldom watches news videos, the channel generator 378 would define the media type for the channel as text based articles. At any point in time, the user can customize both the channel category and the channel attributes. The channel generator 378 then resubmits the request based on the changes made by the user.\nIn response to the request, the channel generator 378 receives a stream of content from the scoring engine 211 and generates the channel for the user. The generated channel is either public or private depending upon the user's preferences. In one embodiment, the user shares the channel to a community, a group of people or any internet user. The channel is then displayed to the user with an interface generated by the user interface engine 260.\nReferring now to FIG. 3B, one embodiment of a scoring engine 211 is shown in more detail. The scoring engine 211 includes a query generator 301, a global scorer 302 and a content stream generator 304 that are each coupled to signal line 228.\nThe global scorer 302 is used to rank new content items that are stored in the data storage server 265 or memory 237 (depending upon the embodiment). The global scorer 302 uses signals from the different verticals to compute a global user-independent score for each item to approximate its popularity or importance within the stream that produced it. The global scorer 302 normalizes the score across streams so that items from various streams are comparable to aid in generating a quick yet reasonable ranking of items. The global score is a combination of its quality specific to the source stream (depending on the rank of the source, number of known followers of a source, etc.) and its global popularity (trigger rate on universal search, relevance to trending queries, number of clicks, long clicks received, etc.).\nThe global scorer 302 transmits the global score to storage where it is associated with the item. The global score helps rank the items for faster retrieval. For example, if the query generated by the query generator 301 includes a request for the top ten items about skiing, those items are already organized in the data storage server 265 or memory 237 according to the global score.\nThe query generator 301 receives a request for a stream of content for a channel from the channel engine 240. The query generator 301 generates a query based on the channel attributes that are included in the request. The query generator 301 queries the data storage server 265 or memory 237 depending upon the embodiment. The following is an example query generated by the query generator 301: ((Category: Politics) AND (global_score>80) AND (source: NewsWebsite) AND (media type: Text)).\nThe content stream generator 304 receives candidate content items that include the channel attributes. The content stream generator 304, for the above mentioned query, receives text based articles that include the channel category politics and have a global score greater than 80. Additionally, the text based articles are from the source NewsWebsite. In one embodiment, the content stream generator 304 generates the stream by ordering the content items in order of their scores. In another embodiment, the content stream generator 304 determines an interestingness of each candidate content item to the user. The content stream generator 304 determines the interestingness by comparing the candidate content items with a model generated for the user by the model generation engine 207 and scoring them.\nwhere p is a property, that is, a setting A=a of the attributes. The latter quantity, Pr(p|user) is approximated from the user's history of interactions with content items as well as the user's search history and other opt-in data. Similarly, the former quantity, Pr(item|p) is approximated by the (suitably weighted) reciprocal of the number of items with property p (e.g., if it is expected that p=((Politics) AND (global_score>80) AND (source: NewsWebsite) AND (media type: Text)) to generate 300 items, take Pr(item|p) to be 1/300).\nwhere the properties p are summed over single-attribute properties (as opposed to all possible settings of an entire collection of attributes), and G is an exponential function of the form G(x)=2(100 x), so that when applied in this form, if there are several values of p for which Pr(item|p) Pr(p|user) is large, the sum of their G-values slowly increases.\nOnce the scores are calculated, the content stream generator 304 generates a stream of content for the channel that is ordered according to the candidate content item scores. In one embodiment, only the candidate content items that exceed a certain threshold are included in the stream of content for the channel.\nTurning now to the user interface engine 260, FIG. 4 is a graphic representation 400 of a user interface generated by the user interface engine 260 for displaying the stream of content of a channel. In this example, the user interface 400 also includes channels 405 that are pre-defined, channels 410 that are suggested for the user and channels 415 that are subscribed to by the user. The user can also define new channels and attributes by clicking the link 420.\nThe example includes the stream of content for the user's soccer channel 425. The stream of content includes news items 445, videos 450 and social network news feeds 455 from the content sources 440 defined by the user. The candidate content items are listed in decreasing order of their scores. The user interface engine 260 lists five candidate content items with the highest scores in the hot items section 430. The remaining candidate content items are listed in the other items section 435. In another embodiment, the entire stream of content is listed in a single section.\nFIG. 5 is a graphic representation 500 of a user interface that is generated by the user interface engine 260 for a user to define a new channel or customize an existing channel. In this example, the user interface includes all the channel categories 505 that have been either pre-defined, suggested to the user, or subscribed by the user, and the content sources 510 for each channel category. The user customizes a channel by adding or removing content sources for the channel. In one embodiment, the user edits more advanced channel attributes such as media type, size of the content items, etc. by clicking on the link 515. The user makes the channel public, private or restricts it to a group of people by clicking on link 520. Additionally, the user can also define a new channel by adding a new channel category.\nReferring now to FIGS. 6-7, various embodiments of the method of the specification will be described. FIG. 6 is a flow diagram 600 of one embodiment of a method for generating a stream of content for a channel. The channel engine 240 defines 602 a channel category and submits a request for a stream of content. The request includes channel attributes including any of a category, a source, keywords, a media type, a location, a size of a content item, and a date. The channel category is defined based on a model for a user that is generated by the model generation engine 207 or the channel is defined by a user. The scoring engine 211 receives 604 the request including the channel category and generates 606 a stream of content based on the channel category. The channel engine 240 generates 608 a channel with the stream of content and transmits it to the user.\nFIG. 7 is a flow diagram 700 of another embodiment of a method for generating a stream of content for a channel. The content categorizer 250 categorizes 702 new content items that are received from heterogeneous data sources. The new content items that are received from heterogeneous data sources include, for example, news articles, microblogs, blogs, videos, photos, etc. The content categorizer 250 categorizes the content according to a category and other features. The content categorizer 250 also stores 704 the new content items in a data storage server 265 or a memory 237, depending upon the embodiment. The global scorer 302 generates 706 a global score for each new content item. The category identifier 374 identifies 708 a channel category for a user based on the user's activities and a historical trend identified by the historical analyzer 372. The user's activity includes a search (such as web, video, news, maps, alerts), entertainment (such as news, video, a personalized homepage, blogs, a reader, gadget subscriptions), social activity (such as interactions through email, profile information, text messaging such as short message service (SMS), microblog, comments on photos, a social graph, and other social networking information), and activity on third-party sites (such as websites that provide ratings, reviews and social networks where users indicate that they approve of content) In one embodiment, the category identifier 374 also uses contextual information of the user to identify the channel category.\nThe query generator 301 generates a query based on the channel category and the channel attributes and queries 710 the new content items stored on the data storage server 265. The content stream generator 304 receives 712 candidate content items that include the channel category and channel attributes. In one embodiment, the content stream generator 304 receives additional candidate content items from the collaborative filtering engine 217.\nThe content stream generator 304 scores 714 each candidate content item by comparing it to a model generated by the model generation engine 207. The score is calculated by determining an interestingness of the candidate content item to the user. The content stream generator 304 then generates 716 the stream of content based on the scores for each candidate content item. The channel engine 240 then generates 718 a channel with the stream of content and transmits it to the user.\nThe foregoing description of the embodiments has been presented for the purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the specification to the precise form disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching. It is intended that the scope of the embodiments be limited not by this detailed description, but rather by the claims of this application. As will be understood by those familiar with the art, the examples may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. Likewise, the particular naming and division of the modules, routines, features, attributes, methodologies, and other aspects are not mandatory or significant, and the mechanisms that implement the description or its features may have different names, divisions and/or formats. Furthermore, as will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the relevant art, the modules, routines, features, attributes, methodologies, and other aspects of the specification can be implemented as software, hardware, firmware, or any combination of the three. Also, wherever a component, an example of which is a module, of the specification is implemented as software, the component can be implemented as a standalone program, as part of a larger program, as a plurality of separate programs, as a statically or dynamically linked library, as a kernel loadable module, as a device driver, and/or in every and any other way known now or in the future to those of ordinary skill in the art of computer programming. Additionally, the specification is in no way limited to implementation in any specific programming language, or for any specific operating system or environment. Accordingly, the disclosure is intended to be illustrative, but not limiting, of the scope of the specification, which is set forth in the following claims.\nproviding, with the one or more processors, the customized stream of content.\n2. The computer-implemented method of claim 1 comprising removing pre-existing content items included in the customized stream of content for the channel.\n3. The computer-implemented method of claim 1 wherein the historical trend is one of an increase in a number of the new content items for a content category and an increase in a number of times one of the new content items is accessed.\ncategorizing the new content items.\n5. The computer-implemented method of claim 3 wherein the heterogeneous data sources include at least two from the group of a news article post, a news feed, a social feed, a blog post, a micro-blog post, a photo, a video, an audio, an email message, and a text based message.\n6. The computer-implemented method of claim 1 comprising receiving a request from the user to subscribe to an existing channel.\n7. The computer-implemented method of claim 1 wherein the channel category is also based on an interest of the user and a connection of the user.\n8. The computer-implemented method of claim 1 wherein the user activity is an interaction of the user with an application, wherein the interaction of the user with the application includes providing at least one of a user preference, a user interest, a comment, a tag, and a search.\nprovide the customized stream of content.\n10. The computer program product of claim 9, wherein the computer readable program when executed on the computer also causes the computer to remove pre-existing content items included in the customized stream of content for the channel.\n11. The computer program product of claim 9, wherein the historical trend is one of an increase in a number of the new content items for a content category and an increase in a number of times one of the new content items is accessed.\ncategorize the new content items.\n13. The computer program product of claim 12, wherein the heterogeneous data sources include at least two from the group of a news article post, a news feed, a social feed, a blog post, a micro-blog post, a photo, a video, an audio, an email message, and a text based message.\n14. The computer program product of claim 9, wherein the computer readable program when executed on the computer also causes the computer to receive a request from the user to subscribe to an existing channel.\n15. The computer program product of claim 9, wherein the channel category is also based on an interest of the user and a connection of the user.\n16. The computer program product of claim 9, wherein the user activity is an interaction of the user with an application, wherein the interaction of the user with the application includes providing at least one of a user preference, a user interest, a comment, a tag, and a search.\n18. The system of claim 17 wherein the system is further configured to remove pre-existing content items included in the customized stream of content for the channel.\n19. The system of claim 17 wherein the historical trend is one of an increase in a number of the new content items for a content category and an increase in a number of times one of the new content items is accessed.\n21. The system of claim 20 wherein the heterogeneous data sources include at least two from the group of a news article post, a news feed, a social feed, a blog post, a micro-blog post, a photo, a video, an audio, an email message, and a text based message.\n22. The system of claim 17 wherein the system is further configured to receive a request from the user to subscribe to an existing channel.\n23. The system of claim 17 wherein the channel category is also based on an interest of the user and a connection of the user.\n24. The system of claim 17 wherein the user activity is an interaction of the user with an application, wherein the interaction of the user with the application includes providing at least one of a user preference, a user interest, a comment, a tag, and a search.\nAdamic et al., \"Search in power-law networks,\" Physical Review E, 2001, vol. 64, HP Labs/Stanford University, The American Physical Society.\nBoyd, et al., \"Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship,\" Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, International Communication Association, 2008, pp. 210-230. 8.\nMediaSift Ltd., DataSift: Realtime Social Data Mining Platform, Curate and Data Mine the Real Time Web with DataSift, Dedipower, Managed Hosting, May 13, 2011, 1 pg.\nRing Central, Inc., Internet, retrieved at http://www.ringcentral.com, Apr. 19, 2007, 1 pg. 28.\nSingh et al., \"CINEMA: Columbia InterNet Extensible Multimedia Architecture,\" Department of Computer Science, Columbia University, May 2002 pp. 1-83.\nYu et al., \"It Takes Variety to Make a World: Diversification in Recommender Systems,\" 2009, pp. 1-11, downloaded from https://openproceedings.org/2009/conf/edbt/YuLA09.pdf.", "answers": ["By comparing candidate content items to a model and scoring them."], "length": 9607, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "a9f124fabc341d61e359af8e8badf79dd63a97896c28842e"}
{"input": "Which orders did Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind receive Khilafat from?", "context": "Ghousul Waqt, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was born on Monday, 22nd of Zil Hijjah 1310 AH (18 July 1892) in the most beautiful city of Bareilly Shareef, India. It was in this very city that his illustrious father, the Mujaddid (Reviver) of Islam, Imam-e-Ahle Sunnat, A'la Hazrat, Ash Shah Imam Ahmed Raza Khan Al Qaderi (radi Allahu anhu) was born (1856 - 1921).\nAt the time of the birth of Ghousul Waqt, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu), his distinguished father, was in Mahrerah Shareef, one of the great spiritual centers of the Sunni World. On that very night, Sayyiduna A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu) dreamt that he had been blessed with a son and in his dream he named his son \"Aale Rahmaan\". Hazrat Makhdoom Shah Abul Hussain Ahmadi Noori (radi Allahu anhu), one of the great personalities of Mahrerah Shareef, named the child \"Abul Barkaat Muhiy'yuddeen Jilani\".\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was later named \"Mustapha Raza Khan\". His Aqiqa was done on the name of \"Muhammad\", which was the tradition of the family.\nUpon the birth of Ghousul Waqt, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) Sayyiduna Shah Abul Hussain Ahmadi Noori (radi Allahu anhu) told A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu), \"Maulana! When I come to Bareilly Shareef, then I will definitely see this child. He is a very blessed child.\"\nAs promised, when Sayyiduna Abul Hussain Ahmadi Noori (radi Allahu anhu) went to Bareilly Shareef, he immediately summoned to see Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) who was only six (6) months old. Sayyiduna Noori Mia (radi Allahu anhu), as he was also famously known, congratulated A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu) and said, \"This child will be of great assistance to the Deen and through him the servants of Almighty Allah will gain great benefit. This child is a Wali. From his blessed sight thousands of stray Muslims will become firm on the Deen. He is a sea of blessings.\"\nOn saying this, Sayyiduna Noori Mia (radi Allahu anhu) placed his blessed finger into the mouth of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) and made him a Mureed. He also blessed him with I'jaazat and Khilafat at the same time. (Mufti Azam Hind Number, pg. 341). Not only did he receive Khilafat in the Qaderi Silsila (Order), but also in the Chishti, Nakshbandi, Suharwardi, and Madaari Orders. Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) also received Khilafat from his blessed father, A'la Hazrat, Ash Shah Imam Ahmed Raza Khan Al Qaderi (radi Allahu anhu).\nGhousul Waqt, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) attained most of his early education from his illustrious family - from his father, A'la Hazrat, Ash Shah Imam Ahmed Raza Khan Al Qaderi (radi Allahu anhu) the Mujaddid of Islam, whose status and position even at that time cannot be explained in these few lines. He also studied Kitaabs under the guidance of Hazrat Moulana Haamid Raza Khan (his elder brother), Maulana Shah Rahm Ilahi Maglori and Maulana Sayed Basheer Ahmad Aligarhi and Maulana Zahurul Hussain Rampuri (radi Allahu anhum). He studied various branches of knowledge under the guidance of his most learned and blessed father, A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu). He gained proficiency in the many branches of Islamic knowledge from among which are: Tafseer; Hadith; Fiqh; Laws of Jurisprudence; Sarf; Nahw; Tajweed; Conduct of Language; Philosophy; Logistics; Mathematics; History etc.; Arithmetic; Aqaid (Belief); Taasawwaf; Poetry; Debating; Sciences; etc.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu's) brilliance as an Islamic Scholar manifested itself when he was a still a youth, but overflowing with knowledge and wisdom. He wrote his first historical Fatawa (Islamic Ruling) when he was only 13 years old. It dealt with the topic of \"Raza'at\" - affinity between persons breast fed by the same woman. The following has been recorded with regards to this occasion.\nHazrat Maulana Zafrud'deen and Hazrat Maulana Sayed Abdur Rasheed (radi Allahu anhum) were at the Darul Ifta (Fatawa Department) at this stage. One day, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) walked into the Darul Ifta and noticed that Hazrat Maulana Zafrud'deen (radi Allahu anhu) was writing a certain Fatawa. He was taking \"Fatawa Razvia\" from the shelf as his reference. On seeing this, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) said, \"Are you relying on Fatawa Razvia to write an answer?\" Maulana Zafrud'deen (radi Allahu anhu) replied, \"Alright then, why don't you write the answer without looking.\" Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) then wrote a powerful answer without any problem. This was the Fatawa concerning \"Raza'at\" - the very first Fatawa which he had written.\nSayyiduna A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu) then signed the Fatawa. He also commanded Hafiz Yaqeenudeen (radi Allahu anhu) to make a stamp for Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) as a gift and said that it should read as follows: \"Abul Barkaat Muhiy'yuddeen Jilani Aale Rahmaan urf Mustapha Raza Khan.\"\nThis incident took place in 1328 AH. After this incident Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) spent another 12 years writing Fatawas at the feet of A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu). He was given this immense responsibility of issuing Fatawas even while A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu) was in this physical world. He continued this trend until his last breath. The stamp which was given to him was mislaid during his second Hajj when his bags were lost.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) married the blessed daughter of his paternal uncle, Hazrat Muhammad Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu). He had 6 daughters and one son, Hazrat Anwaar Raza (radi Allahu anhu), who passed away during childhood.\n\"Khuda Kheyr se Laaye Wo Din Bhi Noori, Madine ki Galiya Buhara Karoo me\"\nTajedaare Ahle Sunnah, Taaje Wilayat Wa Karaamat, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) went twice for Hajj - in 1905 and 1945. He performed his third Hajj in 1971.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) was the first person to go for Hajj without a photograph in his passport. He refused to take a photograph. Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was allowed to go for Hajj without a photograph in his passport and without taking any vaccinations.\nDuring his trip to Makkatul Mukarramah, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu), also had the opportunity of meeting those Ulema whom his father, Sayidduna A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu), met during his visit to Haramain Sharifain. These great Ulema were from amongst the students of Sayed Yahya Almaan (radi Allahu anhu). A few of the Ulema that he met were Allamah Sayed Ameen Qutbi; Allamah Sayed Abbas Alawi and Allamah Sayed Noor Muhammad (radi Allahu anhum) - to mention just a few. They narrated many incidents which had taken place during Sayyiduna A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu's) visit to Haramain Sharifain. They then requested Khilafat from Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, (radi Allahu anhu) which he bestowed upon them.\nTajedaare Ahle Sunnah, Taaje Wilayat Wa Karaamat, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) was aware of the actual time of his Wisaal.\nOn the 6th of Muharram (1981) he said, \"All those who intended to become my Mureed but for some reason or the other could not come to me, I have made all of them Mureed and I have given their hands into the hand of Sayidduna Ghousul Azam (radi Allahu anhu).\"\nOn the 12th of Muharram (1981) Hazrat said, \"All those who asked me to make Dua for them, I have made Dua for their Jaiz (permissible) intentions to be fulfilled. May Allah accept this Dua.\" On this day he asked those that were present concerning date. They told him that it was the 12th of Muharram. On hearing this he became silent.\nOn the 13th of Muharram, he again asked concerning the date and the Mureedeen present said that it was Wednesday, the 13th of Muharram. On hearing this Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) said, \"Namaaz will be held at Nau Mahla Musjid\". Those present did not understand what he meant, but remained silent out of respect. After some time again Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) said, \"Did anybody tell you about the Namaaz. I will read Jumma Namaaz in Nau Mahla Masjid.\" After some time Hazrat said, \"Did anybody say anything about the Fatiha.\" Those present just gazed at each others faces and remained silent. Only later did they realise what Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was implying. Hazrat was spiritally present for Jummah at the Nau Mahla Masjid! Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was not only giving hope to the Mureedeen but also informing them of his Wisaal.\nThe shining star of A'la Hazrat, Ash Shah Imam Ahmed Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu), the glitter and the hope for the hearts of millions throughout the world, the Mujaddid of the 15th Century, the Imam of his time, Huzoor Sayyidi Sarkaar Mufti-e- Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) left the Aalame Duniya to Journey towards the Aalame Aakhira. It was 1.40 p.m. on the eve of the 14th of Muharram 1402 AH (1981).\n\"Chal diye tum Aankho me ashko ka darya chor kar, har jigar me dard apna meetha meetha chor kar\"\nRawa Aankho se he Ashko ke Dhaare Mufti-e-Azam, Kaha Ho Be Saharo Ka Sahara Mufti-e-Azam\"\nOn Friday, the 15th of Muharram, at 8. 00 a.m. the Ghusl of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) took place. His nephew, Hazrat Maulana Rehan Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) performed the Wudhu. Hazrat Allamah Mufti Mohammed Akhtar Raza Khan Azhari performed the Ghusl. Sultan Ashraf Sahib used the jug to pour water. The following persons were present during the Ghusl : Hazrat Maulana Rehan Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu), Hazrat Allamah Mufti Mohammed Akhtar Raza Khan, Sayed Mustaaq Ali, Maulana Sayed Muhammad Husain, Sayed Chaif Sahib, Maulana Naeemullah Khan Sahib Qibla, Maulana Abdul Hamid Palmer Razvi, Muhammad Esa of Mauritius, Ali Husain Sahib, Hajji Abdul Ghaffar, Qari Amaanat Rasool Sahib and a few other Mureeds and family members.\nHazrat Allamah Mufti Mohammed Akhtar Raza Khan Azhari and Hazrat Maulana Rehan Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) have stated that at the time of the Ghusl Shareef of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) the Chaadar mistakenly moved a little. Immediately, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) held the Chaadar between his two fingers and covered the area that the Chaadar exposed. Those present thought that the Chaadar had just got caught between Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu's) fingers. They tried to remove the Chaadar from between his fingers but it would not move. The first person to notice this Karaamat was Hazrat Allamah Mohammed Akhtar Raza Khan Azhari. He showed this to everyone. Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu's) fingers did not move until the area was properly covered.\n\"Zinda hojate he jo marte he haq ke Naam par, Allah, Allah Maut ko kis ne Masiha Kardiya\"\n\"Janaaze se utha kar haath Pakri Chaadare Aqdas, He too Zinda He ye Zinda Karaamat Mufti e Azam\"\nAs he had wished, the Janaza Salaah of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was performed by Maulana Sayed Mukhtar Ashraf Jilani at the Islamia Inter College grounds in Bareilly Shareef. Two and a half million (2 500 000) Muslims attended his Janazah Salaah. Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) is buried on the left-hand-side of Sayyiduna A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu). Those who lowered Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) in his Qabr Shareef have stated that they were continously wiping out perspiration from the forehead of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) right up to the last minute.\n\"Maangne Waala sub kuch paaye rota aaye hasta Jaaye\", \"Ye He Unki Adna Karamat Mufti Azam Zinda Baad\"\nWealth, presidency, minister ship, worldly satisfaction and happiness can be given to a person by anyone, but such people do not have the spiritual insight to give tranquility to a disturbed heart and they cannot put a smile onto the face of a depressed person. But Tajedaare Ahle Sunnah, Taaje Wilayat Wa Karaamat, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) gave both the treasures of the physical world and the spiritual worlds to those in need. To be his servant was not less than kingship. Every day hundreds and thousands of people in need of spiritual, physical and academic needs would come to him and each one of them returned with complete satisfaction.\n\"Jhuki Hai Gardane Dar Par Tumhare, Taaj Waalo Ki, Mere Aqa Mere Maula Wo Taajul Auliyah Tum Ho\"\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) is that light of such an illustrious family whose radiance reflected itself in his character and manners that he displayed - such qualities that very few would be able to reach perfection. His character was the true embodiment of the Sunnah of Sayyiduna Rasulullah (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). He shone like a star in the darkness of the night.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) possessed great heights of good character, moral standards, kindness, sincerity, love and humbleness. He never refused the invitation of any poor Muslim. He always stayed away from those who were very wealthy and lavish. He was the possessor of great moral and ethical values.\nIt is stated that once Akbar Ali Khan, a Governor of U.P., came to visit Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu). Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) did not meet him but left to a place called Puraana Shahar (Old City) to visit a poor Sunni Muslim who was very ill and at the doorstep of death.\nIn another occasion, Fakhruddeen Ali Ahmad, the President of a Political Party, came to visit Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) but was refused this opportunity. Many other proud ministers had also come to meet Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) but met with the same fate. This was due to his extreme dislike for politics and involvement in worldly affairs.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) never fell short in entertaining those who came to visit him. When he was physically fit he used go into the Visitors Section and ask each person whether they had eaten or not. He used to ask them if they partook in tea or not. He used to continuously enquire as to whether they were experiencing any difficulties or not. It was often seen that he would personally carry the dishes into the house for the visitors! He was definitely blessed with the characters of the \"Salfe Saliheen\" or The Pious Servants of Allah.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) was a pillar of hospitality and humbleness. If he reprimanded a certain person for doing something un-Islamic or if he became displeased with anyone for some reason or the other, he used to also explain to the person in a very nice way and also try to cheer that person. He would then make Dua in abundance for such a person. His Mureeds (Disciples), on many ocassions, used to recite Manqabats (Poetry) in his praise. On hearing such Manqabats he would say, \"I am not worthy of such praise. May Allah make me worthy.\"\nMany people came to him for his blessings. Others would come for Ta'weez. He never refused anyone. It is also not known how many homes were being supported through the kindness and hospitality of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu). He always entertained those who came from far and near to the best of his means. He used to even give most of his visitors train and bus fares to travel. In winter, he would give warm clothes, warm sheets and blankets to the poor and the needy.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) gave Khilafat to many Ulema-e-Ikraam and personally tied the Amaama (Turban) on their heads. He gave cloaks, turbans and hats to many people. Once, during winter, a few of the Khaadims were present with Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu). He was lying on his bed and covered with a shawl. A certain Maulana Abu Sufyaan touched Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu's) shawl and commented as to how beautiful it was. Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) immediately removed the shawl and presented it to him. Although the Moulana refused to accept it Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) gave it to him forcefully.\nAll of his Mehfils were full of knowledge and Barkah. Many questions on Tassawuf were easily answered by him. It seemed as if the rains of mercy and rays of Noor were spread all over his Mehfils.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) always wanted to see a Muslim's inner and outer personality. He always advised them to mould their lives according to the principles and the commands of Islam. He always showed discomfort to those who did not have beards, those who wore hats and to those who wore ultra-western clothes. He used to warn such Muslims. Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) used to show his displeasure towards those who wore ties. He used to tug at their ties and commanded them to abstain from wearing a tie. He also asked them to make Tauba from such acts.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) always commanded Muslims to give or take anything with their right hand. He stopped the Muslims from calling the governments as their \"Sarkaar\" or leaders. He never kept any ordinary Kitaab on the books of Tafseer or Hadith. Whenever he sat in a Meelad-un-Nabi (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam) or Mehfil-e-Zikr, he always sat with utmost respect until the very end.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) never spat towards the Qibla. He never stretched his legs in the direction of the Qibla. Whenever he entered the cemetery, he never used his entire feet to walk on the ground. He always walked on his toes. At times, he would stand on his toes for about half an hour in the graveyard making Dua-e- Maghfirat!\nHe always stopped Muslims from doing any false fortune telling. If any death or loss took place in the house of a Muslim, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) would go to comfort the people of that house but he would never eat there. He always advised those in sorrow to make Sabr and remember Almighty Allah. He always respected Ulema-e-Ikraam. He respected the Sayeds in such a manner as a slave will respect his King. He prohibited Muslims from keeping un-Islamic names. He preferred such names as Abdullah, Abdur Rahmaan, Muhammad and Ahmad.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) always performed his Salaah in Jamaah whether he was on journey or not. The moment he put his foot out of his house to go towards the Masjid, he used to be surrounded by his Mureeds (disciples) and well-wishers who would follow him till the Masjid door which was just a few feet away from his house. While some would be kissing his blessed hands, others tried to talk with him. He would reply to all those who made Salaam to him. On entering the Masjid, he would immediately recite the dua prescribed.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) would then remove his Amaama and then sit down to perform Wudhu. He would wash all the parts thoroughly so that the Sunnahs were accomplished. He would perform his Salaah with great sincerity and used to be lost in the worship of his Creator. The person who looked at him from a distance would have instantly understood that Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) had left all the worldly desires and was intent upon pleasing his Creator.\nOnce, while Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was traveling from Nagpur, it was time for Maghrib Salaah. He immediately disembarked from the train. The people told Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) that the train was about to leave, but he was intent on performing his Salaah. His companions also disembarked with him. They had just performed their Wudhu and were making Niyyah for Salaah when the train left the station. All of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu's) and his companions luggages' were left on the train. A few un-Islamic people who were there said \"the Mias train had left him\". Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was still in Salaah.\nWhen they all had completed their Salaah, they noticed that the station platform was empty. They became a little worried since all their luggage had gone with the train, but still Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) looked undisturbed. His companions were busy talking about the luggage when they noticed the station guard, followed by a group of travellers, running towards them. The guard came up to Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) and said, \"Huzoor! The train is stuck!\" Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) said, \"The engine is damaged.\" The train was brought back and Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) and his companions sat in the train. After some repairs the train left with him and his companions seated in it!\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) was drowned in the love for the Holy Prophet, Sayyiduna Rasulullah (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). Everything he did was for the pleasure of Almighty Allah and Sayyiduna Rasulullah (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). All that he had gained was due to the intense love which he possessed for the Holy Prophet (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam).\nHis extreme and intense love for the Holy Prophet (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam) can be understood by the fact that during the latter stages of his life, even though he was very ill, he would sit for hours with great respect in the Naath Mehfils and would shed tears in his love for Sayyiduna Rasulullah (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). He used to celebrate the Meelad-un-Nabi (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam) each year with great splendour. The programme used to begin on the eve of the 12th of Rabi-ul-Awwal and used to continue till the next day just before lunch. The invitation was open to all Muslims and they all used to be fed.\nEven after examining the Naath Shareefs written by Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) one would see that every word written dislayed his measureless love for the Holy Prophet (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam).\nIn the world of poetry, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) was a Giant of his time. Most of his poems were in the form of Humd (Praise of Allah), Naath Shareef, Qasidas and Manqabats compiled in the Arabic, Urdu, Persian and Hindi languages. All these poems were compiled into a book which is famously known as \"Samaane Bakhshish\" which is still available toady. Samaane Bakhshsish is a treasure chest which flows with pearls of love for Sayyiduna Rasoolullah (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). The compilation of Samaane Bakhshish is through the blessings of Sayyiduna Rasoolullah (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam).\n\"Ye Dil Ye Jigr Hai Ye Aankhe Ye Sar Hai, Jaha Chaaho Rakho Qadam Ghause Azam\"\n\"Once a very young descendant of Sayyiduna Sheikh Abdul Qaadir Jilani (radi Allahu anhu), Hazrat Peer Taahir Ala'uddeen (radi Allahu anhu), visited Bareilly Shareef. The respect and honour that Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) showed towards him was out of this world. Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) used to walk bare feet behind him with great respect.\"\nThe great Ulema of the time have stated that Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was lost to such an extent in the love for Sayyiduna Ghousul Azam, Sheikh Abdul Qaadir Jilani (radi Allahu anhu) that even physically he began to resemble Sheikh Abdul Qaadir Jilani (radi Allahu anhu).\n\"Dekh Kar Shakle Mufti Azam, Ghause Azam ki Yaad Aayi he\"\nGhousul Waqt, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) had great respect and love for the Ulema and for Sayeds (Descendants of Sayyiduna Rasulullah sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). The respect which he showed towards them is beyond explanation.\nOne day, in 1979, a lady came with her little child to ask for Ta'weez. It was a very hot day and she was informed that Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was resting. The lady, however, was in great need for the particular Ta'weez. She asked someone to see if Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was awake but nobody had the nerve of going near him while he was resting as they considered this to be disrespectful. Taking her child she commented, \"What did we know that the words of Sayeds will not be heard in this place\".\nIt is not known how Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) heard this, but he immediately summoned one of the Mureeds. He instructed him to call the lady and not give her grief. The woman then sent her child to Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu). He asked the child's name and showed great love and respect towards this young child. With great affection, he placed his hand on the child's head. He even asked someone to bring an apple for the child. From behind the curtain, he spoke to the lady concerning her problem and immediately wrote a Ta'weez for her.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) then sent a message to his family requesting that the mother and child should only be allowed to leave after the heat became less intense; that they should be well entertained and that no shortage should be spared in entertaining these Sayeds.\nWhen Allamah Sadru Shariah Maulana Amjad Ali Al Qadri (radi Allahu anhu), the author of the famous \"Bahare Shariah,\" used to come to Bareilly Shareef for the Urs Shareef of Sayyiduna A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu), Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) used to go to the railway station to welcome him and showed great respect towards this Scholar of Islam. He also showed great respect towards Sayyidi Hafiz-e-Millat and Hazrat Maulana Hasmat Ali Khan Sahib (radi Allahu anhum). He also showed respect towards his own Mureeds and Khalifas who were Alims.\n\"Hawa he Gotand wa Tez lekin Chiraagh Apna Jala Raha he, Wo Marde Durwesh jis ko Haq ne diye the Andaze Khusrawana\"\nThe sign of a true Mo'min is that he never submits himself before an enemy. In the worst of circumstances a Mo'min announces that which is the truth. Sayyiduna Rasulullah (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam) said, \"To speak the truth before a tyrant King is a great Jihad.\" So imagine the excellence of a person who always spoke the truth at all times, a person who always raised the flag of truth and honesty, and a person who never left the path of truth in his entire life!\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) was one such person. He is one of the greatest leaders of the Sunnis. His boldness and fearlessness is difficult to explain. His entire life was spent speaking against Deobandis, Wahabis and all the other misleading sects, whether is was against the West, Qadianism, or Najdism he always challenged them right till the very end. He always propagated the true Deen and the Path of the Ahle Sunnah Wa Jamaah. With his Fatawas, he helped protect the Imaan of not only the Muslims in India and Pakistan, but of Muslims throughout the world.\nHe attacked the enemies of Islam through his writings, sayings, actions, etc. He did everything in his capacity to challenge the enemies of Islam. No person in his presence could say or do anything against Shariah. No person could speak against that which was the truth. It is stated by one of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu's) Khaadim's, who accompanied him on a journey by train, that there were some people in the train who were consuming alcohol. When Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) saw them, he reprimanded them and told them to desist from such a Haraam act. They did not listen to his advise so he scolded the leader of the group who was a young and well-built person. He gave the young person a hard slap which caused the bottle of alcohol to fall far from his hand. The Khaadim expected the person to retaliate but, who had the nerve to retaliate against this Lion of Islam! They became afraid and sat down quietly. Later some of them came up to Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) and begged for forgiveness for their shameful behavior.\n\"Tassawuf, Philsafa, Tafseer ki fiqhi Masa'il, Subhi kahte hai ke Aqida Kusha he Mufti Azam\"\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu), who after writing his first Fatawa while still a student at \"Darul Uloom Manzare Islam\", was given the status of Mufti due to his immense knowledge. When the Muslim World began to see his knowledge and Fatawas brightenening the world, they began calling him \"Mufti-e-Azam\" or The Most Exalted Mufti of the Time. This title alone became the name he was recognised by. Whenever the name \"Mufti Azam Hind\" was mentioned, it referred to none other than his exalted personality.\nRemember that he or she only is exalted who has been blessed with this excellence by Almighty Allah and His Beloved Rasool (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) was a personality free from pride, lavishness and self- fame. His status was bestowed upon him by Almighty Allah and His Beloved Rasool (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). That person to whom Almighty Allah and His Rasool (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam) grants such excellence, then such excellence cannot be understood by ordinary mortals. This is one of the reasons why the entire world was brightened and received the benefits of his knowledge of Fiqh.\nThere came a stage when Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was not only known as \"Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind\" but he was also known as \"Mufti-e-Azam-e-Alam\" or The Grand Mufti of the World.\nIt is recorded that on his trip to the Haramain Sharifain the Ulema of the Hejaz (Arabia), Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and from many other countries came to him to solve Fiqh Mas'alas. Many became his Mureeds. This is how his Faiz of Shariah and Tariqah spread its rays throughout the world. While in the Hejaz Shareef, he also had to deal with many Fatawas that poured in from various countries, such as, Africa, Mauritius, United Kingdom, America, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Malaysia, Bangladesh, and many other places. He answered every single one of them in a very dedicated and professional manner.\nDuring the reign of General Ayub Khan a \"Rooyat Hilal Committee\" was formed in Pakistan for the purpose of sighting the moon for every Islamic Month, and more importantly, for Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Adha. An aeroplane was flown up to a certain height and the moon would be sighted from there. This form of Shahaadah (Confirmation) of the sighting of the moon via an aeroplane was readily accepted by the Pakistani Government. In this manner, Eid was celebrated.\nOn a specific occasion, on the 29th of Ramadaan, an aero plane was flown from the East to the West of Pakistan and the moon was reported to be sighted. This sighting was announced by the Hilaal Committee, but the Sunni Ulema of Pakistan did not accept this confirmation. The Ulema of Pakistan sent questionnaires to the Ulema throughout the world for clarification and one such questionnaire was sent to Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu). Many Ulema replied that the confirmation had to be accepted and that it was permissible, but Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) clearly replied that this was not permissible. His Fatawa read as follows:\" The Command of Shariah is to sight the Moon and fast or celebrate Eid. Where the Moon is not sighted the Qazi should give an Islamic decision in connection with a confirmation. The moon must be sighted from the ground level or any place attached to the ground. With regards to the matter of using the plane - to sight the moon via a plane is wrong because the moon sets and does not perish. This is why it is sometimes sighted on the 29th and sometimes on the 30th. If to fly in a plane to sight the moon is a condition, then by increasing altitude the moon will be sighted even on the 27th and 28th. In this case, will the sighting be confirmed for the 27th or 28th? No person in his right sense will accept this. Thus under these circumstances, how would it be proper to sight the moon on the 29th?\"\nThis Fatawa of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) appeared in every newspaper in Pakistan as \"Headline News\".\nThe following month, on the 27th and the 28th, the Pakistan Government sent an aeroplane at a higher altitude and found that the moon was visible on these days. The Government of Pakistan then accepted the Fatawa of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) and the Hilaal Committee of Pakistan was disbanded.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) wrote more or less 50 000 Fatawas in his lifetime. His word was accepted by great Ulema. Shamsul Ulema, Hazrat Maulana Shamsud'deen Ja'fari (radi Allahu anhu) stated: \"In this era, there is no greater expert in Fiqha than Huzoor Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu). Whenever I present myself in his high court I always sit with my head bowed and I listen to his words in silence. I do not have the audacity to talk in abundance to him.\"\n\"Amaanat Hind-o-Paak he is baat ke Shaahid, Ke badal deti he minto me Huqumat Mufti-e-Azam\"\nThe year 1976 was a very difficult period for the Muslims in India. Certain Ulema, bought of by the Saudi Riyals and American Dollars, passed the Fatawa making Vasectomy (male sterilization to prevent birth of children) permissible. The Indian Government made Vasectomy necessary for every male in India at that time.\nMuslims of India were in search of a Saviour to prevent such a law from being passed as this would mean them not having any more children. They were looking for someone who would stand and fight for their religious rights. All the Muslims looked towards the city of Bareilly Shareef, the city of light and truth, for an answer to this controversy. All of a sudden that Mujahhid of Islam rose with the torch of knowledge and light against the winds of enmity and destruction - Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu). He immediately issued the true Fatawa on vasectomy and said, \"Vasectomy is Haraam, Haraam, Haraam.\" This news spread throughout India. Through the Dua and firmness of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) on this issue, the Government that wished to pass this law had lost power, and a new government came into power. The law on Vasectomy was abolished!\nOnce, Maulana Abdul Hadi Al Qaderi and Soofi Iqbal Sahib asked Ghousul Waqt, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) the following question: \"Huzoor! Can one remember his Sheikh in Namaaz?\" Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) answered by saying, \"If you need to remember anyone in Namaaz then you should remember Tajedare Do Aalam, Habbibe Khuda (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). Yes, just as people tend to gaze here and there in Namaaz - if, in this way, the thought of one's Peer comes into the mind, then there is no hindrance\". Subhan-Allah! Such caution is in this answer! This answer has also contradicted the Deobandi belief. By looking at the life of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) and reading his Fatawas, one would see his status and excellence in the spiritual domain. His spiritual life was according to that of his renowned and distinguished father, Sayyiduna A'la Hazrat (radi Allahu anhu).\nWhen the Americans were announcing there journey to the moon, a few Ulema were present with Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu). Amongst these Ulema were Shamsul Ulema Hazrat Maulana Shamsud'deen and Allamah Ghulam Jilani Mirati (radi Allahu anhum). They were discussing the concepts concerning the sun and the moon. Mufti-e-Azam-e- Hind (radi Allahu anhu) said that the sky and the earth are both stationary and that the moon and the sun are in motion. On hearing this Allama Ghulam Jilani Mirati (radi Allahu anhu) said, \"In the Holy Quran it is said, 'Wash Shamsu Tajri Li Mustaqaril'laha'. In other words, the sun is in motion in its fixed abode. From the word 'Tajri', it is obvious that the sun is in motion and from the word 'Mustaqaril'laha' it is obvious that it is stationary in one place. How can both these concepts be right?\"\nIn answer to this, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind, Moulana Mustapha Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu) immediately said, \"It was commanded to Hazrat Adam (alaihis salaam) and Hazrat Hawa (radi Allahu anha) (as follows): 'Walakum fil Ardi Mustaqar'. Does this mean that they were stationary in only one portion of the earth? Did they not walk around (on the earth)? To be Mustaqar means to be stationary in your surrounding, not to come out of your boundaries. To move but to move within your boundaries of movement.\" On hearing this Allama Mirati Sahib (radi Allahu anhu) became silent.\nHazrat Muhaddith-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) said: \"IN THIS TIME, THAT PERSONALITY WHOSE TAQWA (PIETY) IS MORE THAN HIS FATAWA, IS NONE OTHER THAN THE SON OF SAYYIDI A'LA HAZRAT (RADI ALLAHU ANHU) WHOSE BEAUTIFUL NAME IS MUSTAPHA RAZA AND THIS NAME COMES ON MY TONGUE WITHOUT PROBLEM AND IT ALLOWS ME TO GAIN GREAT BLESSINGS.\" Once Hazrat Muhaddith-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu) wrote the following words on the Fatawa of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu): \"THIS IS THE SAYING OF SUCH AN AALIM WHOM TO FOLLOW IS COMPULSORY \"\nHuzoor Sayyidi Hafiz-e-Millat (radi Allahu anhu) stated, \"A PERSON DOES NOT GET PROPER RESPECT AND ACCEPTANCE IN HIS OWN TOWN, BUT THE ACCEPTANCE AND RESPECT THAT HUZOOR MUFTI AZAM HAS GAINED IN HIS TOWN CANNOT BE FOUND ANYWHERE ELSE. THIS IS OPEN PROOF OF HIS KARAMAAT AND WILAYAT\". He then said, \"MUFTI AZAM IS A KING, HE IS A KING\". (Which means that he should be respected and treated as a King).\nHuzoor Mujjahid-e-Millat (radi Allahu anhu) said, \"IN THIS TIME, THE PERSONALITY OF HUZOOR MUFTI AZM HIND (RADI ALLAHU ANHU) IS A UNIQUE ONE, ESPECIALLY IN THE FIELD OF IFTA, BUT ALSO IN HIS DAILY CONVERSATIONS - THE MANNER IN WHICH HE SPOKE AND EXPLAINED CAN BE UNDERSTOOD BY ONLY THE PEOPLE OF KNOWLEDGE.\"\nThe \"Imam Ghazzali\" of his time, Allama Saeed Ahmad Kazmi Shah Sahib (radi Allahu anhu) says, \"THE STATUS OF SAYYIDI MUFTI AZAM HIND (RADI ALLAHU ANHU) CAN BE UNDERSTOOD FROM THIS THAT HE IS THE SON AND THE BELOVED OF MUJJADIDE DEEN-O-MILLAT, IMAM AHLE SUNNAT, ASH SHAH IMAM AHMAD RAZA KHAN (RADI ALLAHU ANHU).\"\nHazrat Qari Maslihud'deen (radi Allahu anhu) says, \"AFTER THE WISAAL OF MY MURSHAD, THE CENTRAL POINT OF MY FOCUS WAS THE PERSONALITY OF HUZOOR MUFTI AZAM HIND (RADI ALLAHU ANHU) AND NOT ONLYWAS HE THE POINT OF MY FOCUS, BUT ALSO THAT OF THE ENTIRE SUNNI POPULATION.\"\nOne of the greatest Karamats of a Mo'min is for him to be always steadfast on Shariat-e-Mustapha and Sunnat-e-Mustapha (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). A Mo'min must be prepared to accept all the difficulties and calamities of life. When faced by any calamity he should always make Shukr to Allah Almighty.\nThese outstanding qualities can be found in the life of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu). He was always steadfast and firm on Shariat-e-Mustapha (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). It is said that it is impossible to move a mountain from its place but it was not possible to move Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) from the Shariat-e-Mustapha (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). Every second in the life of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) was a Karaamat. Volumes can be written about the Karaamats of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu). He himself is a living Karaamat!\n\"Kaha tak Raaz likhoge karaamat Mufti-e-Azam, Sarapa hi Sarapa he karaamat Mufti-e-Azam\"\nFor the purpose of Fuyooz-o-barkaat we will quote one such Karaamat.\nOnce Hazrat went for the Urs of Hazrat Mahboob-e-Ilahi, Kwaja Nizaamud'deen Awliyah (radi Allahu anhu) to Delhi. He stayed at a place called 'Koocha Jilan' with Ashfaaq Ahmad Sahib. At this place, a certain Wahabi Maulvi began arguing with Hazrat concerning the Ilme Ghaib (Knowledge of the Unseen) of Huzoor Anwar (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam). Ashfaaq Ahmad Sahib asked Hazrat not to argue with this person as it would not make any difference to him. Hazrat said, \"Let him speak. I will listen to him and all those who are present should also listen attentively. The reason why nothing makes a difference to Maulvi Sahib is because nobody listens to him properly. So let him say that which he wishes.\" Maulvi Saeedud'deen then spoke for approximately 15 minutes explaining how Rasoolullah (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam) did not possess Ilme Ghaib. He spoke for some time and then became silent.\nHazrat then said, \"If you have forgotten anything concerning your argument then please try to remember.\" The Maulvi Sahib spent another half an hour trying to prove that Huzoor (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam) did not possess Ilme Ghaib.\nAfter listening to his arguments Hazrat said, \"You should immediately repent from your false belief. Allah has definitely blessed Huzoor (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam) with Ilme Ghaib and you have tried to contradict it in every way you could. If you do not mind, then also listen to my argument\".\nThen very sarcastically Hazrat said, \"What is the responsibility of a son towards his widowed mother?\" Maulvi Sahib in answer said, \"I will not answer this as it is not relevant to the topic of discussion\".\nHazrat then said, \"I did not mind when you questioned me, but in any case just listen to my questions. There is no need to answer them\".\nThe second question Hazrat asked was, \"How is it to take a loan from someone and then hide from him? Can you become weary of your crippled son and leave him to beg? To make Hajj Badal from... \"\nThis question was not yet completed when the Wahabi Maulvi fell at the feet of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) and said, \"Hazrat! It is enough. The problem has been solved. Today I have realised that Huzoor (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam) has Ilme Ghaib. If not by now the Munaafiqeen would have destroyed the Islamic Missions. If Almighty Allah has shown you those things about me which nobody else here knows about, then I cannot imagine all that which He has informed Rasoolullah (sallal laahu alaihi wasallam) of\".\nThe Wahabi Maulvi immediately repented and became Mureed of Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu).\nEach year, Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) used to go to Calcutta for missionary work. The Pope used to also visit Calcutta and although he received good coverage in the media, very few Christians turned up to meet the Pope. The Christians of Calcutta became very jealous whenever Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) visited that city as, without any news coverage, he attracted thousands of people who came to see him.\nThe Christians decided to insult Huzoor Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) and lower his personality in the eyes of the people. They trained three Christians to approach Huzoor Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) with the pretence that they were going to become his Mureeds. This was their plan: Whenever Hazrat was going to make any person his Mureed, he would ask the person to say, \"Say that you have given your hand into the hands of Ghous-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu).\" The Christians where then going to say that Hazrat is a liar (Allah forbid) since that was not the hand of Ghous-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu)!\nThe three Christians, now disguised as Muslims went to Huzoor Mufti-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu) with the pretence of becoming his Mureed. When two of the Christians saw Hazrat's noorani face they became afraid of carrying out their plans, but the third Christian, who was very stubborn, decided to carry out the plan.\nHe sat in front of Huzoor Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) and Hazrat proceeded with making him a Mureed. When Hazrat said, \"Say that you have given your hand into the hands of Ghous-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu),\" he said, \"I am giving my hand in the hand of Mufti-e-Azam.\" He was implying that Hazrat was asking him to lie when he was made to say a moment ago that he is not going to lie.\nHuzoor Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) again commanded him to say, \"Say that you have given your hand into the hands of Ghous-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu).\" He again said, \"I am giving my hand in the hand of Mufti-e-Azam.\"\nHuzoor Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) came into a Jalaal (Spiritual Anger) state and said, \"Say that you are giving your hands into the hands of Ghous-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu).\" To the surprise of many, the Christian began continuously saying, \"I have given my hands into the hands of Ghous-e-Azam, I have my given hands into the hands of Ghous-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu) . . ..\"\nWhen asked about his behavior, the Christian said that as Huzoor Mufti-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) commanded him for the final time to say that he has given his hands into the hands of Ghous-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu), he actually saw two bright hands emerging from Hazrat's hands and the Christian says that he is sure that these hands were none other the mubarak hands of Ghous-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu).\nThat Christian then asked Huzoor Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) for forgiveness and explained to him what his true intentions were. He immediately accepted Islam and became a Mureed. The news of this Karaamat spread far and wide and thousands of Christians accepted Islam at Hazrat's hands. Subhan-Allah! This incident was narrated by Hazrat Moulana Abdul Hamid Palmer Noori Razvi, a close Khalifa of Huzoor Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu).\nHuzoor Sayyidi Sarkaar Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu's) Mazaar Shareef is situated in Mohalla Saudagran, Bareilly Shareef. Every year thousands of Mureeds and lovers of Huzoor Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu) present themselves at Bareilly Shareef for his Urs Mubaarak.\nMufti-e-Azam-e-Hind (radi Allahu anhu's) Mureedeen were not only ordinary people but his Mureeds also consisted of great Ulema, Muftis, Mufassirs, Poets, Philosophers, Professors, Doctors, etc. It is said that he has millions of Mureedeen.\nIn India - Mufas'sire Azam Hind Hazrat Ibrahim Raza (radi Allahu anhu); Hazrat Maulana Tahseen Raza Khan; Hazrat Maulana Rehan Raza Khan (radi Allahu anhu); Hazrat Allamah Mufti Mohammed Akhtar Raza Khan Azhari; Muhadithe Kabeer Hazrat Maulana Mufti Zia Ul Mustapaha Sahib; Hazrat Maulana Arshadul Qaadri Sahib.\nHis Eminence, Shaikh Mufti Mohammad Akhtar Raza Khan Azhari Al-Qaderi, was born on the 25th of Safar in the year 1942 in Bareilly, the citadel of spirituality and learning. He is the great grandson of A'la Hazrat, Shaikh Imam Ahmed Raza Fazil-e Barelvi (rahmatullahi alaih), the Mujaddid (Reviver) of Islam in the 14th Century Hijri.\nUnder the tutorship of renowned Ulama, he attained the degree of Fazile Deeniyat (Graduation in Islamic Theology) from Darul Uloom Manzare Islam, Bareilly. After spending three years (1963 - 1966) at the Al Azhar University in Cairo, Egypt, his Eminence post-graduated in Arabic Literature and Deeniyat with specialization in Ahadith (Prophetic Tradition) and Tafseer (Quranic Exegesis) with high distinctions.\nOn his return home, he joined Darul Uloom Manzare Islam, Bareilly Shareef. Thereafter, he left the Darul Uloom and established his own Darul-Ifta with the permission of his maternal grandfather, Huzoor Mufti-e-Azam Hind, Shaikh Mufti Muhammad Mustapha Raza Khan (rahmatullahi alaih). His Eminence, Mufti-e-Azam Hind (rahmatullahi alaih) declared him his Ja'Nashin (Successor) while the great Shaikh was present in this world.\nHis Eminence inherited the skill in the issuing of Fatawa (Legal Islamic Rulings) and in tackling the complex issues relating to Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) directly from Mufti-e-Azam (radi Allahu anhu) who inherited it directly from Mujaddid-e-Deen-o-Millat, Ash Shah Imam Ahmed Raza Bareilvi (rahmatullahi alaih).\nHe is not only the Successor and a trustworthy custodian of Fatawa writing of Shaikh Mufti-e-Azam Hind (rahmatullahi alaih), but also the custodian of learning, knowledge, sanctity and saintliness, of his grandfather, Hujjatul Islam, Moulana Muhammad Haamid Raza Khan (rahmatullahi alaihi).\nHis father, Moulana Muhammad Ibrahim Raza Khan Jilaani Mia (rahmatullahi alaih), was a great Aalim and Saint. He was well-versed in the commentary of the Holy Quran and so was given the title of Mufassir-e-Azam-e-Hind or Great Commentator of the Holy Quran in India.\nHis Eminence, Mufti Akhtar Raza Khan Azhari, travels extensively propagating the Deen and is a world-renowned preacher and a spiritual guide. Thousands of Muslims in India and abroad are attached with his Silsila. His Eminence has many Khulafa. He was also given the title of Taajush Shari'ah.\nBesides being a great Mufti and Aalim, he is also a poet and an academic writer. His Diwan (Collection of Poems) was published for the first time entitled Naghmat-e-Akhtar. Later, it was published entitled Safina-e-Bakhshish in 1986, a chrono-grammical name, derived by Dr. Abdun Naim Azizi. Safina-e-Bakhshish includes Mufti Akhtar Raza Khan's Urdu and Arabic poems and was compiled and published by Dr. Abdun Naim Azizi. Many of Allama Mohammad Akhtar Raza's Naaths and Manqabats have not been published as yet.\nAmongst his academic works, a few are as follows: (1) Taswiron Ka Hukm, (2) T.V. aur Video ka Operation, (3) Difae Kanzul Imaan, (4) Sharhe-Hadise Niyat, (5) Al-Haqqul Mobeen (Arabic), (6) Difa Kanzul Imaan Part I & II (7) Mer-atun-Najdi'ah (Arabic) (8) Hazrat Ibrahim ke Waalid Tariq ya Azar, etc.\nHis Darul-Ifta is now the central Darul Ifta of not only Bareilly Shareef, but of the Sunni world and he has continued the prestige of Fatawa writing of his grand-father and great grand-father. To date, he has written more than 5 000 Fatawa.Besides being well-versed in Arabic, Persian, and Urdu he has also a good knowledge of English. He has written many Fatawa in the English Language. The original book, Few English Fatawa, was first published by Edara Sunni Duniya, 82 Saudagran, Bareilly Shareef by his Eminence. Allama Mufti Naseem Ashraf Habibi, who is the Head Advisor and Mufti of the Imam Ahmed Raza Academy and of Sunni Ulama Council included a few more unpublished Fatawas, which was also written or orally dictated in English by Hazrat Azhari Sahib.\nMay Almighty Allah keep Hazrat Allama Mufti Mohammad Akhtar Raza Khan Azhari firm on Maslak-e-A'la Hazrat and serve as a beacon of guidance. May He grant his Eminence good health and long life. Aameen.", "answers": ["Mufti-e-Azam-e-Hind received Khilafat in the Qaderi, Chishti, Nakshbandi, Suharwardi, and Madaari Orders."], "length": 8281, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "bda4a6b251a601b7f7f956f298b59d8e99993845c1eaf7d6"}
{"input": "When will BC leave Boston?", "context": "Eagle in Atlanta -- atleagle.com: July 2012\nWhy Spaz's recruiting doesn't matter anymore\nAfter BC picked up another below the radar recruit, Spaz's most vocal critics were out again disparaging his recruiting class. I don't trust the recruiting rankings, but it does concern me that our commitments aren't drawing more interest from BCS teams. There is a similar concern on the Penn State front. There's plenty of speculation, but BC is not a factor among the rumored PSU transfers. But really none of it matters. Spaz is going to wrap up most of the recruiting this summer and then focus on the games come fall. While not inspiring, the plan is practical. There are two outcomes:\n1. Spaz has a losing season and gets fired. If this happens, our 2013 recruiting class will be a hodgepodge of current commits, a transfer or two and whatever our new coach can uncover. For a new guy Spaz's lower profile recruits might be an advantage. If they aren't valued, they are less likely to be poached by other programs. A new Head Coach can then exert a little effort in getting the Spaz commits to stay committed and spend more time on filling out the class.\n2. Spaz has a winning season and keeps his job. In this scenario Spaz stays off the hot seat and has to finish filling out the 2013 recruiting class. With a little more job security he can use his last few scholarships on bigger names. He may even luck into a decent prospect who suddenly becomes available due to another school's coaching change (like he did with Rutgers last year). In this case Spaz doesn't waste time recruiting during the season and then picks up some low-hanging fruit.\nSpaz is never going to recruit an elite class. There are many contributing factors as to why, but mostly it is because Spaz is not a salesmen. And we shouldn't care. He's not going to change. It is just a matter of who will finish out this class four months from now.\nLabels: fire Spaz, Recruiting, Recruiting Rankings, Speculating with Spaz\nKey Players for 2012: Chase Rettig\nJunior Quarterback, Chase Rettig\nWhat he's been: We all hoped Rettig would be a phenom. That he would some how save the Spaz era from its offensive funk and lead BC to unexpected glory. Instead, he's been mediocre. He completed just over half of his passes last year and never put together back-to-back great games nor enough sustained drives. Apologists for Rettig like me blame the system, the talent around him and of course the way his Spaz has screwed up the offense. But even the biggest Rettig cheerleaders have to admit he's yet to have a memorable BC moment or done anything to get on an NFL radar.\nWhat he needs to be: Someone who can put the team on his back. I know the offensive line has been terrible, leaving Chase running for his life. I know plenty of passes have been dropped and no one is making big plays. But a truly great QB would show more by now. He's started 21 games. He's finally is a simplified offense that will get the ball out of his hands. If Chase does have an accurate arm, if he is as cerebral as people say, if he can get off throws in a collapsing pocket, now is his chance to show it.\nWhy I like his chances to shine: I don't know if Doug Martin is going to be a miracle worker, but QB's can make huge leaps with a new offense. Just look at Dominique Davis. He went to East Carolina and became one of the most accurate passers in the country.\nLast year I thought Rettig would be great. I thought his toughness and preparation would overcome the offensive limitations. Here I am a year late thinking the same thing. But the difference is Doug Martin. We finally have an experienced OC running a current, simple offense. Rettig will be asked to make quick decisions and get the ball out fast. I think he can do it. I also think that throwing 400+ passes will give him a rhythm and a confidence that he's never had at BC.\nLabels: 2012 Preview, Chase Rettig, Doug Martin, Key Players, Season Previews\nRich Thompson will cover BC football this Fall for the Herald\nThere is some news on the BC media front. The Herald assigned Rich Thompson to the BC beat for this Fall's football season. Rich has covered BC on occasion over the years, but mostly on the basketball side. Thompson is a welcome addition, as the Herald's focus has been spotty since Steve Conroy started splitting his time on hockey. Hopefully a new voice on the BC scene will also spark Blauds to improve his work.\nFor many years, BC fans' main source of news was Mike (Vega at the Globe) and Mike (Shalin at the Herald). We complained about their identical features and soft touch on the BC coaches. Little did we know how good things were. Since Vega's move in 2007, we've been left with a beat writer who seems to loathe his job and also makes excuses for our Head Coach. Blauds also rarely writes or tweets during the college offseason. That sort of editorial decision may have been fine 20 years ago, but now college sports is a year round news cycle. When you look at all the work produced by college beat writers around the country, it makes the Boston media look lazy or oblivious.\nThompson also plans to tweet regularly once the season starts. I hope he makes the most of this opportunity. It is a shame to see the beat neglected like it is across town.\nLabels: blauds, Boston Herald, Boston media, Media Criticism, Rich Thompson\nRevisiting a Boston (BC) Olympics using London as an example\nDuring the 2010 Winter Olympics I tossed around the idea of Boston hosting a summer or winter games. My point then remains that the same: Boston is ideal because the local universities could already supply many of the venues. The big obstacle would always be the main stadium for Track & Field and the opening and closing ceremonies. Nearly every city that hosts is left with a White Elephant that costs hundreds of millions of dollars. But London may provide a solution. They built their Olympic Stadium as a temporary venue. It looked great on TV, holds enough for the games and can be shrunk as soon as it all wraps up. Londoners haven't decided what they will do with the space. There are a few different bidders looking to take over the remains of the stadium. Boston would probably have similar suitors depending on the location. I would guess that UMasss Boston would want a small stadium or maybe the Revolution would want to convert it to a soccer only facility. The possibilities are endless.\nI would still love to see Boston host the games and wish our partner Fenway Sports Group would get behind it. I am practical too. This wouldn't just be a vanity project for BC. It would be a backdoor way to get the IOC to fix the air conditioning in Conte!\nLabels: Alumni Stadium renovations, Boston Olympics, Conte Forum renovations, Fenway Sports Group, renovations\nNew soccer Eagles and other links\nBCeagles.com released the bios of the six new freshmen and two transfers for the men's soccer team. Four of the newbies hail from New York.\nIt feels like every ACC team returns a starting QB. While the depth gives the conference advantages that other conferences don't have, I think some of the talent is overrated. In fact, I can't believe that Rettig is considered the 10th best. I would rank him 5th and think he could be even better by the end of the year.\nDespite shoulder surgery, Alex Albright is healthy heading into his second NFL season. He's also ready to move to inside linebacker.\nIn case you missed it, BC will play Baylor in the Charleston Classic this Fall. That gives all the Boston media, the college basketball writers and the BC bloggers a chance to rehash the Donahue-Heslip situation again.\nLabels: Alex Albright, Brady Heslip, Chase Rettig, Links, Steve Donahue\nCan BC sell a faceless program?\nAs the team prepared for the poster photo shoot, I started to think about some of the current challenges BC faces marketing the program. Who will be the focus of the poster? Can a casual BC fan name our best players? With the team coming off its worst season in over a decade, it would be nice to have a focal point. A person who fans could rally around. With Kuechly gone, BC doesn't have that player or coach.\nSpaz is not a compelling public speaker. BC uses coordinators in their Youtube videos. No BC player made the ACC's preseason all conference team. They have two likeable but rather unknown Seniors on the cover of the media guide.\nPerception matters in college football. Obviously tickets sales are part of that, but lacking a star player hurts when TV networks are selecting our games. Even if some of our players have breakout years, they will have a hard time winning national awards.\nBC created some new and unique ticket packages to help attendance for the less attractive games. If we are play well, TV networks might pay attention during the last month of the season. But if the team struggles, it will be hard to sell anything. You can't force players to be great or be dynamic personalities. Even if players aren't well known, I am consistently proud of how they handle themselves. But BC can ask its coach to sell the program. Spaz doesn't and won't. But I hope that when we hire a new coach that sales and marketing aspect are not ignored. Coaching is primary, but representing BC should always be a factor.\nLabels: BC marketing, emmett cleary, Fenway Sports Group, Kaleb Ramsey, Spaziani\nPhil Steele talks ACC and other links\nHere is Phil Steele previewing the Big East and the ACC.\nFormer Eagle Tim Bulman signed with New England.His teammate Ricky Brown is hanging on too and is now with the Ravens.\nDid anyone else hear this comment from Spaz?\n\"We've tied Chase's hands behind his back his first two years. He's at the point now where he's ready to cross the line.\"\nI know this sort of thing is off the cuff, but why is he saying that he's held a QB back? Am I the only one who gets frustrated by this stuff?\nVCU hired BC grad Ed McLaughlin as their new AD. If and when Gene retires McLaughlin will be one of top targets to replace him.\nThis is from earlier in the week, but I am glad Kimble is confident. I think he could have a big season.\nEmmett Cleary provides some insights into how the offense will change.\nLabels: BC women's soccer, fire Spaz, Links, Ricky Brown, Spaz, tim bulman\nViva Espana: what you need to know about the basketball team's trip to Spain\nNCAA rules allow a basketball team to take an overseas summer tour once every four years. These trips are a huge advantage as they allow the team to play together and at a high level during a dead period. In addition to improving skills, the trips also bond teams together and help the coaches experiment with different rotations and lineups. In the past BC has traveled to France, Switzerland and Australia. In a little less than a month, BC will take its first trip to Spain. This is our first tour under Donahue and a critical chance for this team to get better. Below are some of the facts, figures, schedules and nuggets about the trip.\nAll players can and will attend, including new freshmen Joe Rahon, Olivier Hanlan and incoming Senior Andrew Van Nest. Transfer Alex Dragicevich cannot go.\nAside from the players, the rest of the travel party includes the coaching staff, a trainer, a sports information director, and two managers.\nSome of the schedule is still being finalized, but here are BC's current plans for games:\nAugust 27 Madrid - Game 1\nAugust 29 Valencia – Game 2 (ACB Team - Valencia Basket)\nAugust 31 Barcelona - Game 3 (ACB Team - Penya or Manresa)\nSeptember 1 Barcelona - Game 4 (LEB Team)\nThe team leaves Boston on August 25. In each city they will practice and see some of the local sights. They also have community service time scheduled. The team returns on September 3. Classes begin back in Boston the next day.\nThe games will be played with international rules, courts and FIBA balls.\nBC doesn't know if the referees will speak any English (but they're hoping).\nFor any Eagle fans in Spain, try to catch a game or two. It should be fun. For those of us stateside, there are presently no official broadcasts but I imagine an internet feed will pop up for some of the action.\nLabels: BC basketball, spain trip, Steve Donahue\nKey Players for 2012: Dominic Appiah\nSophomore Defensive Tackle, Dominic Appiah\nWhat he's been: Appiah surprised many last year. Playing for the first time after redshirting his freshman year, Appiah ended up starting most of the games. He made his presence known quickly with the ability to get an inside push and make plays in the backfield. Appiah was new to the inside but he showed natural ability and moved very well considering he played nearly 30 pounds lighter in high school.\nWhat he needs to be: We need Appiah to be like B.J. Raji or Ron Brace. We don't have as many difference makers in other areas of the defense. If Appiah and Ramsey partner to become a dominant force -- like Brace and Raji -- it will create all sorts of opportunities for the rest of the defense. If the two of them can control the line of scrimmage we can become one of the elite DLines in the ACC.\nWhy I like his chances to shine: It feels like I am head of the Appiah fan club. Spaz doesn't even have him at the top of the preseason depth chart. Of all the guys I have profiled, he would probably be viewed as the least likely to make an impact. He's still young. He's still learning the position and he's still getting used to moving with his added bulk. But I saw enough moments that I believe Appiah can be a great DT. He has the push, the leverage and surprising speed for big guy. Other teams had trouble handling him last year. If Appiah remains focused and works hard, he is going to dominate every interior lineman in the conference. And if Ramsey and Appiah both play well, BC will be a bowl team again.\nLabels: 2012 Preview, Dominic Appiah, Kaleb Ramsey, Key Players, Season Previews\nACC Media roundup and other links\nThe ACC Media voted BC 5th overall in the Atlantic Division. That's not particularly surprising since the majority of the reporters are from Carolina and still view us as a secondary program. Although I teased him on twitter, even Meter avoided his usual \"BC: 1st\" vote.\nThe recurring question for Spaz was regarding Kuechly. He handles it well and points to Ramsey as the type of player who can fill the void. Not too many asked Spaz about the \"Hot Seat.\" (I didn't embed that video due to the auto play issues.)\nIt will be interesting to see if BC benefits from the looming exodus at Penn State. We are positioned well since we have scholarship space and recruited many of their kids. But I wonder if Spaz will have any hesitation in taking advantage of his alma mater.\nVirginia Athlete Atem Ntantang committed to BC.\nThe ACC Digital Network is running a countdown of great moments. Of course they included BC comeback against Virginia Tech. It doesn't have Chris Fowler yelling \"Lane Stadium goes silent\" but it does have Meter losing it.\nBC is one of the schools to leverage the transfer up phenomenon in college football.\nLabels: ACC Media Day, basketball transfers, Links, Meterparel, Recruiting, Spaz, Video\nACC Kickoff, Day 1 -- UPDATE\nUPDATE: I took down the video since it was auto playing for people. You can listen to Ramsey and Cleary here.\nI hoped that Spaz would address the Penn State situation. Knowing that those types of questions were coming, the ACC coaches released a joint statement on Penn State and Paterno. Someone should still ask Spaz on Monday since he does know Sandusky and played under Paterno.\nThis is a shot of Kaleb Ramsey talking to the media. And here is all the players together. Cleary also fielded questions, including those about biology and chemistry.\nI expect more on Monday when Spaz talks. I also think all the newspaper guys (including Blauds) will write up their interviews from Sunday into Monday posts.\nLabels: ACC Media Day, emmett cleary, Kaleb Ramsey, Video\nThe field is finished\nReader Doug took these pictures yesterday. I think the field and wall look great. The next step will be hearing how the players like the look and feel.\nLabels: Alumni Stadium renovations, Astro Turf, pics\nQuestions I want asked at the ACC Media Days\nThe ACC convenes this weekend in Greensboro for the annual ACC Media Days. I am not going. But I do have questions I would ask.\nQuestions for Frank Spaziani\n-- Is he aware of the \"hot seat\" talk? Does he feel the pressure. How does he get the team and staff to focus? Is it impacting recruiting?\n-- What are his expectations for the season? Does he see the team competing for a division title?\n-- What attracted him to Doug Martin's offense? What are his expectations for the offense? Does he think the increased tempo will impact the defensive side of the ball?\n-- What will Bollman's role be as \"running game coordinator\"? Is Bollman using different techniques and or approaches to the offensive line play?\n-- What traits was he looking for as he hired new coaches to replace the departed?\n-- As a Penn State alum and former player, what are his thoughts on the Freeh report? Are the former players talking among themselves about what they can do to help rebuild the Penn State football reputation? What does he want done with the Paterno statue?\n-- When did the staff approach him about moving to the left side? How is he preparing for the new position?\n--Who is leading the OL drills in the offseason?\n-- How are things different with a new position coach? What will fans see?\n-- What aspects of his game is he focusing on this year?\n-- How is Chase Rettig adjusting to the new offense?\n-- Which offensive player will surprise BC fans this year? Who is going to make a big leap?\n-- What are his expectations for the season? How important is it to the Seniors to get back to a winning record and a bowl game?\n-- How is his health?\n-- What was it like to sit out a season?\n-- Earlier in his career there was speculation that he might transfer from BC. How does it feel to be a 5th year senior at BC now?\n-- Last year BC played more three man fronts than ever before. Will we see more of that this year?\n-- Does the talk of an NFL career add any extra motivation?\nWe know Blauds and HD will be in Greensboro. Hopefully they or others will slip in one or two of these questions. I don't expect anything particularly revealing, but I would like to hear Spaz talk about the pressure of the season.\nLabels: ACC Media Day, emmett cleary, fire Spaz, Kaleb Ramsey, Speculating with Spaz\nWillis commits, decommits and then commits, and other links\nIt was a strange night if you follow BC recruiting on Twitter. First Rivals reported Georgia running back Myles Willis' commitment. Then Willis himself took to twitter to say that he didn't commit. Later in the night he clarified that he did commit. Regardless, it seems like it is over and he seems like a good pickup. He plays for local Atlanta power Marist. I will try to check out one of his games this fall.\nOne of the great under-appreciated aspects of BC sports is \"For Boston.\" However, the bloggers at Atlantic Coast Convos have great taste as they listed our fight song as the best in the ACC. (Am I the only one singing \"For Boston\" to himself right now?)\nBCeagles.com put out another player Q&A, this time with basketball transfer Alex Dragicevich. Dennis Clifford is one of the players who has made an early impression on Alex.\nLabels: Alex Dragicevich, BC Marching Band, For Boston, Myles Willis\nWey Q&A and other links\nBCeagles.com posted a Q & A with Patrick Wey. He talks about his summer training and trying to win another National Championship.\nBC basketball fans will enjoy this pic of the early '90s stars.\nAlthough she still has two more years of High School volleyball player Brittany Pavich committed to BC.\nFrom earlier in the week, here is an article on new commitment Matt Milano.\nBaseball player John Nicklas is ready to make an impact.\nLabels: BC Hockey, Bill Curley, Links, malcolm huckaby, Matt Milano, Patrick Wey\nKey Players for 2012: Ian White\nJunior Center, Ian White\nWhat he's been: The redshirt JR has played a lot and almost all of it at guard. What's been frustrating is that White would be very, very good in some games and then off in others. Because he is playing primarily inside, the issues usually involve getting overpowered by bigger DTs. Like most of the olinemen the past few years, White's flashed moments of greatness but lacked consistency.\nWhat he needs to be: In my opinion the offensive line play really started falling apart after Matt Tennant left. I think Centers are underappreciated...at times even by their own coaches. It seems like the Spaz/Devine MO was to put the best five on the field regardless of positional fit and not to worry about rejiggering the lineup. The way the staff yo-yo'd Mark Spinney and others at Center the past two years hurt our consistency. And it impacts the QB position too. White's new to the role, so this could lead to more chaos. I hope not. We need him to be good from Day 1. He needs to set the tone for the OL and communicate with Rettig. Other players are important, but White -- or whoever starts at Center -- will be the keystone to the offense.\nWhy I like his chances to shine: Like Cleary, I think White is one of those guys who would have thrived under old BC regimes. He's been smart and tough from the minute he was eligible to play. He might not be as powerful as needed, but now as a redshirt JR, he should be fully matured. Plus playing Center doesn't require as much power and is more reliant on smarts and quickness.\nI don't know if White will be our starting Center for Miami or even later into the season. Under Devine positions and the depth chart were constantly being tweaked. I pray things are different with Bollman. Let White learned to be a Center. He has a chance to be a great one.\nLabels: 2012 Preview, Ian White, Jim Bollman, Key Players, Preseason, Sean Devine\nHow I talk myself into thinking we are going to be good...\nYou can see it on the BC message boards. You can see it on twitter and on the blogs. Optimism is rising. People are looking forward to the BC Football season. On Eagle Outsider they sarcastically call this \"10-2 season.\" It is that time of year when every aspect of the team and season still has hope and promise. Despite my best judgement and spending half of my posts speculating on Spaz's future, I am falling into this same trap. The closer we get to kickoff and the more I read, the more I think BC might surprise people this year. I am not ready to post my predictions for the season, but here are a few reasons why I do think this team should be bowl bound.\nIt looks tougher on paper than it really is. Our toughest opponents come to us. We play three of our first four at home. Playing FSU and Georgia Tech on back-to-back weeks is a bit rough, but playing Georgia Tech any time forces a team to regroup. If you have to play a gimmick offense, you might as well do it after facing a top 10 team. Maybe it will serve as a rally point after playing the 'Noles.\nUnderrated talent\nLook at that depth chart again. It is not an all star lineup, but I think our front seven will be better than last year. I love some of the young DBs (Keyes, Asprilla) and think with a healthy Noel and improved ALJ, we can be solid defensively. I still think Chase Rettig can be great. I have real hope for Doug Martin and think our WR and TE talent is good enough. The biggest question is the offensive line. But as someone who has preached for a OL coaching change, I keep telling myself that Bollman will make a difference.\nEmotion and Pride\nFootball is an emotional game and emotional sport. Point fingers at whomever you like, but BC had awful team and coaching chemistry last season. When I see Al Washington posting on Facebook about his excitement, when I hear about the 5th year Seniors wanting to end their careers on a high note, when I look at the new field, I think that positive energy and emotion will carry us to an extra win or two.\nAs long as these two (see pic below) stay out of the way and Spaz coaches to win, I think this might be a fun season. Is anyone else talking themselves into a big year?\nLabels: 2012, 2012 Preview, 2012 Schedule, Chase Rettig, Doug Martin, fire Spaz, Speculating with Spaz\nKey Players for 2012: Jim Noel\nSenior Safety, Jim Noel\nWhat he's been: A contributor since day one, Noel has grown from back up to fill in starter, to a full time starter over three years. While primarily a safety, BC has also used him at corner. He missed a good portion of 2011, leaving our already depleted secondary without an impact player. Noel has never been a big hitter or ballhawk, but he's been good in coverage and done what's been asked.\nWhat he needs to be: Noel needs to take over. Our defense is at its best when we have safeties with great anticipation. If you design your defense to exploit QB mistakes, you need a smart and athletic Safety to be in the right place at the right time. One of the reasons we struggled ending drives last year and giving up big plays to teams like Central Florida was because our safeties just couldn't make plays. Noel was doing his best filling in at Corner, while Syvlia, Hughes and Rositano kept getting burned. Hopefully Noel can focus on one area this year, stay healthy and have a big season.\nWhy I like his chances to shine: Look back on the interceptions Noel has made. They are often really great athletic plays. Few are gimmes that just landed in his hand. If he can be that great for 12 games and get even a little help from his other safeties, he will have a big year.\nLast season BC only had 13 interceptions. It was our lowest output since the TOB years. If Noel can help end a few drives with big takeaways, BC could be a strong defensive team again.\nLabels: Jim Noel, Key Players, Preseason\nPrecamp Depth Chart and other links\nBC updated the depth chart in time for preseason camps to begin. This should be viewed as temporary and not who will start Labor Day weekend. There will be injuries and position switches that will alter things a bit. Hopefully no one is kicked off the team between now and the start of the season.\nFlorida DB Matt Milano committed to BC over the weekend. Milano also had offers from Arizona and Air Force.\nAndy Katz listed BC among the possible destinations for BU transfer Jake O'Brien. Rumor is Providence is his most likely destination. I hope he gives BC a long look. He'd be another no risk big man for Donahue and give us some nice depth.\nLabels: Jake O'Brien, Links, Matt Milano\nCoaches to Watch this fall Part 4: Current Offensive Coordinators\nSince everyone has Spaz on the Hotseat List, now is as good a time as any to look at future BC head coaching candidates. Unlike our past profile series, the timing and style on these posts will be a little different. Instead of being weeks or days away from a potential change, we have the benefit of a whole season to evaluate these guys. Some stocks will rise, while others will fall and it will make our usual scoreboard watching that much more interesting.\nThe natural inclination would be for BC to replace Spaz with an offensive guy. Unfortunately there is not a great pool of candidates among current college offensive coordinators. There are plenty of good coordinators, but I don't know how many are ready to be head coaches or coach at a place like BC. These are some of the more prominent names. After the 2012 season, we'll have a better idea of if they are ready to take on an FBS head coaching job.\nChad Morris\nOffensive Coordinator, Clemson\nChad Morris was coaching high school football three years ago. His meteoric rise to Clemson's playcaller is another example of how much college football has changed. Gus Malzahn and guys like Chip Kelly and Art Briles before him shot from relative obscurity to changing college football within a few season. Pedigree and climbing the ladders doesn't mean as much anymore. All that matters is how you score and Morris showed that he could give new life to Clemson's attack. Like the others mentioned Morris emphasized tempo and a no huddle. His track record is impressive, as is his reputation for teaching and implementing this offense.\nWhat to Watch for in 2012: Can Clemson keep it up? The ACC now has a chance to adjust to his scheme. It will also be interested to know what Morris wants to do. All these guys want to be head coaches, but is he willing to roll the dice on a job like BC? Would he even fit in? BC's very different from coaching high school in west Texas.\nOffensive Coordinator, Wisconsin\nThe Badgers have been a good proving ground for coordinators. I like the fit for BC since Wisconsin tends to develop and recruit like we do. They also have run \"pro style\" offenses with an emphasis on OL and the running attacks. Canada will be new there this fall, but he's got BCS experience and led explosive offenses in the MAC too. If Canada became a candidate for BC, I would have hesitation about his time at Indiana. They threw it a ton while he was calling plays but didn't win much.\nWhat to Watch in 2012: Will Canada keep throwing it at the more conservative Wisconsin? If Wisconsin keeps up their recent success will he emerge as a candidate elsewhere?\nBill Lazor\nOffensive Coordinator, Virginia\nLazor's been a good coordinator at Virginia. He's not changing the game but they've been better than they were before he got there and they've been consistent. Lazor's ACC experience -- especially at a school like UVA -- translates well to BC (as it did for TOB years ago). He can also sell his NFL ties to recruits. He played at Cornell and is from Scranton, so geography and academics wouldn't be an issue.\nWhat to Watch for in 2012: How will UVA handle their pending QB controversy. Will they also move up within the ACC or stay middle of the pack offensively?\nOffensive Coordinator, Alabama\nNussmeier moves from Washington to being the playcaller at the Defending National Champions. He's got a good profile for a rising coach in that he played professionally, coached in college, the NFL and Canada, and is now at an elite program. He runs a pro-style west coast offense, so the transition to BC would be relatively easy. Nussmeier lacks any obvious ties to BC or the northeast.\nWhat to Watch in 2012: How will Nussmeier adjust to the pressure cooker of Saban and Alabama? Saban's offensives have been bland but effective. I expect more of the same this year. It doesn't make for compelling football but working for Saban can be good training for future head coaches.\nLabels: Bill Lazor, Chad Morris, Coaches to Watch, fire Spaz, Matt Canada\nICYMI: Links from the past week\nPhil Steele thinks we will score more points this season.\nKevin Pierre-Louis was named to the Nagurski watch list.\nPennsylvania Tight End strongly considered BC but verballed to UConn instead. BC's interest seemed to fade as other Tight Ends/Defensive Ends committed.\nTemple closed on Jersey prospect Jarred Alwan. That's a big coup considering how hard BC went after him.\nFormer Eagle Steve Hailey now coaches on the Boston AAU circuit. Maybe that will help us with local talent.\nBC still has interest in Ohio RB Keith Watkins.\nLabels: Kevin Pierre-Louis, Links, Phil Steele, Steve Hailey\nNo King at BC may be a good thing\nNearly everything that needs to be said about Penn State and Joe Paterno has been said. But one point that Bruce Feldman made regarding College Football's King culture reminded me of how different BC is from most FBS schools. We don't and never have had a \"King.\" I've often longed for that iconic winner that could serve as the face of the program, but maybe it is better that we don't. For whatever we miss by not having a \"Woody\" or a \"JoePa\" or \"Bear\" we also avoid the power struggles and corruption that often comes with an all-powerful Head Coach.\nWhat does a King really provide anyway? Branding...a little nostalgia...someone to embrace. But it doesn't really win you football games or make you a better school. Florida State's losing in the final Bowden years proved that and Penn State has a permanent stain on their whole community because of their Kingdom.\nBC's had some dynamic leaders, but none have ever stayed long enough to reach statue status. Our winningest coach and longest tenured even left and no one put up a fight to keep him. TOB could have been our icon. A little more fire and one or two more critical wins and we would have celebrated him like other schools have done with their biggest winners. But it wasn't to be and that's probably a good thing.\nWhen I've profiled coaching candidates in the past, I've hoped that one would stay for a long time. That's changed. I don't want a guy who want to be bigger than the University. Things are better that way.\nLabels: Bruce Feldman, college football, penn state, TOB\nKey Players for 2012: Emmett Cleary\nThis is a series on the key players for the 2012 season. Big things are expected for some, while others will need to improve over their previous performances. If 2012 is a good year, it will be in part to the key players overachieving.\nSenior Offensive Tackle, Emmett Cleary\nWhat he's been: A long-time starter and one of the leaders on offense. Cleary has played on both sides of the line and at both guard and tackle. When he first arrived, Jags said that he could be the next Costanzo. Tall and lean (for a lineman) Cleary's been a consistent contributor like Costanzo (playing in 36 games and starting 26) yet he's never been the consistently great like Costanzo. How much of Cleary's occasional mistakes or setback are due to talent, coaching or the offense? I think it's been a bit of everything.\nWhat he needs to be: Good isn't good enough anymore. Cleary takes on the big responsibility of left tackle this year. Rettig has been running for his life the past three years. If the offense is ever going to take off, they need to improve pass protection. That will start with Cleary. And in the ACC, he'll be facing some of the top defensive linemen in the country on a weekly basis. Cleary's always been good with speed guys on the edge. He'll also need to improve on run blocking. If Martin uses more stretches and zones like Logan, that will leave Cleary often sealing off edges on run plays.\nWhy I like his chances to shine: We've seen offensive lineman make huge leaps from season to season before. Part of it is maturing into their bodies and understanding the position. But a lot is coaching. I think Cleary has been underserved in that department. Even if Bollman is not some OL guru, I think Cleary playing in a more pass happy, up tempo offense will play to his strengths. I think his leadership position and the coaching staff's confidence in him will make him shine at LT. I think he will live up to his potential and have multiple games where he dominates and plays mistake free football. Plus he still has the NFL on his horizon. If he can perform at an elite level, he can jump up from a late round afterthought to a high-round pick.\nI think if Cleary stays healthy, he shoot up draft boards. If BC's offense breaks out of its doldrums he'll be named an all conference player.\nLabels: 2012 Preview, emmett cleary, Jim Bollman, Key Players\nBC using coordinators as face(s) of the program?\nBC posted this \"thank you\" video as an invite to a special practice for season ticket holders. Notice anyone missing? It is just a silly Youtbue video but I find it very telling that the school left out the Head Coach. This is college football. Your head coach is the face of the program. Ours isn't even mentioned in a direct marketing message to our most loyal customers.\nThere are many likely explanations for Spaz's absence. He's not particularly good on camera. He's never really shown any sort of enthusiasm for this sort of thing. And I think BC has heard enough to know that Spaz is not very popular with our fan base. No reason to trot him out when it will just dampen excitement about the upcoming season.\nI like Bill McGovern and Doug Martin. Both are capable coordinators and leaders. Martin's been a head coach and I know McGovern wants to be one, so giving them face time is not a bad idea. Let's hope they are also given autonomy this year (which hasn't been Spaz's strong suit with coordinators). If these two are given real power, season ticket holders will probably be happy they renewed.\nLabels: BC marketing, Bill McGovern, Doug Martin, fire Spaz, Speculating with Spaz, Video\nOptimism from Football Outsiders and other links\nI am a sucker for football analytics and I also really respect CBS's Matt Hinton. So when his ACC preview piece on Football Outsiders listed BC with a .500 record and a 3rd place finish in the division, I was pleasantly surprised. FO is betting on our returning players and the positive trends of the last few games of 2011. I still don't know what to think about the upcoming season, but my love for BC and articles like this have me looking on the bright side.\nBC is sending Emmett Cleary and Kaleb Ramsey to Greensboro to represent the school during ACC media days. I think this is actually a great sign for BC and for both players. I expected Cleary to have a break out season last year. He was good, but not all conference. Maybe this year is his chance to shine and get on NFL radars. Ramsey has always had the talent. His health and attitude have been bigger issues. If he is healthy and focused this year, he will be a game changer on D.\nHere is more on our newest recruit out of Cincinnati Truman Gutapfel.\nChris Pantale is on the Mackey watch list. The award is given annually to the country's best Tight End.\nBeaver Country Day big man Jacquil Taylor is generating local interest. BC has yet to offer, but is following him.\nBCeagles.com posted a Q&A with Bobby Swiggert yesterday. I found his talk about paring down the offense encouraging. We need to work on execution not diversity of plays.\nHD put out this offseason filler piece ranking coaching jobs in the ACC. I don't really care where she perceives us. When the job changes we will be very attractive to the right guy for us.\nLabels: Bobby Swigert, Chris Pantale, emmett cleary, Heather Dinich, Kaleb Ramsey, Links, Recruiting, Truman Gutapfel\nWhere is the one that got away?\nWhile we've struggled recruiting Massachusetts players this year, we've cleaned up in Connecticut and in Ohio. Those local kids (or other lay-up recruits) we miss generate plenty of frustration but they happen every year. What's fortunate about our misses though, is that very few have come back to haunt us. When was the last time a great recruit spurned BC and became a star? I can think of a few over the years, but most of the recruits that \"got away\" had middling careers elsewhere.\nSome recent examples of guys who spurned us include Graham Stewart, Arthur Lynch and Joe Boisture. All three committed to BC at one point only to rethink their decisions and go to bigger programs. Stewart washed out at Florida and is now sitting out a transfer year at UConn. Boisture is out of football altogether. Lynch has been a backup at Georgia. He has a chance for a bigger role this season, but so far has not lived up to the hype that surrounded his recruitment. Even with our terrible offense, Chris Pantale has had a much more productive Tight End career.\nThe closest thing I can think of to a recent recruit who had success elsewhere is Virginia OT Oday Aboushi. But should he even count? He didn't spurn BC. Our admissions office turned him down after he verbaled to BC. Prior to that, you would have to go back to Dorian Bryant. But like Aboushi, his case was less about being seduced by a bigger, flashier program and more about not meeting BC's minimum standards for admissions at one point in time.\nWhere these guys all over-hyped by the recruiting services? Where they wrong fits at their post-BC choices? I don't know. I do think a program like BC is probably more patient with players than some of the bigger programs. We won't rush a guy out of the program to free up a scholarship. We prefer to redshirt. And I think the nature of a program -- with good academic support and less of a big school mentality -- keeps kids from falling through the cracks. Every recruit thinks they are going to be a star, so selling them on development and a safety net doesn't sway many, but it should. If anything BC should use a guy like Marcus Grant -- a local kid who left a Big Ten program to come \"home\" as an example to Massachusetts recruits. Massachusetts kids keep leaving to play at the \"highest level.\" Our counter should be that we will develop them for life and the NFL (the real highest level) and not chew them up and spit them out like a football factory.\nI am sure that there will be a guy in the near future who decommits from BC and becomes a star. Or a guy we should have had who leads another team to glory. Right now I am just glad that we have very few regrets when it comes to old recruits. Our recruiting still has major challenges, but that's one area where things have broken our way.\n[Note to commentors: let me know if you think I missed any recruits who \"got away.\"]\nLabels: Graham Stewart, Joe Boisture, mike siravo, Recruiting, Spaz recruiting\nKey Players for 2012: Kevin Pierre-Louis\nJunior Linebacker, Kevin Pierre-Louis\nWhat he's been: BC's second-leading tackler. On most teams KPL would already be a star. But he played next to college football's tackling machine. There wasn't much room for headlines or an extra tackle with Luke Kuechly doing so much. Pierre-Louis also missed three games last year and played through pain in others. When healthy, he showed great anticipation and was a very solid tackler. In a way, he's a lot like Kuechly.\nWhat he needs to be: KPL needs to be more of a game changer. He's got the speed and instincts to do it. Also, his role won't be in the middle, so he can take chances that Kuechly could not. Ideally he'd have a season like Herzy's 2008. Where on one play he's blitzing the QB and on the next he's running a fumble back. While our scheme has defined much of the defensive success the past five years, we've also benefited from great individual performances. To be great again, we need someone with the tools like KPL to become elite.\nWhy I like his chances to shine: KPL played really well in the first half of 2011. If he had stayed healthy, he would've been all conference. There's no reason he can't be even better this year. We'll miss Kuechly, but the defensive line might be better this year -- that will create more opportunities for big plays from Pierre-Louis. I also like his stats. His tackles for loss and pass break ups in a shortened season give me hope that he'll do even more when playing in all games and playing at 100%.\nI think KPL takes off this year. I think he'll be first team ACC, lead BC with over 110 tackles, and have at least two INTs and two fumble recoveries.\nLabels: 2012 Preview, Kevin Pierre-Louis, Key Players\nMontel Harris to Temple now officially official\nAlthough it's been rumored and reported multiple times over the past few months, Montel Harris finally enrolled in Temple over the weekend. Supposedly the delay was due to Harris completing his academic commitments to BC. To be eligible at Temple, Montel must have completed his BC degree.\nAll the past comments hold true for me. I hope Montel has a great end to his career and gets his shot at the NFL. He was a pleasure to watch the past four years.\nLabels: Kevin Rogers, Montel Harris, Ryan Day, Temple\nWhat would Spaz need to do to hold on?\nI've been speculating about new coaches all summer, but what if Spaz actually pulls through? Crystal Ball Run thinks it could happen. Ultimately it will come down to our record. In my opinion, this is how it would play out. Let me know your thoughts in the comments.\n4-8 or worse...\nSpaz is gone. Back to back 8 loss seasons would be too much. The diehards are already calling for his head. Another embarrassing and hard to watch season would kill goodwill among the casual BC fans.\n8-4 or better...\nSpaz is safe. We have the talent and the schedule to be this good. I don't think it will happen, but if it does we will see Year 5 of the Spaz era.\n6 or 7 wins...\nSpaz \"retires.\" He gets his money. He gets to go out with a winning record. He saves face. This is probably the best outcome for everyone.\nThis is the unknown in my opinion. I could see the powers that be wanting to keep him one more year. Especially if we end on a high note.\nLabels: Coach Flip is running the show, fire Spaz, Speculating with Spaz\nCoaches to Watch this fall Part 3: Current Defensive Coordinators\nBC has turned to college coordinators in the past to step up as Head Coach. While there is risk with any hire, the nice thing about a rising coordinator is that they've usually proven themselves adapt at one phase of the game and you have the chance to hire the next great football mind. Plus most coordinators come in hungry and hard working, looking to make the most of their first chance as a head coach. Because Spaz is a a defensive coach, I am sure BC fans will want a replacement with an offensive background, but that doesn't mean we should overlook these guys.\nPat Narduzzi\nDefensive Coordinator, Michigan State\nUntil Bruce Feldman dropped his name as a Spaz replacement, I don't think many BC fans were even thinking about Narduzzi. On paper he's a very solid candidate. He's got BCS experience at Michigan State. The Spartans love him and recently gave him a huge raise. While they haven't been elite, I like what Michigan State has done under Dantonio (and Narduzzi). They overachieve given their talent base and work hard on the recruting front. Because of his stops in Cincinnati and growing up in northeast Ohio, Narduzzi has ties to our important midwest recruiting territories. What I like most about him as a candidate is his time at Rhode Island. I don't think our new head coach needs ties to BC, but I do think it helps if he comes in with an understanding of what BC is and can be. If you've coached at URI, you know what New England football is like. You know about the difference in fan interest and the space crunch BC is under. And you'll know that BC can be successful with the right coaching.\nWhat to Watch for in 2012: How high Narduzzi's profile rises. He interviewed for head coaching jobs last year. If Michigan State continues to improve and Narduzzi earns more accolades, other schools will have interest.\nMark Stoops\nDefensive Coordinator, Florida State\nNormally I would worry about the fit of a guy like Stoops. He's coming from a football factory. His last name brings some good and bad baggage. But I do think there are some strong pluses in his candidacy at BC. Like Narduzzi, Stoops has deep ties to the Ohio Catholic high school circuit. He also has a good understanding of the ACC landscape after stops in Miami and Florida State. His FSU defenses still begin with the 4-3, so he could take our current roster and install his own system. Although the Stoops name isn't a household name in Boston, his track record, name and personality would be an easy sell to the BC faithful.\nWhat to Watch for in 2012: How Florida State handles their expectations. If this is the year they finally return to being \"Florida State\" Stoops will get much of the credit and be a hot name. Even if they are good, not great, he's still viable at BC.\nDefensive Coordinator, Texas\nDue to his unusual path into coaching and his sudden rise, Diaz is a very hot name among coordinators. Aside from his time coaching at other ACC schools, there's not much tying him to BC. But I think his ability to recruit, his Xs and Os and the ability to be the face of the program deserve consideration. Diaz is young, but serving as a coordinator at Texas is a good proving ground. Mack Brown is in CEO mode, so his coordinators do much of the heavy lifting. It's great preparation for making the jump to head coach.\nWhat to Watch for in 2012: TOB's potential retirement. Diaz is one of the names on many NC State wish lists. If TOB steps down, some in their fan base will make a big push for Diaz to return to Raleigh.\nDefensive Coordinator, Notre Dame\nDiaco is one of the most relentless recruiters in college football. If he took over at BC, I think we could upgrade our talent quickly. The New Jersey native has plenty of ACC experience and has recruited at schools with academic restrictions. I don't love his scheme (3-4) and have a few concerns about his defenses being good but never dominant. But he would be a very good fit at BC and worth the risk.\nWhat to Watch for in 2012: An Irish implosion. Although his seat is not as hot as Spaz's, Kelly needs to win this year. If he's fired, we can't hire his fired defensive coordinator. The perception would be terrible among fans and recruits.\nLabels: Bob Diaco, Coach Flip is running the show, Coaches to Watch, fire Spaz, Manny Diaz, Mark Stoops, Pat Narduzzi, Speculating with Spaz\nMore people to follow\nA little over a month ago, I posted a few BC related names that you should follow. Now, I have a few more...\nBC Hockey Blog: twitter and blog. The diehard hockey fans already follow, but for those more casual BC hockey fans, this is a good place to keep up with our best team.\nWarren K. Zola: twitter. BC's Assistant Dean of Graduate programs is pretty plugged into the student athlete scene at BC. He contributes to the Huffington Post on Sports Law, sports news and College Sports.\nLou Imbriano: twitter. The former Patriots executive and current BC professor tweets about a variety of sports and sports marketing news. In my opinion, BC should be leaning on him more with regards to how we market our programs.\nBC Che Chi's: twitter. A parody account that only a BC alum would understand. Parody accounts are tough to sustain, but I look forward to Che Chi's contributions come football season.\nJustin Rowland: twitter. The Rivals recruiting writer is breaking more and more BC news lately. If you follow recruiting, you should probably follow Rowland.\nLabels: BC Hockey, BC voices, follow, twitter, Warren Zola\nPass the Van Nest koolaid and other links\nThe Globe's feature on 5th year basketball transfer Andrew Van Nest has me fired up. Aside from being a good story, what if this kid can actually play? I know he didn't see the court much at Harvard, but do you trust Tommy Amaker when it comes to managing a roster? The best part of the Van Nest situation is that there is no risk to BC. If he doesn't pan out, he is gone within a year. But who knows, maybe he can give us 10 minutes a game. We need another big body and 6'11 with shooting touch translates into most leagues.\nEarlier in the week, the ACC locked in a deal with the Orange Bowl. There is still plenty of conjecture about what it means but there are some strong points in the deal. First the ACC will be able to sell the media rights. That gives us the chance to earn similar dollars to the Big Four conferences. Second, the Orange Bowl will be a New Year's Day game. That's huge as it should help travel and ticket sales. Finally Notre Dame will have an affiliation to the game. One more tie to the Irish is a good thing from a TV standpoint.\nConnecticut WR Dave Coggins supposedly verbaled to BC the other day. Rivals says it is not a sure thing yet. BC offered a scholarship to Ohio Dlineman Truman Gutapfel. BC is hoping to get two Florida targets as a packaged deal.\nAnother Cincinnati-area BC target Evan Jansen committed to Indiana. BC also lost out to California offensive lineman Alex Redmond. Florida LB Nick Internicola seemed like a solid BC target, but he committed to Rutgers earlier this week.\nMatt Humphrey is adjusting to his third college team.\nParker Milner has impressed the Bruins at their developmental camp.\nLabels: Andrew Van Nest, Dave Coggins, Links, Matt Humphrey, Orange Bowl, Parker Milner, Truman Gutapfel\nHistory Lesson: the Eagle\nIn honor of the 4th of July, I thought it might be a good time to revisit one of the symbols BC shares with our great nation: the eagle.\nAlthough the Eagle is now synonymous with BC through statues and other references on campus, we were without an official mascot during our first few decades. In 1920 the Heights published a cartoon showing a cat licking a plate of its sports rivals. Yes, we could have been the \"Cats.\" While that would have inspired plenty of nicknames and unique imagery, Father McLaughlin didn't think a cat was the proper representative for our university. He suggested the eagle due to its majesty, power and freedom. We officially became the \"Eagles\" that same year.\nContrary to millions of sports writers' work, we are not the \"golden eagles.\" And despite Baldwin's looks and name we are not the \"bald eagles\" either.\nTwo other FBS programs also use the eagle as their mascot. Like us Eastern Michigan is just the Eagles. Southern Mississippi uses Golden Eagles.\nI can't find any evidence that McLaughlin wanted to tie BC's symbols to those of the United States, but it is a nice connection.\nLabels: Angry Chicken Logo, Baldwin, bc history, BC logo, U-S-A, We are BC\nMore Turf news\nThis is bordering on overkill, but I am going all in...\nThe good people at AstroTurf have premiered a live video feed of the Alumni Stadium turf installation. Now instead of spending your holiday week outdoors with family and friends, you can watch as synthetic grass is laid down in Chestnut Hill.\nLabels: Alumni Stadium renovations, Astro Turf, grass, Turf\nKeep fighting the good fight Lax diehards!\nAJ's tweet brought the following comments on BC's Facebook page to my attention. After BC posted an update on the new field, Gene and Spaz's critics took to Facebook to vent. The usual complaints about both guys, tailgating and the state of the program filled the discussion. But what stood out to me was one simple comment from Connor Wilson: \"bring back lacrosse.\" I don't share the BC Lax community's mission, but I respect their passion. Lacrosse is never coming back, but that doesn't mean BC shouldn't hear about it every day.\nLabels: bring back lacrosse, Coach Flip is running the show, Gene D, Lacrosse\nAnderson interview and other links\nBCeagles.com posted a Q&A with Ryan Anderson. He talked about his summer break and his new teammates. Hopefully the new guys are as far along as Anderson feels they are.\nHD is banking on our experience as a reason we could surprise people this year.\nBC keeps hitting Ohio prospects hard. The latest target is Cinci LB Marcus Oliver.\nHere is more on future Eagle Dan Monteroso. Monteroso also generated some interest from basketball schools. Maybe Spaz will let him play basketball in the Spring.\nThis matrix took a different look at the Hot Seat issue. With regards to losing and underachieving, Spaz is not as bad as some of the bigger names on the list.\nFormer eagles Carolyn Swords and Molly Schaus discussed how Title IX impacted their sporting careers.\nLabels: Carolyn Swords, Dan Monteroso, fire Spaz, HD, Hot Seat, Links, Marcus Oliver, Ryan Anderson\nNFL attendance problems a lesson for BC\nBC's faced some attendance issues the past few years. We like to blame the tailgating or Spaz or the schedule, but the reality is there are multiple factors. Just look at the attendance issues facing the most popular league in American sports -- the NFL. If they can't get butts in the seats, how can BC? The NFL has a few different solutions in play. Perhaps, BC can learn from them.\nFewer Seats\nThe NFL is lowering the bar, so that blackout rules don't require sellouts. Blackouts are not an issue in college, but perhaps few seats will help demand and make Alumni seem full. I don't want to tear out seats, but maybe we can replace the bleachers with actual seats. That would take up more space, eliminate seats and improve the watching experience.\nThe internet has added fluidity to the ticket market. It used to be BC fans would buy season ticket packages to assure themselves Notre Dame tickets or some other desirable game. Now most know that they can buy the game they want without committing to others they don't. One way to win them back is to lower the investment. BC will miss out on the mark up of the premium games, but at least they will have more people invest in a whole season. BC is indirectly doing this already with their discounts of the less desirable games. If the NFL is lowering prices on parking and concessions, BC should also explore it. Like the NFL we are getting more and more money from TV. Why not make the ingame experience more affordable.\nIn-game experience\nThis has been discussed ad nauseum, but needs to be looked at again. I don't think it is as simple as the NFL's push for wireless. We need the game day experience to be inviting from the moment the gates open to the moment the last fan is leaving. It is about the music, the ushers, the video boards, the halftime, the activities during commercial breaks. I don't want BC to turn into a barrage of nonsense, but we can do more.\nI don't go to many BC games. That's mostly because of my location. But I also like the watching the game in my home. The convenience, the visuals, and the costs all factor into my decision. But live sports is still a great experience...especially college football. I just hope BC doesn't wait around until the Alumni is empty.", "answers": ["August 25."], "length": 10337, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "d2a588e420083f151239e660bd47ec0cad9732ec308ab9bc"}
{"input": "Why does Craig want to find his own place?", "context": "My Aspergers Child: COMMENTS & QUESTIONS [for Feb., 2017]\nI emailed you a while back and you mentioned that I could email when I needed to. Thank you. I last wrote you in December that my son became involved in a dispute involving the local police. We have had 3 court dates. It keeps delaying due to not being able to come to an agreement. But the attorney, even though he was just vaguely familiar with Aspergers, has been very good with Craig. He has the compassion and excellence that is needed here. What started out very bad is turning into a good thing. It will probably take another 90 days or more.\nBut Craig is working hard. Too hard sometimes. He goes to therapy 3 times a week. Doing excellent. He's more focused and can calm down easier. He's got a lot on his plate but has support from his family. From his attorney. From therapy. And from his work.\nHe has been renting a room from a lady who has a son with ADHD. It is good for him. I'm a little worried though because since she smokes he wants to find his own place. With all the costs he has to balance it out financially. That is good. I can't help him more than I am which is good. He is stepping up and taking responsibility. He is listening much better.\nHe is going to have an evaluation today to get an accurate diagnosis. I understand that is a little difficult since he is an adult. Also the PTSD may cover it over. The attorney stated it would help to have the diagnosis.\nAware this is a long update, but thanks for reading. I am fighting much guilt still but I have a lot of peace now. My daughter and her 4 year old son also have Aspergers symptoms. So my life chapters may not close for a while. :-)\nMy name is Mac. I'm sure you're quite busy, so I'll get right to it I just wanted to pass on compliments on My Aspergers Child and your post, How to Implement the GFCF Diet: Tips for Parents of Autistic Children.\nMe and my wife absolutely loved it!\nI got a facebook message from him today begging to be able to come home saying he misses home and he will change. He says he will follow rules now. I stated to him the simple rules he has to follow which were - No weed in my house, or smoked in my house, coming home at curfew, going to school, no skipping, no drugs at school, and to drop the attitude of I am 17 I can do whatever I want.\nI have made it very clear that if I see any drugs in my home I will be calling the police, as well as if I see signs of it being sold by him I will report him. (He has never had selling amounts in my house, ... I believe it's being kept at his \"friends\" which of course I have no proof of....I just know it is not here.\nI know my battle is not over by a long shot, I am sure we will have more consequences and possibly another being kicked out, but I am going to think positive and hope that he learned some form of a valuable lesson here.\nThank you so much for the guidance, never in a million years did I ever think I'd be on this side, (the one needing the help, as I am the one who helps.)\nI am going to go back to the start of the program like I said earlier and keep notes close by for reference.\nThanks for all you do, helping us all with ODD children/teens\nI have a small company providing educational support services to a few families who have children with various disabilities in Ohio. One of the families has multiple adopted children of whom several have significant attachment disorders including RAD. As an experienced teacher and foster parent I have some experience in working with children who have extensive trauma backgrounds. However, I could use additional training. Also working with these children are two staff members with minimal background in attachment disorders who would also benefit from training primarily in behavior management. The primary caregiver to the children does a wonderful job managing their needs. In order to further develop team cohesion, I'm hoping to include her in any training as well.\nIs it possible to schedule such a training session with you? If so, please let us know what will work for you including time, place, and cost. Thank you for your assistance.\nI just listed to your tapes on dealing with an out of control, defiant teen. I'd like to ask your advice on a particular situation we have. Our 15 year old daughter is smoking pot almost every day at school. Because we had no way to control the situation, we told her, fine, go ahead and smoke weed. However, you will no longer receive the same support from us. You will not have your phone, lunch money to go off campus (she has an account at the school for the cafeteria she can use), and you will be grounded until you can pass a drug test. We will not be testing you except for when you tell us you are ready to be tested. She is now saying she's suicidal because she feels so isolated, yet she continues to smoke weed. In fact, she tried to sneak out last night but was foiled by our alarm system. For the particular drug test we have, I read it takes about 10 days of not smoking to pass the test. What would you do? Please advise.\nI am having a problem with my 18 year old son, Danny, with high functioning autism. We finally had him diagnosed when he was 16 years old. I always knew something was going on with him but the doctors misdiagnosed him as bipolar. It's been 2 years now and he will not accept his diagnosis. He won't talk about it and when I try to bring it up he gets very angry. I've tried telling him that it's not a bad thing, that there's been many, many very successful people with Aspergers. He won't tell anyone and refuses to learn about managing life with it. He once shared with me that the other kids at school use it as an insult, like saying someone is so autistic when they do something they don't approve of. So he doesn't want anyone to know. He's turned down services that could help him. He has a girlfriend, going on 8 months. He won't tell her and they're having problems arguing a lot and I wonder if it would help for her to know.\nI'm sad that he thinks it's a life sentence to something horrible instead of accepting, embracing it and learning about it more so he maybe can understand why he's struggling. I told him that he doesn't need to shout it out to the whole world but he won't even accept it himself.\nI don't know how to help him with it and because he's almost 19 I have limited control now. It's made my life easier knowing what we're dealing with and I think his life would be easier is he accepted it.\nPlease help me help him.\nI am a clinical psychologist in NYC who now has several (!!) children I see who have RAD. In 20 years of practice, I’d seen only one case. Now, I have at least three children with this. I have no training, per se, in working with this children though I know about setting structure, consistency, etc. I do a lot of work with parents about parenting. I work primarily within the school setting in a charter school whose mission is to educate children on the autism spectrum in a mainstream setting. We use Michelle Garcia Winner’s social thinking program with our ASD kids. I also work with gen ed kids in the school who are at-risk; the school is in the inner city from where the majority of our non-ASD kids live.\nIt would have been so much easier to mention to my adult son that I think (I know he does, but want to ease into the subject)\nhe has Asperger's when we were living together two years ago. He has since moved to Tennessee working in his field of interest\nwhich is 3-D printing and software development. I am so happy for him that he has found his way into a job that he truly enjoys\neven though he's socially isolated.\nHe's not diagnosed and does not know he has it. How I know is his classic symptoms being sensory issues (fabric feeling like sandpaper)\ncommunication difficulties, meltdowns and much more. Throughout his childhood I just felt he was a bit different. Nothing major stood out and time\njust passes, misdiagnosis of ADHD, low frustration, etc. We've talked about his ADHD numerous times (which I now know he doesn't have).\nIt's so much easier to communicate with him now that I know he has Asperger's. I keep it \"slow and low\" in talking, with long moments\nof silence and then we connect. It's really too bad that Asperger's got a diagnostic code back in the 90's, yet all the so called doctors,\nphysiologist's, etc, didn't know how to diagnose it. Too bad.\nThere seems to be no one answer to \"should I tell my adult son he has Asperger's\" from a few specialists I asked. He is typical Asperger,\ncomplicated, highly intelligent (high IQ), anxiety at times, socially isolated, hard to make friends. Not knowing how he will react is the hard part.\nHow will he be better off knowing he has it? Do I wait to tell him in person, or ease into it with him over Skype? He likes direct, honest, concrete communication.\nWhy is this so hard for me? Maybe because no one know's if he is going to be better off knowing or not. Do you know if people are better off\nknowing? I try to get up the courage to just let him know, then I back down.\nI have been searching the web looking for advice and came upon your site. I am trying to read blogs, websites, books, and articles to help guide me. I was so happy when you said that I could ask you a question. My husband and I are struggling with my 27 year old son who lives with us.\nKyle is the youngest of 4 sons. He is a college graduate but never could find the \"right\" job. He has always been quiet and never had a lot of friends. Two years ago, his girlfriend broke up with him. Kyle had an online gambling addiction and was using pot all the time. After the breakup, Kyle was very depressed and started using heroin and finally told my husband he was using. He is now seeing a psychiatrist who has him on suboxone and antidepressants. He is also seeing a psychologist weekly for counseling but it does not seem to be helping.\nLast October,, Kyle lost his job, got drunk, and was agitated and came home , fighting with us, damaging our home and being verbally abusive. My other son , age 32, who also lives with us called the police and Kyle got arrested. He is currently in the family court system. He went through an anger management course and now is in substance abuse classes. Kyle continues to verbally abusive to me and blame me for everything. He says he \"hates me \"and calls me terrible names. At times, he pushes my husband and intimidates me. My husband and I are so upset. We just hired an attorney for him because since he has been going to these classes, he is getting more depressed and not getting better. Kyle continues to drink while taking his meds prescribed by the psychiatrist and then he has his \"moods.\" My husband and I have met once with the psychiatrist just to give him background information when Kyle started with him.\nAt this point, we do not know what to do. We never thought at this stage of our life, we would be supporting and spending our retirement money on adult children. I do not know why Kyle hates me, I could not have been a better mom. My husband and I have no life and just do not know what it the right path we should take. Kyle does not want anything to do with us. He spends all his time in his room playing football online.We have tried tough love versus caring and love and understanding. Do you have any advice for me?\nThis whole ODD and ADHD is killing me as a parent. I work in the field of adult psych and addictions so I am well educated. I have been dealing with my teen being like this for almost 3 years and I totally lost my cool today with my 17-year-old son to the point I told him he is out of the house. He can never simple rules, comes and goes as he pleases sometimes doesn't come home, just recently back in school from several suspension for drug related... I am just so exhausted. He has made me hate life, hate being a parent and sometimes I just feel like not even being here. I bought your program in hopes to it would help, I am at week three and I feel things are getting worse... what am I doing wrong??\nMy partner hasn't been diagnosed yet but I know he has aspergers ..day to day is a struggle . I feel I'm going crazy with how he makes me feel.Feel let down constantly. He lies alot but I've been told they can't but I know he does.I just feel trapped and unloved.We have a 4yr old daughter together and my main worry with how he is that it will effect our daughter ; (his skills as a parent are so weak.He can't disapline at all.Feel so alone .he hides it well too.I just wondered if things will get worse? He's angry so quick in arguments.Scares me etc.I can't leave as he's the main bread winner and our daughter loves him to bits.Don't know why I'm writing this..Sorry if I'm going on and not making sense :(\nI wanted to let you know about a research opportunity for children, teens, and young adults with autism. I am studying the effects of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, and psychotherapy on helping people with autism develop subjective awareness of others.\nI am writing you to see if this might help someone in your practice, or to see if you might know of someone with autism who may benefit from participating in this study. The requirements of the study will be:\n1. A participant should be between 7-21 years of age and have a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder.\n2. The participant should enroll in an approved Jiu Jitsu Academy and attend at least two sessions a week for a period of six months.\n3. The participant should enroll in social skills groups, provided by my office or be in a steady psychotherapeutic relationship in your office, at least once a week, or minimally two to three times a month.\n4. The participant will be given a SRS (Social Responsiveness Scale) test at the beginning of the study, at three months, and again at six months.\nIf you know of anyone who might benefit from this novel approach to helping to develop social awareness in autism, please do not hesitate to contact me for further information.\nI have a 10 year old daughter who has outbursts with prolonged crying almost like tantrums that 2 year olds have when they cannot express themselves.\nI had her in therapy from age 6-8 years old for the same thing but I feel that the sessions didn't really help much.\nShe has severe sensitivities to light, sound, vibration, frequencies which trigger irritability and crying.\nWe changed her diet and tried getting her involved with activities but she is anti-social and prefers reading than being social. She is terrified of change even in daily routine (even that will trigger prolonged crying).\nIt frustrates me because I don't know what else to do with her behavior.\nI've tried acupuncture (she refused at the first session); she refuses massage too.\nShe is an honor-roll student at school and has very minimal issues at school but if she has had a bad day it does result in a tantrum or crying and defiance.\nHow can I get her tested for Asperger's Syndrome?\nLast night our 24 year old son with Aspergers told his dad and I that he is pulling out of the 4 college classes that he recetnly enrolled in because he has not been attending class or turning in his assignments. He paid $2800 (his own money) for tuition and I reminded him of this when he told us but it did not seem to bother him.\nThis is the 3rd time he has started college courses and has not completed them. (He also took some concurrent college classes while he was in high school that he failed). This is a son who basically had a 4.0 grade point average through 10th grade and got a 34 on the ACT the first time he took it.\nWith the news that he was once again not sticking with college courses I did not sleep well. When I got up this mornning I began looking online for help in how to deal with his situation. I found your \"Launching Adult Children With Aspergers\" and purchased it. Most of what is included are things we have done or did with our son throughout his life. I was hoping for more help so I am emailing you now in hopes of more specific ideas.\nWe noticed some things with our son, Taylor, as a yound child but as we had not heard of Aspergers at that time we just did what we thought would help him. As a toddler and a child at pre-school he generally went off on his own to play. When I talked to his pre-school teacher about my concerns (that I was worried he would end up a hermit) she said she did not see him being a loner and that he seemed to interact fine with others in many situations. We worked with him on making eye contact when talking with others. We explained different emotions in people's faces and mannerisms to help him know how to interact with others. We discussed the fact that people would say things that did not mean what they souneded like - such as \"I'm so hungry I could eat a horse\". As we did these things he worked hard to better understand communication with others.\nDuring his 4th grade year I had a teacher from the gifted program ask me if I had ever heard of Aspergers. I told her that I had not heard of it. She proceeded to read me some of the charateristics and so many of them described my son. So we had him tested by the school district during the summer between 4th and 5th grade and they did find that he had Aspergers but that he was high functioning. We then set him up with and EIP which stayed with him until his sophomore year. We pulled him from it at that time because we had moved and the new district was requiring him to take one class a day that was a study class. This reduced the number of required classes he could take and he was doing fine with his studies at the time.\nIt was during the 2nd half of his Junior year that we noticed some of his grades going down. Then during his Senior year is when he started skipping classes and not doing assignments. We had not realized it before then but we soon became aware that he was addicted to gaming. He would go to the library or somewhere else on campus and play games on the computer rather than go to class. It was also at this time that he began lying about his actions (so as not to get in trouble).\nBased on his grades and his ACT score he received offers from colleges for full tuition scholarships. He chose the college where he had taken concurrent classes during his high school years. But he proceeded to skip class and not turn in assignments so he lost his scholarship and quit attending college. During this time he was only able to find employment through an employment agency where he was mostly sent to manuel labor type jobs (which is not something he enjoys but he did it anyway). It was during this time that at one place had gone to on numerous occasions he was told if he came late one more time they would tell the emplyment agency they did not want him to come there anymore. (This seemed to make an impression on him because he has continued to be reliable and responsbile at his places of employment).\nAt 19 1/2 he left to serve a 2 year full-time mission for our church. He completed his mission successfully. (I don't think it was without some struggle, stress and depression, but he was able to pick himself up and move on from those times).\nWhen he came home he started working for the employment agency again but began looking for employment elsewhere. He got a job at a local Chick Fil-A where he has worked for 3 years. He started college again shortly after he came home but as before it was short lived. He did finish out the semester but failed most of the classes due to his skipping class and not turning in assignments. When he skipped class he would usually sleep in his car.\nTaylor's life consists of working (where to the best of our knowledge) he does well, he is reliable and his employer likes him. When he comes home from work he either sleeps or plays video games or other games - such as kakuro. He spendes most of his time in the basement where his bedroom is and this is where he games. Taylor owns his own car, bought his own laptop and very rarely spends money. He pays us $200 /month to still live at home, unloads the dishwasher on a regular basis and does the weekly garbage. However, his room is a mess and he only cleans his bathroom when I tell him he needs to clean it.\nTaylor used to read quite a bit and loved to learn. It has just been in his adult years that he has not read as much - I think because of his gaming addiction. Taylor goes to church on a regular basis but sleeps through the main meeting. In Sunday class room settings he stays awake - I think because he is able to particpate in discussions.\nTaylor has only had 2 real friends since entering Junior High school. And as of now he only keeps in contact with one of them who still lives in Georgia. We have lived in Utah since the summer of 2007 and he has never had a friend to do things with since we have lived here. He has two younger siblings, a brother 22 and a sister 20. They love Taylor and spend time with him when they are home. They are both at college and doing well.\nThroughout Taylor's school years he has seen a counsleor on a fairly regular basis. One summer during junior high he attended a weekly class where he interacted with other kids with Aspergers. We did see a lot of change in him from this group. After he returned from his mission he went to see a counselor for a short period - this counselor tried to help him with some social skills. His dad and I went with him the first 3 or 4 times but we found out that after we quit going with him he only went a few more times and then scheduled appointments but did not show a couple of the times. We only found this out when a bill came for a \"no show\" appointment.\nI don't know if this is too much information but were are in dire need of help for him. In the information that we purchased from you you mentioned that you do coaching for Aspergers adults. I don't know if you can help us but I thought I would check with you just in case.\nAlas I think I have found your information too late to save my marriage but I am hoping to save myself.\nI am currently going through a very very painful separation after a 27 year relationship with my husband whom I am convinced has aspergers syndrome. It is a long and painful story and I am desperately trying to process it all alongside dealing with a very conflictual separation. My partner is angry non communicative and totally dismissive of me and our long shared history.\nHe walked out last year after I discovered he had been visiting massage parlours and developed a relationship with an illegal Chinese escourt whom he subsequently moved in with. He had been seeing this woman behind my back for over 18 months. The pain of all this indescribable and his dismissal of my pain and very existence beyond belief.\nLeading up to this I had been battling anxiety and depression which my husband found very hard to cope with.\nOver the years of our relationship I knew something was off but I just could not put my finger on it. I often felt a complete lack of validation and empathy. Communication was also difficult as my husband was defensive and unwilling to look at issues in our marriage.\nPlease Mark could you help me validate some of this pain and try and make dense of 27 years of my life without drowning in fear guilt and despair about my future.\nThank you for listening and your site.\nI have had problems with drunkenness, being late for school, not handing in school work, buying pot from a dealer etc. I chose to focus on the drinking and did the grounding then (grounding happened 3 times). I also stopped sleep overs at friends 100%. I have stopped handing out money for no reason or even buying treats like chocolate.\nI did lose it one evening (and didn't do the poker face) when I was trying to unplug the internet at midnight on a school night (she’s always late for school so I am trying to get her to sleep at a reasonable hour). I was physically stopped and pushed around so I slapped my daughter (it was not hard). This ended up with her saying she didn’t want to come home (the next day after school). By this stage, I also had enough and didn’t go get her. I thought I am not begging. You will run out of money soon. It was quite a relief to have some peace. Daughter’s Dad was in town (from another country) and called a family meeting with the counsellor. To cut a long story short, daughter and her counsellor put it on the table that daughter wants to go live somewhere else (with her friends family) because of the stress at home with me (we live on our own) (i.e. stricter rules and her bucking up against it).\nI didn’t really want this but made a compromise that daughter would go there Tues morning – Friday afternoon as the friend is an A student whereas my daughter is failing. They do the same subjects. I made the decision at the end of the day based on what is good for me – some time away from the daughter. I also thought of your book when the child went to live with the grandparents – daughter will dig her own hole over at the friend’s house. They have a week day no going out policy which made me think it is OK. I went and discussed with them the problems experienced (drinking, pot, late nights, not handing in work)\nI am also trying to follow the let go of school thing per your book. I find it really difficult to remain calm when I can see daughter on her phone and watching series (when I have her on the weekends) when I know there are projects due. I hired her a private tutor once a week for help with a subject. The tutor has just fired my daughter for not handing in work and being not committed. It’s not the first time private tutoring has not been appreciated. The school give me a report back on a Friday as to whether everything is handed in. The deal is – if the work is not handed in – no pocket money and no Friday night out). Her school is a \"progressive\" school and there are no repercussions for her being late or not handing in work. I would change schools if I could but there are only 8 months left of school (she turns 18 in August).\nWe have just completed the first week and beginning week two of your material. We are agreeing with your take and see our son and ourselves in most of what you are saying. Prior to finding your material and starting your program we had been having extreme out of control behaviors and had to call the police because he was breaking things in our house and pushed my husband. This happened three weeks ago. After that incident we took away privileges ie. PS4, phone (which had already been taken for a few days), and friends. So, last week while doing your program he already didn’t have privileges and has continued with poor behavior – name calling, throwing things, slamming doors. We are not sure when to give privileges back. He has been given the privilege of playing with friends on occasion. His 13th birthday is tomorrow. This past weekend, for his birthday my husband and he went boar hunting. Of course we debated about it but decided to go ahead since it was his bday. We are cooking some of the meet on the grill tomorrow night for his bday and inviting a couple of his friends over for a cookout. No more gifts other than cards and balloons. We are wondering if we should go ahead and give him his privileges back and not sure how to do it. Last Friday morning we attempted to talk giving him a date to return privileges and that conversation ended with him getting angry but he gathered from our conversation that he is getting his stuff back on his bday. We are starting week 2 assignments today but not sure how to handle what was already in place. Of course, we aren’t seeing the respect and responsibility we are looking for but realize it has been a long time. We were wanting him to pay for his phone and thought it might be a good time to introduce that idea. Allowing him to earn his phone. We expect that he will be angry with this idea and not sure how to implement.\nMy son and myself are interested in a inpatient Aspergers program. We line in Calif which is preferable. My son is very high functioning and was diagnosed dry late. He was eight years old. He has never been in or attended a full day of class. Partially due to depression,anxiety, and trouble with his ADHD also his aversion and being bullied and of course his Aspergers. He will not attend his freshmen year due to surgery on both Achilles' tendons from walking on his toes. With physical therapy he should be ready by his sophomore year! We all feel he needs in patient therapy to give him the tools on how to work with his issues in a structured setting and a place that will give him tools for the rest of his life.\nIn my utter desperation to find a way to get some help for my daughter's increasingly challenging behaviour I trawled the internet to see if I could find some strategies that would provide specific methods on dealing with teenagers with Asperger's syndrome. When I came across your website, I couldn't believe that every statement you made was exactly what I have been going through with my daughter. She has just turned 14 last week, and was diagnosed with Asperger's/ Autism Spectrum Disorder 15 months ago. I have already been seeing a child psychologist for the past five months, however the methods she has been advising have not been very effective.\nOur main difficulty with our daughter is her overwhelming obsession to use her cell phone (and to a lesser extent her laptop) constantly. Without any restriction, she will be on it every minute of the day, and will be awake until the early hours every day. We have tried to incorporate her input around rules as to when she has to give in her phone, but she is unwilling to compromise on a time that she should give it to us, believing that she should have unlimited use. I believe she is unable to do any adequate study or homework, as she is constantly having to look at the phone. We have tried to put rules in place that she has to give in her phone and laptop on school nights at 22:15. If she is able to do this then she is given rewards, and if she doesn't then she knows that there will be consequences. The consequence has been restricted use the following day. However, this is usually where we fail, because taking her phone away from her results in tantrums, screaming, and even threatening to harm herself. This behaviour is relentless to the point where the whole family becomes deeply distressed, and inevitably results in her getting the phone back.\nThis obsession is affecting her schoolwork, and more severely her eyesight. She has become very shortsighted, and her eyesight continues to deteriorate as a result of holding the phone or laptop very close, and mostly in the dark without any lights on. My husband and I have a constant battle on our hands daily, in all areas of discipline with our daughter, but our main concern is that we have been unable to find a way to minimise this obsessive behaviour centred around her phone and laptop. Please can you provide some strategies that can help us specifically with this problem.\nFirst of all, I thank you for developing this program and I am only at the first stage of assignment 1. I have loads of books I have bought, attended psychiatrists for my son and myself, family therapy, occupational therapy, begged and prayed for change but have been dealing with behavioural issues for so long I am definitely exhausted and resentful.\nI am a mum to a 15 yr old boy with ASD, dyslexia, OCD and ODD. Sorry to focus on the labels but just to give you an idea of what I am dealing with. I also have a 13 yr old son whom finds his brother’s behaviours difficult, embarassing and challenging. My husband whom is not in great health ( he had a cerebral aneurysm clamped two years ago and has two further aneurysms that are inoperable so endures fatigue, headaches and stress). We have however a pet cat that is very social and a calming influence in the home! I was fortunate enough to have loving parents but I lost both my mum and dad in 2008 and 2015. My inlaws are elderly and quite directly say they are too old to help us so it feels we are alone in dealing with the issues we have.\nI am desperate for change as the household is one of stress and anger and I feel all the control lies in my son Patrick’s hands. I am hopeful your programme can make life better for all of us but I wonder if it is too early to ask you two questions?\nThe first lies with what to do when Patrick goes into my other son Brendan’s room and will either turn on a light when he is sleeping, yell when he is on his phone or create some disturbance. He will not leave the room when asked to do so and the situation always escalates into yelling and Brendan attempting to physically remove him. This happens regularly and always ends badly with doors slamming, my husband being woken and myself in tears feeling the lack of control and also I admit I seem to think “Why me?” which rationally I know is of no help.\nThe second problem is leaving the house for school. Patrick refuses personal hygiene (either morning or night) and any request to even brush his teeth is fraught with swearing and abuse. If I can get him to shower, he will watch the water roll down the drain and turn up the water really high temp (mu husband has had to turn down the thermostat on the hot water service) without so much as getting wet. My husband leaves for work at 6am but I leave at 745 to work as a nurse in a busy outpatients department in the Alfred Hospital (Melbourne). My work is my sanity as it is a paid break from home but most days I am late which is causing considerable stress and anxiety not to mention my responsibility to do my job. Patrick simply refuses to leave the house and as much as I am tempted to just walk out and leave I know the house would be left unlocked and wonder if Patrick would even attend school. The time I need to leave is not negotiable but Patrick uses this to his advantage and seems to delight in stressing me out and subsequently speeding to work in a frazzled mess.\nThe interesting and frustrating element in all of this is that although he is socially isolated at school (he has no friends) and academically challenged his behaviour at school is not a problem. He is quiet and his teachers report he does his best and is compliant and well mannered. It is like a Jekyll and Hyde situation where another side of him at home is so angry and abusive yet at school this behaviour does not happen.\nI’m Jackie, I now work primarily as a freelance tech writer, after starting my career in software development and moving on to teach IT to young adults at a variety of colleges and schools.\nMy freelance work is pretty varied and looks at many aspects of the computer industry as a whole, and I’ve just recently completed a piece which gives help and advice to anyone wanting to become a game designer, which you can read here: http://www.gamedesigning.org/become-a-game-designer/. It highlights the hard work and effort it takes to get into such a role, and also how you can further your career and continue to learn and improve as you go. I hope you’ll agree it shows that starting work in the industry takes dedication and skill and that becoming a game designer isn’t just a fly-by-night job!\nIf you’d be interested in sharing a quick mention of my work on your blog that would be really wonderful and I’d appreciate the chance to get my work out there to a wider audience. Alternatively, I’d be happy to write a short blurb or paragraph or two (or a longer piece - just let me know) highlighting the key points because I think some of your readers might get a lot of value from it.\nMy son just turned 15 and is a freshman in high school. Although this is his first year in a general ed environment, he is struggling with behaviors in school. He has meltdowns and does not express why he would have them until much later. Once we all know what caused it, the school will accommodate him and try to \"change up\" things so as not to cause his meltdown. Once that is resolved, another issue comes up and causes him to melt down. He is a high functioning and academically does well, when he wants to do the work. We battle at home over homework. He does not care how it is done, as long as he hands it in. He thinks failing a test is ok, at least he took the test. Homework is never on his mind when he gets home from school. If I never prompt him, he would never open is backpack. He can be aggressive but is never intentionally trying to hurt anyone. He may push over a chair in school, but it is not directed at anyone. We know how that in itself could hurt someone who gets hit by it though. He is defiant in that he only wants to do what interests him. He does not go out by himself (still immature), or abuse alcohol or drugs and never curses. He is a very funny kid and very talented. His main problems are task avoidance and seeking attention. He can be disrespectful to adults in that he is \"cheeky\" with them, trying to be funny or cute. And he has no \"filters\".\nI’ve just finished reading your Living with an Aspergers Partner ebook. I found it so informative, thank you.\nYou offered some personal advise, and i wanted to run a situation past you and seek your input as to a strategy for what to do next.\nI’ve been seeing a guy for about 7 months now who I believe has Aspergers. I came to this conclusion months ago and I don’t think he realizes, (or acknowledges) although he is aware he has some traits.\nHe’s highly intelligent and successful, a pattern seeker, has a tendency to focus on the project to hand to the total exclusion of all else for as long sit takes (work or home) socially awkward (has learned coping strategies), sensitive to loud noise, high anxiety with control strategies, black and white thinking etc. He’s currently not working and I’ve seen a slow withdrawal over the last 6 weeks, including the need to ‘escape’ and leave a situation at least once.\nHe also has a bipolar ex overseas who has primary custody one daughter where there has been ongoing patterns of drama which has recently increased.\nOver the past couple of months (since stopping work and drama increase) I’ve gone from being ‘wonderful’ in his eyes to him now being sorry and not having the ‘urge’ to spend close/intimate time with me and offering friendship. Since he shared that with me in a message he’s stonewalled and has retreated to the safety of minimal messages and talks about not knowing what best to say and not being able to find the right words somehow.\nHe’s a good kind man who I feel is struggling. I’m concerned about his anxiety and possibly the risk of depression. I’m fairly resilient and whilst i’m disappointed he doesn’t want to pursue a relationship with me, i’m concerned for him and his well being. One of his very few close friends is also just leaving the country to live overseas.\nThe strategy I’ve used so far is simply to back off and give him space. I’ve asked to take him up on an original offer he made to talk but haven’t pushed it. I also haven’t been aggressive or accusatory in the few messages i’ve sent.\nAny advise you could give would be greatly appreciated,\nCarli who is 10 years old and has had behavioral issues her whole life. The other night she came home very upset after having a conflict with a friend. She was at her friend's house and her and her friend wanted to get on the computer and the older sister was using it. Carli made up a story that someone was at the door to get the older sister off the computer. Her friend didn't understand that she was making up a story to get the sister off the computer. She got excited that someone was at the door and ran downstairs to answer the door. In the process of getting the door, she fell and yelled at Carli. Carli became extremely upset. She was able to control her feelings at her friend's house, but when she came home, she proceeded to cry extremely loudly for over an hour. Her dad spent most of that time with her, talking to her and trying to calm her down. After an hour, I asked him if he could please tell her to be more quiet because the other members of the household were trying to go to sleep.\nMy question is....how do I as the girlfriend, handle this? He did not like that I asked her to be quiet. We have a rule that if she is having bad behavior, and can't calm down in 5 minutes, he takes her out of the house because her yelling doesn't stop for a long time and is very upsetting to everyone in the household. I would like to ask him to do this with this kind of situation as well. Is this a reasonable request? His thought was that she shouldn't be made to calm down, because everyone handles being upset in a different way. But, she was literally sobbing and wailing very loudly.\nMy other question is should she have been told that if she wouldn't have lied, this wouldn't have happened? She has a history of lying and of not accepting responsibility for her actions. My boyfriend became very upset with me when I brought this up. He was being very sympathetic and understanding to her. I feel like he was giving her negative attention, and being an over indulgent parent by not putting his foot gown and saying, \"you can't carry on like this, even though you are upset\". Please let me know how we can handle these situations better.\nI am contacting you for help with adult AS. I am taking initiative to pre screen potential therapists to help my current boyfriend get therapy and help with Adult AS.\nHe has seen many therapists, but it seems like they aren’t really helping him with his problems. They don’t seem to understand how his (undiagnosed) AS would affect therapy approaches. For example, he may not share enough in therapy session and I’m assuming an AS therapist would recognize that is part of the AS and employ strategies to get information from him that helps with treatment. Sometime he tunes out when he is processing something heavy or that he doesn’t want to hear necessarily, or he gets distracted and I’m hoping an As therapist would recognize that and get that he may need repeated something for example, if this is happening.\nHe is currently suffering from depression that appears clinical in nature as well as reoccurring negative thoughts about something specific that has been worrying him about our relationship. Today he told me these reoccurring thoughts happen during all waking hours unless he watches TV, he never gets a break from them and they make him feel like he is going crazy. As his girlfriend, I am extremely concerned that he cannot get relief from these thoughts and that the therapists he is seeing are unable to help him with his problems. Therefore, I am taking initiative to try and help him find better therapy options, because I want to see him someone who can better help him get to the bottom of things and help him with the challenges he is facing. He really needs an advocate that will help him go deep to figure things out and not just assume therapies are working well, without seeing changes or getting supporting feedback from him in that regard.\nHere are some questions I am trying to ask in advance to find the right people to help us with this. As you may know, insurance for these therapies are not often available. We don’t have a lot of money to go from therapist to therapist to find the right person and are hoping prescreening will help.\nI recently downloaded your e-book and listened to your talks and your information is by far the most helpful I have been able to find to date. It's very accurately describes my situation as an NT wife married to a very probable AS husband. I think you for taking the time to write this and sharing your insights as well as the experiences of many of your clients. It has really helped me understand the last 32 years of our marriage and get a grasp on how to move forward.\nOne area that is of primary concern to me, that I did not see addressed, is stimming. I believe that is the behavior my husband is showing through constant vocal singing, repetition of words, shouting out, as well as slapping himself in the chest and general nervous activity. It is very loud and disruptive to our household and it is often a relief when he is not at home. I think there may be a level of Tourette's syndrome as well.\nI did some searches on the Internet and could not find anything that really describes his behavior. Most of what I found was flapping or children's behavior. I understand that it is a release of nervous tension but I am really trying to find some strategies to help him stop this behavior as it is extremely frustrating and builds my resentment in dealing with it daily. A lot of it is embarrassing as well and sounds childish to me.\nHe usually does this when close family members are around and will reign himself in if he is around other people besides us. When we are home it is constant. He also has a lot of anger, mostly at himself, and blows up at unimportant things, it is as if he has a ton of negative energy inside him that need to get out and stimming is one outlet.\nI will try to build my acceptance of it, but I also would just like him to stop especially the loudest and most annoying portions. Would you have any resources you could point me to?", "answers": ["Because his roommate smokes."], "length": 8501, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "6065487485ac8c59b14aeb4bfb6c0cc1c26203d0ab1d3b1b"}
{"input": "How does the specific-heat ratio affect the average motion of the bubble?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Specific-heat ratio effects on the interaction between shock wave and heavy-cylindrical bubble: based on discrete Boltzmann method\nPublish Date: May 29, 2023\nAuthor List: Yanbiao Gan (from School of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Hebei Key Laboratory of Trans-Media Aerial Underwater Vehicle, North China Institute of Aerospace Engineering), Yudong Zhang (from School of Mechanics and Safety Engineering, Zhengzhou University)\n\nFigure\n\nFigure 1: Research orientation and tasks of DBM.\nFigure 2: Sketch of D2V16 model.The numbers in the figure represent the index i in Eq. (3).\nFigure 3: The computational configuration of the shock-bubble interaction.\nIn the figure, results from odd rows are experimental, and the even rows indicate DBM simulation results.The typical wave patterns and bubble's main characteristic structures are marked out in the figures.Numbers in the pictures represent the time in µs.Schlieren images of DBM results are calculated from the density gradient formula, i.e., |∇ρ|/|∇ρ| max , with |∇ρ| = (∂ ρ/∂ x) 2 + (∂ ρ/∂ y)2 .At t = 0µs, the incident shock wave impacts the upstream interface, and subsequently generates a transmitted shock (TS) propagating downstream in the bubble and a reflected shock wave moving upward in ambient gas.The incident shock wave travels downstream contin-\nThe definitions and the corresponding physical meanings of the common TNE quantities in DBM, where the operator ∑ ix,iy indicates integrating over all the fluid units and multiply the unit area dxdy.From a certain perspective, the TNE strength is increasing; While from a different perspective, the TNE strength, on the other hand, may be decreasing.It is one of the concrete manifestations of the complexity of non-equilibrium flow behavior.\nFigure 4: Snapshots of schlieren images of the interaction between a shock wave and a heavy-cylindrical bubble.The odd rows represent experimental results from Ref. [31] with permission, and the even rows are DBM simulation results.The typical wave patterns and the bubble's main characteristic structure are marked out in the figures.Numbers in the picture represent the time in µs.\nFigure 5: The temporal variations of length and width of the bubble.The symbols represent DBM results and the lines are experimental.The definition of the length and the width of the bubble can be seen in the illustration.Experimental results are obtained from Fig. 12, in Ref. [31] with permission.\nFigure 6: Density contours and particle tracer images at three different moments (i.e., t = 0.07,t = 0.11, and t = 0.16) with various specific-heat ratios.The odd rows represent density contours, and the even rows are tracer particle images.\nFigure 9: Vorticity contours at t = 0.134, with various specific-heat ratios.The arrows in the vorticity image point out the apparent difference between case γ = 1.4 and case γ = 1.09.\nFigure 11: Density contours (first row) and mixing degree M (second row) at several typical moments.\nFigure 13: (a) Temporal evolution of D * 3,1 and D * 4,2 .(b) Temporal evolution of D * 2 and D * 3 .Lines with different colors represent the cases with various specificheat ratios.\nThe development of schemes for checking TNE state, extracting TNE information and describing corresponding TNE effects in DBM.\n\nabstract\n\nSpecific-heat ratio effects on the interaction between a planar shock wave and a two-dimensional heavy-cylindrical bubble are studied by the discrete Boltzmann method. Snapshots of schlieren images and evolutions of characteristic scales, being consistent with experiments, are obtained. The specific-heat ratio effects on some relevant dynamic behaviors such as the bubble shape, deformation process, average motion, vortex motion, mixing degree of the fluid system are carefully studied, as well as the related Thermodynamic Non-Equilibriums (TNE) behaviors including the TNE strength, entropy production rate of the system.\nSpecifically, it is found that the influence of specific-heat ratio on the entropy production contributed by non-organized energy flux (NOEF) is more significant than that caused by non-organized momentum flux (NOMF). Effects of specific-heat ratio on entropy production caused by NOMF and NOEF are contrary.\nThe effects of specific-heat ratio on various TNE quantities show interesting differences. These differences consistently show the complexity of TNE flows which is still far from clear understanding.\n\nIntroduction\n\nThe applications of shock-accelerated inhomogeneous flows (SAIFs) are of significant value in biomedicine, energy utilization, and astrophysics fields, including but not limited to scenarios such as the impact of shock waves on kidney stones, the interaction between shock waves with foams, the impacting of detonation wave with burning flames in supersonic combustion systems, the formation of supernova remnants, etc .\nShock-bubble interaction (SBI) is one of the most fundamental problems in the research of SAIFs. Its applications and academic research are interdisciplinary. Generally, there are two kinds of problems encountered in SBI research: (i) The geometry of shock waves, the shape of material interfaces, and the structure of container are complex in the actual scene.\nThey will result in various wave patterns and significantly affect the flow morphology and bubble's evolution. (ii) There usually exist multi-physics coupling problem in the engineering application of SBI. Such as the supersonic combustion machines. When the shock waves passing through the reactants, it may lead to phase transition and chemical reactions, making the flow morphology more complex and inducing small structure (or fast-changing pattern) .\nIn an underwater explosion experiment, the interaction between shock waves and bubbles may refer to the cavitation and annihilation effects. The other scene is the inertial confinement fusion (ICF), in which the laser ablation, electron heat conduction, self-generated electromagnetic field, radiation, and many other factors may complicate the investigation of hydrodynamic instabilities .\nCommonly, research on SBI mainly includes three methods: theoretical derivation, experiment, and numerical simulation. As a fundamental research method, theoretical research can provide a clear understanding of physical processes. In 1960, Rudinger et al. developed a theory that permits computing the response of bubbles to accelerations .\nIn order to describe the formation and evolution processes of vortex structure quantitatively, many scholars have developed circulation models . However, theoretical works provide limited information. Meanwhile, in the late stage of SBI evolution, the bubble deformation and flow morphology dominated by the developed Richtmyer-Meshkov instability (RMI) and Kelvin-Helmholtz instability (KHI) are difficult to be predicted accu-rately.\nAs the research method closest to engineering application, the experimental results are often regarded as standard results to verify the rationality and accuracy of theoretical and numerical works. To study the SBI process accurately, the scholars have made a series of improvements to experimental equipment or technique, including the generation techniques of different types of shock waves, interface formation methods, schlieren facilities, and image recognition techniques .\nAmong these, two of important and valuable works are performed by Ding et al.. Based on the soap film technique, they formed kinds of initial interfaces with different curvatures through the wire-restriction method and captured the wave patterns and interface evolution with high-speed schlieren photography .\nOther works, such as evolutions of a spherical gas interface under reshock conditions , developments of a membrane-less SF 6 gas cylinder under reshock conditions , and interactions of a cylindrical converging shock wave with an initially perturbed gaseous interface , are also performed by many other scholars.\nHowever, we know that the experimental studies mainly depend on the experimental platform. When studying some complex and demanding condition problems, it takes much work to build the experimental platform. In this situation, numerical simulation research becomes an option. Generally, there are three kinds of physical modeling methods (or models) for SBI numerical research, i.e., the macroscopic, mesoscopic, and microscopic modeling methods.\nMost of the existing numerical researches on SBI are related to the macroscopic modeling methods (such as the Euler and Navier-Stokes (NS) models) based on the continuous hypothesis (or equilibrium and nearequilibrium hypothesis) . For example, presented the computational results on the evolution of the shock-accelerated heavy bubbles through the multi-fluid Eulerian equation .\nThere also exist a few SBI works based on the mesoscopic modeling method, such as the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo method . The microscopic modeling methods such as the Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, is capable of capturing much more flow behaviors but restricted to smaller spatiotemporal scales because of its huge computing costs.\nIn the numerical research on SBI, three points need to be concerned. (i) Investigation of kinetic modeling that describes the non-continuity/non-equilibrium flows. Most of the current researches are based on macroscopic models. However, there exist abundant small structure (and fast-changing patterns) behaviors and effects such as the shock wave, boundary layer, material defects, etc.\nFor cases with small structures, the mean free path of molecules cannot be ignored compared to the characteristic length, i.e., the non-continuity (discreteness) of the system is pronounced, which challenge the rationality and physical function of the macroscopic models based on the continuity hypothesis.\nFor cases with fast-changing patterns, the system dose not have enough time to relax to the thermodynamic equilibrium state, i.e., the system may significantly deviate from the thermodynamic equilibrium state. Therefore, the rational-ity and physical function of the macroscopic models based on the hypothesis of thermodynamic equilibrium (or near thermodynamic equilibrium) will be challenged.\n(ii) Improvement of method that describes the evolution characteristics of bubbles and flows morphology. Most of the studies describe bubble characteristics and flows morphology from a macroscopic view. The mesoscopic characteristics such as the kinetic effects which help understand the kinetic process, are rarely to be studied.\n(iii) Further studies of effects of specific-heat ratio on SBI process. The specific-heat ratio is an essential index for studying the compressibility of the gas. Research from Igra et al. has shown that the differences in the specific-heat ratio of bubbles would cause various wave patterns and pressure distribution inside the bubbles during the interaction process .\nBesides, many works on hydrodynamic instability have also demonstrated the importance of investigating the specific-heat ratio effect . Among these, Chen et al. investigated the specific-heat ratio effects on temperature gradient and the TNE characteristics of compressible Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) system .\nFor the above three points, in this work we apply the recently proposed discrete Boltzmann method (DBM) . The Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) research has two complementary branches . One aims to work as a kind of new scheme for numerical solving various partial differential equation(s). The other aims to work as a kind of new method for constructing kinetic model to bridge the macro and micro descriptions.\nThe two branches have different goals and consequently have different rules. The current DBM is developed from the second branch of LBM and focusing more on the Thermodynamic Non-Equilibrium (TNE) behaviors that the macro modeling generally ignore. It breaks through the continuity and near-equilibrium assumptions of traditional fluid modeling, discards the lattice gas image of standard LBM, and adds various methods based on phase space for checking, exhibiting, describing and analyzing the non-equilibrium state and resulting effects.\nMore information extraction technologies and analysis methods for complex field are introduced with time. The numerical simulation includes three parts, as shown in Fig. . (1) Physical modelling, (2) Algorithm design, (3) Numerical experiments and analysis of complex physical fields. The research of equation algorithm corresponds to the part (2) of the above three parts.\nThe DBM aims at parts (1) and (3) of the three mentioned above. It belongs to a physical model construction method rather than a numerical solution for the equations. The tasks of DBM are to: (i) Ensure the rationality of the physical model (theoretical model) and balance the simplicity for the problem to be studied; (ii) Try to extract more valuable physical information from massive data and complex physical fields.\nBased on the coarse-grained modeling method of nonequilibrium statistical physics, the DBM aims to solve the following dilemma: (i) The traditional hydrodynamic modelings are based on the continuous hypothesis (or near-equilibrium hypothesis). They only concern the evolution of three conserved kinetic moments of the distribution function, i.e. the density, momentum and energy, so their physical functions are insufficient.\n(ii) The situation that the MD can be used is restricted to too small spatial-temporal scales. The physical requirement for the modeling is that except for the Hydrodynamic Non-Equilibriums (HNE), the most related TNE are also needed to be captured. Theoretically, the Boltzmann equation is suitable for all-regime flows, including the continuum regime, slip regime, transition regime, and free molecule flow regime.\nBased on the Chapman-Enskog (CE) multiscale analysis , through retaining various orders of Kn number (or considering different orders of TNE effects), the Boltzmann equation can be reduced to the various orders of hydrodynamic equations. They can be used to describe the hydrodynamic behaviors, i.e., the conservations of mass, momentum and energy , in corresponding flow regimes.\nBecause what the traditional hydrodynamic equations describe are only the conservation laws of mass, momentum and energy. Consequently, it should be pointed out that, the information lost in the traditional hydrodynamic equations increases sharply with increasing the Kn number. With increasing the Kn number, to ensure the describing capability not to decrease significantly, the more appropriate hydrodynamic equations should be the Extended Hydrodynamic Equations (EHEs) which include not only the evolution equations of conserved kinetic moments but also the most relevant nonconserved kinetic moments of distribution function.\nFor convenience of description we refer the modeling method that derives EHEs from the fundamental kinetic equation to Kinetic Macroscopic Modeling (KMM) method. It is clear that, the complex process of CE expansion is necessary and the simulation is still based on the macroscopic equations in KMM. As a comparison, the DBM is a kind of Kinetic Direct Modeling (KDM) method.\nIn DBM modeling, the CE analysis is only used to quickly determine which kinetic moments should keep values unchanged, the final EHEs are not needed, and the simulation is not based on the complicated EHEs. As the TNE degree of the flow to be described rises gradually, the complexity of the derivation process and difficulty of numerical simulation in the KMM method increase sharply.\nHowever, in the DBM method, to describe flows in a one-order more deeper depth of TNE, only two more related kinetic moments need to be added. Since without needing to derive and solve the EHEs, as the TNE degree deepens, the complexity of the DBM approach increases much slower than that of KMM method.\nThe core step in DBM modeling is to provide a feasible scheme for detecting, describing, presenting, and analyzing TNE effects and behaviors beyond traditional macroscopic modeling. Based on the non-equilibrium statistical physics, we can use the non-conservative moments of ( f − f eq ) to describe how and how much the system deviates from the thermodynamic equilibrium state and to check corresponding effects due to deviating from the thermodynamic equilibrium.\nThe non-conservative moments of ( f − f eq ) open a phase space, and this space and its subspaces provide an intuitive geometric correspondence for describing complex TNE system properties. The development of schemes for checking TNE state, extracting TNE information and describing corresponding TNE effects in DBM are seen in Table .\nActually, this set of TNE describing methods has been applied in many kinds of complex fluid systems such as hydrodynamic instability system , combustion and detonation systems , multiphase flow system , plasma system , etc. Besides the scheme for detecting, describing, presenting, and analyzing TNE effects and behaviors, the DBM incorporates other methods for analyzing the complex physical field.\nOne of them is the tracer particle method. The introduction of the tracer particle method makes the gradually blurred interface appear clearly . The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 shows Year Scheme for investigating TNE effects and behaviors Before 2012 Two classes of LBMs did not show a significant difference in physical function.\n2012 Use the non-conservative moments of ( f − f eq ) to check and describe TNE . This is the starting point of current DBM approach. 2015 Open TNE phase space based on non-conservative moments of ( f − f eq ) and define a TNE strength using the distance from a state point to the origin. This is the starting point of the phase space description method .\n2018 Extend the distance concepts in phase space to describe the TNE difference/similarity of TNE states and kinetic processes . 2021 Further extend the phase space description methodology to any set of system characteristics . the modeling method. Then, the numerical simulations and results are presented in Section 3, which includes two subsections.\nSection 4 concludes the paper. Other complementary information is given in the Appendix.\n\nModel construction\n\nBased on the Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) singlerelaxation model, a two-fluid DBM with a flexible specific-heat ratio is presented in this part. From the origin Boltzmann equation to a DBM, four fundamental steps are needed: (i) Simplification and modification of the Boltzmann equation according to the research requirement.\n(ii) Discretization of the particle velocity space under the condition that the reserved kinetic moments keep their values unchanged. (iii) Checking the TNE state and extracting TNE information. (iv) The selection/design of the boundary conditions.\n\nSimplification and modification of the Boltzmann equation\n\nAs we know, the collision term in the original Boltzmann contains high dimensional distribution functions. Therefore, the direct solution to it needs too much computing consumption. The most common method to simplify the collision operator is to introduce a local equilibrium distribution function ( f eq ) and write the complex collision operator in a linearized form, i.e., the original BGK collision operator − 1 τ ( f − f eq ), where τ is the relaxation time .\nThe original BGK operator describes the situation where the system is always in the quasi-equilibrium state. Namely, it characterizes only the situation where the Kn number of the system is small enough and f ≈ f eq . The currently used BGK operator for non-equilibrium flows in the field is a modified version incorporating the meanfield theory description .\nBased on the above considerations, the simplified Boltzmann equation describing the SBI process is where the two-dimensional equilibrium distribution function is ) where ρ, T , v, u, I, R, and η are the mass density, temperature, particle velocity vector, flow velocity vector, the number of the extra degrees of freedom including molecular rotation and vibration inside the molecules, gas constant, and a free parameter that describes the energy of the extra degrees of freedom, respectively.\nThe specific-heat ratio is flexible by adjusting parameter I, i.e., γ = (D + I + 2)/(D + I), where D = 2 represents the two-dimensional space.\n\nDiscretization of the particle velocity space and determination of f σ ,eq i\n\nThe continuous Boltzmann equation should be discretized for simulating. Specifically, the continuous velocity space can be replaced by a limited number of particle velocities. So that the values of continuous kinetic moments can be obtained from the summation form of kinetic moments. In this process, it requires the reserved kinetic moments, which are used to characterize the system behaviors, keep their values unchanged after discretizing the velocity space.\nNamely, f the reserved kinetic moments. According to the CE analysis, f can be expressed by f eq . Therefore, in the process of discretization, the reserved kinetic moments of f eq should keep their values unchanged, i.e., where i represents the kind of discrete velocities and α (α = x or y) is the direction in cartesian coordinate.\nTo simulate the interaction between two different fluids, a two-fluid DBM should be constructed. Based on the singlerelaxation model, the discrete two-fluid Boltzmann equation can be written as : where σ represents the types of material particle and f σ ,eq i = f σ ,eq i (ρ σ , u, T). In two-fluid DBM, the macroscopic quantities of the mixture and each component are\nwhere ρ σ and u σ are the mass density and flow velocity of the component σ , respectively. ρ and u represent the mass density and flow velocity of the mixture, respectively. There exist two kinds of temperature (internal energy) definitions in two-fluid DBM because the definition of temperature (internal energy) depends on the flow velocity to be chosen as a reference.\nThe first definition is by choosing the velocity of the mixture to be a reference, i.e., So that the expressions of temperature of component σ and mixture are where We can also choose the flow velocity of component as a reference, i.e., , where u σ is the flow velocity of component σ . The corresponding definitions of temperature for component σ and the mixture are\nwhere ∆E * I is It is clear to see that these two definitions of temperature for mixture are the same, but for temperature of component σ are different. We choose the first definition in this manuscript. To solve the Eq. ( ), it is necessary to determine the values of f σ ,eq i . Its values depend on the reserved kinetic moments which characterize the main system behaviors.\nIn DBM modeling, the CE multiscale analysis is used to determine quickly the reserved kinetic moments. Specifically, when constructing a DBM which only the first order term of Kn number is retained (i.e., only the first order TNE effects are retained), seven kinetic moments should be reserved, i.e., the M 0 , M 1 , M 2,0 , M 2 , M 3,1 , M 3 , M 4,2 .\nTwo more kinetic moments ( M 4 and M 5,3 ) are needed when the second order TNE is considered . However, it should be noted that the function of CE analysis in DBM modeling is only to determine the kinetic moments that need to be preserved. Whether or not to derive the hydrodynamic equations does not affect the DBM simulation.\nThe kinetic moments used in our physical modeling are shown in the Appendix B. Their expressions can be obtained by integrating v and η with continuous-form f eq . For better understanding, the Appendix C gives the two-fluid hydrodynamic equations recovered from the Boltzmann equation. The kinetic moments in Appendix B can be written in matrix form, i.e., C • f σ ,eq = fσ,eq , (\nwhere C is the matrix of discrete velocity and feq represents the kinetic moments. A proper discrete velocity model is needed to confirm the values of f σ ,eq i . The f σ ,eq can be obtained by solving the inverse matrix, i.e., f σ ,eq = C −1 • fσ,eq , where C −1 is the inverse matrix of C. It is very convenient to obtain the inverse matrix of C through some mathematical softwares such as Mathematica, etc.\nThe D2V16 model is chosen in this paper, its sketches can be seen in Fig. . The specific values of D2V16 are given in the following equations: where \"cyc\" indicates cyclic permutation and c is an adjustable parameter of the discrete velocity model. The sketch of η in D2V16 is η i = η 0 for i = 1 − 4, and η i = 0 for i = 5 − 16.\n\nChecking the TNE state and extracting TNE information\n\nMany physical quantities can characterize the degree of TNE in a fluid system, such as relaxation time, Kn number, viscosity, heat conduction, the gradients of macroscopic quantity, etc. They are all helpful to characterize the TNE strength and describe the TNE behaviors of a fluid system from their perspectives.\nBut it is not enough only relying on these quantities. Besides the above physical quantities describing the TNE behaviors, in DBM modeling, we can also use the non-conservative moments of ( f − f eq ) to characterize the TNE state and extract TNE information from the fluid system. Fundamentally, four TNE quantities can be defined in a firstorder DBM, i.e., ∆ σ * 2 , ∆ σ * 3,1 , ∆ σ * 3 , and ∆ σ * 4,2 .\nTheir definitions can be seen in Table , where v * i = v i − u represents the central velocity and u is the macro flow velocity of the mixture. Physically, ∆ σ * 2 = ∆ σ * 2,αβ e α e β and ∆ σ * 3,1 = ∆ σ * 3,1 e α represent the viscous stress tensor (or non-organized momentum flux, NOMF) and heat flux tensor (or non-organized energy flux, NOEF), respectively.\nThe e α (e β ) is the unit vector in the α (β ) direction. The later two higher-order TNE quantities contain more condensed information. Specifically, and it indicates the flux information of ∆ σ * 2 . To describe the TNE strength of the whole fluid system, some TNE quantities contained more condensed information are also defined, i.e.,\nOther TNE quantities can be defined based on specific requirements. All the independent components of TNE characteristic quantities open a highdimensional phase space, and this space and its subspaces provide an intuitive image for characterizing the TNE state and understanding TNE behaviors . It should be emphasized that: (i) The TNE strength/intensity/degree is the most basic parameter of non-equilibrium flow description; And any definition of non-equilibrium strength/intensity/degree depends on the research perspective.\n(ii) The physical meaning of D * m,n is the TNE strength of this perspective. (iii) From a certain perspective, the TNE strength is increasing; While from a different perspective, the TNE strength, on the other hand, may be decreasing. It is normal, one of the concrete manifestations of the complexity of non-equilibrium flow behavior.\nStrictly speaking, those TNE intensity and effect descriptions that do not account for the research perspective are not correct. Do not explain the research perspective, the corresponding is not dependent on the research perspective.\n\nNumerical simulations and results\n\nIn this section, we first validate the DBM code by comparing the DBM results with experimental results. Then, the effects of specific-heat ratio on the dynamic process and TNE behaviors on SBI are investigated.\n\nComparison with experimental results\n\nIn the following part, we use a first-order two-fluid DBM to simulate the interaction between a planar shock wave with a 2-D heavy-cylindrical bubbles, and compare the DBM results with the experimental results from Ref. . The computational configuration can be seen in Fig. . In a flow field which is filled with Air, there is a static bubble composed of 26% Air and 74% SF 6 .\nA shock with Ma = 1.2 would pass through the bubble from left to right. The initial conditions of ambient gas are ρ 0 = 1.29kg/m 3 , T 0 = 293K, p 0 = 101.3kPa. Ignoring the pressure difference between interior gas and ambient gas, the initial parameters of the bubble are ρ bubble = 4.859kg/m 3 , p bubble = 101.3kPa,\nand T 0 = 293K. For simulating, these actual physical quantities should be transferred to dimensionless parameters. This process can refer to the Appendix A. The dimensionless conditions of macroscopic quantities of the fluid field in initial time are (ρ, T, u x , u y ) bubble = (4.0347, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0), (ρ, T, u x , u y ) 1 = (1.3416,\n1.128, 0.3616, 0.0), (ρ, T, u x , u y ) 0 = (1.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0), where the subscript \"0\" (\"1\") represents downstream (upstream) region. In two-fluid DBM code, the distribution function f Air is used to describe the ambient gas, i.e., Air. The f bubble characters the bubble which is a mixture that composed of Air and SF 6 .\nThe grid number is N x × N y = 800 × 400, where the N x and N y are grid number in x and y direction, respectively. This grid size has passed the mesh convergence test. The below results also show that it is sufficient to meet the requirements of the following research problem. Other parameters used for the simulation are: c = 1.0, η Air = η bubble = 10.0,\nI Air = 3, I bubble = 15, ∆x = ∆y = 1.2 × 10 −4 and ∆t = 1 × 10 −6 . The viscosity effect is feeble compared to the shock compression effect, so it does not significantly affect the deformation of the bubble. Therefore, in this part, the relaxation time τ is set sufficiently small. The inflow (outflow) boundary condition is used in the left (right) boundary, and the periodic boundary is adopted in the y direction.\nThe first-order forward difference scheme is used to calculate the temporal derivative, and the second-order nonoscillatory nonfree dissipative scheme is adopted to solve the spatial derivative in Eq. ( ) . Two quantitative comparisons between experimental results and DBM simulations are shown in the following part, including snapshots of schlieren images and evolutions of characteristic scales for the bubble.\nThe first is shown in Fig. non-organized momentum flux (NOMF) uously to form a diffracted shock (DS). As TS propagates, it will split into three branches due to the considerable pressure perturbations caused by the gradual decay of the DS strength . Afterward, as shown in the subfigure at about t = 128µs, two high pressure regions (ROH) generate because of the interaction of these branches.\nSubsequently, at about t = 148µs, the two ROHs meet, causing the shock focusing. On the one hand, at about t = 168µs, the shock focusing causes the generation of downstream-propagating second transmitted shock (STS) and upward-moving rarefaction wave. On the other hand, it will produce high pressure region inside the bubble, which later leads to a jet structure, as shown at about t = 288µs.\nAt about t = 428µs, due to the deposited vorticity, there will produce a pair of counter-rotating vortexes at the pole region of the bubble. The further development of the vortex pair and the effect of viscosity decrease the amplitude of the jet. Finally, the jet structure disappears. The second quantitative comparison is the interface structure described by the length and width of the bubble, as shown in Fig. .\nThe experimental data are extracted from Fig. , in Ref. . Quantitative agreements between DBM simulation and experimental results are seen. For the profile of bubble width, there are mainly two stages. At an early time (t < 150µs), it decreases to a minimum value because of the shock compression effect.\nAfter the shock wave passes through the bubble (t > 150µs), the developed vortex pair caused by the deposited vorticity gradually dominates the growth of bubble width. Different from width evolution, the temporal variation of length experiences three stages. In the early stages (t < 150µs), it decreases quickly due to the shock compression effect.\nThen, the jet structure emerges, which results in a growth in length (150µs < t < 250µs). Because the upstream interface moves faster than the downstream interface, the bubble length would decrease at 250µs < t < 500µs. In the third stage (t > 500µs), the vortex pair forms and then leads to a continuous development of bubble length.\nBoth the length and width experience oscillations in the later stages due to complex wave patterns. The quantitative agreements between DBM simulation and experimental results indicate the following two facts: (i) the order of TNE considered in the current DBM is sufficient, (ii) the choosing of discrete velocities and spatial-temporal steps and simulation parameters like the relaxation times is suitable for characterizing the deformation of bubble, wave patterns, main characteristics of flow morphology.\n\nEffects of specific-heat ratio on SBI\n\nThe major of current works on SBI research have not focused on specific-heat ratio effects. In this part, the simulation parameters are fine-adjusted based on the parameters in Section 3.1 to highlight the influence of specific-heat ratio. Through adjusting the extra degree of freedom I, five cases with various specific-heat ratios of the bubble are simulated, i.e., γ = 1.4,\n1.28, 1.18, 1.12, and 1.09. Two kinds of analysis methods, including tracer particle method and two-fluid model, are used to characterize qualitatively the macroscopic behaviors such as the shape, deformation process, mixing degree, etc. The related TNE behaviors are also studied.\n\nEffects of specific-heat ratio on jet shape, deformation process, and average motion\n\nWe first observe the specific-heat ratio effect on the bubble shape from the view of density contour and images of particle tracer visually. As shown in Fig. , pictures with three typical moments are plotted, i.e., t = 0.07,t = 0.11, and t = 0.16. The odd rows represent density contours and the even rows are tracer particle images.\nIt can be seen that the specific-heat ratio significantly affects the length and shape of the jet structure. The smaller the specific-heat ratio is, the stouter the jet structure can be seen. The reason is that the specific-heat ratio significantly changes the propagation speed of shock waves and wave patterns inside the bubble.\nThe specific-heat ratio also influences the vortex structure in early stage but contributes little effects to it in later stage. In the later stage, for cases with different specific-heat ratios, the differences in vortex pairs are almost invisible. Then, the effects of specific-heat ratio on deformation process are analyzed.\nShown in Fig. are the evolutions of characteristic scales which used to describe the bubble size, i.e., width and length. It can be seen that the smaller the specific-heat ratio of bubble, the smaller the bubble width and length. For the fluid with smaller specific-heat ratio, it is easier to be compressed.\nTherefore, the characteristic scales of bubbles with smaller specific-heat ratio tend to be compressed smaller. It can also be seen that the case with the largest specific-heat ratio reaches the minimum characteristic scales firstly. The reason is that the shock wave propagates faster in case with larger specific-heat ratio.\nThrough the method of tracer, information on the average motion of the bubble is easy to obtain. Shown in Fig. are the average position and average velocity of the bubble, with different specific-heat ratios. It is found that, in the shock compression stage (t < 0.03), the effect of specific-heat ratio contributes little to the average motion.\nHowever, when the shock wave passes through the bubble (t > 0.03), a larger specific-heat ratio speeds up the average motion of the bubbles. The reason is that the bubbles with smaller specific-heat ratio need more energy to compress their size, so their translational energy is smaller.\n\nEffects of specific-heat ratio on vortex motion\n\nVorticity is one of the most important physical quantities in describing the vortex motion. In the 2-D case, the vorticity can be calculated by the following equation: The positive (negative) value of ω represents the positive (negative) direction along the z axis. Vorticity contours at t = 0.134, with various specific-heat ratios, are shown in Fig. .\nThe discernable difference between cases with various specific-heat ratios can be observed. The arrows in the vorticity images point out the obvious differences around the interface between case γ = 1.4 and case γ = 1.09. That is to say, there exists influences of specific-heat ratio on the rotational motion of the bubble.\nThe strength of vorticity is described by circulation Γ, where Γ = ∑ ω∆x∆y. Γ + = ∑ ω| ω>0 ∆x∆y is the positive circulation and Γ − = ∑ ω| ω<0 ∆x∆y represents the negative circulation. Figure shows the temporal evolution of circulations on SBI process. It can be seen that the values of Γ are equal to zero all the time because the values of Γ + and Γ − are the same.\nBut they point in the opposite direction. In the shock compression stage (t < 0.03), the specific-heat ratio effect contributes little to the circulation of the bubble. When the shock wave sweeps through the bubble (t > 0.03), the specific-heat ratio affects the value of circulation obviously. The cases with a smaller specific-heat ratio experiences a larger range of amplitude of change, which is caused by its good compressibility.\n\nEffects of specific-heat ratio on mixing degree\n\nThe mixing process is a fundamental research content on SBI. In two-fluid DBM, the mixing degree at each fluid unit can be defined as M = 4 • M A M B , where M σ represents the mass fraction of component σ . The higher the value of M, the higher the mixing amplitude. Images of density (first cow) and mixing degree M (second row) at several typical moments are shown in Fig. .\nAs can be seen, the mass mixing occurs in the region where two media contact. In addition, the mixing degree M g described the whole fluid field can be defined where the symbol \"−\" indicates integrating the M σ over the whole fluid field and then dividing the grid size N x • N y . Shown in Fig. is the temporal evolution of the global mixing degree M g .\nAs can be seen, temporal profiles of the global mixing degree show two stages: t < 0.03 and t > 0.03. When t < 0.03, there is almost no difference between cases with various specific-heat ratios. But for t > 0.03, the stronger the specific-heat ratio effect, the larger the mixing degree. Actually, there are mainly two indicators that measure the global mixing degree: the amplitude of mixing and the area of the mixing zone between two fluids.\nAt the stage t > 0.03, the shock compression dominates the mix by enhancing the mixing amplitude and increasing the area of the mixing zone simultaneously. In this stage, the specific-heat ratio effect contributes little to the mix. However, when the shock passes through the bubble, the deformation of interface and the evolution of vortex core both significantly raise the area of the mixing zone.\nAs can be seen in Fig. , the smaller specific-heat ratio of bubble, the stronger global mixing degree of fluid field. Intuitively, for the fluid with smaller specific-heat ratio, it is easier to deform and compress, which is beneficial for the fluid mixing. It can also be explained by the diffusion formula, i.e., .\nThe specific-heat ratio affects both the temperature T and the gradient of density simultaneously. Therefore, these two aspects comprehensively influence the material diffusion between the two fluids. Due to the complex reflected shock wave, the global mixing degree shows a tendency for oscillating growth.\n\nEffects of specific-heat ratio on TNE behaviors\n\nThe investigation of TNE behaviors is of great importance for understanding the kinetics process on SBI. These TNE quantities describe the fluid system deviating from the thermodynamic state from their own perspectives. The effects of specific-heat ratio on global TNE strength, i.e., D * 2 , D * 3 , D * 3,1 , and D * 4,2 , are shown in Fig. .\nIt can be seen that the effects of specific-heat ratios on various TNE quantities are different. Theoretically, the influence of specific-heat ratio on the non-equilibrium effect is reflected in two aspects: transport coefficient and macroscopic quantity gradient. For example, on the one hand, the specific-heat ratio reduces heat conductivity, while on the other hand, it enhances the temperature gradient.\nTherefore, the effect of specific heat ratio on NOEF is the comprehensive result of the competition between the two aspects. As shown in Fig. , the smaller the specific-heat ratio, the stronger strength of D * 3,1 . It indicates that the specific-heat ratio increase the strength of D * 3,1 by raising the heat conductivity .\nFor the strength of D * 3 , as shown in Fig. (b), it is seen that it decreases as the specific-heat ratio becomes small. The reason is that a smaller specific-heat ratio decreases the temperature gradient. Effects of specific-heat ratio on D * 4,2 show two-stage. In the shock compression stage (t < 0.03), the smaller specificheat ratio, the larger the strength of D * 4,2 .\nBut the situation is reversed at the stage t > 0.03. For strength of D * 2 , the specificheat effects are more significant in later stage.\n\nEffects of specific-heat ratio on entropy production rate\n\nand entropy production The concepts of entropy are commonly used in complex flows . In DBM, there are two kinds of en- tropy production rates, i.e., ṠNOEF and ṠNOMF . They are key factors in compression science field. The former is induced by temperature gradient and the NOEF (∆ * 3,1 ). The latter is affected by velocity gradient and the NOMF (∆ * 2 ).\nThe entropy production rates are defined by the following formulas : Integrating the ṠNOEF and ṠNOMF over time t, the entropy generations over this period of time are obtained, i.e., S NOEF = t 0 ṠNOEF dt and S NOMF = t 0 ṠNOMF dt. Plotted in Fig. ) and 14(b) are the temporal evolution of ṠNOMF and ṠNOEF , respectively.\nThe evolution of entropy generation rate is related to two aspects: (i) the propagation of the shock wave, and (ii) the deformation of the bubble. The former generates a macroscopic quantity gradient, and the latter makes the contact interface wider, longer, and deformed. Depending on the location of the shock wavefront, there exist two critical moments in this SBI process: (i) at around t = 0.03, the shock wave just sweeps through the bubble, and (ii) at t = 0.06, the shock wave exits the flow field.\nTherefore, the temporal evolution of the entropy production rate shows three stages, i.e., t < 0.03, 0.03 < t < 0.06, and t > 0.06. At the stage t < 0.03, the shock compression stage, the shock effects compress the bubble. It generates the large macroscopic quantity gradients, resulting in a quick increase of ṠNOMF .\nAt around t = 0.03, the shock wave passed through the bubble. So the values of ṠNOMF decreases. The values of ṠNOMF would continue to decrease due to the gradually wider contact interface caused by the diffusion effect. At around t = 0.06, the shock wave comes out of the flow field so that the values of ṠNOMF drops rapidly.\nIn the third stage, i.e., t > 0.06, because of the diffusive effect, the general trend of ṠNOMF is downward. However, it shows an oscillatory trend due to the influence of various reflected shock waves. The specific heat ratio indirectly changes the value of ṠNOMF by changing the velocity gradient. The smaller the specific-heat ratio, the larger ṠNOMF .\nDifferent understanding can be seen in Fig. , where the temporal evolution of ṠNOEF is plotted. In the first stage (t < 0.03), cases with different specific-heat ratios show various trends. At the stage where the bubble deformation is not very large, i.e., 0.03 < t < 0.06, values of ṠNOEF fluctuate near the average value.\nIn the third stage (t > 0.06), evolutions of ṠNOEF in cases with larger specific-heat ratios show an apparent growing tendency. Differently, the values of ṠNOEF in cases with smaller specific-heat ratios remain almost unchanged. The influence of specific heat ratio on the ṠNOEF , similar with the effect on NOEF, is also affected by the heat conductivity and the temperature gradient.\nIt can be seen that, except for the case of γ = 1.09, the larger the specific-heat ratio, the higher entropy production rate ṠNOEF . The temporal evolutions of ṠNOEF of case γ = 1.09 and case γ = 1.12 are very similar. Consequently, the specific-heat ratio increases the ṠNOEF by raising the temperature gradient.\nFurther understanding can be seen in Fig. , where the entropy productions over this period are plotted. For convenience, the sum and difference between S NOMF and S NOEF are also plotted in the figure. The variation range of S NOEF is larger than that of S NOMF . It indicates that the influence of specific-heat ratio on S NOEF is more significant than that on S NOMF .\nEffects of specific-heat ratio on entropy production caused by NOMF and NOEF are contrary. Specifically, it can be seen that the entropy production contributed by NOMF increases with re- duced specific-heat ratio. But the entropy production caused by NOEF first reduces with decreasing specific-heat ratio and then approaches to a saturation value.\nThe S NOEF in case γ = 1.09 is almost the same with it in case γ = 1.12. When the specificheat ratio γ is smaller than a threshold value γ c (γ c ≈ 1.315), the entropy production induced by NOEF is more significant than that caused by NOMF. However, in the case of γ > γ c , the situation reverses. The temporal evolution of the total entropy production (S NOMF +S NOEF ) is similar to the S NOEF profile.\nThe difference between S NOMF and S NOEF increases with decreasing specific-heat ratio.\n\nConclusions\n\nSpecific-heat ratio effects on the interaction between a planar shock wave and a 2-D heavy-cylindrical bubble are studied by a two-fluid DBM which has a flexible specific-heat ratio and includes several schemes for analyzing the complex physical fields. Besides the HNE that NS easily describes, the DBM pays more attention to the related TNE that NS is not convenient to describe.\nFirst, both the snapshots of schlieren images and evolutions of characteristic scales from DBM simulation are compared with those from experiment. The quantitative agreements between them indicate the following two facts: (i) the order of TNE considered in the current DBM is sufficient, (ii) the choosing of discrete velocities, spatial-temporal steps, and simulation parameters like the relaxation times are suitable for the following physical researches.\nThen, five cases with various specific-heat ratios are simulated. Several analysis methods for complex physical fields, including the description scheme of TNE behaviors, tracer particle method, and two-fluid model, are used to characterize the effects of specific-heat ratio on the bubble shape, deformation process, average motion, vortex motion, mixing degree of the fluid system, TNE strength, and entropy production.\nSpecifically, for bubble shape, bubbles with different specific-heat ratios display various jet structures. The smaller the specific-heat ratio is, the stouter the jet structure can be seen. For the case with smaller specific-heat ratio, the fluid is easier to be compressed. So, the characteristic scales of bubbles with smaller specific-heat ratio tend to be compressed smaller.\nFor the bubble, the smaller the specific-heat ratio, the slower average motion. In the shock compression stage, the specific-heat ratio contributes little effects to the vortex motion. Differently, after the shock passes through the bubble, it significantly influences the vorticity around the interface and the corresponding amplitude of circulation due to the development of KHI.\nThe larger the difference in specific-heat ratio between the bubble and ambient gas, the higher the degree of material mixing. Effects of specific-heat ratio on various TNE quantities are different. These differences consistently show the complexity of TNE flows which is still far from a clear understanding.\nIn addition, it is found that the temporal evolution of the entropy production rates ṠNOMF and ṠNOEF both show three stages because of the influence of the shock wave location. The smaller the specific-heat ratio, the larger the velocity gradient, which indirectly enhances the strength of ṠNOMF . The specific-heat ratio increases the ṠNOEF by raising the temperature gradient.\nThe influence of specific-heat ratio on S NOEF is more significant than that on S NOMF . Effects of specific-heat ratio on entropy production caused by NOMF and NOEF are contrary. Specifically, the entropy production contributed by NOMF increases with reduced specific-heat ratio. But the entropy production caused by NOEF first reduces with decreasing specific-heat ratio and then approaches to a saturation value.\nWhen the specific-heat ratio γ is smaller than a threshold value γ c (γ c ≈ 1.315), the entropy production induced by NOEF is more significant than that caused by NOMF. However, in the case of γ > γ c , the situation reverses. The fundamental research in this paper helps to understand the interaction mechanism between shock waves and bubbles in ICF, supersonic combustors, underwater explosions, etc.\nThe effects of viscosity and heat conduction on the interaction between shock waves and bubbles will be studied in the following work. where the subscript \"m, n\" means that the m-order tensor is contracted to n-order tensor. According to the CE multiscale analysis, the Boltzmann-BGK equation can be reduced to the hydrodynamic equations.\nIn the following part, the derivation process from Boltzmann-BGK equation to a two-fluid hydrodynamic equation are shown. More details can see the reference presented by Zhang et al. . The discrete Boltzmann equation for component σ is (C.1) In Eq. C.1 there are two equilibrium distribution functions, i.e., f σ ,seq = f σ ,seq (ρ σ , u σ , T σ ) and f σ ,eq = f σ ,eq (ρ σ , u, T ).\nFor convenience, S σ i is defined as We perform the CE expansion around the f σ ,seq . That is, the distribution function f σ i can be expanded as where ε is a coefficient referring to Knudsen number. The partial derivatives of time and space can also be expanded to Substituting the above four equations into Eq.\n(C.1), we can obtain (C.6) When retaining to ε terms, the following equation is obtained When retaining to ε 2 terms, we can obtain where M 2,αβ ( f σ ,(1) ) = ∑ i v iα v iβ f σ ,(1) i and M 3,1,α ( f σ ,(1) ) = . Substituting Eq. (C.14) into the above three equations, and replacing the time derivatives with the space derivatives, we obtain It should be noted that the ability to recover the corresponding level of macroscopic fluid mechanics equations is only part of the physical function of DBM.\nThe corresponding to the physical functions of DBM is the EHEs, which, in addition to the conserved moments evolution equations corresponding to the three conservation laws of mass, momentum and energy, also includes some of the most closely related nonconserved moments evolution equations. We refer the EHEs derivation based on kinetic equation to as KMM.\nThe necessity of the expanded part, the evolution equations of the relevant non-conserved moments, increases rapidly as increasing the degree of non-continuity/non-equilibrium. As the degree of non-continuity/non-equilibrium increases, the complexity will rapidly make KMM simulation studies, deriving and solving EHE, impossible.", "answers": ["The specific-heat ratio affects the average motion of the bubble. The bubbles with smaller specific-heat ratios have slower average motion."], "length": 8366, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "110688fd7522324ef26cbf3ec4f4b7ab29aa0b687aa1ade5"}
{"input": "What is the research opportunity that is mentioned?", "context": "My Aspergers Child: COMMENTS & QUESTIONS [for Feb., 2017]\nI emailed you a while back and you mentioned that I could email when I needed to. Thank you. I last wrote you in December that my son became involved in a dispute involving the local police. We have had 3 court dates. It keeps delaying due to not being able to come to an agreement. But the attorney, even though he was just vaguely familiar with Aspergers, has been very good with Craig. He has the compassion and excellence that is needed here. What started out very bad is turning into a good thing. It will probably take another 90 days or more.\nBut Craig is working hard. Too hard sometimes. He goes to therapy 3 times a week. Doing excellent. He's more focused and can calm down easier. He's got a lot on his plate but has support from his family. From his attorney. From therapy. And from his work.\nHe has been renting a room from a lady who has a son with ADHD. It is good for him. I'm a little worried though because since she smokes he wants to find his own place. With all the costs he has to balance it out financially. That is good. I can't help him more than I am which is good. He is stepping up and taking responsibility. He is listening much better.\nHe is going to have an evaluation today to get an accurate diagnosis. I understand that is a little difficult since he is an adult. Also the PTSD may cover it over. The attorney stated it would help to have the diagnosis.\nAware this is a long update, but thanks for reading. I am fighting much guilt still but I have a lot of peace now. My daughter and her 4 year old son also have Aspergers symptoms. So my life chapters may not close for a while. :-)\nMy name is Mac. I'm sure you're quite busy, so I'll get right to it I just wanted to pass on compliments on My Aspergers Child and your post, How to Implement the GFCF Diet: Tips for Parents of Autistic Children.\nMe and my wife absolutely loved it!\nI got a facebook message from him today begging to be able to come home saying he misses home and he will change. He says he will follow rules now. I stated to him the simple rules he has to follow which were - No weed in my house, or smoked in my house, coming home at curfew, going to school, no skipping, no drugs at school, and to drop the attitude of I am 17 I can do whatever I want.\nI have made it very clear that if I see any drugs in my home I will be calling the police, as well as if I see signs of it being sold by him I will report him. (He has never had selling amounts in my house, ... I believe it's being kept at his \"friends\" which of course I have no proof of....I just know it is not here.\nI know my battle is not over by a long shot, I am sure we will have more consequences and possibly another being kicked out, but I am going to think positive and hope that he learned some form of a valuable lesson here.\nThank you so much for the guidance, never in a million years did I ever think I'd be on this side, (the one needing the help, as I am the one who helps.)\nI am going to go back to the start of the program like I said earlier and keep notes close by for reference.\nThanks for all you do, helping us all with ODD children/teens\nI have a small company providing educational support services to a few families who have children with various disabilities in Ohio. One of the families has multiple adopted children of whom several have significant attachment disorders including RAD. As an experienced teacher and foster parent I have some experience in working with children who have extensive trauma backgrounds. However, I could use additional training. Also working with these children are two staff members with minimal background in attachment disorders who would also benefit from training primarily in behavior management. The primary caregiver to the children does a wonderful job managing their needs. In order to further develop team cohesion, I'm hoping to include her in any training as well.\nIs it possible to schedule such a training session with you? If so, please let us know what will work for you including time, place, and cost. Thank you for your assistance.\nI just listed to your tapes on dealing with an out of control, defiant teen. I'd like to ask your advice on a particular situation we have. Our 15 year old daughter is smoking pot almost every day at school. Because we had no way to control the situation, we told her, fine, go ahead and smoke weed. However, you will no longer receive the same support from us. You will not have your phone, lunch money to go off campus (she has an account at the school for the cafeteria she can use), and you will be grounded until you can pass a drug test. We will not be testing you except for when you tell us you are ready to be tested. She is now saying she's suicidal because she feels so isolated, yet she continues to smoke weed. In fact, she tried to sneak out last night but was foiled by our alarm system. For the particular drug test we have, I read it takes about 10 days of not smoking to pass the test. What would you do? Please advise.\nI am having a problem with my 18 year old son, Danny, with high functioning autism. We finally had him diagnosed when he was 16 years old. I always knew something was going on with him but the doctors misdiagnosed him as bipolar. It's been 2 years now and he will not accept his diagnosis. He won't talk about it and when I try to bring it up he gets very angry. I've tried telling him that it's not a bad thing, that there's been many, many very successful people with Aspergers. He won't tell anyone and refuses to learn about managing life with it. He once shared with me that the other kids at school use it as an insult, like saying someone is so autistic when they do something they don't approve of. So he doesn't want anyone to know. He's turned down services that could help him. He has a girlfriend, going on 8 months. He won't tell her and they're having problems arguing a lot and I wonder if it would help for her to know.\nI'm sad that he thinks it's a life sentence to something horrible instead of accepting, embracing it and learning about it more so he maybe can understand why he's struggling. I told him that he doesn't need to shout it out to the whole world but he won't even accept it himself.\nI don't know how to help him with it and because he's almost 19 I have limited control now. It's made my life easier knowing what we're dealing with and I think his life would be easier is he accepted it.\nPlease help me help him.\nI am a clinical psychologist in NYC who now has several (!!) children I see who have RAD. In 20 years of practice, I’d seen only one case. Now, I have at least three children with this. I have no training, per se, in working with this children though I know about setting structure, consistency, etc. I do a lot of work with parents about parenting. I work primarily within the school setting in a charter school whose mission is to educate children on the autism spectrum in a mainstream setting. We use Michelle Garcia Winner’s social thinking program with our ASD kids. I also work with gen ed kids in the school who are at-risk; the school is in the inner city from where the majority of our non-ASD kids live.\nIt would have been so much easier to mention to my adult son that I think (I know he does, but want to ease into the subject)\nhe has Asperger's when we were living together two years ago. He has since moved to Tennessee working in his field of interest\nwhich is 3-D printing and software development. I am so happy for him that he has found his way into a job that he truly enjoys\neven though he's socially isolated.\nHe's not diagnosed and does not know he has it. How I know is his classic symptoms being sensory issues (fabric feeling like sandpaper)\ncommunication difficulties, meltdowns and much more. Throughout his childhood I just felt he was a bit different. Nothing major stood out and time\njust passes, misdiagnosis of ADHD, low frustration, etc. We've talked about his ADHD numerous times (which I now know he doesn't have).\nIt's so much easier to communicate with him now that I know he has Asperger's. I keep it \"slow and low\" in talking, with long moments\nof silence and then we connect. It's really too bad that Asperger's got a diagnostic code back in the 90's, yet all the so called doctors,\nphysiologist's, etc, didn't know how to diagnose it. Too bad.\nThere seems to be no one answer to \"should I tell my adult son he has Asperger's\" from a few specialists I asked. He is typical Asperger,\ncomplicated, highly intelligent (high IQ), anxiety at times, socially isolated, hard to make friends. Not knowing how he will react is the hard part.\nHow will he be better off knowing he has it? Do I wait to tell him in person, or ease into it with him over Skype? He likes direct, honest, concrete communication.\nWhy is this so hard for me? Maybe because no one know's if he is going to be better off knowing or not. Do you know if people are better off\nknowing? I try to get up the courage to just let him know, then I back down.\nI have been searching the web looking for advice and came upon your site. I am trying to read blogs, websites, books, and articles to help guide me. I was so happy when you said that I could ask you a question. My husband and I are struggling with my 27 year old son who lives with us.\nKyle is the youngest of 4 sons. He is a college graduate but never could find the \"right\" job. He has always been quiet and never had a lot of friends. Two years ago, his girlfriend broke up with him. Kyle had an online gambling addiction and was using pot all the time. After the breakup, Kyle was very depressed and started using heroin and finally told my husband he was using. He is now seeing a psychiatrist who has him on suboxone and antidepressants. He is also seeing a psychologist weekly for counseling but it does not seem to be helping.\nLast October,, Kyle lost his job, got drunk, and was agitated and came home , fighting with us, damaging our home and being verbally abusive. My other son , age 32, who also lives with us called the police and Kyle got arrested. He is currently in the family court system. He went through an anger management course and now is in substance abuse classes. Kyle continues to verbally abusive to me and blame me for everything. He says he \"hates me \"and calls me terrible names. At times, he pushes my husband and intimidates me. My husband and I are so upset. We just hired an attorney for him because since he has been going to these classes, he is getting more depressed and not getting better. Kyle continues to drink while taking his meds prescribed by the psychiatrist and then he has his \"moods.\" My husband and I have met once with the psychiatrist just to give him background information when Kyle started with him.\nAt this point, we do not know what to do. We never thought at this stage of our life, we would be supporting and spending our retirement money on adult children. I do not know why Kyle hates me, I could not have been a better mom. My husband and I have no life and just do not know what it the right path we should take. Kyle does not want anything to do with us. He spends all his time in his room playing football online.We have tried tough love versus caring and love and understanding. Do you have any advice for me?\nThis whole ODD and ADHD is killing me as a parent. I work in the field of adult psych and addictions so I am well educated. I have been dealing with my teen being like this for almost 3 years and I totally lost my cool today with my 17-year-old son to the point I told him he is out of the house. He can never simple rules, comes and goes as he pleases sometimes doesn't come home, just recently back in school from several suspension for drug related... I am just so exhausted. He has made me hate life, hate being a parent and sometimes I just feel like not even being here. I bought your program in hopes to it would help, I am at week three and I feel things are getting worse... what am I doing wrong??\nMy partner hasn't been diagnosed yet but I know he has aspergers ..day to day is a struggle . I feel I'm going crazy with how he makes me feel.Feel let down constantly. He lies alot but I've been told they can't but I know he does.I just feel trapped and unloved.We have a 4yr old daughter together and my main worry with how he is that it will effect our daughter ; (his skills as a parent are so weak.He can't disapline at all.Feel so alone .he hides it well too.I just wondered if things will get worse? He's angry so quick in arguments.Scares me etc.I can't leave as he's the main bread winner and our daughter loves him to bits.Don't know why I'm writing this..Sorry if I'm going on and not making sense :(\nI wanted to let you know about a research opportunity for children, teens, and young adults with autism. I am studying the effects of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, and psychotherapy on helping people with autism develop subjective awareness of others.\nI am writing you to see if this might help someone in your practice, or to see if you might know of someone with autism who may benefit from participating in this study. The requirements of the study will be:\n1. A participant should be between 7-21 years of age and have a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder.\n2. The participant should enroll in an approved Jiu Jitsu Academy and attend at least two sessions a week for a period of six months.\n3. The participant should enroll in social skills groups, provided by my office or be in a steady psychotherapeutic relationship in your office, at least once a week, or minimally two to three times a month.\n4. The participant will be given a SRS (Social Responsiveness Scale) test at the beginning of the study, at three months, and again at six months.\nIf you know of anyone who might benefit from this novel approach to helping to develop social awareness in autism, please do not hesitate to contact me for further information.\nI have a 10 year old daughter who has outbursts with prolonged crying almost like tantrums that 2 year olds have when they cannot express themselves.\nI had her in therapy from age 6-8 years old for the same thing but I feel that the sessions didn't really help much.\nShe has severe sensitivities to light, sound, vibration, frequencies which trigger irritability and crying.\nWe changed her diet and tried getting her involved with activities but she is anti-social and prefers reading than being social. She is terrified of change even in daily routine (even that will trigger prolonged crying).\nIt frustrates me because I don't know what else to do with her behavior.\nI've tried acupuncture (she refused at the first session); she refuses massage too.\nShe is an honor-roll student at school and has very minimal issues at school but if she has had a bad day it does result in a tantrum or crying and defiance.\nHow can I get her tested for Asperger's Syndrome?\nLast night our 24 year old son with Aspergers told his dad and I that he is pulling out of the 4 college classes that he recetnly enrolled in because he has not been attending class or turning in his assignments. He paid $2800 (his own money) for tuition and I reminded him of this when he told us but it did not seem to bother him.\nThis is the 3rd time he has started college courses and has not completed them. (He also took some concurrent college classes while he was in high school that he failed). This is a son who basically had a 4.0 grade point average through 10th grade and got a 34 on the ACT the first time he took it.\nWith the news that he was once again not sticking with college courses I did not sleep well. When I got up this mornning I began looking online for help in how to deal with his situation. I found your \"Launching Adult Children With Aspergers\" and purchased it. Most of what is included are things we have done or did with our son throughout his life. I was hoping for more help so I am emailing you now in hopes of more specific ideas.\nWe noticed some things with our son, Taylor, as a yound child but as we had not heard of Aspergers at that time we just did what we thought would help him. As a toddler and a child at pre-school he generally went off on his own to play. When I talked to his pre-school teacher about my concerns (that I was worried he would end up a hermit) she said she did not see him being a loner and that he seemed to interact fine with others in many situations. We worked with him on making eye contact when talking with others. We explained different emotions in people's faces and mannerisms to help him know how to interact with others. We discussed the fact that people would say things that did not mean what they souneded like - such as \"I'm so hungry I could eat a horse\". As we did these things he worked hard to better understand communication with others.\nDuring his 4th grade year I had a teacher from the gifted program ask me if I had ever heard of Aspergers. I told her that I had not heard of it. She proceeded to read me some of the charateristics and so many of them described my son. So we had him tested by the school district during the summer between 4th and 5th grade and they did find that he had Aspergers but that he was high functioning. We then set him up with and EIP which stayed with him until his sophomore year. We pulled him from it at that time because we had moved and the new district was requiring him to take one class a day that was a study class. This reduced the number of required classes he could take and he was doing fine with his studies at the time.\nIt was during the 2nd half of his Junior year that we noticed some of his grades going down. Then during his Senior year is when he started skipping classes and not doing assignments. We had not realized it before then but we soon became aware that he was addicted to gaming. He would go to the library or somewhere else on campus and play games on the computer rather than go to class. It was also at this time that he began lying about his actions (so as not to get in trouble).\nBased on his grades and his ACT score he received offers from colleges for full tuition scholarships. He chose the college where he had taken concurrent classes during his high school years. But he proceeded to skip class and not turn in assignments so he lost his scholarship and quit attending college. During this time he was only able to find employment through an employment agency where he was mostly sent to manuel labor type jobs (which is not something he enjoys but he did it anyway). It was during this time that at one place had gone to on numerous occasions he was told if he came late one more time they would tell the emplyment agency they did not want him to come there anymore. (This seemed to make an impression on him because he has continued to be reliable and responsbile at his places of employment).\nAt 19 1/2 he left to serve a 2 year full-time mission for our church. He completed his mission successfully. (I don't think it was without some struggle, stress and depression, but he was able to pick himself up and move on from those times).\nWhen he came home he started working for the employment agency again but began looking for employment elsewhere. He got a job at a local Chick Fil-A where he has worked for 3 years. He started college again shortly after he came home but as before it was short lived. He did finish out the semester but failed most of the classes due to his skipping class and not turning in assignments. When he skipped class he would usually sleep in his car.\nTaylor's life consists of working (where to the best of our knowledge) he does well, he is reliable and his employer likes him. When he comes home from work he either sleeps or plays video games or other games - such as kakuro. He spendes most of his time in the basement where his bedroom is and this is where he games. Taylor owns his own car, bought his own laptop and very rarely spends money. He pays us $200 /month to still live at home, unloads the dishwasher on a regular basis and does the weekly garbage. However, his room is a mess and he only cleans his bathroom when I tell him he needs to clean it.\nTaylor used to read quite a bit and loved to learn. It has just been in his adult years that he has not read as much - I think because of his gaming addiction. Taylor goes to church on a regular basis but sleeps through the main meeting. In Sunday class room settings he stays awake - I think because he is able to particpate in discussions.\nTaylor has only had 2 real friends since entering Junior High school. And as of now he only keeps in contact with one of them who still lives in Georgia. We have lived in Utah since the summer of 2007 and he has never had a friend to do things with since we have lived here. He has two younger siblings, a brother 22 and a sister 20. They love Taylor and spend time with him when they are home. They are both at college and doing well.\nThroughout Taylor's school years he has seen a counsleor on a fairly regular basis. One summer during junior high he attended a weekly class where he interacted with other kids with Aspergers. We did see a lot of change in him from this group. After he returned from his mission he went to see a counselor for a short period - this counselor tried to help him with some social skills. His dad and I went with him the first 3 or 4 times but we found out that after we quit going with him he only went a few more times and then scheduled appointments but did not show a couple of the times. We only found this out when a bill came for a \"no show\" appointment.\nI don't know if this is too much information but were are in dire need of help for him. In the information that we purchased from you you mentioned that you do coaching for Aspergers adults. I don't know if you can help us but I thought I would check with you just in case.\nAlas I think I have found your information too late to save my marriage but I am hoping to save myself.\nI am currently going through a very very painful separation after a 27 year relationship with my husband whom I am convinced has aspergers syndrome. It is a long and painful story and I am desperately trying to process it all alongside dealing with a very conflictual separation. My partner is angry non communicative and totally dismissive of me and our long shared history.\nHe walked out last year after I discovered he had been visiting massage parlours and developed a relationship with an illegal Chinese escourt whom he subsequently moved in with. He had been seeing this woman behind my back for over 18 months. The pain of all this indescribable and his dismissal of my pain and very existence beyond belief.\nLeading up to this I had been battling anxiety and depression which my husband found very hard to cope with.\nOver the years of our relationship I knew something was off but I just could not put my finger on it. I often felt a complete lack of validation and empathy. Communication was also difficult as my husband was defensive and unwilling to look at issues in our marriage.\nPlease Mark could you help me validate some of this pain and try and make dense of 27 years of my life without drowning in fear guilt and despair about my future.\nThank you for listening and your site.\nI have had problems with drunkenness, being late for school, not handing in school work, buying pot from a dealer etc. I chose to focus on the drinking and did the grounding then (grounding happened 3 times). I also stopped sleep overs at friends 100%. I have stopped handing out money for no reason or even buying treats like chocolate.\nI did lose it one evening (and didn't do the poker face) when I was trying to unplug the internet at midnight on a school night (she’s always late for school so I am trying to get her to sleep at a reasonable hour). I was physically stopped and pushed around so I slapped my daughter (it was not hard). This ended up with her saying she didn’t want to come home (the next day after school). By this stage, I also had enough and didn’t go get her. I thought I am not begging. You will run out of money soon. It was quite a relief to have some peace. Daughter’s Dad was in town (from another country) and called a family meeting with the counsellor. To cut a long story short, daughter and her counsellor put it on the table that daughter wants to go live somewhere else (with her friends family) because of the stress at home with me (we live on our own) (i.e. stricter rules and her bucking up against it).\nI didn’t really want this but made a compromise that daughter would go there Tues morning – Friday afternoon as the friend is an A student whereas my daughter is failing. They do the same subjects. I made the decision at the end of the day based on what is good for me – some time away from the daughter. I also thought of your book when the child went to live with the grandparents – daughter will dig her own hole over at the friend’s house. They have a week day no going out policy which made me think it is OK. I went and discussed with them the problems experienced (drinking, pot, late nights, not handing in work)\nI am also trying to follow the let go of school thing per your book. I find it really difficult to remain calm when I can see daughter on her phone and watching series (when I have her on the weekends) when I know there are projects due. I hired her a private tutor once a week for help with a subject. The tutor has just fired my daughter for not handing in work and being not committed. It’s not the first time private tutoring has not been appreciated. The school give me a report back on a Friday as to whether everything is handed in. The deal is – if the work is not handed in – no pocket money and no Friday night out). Her school is a \"progressive\" school and there are no repercussions for her being late or not handing in work. I would change schools if I could but there are only 8 months left of school (she turns 18 in August).\nWe have just completed the first week and beginning week two of your material. We are agreeing with your take and see our son and ourselves in most of what you are saying. Prior to finding your material and starting your program we had been having extreme out of control behaviors and had to call the police because he was breaking things in our house and pushed my husband. This happened three weeks ago. After that incident we took away privileges ie. PS4, phone (which had already been taken for a few days), and friends. So, last week while doing your program he already didn’t have privileges and has continued with poor behavior – name calling, throwing things, slamming doors. We are not sure when to give privileges back. He has been given the privilege of playing with friends on occasion. His 13th birthday is tomorrow. This past weekend, for his birthday my husband and he went boar hunting. Of course we debated about it but decided to go ahead since it was his bday. We are cooking some of the meet on the grill tomorrow night for his bday and inviting a couple of his friends over for a cookout. No more gifts other than cards and balloons. We are wondering if we should go ahead and give him his privileges back and not sure how to do it. Last Friday morning we attempted to talk giving him a date to return privileges and that conversation ended with him getting angry but he gathered from our conversation that he is getting his stuff back on his bday. We are starting week 2 assignments today but not sure how to handle what was already in place. Of course, we aren’t seeing the respect and responsibility we are looking for but realize it has been a long time. We were wanting him to pay for his phone and thought it might be a good time to introduce that idea. Allowing him to earn his phone. We expect that he will be angry with this idea and not sure how to implement.\nMy son and myself are interested in a inpatient Aspergers program. We line in Calif which is preferable. My son is very high functioning and was diagnosed dry late. He was eight years old. He has never been in or attended a full day of class. Partially due to depression,anxiety, and trouble with his ADHD also his aversion and being bullied and of course his Aspergers. He will not attend his freshmen year due to surgery on both Achilles' tendons from walking on his toes. With physical therapy he should be ready by his sophomore year! We all feel he needs in patient therapy to give him the tools on how to work with his issues in a structured setting and a place that will give him tools for the rest of his life.\nIn my utter desperation to find a way to get some help for my daughter's increasingly challenging behaviour I trawled the internet to see if I could find some strategies that would provide specific methods on dealing with teenagers with Asperger's syndrome. When I came across your website, I couldn't believe that every statement you made was exactly what I have been going through with my daughter. She has just turned 14 last week, and was diagnosed with Asperger's/ Autism Spectrum Disorder 15 months ago. I have already been seeing a child psychologist for the past five months, however the methods she has been advising have not been very effective.\nOur main difficulty with our daughter is her overwhelming obsession to use her cell phone (and to a lesser extent her laptop) constantly. Without any restriction, she will be on it every minute of the day, and will be awake until the early hours every day. We have tried to incorporate her input around rules as to when she has to give in her phone, but she is unwilling to compromise on a time that she should give it to us, believing that she should have unlimited use. I believe she is unable to do any adequate study or homework, as she is constantly having to look at the phone. We have tried to put rules in place that she has to give in her phone and laptop on school nights at 22:15. If she is able to do this then she is given rewards, and if she doesn't then she knows that there will be consequences. The consequence has been restricted use the following day. However, this is usually where we fail, because taking her phone away from her results in tantrums, screaming, and even threatening to harm herself. This behaviour is relentless to the point where the whole family becomes deeply distressed, and inevitably results in her getting the phone back.\nThis obsession is affecting her schoolwork, and more severely her eyesight. She has become very shortsighted, and her eyesight continues to deteriorate as a result of holding the phone or laptop very close, and mostly in the dark without any lights on. My husband and I have a constant battle on our hands daily, in all areas of discipline with our daughter, but our main concern is that we have been unable to find a way to minimise this obsessive behaviour centred around her phone and laptop. Please can you provide some strategies that can help us specifically with this problem.\nFirst of all, I thank you for developing this program and I am only at the first stage of assignment 1. I have loads of books I have bought, attended psychiatrists for my son and myself, family therapy, occupational therapy, begged and prayed for change but have been dealing with behavioural issues for so long I am definitely exhausted and resentful.\nI am a mum to a 15 yr old boy with ASD, dyslexia, OCD and ODD. Sorry to focus on the labels but just to give you an idea of what I am dealing with. I also have a 13 yr old son whom finds his brother’s behaviours difficult, embarassing and challenging. My husband whom is not in great health ( he had a cerebral aneurysm clamped two years ago and has two further aneurysms that are inoperable so endures fatigue, headaches and stress). We have however a pet cat that is very social and a calming influence in the home! I was fortunate enough to have loving parents but I lost both my mum and dad in 2008 and 2015. My inlaws are elderly and quite directly say they are too old to help us so it feels we are alone in dealing with the issues we have.\nI am desperate for change as the household is one of stress and anger and I feel all the control lies in my son Patrick’s hands. I am hopeful your programme can make life better for all of us but I wonder if it is too early to ask you two questions?\nThe first lies with what to do when Patrick goes into my other son Brendan’s room and will either turn on a light when he is sleeping, yell when he is on his phone or create some disturbance. He will not leave the room when asked to do so and the situation always escalates into yelling and Brendan attempting to physically remove him. This happens regularly and always ends badly with doors slamming, my husband being woken and myself in tears feeling the lack of control and also I admit I seem to think “Why me?” which rationally I know is of no help.\nThe second problem is leaving the house for school. Patrick refuses personal hygiene (either morning or night) and any request to even brush his teeth is fraught with swearing and abuse. If I can get him to shower, he will watch the water roll down the drain and turn up the water really high temp (mu husband has had to turn down the thermostat on the hot water service) without so much as getting wet. My husband leaves for work at 6am but I leave at 745 to work as a nurse in a busy outpatients department in the Alfred Hospital (Melbourne). My work is my sanity as it is a paid break from home but most days I am late which is causing considerable stress and anxiety not to mention my responsibility to do my job. Patrick simply refuses to leave the house and as much as I am tempted to just walk out and leave I know the house would be left unlocked and wonder if Patrick would even attend school. The time I need to leave is not negotiable but Patrick uses this to his advantage and seems to delight in stressing me out and subsequently speeding to work in a frazzled mess.\nThe interesting and frustrating element in all of this is that although he is socially isolated at school (he has no friends) and academically challenged his behaviour at school is not a problem. He is quiet and his teachers report he does his best and is compliant and well mannered. It is like a Jekyll and Hyde situation where another side of him at home is so angry and abusive yet at school this behaviour does not happen.\nI’m Jackie, I now work primarily as a freelance tech writer, after starting my career in software development and moving on to teach IT to young adults at a variety of colleges and schools.\nMy freelance work is pretty varied and looks at many aspects of the computer industry as a whole, and I’ve just recently completed a piece which gives help and advice to anyone wanting to become a game designer, which you can read here: http://www.gamedesigning.org/become-a-game-designer/. It highlights the hard work and effort it takes to get into such a role, and also how you can further your career and continue to learn and improve as you go. I hope you’ll agree it shows that starting work in the industry takes dedication and skill and that becoming a game designer isn’t just a fly-by-night job!\nIf you’d be interested in sharing a quick mention of my work on your blog that would be really wonderful and I’d appreciate the chance to get my work out there to a wider audience. Alternatively, I’d be happy to write a short blurb or paragraph or two (or a longer piece - just let me know) highlighting the key points because I think some of your readers might get a lot of value from it.\nMy son just turned 15 and is a freshman in high school. Although this is his first year in a general ed environment, he is struggling with behaviors in school. He has meltdowns and does not express why he would have them until much later. Once we all know what caused it, the school will accommodate him and try to \"change up\" things so as not to cause his meltdown. Once that is resolved, another issue comes up and causes him to melt down. He is a high functioning and academically does well, when he wants to do the work. We battle at home over homework. He does not care how it is done, as long as he hands it in. He thinks failing a test is ok, at least he took the test. Homework is never on his mind when he gets home from school. If I never prompt him, he would never open is backpack. He can be aggressive but is never intentionally trying to hurt anyone. He may push over a chair in school, but it is not directed at anyone. We know how that in itself could hurt someone who gets hit by it though. He is defiant in that he only wants to do what interests him. He does not go out by himself (still immature), or abuse alcohol or drugs and never curses. He is a very funny kid and very talented. His main problems are task avoidance and seeking attention. He can be disrespectful to adults in that he is \"cheeky\" with them, trying to be funny or cute. And he has no \"filters\".\nI’ve just finished reading your Living with an Aspergers Partner ebook. I found it so informative, thank you.\nYou offered some personal advise, and i wanted to run a situation past you and seek your input as to a strategy for what to do next.\nI’ve been seeing a guy for about 7 months now who I believe has Aspergers. I came to this conclusion months ago and I don’t think he realizes, (or acknowledges) although he is aware he has some traits.\nHe’s highly intelligent and successful, a pattern seeker, has a tendency to focus on the project to hand to the total exclusion of all else for as long sit takes (work or home) socially awkward (has learned coping strategies), sensitive to loud noise, high anxiety with control strategies, black and white thinking etc. He’s currently not working and I’ve seen a slow withdrawal over the last 6 weeks, including the need to ‘escape’ and leave a situation at least once.\nHe also has a bipolar ex overseas who has primary custody one daughter where there has been ongoing patterns of drama which has recently increased.\nOver the past couple of months (since stopping work and drama increase) I’ve gone from being ‘wonderful’ in his eyes to him now being sorry and not having the ‘urge’ to spend close/intimate time with me and offering friendship. Since he shared that with me in a message he’s stonewalled and has retreated to the safety of minimal messages and talks about not knowing what best to say and not being able to find the right words somehow.\nHe’s a good kind man who I feel is struggling. I’m concerned about his anxiety and possibly the risk of depression. I’m fairly resilient and whilst i’m disappointed he doesn’t want to pursue a relationship with me, i’m concerned for him and his well being. One of his very few close friends is also just leaving the country to live overseas.\nThe strategy I’ve used so far is simply to back off and give him space. I’ve asked to take him up on an original offer he made to talk but haven’t pushed it. I also haven’t been aggressive or accusatory in the few messages i’ve sent.\nAny advise you could give would be greatly appreciated,\nCarli who is 10 years old and has had behavioral issues her whole life. The other night she came home very upset after having a conflict with a friend. She was at her friend's house and her and her friend wanted to get on the computer and the older sister was using it. Carli made up a story that someone was at the door to get the older sister off the computer. Her friend didn't understand that she was making up a story to get the sister off the computer. She got excited that someone was at the door and ran downstairs to answer the door. In the process of getting the door, she fell and yelled at Carli. Carli became extremely upset. She was able to control her feelings at her friend's house, but when she came home, she proceeded to cry extremely loudly for over an hour. Her dad spent most of that time with her, talking to her and trying to calm her down. After an hour, I asked him if he could please tell her to be more quiet because the other members of the household were trying to go to sleep.\nMy question is....how do I as the girlfriend, handle this? He did not like that I asked her to be quiet. We have a rule that if she is having bad behavior, and can't calm down in 5 minutes, he takes her out of the house because her yelling doesn't stop for a long time and is very upsetting to everyone in the household. I would like to ask him to do this with this kind of situation as well. Is this a reasonable request? His thought was that she shouldn't be made to calm down, because everyone handles being upset in a different way. But, she was literally sobbing and wailing very loudly.\nMy other question is should she have been told that if she wouldn't have lied, this wouldn't have happened? She has a history of lying and of not accepting responsibility for her actions. My boyfriend became very upset with me when I brought this up. He was being very sympathetic and understanding to her. I feel like he was giving her negative attention, and being an over indulgent parent by not putting his foot gown and saying, \"you can't carry on like this, even though you are upset\". Please let me know how we can handle these situations better.\nI am contacting you for help with adult AS. I am taking initiative to pre screen potential therapists to help my current boyfriend get therapy and help with Adult AS.\nHe has seen many therapists, but it seems like they aren’t really helping him with his problems. They don’t seem to understand how his (undiagnosed) AS would affect therapy approaches. For example, he may not share enough in therapy session and I’m assuming an AS therapist would recognize that is part of the AS and employ strategies to get information from him that helps with treatment. Sometime he tunes out when he is processing something heavy or that he doesn’t want to hear necessarily, or he gets distracted and I’m hoping an As therapist would recognize that and get that he may need repeated something for example, if this is happening.\nHe is currently suffering from depression that appears clinical in nature as well as reoccurring negative thoughts about something specific that has been worrying him about our relationship. Today he told me these reoccurring thoughts happen during all waking hours unless he watches TV, he never gets a break from them and they make him feel like he is going crazy. As his girlfriend, I am extremely concerned that he cannot get relief from these thoughts and that the therapists he is seeing are unable to help him with his problems. Therefore, I am taking initiative to try and help him find better therapy options, because I want to see him someone who can better help him get to the bottom of things and help him with the challenges he is facing. He really needs an advocate that will help him go deep to figure things out and not just assume therapies are working well, without seeing changes or getting supporting feedback from him in that regard.\nHere are some questions I am trying to ask in advance to find the right people to help us with this. As you may know, insurance for these therapies are not often available. We don’t have a lot of money to go from therapist to therapist to find the right person and are hoping prescreening will help.\nI recently downloaded your e-book and listened to your talks and your information is by far the most helpful I have been able to find to date. It's very accurately describes my situation as an NT wife married to a very probable AS husband. I think you for taking the time to write this and sharing your insights as well as the experiences of many of your clients. It has really helped me understand the last 32 years of our marriage and get a grasp on how to move forward.\nOne area that is of primary concern to me, that I did not see addressed, is stimming. I believe that is the behavior my husband is showing through constant vocal singing, repetition of words, shouting out, as well as slapping himself in the chest and general nervous activity. It is very loud and disruptive to our household and it is often a relief when he is not at home. I think there may be a level of Tourette's syndrome as well.\nI did some searches on the Internet and could not find anything that really describes his behavior. Most of what I found was flapping or children's behavior. I understand that it is a release of nervous tension but I am really trying to find some strategies to help him stop this behavior as it is extremely frustrating and builds my resentment in dealing with it daily. A lot of it is embarrassing as well and sounds childish to me.\nHe usually does this when close family members are around and will reign himself in if he is around other people besides us. When we are home it is constant. He also has a lot of anger, mostly at himself, and blows up at unimportant things, it is as if he has a ton of negative energy inside him that need to get out and stimming is one outlet.\nI will try to build my acceptance of it, but I also would just like him to stop especially the loudest and most annoying portions. Would you have any resources you could point me to?", "answers": ["A study on the effects of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu and psychotherapy on people with autism."], "length": 8511, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "56514cd4cf8dac4f9081927e3ffaaca1ff1231198b7b16e9"}
{"input": "What is the purpose of an ICD?", "context": "Do you know the difference between V.T. and T.V?\nLike any exclusive club, heart disease has its own jargon, understandable only by other members of the club, particularly by cardiac care providers. For example, I remember lying in my CCU bed (that’s the Coronary Intensive Care Unit), trying to memorize the letters LAD (that’s the Left Anterior Descending, the large coronary artery whose 99% blockage had caused my MI (myocardial infarction – in my case, the so-called ‘widowmaker’ heart attack).\nTo help others needing simultaneous translation of this new lingo in your research or in your own medical records, here’s a helpful list of some of the most common acronyms/terms you’ll likely find around the cardiac ward.\nNOTE from CAROLYN: This entire patient-friendly, jargon-free glossary (all 8,000 words!) is also part of my book “A Woman’s Guide to Living with Heart Disease“ (Johns Hopkins University Press, November 2017).\nAA – Anti-arrhythmic: Drugs used to treat patients who have irregular heart rhythms.\nAblation – See Cardiac Ablation.\nACE Inhibitor – Angiotension Converting Enzyme inhibitor: A drug that lowers blood pressure by interfering with the breakdown of a protein-like substance involved in regulating blood pressure.\nACS – Acute Coronary Syndrome: An emergency condition brought on by sudden reduced blood flow to the heart. The first sign of acute coronary syndrome can be sudden stopping of your heart (cardiac arrest).\nAED – Automatic External Defibrillator: A portable defibrillator for use during a cardiac emergency; it can be used on patients experiencing sudden cardiac arrest by applying a brief electroshock to the heart through electrodes placed on the chest.\nAF or Afib – Atrial Fibrillation: An irregular and often rapid heart rate that can cause poor blood flow to the body. Afib symptoms include heart palpitations, shortness of breath, weakness or fainting. Episodes of atrial fibrillation can come and go, or you may have chronic atrial fibrillation.\nAFL – Atrial Flutter: A type of arrhythmia where the upper chambers of the heart (the atria) beat very fast, causing the walls of the lower chambers (the ventricles) to beat inefficiently as well.\nA-HCM – Apical Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Also called Yamaguchi Syndrome or Yamaguchi Hypertrophy, a non-obstructive form of cardiomyopathy (a disease of the heart muscle that leads to generalized deterioration of the muscle and its pumping ability) in which a portion of the heart muscle is hypertrophied (thickened) without any obvious cause although there may be a genetic link. It was first described in individuals of Japanese descent.\nAI – Aortic Insufficiency: A heart valve disease in which the aortic valve does not close tightly, leading to the backward flow of blood from the aorta (the largest blood vessel) into the left ventricle (a chamber of the heart).\nAIVR – Accelerated Idioventricular Rhythm: Ventricular rhythm whose rate is greater than 49 beats/min but less than 100 beats/min, usually benign. (Ventricles are the two main chambers of the heart, left and right).\nAngina (stable) – A condition marked by distressing symptoms typically between neck and navel that come on with exertion and go away with rest, caused by an inadequate blood supply to the heart muscle typically because of narrowed coronary arteries feeding the heart muscle. Also known as Angina Pectoris. Unstable angina (UA) occurs when fatty deposits (plaques) in a blood vessel rupture or a blood clot forms, blocking or reducing flow through a narrowed artery, suddenly and severely decreasing blood flow to the heart muscle. Unstable angina is not relieved by rest; it’s dangerous and requires emergency medical attention.\nAntiplatelet drugs – Medications that block the formation of blood clots by preventing the clumping of platelets (examples: Plavix, Effient, Brillinta, Ticlid, etc). Heart patients, especially those with implanted stents after PCI, are often prescribed dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) which includes one of these prescribed meds along with daily low-dose aspirin.\nAorta – The main artery of the body, carrying blood from the left side of the heart to the arteries of all limbs and organs except the lungs.\nAortic Stenosis: A disease of the heart valves in which the opening of the aortic valve is narrowed. Also called AS.\nAortic valve – One of four valves in the heart, this valve allows blood from the left ventricle to be pumped up (ejected) into the aorta, but prevents blood from returning to the heart once it’s in the aorta.\nAP – Apical Pulse: A central pulse located at the apex (pointy bottom) of the heart.\nApex – the lowest (pointy) tip of the heart that points downward at the base, forming what almost looks like a rounded point.\nApical Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (A-HCM): Also called Yamaguchi Syndrome or Yamaguchi Hypertrophy, a non-obstructive form of cardiomyopathy (a disease of the heart muscle that leads to generalized deterioration of the muscle and its pumping ability) in which a portion of the heart muscle is hypertrophied (thickened) without any obvious cause. There may be a genetic link. It was first described in people of Japanese descent.\nArrhythmia – A condition in which the heart beats with an irregular or abnormal rhythm.\nAS – Aortic Stenosis: A disease of the heart valves in which the opening of the aortic valve is narrowed.\nASD – Atrial Septal Defect: See Septal Defect.\nAtrial Flutter – A heart rhythm problem (arrhythmia) originating from the right atrium, most often involving a large circuit that travels around the area of the tricuspid valve (between the right atrium and the right ventricle (this is called typical atrial flutter). Less commonly, atrial flutter can also result from circuits in other areas of the right or left atrium that cause the heart to beat fast (called atypical atrial flutter).\nAtrial Septum, the membrane that separates the left and the right upper chambers of the heart (the atria).\nAtrium – A chamber of the heart that receives blood from the veins and forces it into a ventricle or ventricles. Plural: atria.\nAV – Atrioventricular: A group of cells in the heart located between the upper two chambers (the atria) and the lower two chambers (the ventricles) that regulate the electrical current that passes through it to the ventricles. Also Atrioventricular Block: An interruption or disturbance of the electrical signal between the heart’s upper two chambers (the atria) and lower two chambers (the ventricles). Also Aortic valve: The valve that regulates blood flow from the heart into the aorta.\nAVNRT – Atrioventricular Nodal Re-entry Tachycardia: a heart rhythm problem that happens when there’s an electrical short circuit in the centre of the heart, one of the most common types of SVT, most often seen in people in their twenties and thirties, and more common in women than in men.\nBAV – Bicuspid Aortic Valve: The most common malformation of the heart valves in which the aortic valve has only two cusps instead of three.\nBB – Beta Blocker: A blood pressure-lowering drug that limits the activity of epinephrine, a hormone that increases blood pressure.\nBBB – Bundle Branch Block: – A condition in which parts of the heart’s conduction system are defective and unable to normally conduct the electrical signal, causing an irregular heart rhythm (arrhythmia).\nBMI – Body mass index: A number that doctors use to determine if you’re overweight. BMI is calculated using a formula of weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared (BMI =W [kg]/H [m2]). Better yet, just click here to figure out your own BMI.\nBNP blood test – BNP (B-type Natriuretic Peptide) is a substance secreted from the ventricles or lower chambers of the heart in response to changes in pressure that happen when heart failure develops and/or worsens. The level of BNP in the blood increases when heart failure symptoms worsen, and decreases when the heart failure condition is stable.\nBP – Blood Pressure: The force or pressure exerted by the heart in pumping blood; the pressure of blood in the arteries. See also hypertension.\nBrS – Brugada Syndrome: Brugada syndrome is a genetic heart disease that is characterized by distinctively abnormal electrocardiogram (EKG/ECG) findings and an increased risk of sudden cardiac arrest.\nCAA – Coronary artery anomaly: A congenital defect in one or more of the coronary arteries of the heart.\nCABG – Coronary Artery Bypass Graft: A surgical procedure that reroutes blood flow around a diseased or blocked blood vessel that supplies blood to the heart by grafting either a piece of vein harvested from the leg or the artery from under the breastbone.\nCA – Coronary Artery: The arteries arising from the aorta that arch down over the top of the heart and divide into branches. They provide blood to the heart muscle.\nCAD – Coronary Artery Disease: A narrowing of the arteries that supply blood to the heart. The condition results from a plaque rupture/blood clot or spasm and greatly increases the risk of a heart attack.\nCardiac Ablation – A procedure performed by an Electrophysiologist (EP) – a cardiologist with specialized training in treating heart rhythm problems – that typically uses catheters — long, flexible tubes inserted through a vein in the groin and threaded to the heart — to correct structural problems in the heart that cause an arrhythmia. Cardiac ablation works by scarring or destroying the tissue in your heart that triggers an abnormal heart rhythm.\nCardiac Arrest – Also known as Sudden Cardiac Arrest: The stopping of the heartbeat, usually because of interference with the electrical signal that regulates each heartbeat (often associated with coronary heart disease). Can lead to Sudden Cardiac Death.\nCardiac Catheterization – An invasive procedure in which a catheter is inserted through a blood vessel in the wrist/arm or groin with x-ray guidance. This procedure can help provide information about blood supply through the coronary arteries, blood pressure, blood flow throughout the chambers of the heart, collection of blood samples, and x-rays of the heart’s ventricles or arteries. It’s typically performed in the cath lab during angiography.\nCardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) also called bi-ventricular pacemaker: an electronic pacing device that’s surgically implanted in the chest to treat the delay in heart ventricle contractions that occur in some people with heart failure.\nCardiac Tamponade – Pressure on the heart that occurs when blood or fluid builds up in the space between the heart muscle (myocardium) and the outer covering sac of the heart (pericardium). Also called Tamponade.\nCardiomyopathy – a chronic disease of the heart muscle (myocardium), in which the muscle is abnormally enlarged, thickened, and/or stiffened.\nCardioversion – A medical procedure in which an abnormally fast heart rate (tachycardia) or cardiac arrhythmia like atrial fibrillation is converted to a normal rhythm using electricity or drugs. Synchronized electrical cardioversion uses a therapeutic dose of electric current to the heart at a specific moment in the cardiac cycle. Chemical cardioversion uses medications to convert to normal rhythm.\nCath lab – the room in the hospital/medical clinic where cardiac catheterization procedures take place (for example, when a stent is implanted into a blocked coronary artery).\nCCB – Calcium Channel Blocker: A drug that lowers blood pressure by regulating calcium-related electrical activity in the heart.\nCDS – Cardiac Depression Scale: A scale that can help assess the effects of depression occurring as a result of a heart disease diagnosis.\nCHF – Heart Failure (also called Congestive Heart Failure): A condition in which the heart cannot pump all the blood returning to it, leading to a backup of blood in the vessels and an accumulation of fluid in the body’s tissues, including the lungs.\nCM – Cardiomyopathy: A disease of the heart muscle that leads to generalized deterioration of the muscle and its pumping ability.\nCO – Cardiac Output: The amount of blood the heart pumps through the circulatory system in one minute.\nCollateral arteries – These extra coronary blood vessels are sometimes able to bypass a blockage in an artery in order to supply enough oxygenated blood to enable the heart muscle to survive when in danger of being damaged because of blockage(s).\nCollateral arteries – Blood vessels that provide an alternative arterial supply of blood to an area of the heart that’s in danger of being deprived of oxygenated blood because of one or more blocked arteries.\nCongenital heart defect – one of about 35 different types of heart conditions that happen when the heart or the blood vessels near the heart don’t develop normally before a baby is born (in about 1% of live births). Because of medical advances that treat babies born with heart defects, there are now for the first time more adults with congenital heart disease than children.\nCongestive heart failure (CHF) – a chronic progressive condition that affects the pumping power of your heart muscle. Often referred to simply as heart failure, CHF specifically refers to the stage in which fluid builds up around the heart and causes it to pump inefficiently.\nCOPD – Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A lung disease defined by persistently poor airflow as a result of breakdown of lung tissue (known as emphysema) and dysfunction of the small airways.Often associated with smoking, it typically worsens over time.\nCoronary Microvascular Disease – A heart condition that causes impaired blood flow to the heart muscle through the small vessels of the heart. Also called Microvascular Disease or Small Vessel Disease.\nCoronary Reactivity Test – An angiography procedure specifically designed to examine the blood vessels in the heart and how they respond to different medications. Physicians use these images to distinguish different types of blood vessel reactivity dysfunction (such as Coronary Microvascular Disease).\nCostochondritis– the cause of severe chest pain, but NOT heart-related; it’s an inflammation of the cartilage that connects a rib to the breastbone.\nCoumadin – A drug taken to prevent the blood from clotting and to treat blood clots. Coumadin is believed to reduce the risk of blood clots causing strokes or heart attacks. See also Warfarin.\nCox Maze procedure – A complex “cut-and-sew” surgical procedure done to treat atrial fibrillation through a complicated set of incisions made in a maze-like pattern on the left and right atria (the upper chambers of the heart) to permanently interrupt the abnormal electrical signals that are causing the irregular heartbeats of Afib. See also: Mini-Maze.\nCP – Chest Pain (may also be felt as squeezing, pressure, fullness, pressure, heaviness, burning or tightness in the chest).\nCPR – Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation: An emergency procedure in which the heart and lungs are made to work by manually compressing the chest overlying the heart and forcing air into the lungs, used to maintain circulation when the heart stops pumping during Cardiac Arrest. Current guidelines suggest hands-only CPR. See also AED.\nCQ10 – Co-enzyme Q10: A dietary supplement sometimes recommended for heart patients taking statin drugs.\nCRP – C-reactive protein: A byproduct of inflammation, produce by the liver, found in the blood in some cases of acute inflammation.\nCRT – Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy also called bi-ventricular pacemaker: an electronic pacing device that’s surgically implanted in the chest to treat the delay in heart ventricle contractions that occur in some people with heart failure.\nCT – Computed tomography (CT or CAT scan): An x-ray technique that uses a computer to create cross-sectional images of the body.\nCTA – Computerized Tomographic Angiogram: An imaging test to look at the arteries that supply the heart muscle with blood. Unlike a traditional coronary angiogram, CT angiograms don’t use a catheter threaded through your blood vessels to your heart but instead rely on a powerful X-ray machine to produce images of your heart and heart vessels.\nCV – Coronary Vein: One of the veins of the heart that drain blood from the heart’s muscular tissue and empty into the right atrium.\nCV – Cardiovascular: Pertaining to the heart and blood vessels that make up the circulatory system.\nDBP – Diastolic blood pressure: The lowest blood pressure measured in the arteries. It occurs when the heart muscle is relaxed between beats.\nDCM – Dilated Cardiomyopathy: A disease of the heart muscle, primarily affecting the heart’s main pumping chamber (left ventricle). The left ventricle becomes enlarged (dilated) and can’t pump blood to your body with as much force as a healthy heart can.\nDDI – Drug-drug interaction: A situation in which a medication affects the activity of another medication when both are administered together.\nDIL – Diltiazem: A calcium channel blocker drug that acts as a vasodilator; used in the treatment of angina pectoris, hypertension, and supraventricular tachycardia.\nDiuretic – A class of drugs used to lower blood pressure. Also known as “water pills”.\nDobutamine stress echocardiography: This is a form of a stress echocardiogram diagnostic test. But instead of exercising on a treadmill or exercise bike to stress the heart, the stress is obtained by giving a drug that stimulates the heart and makes it “think” it’s exercising. The test is used to evaluate your heart and valve function if you are unable to exercise. It is also used to determine how well your heart tolerates activity, and your likelihood of having coronary artery disease (blocked arteries), and it can evaluate the effectiveness of your cardiac treatment plan. See also TTE and Stress Echocardiogram.\nDressler’s syndrome – Happens to a small number of people three to four weeks after a heart attack. The heart muscle that died during the attack sets the immune system in motion, calling on lymphocytes, one of the white blood cells, to infiltrate the coverings of the heart (pericardium) and the lungs (pleura). It also starts generating antibodies, which attack those two coverings. Chest pain (CP) is the predominant symptom; treated with anti-inflammatory drugs.\nDual Antiplatelet Therapy – Medications that block the formation of blood clots by preventing the clumping of platelets (examples Plavix, Effient, Brillinta, Ticlid, etc.) are often prescribed along with aspirin as part of what’s known as dual antiplatelet therapy, especially to patients who have undergone PCI and stent implantation.\nDVT – Deep Vein Thrombosis: A blood clot in a deep vein in the calf.\nECG / EKG – Electrocardiogram: A test in which several electronic sensors are placed on the body to monitor electrical activity associated with the heartbeat.\nEctopic beats – small changes in an otherwise normal heartbeat that lead to extra or skipped heartbeats, often occurring without a clear cause, most often harmless.\nEF – Ejection Fraction: A measurement of blood that is pumped out of a filled ventricle. The normal rate is 50-60%.\nEKG/ECG – Electrocardiogram: A test in which several electronic sensors are placed on the body to monitor electrical activity associated with the heartbeat.\nEndothelium: A single-cell layer of flat endothelial cells lining the closed internal spaces of the body such as the inside of blood vessels. Endothelial dysfunction affects the ability of these cells to help dilate blood vessels, control inflammation or prevent blood clots. The endothelium is associated with most forms of cardiovascular disease, such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, chronic heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, diabetes, chronic kidney failure, and severe viral infections.\nEnhanced External Counterpulsation – EECP is an FDA-approved non-invasive, non-drug treatment for angina. It works by promoting the development of collateral coronary arteries. The therapy is widely used in prominent heart clinics such as the Cleveland Clinic, Mayo Clinic and Johns Hopkins – especially for patients who are not good candidates for invasive procedures such as bypass surgery, angioplasty or stenting.\nEP – Electrophysiologist: A cardiologist who has additional training in diagnosing/treating heart rhythm disorders.\nEPS – Electrophysiology Study: A test that uses cardiac catheterization to study patients who have arrhythmias (abnormal hear rhythm). An electrical current stimulates the heart in an effort to provoke an arrhythmia, which is immediately treated with medications. EPS is used primarily to identify the origin of the arrhythmia and to test the effectiveness of medications used to treat abnormal heart rhythms.\nEVH – Endoscopic Vessel Harvesting: To create the bypass graft during CABG open heart surgery, a surgeon will remove or “harvest” healthy blood vessels from another part of the body, often from the patient’s leg or arm. This vessel becomes a graft, with one end attaching to a blood source above and the other end below the blocked area. See CABG.\nExercise stress test – An exercise test (walking/running on a treadmill or pedalling a stationary bike) to make your heart work harder and beat faster. An EKG is recorded while you exercise to monitor any abnormal changes in your heart under stress, with or without the aid of drugs to enhance this assessment. See also: MIBI, Echocardiogram, Nuclear Stress Test.\nFamilial hypercholesterolemia (FH) – A genetic predisposition to dangerously high cholesterol levels. FH is an inherited disorder that can lead to aggressive and premature cardiovascular disease, including problems like heart attacks, strokes, or narrowing of the heart valves.\nFemoral Artery: a major artery in your groin/upper thigh area, through which a thin catheter is inserted, eventually making its way into the heart during angioplasty to implant a stent; currently the most widely used angioplasty approach in the United States, but many other countries now prefer the Radial Artery access in the wrist.\nFFR – Fractional Flow Reserve: A test used during coronary catheterization (angiogram) to measure pressure differences across a coronary artery stenosis (narrowing or blockage) defined as as the pressure behind a blockage relative to the pressure before the blockage.\nHC – High Cholesterol: When fatty deposits build up in your coronary arteries.\nHCTZ – Hydrochlorothiazide: A drug used to lower blood pressure; it acts by inhibiting the kidneys’ ability to retain water. Used to be called “water pills”.\nHeart Failure – a chronic progressive condition that affects the pumping power of your heart muscle. Sometimes called Congestive Heart Failure (CHF).\nHolter Monitor – A portable monitoring device that patients wear for recording heartbeats over a period of 24 hours or more.\nHTN – Hypertension: High blood pressure, the force of blood pushing against the walls of arteries as it flows through them.\nHypokinesia – Decreased heart wall motion during each heartbeat, associated with cardiomyopathy, heart failure, or heart attack. Hypokinesia can involve small areas of the heart (segmental) or entire sections of heart muscle (global). Also called hypokinesis.\nICD – Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator: A surgically implanted electronic device to treat life-threatening heartbeat irregularities.\nIHD – Ischemic Heart Disease: heart problems caused by narrowing of the coronary arteries, causing a decreased blood supply to the heart muscle. Also called coronary artery disease and coronary heart disease.\nINR – International Normalized Ratio: A laboratory test measure of blood coagulation, often used as a standard for monitoring the effects of the anti-coagulant drug, warfarin (coumadin).\nIST – Inappropriate sinus tachycardia: A heart condition seen most often in young women, in which a person’s resting heart rate is abnormally high (greater than 100 bpm), their heart rate increases rapidly with minimal exertion, and this rapid heart rate is accompanied by symptoms of palpitations, fatigue, and/or exercise intolerance.\nInterventional cardiologist – A cardiologist who is trained to perform invasive heart procedures like angiography, angioplasty, percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), implanting stents, etc.\nIVS – Interventricular Septum: The stout wall that separates the lower chambers (the ventricles) of the heart from one another.\nIVUS – Intravascular Ultrasound: A form of echocardiography performed during cardiac catheterization in which a transducer (a device that can act as a transmitter (sender) and receiver of ultrasound information) is threaded into the heart blood vessels via a catheter; it’s used to provide detailed information about the blockage inside the blood vessels.\nLAD – Left Anterior Descending coronary artery: One of the heart’s coronary artery branches from the left main coronary artery which supplies blood to the left ventricle.\nLAFB – Left Anterior Fascicular Block: A cardiac condition,distinguished from Left Bundle Branch Block because only the anterior half of the left bundle branch is defective and more common than left posterior fascicular block.\nLAHB – Left Anterior Hemiblock: The Left Bundle Branch divides into two major branches – the anterior and the posterior fascicles. Occasionally, a block can occur in one of these fascicles.\nLeft Circumflex Artery – The artery carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body; it’s a branch of the Left Main Coronary Artery after the latter runs its course in between the aorta and the Main Pulmonary Artery.\nLeft Main Coronary Artery – The artery that branches from the aorta to supply oxygenated blood to the heart via the Left Anterior Descending Artery (LAD) and the Left Circumflex Artery.\nLipids – fat-like substances found in your blood and body tissues; a lipid panel is a blood test that measures the level of specific lipids in blood to help assess your risk of cardiovascular disease, measuring four types of lipids: total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides.\nLipoprotein-a or Lp(a) – molecules made of proteins and fat, carrying cholesterol and similar substances through the blood. A high level of Lp(a) is considered a risk factor for heart disease; detectable via a blood test.\nLong QT syndrome (LQTS): A heart rhythm disorder that can potentially cause fast, chaotic heartbeats that may trigger a sudden fainting spell or seizure. In some cases, the heart may beat erratically for so long that it can cause sudden death.\nLV – Left Ventricle – One of four chambers (two atria and two ventricles) in the human heart, it receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium via the mitral valve, and pumps it into the aorta via the aortic valve.\nLVAD – Left ventricular assist device: A mechanical device that can be placed outside the body or implanted inside the body. An LVAD does not replace the heart – it “assists” or “helps” it pump oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body, usually as a bridge to heart transplant.\nLVH – Left Ventricular Hypertrophy: A thickening of the myocardium (muscle) of the Left Ventricle (LV) of the heart..\nLumen – The hollow area within a tube, such as a blood vessel.\nMain Pulmonary Artery – Carries oxygen-depleted blood from the heart to the lungs.\nMIBI – Nuclear Stress Test/Cardiac Perfusion Scan/Sestamibi: tests that are used to assess the blood flow to the heart muscle (myocardium) when it is stressed by exercise or medication, and to find out what areas of the myocardium have decreased blood flow due to coronary artery disease. This is done by injecting a tiny amount of radionuclide like thallium or technetium (chemicals which release a type of radioactivity called gamma rays) into a vein in the arm or hand.\nMicrovascular disease – a heart condition that causes impaired blood flow to the heart muscle through the small blood vessels of the heart. Symptoms mimic those of a heart attack. Also called Coronary Microvascular Disease or Small Vessel Disease. I live with this diagnosis and have written more about it here, here and here.\nMini-Maze – a surgical procedure to treat atrial fibrillation, less invasive than what’s called the Cox Maze III procedure (a “cut-and-sew” procedure), and performed on a beating heart without opening the chest.\nMitral Valve: One of four valves in the heart, the structure that controls blood flow between the heart’s left atrium (upper chamber) and left ventricle (lower chamber). The mitral valve has two flaps (cusps). See also MV and/or Valves.\nMitral valve prolapse: a condition in which the two valve flaps of the mitral valve don’t close smoothly or evenly, but instead bulge (prolapse) upward into the left atrium; also known as click-murmur syndrome, Barlow’s syndrome or floppy valve syndrome.\nMR – Mitral regurgitation: (also mitral insufficiency or mitral incompetence) a heart condition in which the mitral valve does not close properly when the heart pumps out blood. It’s the abnormal leaking of blood from the left ventricle, through the mitral valve and into the left atrium when the left ventricle contracts.\nMRI – Magnetic Resonance Imaging: A technique that produces images of the heart and other body structures by measuring the response of certain elements (such as hydrogen) in the body to a magnetic field. An MRI can produce detailed pictures of the heart and its various structures without the need to inject a dye.\nMS – Mitral Stenosis: A narrowing of the mitral valve, which controls blood flow from the heart’s upper left chamber (the left atrium) to its lower left chamber (the left ventricle). May result from an inherited (congenital) problem or from rheumatic fever.\nMUGA – Multiple-Gated Acquisition Scanning: A non-invasive nuclear test that uses a radioactive isotope called technetium to evaluate the functioning of the heart’s ventricles.\nMurmur – Noises superimposed on normal heart sounds. They are caused by congenital defects or damaged heart valves that do not close properly and allow blood to leak back into the originating chamber.\nMV – Mitral Valve: The structure that controls blood flow between the heart’s left atrium (upper chamber) and left ventricle (lower chamber).\nMyocardial Infarction (MI, heart attack) – The damage or death of an area of the heart muscle (myocardium) resulting from a blocked blood supply to the area. The affected tissue dies, injuring the heart.\nMyocardium – The muscular tissue of the heart.\nNew Wall-Motion Abnormalities – Results seen on an echocardiogram test report (see NWMA, below).\nNitroglycerin – A medicine that helps relax and dilate arteries; often used to treat cardiac chest pain (angina). Also called NTG or GTN.\nNSR – Normal Sinus Rhythm: The characteristic rhythm of the healthy human heart. NSR is considered to be present if the heart rate is in the normal range, the P waves are normal on the EKG/ECG, and the rate does not vary significantly.\nNSTEMI – Non-ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction: The milder form of the two main types of heart attack. An NSTEMI heart attack does not produce an ST-segment elevation seen on an electrocardiogram test (EKG). See also STEMI.\nNuclear Stress Test – A diagnostic test that usually involves two exercise stress tests, one while you’re exercising on a treadmill/stationary bike or with medication that stresses your heart, and another set while you’re at rest. A nuclear stress test is used to gather information about how well your heart works during physical activity and at rest. See also: Exercise stress test, Nuclear perfusion test, MIBI.\nOpen heart surgery – Any surgery in which the chest is opened and surgery is done on the heart muscle, valves, coronary arteries, or other parts of the heart (such as the aorta). See also CABG.\nPacemaker – A surgically implanted electronic device that helps regulate the heartbeat.\nPAD – Peripheral Artery Disease: A common circulatory problem in which narrowed arteries reduce blood flow to the limbs, usually to the legs. Symptoms include leg pain when walking (called intermittent claudication).\nPAF – Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation: Atrial fibrillation that lasts from a few seconds to days, then stops on its own. See also Atrial Fibrillation.\nPalpitations – A noticeably rapid, strong, or irregular heartbeat due to agitation, exertion or illness.\nParoxysmal Atrial Fibrillation – An unusual heart arrhythmia of unknown origin, at one time believed to be associated with an unusual sensitivity to alcohol consumption.\nPDA – patent ductus arteriosus: A persistent opening between two major blood vessels leading from the heart. The opening is called ductus arteriosus and is a normal part of a baby’s circulatory system before birth that usually closes shortly after birth. But when it remains open, it’s called a patent ductus arteriosus. If it’s small, it may never need treatment, but a large PDA left untreated can allow poorly oxygenated blood to flow in the wrong direction, weakening the heart muscle and causing heart failure or other complications.\nPericardium: two thin layers of a sac-like tissue that surround the heart, hold it in place and help it work.\nPET – Positron Emission Tomography: A non-invasive scanning technique that uses small amounts of radioactive positrons (positively charged particles) to visualize body function and metabolism. In cardiology, PET scans are used to evaluate heart muscle function in patients with coronary artery disease or cardiomyopathy.\nPFO – Patent Forman Ovale: An opening between the left and right atria (the upper chambers) of the heart. Everyone has a PFO before birth, but in 1 out of every 3 or 4 people, the opening does not close naturally as it should after birth.\nPlaque – A deposit of fatty (and other) substances in the inner lining of the artery wall; it is characteristic of atherosclerosis.\nPOTS – Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome: A disorder that causes an increased heart rate when a person stands upright.\nPPCM – Post-partum cardiomyopathy: A form of cardiomyopathy that causes heart failure toward the end of pregnancy or in the months after delivery, in the absence of any other cause of heart failure.\nPreeclampsia – a late-pregnancy complication identified by spikes in blood pressure, protein in the urine, possible vision problems. Women who experience pregnancy complications like preeclampsia are at significantly higher risk for heart disease.\nPrinzmetal’s Variant Angina – Chest pain caused by a spasm in a coronary artery that supplies blood to the heart muscle.\nPSVT – Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia: – An occasional rapid heart rate (150-250 beats per minute) that is caused by events triggered in areas above the heart’s lower chambers (the ventricles). “Paroxysmal” means from time to time. See also supraventricular tachycardia (SVT).\nPulmonary Valve: One of the four valves in the heart, located between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle of the heart, moves blood toward the lungs and keeps it from sloshing back into the heart.\nPV – Pulmonary Vein: A vein carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.\nPVC – Premature Ventricular Contraction: An early or extra heartbeat that happens when the heart’s lower chambers (the ventricles) contract too soon, out of sequence with the normal heartbeat. In the absence of any underlying heart disease, PVCs do not generally indicate a problem with electrical stability, and are usually benign.\nRA – Right Atrium: The right upper chamber of the heart. The right atrium receives de-oxygenated blood from the body through the vena cava and pumps it into the right ventricle which then sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated.\nRadial Artery: the artery in the wrist where a thin catheter is inserted through the body’s network of arteries in the arm and eventually into the heart during a procedure to implant a stent. Doctors may also call this transradial access, the transradial approach, or transradial angioplasty. Because it’s associated with fewer complications, this is increasingly considered the default access approach in most countries, except in the U.S. where the traditional Femoral Artery (groin) approach is still the most popular access.\nRBBB – Right Bundle Branch Block: A delay or obstruction along the pathway that electrical impulses travel to make your heart beat. The delay or blockage occurs on the pathway that sends electrical impulses to the right side of your heart. See also Left Bundle Branch Block.\nRCA – Right Coronary Artery: An artery that supplies blood to the right side of the heart.\nRestenosis – The re-closing or re-narrowing of an artery after an interventional procedure such as angioplasty or stent placement. Sometimes called “stent failure”.\nRHD – Rheumatic Heart Disease: Permanent damage to the valves of the heart caused especially by repeated attacks of rheumatic fever.\nRM – Right Main coronary artery: A blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the walls of the heart’s ventricles and the right atrium.\nRV – Right Ventricle: The lower right chamber of the heart that receives de-oxygenated blood from the right atrium and pumps it under low pressure into the lungs via the pulmonary artery.\nSA – Sinus node: The “natural” pacemaker of the heart. The node is a group of specialized cells in the top of the right atrium which produces the electrical impulses that travel down to eventually reach the ventricular muscle, causing the heart to contract.\nSB – Sinus Bradycardia: Abnormally slow heartbeat.\nSBP – Systolic Blood Pressure: The highest blood pressure measured in the arteries. It occurs when the heart contracts with each heartbeat. Example: the first number in 120/80.\nSCAD – Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection: A rare emergency condition that occurs when a tear forms in one of the blood vessels in the heart, causing a heart attack, abnormalities in heart rhythm and/or sudden death. SCAD tends to strike young healthy women with few if any cardiac risk factors.\nSD – Septal defect: A hole in the wall of the heart separating the atria (two upper chambers of the heart) or in the wall of the heart separating the ventricles (two lower chambers).\nSestamibi stress test – See MIBI.\nShort QT intervals (SQT): An abnormal heart rhythm where the heart muscle takes a shorter time to recharge between beats. It can cause a variety of complications from fainting and dizziness to sudden cardiac arrest.\nSick Sinus Syndrome (also known as sinus node dysfunction) is caused by an electrical problem in the heart; a group of related heart conditions that can affect how the heart beats, most commonly in older adults, although it can be diagnosed in people of any age. “Sick sinus” refers to the sinoatrial node (see below). In people with sick sinus syndrome, the SA node does not function normally.\nSinoatrial node (SA): also commonly called the sinus node; it’s a small bundle of neurons situated in the upper part of the wall of the right atrium (the right upper chamber of the heart). The heart’s electrical impulses are generated there. It’s the normal natural pacemaker of the heart and is responsible for the initiation of each heartbeat.\nSpontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection (SCAD) – A rare emergency condition that occurs when a tear forms in one of the blood vessels in the heart, causing a heart attack, abnormalities in heart rhythm and/or sudden death. SCAD tends to strike young healthy women with few if any cardiac risk factors.\nSSS – Sick Sinus Syndrome: The failure of the sinus node to regulate the heart’s rhythm.\nST – Sinus Tachycardia: A heart rhythm with elevated rate of impulses originating from the sinoatrial node, defined as greater than 100 beats per minute (bpm) in an average adult. The normal heart rate in the average adult ranges from 60–100 bpm. Also called sinus tach or sinus tachy.\nStatins – Any of a class of drugs that lower the levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) – the ‘bad’ cholesterol in the blood – by inhibiting the activity of an enzyme involved in the production of cholesterol in the liver. Examples of brand name statins: Lipitor, Crestor, Zocor, Mevacor, Levachol, Lescol, etc. Also available as a cheaper generic form of the drug.\nSTEMI – ST-elevation heart attack (myocardial infarction). The more severe form of the two main types of heart attack. A STEMI produces a characteristic elevation in the ST segment on an electrocardiogram (EKG). The elevated ST segment is how this type of heart attack got its name. See also NSTEMI.\nStent – An implantable device made of expandable, metal mesh (looks a bit like a tiny chicken wire tube) that is placed (by using a balloon catheter) at the site of a narrowing coronary artery during an angioplasty procedure. The stent is then expanded when the balloon fills, the balloon is removed, and the stent is left in place to help keep the artery open. TRIVIA ALERT: the coronary stent was named after Charles Stent (1807-1885), an English dentist who invented a compound to produce dentures and other things like skin grafts and hollow tubes (essentially what a metal coronary stent is). His real claim to fame occurred when he suggested using his material to coat underwater trans-Atlantic cable, which had broken several times as a result of corrosion by seawater. You’re welcome.\nStint – a common spelling mistake when what you really mean is the word “stent” (see above).\nStress Echocardiography – A standard echocardiogram test that’s performed while the person exercises on a treadmill or stationary bicycle. This test can be used to visualize the motion of the heart’s walls and pumping action when the heart is stressed, possibly revealing a lack of blood flow that isn’t always apparent on other heart tests. The echocardiogram is performed just before and just after the exercise part of the procedure. See also TTE.\nSudden Cardiac Arrest – The stopping of the heartbeat, usually because of interference with the electrical signal (often associated with coronary heart disease). Can lead to Sudden Cardiac Death.\nTakotsubo Cardiomyopathy – A heart condition that can mimic a heart attack. Sometimes called Broken Heart Syndrome, it is not a heart attack, but it feels just like one, with common symptoms like severe chest pain and shortness of breath. It sometimes follows a severe emotional stress. Over 90% of reported cases are in women ages 58 to 75. Also referred to as Broken Heart Syndrome, stress cardiomyopathy, stress-induced cardiomyopathy or apical ballooning syndrome.\nTAVR – Transcatheter aortic valve replacement: A minimally invasive procedure to repair a damaged or diseased aortic valve. A catheter is inserted into an artery in the groin and threaded to the heart. A balloon at the end of the catheter, with a replacement valve folded around it, delivers the new valve to take the place of the old. Also called TAVI (Transcatheter aortic valve implantation).\nTetralogy of Fallot – A rare condition caused by a combination of four heart defects that are present at birth, affecting the structure of the heart and causing oxygen-poor blood to flow out of the heart and into the rest of the body. Infants and children with Tetralogy of Fallot usually have blue-tinged skin because their blood doesn’t carry enough oxygen. Often diagnosed in infancy, but sometimes not until later in life depending on severity.\nTg – Triglycerides: The most common fatty substance found in the blood; normally stored as an energy source in fat tissue. High triglyceride levels may thicken the blood and make a person more susceptible to clot formation. High triglyceride levels tend to accompany high cholesterol levels and other risk factors for heart disease, such as obesity.\nTIA – Transient Ischemic Attack: A stroke-like event that lasts only for a short time and is caused by a temporarily blocked blood vessel.\nTEE – Transesophageal echocardiogram: This test involves an ultrasound transducer inserted down the throat into the esophagus in order to take clear images of the heart structures without the interference of the lungs and chest.\nTreadmill Stress Test – See Exercise Stress Test.\ntroponin – a type of cardiac enzyme found in heart muscle, and released into the blood when there is damage to the heart (for example, during a heart attack). A positive blood test that shows elevated troponin is the preferred test for a suspected heart attack because it is more specific for heart injury than other blood tests, especially the newer high sensitivity troponin tests (hs-cTnT).\nTTE – Transthoracic Echocardiogram: This is the standard echocardiogram, a painless test similar to X-ray, but without the radiation, using a hand-held device called a transducer placed on the chest to transmit high frequency sound waves (ultrasound). These sound waves bounce off the heart structures, producing images and sounds that can be used by the doctor to detect heart damage and disease.\nTV – Tricuspid Valve: One of four one-way valves in the heart, a structure that controls blood flow from the heart’s upper right chamber (the right atrium) into the lower right chamber (the right ventricle).\nUA or USA – Unstable Angina: Chest pain that occurs when diseased blood vessels restrict blood flow to the heart; symptoms are not relieved by rest; considered a dangerous and emergency crisis requiring immediate medical help.\nValves: Your heart has four one-way valves that keep blood flowing in the right direction. Blood enters the heart first through the tricuspid valve, and next goes through the pulmonary valve (sometimes called the pulmonic valve) on its way to the lungs. Then the blood returning from the lungs passes through the mitral (bicuspid) valve and leaves the heart through the aortic valve.\nVasodilator: A drug that causes dilation (widening) of blood vessels.\nVasospasm: A blood vessel spasm that causes sudden constriction, reducing its diameter and blood flow to the heart muscle. See also Prinzmetal’s Variant Angina.\nVB – Ventricular Bigeminy: A heart rhythm condition in which the heart experiences two beats of the pulse in rapid succession.\nVena Cava – a large vein that carryies de-oxygenated blood into the heart. There are two in humans, the inferior vena cava (carrying blood from the lower body) and the superior vena cava (carrying blood from the head, arms, and upper body).\nVentricle – each of the two main chambers of the heart, left and right.\nVF – Ventricular Fibrillation: A condition in which the ventricles (two lower chambers of the heart) contract in a rapid, unsynchronized fashion. When fibrillation occurs, the ventricles cannot pump blood throughout the body. Most sudden cardiac deaths are caused by VF or ventricular tachycardia (VT).\nVLDL – Very Low Density Lipoprotein: Molecules made up of mostly triglycerides, cholesterol and proteins. VLDL, also known as the “very bad” cholesterol, carries cholesterol from the liver to organs and tissues in the body. It may lead to low density lipoproteins (LDL), associated with higher heart disease risks. VLDL levels are tricky to measure routinely, and are usually estimated as a percentage of your triglyceride levels. By reducing triglycerides, you are usually also reducing your VLDL levels.\nWarfarin – A drug taken to prevent the blood from clotting and to treat blood clots. Warfarin is believed to reduce the risk of blood clots causing strokes or heart attacks. Also known as Coumadin.\nWidowmaker heart attack – The type of heart attack I survived, since you asked. A nickname doctors use to describe a severely blocked left main coronary artery or proximal left anterior descending coronary artery of the heart. This term is used because if the artery gets abruptly and completely blocked, it can cause a massive heart attack that will likely lead to sudden cardiac death. Please note the gender imbalance here: despite the number of women like me who do experience this type of cardiac event, doctors are not calling this the widowermaker, after all.\nWPW – Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome: A condition in which an extra electrical pathway connects the atria (two upper chambers) and the ventricles (two lower chambers). It may cause a rapid heartbeat.\nNOTE FROM CAROLYN: I was very happy when we were able to include this entire glossary in my book, “A Woman’s Guide to Living with Heart Disease“ (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017).\nAre we missing any important heart acronyms/terms from this list? Let me know!\nPlease can someone explain something for me. I am a 53 yr old woman and generally fit and healthy. Had 2 ECG’s due to a one off dizzy spell during a stressful time dealing with my fathers terminal diagnosis. The 2nd ECG request did give me concern as i did not know why i had to have one. On 24/01/19 at my doctors appointment she explained that on 3 the leads it showed inverted T waves. And she explained that it may suggest angina. I was so shocked. Wasn’t expecting that. She gave me a GNT (nitroglycerin) spray in case I do get pain and take 75Mg of aspirin. I’m now waiting for a Cardiology referral.\nI am so stressed and consumed by what might be wrong. My maternal grandmother had angina and valve issues. Her 3 brothers all had double bypasses. Could I have inherited this? I am not overweight at 63kg and 5.ft 9. I walk 20-25 miles a week at work and general walking here and there. I started HRT (patches evorol 25 -50) in July as menopause pain was making me feel like I was 90 and was getting me down.\nI am worried so much now and analysing every ache/ twinge I get. I feel like a hypochondriac at the moment. I’m worried what will happen at the cardiologist and what the test will entail and tell me. I am waiting on cholesterol test which I had on 25/01/19. Can I have inverted T waves and be fine. Please help I am so scared and crying far too much.\nHello Colleen – the first thing is: please take a big deep breath before you read another word here! I’m not a physician so of course cannot comment on your specific case, but I can tell you generally that the definition of “angina” (as this glossary lists above) is “distressing symptoms”, typically chest pain that gets worse with exertion, and goes away with rest. That’s classic stable angina… typically caused by something that’s reducing blood flow to the heart muscle (causing the chest pain of angina).\nA family history that might make a difference for you personally is only in what’s called your ‘first degree’ relatives: for example, if your mother or sister were diagnosed with heart disease before age 65, or if your Dad or brother were diagnosed before age 55, then doctors would consider that you have a family history as a risk factor for heart disease. There’s little if any scientific evidence that a grandparent or uncle’s heart disease history has any effect on your own risk.\nIt is a very good thing that you’re having further tests and a referral to a cardiologist, if only to ease your mind. There are many reasons for inverted T-waves, ranging from cardiac issues to completely benign conditions. One way of looking at this is choosing to believe that seeing a cardiologist will ease your mind one way or the other – so this is something to look forward to, not dread. If the cardiologist spots something suspicious, a treatment plan will be created. If not, you can wave goodbye and go back to happily living your life.\nTry thinking of this cardiology appointment just as you would if your car were making some frightening noises and you were bringing it to your mechanic for a check up. You could work yourself into a complete state worrying ahead of time if the car trouble is going to be serious, or you could look at this appointment as the solution – at last! – to figuring out what’s wrong so the mechanic can recommend the next step.\nThank you for this list of so many definitions provided in plain English. what a valuable resource this is. THANK YOU, I have been looking for translations FOR PATIENTS not med school graduates– like this for three years.\nMy family doctor had me wear a 24 hr EKG. After reading the results, she has scheduled a scope to look inside my heart by a specialist. Completely forgoing a stress test. Said I have major changes in the EKG, what type of changes could they be looking at? Had LAD STENT INSERTED 7 YRS AGO – WHAT COULD THEY BE LOOKING FOR?\nThis is a great wealth of information, Carolyn! I looked and did not see my diagnosis, which is aortic stenosis. I looked under aortic as well as stenosis. Did I just miss it somehow?\nI learned some new information, I am a bit familiar now, but not when I had my MI, it was like learning a new language. But, my favorite part was seeing SCAD on this list! Thank you.\nThanks and welcome! I was thinking of editing that SCAD definition actually: I suspect that that it isn’t so much that SCAD is “rare”, but it’s more that it’s “rarely correctly diagnosed”.\nI totally agree that SCAD is not as rare as I believed for many years. Once awareness is spread to all medical staff, I believe many lives will be saved. Hoping for a brighter future for all SCAD patients.\nI hope so too, Cathy. Perhaps when more SCAD studies (like Mayo Clinic’s) are published and read by more and more MDs, it will no longer be “rarely correctly diagnosed”.\nIt’s great to see IST on here. I was diagnosed with it 9 years ago and the lack of awareness is frustrating.\nWhat a great resource for heart patients and their families!\nThanks so much, Ashley. I recently updated my original 2011 list after the world-famous Cleveland Clinic tweeted their glossary recently and I noticed that their list had a few glaring omissions (like SCAD and Brugada Syndrome) so this made me wonder what my list might be missing, too. Let me know if there’s anything else you think should be included, okay?\nHow is your health these days? How are you feeling?\nNew for me too. I have just been diagnosed with A-HCM: Apical Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.\nI’ll add that one to my list, Kathleen – thanks!\nJust saw this, Carolyn, and you’ve compiled a great resource. One note on A-HCM: Present thinking is that it’s due to a genetic modification. Runs in families though sometimes occurs spontaneously. I have not as yet done genetic testing, though it’s been offered.\nThanks Kathleen – like many cardiac diagnoses, it sounds like a moving target… Good luck to you!\nThis list is great. I’ve just been diagnosed and am utterly overwhelmed. Even in the WomenHeart online support community, I often have no clue most days what others are talking about with all these initials about their heart tests and specific disease. This is VERY helpful, thank you SO MUCH. Love your website which has been a godsend since my diagnosis.", "answers": ["Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD) is a surgically implanted electronic device to treat life-threatening heartbeat irregularities."], "length": 8925, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "2f73cf12085e3fb879c775fc4851b72092a060cad5a927c6"}
{"input": "What are the three phases of the author's preaching process?", "context": "// josh vajda // | a blog about theology and everything else\n// josh vajda //\nSunday School Notes\nPreaching Method\nJanuary 17, 2016 Josh Vajda\tLeave a comment\nI’m not a preacher; I’m a theologian. But now that I’ve graduated seminary I sometimes have the honor of preaching. And as someone who just barely passed the two required preaching courses while he was focused on other things, I’ve had to go back and really develop a theology and strategy of preaching. It should go without saying that it’s a work in progress, but I’m at a place now where I’m comfortable with my system—which means the next step is to share it. Maybe someone out there can benefit from what I’ve learned, but either way there’s always room for improvement and maybe you can help me see where.\nTopic/Text Selection\nThe first and most obvious question is what to preach on. I was trained to be sensitive to what the congregation needs to hear, but not being a pastor I don’t have that kind of insight. I once heard John Piper say when he’s a guest preacher he preaches to himself that way he knows at least one person needed it. I like that better, but this early in my ministry I’ve taken to something a little less holy: what can I preach well?\nThis has really driven most of my sermons to-date, especially because I usually have only a few weeks’ notice. I preached on Ahab because I had just read about him in my devotions. I preached on the tree and its fruits because I had just studied the passage in the context of LGBT acceptance. Most recently, I preached on 1 Corinthians because that’s what we’ve been studying in Sunday School. The more I know something ahead of time, the better chance I have of knowing what to look for and how to communicate it.\nOnce I have my topic, I start running the passage through a system in the three phases we used in seminary: exegetical, theological, and homiletical.\nPhase 1: Exegetical\nThe exegetical phase is just getting into the passage itself. First, I want to know the immediate context for the passage. Why is this here? What ideas are continuing, and which are new? How the author frames the passage is probably the most important factor in choosing how I will introduce it in the sermon. If it’s an epistle, I will also play with a structural outline to try and identify rhetorical choices.\nSecond, I want to try and surface issues in the Greek. I do a very rough translation, and if a word jumps out at me I take note. I’m looking for ambiguous meanings, untranslated concepts, repeated words, related words, etc. I don’t expect to come up with a better translation than the professionals; I just want to have some idea of why they made the choices they did and what might be getting lost in translation. (Note: I don’t talk about Greek and Hebrew words from the pulpit; I only explain the concepts because that’s what I expect people to remember.)\nThird, I take the list of questions I’ve been building and I start to do research. Who’s the referent in this verse? What does this metaphor mean? Is it used elsewhere? What’s the relationship between these two ideas? Does this command really imply that? My research is mostly based on Scripture alone, although there are times when I have to turn to historical background information to really get a reference. I see the Bible as one whole text even though it has many authors, and I’m very interested at drawing legitimate connections across books. I’ve also found Carson’s Exegetical Fallacies is a great help at avoiding common errors in biblical studies.\nPhase 2: Theological\nThe boundary between exegesis and theology is thin and messy. I was given conflicting advice on this: some professors insisted I “bracket out” my theology, take nothing for granted; others insisted the only way to read it rightly is with Christian presuppositions.\nI try to do both if I can.\nNot all doctrines are equal. I refuse to bracket out core doctrines like the Trinity or salvation by grace alone through faith alone. But I feel very free to challenge other doctrines. My sense of how far to take which ideas is really very intuitive and not something that lends itself to explanation.\nIn short, the question raising and answering process is really the beginning of the theological phase for me. I’m looking for key ideas and trying to identify the timeless truths they communicate. Now there’s a danger here: you can use a passage to communicate all kinds of good theology. I think it’s much better when you can identify the theology the author was trying to communicate.\nSo one could hypothetically use Jesus’ tree/fruit analogy to talk about order in creation or a theology of arboreal imagery—and I might even do that in a teaching context. But preaching is a different task to me. I believe preaching is exhorting with the authoritative words of God. I’m not up there to educate. I’m there to press the points I believe God is pressing. If I teach anything else, it’s on my own authority. Hopefully it’s right. But if I’m going to say “thus saith the Lord,” I’d better be a sure as I can be that this is really His point; because again, not all doctrines are equal. So that’s why in this example I preached that the fruit of your life reveals the tree of your heart. I’m confident that was Jesus’ point, not mine.\nOnce I’m done with my exegetical studies, once I’ve done my best to figure everything out on my own—that’s when I turn to the commentaries. Just like with doing the translation, it’s not that I think I’m better than the experts; I do it because I know the text better when I wrestle with it myself. What’s more, as I wrestle with it I get a better sense of where others may have trouble, so I know to explain them more carefully or illustrate them more vividly. The only reason I even open the commentaries is for validation: did I miss anything or draw a wrong conclusion.\nPhase 3: Homiletical\nThroughout the whole process thus far, I’m keeping my eyes open for anything interesting, catchy, or eloquent. In some ways I’m having a conversation with the text and cross-references, and I note the parts of the conversation I like. If a crucial idea jumps out, I want to note it so I can craft a phrase around it. If an idea gets me really excited, I’ll jump out of my seat and pretend I’m preaching on it right then and there. Often those bursts of inspiration have gems worth polishing. Hopefully by the end of the exegetical process and the theological Q&A, I have a list of ideas and phrases to sprinkle in as I actually write the sermon.\nOne unfair advantage here is I took a course in copy writing, which is basically script for advertising. I especially liked what my professor called “fulcrum phrases,” like M&M’s famous “melts in your mouth / not in your hand.” It’s a skill I’ve tried to hone in my songwriting. If you can find that well-crafted phrase that has symmetry, it connects deeper and sticks better. I try to make sure I find at least one for every sermon. Here are some I’ve used:\nIt’s not yours to take; it’s God’s to give.\nHe who walks in humility walks in grace.\nThe fruit of your life reveals the tree of your heart.\nYou don’t have to hold on to anything for God to hold on to you.\nSo that’s my ideal, but I’m looking for anything at all that excites me, because if I’m excited about something there’s a good chance someone else will be, too.\nSermon Structure\nAt this point, I’m ready to start writing my sermon. I know what the text is about, why it exists, how it relates to the rest of Scripture, which parts are difficult to understand, and which parts are exciting. But before I can build content, I need a skeleton.\nAt Dallas Seminary I learned that a good introduction has the same essential parts, and I use the acronym INSTeP to remember them: image, need, subject, text, and preview. As someone with some creative writing background, I didn’t like this at first. But truth be told, a good sermon borrows from both storytelling and essay. The story draws you in, but the essay keeps you grounded. And just like a good essay, you need a thesis statement and its essential supports to help prepare people for what’s to come.\nIn my mind, the most important aspect of the introduction is the boring stuff: what’s the subject, what problem does it solve, where is our passage, and what are the main points. The image serves that. As a student I wanted to pick a great image that really stood out and captured people’s attention. But right now I’m in a place where all I care about is getting people interested in the need. If I have an image that raises the need, great; if not, I’ll try to explain my way to it. If you get through the introduction and people still don’t know what you’re talking about or why they should care, you’re about to fight an uphill battle.\nThe preaching style taught at Dallas and many other evangelical schools is sometimes called “Big Idea” preaching. The short version is that every sermon should have a well-crafted thesis statement. The way it’s taught, it’s everything; your exegesis is all about finding it, your homiletics are all about driving it home. In some cases the thesis becomes more important than the passage itself, which I think is going too far.\nBut I do think there should be one main idea tying everything together. It shouldn’t replace the passage, but it should drive the passage. As I go through my study process I’m making a list of possible thesis statements. If I haven’t found it by the end of the study process, I keep working toward it. There’s no point in writing the sermon until I have that unifying thought because I’m interested in every detail, every rabbit trail. I need that thesis to give my writing purpose, to tell me what to cut and what to emphasize.\nOnce I have the thesis, I try to take the existing structure of the passage and relate it back to that thesis. I know there are many different structures you can play with, but I find I do a better job of preaching the passage when I follow its structural cues. When I try to write a novel structure, I tend to make the passage just a series of illustrations for my own points; I’m sure better preachers are skilled at avoiding this problem.\nOnce I have the thesis and the structure, I write a draft of the whole sermon, weaving in those phrases I had stored up.\nSomehow application seems to be the most contentious part of the sermon. Some preachers try to draw out every possible implication while others see application as purely the Holy Spirit’s job and provide nothing. While there are many possible applications, I try to find one that the text emphasizes more than the others and make that the whole deal. So while I really wanted to say something in my last sermon about how we should love unconditionally just as God does, that wasn’t Paul’s application. It’s true and we should do it, but Paul’s application trumps mine because it’s his passage. So I talked about boasting in the Lord.\nOnce I have my application, I take it in two directions—and I consider this my own secret sauce. I’m sure I’m not the first person to think of it, but I didn’t hear it anywhere else. My professor always told us “give them something to do!” In fact, he would say to give them something concrete to do that very day to maximize the chances that they will actually apply the sermon. I love it! It takes no time at all to forget a sermon.\nBut then I discovered there are some who take issue with this entire method of application, among them one of my favorite preachers, Tim Keller. For them, giving people something to do inspires legalism, and that endangers the Gospel. Instead they strive to show how Jesus already fulfilled the command of this passage, and the application is just to believe in Him, to adore Him, to marvel at Him. I love this, too! I absolutely believe that every passage properly understood relates to Christ in some way, and every application can be used to point to His perfect example and finished work.\nSo I try to do both. And here’s why: both are true. Christ has given us new life and yet we are called to live out a new life. The work is done in one sense, and yet we labor in another. So I always begin with showing how Christ has perfectly applied the passage and inviting people to believe in Him and rest in His finished work. Then because of what Christ has done, I call us to imitate Him by applying it ourselves.\nAt this point all I have to show for my labor is a rough draft. In order to make it presentable, I have a few more steps I go through, and these typically take me a week all by themselves. My goal is to make the sermon sound as natural and engaging as possible.\nFirst, I read the sermon out loud and mark anything that doesn’t sound like me. Maybe I was copying someone’s tone, or more likely my tone was too formal or too informal for the moment. I also italicize the words I want to emphasize. It’s all about the sound.\nSecond, I memorize the sermon. (Yes, the whole thing.) This is what they trained us to do in seminary, and I thought it was overkill. Yes, you can get better eye contact, step away from the podium, I get that. But what I’ve discovered is that when I memorize my work it polishes the sermon like nothing else. If I can’t remember what I’m about to say, how can I expect the congregation to remember? Memorizing forces me to find the best words for the job.\nIt also helps me on a structural level, because if I can’t remember what I was about to say next, it shows that there’s a weak connection between the two points. In a compelling script, the next thing has to follow the last. Once you know why the two are married, you can go back and make it more obvious to the congregation.\nAs I memorize, I boil down the transcript into a preaching outline, which has just enough structure and content to cue me if my mind goes blank in the pulpit. It will have the necessary structural elements, markers for key phrases, and all condensed so that it fits on just a few pages on the platform. (One danger is if I don’t use it in practice, it’s less helpful on Sunday.)\nThird—and frankly this is the step I’m most likely to skip—I try to choreograph my movements. I believe good preaching is theater, but not in the sense that you’re dramatizing the text. Your whole body is communicating whether you want it to or not, so your gestures should be purposeful. Use the space to organize thoughts, repeat certain motions when you repeat the same thought, make sure you’re not sending mixed signals. Usually I run out of time before I get here, so I have plenty of room to grow in this area.\nAs I reflect on my process I realize that it’s uniquely tailored to me. My background as a writer, my love for theology, and my unique skills all lead me to emphasize different things. For someone with a different background and skill set this might be like trying on another man’s armor. How can you leverage who you are to preach better?\nOf course, I didn’t do this from scratch; I was given a great model in seminary and have observed some great preachers thanks to modern technology. The key for me is molding this process to fit my unique mix of strengths and weaknesses, and that’s sure to be a never-ending project.\nAnnual Meeting in Review: ETS 2015\nNovember 22, 2015 Josh Vajda\t2 Comments\nLast week I made my usual pilgrimage to the place where all the evangelical seminary geeks converge: the Annual Meeting of the Evangelical Theological Society. This year was the second time Atlanta has hosted since I began attending, and it was fun reliving early autumn just before the snow arrived back home.\nOver the years I developed a strategy: make plans to attend nonstop papers, then throw out those plans when relational opportunities arise. This year the program was a bit light, but thankfully the people made up for what was lacking.\nWhen reflecting on the meeting I was reminded of just how good last year’s meeting had been. This year had none of the same “aha!” moments, but I did enjoy many rich times of reflection after various papers.\nAs is my usual habit, I attended a number of friend’s papers (e.g., Ford on Ignatius, Roeber on historiography, Svigel on the Didache). But then I also stalked a few of the theologians I’ve come to admire in recent years: Al Mohler, Carl Trueman, and Anthony Bradley. Of course the problem there is that once you begin following someone you have the ever-increasing experience of anticipating what they are going to say on a given subject. This is especially true of Mohler, whose two podcasts have been my intellectual lifeline this year in times when babies and house projects and service commitments have prevented deeper study.\nAnalytic Theology\nWhat came as an outright disappointment was the afternoon I spent in the Analytic Theology section. For those of you who don’t know, “analytic theology” is a recent movement to apply the tools of analytic philosophy to the questions of theology. I’ve been thrilled about this from the moment I heard of it, but what I saw really didn’t reflect what I think the movement is capable of. The thinking seemed lackluster and the questions unhelpful. Crisp and especially Rae were there asking insightful questions, but I think being overly kind to the presenters. I suppose you can’t be too inhospitable if you want guests to come back next year.\nAvoiding the Marriage-and-Family Theme\nThe theme this year was “Marriage and Family” but it’s clear the real interest was continued discussion of how to deal with LGBT-related doctrines. In the past year I’ve read numerous books, taught two classes, and delivered a regional paper on the subject. That was enough for me. Maybe there were some missed opportunities here, but I’m ok with that.\nReflection on 2015\nOne of the things I’ve been forced to do each year—and rightly so, I think—is to reevaluate my purpose and progress in the intellectual community. This occupied much of my reflection in private, some with friends, and significant portions of the drive time from Michigan.\nHere are a few conclusions I reached:\nEven though I can’t justify a doctorate for my career, I am coming to the conviction that I can justify one for ministry. It may even be something I must do.\nEven though I have the tools for self-study, I can accomplish much more with a cohort of like-minded individuals. I need to find a group of theologians I can run with or I will fall behind.\nEven though I feel as though I’ve hardly studied this past year, (I recall reading only two theology books!), I’m reminded that I’ve still accomplished quite a bit with my LGBT studies, weekly Sunday School prep, church doctrinal formulations, and ministry strategizing. It’s different work, but I haven’t been as lazy as I feared.\nEven though I have been working to be useful to our local church congregation and open to correction about my academic bent, the fact remains that right beliefs are a crucial part of our walk with Christ. Theology matters.\nI used to journal incessantly, but have cut back quite a bit this year to focus on getting stuff done. All that to say the time was ripe for some reflection.\nLately I’ve referred to my calling as a “ministry of ideas.” As I chart a course for 2016, the question of what that ministry looks like looms large. The plans are still up in the air, but my time in Atlanta this year has been enormously helpful in the process.\nSee you next year in good old San Antonio, TX!\nSanctify Us with the Truth\nJuly 9, 2015 Josh Vajda\tLeave a comment\nI’ve been a big fan of the Bible all my life. As a child I was amazed by the miracles God did. As I got older it was His character that captivated me. These days I’m intrigued by His wisdom. I want to know how He thinks, what He’s planning, how to make sense of His creation. The Bible is at the center of my relationship with God, and it always has been.\nBut the Bible isn’t God, and the Bible isn’t the whole of my relationship with God. So why is it that I always come back here? I believe that God reveals Himself in Creation and in the Church; I believe I have His Holy Spirit. So why does my relationship with Him keep coming back to a book?\nOne passage that gives us some clues is John 13–17—known as the Upper Room Discourse. It’s Jesus’ last teaching time with His disciples before He goes to the cross. It’s a time of transition.\nUp until now, having a personal relationship with God was as easy as ever. You just spend time with Jesus—the Jewish guy. You want to talk to God? Just go find Jesus. You want an answer from God? Ask Jesus a question. You need divine intervention? Call Jesus for help.\nIn fact, not only is Jesus God in the flesh as the second person of the Trinity, but we see that He also manifests the Father and is indwelt by the Spirit. This goes beyond the perfect unity of the Trinity: all three persons are present in unique ways.\nBut in the Upper Room, Jesus is about to leave. He won’t be there to answer questions, to heal the sick, to right the wrong. And if He’s gone, so is the manifestation of the Father, and so is the Holy Spirit within Him.\nSo what does a personal relationship with God look like when God leaves the building?\nFirst and most importantly, God hasn’t really left. Even though God incarnate has ascended into heaven, He did not leave us alone. The Holy Spirit is God’s special presence in this age.\n“And I will ask the Father, and he will give you another Helper, to be with you forever, even the Spirit of truth, whom the world cannot receive, because it neither sees him nor knows him. You know him, for he dwells with you and will be in you.” (John 14:16, 17 ESV)\nThe same Spirit that indwells Jesus will indwell His disciples, and if we skip ahead to Acts, we can see that this Spirit of Truth indwells all believers. He is described as a Helper—which should come as no surprise from the God who just washed His disciples’ feet. And at least one aspect of His ministry is to point back to Christ.\n“But when the Helper comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spirit of truth, who proceeds from the Father, he will bear witness about me.” (John 15:26 ESV)\nBut it’s not as though the Spirit is a consolation prize. Even though His ministry is all about Christ, Jesus seems to say the Spirit’s ministry will be better than His!—at least for the next phase of God’s plan.\n“Nevertheless, I tell you the truth: it is to your advantage that I go away, for if I do not go away, the Helper will not come to you. But if I go, I will send him to you. And when he comes, he will convict the world concerning sin and righteousness and judgment: concerning sin, because they do not believe in me; concerning righteousness, because I go to the Father, and you will see me no longer; concerning judgment, because the ruler of this world is judged. I still have many things to say to you, but you cannot bear them now. When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all the truth, for he will not speak on his own authority, but whatever he hears he will speak, and he will declare to you the things that are to come. He will glorify me, for he will take what is mine and declare it to you. All that the Father has is mine; therefore I said that he will take what is mine and declare it to you.” (John 16:7–15 ESV)\nThere’s a lot to unpack here, but first I just want you to notice: when we lost the Savior, we gained the Helper, and He’s exactly what we needed next. Even though Jesus fully paid for our sins, we need a Helper to teach us the perfect obedience that Jesus modeled, to realize the change that Jesus purchased for us.\nNow we get a fuller picture of what the Spirit of Truth has come to do. To the unbelieving world, He is a source of conviction, confronting sinners with the reality of who Jesus really was and what He did. To believers, He is a source of wisdom and knowledge.\nThis is a ministry of words and truth. We usually call Him the Holy Spirit, which rightly emphasizes His character and the work that He does in our hearts, but He is also called the Spirit of Truth. He draws us back to the words Jesus spoke, which bear the Father’s authority.\nThe Sanctifying Word\nThese days we’ve become cautious about putting our trust in words or staking claim to truth. We’re allowed to have our own truth, and we’re expected to have our own interpretations. But to go beyond this is to invite conflict.\nSome of us have also grown weary of knowledge because we’ve seen people devote themselves to a dead orthodoxy that devours truth and then does nothing with it. So we associate the Christian walk with a ministry of love and compassion and holiness—which it is—and try not to get too distracted by the rest.\nBut it’s clear that Jesus spent a good deal of time ministering in words and teaching truth, and that the Holy Spirit is also committed to a ministry of words and truth.\n“Whoever does not love me does not keep my words. And the word that you hear is not mine but the Father’s who sent me. These things I have spoken to you while I am still with you. But the Helper, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, he will teach you all things and bring to your remembrance all that I have said to you.” (John 14:24–26 ESV)\nWhen Jesus prays, He even emphasizes this before the Father:\n“Now they know that everything that you have given me is from you. For I have given them the words that you gave me, and they have received them and have come to know in truth that I came from you; and they have believed that you sent me.” (John 17:7, 8 ESV)\nIt’s a precious thing to have the words of God. They came from the Father, through the Son, and by the Spirit. These words have been compiled in Scripture—the Bible—and it’s not God’s leftovers. At the heart of the Trinity’s ministry is a message. When we put our faith in Christ, we confess and believe specific realities.\n“I have given them your word, and the world has hated them because they are not of the world, just as I am not of the world.” (John 17:14 ESV)\nBut this word is not some passive collection of propositions to be absorbed. Just as the Holy Spirit is also the Spirit of Truth, so the true words and message of Scripture are given to make us holy.\n“Sanctify them in the truth; your word is truth. As you sent me into the world, so I have sent them into the world. And for their sake I consecrate myself, that they also may be sanctified in truth.” (John 17:17–19 ESV)\nThis truth has a purpose. God’s message—the words of the Father—they are to make us holy. They are to wash us and set us apart. We are to be purified by this message, and at the heart of these instructions is love.\n“If you keep my commandments, you will abide in my love, just as I have kept my Father’s commandments and abide in his love. These things I have spoken to you, that my joy may be in you, and that your joy may be full. This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you.” (John 15:10–12 ESV)\nGod has not left us alone. We have the Holy Spirit of Truth, and we also have the words of the Father.\nI think this must be what Jesus alluded to in John 4, when He told the Samaritan woman at the well about those who would worship in spirit and in truth. Jesus clearly leaves us here with His Spirit and His truth. These are the twin lights guiding us on our pilgrimage. These are the two ways God is present with us today. Even though He is not with us physically, He is with us personally, spiritually, and verbally.\nTruth is good for its own sake, and sanctification is, too. But we must not forget that our relationship with God as Spirit and through the Word draws those two things together. We pursue truth in order to be sanctified. We are sanctified by the truth.\nWhen we talk about how we relate to God, our first thought is often the Cross, and that’s not wrong. Without Jesus’ work on the Cross we could have no fellowship with God. But even though it is what made a relationship with God possible, our relationship with Him goes much deeper. God is specially present in the world today by His Holy Spirit, Who indwells each and every believer. And the words of the Father have come by the Son and the Spirit to us in the form of the Bible. It is the Holy Spirit of Truth together with the Holy Words of God that mark God’s presence in our lives. They are what guide us and sanctify us.\nThis is why we can’t get away from Scripture. This is why our relationship with God depends so much on our relationship with this book. Creation reveals God by what He has done, but it does not offer His words to us. The Church is united and empowered by the Spirit of God, but it cannot speak His words either. The Bible is how the Holy Spirit speaks to us; it is one of the means by which God has chosen to sanctify His people. Faith comes by hearing, and hearing by the Word of God.\nThe Story of Death (2/15/15)\nFebruary 18, 2015 Josh Vajda\t2 Comments\nIntro: The Matter of Life and Death\nDeath as Punishment\nDeath and God\nChinks in Death’s Armor\nFor Now We Wait\nClosing Thoughts: Ash Wednesday\nIntroduction: The Matter of Life and Death\nA friend once told me that Christianity is a “culture of death.” This was of course a reversal of Pope John Paul II’s 1995 condemnation of the modern culture of death, which sees the weak as useless at best—a burden to be eliminated. He pointed to the crucifixion, the Old Testament sacrificial system, and the way we seem to look forward to death so that we can go to heaven.\nIn a strange sense my friend was right: Christianity has a lot to say about death, and sacrifice is central to our theology. Of course, in context Christianity is anything but a culture of death, but if we’re not careful we can definitely sound the way my friend described us. We sometimes get confused about the role death plays in God’s plan.\nSo today we examine what the Bible says about death and reconsider what role it plays in our lives.\nIt’s interesting: there’s a way in which you could read the Bible as a book about death. That’s obviously not all it talks about, but the “story arc” of death spans the entire book.\nLet’s take a stroll, shall we?\nThe first mention of death is in the second chapter of the Bible: “in the day you eat of [the forbidden fruit] you will surely die” (Genesis 2:17). This promise was the center of the debate between the woman and the serpent in Genesis 3, and they ate of the fruit. But they didn’t die. God was gracious not to put them to death physically, but there is a kind of spiritual death that took place then. Since the Fall, mankind has been unresponsive to God.\nBut make no mistake, physical death was coming. We know from Romans that death entered through Adam’s sin—it wasn’t part of the original created order. And as proof, we see in Adam’s genealogy the reign of death: each one dies. We read “and he died” over and over here. Romans 3:23 tells us “the wages of sin is death.” All sinned, so all die. Death had become a part of life.\nBut Genesis is just getting warmed up! Because next comes the Flood where—you guessed it—everybody dies. Then the Patriarchs die. Then the book ends with the death of Joseph. Who ends a book that way?!? This is not a happy ending.\nBut then there’s Exodus, where the Egyptians die, Leviticus where animals die, Numbers where unbelieving Israel dies, Joshua where the Canaanites die. Death is everywhere! It’s all over the Pentateuch.\nWhy would this be? Because death is the punishment for sin. All crimes against God are capital offenses. That doesn’t mean He immediately smites everyone the moment they sin—but technically speaking, He could. That would be just. And if it doesn’t feel just then maybe we don’t understand sin as well as we thought we did.\nIn Ezekiel, God tells us He gets no pleasure from the death of the wicked. Does this surprise you? He would much rather see the wicked turn from their ways—to repent and live. But those who will not get what they deserve.\nSometimes if we’re not careful this is a way that we distort God’s character, as though God somehow hungers for death and blood. God isn’t pleased by animal sacrifice, but He requires some recompense for sin. God didn’t send the Flood on a whim but because evil on the earth had become unbearable. If we take death out of the context of grace and patience and kindness, we get a very wrong view of God.\nBut because death is part of life in a fallen world, we sometimes get confused about our relationship with death on the one hand and God’s sovereignty on the other. The author of Ecclesiastes notes that people are just as dead as animals in the end. The wise man for all of his wisdom still ends up just as dead as the fool. The nice thing about being dead is you don’t have to live in fear of death anymore! It’s a bleak way to look at things, but not wrong. What’s the point of life if the only thing we can be sure of is death?\nIf this is getting depressing, good! Sin is serious business and so is death. Christianity has a lot to say about death because it takes sin seriously.\nBut there’s a whole lot left to be said.\nIt turns out contrary to popular belief, death can be undone. Yes, you heard me: the end might not really be the end after all. Elijah and Elisha are both able to raise the dead. Jesus raises the dead. Jesus’ disciples raise the dead. Of course, these were all temporary. But it’s a start!\nGod promises us that it gets better than this. In Isaiah 25, He promises to swallow up death forever. How is this possible?!? The wages of sin is death. A holy God can’t just get rid of death.\nHe’d have to get rid of sin somehow.\nThis is where everything gets turned on its head. This is that part in the movie where you fly through the black hole and end up in a different dimension, or where Alice jumps down the rabbit hole. God swallows up death by letting death swallow Him up. Jesus, being fully God, lives a perfectly sinless life—a life not meriting death—and dies on our behalf, paying for all the sin of the world.\nLet that sink in for a moment: God dies. But the death of God becomes the death of sin, and the death of sin becomes the death of death. And death’s final defeat is announced through the resurrection of God back from the dead. The God of life is alive! And He offers eternal life to all.\nAs Tim Keller likes to put it, Jesus died the death we deserved so that we could live the life He deserved. Because Jesus submitted to death on our behalf, our relationship with death gets really complicated. It’s still the enemy. It’s still the wages of sin. It’s still not good. But every good thing—salvation, resurrection, eternal life, peace with God—these all came from one great death: the Crucifixion.\nSo now all death is bad, but that one death brought us everything good. We praise the God of life, but we celebrate His death. God took a horrible, terrible, rotten, no-good thing and redeemed it.\nI suppose that shouldn’t surprise us either.\nWe may sometimes look like we’re rejoicing in death itself, but really we rejoice in that one death that God used to bring eternal life. Our problem isn’t that we sing about death too much—we probably don’t sing about it enough! But we have to keep it in the context of the bigger story. We can’t make any sense of the Crucifixion apart from the Fall, the Resurrection, and Return of Christ.\nThis is the theme we see in the Book of Acts: God raised Jesus from the dead. It’s all about resurrection now! We baptize in the likeness of His death—and resurrection. We take the bread and cup to remember His death—all the while waiting for His return.\nIn Romans, death takes on a whole new meaning: since our sins were buried with Christ, we are now alive to God and dead to sin. Spiritual death is over now. Death has become just a metaphor for our relationship with sin.\nBut make no mistake, death didn’t just die spiritually. We might think that because we still see death all around us. Christians still die. But at the very end of the Bible we see that when Christ returns, death will finally be thrown into the lake of fire and be no more. All the dead will come to life—but this time never to die again.\nI can’t help but think of John Donne’s Holy Sonnet X: Death Be Not Proud:\nDeath, be not proud, though some have called thee\nMighty and dreadful, for thou art not so;\nFor those whom thou thinkst thou dost overthrow\nFrom rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be\nMuch pleasure; then from thee much more must flow\nAnd soonest our best men with thee do go\nRest of their bones and soul’s delivery.\nAnd dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell,\nAnd poppies or charms can make us sleep as well\nAnd better than thy stroke. Why swellst thou then?\nAnd death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die!\nToday we sit knowing that we are no longer spiritually dead, and instead we are dead to sin. Christ has risen from the dead, but He has not yet returned. Physical death is still a reality. It’s still cruel. But it’s not the end.\nI have another friend, a learned scholar who is emphatic about how much he hates death. He doesn’t want to die. Yet Paul almost seems to disagree. In Philippians he writes, “To live is Christ and to die is gain.” Is death gain? Is there something good about death—our deaths? Is my death-hating friend overreacting?\nInsofar as my friend is only talking about death, he’s right. You can’t really hate death enough. And our hope is in the resurrection, when we get our new bodies and live with Christ forever. Paul’s not saying that death isn’t really so bad after all. He’s saying Christ means so much to him that he would even suffer death to be with Him. It’s not that death is lesser; it’s that Jesus is greater.\nThis is how we make sense of Paul’s taunt in 1 Corinthians 15, which talks at length about the resurrection: “Death is swallowed up in victory. O death, where is your victory? O death, where is your sting?” Ultimately he’s talking about the end of death when we are raised, but there’s a sense in which death’s sting is tempered by the sweetness of life with Jesus.\nWhen we lose a loved one, it’s hard. If he or she is a believer, we’re comforted by the fact that even though they died they enjoy the sweetness of Christ’s presence. Don’t let anyone take that away from you. Just don’t forget: that’s not the end of the story. It gets better!\nThey won’t stay dead.\nWho is this God who can even bring good out of death?\nToday is Ash Wednesday. Many Christians will receive ash on their foreheads and be reminded, “You are dust, and to dust you will return.” Not a message we particularly like to hear. We often think of ourselves as souls who just happen to be in bodies, that our parts are interchangeable—maybe even expendable. But these words are the words God Himself spoke to Adam after the Fall. You are dust. A sobering thought. Our bodies are a part of us, and our reflection is a daily reminder that we’re not as strong as we think we are.\nThat’s not the whole truth about us, but it’s a part we can’t afford to forget. Considering our frailty and our mortality shouldn’t lead to despair; it should bring us to our knees before our Savior. We confess how much we need Him, and how grateful we are that we have Him. Recognizing our insufficiency is just one way we deepen our appreciation for all we have in Christ. We humble ourselves not to make Him greater but because He is greater! He has brought us forgiveness and eternal life, sent us His Spirit. If we were left to our own devices, we would have no hope. But because of His love, rich in mercy, we have this gift from God.\nBonus: Christ is Risen by Matt Maher\nWe Didn’t Stay Perfect (2/1/15)\nFebruary 2, 2015 Josh Vajda\tLeave a comment\nThe Unfolding of the Fall\nFractured Relationships\nTotal Depravity—but not Extreme Depravity\nComparing Theories [new! not discussed in class]\nSo What Do We Do Until Then?\nBonus Thoughts\nWe all know the story of the Fall from Genesis 3. Perfect woman with perfect husband in perfect garden meets talking snake. He tempts her to disobey God and eat the forbidden fruit, then she hands some to her husband who does the same. God comes and gives them a spanking and sends them out of the garden.\nOk, so the details might be a little off… maybe even a little forgettable. But the story is familiar and the consequences tragic. We live in those consequences. So what does this story have to tell us about the world today and our lives in it?\nYou can learn a lot about sin and humanity by really chewing on the details here. Consider:\nThe serpent (we’re later told it’s also Satan) begins with questioning what God has said.\nThe question overgeneralizes and invites a conversation.\nThe woman adds to God’s commandment.\nThe serpent challenges God and offers a desirable half-truth.\nThe woman (although perfect) is tempted. That temptation draws her to inspect the fruit.\nLooking at the fruit, the woman focused on the positive side of the equation.\nShe risked her life trusting the serpent over God, because eating the fruit should have meant certain death.\nThe man ate without any signs of a struggle.\nTheir eyes were open. Before they knew only the good; now they knew good and evil.\nTheir first response to sin is to cover up, which indicates fear and probably shame.\nTheir response to God (their creator whom they knew personally!) was to hide. Apparently they either didn’t know or forgot that God is everywhere and knows everything.\nGod asks the man a question for effect.\nThe man blames his wife and even seems to accuse God.\nThe woman blames the serpent and even seems to deflect by saying she was tricked.\nAt this point God punishes the serpent, the man, and the woman by cursing all creation. Work will be hard, childbearing will be painful. But there is hope in the promise of One to come who will crush the serpent.\nI love how the Good News glimmers even in that first dark moment.\nIt’s so tempting to read more into the story because there are so many more details we wish we had. The gaps in the story invite our imaginations to jump in, but we need to be careful not to put words in God’s mouth.\nOne theme we see in the Fall is one broken relationship after another. We noted last week how we were created to need one another and how that’s a good thing. But after the Fall we see husband and wife blaming each other. Worse yet, we see them hiding from God. After creation is cursed there’s really nothing left: man’s relationships with God, with others, with creation, and even with himself are all broken. And so our need for each other grows even greater, but our incapacity to find what we need and be who we need to be for others makes meeting this need impossible.\nBut let’s be honest here: the biggest problem is this broken relationship with God. He is their Creator and Sustainer. He knows them personally, guides them, and has given them all they need. What’s more, He’s perfectly good. This fall into sin was an act of rebellion against a God who had been nothing but loving and giving. Everything depends on Him.\nIs it any wonder He warned them they would die?\nNow the astute reader will note they didn’t drop dead. Does this mean the serpent was right? Not hardly! This broken relationship with God is sometimes thought of a “spiritual death,” a state of unresponsiveness to God. I’m generally fine with this idea—after all, they certainly became separated from God! What else could you call a state apart from the God of life? Death makes sense.\nBut we know that this is where physical death enters the picture. Mankind wasn’t supposed to die. YOU right now reading this: you were never supposed to die. Now we tend to say death is a part of life. It wasn’t supposed to be that way. Death was never a part of life. Death is a reality we have to live with, but it’s not good.\nSo I think spiritual death metaphorically happened, but physical death literally happened. And the only reason they walked out of that garden alive has to have been God’s grace and mercy.\nAnother observation we can make is that Adam and Eve weren’t immediately as bad as they could have been. This is sometimes what we think when we talk about “total depravity.” If you want a really bleak picture you have to turn ahead a few pages to the state of the world before the Flood. It took a long time to get there.\nNo, extreme depravity wasn’t the result of the Fall, but total depravity still is. Total depravity is the doctrine that says sin bent every part of man. Sin pollutes man’s reason, man’s emotions, man’s willpower, man’s desires, man’s imagination, man’s memories, man’s senses, man’s body, and even man’s conscience. Nothing is safe. Nothing is pure.\nAnd this is intimately wrapped up in the image of God. Remember that man was made in God’s image, unique among all creation. But sin now pollutes that image. It’s still present—we still can’t help but “image” our Creator when we act rationally, make wise decisions, love others selflessly, and so on. Instead the image is defaced but not erased. What should normally reflect God’s character instead reflects a mixture of good and evil.\nComparing Theories\nNow if we take a step back, we all recognize that we live in a broken world. Very few people would argue that everything is perfect, that sin, suffering, and death somehow don’t exist or aren’t really bad. We (generally) all agree that there’s a problem. But there’s little agreement about why it is the way it is.\nPeople who don’t believe in a literal Adam and Even tanking the human race are generally stuck. For example, if you only believe in the natural world, evil is just a part of nature. Death is a part of life. Suffering is a biochemical response to destructive conditions. And if you’re just one organism out of millions competing for resources, all you can really say is that you don’t like these things. They are distasteful. Maybe you’re hard-wired to show empathy with others because of some evolutionary imperative, but objectively speaking what can you say?\nWell, you can say lots I suppose, but you can’t be consistent without ending up a nihilist.\nOther religions have the same problem: either evil belongs as some part of the bigger cosmic plan or it’s an illusion. Either way, it’s hard to take evil seriously. Either it belongs in some way, or it doesn’t exist at all. Either way it’s hard to justify our natural reactions to injustice, suffering, and death.\nBut let’s forget about consistency and get to work: what problems can we name and how do we fix them?\nIf the problem is society, the cure is social change.\nIf the problem is pride, the cure is humility.\nIf the problem is bad decisions, the cure is right decisions.\nIf the problem is lack of love, the cure is love.\nIf the problem is a broken relationship, the cure is forgiveness.\nIf the problem is rebellion, the cure is submission.\nIf the problem is demons, the cure is their destruction.\nIf the problem is illusion, the cure is truth.\nIf the problem is original sin, the cure is death of the old self.\nIf the problem is doubt, the cure is faith.\nIf the problem is in every part of us, the cure is a new creation.\nIf the problem is death, the cure is eternal life.\nOf course this just scratches the surface. But what I want you to notice is that for all of these problems, Christianity offers the solution. And for all of these problems, the solution is the same: that one seed of woman that God promised, the One to come that would crush the serpent. His name is Jesus.\nSome of these things were addressed in His first coming, when He died on the cross for our sins and rose to life to offer us eternal life. But the work isn’t done yet. He’s coming back to finish the work, to make all things new. Think about that. We’ll explain further another time.\nAs a wise poet named Tom once wrote, the waiting is the hardest part. If we as Christians are a new creation (we are), have eternal life (we do), are filled with the Holy Spirit (yup), and are no longer slaves to sin (seriously!), then why is the world still messed up? And more to the point, why are WE still messed up?\nFrankly, we still suffer the effects of sin in all our faculties. Our wills have been freed from slavery, but they’re still polluted. We won’t be fully free from the effects of sin until Jesus comes back.\nSo we’re no longer slaves, but we’re still polluted and live in a polluted world. We have the Holy Spirit, but we still choose to disobey. In theory you should be able to live a perfect life after you’re saved, but because we’ve already been marked by sin in our lives and live in an imperfect world, we will never be perfect under our own power.\nWhat do we do then? Give up? Of course not! We beat our bodies into submission. We learn right and wrong from Scripture, and we challenge our motives day to day.\nBut if we want to go the extra mile, we can’t do it alone.\nThere will be times you trick yourself into thinking you’re doing what’s right. There will be times you misread Scripture and misunderstand what God expects. And to guard against those times you need to surround yourself with fellow believers. You need people who know you, who know the Word, and who are committed to following Jesus with you. They can provide that outside check to make sure sin isn’t getting the best of you.\nBecause let’s face it: some days it’s hard to tell the difference between the Holy Spirit’s promptings and our own desires. Nothing can do better to counter that than other Spirit-filled people who bring a different perspective.\nWe ended up talking a lot about sanctification today, but that’s because it’s how we cope with the effects of the Fall in our lives. I don’t ever want to teach about sin and suffering and death without also pointing to the hope we have in Christ! The sin we as Christians struggle with is our bad choices day to day. If you’re saved, all you can do is persevere in what’s right and help others to do the same. We’ll say more about suffering and death another time.\nMy challenge to you is this: who do you have in your life who can give you that outside angle to your struggles and decisions? Where can you go to make sure you’re on the right path? If you’re not sure, start looking!\nWe need each other more than ever.\nIsn’t it interesting how hard it is to remember the details of a story we’ve heard dozens of times? Our memories aren’t perfect. It sure helps having other people to lean on…\nHistorically speaking, the discussion of the effects of the Fall gets really fun with Augustine and Pelagius. In a nutshell, Augustine argued that we are always in need of God’s grace, but Pelagius believed we didn’t suffer from original sin and could become perfect if we try hard enough.\nRegarding different relationships with sin, Augustine put it this way: God is not able to sin, Adam was created able not to sin, the Fall left us not able not to sin, and those in Christ are back where created Adam was: able not to sin.\nNext →\tabout josh\tJosh Vajda is a recent seminary grad who enjoys discussing theology, history, philosophy, Scripture, and culture. Read on...\ntweets of lateMy Tweetsjoin the conversationJosh Vajda on Annual Meeting in Review: ETS 2015Michael on Test-Driving an AdventJosh Vajda on Test-Driving an AdventMichael on Test-Driving an AdventMichael on Annual Meeting in Review: ETS 2015friends online\tLisa Robinson\nMichael Breznau\nNate Claiborne\nSten-Erik Armitage\na blog about theology and everything else", "answers": ["The three phases are exegetical, theological, and homiletical."], "length": 9437, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "46a2207a7a3f6d98effa73491cf83b63f92e29e0023c6e52"}
{"input": "What happens to the high resolution of what we focus on at dawn or dusk?", "context": "Inner Reality Unveiled\nInner Reality Unveiled\nby DragonFly on April 18th, 2018, 10:54 pm\nThere is no direct (literal) view of the actual reality 'out there'. Our inner viewport is ever only that of the model (qualia) of inner and outer reality built by the brain. We see/sense nothing but this model made inside the brain.\nWe don't see across a room or any scene but only across the model of the room/scene. We don't look through a microscope at an actual object but only look at a model of that object. You get the idea. A reflective color spectrum is used to make it look like that more distinctive color is a surface property of an object modeled.\nThe brain doesn't model everything, as a lot of it would be clutter, and for what remains as useful to portray the brain still doesn't have the resources to model everything at high resolution and so thus whatever we focus on gets all the high res detail put into it just in the nick of time when we look/focus. At dawn or dusk this high resolution becomes a bit less on what we focus on so that what's off to the left or right can be better noted in the dim light.\nSo far, nothing astounding here to us, although maybe to everyday folk that we only ever see the inside of the head/brain—the model.\nOf course, the shocks get worse, such as that our intentions cannot be those of first cause, self-made people, but from prior causes that we weren't able to choose and be responsible for. What is left, in short, is the freedom of action for these inbuilt intentions to operate, at least when not prevented by the weather or any other controlling factors, which 'freedom of action' amounts to compatibilism.\nOther notes on the above are that while we can never know if everything is deterministic, although we know that a lot is, whatever is indeterminate diminishes our modeling and our consistency.\nRe: Inner Reality Unveiled\nby DragonFly on April 20th, 2018, 3:14 pm\nTo continue, many feel that the model/qualia is very rich, but there's not anything to compare it to. Some creatures have a fourth primary color to work from and some have more smells and better hearing. Our colors (reflective spectrum) go through some averaging because of the various close frequencies about, but they still have a lot of pop to them. The model seems to be super real, where it has the focused detail, meaning better than real, or super real or surreal; surely colors win out over a bunch of waves (if they could be seen), these colors being very distinctive, which high contrast is what the model seems to be about. Away from the center of focus, the model has to be worse than cartoonish.\nOther qualia properties are intense, too, such as pain being able to be very painful, to the max, and such.\nQualia are based on initial isomorphic maps, meaning topographical, when representing the territory. For sounds, the map is for tones from the air vibrations, and for smell it is scents from the molecule shapes; for touch it is a body map. The isomorphism may get carried through even three levels of models, whereafter it seems to become more symbolic and less isomorphic, perhaps indicating that the information is ready to turn into qualia, the point at which the 'hard problem' manifests. It is thought that at least four levels of modules are required for the 'magic' of phenomenal transformation to occur; we have the problem surrounded but not yet solved. Perhaps it is enough to have a truth in lieu of its proof—that there is ontological subjectivity, meaning that it exists, although it may not be fundamental or miraculous.\nSo, in sum so far, direct realism is an illusion, but is a very useful illusion, which we might better call a fine representation by the model, since the word 'illusion' is more about what's wrong as not really showing its object as substantial and really being behind it. Dreams, then, would be better called illusions; further they demonstrate the power of the structure of the model. When we inspects objects in dreams they look just as good as when we see them awake, although backgrounds come and go inconsistently and there are narrative gaps (all of a sudden we are driving a vehicle without ever having gotten into it, plus the controls are a mystery.)\nAnother illusion is the feeling of having all of the information in a qualia scene as instantly available, as well as feeling that it is all happening in real time, plus that one is directing it all right then and there.\nby mitchellmckain on April 21st, 2018, 4:33 am\nYes and all those security cameras in the banks and stores must be a joke because anybody watching cannot see us but only see images on a display screen.\nby DragonFly on April 21st, 2018, 12:05 pm\nmitchellmckain » April 21st, 2018, 3:33 am wrote: Yes and all those security cameras in the banks and stores must be a joke because anybody watching cannot see us but only see images on a display screen.\nYou forgot that what the brain maps and models is a reliable representation of what's out there and in here.\nby mitchellmckain on April 21st, 2018, 12:16 pm\nDragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 11:05 am wrote:\nI was being sarcastic in order to point out this very fact. Whether images on a display screen or human consciousness, they are reliable representations and that means they do see what is really out there. The fact that this is indirect is not without logical implications, but not to the extent that you can say we do not apprehend an objective reality.\nby TheVat on April 21st, 2018, 12:29 pm\nThe evolutionary argument is a strong one, also, for the accuracy of our sensory representations of the external world. If you think a tiger's tail is a pretty flower, and try to pluck it, you won't be around long to reproduce.\nI invite anyone who thinks that bus hurtling down the street is nothing but a model in the brain to step in front of it.\nYour impression of the bus may be indirect, but it has a direct causal chain of connections to the actual bus out there. You are a photon collector, absorbing photons bounced off a bus. That way, it doesn't have to be you that's bounced off the bus.\nby DragonFly on April 21st, 2018, 2:19 pm\nMentally healthy responders need not worry about any unreliable representations due to there being no direct realism. As I showed, the representations are even improvements that bring out what is distinctive and important, as well as my indicating of an 'out there'. (The sarcasm thus fell doubly flat, run over by the bus, either because that mode is the nature of the person or this short thread wasn't read well.)\nThe world out there indeed comes to us (we don't reach out and probe it but for such as feeling our way in the dark), via photons for sight, and similarly comes to us in other ways for the other 'distance' senses. That the brain projects the objects back out there where they are, with depth (objects whose radiation came into us) is very useful. This trivia is mentioned here for completeness, for non scientific readers, but all the like herein is not contested.\nBack on track now, with derailment attempts ever unwelcome, but actual meaty posts extremely welcome, many neurologists note that awake consciousness doesn't easily get snuffed out, for a people may have many and various brain impairments yet they remain conscious, which, in short, without going through them all, indicates that there probably isn't any one 'Grand Central Station' where consciousness originates but that it may arise from any suitable hierarchy of brain modules.\nConsciousness, like life, requires embodiment, and is now thought to have been around in some form since the Cambrian explosion. As evolution proceeds via physical processes it rather follows that consciousness does too. Billions of years of small steps from a stable organism platform can acculuminate into what otherwise seems a miracle, but then again, miracles are instant. When extinction events wipe everything out, the process just starts up again, and probably has, several times over.\nSince qualia are structured, such as I described, plus healing the blind spot and more that wasn't put here, this again suggest that qualia have to be constructed from parts the brain has made from interpretations via physical processes.\nHow the phenomenal transform springs out remains as the central mystery of all. We think that there are larger mysteries, such as if there is any ultimate purpose to Existence, but this one is easy, for it can be shown that there can be no ultimate purpose. (There can be local and proximate purpose.) More an this another time or place.\nby mitchellmckain on April 21st, 2018, 4:00 pm\nI shall interpret the above as a request for a detailed point by point response to the OP.\nDragonFly » April 18th, 2018, 9:54 pm wrote: There is no direct (literal) view of the actual reality 'out there'. Our inner viewport is ever only that of the model (qualia) of inner and outer reality built by the brain. We see/sense nothing but this model made inside the brain.\nBut this is wrong, derived from delusional semantics as if \"seeing\" meant absorbing the objects themselves into our brain and mind. Of course, \"seeing\" means no such thing. \"Seeing\" means gathering data to construct a mental model of an external reality. We don't, in fact, \"see\" this inner model at all. This \"model\" is a product of speculation and abstraction in meta-conscious process of self-reflection.\nOur inner viewport is thus one of looking out at the outer reality and not one of looking at the model. We do see across a room -- USING a mental model. We do not see the mental model except by speculative imagination. The most we can say is that by using such a process of mental modeling in order to see, there can be deviations due to a variety of neurological and mental processes being involved, including the role of beliefs in our interpretations. Thus our perceptions cannot be fully separated from our beliefs and our access to the world is fundamentally subjective. The objective can only be fully realized by a process of abstraction through communication with others.\nDragonFly » April 18th, 2018, 9:54 pm wrote: The brain doesn't model everything, as a lot of it would be clutter, and for what remains as useful to portray the brain still doesn't have the resources to model everything at high resolution and so thus whatever we focus on gets all the high res detail put into it just in the nick of time when we look/focus. \nDragonFly » April 18th, 2018, 9:54 pm wrote: Of course, the shocks get worse, such as that our intentions cannot be those of first cause, self-made people, but from prior causes that we weren't able to choose and be responsible for. What is left, in short, is the freedom of action for these inbuilt intentions to operate, at least when not prevented by the weather or any other controlling factors, which 'freedom of action' amounts to compatibilism.\nYour philosophical conclusions here will not be mistaken for scientific observations. Your interpretations are based on your own presumptions which I reject as incorrect. The process of human intention and action is certainly a complex one but the fact remains that the first causes do exist. People may be capable of simply watching much of their life pass by as an minimally participating observer (with all sorts of fatalistic and compatibilist dodges and delusions of objectivity), but others choose to take ownership of the first causes within them as a fully responsible participants in their own life.\nAlso as I have mentioned numerous times before, there is nothing absolute or guaranteed about this freedom of will. It can certainly be greatly diminished by a great number of things such as drugs, illness, habits, and even beliefs. This just means that we are ill advised to judge others according to our own perception and choices.\nDragonFly » April 18th, 2018, 9:54 pm wrote: Other notes on the above are that while we can never know if everything is deterministic, although we know that a lot is, whatever is indeterminate diminishes our modeling and our consistency.\nWe can know that the experimental results show that there are events not determined by any hidden variables within the scientific worldview. People are free to ignore these results and stubbornly cling to presumptions to the contrary but they are being unreasonable if they expect other people to accept the conclusions which they are deriving from such willfulness.\nAnd to head off the typical strawmen, I am not claiming that determinism has been disproven any more than the scientific evidence for evolution disproves divine intelligent design. Science is not a matter of proof, but of accepting that what the evidence and experimental results show us are the basis of what is reasonable to accept until there is evidence to the contrary.\nmitchellmckain » April 21st, 2018, 3:00 pm wrote: But this is wrong, derived from delusional semantics as if \"seeing\" meant absorbing the objects themselves into our brain and mind. Of course, \"seeing\" means no such thing. \"Seeing\" means gathering data to construct a mental model of an external reality. We don't, in fact, \"see\" this inner model at all. This \"model\" is a product of speculation and abstraction in meta-conscious process of self-reflection.\nYes, the view point is within the model. We don't literally 'see' across a room. The model gets 'viewed' and navigated and noted and whatnot. The outer reality is not able to be viewed directly but is usefully \"looked out at\" through a representation. Do you directly see wave frequencies air vibrations, and molecule shapes? I didn't mean 'seeing' in the sense of eye stuff, but I note the word problem.\nmitchellmckain » April 21st, 2018, 3:00 pm wrote:\nYes, I was reading a large road sign with many words and the words at the bottom didn't come into focus until I got down to them. Our computers have many more terabytes than the brain has.\nmitchellmckain » April 21st, 2018, 3:00 pm wrote: Your philosophical conclusions here will not be mistaken for scientific observations. Your interpretations are based on your own presumptions which I reject as incorrect. The process of human intention and action is certainly a complex one but the fact remains that the first causes do exist. People may be capable of simply watching much of their life pass by as an minimally participating observer (with all sorts of fatalistic and compatibilist dodges and delusions of objectivity), but others choose to take ownership of the first causes within them as a fully responsible participants in their own life.\nTotal libertarians do claim that they are first cause, self made people at every instant. How does this work? A theory of conscious intentions happening without any underlying physical processes ('you') behind them is the toughest sell of all proposals on the will, so it's no wonder that this 'being free of the will' can't be shown. Plus, why does one want this? Perhaps a distaste for having a will that wills things in the subconscious dark. These trillions of connections firing are not portrayed in consciousness, thank goodness.\nYes, as I said, some is indeterminate, so there is no ignoring. (You don't seem to read well, even when seeing it again when you quote it.) The more indeterminacy the worse we are able to carry our our ability to operate, which minimal and trivial capability is called 'freedom of action'. So be it. We have learned something. People want more than this, though, and so they will have to show that that's possible while still retaining the self/will. How is responsibility gained at any point when one was never responsible for prior causes toward one's being/self that couldn't be chosen?\nSo, prison time need not be assigned for retribution only, more compassion can be granted for those who did as they had to, and we come to better understand our place in the universe. Life is great for experiencing and living, and fatalism isn't recommended, for it could work against the enjoyment.\nP.S. There is no point at which ultimate purpose/intention could have been applied to what is eternal, as well as none to be applied to something springing from nothing (which, though impossible, I include for completeness, for the \"springing\" capability would still be an eternal 'something'.)\nIt's fine with me if you want a fully formed Being with a system of intelligence to be there First, amid nothing else, but to stick to the template of ID, then a Higher ID had to be behind it, etc., or we could just forget about the one-off usage golden template of ID. The universe looks to be tuned, if it is, for mostly a lot of hydrogen gas in endless sparse spaces. It took ten billion years for us to be able to persist a bit in our rarity amid the waste. [/quote]\nDragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote:\nYes, as I said, some is indeterminate, so there is no ignoring.\nIncorrect. You did not say \"some is indeterminate.\" So either you do not write well, cannot understand the logic of your own words, or you make up things as an excuse to attack other people. In fact, this can be identified with a logical fallacy. \"Whatever is indeterminate diminishes our modeling\" means our modeling is diminished IF there is anything indeterminate. If A then B does not allow you affirm A, so by equating these two you have committed a logical fallacy. Furthermore it is amazing how far out on a limb you go to concoct such an attack. You said, \"we cannot know if everything is deterministic,\" which is utterly inconsistent with a clam that \"some is indeterminate,\" because if some is indeterminate then you would know that it is NOT deterministic.\nDragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: Total libertarians do claim that they are first cause, self made people at every instant.\nThe philosophers who claim that we have free actions are called libertarians. The radical opposition that libertarians pose to the determinist position is their acceptance of free actions. Libertarians accept the incompatibility premise that holds agents morally responsible for free actions. Incompatibilism maintains that determinism is incompatible with human freedom. Libertarians accept that there are free actions, and in doing so, believe that we are morally responsible for some of our actions, namely, the free ones.\nThe libertarian ONLY claims that we do have free will actions and affirm the incompatibility of determinism with free will. There is no claim here that free will is absolute, inviolable, and applies to every action and thus that people are \"self made at every instance.\"\nThus in the following it is clear you are burning an absurd strawman.\nDragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: How does this work? A theory of conscious intentions happening without any underlying physical processes ('you') behind them is the toughest sell of all proposals on the will, so it's no wonder that this 'being free of the will' can't be shown. Plus, why does one want this? Perhaps a distaste for having a will that wills things in the subconscious dark. These trillions of connections firing are not portrayed in consciousness, thank goodness.\nSomeone only claims the opposition is selling something absurdly silly because they want to make something only slightly less absurd and silly sound reasonable by comparison. But to make sure you understand...\n1. Nobody HERE is selling a theory of conscious intention without any underlying physical processes.\n2. Nobody HERE is claiming any \"being free of the will\"\nThese are indeed nonsense.\n1. As a physicalist with regards to the mind-body problem I oppose the idea of conscious intention without any physical processes. Nor would I assert that there are no unconscious processes underlying our conscious intentions. But as I explained in another thread just because there are such processes does not mean we have no responsibility for them or that our intention does not constitute a conscious cause of our action.\n2. As a libertarian it is absurd to think free will means freedom from the will. What we reject is the attempt to separate the self from desires and will as if these were some external thing forcing people to do things. This is nothing but pure empty rhetoric on the part of the opposition. Freedom from the will is the OPPOSITE of free will. If you are not acting according to your desire then this is an example of actions without free will.\nDragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: The more indeterminacy the worse we are able to carry our our ability to operate, which minimal and trivial capability is called 'freedom of action'.\nIncorrect. This is only because you equate freedom with control. It is not the same thing. Besides the indeterminacy in the laws of physics is only with respect to a system of mathematical laws. It doesn't really say that nothing causes the result, but only that there are no variables to make the exact result calculable.\nDragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: How is responsibility gained at any point when one was never responsible for prior causes toward one's being/self that couldn't be chosen?\nAgain it is because free will does not equal control. Free will only means you choose how to respond to the situation. It does require an awareness of alternatives, but it does not require an ability to dictate exactly what will happen in the future.\nDragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: So, prison time need not be assigned for retribution only, more compassion can be granted for those who did as they had to, and we come to better understand our place in the universe. Life is great for experiencing and living, and fatalism isn't recommended, for it could work against the enjoyment.\nWhile imprisonment may be an improvement over the old English law, the inadequacies are legion. It was indeed invented as a means of reforming the convicted even if it fails to accomplish this very well. To be sure, \"retribution\" is a lousy basis for a system of justice. But the point of \"mercy\" isn't just compassion but to acknowledge the fact that mistakes are part of the process by which we learn. Therefore, coming down on people like a load bricks for any mistake is counterproductive. On the other hand, we would be foolish not to consider whether a person in question is showing any ability to learn from their mistakes. If not, a change of environment/circumstances is probably called for, even if today's prisons largely fail to be environment needed.\nObserve that this analysis of justice and mercy has nothing whatsoever to do with free will. The government of a free society should be founded upon what can be objectively established and free will is not one of these things. In the above consideration of justice and mercy, the question of whether a person truly has free will is completely irrelevant.\nDragonFly » April 21st, 2018, 3:57 pm wrote: It's fine with me if you want a fully formed Being with a system of intelligence to be there First, amid nothing else, but to stick to the template of ID, then a Higher ID had to be behind it, etc., or we could just forget about the one-off usage golden template of ID. The universe looks to be tuned, if it is, for mostly a lot of hydrogen gas in endless sparse spaces. It took ten billion years for us to be able to persist a bit in our rarity amid the waste.\nI consider Intelligent Design to be attack upon science -- shoving theology into a place where it clearly does not belong. Nor do I agree with intelligent design even in theology, for I think that evolution is more compatible with a belief in a loving God (because of the philosophical problem of evil). Frankly, I consider design to be incompatible with the very essence of what life is.\nDragonFly liked this post\nGreat post, Mitch.\nI'm referring to \"a lot is determinate\", leaving room that some is indeterminate since QM finds this, and some brain doings may be at the micro-macro boundary and be affected, this degrading our ability to operate our intentions.\nHere's a \"libertarian\" example/definition that may fit better:\n“Hard Determinism and Libertarianism\nProbing further into the free will-debate, we meet two different kinds of incompatibilist positions: hard determinism, which holds that determinism is true and that free will is not compatible with determinism, and libertarianism, which holds that we do have free will and that determinism is false. Given that these positions agree about the definition of determinism, we here actually have a genuine disagreement over fundamental ontological matters – a disagreement about whether determinism is true or not. This is a peculiar question to have strong disagreements about, however, since we know the final answer that we will ever get concerning the truth of determinism: that the state of the world is caused to be the way it is by its prior state at least to some degree, but to what degree exactly can never be known.\nThe libertarian position has often been criticized with the argument that even if determinism is not true, we still do not have free will, since our actions then simply are the product of a combination of deterministic and indeterministic events that we still do not ultimately choose ourselves, a view referred to as hard incompatibilism. Libertarians do not necessarily accept that this argument shows that we do not have free will, and the reason, or at least a big part of it, should not surprise anyone at this point: they simply define free will differently. According to libertarians, such as Robert Nozick and Robert Kane, one has free will if one could have acted otherwise than one did, and if indeterminism is true, then it may be true that we could have “acted” differently than we did under the exact same circumstances, and that we thereby might have free will in this sense. It should be pointed out, though, that critics of libertarianism are“rightly skeptical about the relevance of this kind of free will. First of all, the free will that libertarians endorse is, unlike what many libertarians seem to think, not an ethically relevant kind of freedom, and it does not have anything to do with the freedom of action that we by definition want. Second, the hard incompatibilist is right that no matter what is true about the degree to which the universe is deterministic, our actions are still caused by prior causes ultimately beyond our own control, which few of those who identify themselves as libertarians seem to want to acknowledge. And lastly, the fact that our actions are caused by causes ultimately beyond our own control does, if we truly appreciated, undermine our intuition of retributive justice, an intuition that libertarians generally seem to want to defend intellectually. So, as many have pointed out already, libertarians are simply on a failed mission.\nTogether with the want to defend retributive blame and punishment, what seems to be the main motivation for people who defend a libertarian notion of free will seems to be a fear of predeterminism, a fear of there being just one possible outcome from the present state of the universe, which would imply that we ultimately cannot do anything to cause a different outcome than the one possible. Libertarians and others with the same fear have artfully tried to make various models to help them overcome this fear, for instance so-called two-stage models that propose that our choices consist of an indeterministic stage of generation of possible actions, and then our non-random choice of one of them. (It should be noted, in relation to such models, that even if this is how our choices are made, our choice to choose one of these “alternative possibilities” will still be caused by prior causes that are ultimately completely beyond our own control. Nothing changes this fact, again because decision-making is the product of complex physical processes; it is not an uncaused event.) It is generally unclear what the purpose of such models is. Are they a hypotheses we should test? They do not seem to be. Generally, these models most of all seem like an attempt to make the world fit our preconceived intuitions, which most of all resembles pseudoscience.\nFortunately, there is plenty of relief available to the libertarians and other people who have this fear, and it does not involve any unscientific models – neither two-stage, three-stage, nor any other number of stages. The source of this relief is the simple earlier-mentioned fact that we can never know whether there is just one or infinitely many possible outcomes from the present state of the universe. This simple fact gives us all the relief we could ask for, because it reveals that there is no reason to be sure that there is just one possible outcome from the present state of the universe. And, to repeat an important point, we are then left with the conclusion that the only reasonable thing to do is to try to make the best impact we can in the world, which is true no matter whether there is just one possible outcome from the present state of the universe or not, since our actions still have consequences and therefore still matter even in a fully deterministic universe.\nSome, especially libertarians, might want to object to the claim that we can never know whether determinism is true or not, and even claim that we in fact now know, or at least have good reasons to believe, that indeterminism is true. Here is neuroscientist Peter Tse expressing something along those lines: “Henceforth, I will accept the weight of evidence from modern physics, and assume ontological indeterminism to be the case.” (Tse, 2013, p. 244). Making this assumption is, however, to take a position on an unanswerable question. Again, rather than making strong claims about this question, we should stick to what we in fact know, namely that we do not know.”\nExcerpt From: Magnus Vinding. “Free Will: An Examination of Human Freedom.” iBooks. https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/free-w ... 3363?mt=11\nTo extend the OP's implications of physical processes/causes dominating…\nThere are still real values in an existence with no ultimate purpose, this 'value' meaning good and bad valences and actions. It would be of great value to lessen suffering and improve well-being in humans and in all species. (Fixed wills are dynamic, simply meaning that they can learn and thus change to a better fixed will.)\nAs for our model of reality, this is consciousness and it is ever our only view point inside the head in a brain, being what it is like to experience the world from the inside out.\nby RJG on April 22nd, 2018, 1:07 am\nDirect realism is not possible. We humans can only experience 'experiences' (sensations; sense data), not the 'real' things or objects themselves. Furthermore, we have no way of knowing if these experiences represent 'real' objects, or are just simply products of illusion; hallucination, delusion, dream, mirage, etc.\nFor this reason, solipsism is a possibility (i.e. it is just as plausible as it is not), and true self-awareness is not possible (i.e. we don't experience objects, including those called 'self')\nDragonFly wrote: There is no direct (literal) view of the actual reality 'out there'. Our inner viewport is ever only that of the model (qualia) of inner and outer reality built by the brain. We see/sense nothing but this model made inside the brain.\nBraininvat wrote: I invite anyone who thinks that bus hurtling down the street is nothing but a model in the brain to step in front of it.\nIsn't it possible to dream or hallucinate stepping out in front of a bus hurtling down the street? This does not mean that the bus (in the dream/hallucination) is actually 'real'.\nOne does not normally step out in front of a bus (even in dreams) because they think it is not real, - it is the 'fear' (that it might be real, and) being smashed by it, that compels one not to step in front of it.\nBraininvat wrote: Your impression of the bus may be indirect, but it has a direct causal chain of connections to the actual bus out there.\nNot necessarily. You are assuming there is an \"actual\" bus out there (instead of a possible \"hallucinated\" bus). We have no way of knowing the cause of our mental impressions.\nby wolfhnd on April 22nd, 2018, 3:31 am\nA bus that we do not step in front of is an extremely low resolution concept of what a bus is. Only the people who design and maintain the bus really know what a bus is at a relatively high resolution. Even then the designer doesn't really know the bus on the street because a bus is not just a collection of parts but takes it's meaning from an even more complex social and physical environment.\nIf you're a realist you assume that the bus can in theory be defined down to it's subatomic particles and a high resolution image of what it is can be created. The problem is that human perspective such an approach strips meaning from the image.\nThe other problem is that the kind of truth that a purely scientific approach provides tends to confuse the thing itself with it's mathematical model. The kind of absolutism that math provides is always subjective first because the parameters are always finite but the environment from our perspective is practically infinite and second because the model is an approximation even if 2+2 is always 4. A reductionist approach is a practical necessity that doesn't satisfy the evolutionary imperative for meaning.\nThe old view that everything can be reduced to cause and effect is itself challenged by the accepted view that determinism itself breaks down at tiny scales. Myself I'm not bothered by the indeterminate because I'm a pragmatist and close enough seems to satisfy practical solutions, scientific issues and philosophical questions. The philosophers goal is to determine what constitutes close enough to preserve life and meaning.\nmitchellmckain wrote: If you are not acting according to your desire then this is an example of actions without free will.\nIf you act according to your desires, then you are it's slave. There is no free-will in slavery.\nWe don't control our desires. Our desires control us.\nby DragonFly on April 22nd, 2018, 10:40 am\n“This distinction between subject and object is not just an interesting oddity. It begins at the level of physics in the distinction between the probability inherent in symbolic measurements and the certainty of material laws. The distinction is later exemplified in the difference between a genotype, the sequence of nucleotide symbols that make up an organism’s DNA, and phenotype, its actual physical structure that those symbols prescribe. It travels with us up the evolutionary layers to the distinction between the mind and the brain.”\n“These concepts will help us see how neural circuits are structures with a double life: they carry symbolic information, which is subject to arbitrary rules, yet they possess a material structure that is subject to the laws of physics.”\nExcerpt From: Michael S. Gazzaniga. “The Consciousness Instinct.” iBooks. https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/the-co ... 3607?mt=11\nby Neri on April 22nd, 2018, 11:13 am\nOn this topic, I should like to associate myself with the views of Mitch and BIV and will only add s few additional comments.\nThe question is not whether our experience is equivalent in every way to what lies outside of us, for such a thing is impossible.\n[A perception cannot be exactly the same as a material object, for the former depends upon a sentient being for its existence, whereas the latter does not. Further, it is impossible to know everything that may be predicated of any material object by merely perceiving it.]\nThe real question is: Do sense impressions correspond to material objects in such a way that they are effective in preserving us from dangers that lie outside of us?\nThis question veritably answers itself. Only a madman would deny the evidence of his own senses.\nIt is essential to understand that the correspondence of which I speak depends on the reality of motion [from which we derive the ideas of time and space].\nTo keep ourselves safe, it is necessary that we have the ability to know when a material object is moving closer or further from us and to be able to recognize an object as a danger. This, the senses give us, for perceptions like all other experiences are memories [are preserved over time].\nAn object is recognized as a danger through prior sensory experiences preserved as long-term memories.\nIn order to be recognized and remembered as a danger, a material object must have the power to produce a particular human experience of it.\nThat power is part of the nature of the object and is thus truly reflected in the perception of it—even though there may be more to the object than its power to yield a human perception.\nTo the reasonable mind, the above comments may properly be seen as statements of the obvious. The curious fact, however, is that a whole school of western philosophy has labored mightily to deny the obvious.\nI agree; I'm only delving into the inner experience to see how it works and what may become of that.\nby TheVat on April 22nd, 2018, 11:57 am\nRJG, this tablet ate the quoted part of your post and somehow hid the submit button, so sorry about the missing comment....\nNo, I was not assuming the in-the-moment knowledge, but rather that facts about buses are physically verifiable when science is applied. It is not difficult to verify that I was neither dreaming nor hallucinating. We are saved from solipsism by the multiplicity of observers and their reports. We can open a book and read complex prose (something that can't be done in dreams) that reveals areas of knowledge utterly unknown to us and beyond our previous experiences. We have senses enhanced by instruments that can show us photons leaving the photosphere of the sun and bouncing off solid objects like buses in particular and regular patterns, etc. Inner phenomenal reality and external reality are seamlessly connected and interacting - it is only big cranium apes like us who erect a wall of demarcation between them. Or drugs or pathological conditions that disrupt the causal connections.\nTo say that sensory data is incomplete is not equivalent to saying that it is deceptive. We are deceived only if we imagine that our impressions are complete. Our brains are engineered to find relevant data, not complete data. (\"engineered\" probably needs quotes)\nby TheVat on April 22nd, 2018, 12:00 pm\nHad to use Quick Reply window to post the above. Anyone else losing the submit button after Full Editor has been open for a couple minutes?? I will try to make sure this doesn't happen to anyone.\nby DragonFly on April 22nd, 2018, 1:58 pm\nWhat else, for now:\n“Finally, affective consciousness—emotionally positive and negative feelings—has its own brain circuits, it does not require isomorphic mapping, and it may be experienced as mental states rather than mental images (figure 2.5B; chapters 7 and 8). Thus, isomorphic maps are only one part of the creation and evolution of subjectivity and “something it is like to be”; many other special and general features (table 2.1) are required to create sensory consciousness and ontological subjectivity.”\n“Consciousness-associated attention has several subtypes, including bottom-up (exogenous) versus top-down (endogenous) attention.48 Bottom-up attention is driven by the importance of the incoming stimuli and leads to the animal orienting to things that happen suddenly in the environment. Top-down attention, on the other hand, involves proactive anticipation, maintaining attention by concentration and focusing on goals.\nExcerpt From: Todd E. Feinberg. “The Ancient Origins of Consciousness.” iBooks. https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/the-an ... 6953?mt=11\nby RJG on April 22nd, 2018, 2:58 pm\nNeri wrote: The real question is: Do sense impressions correspond to material objects in such a way that they are effective in preserving us from dangers that lie outside of us?\nFirstly, we are not consciously aware of the actual causers (the supposed 'real' objects themselves) of these \"sense impressions\". We are only consciously aware of the actual \"sense impressions\" (i.e. the actual physical bodily reactions; experiences) themselves, ...and of course this is only after they occur (after they impact our body).\nSecondly, we all assume that these \"sense impressions\" are the result of something 'real' out-there. Whether from a misfiring (hallucinating) brain, or from sensory signals emanating from a real object itself, it is still nonetheless 'real'. We all assume these \"sense impressions\" are the automatic reaction/response from some 'real' stimuli.\nThirdly, what \"preserves us from danger\" is NOT the conscious awareness of our sense impressions, but instead, it is the body's automatic RESPONSE to this danger (STIMULI) that \"preserves us from danger\", ...and not the conscious awareness of said response.\nFourthly, if the body auto-responds in a particular way then the likelihood of survivability is enhanced, and if the response is otherwise then it may be diminished.\nNeri wrote: To keep ourselves safe, it is necessary that we have the ability to know when a material object is moving closer or further from us and to be able to recognize an object as a danger.\nNot so. It is NOT the \"knowing\" or \"recognizing\" of the dangerous moving object that \"keep ourselves safe\". It is the body's automatic reaction/response to this moving object (stimuli) that \"keep ourselves safe\".\nRemember, we can only be conscious of (i.e. know or recognize) actual bodily reactions/events, and not of other 'external' events. We don't consciously know/recognize how we responded until 'after' we (our body) responds. Our consciousness (knowing/recognizing) is wholly dependent upon our bodily reactions/responses, ...NOT the other way around.\nWithout something (e.g. sense impressions; bodily reactions) to be conscious of, then there is no consciousness (...no knowing or recognizing!).\nBraininvat wrote: No, I was not assuming the in-the-moment knowledge, but rather that facts about buses are physically verifiable when science is applied.\nCan't one hallucinate they are doing verifiable science?\nBraininvat wrote: It is not difficult to verify that I was neither dreaming nor hallucinating...\n...We can open a book and read complex prose (something that can't be done in dreams) that reveals areas of knowledge utterly unknown to us and beyond our previous experiences.\nI'm not so confident/convinced of this. Have you seen the movie \"A Beautiful Mind\"? ...or have had family members with mental issues?\nBraininvat wrote: We are saved from solipsism by the multiplicity of observers and their reports...\n...We have senses enhanced by instruments that can show us photons leaving the photosphere of the sun and bouncing off solid objects like buses in particular and regular patterns, etc. Inner phenomenal reality and external reality are seamlessly connected and interacting - it is only big cranium apes like us who erect a wall of demarcation between them.\nIsn't it possible to hallucinate these \"multiple observers and their reports\", ...and their \"instrumentation\" results?\nOther than by 'blind faith', how can one really know that their perceptions are the 'true' representations of reality? ...I think it is not possible, ...I think we can only 'hope' that our personal view is of reality itself.\nWe can't perceive beyond our current (\"suspect\") perceptions.\nHow about that the 'knowing' is done by the brain that built the qualia showing the danger, for the brain thus already has the information available, in whatever form it uses to 'know'.\nby TheVat on April 22nd, 2018, 4:50 pm\nIsnt it possible to hallucinate these \"multiple observers and their reports\", ...and their \"instrumentation\" results?\n- RJG\nFor me, that level of arch-skepticism is an epistemic doldrums zone. As David Hume famously observed about a conference on epistemology on Europe, \"on finishing their discussion, the participants all departed by means of the doors. \" (or similar; don't have exact quote handy ATM)\nWhenever I write numbers in dreams they change as I write them and when I read it often fills up with garbage.\nI've been lucidly inspecting my dreams. Some flaws are that bugs appear as triangles. Yesterday, I was going to eat in a cafeteria but you had to bring your own plates from home, so I already suspected something. I did find a pile of plates and took one, but I was soon somehow holding the whole pile, which then happened again and again, so, as in these stuck cases, I clench my whole body and that wakes me up. Other times, for lesser problems or to be sure of the dream state, I am able to open one eye and see the window and then go back to the dream. And sometimes the dream perfectly shows an entire scene in fabulous detail, such as a mid summer dusk, with even those whirly things floating through the air.\nby mitchellmckain on April 23rd, 2018, 4:00 am\nDragonFly » April 20th, 2018, 2:14 pm wrote: The model seems to be super real,\nTo me, that seems like a completely nonsensical thing to say to. \"Seems real\" compared to what? By the only standard we have, it is real, for it is the only standard which we have for making such a measurement. What you say is practically Platonic in the implied imagination of some greater reality somewhere else.\nDragonFly » April 20th, 2018, 2:14 pm wrote: So, in sum so far, direct realism is an illusion, but is a very useful illusion, which we might better call a fine representation by the model, since the word 'illusion' is more about what's wrong as not really showing its object as substantial and really being behind it.\nIn philosophy of mind, naïve realism, also known as direct realism or common sense realism, is the idea that the senses provide us with direct awareness of objects as they really are. Objects obey the laws of physics and retain all their properties whether or not there is anyone to observe them.[1] They are composed of matter, occupy space and have properties, such as size, shape, texture, smell, taste and colour, that are usually perceived correctly.\nIn contrast, some forms of idealism claim that no world exists apart from mind-dependent ideas, and some forms of skepticism say we cannot trust our senses. Naïve realism is known as direct as against indirect or representative realism when its arguments are developed to counter the latter position, also known as epistemological dualism;[2] that our conscious experience is not of the real world but of an internal representation of the world.\nThere is nothing of illusion in direct realism. There is only the foolish rhetoric implying that \"direct\" in \"direct realism\" means absorbing the actual object rather than data from those objects. The data IS from actual objects and does provide awareness of actual objects obeying the laws of physics. The implication that anyone is confusing the awareness of an object with the object itself is just ridiculous. Instead you can say that the process of perception is what makes illusions possible. Because we are interpreting data, then it is entirely possible for similar data to suggest something other than what is the case, such as the impression of water from a mirage -- at least until we learn the distinctions.\nWhen you consider the philosophical alternative, plastering the word \"illusion\" on direct realism implies that idealism is the reality beneath it. And that is an implication I would refute most heatedly. As for indirect realism, as I explained above, I think it is carrying things too far to say that we are experiencing the model instead of reality. Instead I would limits the validity only to the idea that we use a model in the process of perception. In that sense you could say my position is in-between that of direct realism and indirect realism.\nDragonFly » April 20th, 2018, 2:14 pm wrote: Dreams, then, would be better called illusions; further they demonstrate the power of the structure of the model. When we inspects objects in dreams they look just as good as when we see them awake, although backgrounds come and go inconsistently and there are narrative gaps (all of a sudden we are driving a vehicle without ever having gotten into it, plus the controls are a mystery.)\nI think it is unwise to make generalizations about dreams in such a manner. That is not my experience of dreams at all. My impression is that dreams consist of a mental (linguistic) narrative using memory to fill in the details. The only uniqueness in such experiences are the irrational combinations and discontinuities. Because of this, I have no sense this is anywhere near as good as when we see things awake, when we are interpreting fresh new sensory data. For me, this imparts a considerably dim character to the dream experience.\nFor me dreams are rather comparable to when I envision scenarios for my books. I see them in my mind's eye but not in a manner that is remotely comparable to my experience of reality through the senses. I am not suggesting that everyone experiences dreams this way. On the contrary, the phenomenon of schizophrenia suggests to me that some people can see things in their minds eye with the same vividness of the senses, for otherwise, how can they not know the difference?\nDragonFly » April 20th, 2018, 2:14 pm wrote: Another illusion is the feeling of having all of the information in a qualia scene as instantly available, as well as feeling that it is all happening in real time, plus that one is directing it all right then and there.\nCalling this illusion is a gross exaggeration. At most it is simply approximation.\nby DragonFly on April 23rd, 2018, 11:37 am\n'Imagination' (say, of things to happen in a book,) uses the model, too, but the scenes are about 90% transparent, probably so they don't get in the way of the real scenes about.\nby DragonFly on April 23rd, 2018, 2:51 pm\nBoggling idea of the Subject/Object Cut…\n“The Schnitt and the Origins of Life\nPhysicists refer to the inescapable separation of a subject (the measurer) from an object (the measured) as die Schnitt. (What a great word!) Pattee calls “this unavoidable conceptual separation of the knower and the known, or the symbolic record of an event and the event itself, the epistemic cut.\nThere is a world of actions that exists on the side of the observer with the observer’s record of an event. There is also a separate world of actions on the side of the event itself. This sounds confusing, but think of the explanatory gap between your subjective experience of an event (I had so much fun body-surfing) and the event itself (A person went swimming in the ocean). Alternately, you can think of the explanatory gap between the same subjective experience (This is fun) and the goings-on within the brain (Some neurons fired while a person was swimming in the ocean). These are all just versions of the subject/object complementarity seen in physics. Here is the really wild part: Who’s measuring the events? To examine the difference between a person’s subjective experience and objective reality, do we need a scientist? Who’s measuring the scientist?\nPattee points out that neither classical nor quantum theory formally defines the subject, that is, the agent or observer that determines what is measured. Physics, therefore, does not say where to make the epistemic cut.4 Quantum measurement does not need a physicist-observer, however. Pattee argues that other things can perform quantum measurements. For example, enzymes (such as DNA polymerases) can act as measurement agents, performing quantum measurement during a cell’s replication process. No human observer is needed.\nFor Schrödinger, the joke was on us. He was trying to point out that there is something missing in our understanding. Pattee got it (in high school) and buckled down to attack the problem. Where should we put the cut, the gap, die Schnitt? With his consuming interest in the origins of life, he came to realize that human consciousness was way too high a layer in the architecture of all living organisms to put the epistemic cut between the observer and the observed, between the subjective experience and the event itself. There are umpteen layers between subatomic particles and human brains. There are plenty of layers between subatomic particles and brains in general (cat or mouse or fly or worm). Putting the major epistemic cut that high led to the nonsense of Schrödinger’s cat existing as a quantum system. There was no pussyfooting around for Pattee: “I have taken the point of view that the question of what constitutes an observation in quantum mechanics must arise long before we reach the complexity of the brain. In fact, I propose … that the gap between quantum and classical behavior is inherent in the distinction between inanimate and living matter.\nThere you have it. Pattee proposes that the gap resulted from a process equivalent to quantum measurement that began with self-replication at the origin of life with the cell as the simplest agent. The epistemic cut, the subject/object cut, the mind/matter cut, all are rooted to that original cut at the origin of life. The gap between subjective feeling and objective neural firings didn’t come about with the appearance of brains. It was already there when the first cell started living. Two complementary modes of behavior, two levels of description are inherent in life itself, were present at the origin of life, have been conserved by evolution, and continue to be necessary for differentiating subjective experience from the event itself. That is a mind-boggling idea.”\nby mitchellmckain on April 24th, 2018, 1:06 pm\nThe \"like\" on the above post is not to be construed as complete agreement with conclusions, but rather more with an abundant approval of the questions and issues raised.\nDragonFly » April 23rd, 2018, 1:51 pm wrote: Boggling idea of the Subject/Object Cut…\nAbsolute agreement here! I have always considered quantum interpretations linking quantum decoherence with human consciousness to be absurd -- with one exception. The one interpretation which makes this link and is not absurd is the Everett Interpretation. THOUGH, I would not count this in its favor! Furthermore, it isn't actually necessary to the Everett Interpretation, for it is quite possible to shift the locus of the decoherence in this interpetation to agree with other interpretations.\nDragonFly » April 23rd, 2018, 1:51 pm wrote: For Schrödinger, the joke was on us. He was trying to point out that there is something missing in our understanding.\nAgreed! That is how I have always understood the Schrödinger cat thought experiment. It was not to seriously propose the existence of dead-alive cats but to highlight the absurdities which come from the way that quantum physics was usually being presented.\nDragonFly » April 23rd, 2018, 1:51 pm wrote: Pattee got it (in high school) and buckled down to attack the problem. Where should we put the cut, the gap, die Schnitt? With his consuming interest in the origins of life, he came to realize that human consciousness was way too high a layer in the architecture of all living organisms to put the epistemic cut between the observer and the observed, between the subjective experience and the event itself. There are umpteen layers between subatomic particles and human brains. There are plenty of layers between subatomic particles and brains in general (cat or mouse or fly or worm). Putting the major epistemic cut that high led to the nonsense of Schrödinger’s cat existing as a quantum system. There was no pussyfooting around for Pattee: “I have taken the point of view that the question of what constitutes an observation in quantum mechanics must arise long before we reach the complexity of the brain. In fact, I propose … that the gap between quantum and classical behavior is inherent in the distinction between inanimate and living matter.\nAnd here is where we have a disagreement. While I totally appreciate pushing many things such as consciousness, learning, and creativity down to the lowest levels of the divide between the living and nonliving, I personally do not believe that this has anything whatsoever to do with the quantum measurement problem.\nDragonFly » April 23rd, 2018, 1:51 pm wrote: There you have it. Pattee proposes that the gap resulted from a process equivalent to quantum measurement that began with self-replication at the origin of life with the cell as the simplest agent.\nFurthermore, I think this focus on self-replication as the divide between the living and non-living may be a little behind the times. Metabolism first theories of abiogenesis and the study of prebiotic evolution strongly suggest that key features of the life process are located way before the development of self-replicating molecules such as RNA and DNA. On the other hand, perhaps this idea of self-replication can be extended to processes in prebiotic evolution in which there is a catalysis of chemical reactions which replenish the chemical components. After all, self-maintenance is a definitive feature of the life process and would suggest that any life process must include the regeneration of its components.\nDragonFly » April 23rd, 2018, 1:51 pm wrote: The epistemic cut, the subject/object cut, the mind/matter cut, all are rooted to that original cut at the origin of life. The gap between subjective feeling and objective neural firings didn’t come about with the appearance of brains. It was already there when the first cell started living. Two complementary modes of behavior, two levels of description are inherent in life itself, were present at the origin of life, have been conserved by evolution, and continue to be necessary for differentiating subjective experience from the event itself. That is a mind-boggling idea.”\nThis would only work if you can make a logical connection with this definitive feature of life in a process of self maintenance. I have already suggested a connection between this and consciousness by pointing out that self maintenance requires some kind of awareness of self, both as it is and as it \"should be.\" Without some sort of \"should be\" in some form there can be no self-maintenance. It should be noted that there are numerous quantitative features to this, such as the clarity with which this goal of self as it \"should be\" is represented, the determination/flexibility with which it is adhered to (or in other words the range of circumstances which can be handled in holding to this goal).\nby TheVat on April 24th, 2018, 1:52 pm\nIt seems likely a paramecium does no representing to a self, and is pretty much a cellular machine lacking sentience.\nA paramecium is not full of Schnitt. It is not measuring or having goals or anything else. It is an automaton. To think otherwise would be to invite some sort of Bergsonian \"elan vital\" or other dualistic essence.\nThe problem with the term \"observation\" is that it's prejudicial in common parlance. It implies some sort of sentient observer. It implies a subjective aspect. So a more neutral term would be needed when a microbe registers a chance in its environment and contracts or expands or fires up the cilia or dumps the vacuoles or whatever. Or when a Bose Einstein condensate loses its coherence in a wet noisy puddle.\nBraininvat » April 24th, 2018, 12:52 pm wrote: It seems likely a paramecium does no representing to a self, and is pretty much a cellular machine lacking sentience.\nBut it is not a machine for the simple reason that it is not a product of design. The only reasons for which it does things are its own reasons. It is a product of self organization, and the learning process which is evolution.\nI certainly agree with the term \"biological machinery,\" which is to say that there is no reason to distinguish things simply on the basis that one uses the interactions of organic chemistry. Thus I think the locus of difference between the living organism and the machine has to do with origins whether it is by design or by learning, evolution, and self-organization.\nBraininvat » April 24th, 2018, 12:52 pm wrote: The problem with the term \"observation\" is that it's prejudicial in common parlance. It implies some sort of sentient observer. It implies a subjective aspect. So a more neutral term would be needed when a microbe registers a chance in its environment and contracts or expands or fires up the cilia or dumps the vacuoles or whatever.\nBut the problem with this is that the prejudice in language goes both ways with the presumption of an uncrossable divide between the sentient and the non-sentient, when all the evidence points to a continuum going all the way from the non-living to the living to the sentient. And this is not a linear continuum but a rapidly branching tree with many capabilities somewhat arbitrarily (or rather anthropomorphically) lumped into this term \"sentience.\"", "answers": ["It becomes a bit less so that what's off to the left or right can be better noted."], "length": 10325, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "ae5a3edc1bc76fee6fa1aa6557e83bc3cfea0c190763ecce"}
{"input": "What is the advantage of decorrelating the data before running the PLS algorithm?", "context": "Paper Info\n\nTitle: Efficient nonparametric estimation of Toeplitz covariance matrices\nPublish Date: March 20, 2023\nAuthor List: Karolina Klockmann (from Department of Statistics and Operations Research, Universität Wien), Tatyana Krivobokova (from Department of Statistics and Operations Research, Universität Wien)\n\nFigure\n\nFigure 1: Spectral density functions (first row) and autocovariance functions (second row) for examples 1, 2, 3.\nFigure 2: Distance between the first atom and the first center of mass of aquaporin (left) and the opening diameter y t over time t (right).\nblack line in the left plot) confirms that the covariance matrix estimated with our VST-DCT method almost completely decorrelates the channel diameter Y on the training data set.Next, we estimated the regression coefficients β with the usual PLS algorithm, ignoring the dependence in the data.Finally, we estimated β with PLS that takes into account dependence using our covariance estimator Σ.Based on these regression coefficient estimators, the prediction on the test set was calculated.The plot on the right side of Figure 2 shows the Pearson correlation between the true channel diameter on the test set and the prediction on the same test set based on raw (grey) and decorrelated data (black).\nFigure 3: On the left, the auto-correlation function of Y (grey) and of Σ−1/2 Y (black), where Σ is estimated with the VST-DCT method; On the right, correlation between the true values on the test data set and prediction based on partial least squares (in grey) and corrected partial least squares (black).\nUniform distributionThe observations follow a uniform distribution with covariance matrices Σ 1 , Σ 2 , Σ 3 of examples 1, 2, 3, i.e., Y i = Σ 1/2 j X i , j = 1, 3, with X 1 , ...the parameter innov of the R function arima.sim is used to pass the innovations X 1 , ..., X n i.i.d.Table4, 5 and 6 show respectively the results for (A) p = 5000, n = 1, (B) p = 1000, n = 50 and (C) p = 5000, n = 10.\n(A) p = 5000, n = 1: Errors of the Toeplitz covariance matrix and the spectral density estimators with respect to the spectral and L 2 norm, respectively, as well as the average computation time of the covariance estimators in seconds for one Monte Carlo sample (last column).\n(C) p = 5000, n = 10: Errors of the Toeplitz covariance matrix and the spectral density estimators with respect to the spectral and L 2 norm, respectively, as well as the average computation time of the covariance estimators in seconds for one Monte Carlo sample (last column).\n(A) p = 5000, n = 1: Errors of the Toeplitz covariance matrix and the spectral density estimators with respect to the spectral norm and the L 2 norm, respectively.Average computation time of the covariance estimators in seconds for one Monte Carlo sample (last column).\n(B) p = 1000, n = 50: Errors of the Toeplitz covariance matrix and the spectral density estimators with respect to the spectral norm and the L 2 norm, respectively.Average computation time of the covariance estimators in seconds for one Monte Carlo sample (last column).\n(C) p = 5000, n = 10: Errors of the Toeplitz covariance matrix and the spectral density estimators with respect to the spectral norm and the L 2 norm, respectively.Average computation time of the covariance estimators in seconds for one Monte Carlo sample (last column).\n\nabstract\n\nA new nonparametric estimator for Toeplitz covariance matrices is proposed. This estimator is based on a data transformation that translates the problem of Toeplitz covariance matrix estimation to the problem of mean estimation in an approximate Gaussian regression. The resulting Toeplitz covariance matrix estimator is positive definite by construction, fully data-driven and computationally very fast.\nMoreover, this estimator is shown to be minimax optimal under the spectral norm for a large class of Toeplitz matrices. These results are readily extended to estimation of inverses of Toeplitz covariance matrices. Also, an alternative version of the Whittle likelihood for the spectral density based on the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) is proposed.\nThe method is implemented in the R package vstdct that accompanies the paper.\n\nIntroduction\n\nEstimation of covariance and precision matrices is a fundamental problem in statistical data analysis with countless applications in the natural and social sciences. Covariance matrices with a Toeplitz structure arise in the study of stationary stochastic n = 1, to the best of our knowledge, there is no fully data-driven approach for selecting the banding/tapering/thresholding parameter.\nsuggested first to split the time series into non-overlapping subseries and then apply the cross-validation criterion of . However, it turns out that the right choice of the subseries length is crucial for this approach, but there is no data-based method available for this. In this work, an alternative way to estimate a Toeplitz covariance matrix and its inverse is chosen.\nOur approach exploits the one-to-one correspondence between Toeplitz covariance matrices and their spectral densities. First, the given data are transformed into approximate Gaussian random variables whose mean equals to the logarithm of the spectral density. Then, the log-spectral density is estimated by a periodic smoothing spline with a data-driven smoothing parameter.\nFinally, the resulting spectral density estimator is transformed into an estimator for Σ or its inverse. It is shown that this procedure leads to an estimator that is fully data-driven, automatically positive definite and achieves the minimax optimal convergence rate under the spectral norm over a large class of Toeplitz covariance matrices.\nIn particular, this class includes Toeplitz covariance matrices that correspond to long-memory processes with bounded spectral densities. Moreover, the computation is very efficient, does not require iterative or resampling schemes and allows to apply any inference and adaptive estimation procedures developed in the context of nonparametric Gaussian regression.\nEstimation of the spectral density from a stationary time series is a research topic with a long history. Earlier nonparametric methods are based on smoothing of the (log-)periodogram, which itself is not a consistent estimator . Another line of nonparametric methods for estimating the spectral density is based on the Whittle likelihood, which is an ap-proximation to the exact likelihood of the time series in the frequency domain.\nFor example, estimated the spectral density from a penalized Whittle likelihood, while used polynomial splines to estimate the log-spectral density function maximizing the Whittle likelihood. Recently, Bayesian methods for spectral density estimation have been proposed (see , but these may become very computationally intensive in large samples due to posterior sampling.\nThe minimax optimal convergence rate for nonparametric estimators of Hölder continuous spectral densities from Gaussian stationary time series was obtained by under the L p , 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞, norm. Only few works on spectral density estimation show the optimality of the corresponding estimators. In particular, and derived convergence rates of their estimators for the log-spectral density under the L 2 norm, while neglecting the Whittle likelihood approximation error.\nIn general, most works on spectral density estimation do not exploit further the close connection to the corresponding Toeplitz covariance matrix estimation. In particular, an upper bound for the L ∞ risk of a spectral density estimator automatically provides an upper bound for the risk of the corresponding Toeplitz covariance matrix estimator under the spectral norm.\nThis fact is used to establish the minimax optimality of our nonparametric estimator for the Toeplitz covariance matrices. The main contribution of this work is to show that our proposed spectral density estimator is not only numerically very efficient, but also achieves the minimax optimal rate in the L ∞ norm, which in turn ensures the minimax optimality of the corresponding Toeplitz covariance matrix estimator.\nThe paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, the model is introduced and ap-proximate diagonalization of Toeplitz covariance matrices with the discrete cosine transform is discussed. Moreover, an alternative version of the Whittle's likelihood is proposed. In Section 3, new estimators for the Toeplitz covariance matrix and the precision matrix are derived, while in Section 4 their theoretical properties are presented.\nSection 5 contains simulation results, Section 6 presents a real data example, and Section 7 closes the paper with a discussion. The proofs are given in the appendix to the paper.\n\nSet up and diagonalization of Toeplitz matrices\n\nLet Y 1 , . . . , Y n i.i.d. ∼ N p (0 p , Σ), where Σ is a (p × p)-dimensional positive definite covariance matrix with a Toeplitz structure, that is, Σ = {σ |i−j| } p i,j=1 0. The sample size n may tend to infinity or to be a constant. The case n = 1 corresponds to a single observation of a stationary time series, and in this case the data are simply denoted by Y ∼N p (0 p , Σ).\nThe dimension p is assumed to grow. The spectral density function f , corresponding to a Toeplitz covariance matrix Σ, is given by so that for f ∈ L 2 (−π, π) the inverse Fourier transform implies Hence, Σ is completely characterized by f , and the non-negativity of the spectral density function implies the positive definiteness of the covariance matrix.\nMoreover, the decay of the autocovariance σ k is directly connected to the smoothness of f . Finally, the convergence rate of a Toeplitz covariance estimator and that of the corresponding spectral density estimator are directly related via Σ ≤ f ∞ := sup x∈ |f (x)|, where • denotes the spectral norm (see .\nAs in , we introduce a class of positive definite Toeplitz covariance matrices with Hölder continuous spectral densities. For β = γ + α > 0, where The optimal convergence rate for estimating Toeplitz covariance matrices over P β (M 0 , M 1 ) depends crucially on β. It is well known that the k-th Fourier coefficient of a function whose γ-th derivative is α-Hölder continuous decays at least with order O(k −β ) (see .\nHence, β determines the decay rate of the autocovariances σ k , which are the Fourier coefficients of the spectral density f , as k → ∞. In particular, this implies that for β ∈ (0, 1], the class P β (M 0 , M 1 ) includes Toeplitz covariance matrices corresponding to long-memory processes with bounded spectral densities, since the sequence of corresponding autocovariances is not summable.\nA connection between Toeplitz covariance matrices and their spectral densities is further exploited in the following lemma. Lemma 1. Let Σ ∈ P β (M 0 , M 1 ) and let x j = (j − 1)/(p − 1), j = 1, ..., p, then where δ i,j is the Kroneker delta, O(•) terms are uniform over i, j = 1, . . . , p and divided by √ 2 when i, j ∈ {1, p} is the Discrete Cosine Transform I (DCT-I) matrix.\nThe proof can be found in Appendix A.1. This result shows that the DCT-I matrix approximately diagonalizes Toeplitz covariance matrices and that the diagonalization error depends to some extent on the smoothness of the corresponding spectral density. In the spectral density literature the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) matrix\n, where i is the imaginary unit, is typically employed to approximately diagonalize Toeplitz covariance matrices. Using the fact that introduced an approximation for the likelihood of a single Gaussian stationary time series (case n = 1), the so-called Whittle likelihood (1) The quantity , where F j denotes the j-th column of F , is known as the periodogram at the j-th Fourier frequency.\nNote that due to periodogram symmetry, only p/2 data points I 1 , ..., I p/2 are available for estimating the mean f (2πj/p), j = 1, . . . , p/2 , where x denotes the largest integer strictly smaller than x. The Whittle likelihood has become a popular tool for parameter estimation of stationary time series, e.g., for nonparametric and parametric spectral density estimation or for estimation of the Hurst exponent, see e.g., ; .\nLemma 1 yields the following alternative version of the Whittle likelihood where W j = (D t j Y ) 2 . Note that this likelihood approximation is based on twice as many data points W j as the standard Whittle likelihood. Thus, it allows for a more efficient use of the data Y to estimate the parameter of interest, such as the spectral density or the Hurst parameter.\nEquations ( ) or (2) invite for the estimation of f by maximizing the (penalized) likelihood over certain linear spaces (e.g., spline spaces), as suggested e.g., in or . However, such an approach requires well-designed numerical methods to solve the corresponding optimization problem, since the spectral density in the second term of (1) or ( ) is in the denominator, which does not allow to obtain a closed-form expression for the estimator and often leads to numerical instabilities.\nAlso, the choice of the smoothing parameter becomes challenging. Therefore, we suggest an alternative approach that allows the spectral density to be estimated as a mean in an approximate Gaussian regression. Such estimators have a closed-form expression, do not require an iterative optimization algorithm and a smoothing parameter can be easily obtained with any conventional criterion.\nFirst Hence, for W j = (D t j Y ) 2 , j = 1, . . . , p it follows with Lemma 1 that where Γ(a, b) denotes a gamma distribution with a shape parameter a and a scale parameter b. Note that the random variables W 1 , . . . , W p are only asymptotically independent. Obviously, E(W j ) = f (πx j ) + O(1), j = 1, . . .\n, p. To estimate f from W 1 , . . . , W p , one could use a generalized nonparametric regression framework with a gamma distributed response, see e.g., the classical monograph by . However, this approach requires an iterative procedure for estimation, e.g., a Newton-Raphson algorithm, with a suitable choice for the smoothing parameter at each iteration step.\nDeriving the L ∞ rate for the resulting estimator is also not a trivial task. Instead, we suggest to employ a variance stabilizing transform of that converts the gamma regression into an approximate Gaussian regression. In the next section we present the methodology in more detail for a general setting with n ≥ 1.\n\nMethodology\n\nFor Y i ∼ N p (0 p , Σ), i = 1, . . . , n, it was shown in the previous section that with Lemma 1 the data can be transformed into gamma distributed random variables . . , n, j = 1, . . . , p, where for each fixed i the random variable W i,j has the same distribution as W j given in (3). Now the approach of Cai et al. ( ) is adapted to the setting n ≥ 1.\nFirst, the transformed data points W i,j are binned, that is, fewer new variables . . , T . Note that the number of observations in a bin is m = np/T . In Theorem 1 in Section 4, we show that setting T = p υ for any υ ∈ ((4 − 2 min{β, 1})/3, 1) leads to the minimax optimal rate for the spectral density estimator.\nTo simplify the notation, m is handled as an integer (otherwise, one can discard several observations in the last bin). Next, applying the variance stabilizing transform (VST) ∼ where H(y) = {φ(m/2) + log (2y/m)} / √ 2 and φ is the digamma function (see . Now, the scaled and shifted log-spectral density H(f ) can be estimated with a periodic smoothing spline\nwhere h > 0 denotes a smoothing parameter, q ∈ N is the penalty order and S per (2q − 1) a space of periodic splines of degree 2q − 1. The smoothing parameter h can be chosen either with generalized cross-validation (GCV) as derived in or with the restricted maximum likelihood, see . Once an estimator H(f ) is obtained, application of the inverse transform function H −1 (y) = m exp √ 2y − φ (m/2) /2 yields the spectral density estimator f = H −1 H(f ) .\nFinally, using the inverse Fourier transform leads to the fol- The precision matrix Ω is estimated by the inverse Fourier transform of the reciprocal of the spectral density estimator, i.e., Ω = (ω |i−j| ) p i,j=1 with ωk = The estimation procedure for Σ and Ω can be summarised as follows. 1. Data Transformation:\nwhere D is the (p × p)-dimensional DCT-I matrix as given in Lemma 1 and D j is its j-th column. 2. Binning: Set T = p υ for any υ ∈ ((4 − 2 min{β, 1})/3, 1) and calculate W i,j , k = 1, . . . , T.\n\nVST:\n\nwhere k are asymptotically i.i.d. Gaussian variables. Inverse VST: Estimate the spectral density f with f = H −1 H(f ) , where Note that Σ and Ω are positive definite matrices by construction, since their spectral density functions f and f −1 are non-negative, respectively. Unlike the banding and tapering estimators, the autocovariance estimators σk are controlled by a single smoothing parameter h, which can be estimated fully data-driven with several available automatic methods, which are numerically efficient and well-studied.\nIn addition, one can also use methods for adaptive mean estimation, see e.g., , which in turn leads to adaptive Toeplitz covariance matrix estimation. All inferential procedures developed in the Gaussian regression context can also be adopted accordingly.\n\nTheoretical Properties\n\nIn this section, we study the asymptotic properties of the estimators f , Σ and Ω. The results are established under the asymptotic scenario where p → ∞ and p/n → c ∈ (0, ∞], that is, the dimension p grows, while the sample size n either remains fixed or also grows but not faster than p. This corresponds to the asymptotic scenario when the sample covariance matrix is inconsistent.\nLet f be the spectral density estimator defined in Section 3, i.e., f = m exp{ √ 2 H(f ) − φ(m/2)}/2, where H(f ) is given in (4), m = np/T and φ is the digamma function. Furthermore, let Σ be the Toeplitz covariance matrix estimator and Ω the corresponding precision matrix defined in equations ( ) and (6), respectively.\nThe following theorem shows that both Σ and Ω attain the minimax optimal rate of convergence over the class and hT → ∞, then with T = p υ for any υ ∈ ((4 − 2 min{β, 1})/3, 1) and q = max{1, γ}, the spectral density estimator f , the corresponding covariance matrix estimator Σ and the precision matrix estimator Ω satisfy sup\nFor h {log(np)/(np)} . The proof of Theorem 1 can be found in the Appendix A.3 and is the main result of our work. The most important part of this proof is the derivation of the convergence rate for the spectral density estimator f under the L ∞ norm. In the original work, established an L 2 rate for a wavelet nonparametric mean estimator in a gamma regression where the data are assumed to be independent.\nIn our work, the spectral density estimator f is based on the gamma distributed data W i,1 , . . . , W i,p , which are only asymptotically independent. Moreover, the mean of these data is not exactly f (πx 1 ), . . . , f (πx p ), but is corrupted by the diagonalization error given in Lemma 1. This error adds to the error that arises via binning and VST and that describes the deviation from a Gaussian distribution, as derived in .\nFinally, we need to obtain an L ∞ rather than an L 2 rate for our spectral density estimator. Overall, the proof requires different tools than those used in . To get the L ∞ rate for f , we first derive that for the periodic smoothing spline estimator H(f ) of the log-spectral density. To do so, we use a closed-form expression of its effective kernel obtained in , thereby carefully treating various (dependent) errors that describe deviations from a Gaussian nonparametric regression with independent errors and mean f (πx i ).\nNote also that although the periodic smoothing spline estimator is obtained on T binned points, the rate is given in terms of the vector dimension p. Then, using the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality and a mean value argument, this rate is translated into the L ∞ rate for the spectral density estimator f . To obtain the rate for the Toeplitz covariance matrix estimator is enough to note that\n\nSimulation Study\n\nIn this section, we compare the performance of the proposed Toeplitz covariance estimator, denoted as VST-DCT, with the tapering estimator of and with the sample covariance matrix. We consider Gaussian vectors Y 1 , ..., (3) such that the corresponding spectral density is Lipschitz continuous but not differentiable: f (x) = 1.44{| sin(x + 0.5π)| 1.7 + 0.45}.\nIn particular, var(Y i ) = 1.44 in all three examples. Figure shows the spectral densities and the corresponding autocorrelation functions for the three examples. A Monte Carlo simulation with 100 iterations is performed using R (version 4.1.2, seed 42). For our VST-DCT estimator, we use a cubic periodic spline, i.e., q = 2 is set in (4).\nThe binning parameters are set to T = 500 bins with m = 10 points for (A) and T = 500 bins with m = 100 points for both (B) and (C). To select the regularisation parameter for our estimator, we implemented the restricted maximum likelihood (ML) method, generalized cross validation (GCV) and the corresponding oracle versions, i.e., as if Σ were known.The tapering parameter\nwhere T ap k (Σ ν 2 ) is the tapering estimator of with parameter k. If n = 1, that is, under scenario (A), suggest to split the time series Y into l non-overlapping subseries of length p/l and then proceed as before to select the tuning parameter k. To the best of our knowledge, there is no data-driven method for selecting this parameter l.\nUsing the true covariance matrix Σ, we selected l = 30 subseries for the example 1 and l = 15 subseries for the exam-ples 2 and 3. The parameter k can then be chosen by cross-validation as above. We employ this approach under scenario (A) instead of an unavailable fully data-driven criterion and name it semi-oracle.\nFinally, for all three scenarios (A), (B) and (C), the oracle tapering parameter is computed using grid search for each Monte Carlo sample as kor = arg min k=2,3,...,p/2 T ap k ( Σ) − Σ , where Σ is the sample covariance matrix. To speed up the computation, one can replace the spectral norm by the 1 norm, as suggested by .\nIn Tables , the errors of the Toeplitz covariance estimators with respect to the spectral norm and the computation time for one Monte Carlo iteration are given for scenarios (A), (B) and (C), respectively. To illustrate the goodness-of-fit of the spectral density, the L 2 norm f − f 2 is also computed.\nThe results show that the tapering and VST-DCT estimator perform overall similar in terms of the spectral norm risk. This is not surprising as both estimators are proved to be rate-optimal. Moreover, both the tapering and VST-DCT estimators are clearly superior to the inconsistent sample Toeplitz covariance matrix.\nA closer look at the numbers shows that the VST-DCT method has better constants, i.e., VST-DCT estimators have somewhat smaller errors in the spectral norm than the tapering estimators across all examples, but especially under scenario (C). The oracle estimators show similar behaviour, but are slightly less variable compared to the data-driven estimators.\nIn general, both the tapering and VST-DCT estimators perform best for example 1, second best for example 3 and worst for example 2, which traces back to functions complexity. In terms of computational time, both methods are similarly fast for scenarios (A) and (B). For scenario (C), the tapering method is much slower due to the multiple high-dimensional matrix multiplications in the cross-validation method.\nIt is expected that for larger p the tapering estimator is much more computationally intensive than the corresponding VST-DCT estimator. (1) polynomial σ ( (  To test how robust our approach is to deviations from the Gaussian assumption, we simulated the data from gamma and uniform distributions and conducted a simulation study for the same scenarios and examples.\nThe results are very similar to those of the Gaussian distribution, see supplementary materials for the details.\n\nApplication to Protein Dynamics\n\nWe revisit the data analysis of protein dynamics performed in Krivobokova et al. (2012) and . We consider data generated by the molecular dynamics (MD) simulations for the yeast aquaporin (Aqy1) -the gated water channel of the yeast Pichi pastoris. MD simulations are an established tool for studying biological systems at the atomic level on timescales of nano-to microseconds.\nThe data are given as Euclidean coordinates of all 783 atoms of Aqy1 observed in a 100 nanosecond time frame, split into 20 000 equidistant observations. Additionally, the diameter of the channel y t at time t is given, measured by the distance between two centers of mass of certain residues of the protein.\nThe aim of the analysis is to identify the collective motions of the atoms responsible for the channel opening. In order to model the response variable y t , which is a distance, based on the motions of the protein atoms, we chose to represent the protein structure by distances between atoms and certain fixed base points instead of Euclidean coordinates.\nThat is, we calculated where A t,i ∈ R 3 , i = 1, . . . , 783 denotes the i-th atom of the protein at time t, B j ∈ R 3 , j = 1, 2, 3, 4, is the j-th base point and d(•, •) is the Euclidean distance. Figure shows the diameter y t and the distance between the first atom and the first center of mass. It can therefore be concluded that a linear model Y = Xβ + holds, where\n. This linear model has two specific features which are intrinsic to the problem: first, the observations are not independent over time and second, X t is high-dimensional at each t and only few columns of X are relevant for Y . have shown that the partial least squares (PLS) algorithm performs exceptionally well on this type of data, leading to a small-dimensional and robust representation of proteins, which is able to identify the atomic dynamics relevant for Y .\nSinger et al. ( ) studied the convergence rates of the PLS algorithm for dependent observations and showed that decorrelating the data before running the PLS algorithm improves its performance. Since Y is a linear combination of columns of X, it can be assumed that Y and all columns of X have the same correlation structure.\nHence, it is sufficient to estimate Σ = cov(Y ) to decorrelate the data for the PLS algorithm, i.e., Σ −1/2 Y = Σ −1/2 Xβ + Σ −1/2 results in a standard linear regression with independent errors. Our goal now is to estimate Σ and compare the performance of the PLS algorithm on original and decorrelated data.\nFor this purpose, we divided the data set into a training and a test set (each with p = 10 000 observations). First, we tested whether the data are stationary. The augmented Dickey-Fuller test confirmed stationarity for Y with a p-value< 0.01. The Hurst exponent of Y is 0.85, indicating moderate long-range dependence supported by a rather slow decay of the sample autocovariances (see grey line in the left plot of Figure ).\nTherefore, we set q = 1 for the VST-DCT estimator to match the low smoothness of the corresponding spectral density. Moreover, the smoothing parameter is selected with the restricted maximum likelihood method and T = 550 bins are used. Obviously, the performance of the PLS algorithm on the decorrelated data is significantly better for the small number of components.\nIn particular, with just one PLS component, the correlation between the true opening diameter on the test set and its prediction that takes into account the dependence in the data is already 0.54, while it is close to zero for PLS that ignores the dependence in the data. showed that the estimator of β based on one PLS component is exactly the ensemble-weighted maximally correlated mode (ewMCM), which is defined as the collective mode of atoms that has the highest probability to achieve a specific alteration of the response Y .\nTherefore, an accurate estimator of this quantity is crucial for the interpretation of the results and can only be achieved if the dependence in the data is taken into account. Estimating Σ with a tapered covariance estimator has two practical problems. First, since we only have a single realization of a time series Y (n = 1), there is no datadriven method for selecting the tapering parameter.\nSecond, the tapering estimator turned out not to be positive definite for the data at hand. To solve the second problem, we truncated the corresponding spectral density estimator ftap to a small positive value, i.e., f + tap = max{ ftap , 1/ log(p)} (see . To select the tapering parameter with cross-validation, we experimented with different subseries lengths and found that the tapering estimator is very sensitive to this choice.\nFor example, estimating the tapered covariance matrix based on subseries of length 8/15/30 yields a correlation of 0.42/0.53/0.34 between the true diameter and the first PLS component, respectively. Altogether, our proposed estimator is fully data-driven, fast even for large sample sizes, automatically positive definite and can handle certain long-memory processes.\nIn contrast, the tapering estimator is not data-driven and must be manipulated to become positive definite. Our method is implemented in the R package vstdct.\n\nDiscussion\n\nIn this paper, we proposed a simple, fast, fully data-driven, automatically positive definite and minimax optimal estimator of Toeplitz covariance matrices from a large class that also includes covariance matrices of certain long-memory processes. Our estimator is derived under the assumption that the data are Gaussian.\nHowever, simulations show that the suggested approach yields robust estimators even when the data are not normally distributed. In the context of spectral density estima- , for mixing processes (see Theorem 5.3 of Rosenblatt, 2012), as well as for non-linear processes (see . Since DFT and DCT matrices are closely related, we expect that equation (3) also holds asymptotically for these non-Gaussian time series, but consider a rigorous analysis to be beyond the scope of this paper.\nIn fact, our numerical experiments have even shown that if the spectral density is estimated from W j = f (πx j ) + j , that is, as if W j were Gaussian instead of gamma distributed, then the resulting spectral density estimator has almost the same L ∞ risk (and hence the corresponding covariance matrix has almost the same spectral norm).\nOf course, such an estimator would lead to a wrong inference about f (πx j ), since the growing variance of W j would be ignored. Since our approach translates Toeplitz covariance matrix estimation into a mean estimation in an approximate Gaussian nonparametric regression, all approaches developed in the context of Gaussian nonparametric regression, such as (locally)\nadaptive estimation, as well as the corresponding (simultaneous) inference, can be directly applied. Bayesian tools for adaptive estimation and inference in Gaussian nonparametric regression as proposed in can also be employed.\n\nAppendix\n\nThroughout the appendix, we denote by c, c 1 , C, C 1 , . . . etc. generic constants, that are independent of n and p. To simplify the notation, the constants are sometimes skipped and we write for less than or equal to up to constants. We embed the p-dimensional Toeplitz matrix Σ = toep(σ 0 , . . . , σ p−1 ) in a (2p − 2)dimensional circulant matrix Σ = toep(σ 0 , . . .\n, σ p−1 , σ p−2 , . . . , σ 1 ). Then, Σ = with the conjugate transpose U * , and Λ is a diagonal matrix with the k-th diagonal value for k = 1, ..., p given by Furthermore, Σ = V * ΛV , where V ∈ C (2p−2)×p contains the first p columns of U . In particular, b(j, r) = b(j, 2p−r) and c(j, r) = −c(j, 2p−r) for r = p+1, . . .\n, 2p−2. Together, we have (A.1) Some calculations show that for r = 1, . . . p Using the Taylor expansion of cot(x) for 0 < |x| < π one obtains for r = 1, . . . p where the O term does not depend on j and the hidden constant does not depend on r, p. If i = j, equations (A.1) -(A.3) imply where the O terms do not depend on j.\nSince the complex exponential function is Lipschitz continuous with constant L = 1, it holds λ r = λ j + L r,j |r − j|p −1 where −1 ≤ L r,j ≤ 1 is a constant depending on r, j. Then, , it is sufficient to consider j = 1, ..., p − 1. We begin with first sum. For a shorter notation, we use k := r − 1 and l := j − 1 in the following.\nThen, summing the squares of the first term in (A.4) for l = 0, ..., p−2 on sums of reciprocal powers. If p is even, then the residual terms are given by where φ and φ (1) denote the digamma function and its derivative. If p is odd, similar remainder terms can be derived. To see that R i (l, p) = O(p −1 ) for i = 1, 2, 3 and uniformly in l we use that asymptotically φ(x)∼ log(x)−1/(2x) and\nThe mixed term are both of the order p −1 . Furthermore, since the harmonic sum diverges at a rate of log(p). Finally, λ j = f (x j )+O{log(p)p −β } by the uniform approximation properties of the discrete Fourier series for Hölder continuous functions (see . All together, we have shown that (DΣD) j,j = where the O terms are uniform over j = 1, ..., p.\nCase i = j and |i − j| is even In this case, (DΣD) i,j = a i a j uniformly in i, j. To show that a i a j 2p−2 r=1 λ r c(i, r)c(j, r) = O(p −1 ), we proceed similarly as before. Setting k=r−1, l=j−1, m=i−1 and using that l =m and |l−m| is even, one obtains where for even p the residual terms are given by If p is odd, analogous residual terms can be derived.\nUsing similar techniques as before, one can show that the two residual terms and the remaining mixed and square terms vanish at a rate of the order O(p −1 ) and uniformly in i, j. Case i = j and |i − j| is odd |r − i| and |r − j| are either odd and even, or even and odd. Without loss of generality, assume that |r − i| is even.\nThen, (DΣD) i,j = a i a j 2p−2 r=1 λ r b(i, r)c(j, r). Since b(i, •) is an even function, c(j, •) is an odd function and λ r = λ 2p−r , it follows (DΣD) i,j = 0. The structure of the proof is as follows. First, we derive the L ∞ rate of the periodic smoothing spline estimator H(f ). Then, using the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality and a mean value argument, the convergence rate of the spectral density estimator f is\n∞ the first claim of the theorem follows. Finally, we prove the second statement on the precision matrices. For the sake of clarity, some technical lemmas used in the proof are listed separately in A.4. hT → ∞, then with T = p υ for any υ ∈ ((4 − 2 min{1, β})/3, 1), the estimator H(f ) described in Section 3 with q = max{1, γ} satisfies\nProof : Application of the triangle inequality yields a bias-variance decomposition Set T = 2T − 2 and x k = (k − 1)/ T for k = 1, ..., T . Using Lemma 4, we can write where Mirroring and renumerating ζ k , η k , k is similar as for Y * k , k = 1, ..., T . Using the above representation, one can write First we reduce the supremum to a maximum over a finite number of points.\nIf q > 1, then W (•, x k ) is Lipschitz continuous with constant L > 0. In this case, it holds almost surely that sup ) is a piecewise linear function with knots at x j = j/ T . The factor (ζ k + ξ k ) can be considered as stochastic weights that do not affect the piecewise linear property. Thus, the supremum is attained at one of the knots x j = j/ T , j = 1, ..., T , and (A.7) is also valid for q = 1.\nAgain with (a + b) 2 ≤ 2a 2 + 2b 2 we obtain We start with bounding . This requires a bound on 1 • ψ 2 denotes the sub-Gaussian norm. In case of a Gaussian random variable the norm equals to the variance. Thus with Lemma 2 and Lemma 4, we obtain Lemma 1.6 of ) then yields Recall that T = p υ for some fixed υ ∈ ((4 − 2 min{1, β})/3, 1).\nUsing the inequality log(x) ≤ x a /a one can find constants x υ , C υ > 0 depending on υ but not on n, p such that log(2 T ) log(p) Next, we derive a bound for the second term The exponential decay property of the kernel K stated in Lemma 2 yields The first term in (A.9) can be bounded again with Lemma 1.6 of .\nWe use the fact that for not necessarily independent random variables X 1 , ..., X N R and R > 0 are constants. This is a consequence of Lemma 1 of which yields , it follows that N i=1 a i X i has a subGaussain distribution and the subGaussian norm is bounded by 2R( N i=1 a 2 i ) 1/2 . See for further details on the subgaussian distribution.\nT h . For the second inequality Lemma 2(ii) is used. Applying Lemma 1.6 of then yields To bound the second term in (A.9), we use the moment bounds for ξ k derived in Lemma 4. Then, for all integers > 1 Combining the error bounds (A.10) and (A.11) and choosing R=m −1/2 gives By assumption T = p υ and m = np (1−υ) for some fixed υ ∈ ((4 − 2 min{1, β})/3, 1).\nIf is an integer such that ≥ 1/(1 − υ), then where we used log(x) ≤ x a /a with a = 1/(4 ). Consider 1/2 < β ≤ 1 and let 0 < χ < 1 be a constant. Applying log(x) ≤ x a /a twice with a = χ/(2 ) yields For any fixed υ∈((4 − 2 min{1, β})/3, 1) one can find an integer which is independent of n, p such that the right side of (A.12) holds.\nSince p/n → c ∈ (0, ∞] and thus n/p = O(1) and p −1 = O(n −1 ), it follows for satisfying (A.12) that In total, choosing an integer Using the representation in Lemma 4 once more gives for each x ∈ [0, 1] The bounds on k in Lemma 4 imply Consider the case that β ≥ 1. In particular, q = γ and f (q) is α-Hölder continuous.\nSince f is a periodic function with f (x) ∈ [δ, M 0 ] and H(y) ∝ φ(m/2)+ log (2y/m), it follows that {H(f )} (q) is also α-Hölder continuous. Extending g := H(f ) to the entire real line, we get Expanding g(t) in a Taylor series around x and using that h −1 K h is a kernel of order 2q, see Lemma 2(iii), it follows that for any x ∈ [0, 1]\nwhere ξ x,t is a point between x and t. Using the fact that the kernel K h decays exponentially and that g (q) is α-Hölder continuous on [δ, M 0 ] with some constant L, the logarithm is Lipschitz continuous on a compact interval, it follows g = H(f ) is β-Hölder continuous. Expanding g to the entire line and using Lemma 2(iii) with\nIn a similar way as before, one obtains Note that T −β =o(h β ) as β > 1/2, T h → ∞ and h → 0 by assumption. Since the derived bounds are uniform for x ∈ [0, 1] it holds Putting the bounds A.13 and A.14 together gives If h > 0 such that h → 0 and hT → ∞, then with T = p υ for any υ ∈ ((4 − 2 min{1, β})/3, 1), the estimator f described in Section 3 with q = max{1, γ} satisfies\nProof : By the mean value theorem, it holds for some function g between H(f ) and To show that the second term on the right hand side of (A.15) is negligible we use the moment generating function of H(f ) ∞ . In the next paragraph, we derive the asymptotic order of E[exp{λ H(f ) ∞ }] for n, p → ∞, where λ > 0 may depend on n, p or not.\nBy the exponential decay property of the kernel K stated in Lemma 2 holds First, H(f ) ∞ is bounded with the maximum over a finite number of points. Calculating the derivative of s : Since δ δx s(x) > 0 almost surely for x = x k , the extrema occur at x k , k = 1, ..., T . Thus, for λ > 0 the moment generating function of H(f ) ∞ is bounded by\nLet M j = ( T h) −1 T k=1 γ h (x j , x k ), which by Lemma 2 is bounded uniformly in j by some global constant M > 0. By the convexity of the exponential function we obtain √ 2 and by assumption 0 ≤ δ ≤ f ≤ M 0 . Using Lemma 3, Q k can be written as a sum of m = np/T independent gamma random variables, i.e.\nThe moment generating function of | log(X)| when X follows a Γ(a, b)-distribution is given by where Γ(a) is the gamma function and γ(a, b) is the lower incomplete gamma function. In particular, To derive the asymptotic order of E[exp{λ H(f ) ∞ }] for n, p → ∞ we first establish the asymptotic order of the ratio Γ(a + t)/Γ(a) for a → ∞.\nWe distinguish the two cases where t is independent of a and where t linearly depends on a. Thus, for 0 < t < a and t independent of a, equation (A.17) implies for a → ∞ that Γ(a + t)/Γ(a) = O(a t ). Similarly, it can be seen that Γ(a − t)/Γ(a) = O(a −t ). If 0 < t < a and t linearly depends on a, i.e. t = ca for some constant c ∈ (0, 1), then we get Γ(a ± t)/Γ(a) = O(a ±t exp{a}) for a → ∞.\nHence, for a fixed λ not depending on n, p and such that 0 < λ < m/( √ 2M j ) we get for sufficiently large n, p If λ = cm such that 0 < λ < m/( √ 2M j ), then for sufficiently large n, p b∈{cδ/m,cM 0 /m} (bm/2) for some constant L > 1. Set K = min j=1,..., T 1/( √ 2M j ) which is a constant independent of n, p. Altogether, we showed that for 0 < λ < Km and n, p → ∞\nBounding the right hand side of (A.15) for some constants c 0 , c 1 > 0 and n, p → ∞ Since g lies between H(f ) and H(f ), and f almost surely pointwise. Thus, for C > f ∞ = M 0 it holds where c 1 := H(C − M 0 ). Applying Markov inequality for t = cm with c ∈ (0, K) and C = 2L 4/c + M 0 where c, K, L are the constants in gives\nTogether with Proposition 1 follows Using the fact that the spectral norm of a Toeplitz matrix is upper bounded by the sup norm of its spectral density we get sup According to the mean value theorem, for a function g between H(f ) and H(f ), it holds that some constant c 1 > 0 not depending on n, p. Chosing the same constant C as in section A.3.2 it follows\nNoting that 1/f ∞ ≤ 1/δ and 2/m exp {φ(m/2)} ∈ [0.25, 1] for m ≥ 1, (A.18) implies for some constants c 2 , c 3 > 0 and n, p → ∞ Since the derived bounds hold for each Σ(f ) ∈ F β , we get all together sup This section states some technical lemmata needed for the proof of Theorem 1. The proofs can be found in the supplementary material.\nThe first lemma lists some properties of the kernel K h and its extension K h on the real line. The proof is based on . Lemma 2. Let h > 0 be the bandwith parameter depending on N . (i) There are constants 0 < C < ∞ and 0 < γ < 1 such that for all for x, t ∈ [0, 1] Lemma 3 states that the sum of the correlated gamma random variables in each bin can be rewritten as a sum of independent gamma random variables.\nfor i = 1, ..., n and j = (k − 1)m + 1, ..., km, and x j = (j − 1)/(2p − 2). Finally, Lemma 4 gives explicit bounds for the stochastic and deterministic errors of the variance stabilizing transform. Thus, it quantifies the difference to an exact Gaussian regression setting. This result is a generalization of Theorem 1 of Cai et al.\n(2010) adapted to our setting with n ≥ 1 observations and correlated observations. √ 2 can be written as where for the proof of the first statement. Furthermore, for x, t ∈ [0, 1] holds In particular, for some constants C 1 , C 2 > 0 depending on γ ∈ (0, 1) but not on h and x, it holds h (iii) See Lemma 15 of with p = 2q − 1.\nIt is sufficient to show the statement for n = 1 by independence of the Y i . Then, the number of points per bin is m = p/T . For simplicity, the index i is skipped in the following. First, we write Q k as a matrix-vector product and refactor it so that it corresponds to a sum of independent scaled χ 2 random variables.\nIn the second step, we calculate the scaling factors. Let E (km) be a diagonal matrix with ones on the (k − 1)m + 1, ..., km-th entries and otherwise zero diagonal elements. Then, By Theorem 1 of for the gamma distribution it follows where Wi,j iid. ∼ Γ(1/2, 2 f (x * k )) and such that Cov( Wi,j , Wi,h ) = Cov(W i,j , W i,h ) for j = (k − 1)p/T + 1, ..., kp/T and h ∈ {1, ..., p} \\ {(k − 1)p/T + 1, ..., kp/T }.\nLet θ be the maximum difference of the observations' means in each bin. Then, θ = max are defined via quantile coupling, it holds Z k = Φ −1 {F Q( Qk )} (see . Furthermore, define the uniform random variables Let ρ = Cov(Z k , Z l ). Then, the identity implies F Z,Z (x, y) − Φ(x)Φ(y) ≥ 0 for all x, y ∈ R ⇐⇒ ρ ≥ 0, (see .\nSince Cov( Qk , Ql ) ≥ 0 and the ratio of two densities is non-negative, x = − 2/m, it follows that f Q(x) is monotone decreasing for x ≥ − 2/m. Furthermore, F Q(− m/2) ≤ 0.5 for all m ∈ N as f Q(x) is right-skewed. In particular, − m/2 ≤ F −1 Q (1/2) for all m ∈ N. Finally, since f Q(− 2/m) → φ(0) for m → ∞ there is a constant c > 0 not depending on m such that\nThe simulation study in Section 5 is performed in the same way, but with the uniform and the gamma distribution instead of the Gaussian distribution.", "answers": ["Decorrelating the data before running the PLS algorithm improves the performance of the algorithm."], "length": 8232, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "425c85c840db6f65192aa477d41c9c18a60a4ccaf0e1e6df"}
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Once your counter notification has been delivered, Broadjam is allowed under the provisions of Section 512 to restore the removed Material in not less than ten or more than fourteen days, unless the complaining party serves notice of intent to obtain a court order restraining the restoration.\nIt is Broadjam's policy to terminate subscribers and account holders who are found to be repeat infringers.\nBroadjam's designated agent is Elizabeth T Russell.\nBy accepting this Agreement and/or submitting Materials to Broadjam, you expressly warrant and represent the following to Broadjam and acknowledge that Broadjam is relying upon such warranties and representations: (a) That all factual assertions you have made and will make to us are true and complete; that you have reached the age of majority and are otherwise competent to enter into contracts in your jurisdiction; that you are at least 18 years of age; and that, in any event, you are deriving benefits from this Agreement and from visiting the Site.\n(b) That you have obtained and hold all rights, approvals, consents, licenses and/or permissions, in proper legal form, necessary to submit Materials on the terms provided herein and to grant Broadjam the nonexclusive licenses set forth herein. (c) That no other rights, approvals, consents, licenses and/or permissions are required from any other person or entity to submit your Materials on the terms provided herein or to grant Broadjam the nonexclusive licenses set forth herein.\n(d) That your Materials are original; that your Materials were either created solely by you or, by written assignment, you have acquired all worldwide intellectual property rights in and to your Materials; that if your Materials contain any \"samples\" or excerpts from copyrightable work the rights to which are owned in whole or in part by any person or entity other than you, that you have obtained and hold all rights, approvals, consents, licenses and/or permissions, in proper legal form, necessary to use and include such work in your Materials; and that your Materials do not otherwise infringe on the intellectual property rights of any person or entity.\n(e) That neither your Materials nor any comments or reviews you post on the Site violate any common law or statutory patent, copyright, privacy, publicity, trademark or trade secret rights of any person or entity and are not libelous, defamatory, obscene or otherwise actionable at law or equity.\n(f) That you have neither intentionally nor with gross negligence submitted any Materials containing or producing any virus or other harmful code or other information that could damage or otherwise interfere with our computer systems or data and/or that of our customers.\n(g) You agree to sign and deliver to Broadjam any additional documents that Broadjam may request to confirm Broadjam's rights and your warranties and representations under this Agreement.\n(h) You acknowledge that Broadjam is relying upon the representations, warranties and covenants you have made herein. You agree to and hereby do indemnify Broadjam, its licensees, assigns and customers against, and hold them harmless from, any loss, expense (including reasonable attorney fees and expenses), or damage occasioned by any claim, demand, suit, recovery, or settlement arising out of any breach or alleged breach of any of the representations, warranties or covenants made herein or arising out of any failure by you to fulfill any of the representations, warranties, or covenants you have made herein.\n(i) All representations, warranties or covenants made herein by you shall survive termination of this Agreement.\n(j) All warranties and representations made by you herein are made for the benefit of Broadjam and its sub-licensees and may be enforced separately by Broadjam and/or by any contractually designated sub-licensee of Broadjam.\nIn consideration of Broadjam's efforts to provide your work with public exposure, you expressly authorize Broadjam and its sub-licensees to transmit, stream, broadcast, publicly display and publicly perform in any manner, form or media whether now known or hereafter devised, worldwide, any ofthe Materials you submit to Broadjam, in accordance with the provisions of this section. Without limitation to other licenses you may be inferred to have granted in order to accomplish the foregoing, you expressly grant Broadjam and its sub-licensees the following worldwide, non-exclusive, royalty-free, sublicenseable and transferable licenses with respect to any and all Materials you submit.\nPublic performance license for musical works. If you are a member of any collective rights management or performing rights society (\"PRS\"), worldwide, licensing and compensation for public performances of your Material consisting of musical works (including qualifying performances by Broadjam and any of its sub-licensees) shall be made solely by your PRS and pursuant to your affiliation agreement with your PRS. If you are not affiliated with a PRS, or if any performance by Broadjam or any of its sub-licensees does not qualify as a performance under your affiliation agreement with your PRS: you hereby grant Broadjam and its sub-licensees a nonexclusive, royalty-free, direct license to publicly perform all musical compositions included in your Materials, worldwide, in any media formats and through any media channels now known or hereafter devised.\nPublic performance license for sound recordings. If you are a member of SoundExchange or any other collective rights management organization for sound recordings (\"CRMO\"), worldwide, licensing and compensation for public performances of your Material consisting of sound recordings (including qualifying performances by Broadjam and any of its sub-licensees) shall be made solely by your CRMO and pursuant to your affiliation agreement with your CRMO. If you are not affiliated with a CRMO, or if any performance by Broadjam or any of its sub-licensees does not qualify as a performance under your affiliation agreement with your CRMO: you hereby grant Broadjam and its sublicensees a nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publicly perform (by means of digital audio transmission and all other means) all sound recordings included in your Materials, worldwide, in any media formats and through any media channels now known or hereafter devised.\nReproduction licenses for compositions and sound recordings. Although copyright law is evolving to accommodate the digital environment, certain key issues remain unresolved. One such issue is the extent to which reproduction licenses are required for musical works and sound recordings made available on interactive streaming services. We choose to resolve the issue contractually. Accordingly, you hereby grant Broadjam and its sub-licensees nonexclusive reproduction licenses for all musical works and sound recordings included in your Materials; provided, however, that unless by separate agreement you have chosen to make your Materials available for sale through Broadjam's digital download store, such reproduction licenses are limited in scope and apply only to the extent necessary to make your Materials publicly available via Broadjam's interactive streaming services. Podcasts. From time to time Broadjam may invite you to submit your Materials for inclusion in downloadable content files known as \"podcasts.\" Podcasts are non-live entertainment programs spotlighting the work of Broadjam members and are made available for download in unprotected media, free of charge, at the Site. Broadjam will not include your Materials in podcasts without your consent. If you choose to grant such consent, however, you also (and hereby do) grant to Broadjam and its sub-licensees all licenses reasonably required for podcasting, including nonexclusive reproduction and public performance licenses for all musical works, and nonexclusive reproduction and public performance licenses for all sound recordings, embodied in any Materials of yours selected for inclusion in Broadjam podcasts. You further release Broadjam and its sub-licensees for any and all liability arising from any alleged failure by Broadjam or any of its sub-licensees to obtain appropriate licenses for the use of any Materials of yours selected for inclusion in Broadjam podcasts.\nYou may at any time opt to make Materials you have uploaded to Broadjam available to other Broadjam members free of charge (\"Free Songs\"). The Broadjam Free Songs feature is designed to help you further circulate your music. Your songs will not be designated as Free Songs without your express consent. Broadjam makes your Free Songs available for download in unprotected media, free of charge, in the Broadjam Downloads Store (\"BDS\"). If you choose to designate your songs as Free Songs, you expressly authorize Broadjam and its sub-licensees to reproduce, transmit, stream, broadcast, publicly display and publicly perform in any manner, form or media whether now known or hereafter devised, such Free Songs in accordance with the provisions of this section. You may at any time choose to change the status of a song from Free\" to Not Free\" and vice versa in your User Profile. Broadjam shall not make any payments to you for songs downloaded by Broadjam members during the time period in which you designated your songs as Free Songs. You further release Broadjam and its sub-licensees for any and all liability arising from any unauthorized exercise of copyright rights in connection with your Materials that you have chosen to designate as Free Songs.\nBroadjam shall have the right and license to use, and license others to use, your Materials for the purpose of promoting our products and services, and to use all names, likenesses, biographical materials, logos, trademarks or trade names of you and all individuals performing on or otherwise represented in your Materials without any payment to you or any other Persons, entities, groups or associations, in accordance with the provisions of this section. All rights and licenses you grant to Broadjam pursuant to this section shall terminate, with respect to specific Materials, when, in accordance with this Agreement, you exercise your right to request removal of such Materials.\nYou represent and warrant that you have exclusive authority to grant all licenses that are granted to Broadjam and its sub-licensees in this Agreement. You understand that Broadjam is relying on this representation and warranty. You agree to and hereby do indemnify Broadjam, its licensees, assigns and customers against, and hold them harmless from, any loss, expense (including reasonable attorney fees and expenses), or damage occasioned by any claim, demand, suit, recovery, or settlement arising out of any breach or alleged breach of any of the representations, warranties or covenants made herein or arising out of any failure by you to fulfill any of the representations, warranties, or covenants you have made herein.\nSub-licensees designated by Broadjam to transmit, stream, broadcast, publicly display and/or publicly perform your Materials may pay a fee to Broadjam for facilitating access to such Materials and you hereby agree that Broadjam shall be entitled to collect and retain 100% of all such facilitation fees without any obligation to you.\n(a) You acknowledge that the Site may from time to time encounter technical or other problems and may not necessarily continue uninterrupted or without technical or other errors and that Broadjam shall not be responsible to you or others for any such interruptions, errors or problems or for discontinuance of any Broadjam Service. Broadjam provides no assurances whatever that any of your Materials will ever be accessed or used by Broadjam, its visitors, Subscribers or sub-licensees nor, if so accessed or used, that your Materials will continue to be available for any particular length or period of time.\n(b) A possibility exists that the Site or any Service could include inaccuracies or errors, or information or materials that violate this Agreement. Additionally, a possibility exists that unauthorized alterations could be made by third parties to the Site or any Service. Although we attempt to ensure the integrity of the Site and every Service, we make no guarantees as to their completeness or correctness. In the event that a situation arises in which the Site's or any Services' completeness or correctness is in question, you agree to contact us including, if possible, a description of the material to be checked and the location (URL) where such material can be found, as well as information sufficient to enable us to contact you. We will make best efforts to address your concerns as soon as reasonably practicable. For copyright infringement claims, see Broadjam's Digital Millennium Copyright (DMCA) Policy, set forth in Section 1.07 of this Agreement.\n(c) The Site and any Service may be discontinued at any time, with or without reason or cause.\n(d) Broadjam disclaims any and all responsibility for the deletion, failure to store, misdelivery or untimely delivery of any information or Material. Broadjam disclaims any and all responsibility for harm resulting from downloading or accessing any information or Material on the Internet or through the Site.\n(e) THIS SITE, INCLUDING ANY CONTENT OR INFORMATION CONTAINED WITHIN IT OR ANY SITE-RELATED SERVICE, IS PROVIDED \"AS IS,\" WITH NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED. TO THE FULLEST EXTENT PERMISSIBLE PURSUANT TO APPLICABLE LAW, BROADJAM AND ITS AFFILIATES, LICENSORS, SUPPLIERS, ADVERTISERS, SPONSORS AND AGENTS DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, ACCURACY, MERCHANTABILITY, AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, AND ANY WARRANTIES THAT MAY ARISE FROM COURSE OF DEALING, COURSE OF PERFORMANCE OR USAGE OF TRADE. BROADJAM AND ITS AFFILIATES, LICENSORS, SUPPLIERS, ADVERTISERS, SPONSORS AND AGENTS DISCLAIM ANY AND ALL WARRANTIES REGARDING THE SECURITY, RELIABILITY, TIMELINESS, AND PERFORMANCE OF ANY BROADJAM SERVICE. BROADJAM AND ITS AFFILIATES, LICENSORS, SUPPLIERS, ADVERTISERS, SPONSORS AND AGENTS DISCLAIM ANY AND ALL WARRANTIES FOR ANY INFORMATION OR ADVICE OBTAINED THROUGH THE SITE. NO OPINION, ADVICE OR STATEMENT OF BROADJAM OR ITS AFFILIATES, LICENSORS, SUPPLIERS, ADVERTISERS, SPONSORS, AGENTS, MEMBERS OR VISITORS, WHETHER MADE ON THE SITE OR OTHERWISE, SHALL CREATE ANY WARRANTY. BROADJAM AND ITS AFFILIATES, LICENSORS, SUPPLIERS, ADVERTISERS, SPONSORS AND AGENTS DISCLAIM ANY AND ALL WARRANTIES FOR SERVICES OR GOODS RECEIVED THROUGH OR ADVERTISED ON THE SITE OR RECEIVED THROUGH ANY LINKS APPEARING ANYWHERE ON THE SITE, AS WELL AS FOR ANY INFORMATION OR ADVICE RECEIVED THROUGH ANY LINKS PROVIDED ANYWHERE ON THE SITE.\n(f) BROADJAM AND ITS AFFILIATES, LICENSORS, SUPPLIERS, ADVERTISERS, SPONSORS AND AGENTS DO NOT WARRANT THAT YOUR USE OF THE SITE WILL BE UNINTERRUPTED, ERROR-FREE OR SECURE, THAT DEFECTS WILL BE CORRECTED, OR THAT THE SITE OR THE SERVER(S) ON WHICH THE SITE IS HOSTED ARE FREE OF VIRUSES OR OTHER HARMFUL COMPONENTS. YOU ACKNOWLEDGE THAT YOU ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR OBTAINING AND MAINTAINING ALL TELEPHONE, COMPUTER HARDWARE AND OTHER EQUIPMENT NEEDED TO ACCESS AND USE THE SITE, AND ALL CHARGES RELATED THERETO. YOU ASSUME ALL RESPONSIBILITY AND RISK FOR YOUR USE OF THE SITE AND ANY SERVICE AND YOUR RELIANCE THEREON. YOU UNDERSTAND AND AGREE THAT YOU DOWNLOAD OR OTHERWISE OBTAIN MATERIAL, INFORMATION OR DATA THROUGH THE USE OF THE SITE AT YOUR OWN DISCRETION AND RISK AND THAT YOU WILL BE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR ANY DAMAGES TO YOUR COMPUTER SYSTEM OR LOSS OF DATA THAT RESULTS FROM THE DOWNLOAD OF SUCH MATERIAL, INFORMATION OR DATA.\n(g) SOME STATES OR OTHER JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OF IMPLIED WARRANTIES, SO THE ABOVE EXCLUSIONS MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU. YOU MAY ALSO HAVE OTHER RIGHTS THAT VARY FROM STATE TO STATE AND JURISDICTION TO JURISDICTION. PROVIDED, HOWEVER, THAT TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW YOU HEREBY WAIVE THE PROVISIONS OF ANY STATE LAW LIMITING OR PROHIBITING SUCH EXCLUSIONS.\n(a) NEITHER BROADJAM NOR ANY OF OUR AFFILIATES, LICENSORS, SUPPLIERS, ADVERTISERS OR SPONSORS, NOR OUR OR THEIR DIRECTORS, OFFICERS, EMPLOYEES, CONSULTANTS, AGENTS OR OTHER REPRESENTATIVES (TOGETHER, FOR PURPOSES OF THIS SECTION, \"BROADJAM\"), ARE RESPONSIBLE OR LIABLE FOR ANY INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, PUNITIVE OR OTHER DAMAGES (INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, DAMAGES FOR LOSS OF BUSINESS, LOSS OF DATA OR LOST PROFITS), UNDER ANY CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE, WARRANTY, STRICT LIABILITY OR OTHER THEORY ARISING OUT OF OR RELATING IN ANY WAY TO USE OR MISUSE OF OR RELIANCE ON THE SITE OR ANY BROADJAM SERVICE OR ANY LINKED SITE, EVEN IF BROADJAM HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL BROADJAM'S TOTAL CUMULATIVE LIABILITY UNDER THIS AGREEMENT EXCEED THE TOTAL AMOUNT PAID BY YOU, IF ANY, TO ACCESS THE SITE. SUCH LIMITATION OF LIABILITY SHALL APPLY WHETHER THE DAMAGES ARISE FROM USE OR MISUSE OF AND/OR RELIANCE ON THE SITE OR ANY BROADJAM SERVICE, FROM INABILITY TO USE THE SITE OR ANY BROADJAM SERVICE, OR FROM THE INTERRUPTION, SUSPENSION, OR TERMINATION OF THE SITE OR ANY BROADJAM SERVICE (INCLUDING SUCH DAMAGES INCURRED BY THIRD PARTIES). THIS LIMITATION SHALL ALSO APPLY WITH RESPECT TO DAMAGES INCURRED BY REASON OF OTHER SERVICES OR GOODS RECEIVED THROUGH OR ADVERTISED ON THE SITE OR RECEIVED THROUGH ANY LINKS PROVIDED AT, IN OR THROUGH THE SITE, AS WELL AS BY REASON OF ANY INFORMATION OR ADVICE RECEIVED THROUGH OR ADVERTISED ON THE SITE OR RECEIVED THROUGH ANY LINKS PROVIDED ON THE SITE OR ANY BROADJAM SERVICE. THIS LIMITATION SHALL ALSO APPLY, WITHOUT LIMITATION, TO THE COSTS OF PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES, LOST PROFITS, AND LOST DATA. SUCH LIMITATION SHALL FURTHER APPLY WITH RESPECT TO THE PERFORMANCE OR NONPERFORMANCE OF THE SITE OR ANY BROADJAM SERVICE OR ANY INFORMATION OR MERCHANDISE THAT APPEARS ON, OR IS LINKED OR RELATED IN ANY WAY TO, THE SITE OR ANY BROADJAM SERVICE. SUCH LIMITATION SHALL APPLY NOTWITHSTANDING ANY FAILURE OF ESSENTIAL PURPOSE OF ANY LIMITED REMEDY AND TO THE FULLEST EXTENT PERMITTED BY LAW.\n(b) SOME STATES OR OTHER JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OR LIMITATION OF LIABILITY FOR INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, SO THE ABOVE LIMITATIONS AND EXCLUSIONS MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU. PROVIDED, HOWEVER, THAT TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW YOU HEREBY WAIVE THE PROVISIONS OF ANY STATE LAW LIMITING OR PROHIBITING SUCH EXCLUSIONS OR LIMITATIONS.\n(c) WITHOUT LIMITING THE FOREGOING, UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES SHALL BROADJAM BE HELD LIABLE FOR ANY DELAY OR FAILURE IN PERFORMANCE RESULTING DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY FROM ACTS OF NATURE, FORCES, OR CAUSES BEYOND ITS REASONABLE CONTROL, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, INTERNET FAILURES, COMPUTER EQUIPMENT FAILURES, TELECOMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT FAILURES, OTHER EQUIPMENT FAILURES, ELECTRICAL POWER FAILURES, STRIKES, LABOR DISPUTES, RIOTS, INSURRECTIONS, CIVIL DISTURBANCES, SHORTAGES OF LABOR OR MATERIALS, FIRES, FLOODS, STORMS, EXPLOSIONS, ACTS OF GOD, EPIDEMIC, WAR, GOVERNMENTAL ACTIONS, ORDERS OF DOMESTIC OR FOREIGN COURTS OR TRIBUNALS, NON-PERFORMANCE OF THIRD PARTIES, OR LOSS OF OR FLUCTUATIONS IN HEAT, LIGHT, OR AIR CONDITIONING.\n(a) All content included on this Site, including but not limited to text, graphics, logos, button icons, images, data compilations, code and source code, multimedia content, including but not limited to images, illustrations, audio and video clips, html and other mark up languages, and all scripts within the Site or associated therewith, are the property of Broadjam or its content suppliers and is protected by United States and international copyright laws with All Rights Reserved. The compilation of all content on this Site is the exclusive property of Broadjam and is protected by United States and international copyright laws with All Rights Reserved. All software used on this site is the property of Broadjam or its software suppliers and is protected by United States and international copyright laws with All Rights Reserved.\n(b) \"Broadjam,\" \"Broadjam Top 10,\" \"Metajam\", \"broadjam.com\", \"Musicians of Broadjam,\" Mini MoB, PRIMO MoB and other trademarks, service marks, logos, labels, product names and service names appearing on the Site (collectively, the \"Marks\") are owned or licensed by Broadjam. Marks not owned by Broadjam or its subsidiaries are the property of their respective owners, who may or may not be affiliated with, connected to, or sponsored by Broadjam.\n(c) You agree not to copy, display or otherwise use any Marks without Broadjam's prior written permission. The Marks may never be used in any manner likely to cause confusion, disparage or dilute the Marks and/or in connection with any product or service that is not authorized or sponsored by Broadjam.\n(a) We make no representation that products or services available on or through the Site or any Service are appropriate or available for use in other locations other than the United States. Those who choose to access the Site or any Service from other locations do so on their own initiative and at their own risk, and are responsible for compliance with local laws, if and to the extent local laws are applicable. By accessing the Site or using any Services you are consenting to have your personal data transferred to and processed in the United States.\n(b) Products, including software, made available through the Site or any Service are further subject to United States export controls. You agree to comply with all applicable laws regarding the transmission of technical data exported from the United States or the country in which you reside. No such products may be downloaded or otherwise exported or re-exported (i) into (or to a national or resident of) any country to which the U.S. has embargoed goods; or (ii) to anyone on the U.S. Treasury Department's list of Specially Designated Nationals or the U.S. Commerce Department's Table of Deny Orders. By downloading any product available through the Site or any Service, you represent and warrant that you are not located in, under the control of, or a national or resident of any such country or on any such list. We reserve the right to limit the availability of the Site and/or any Service or product described thereon to any person, geographic area or jurisdiction, at any time and in our sole discretion, and to limit the quantities of any such Service or product that we provide.\nBroadjam may also provide access to certain services (including, without limitation and by way of example only: advertising, promotion, and submission processing services for contests, radio play, publishing, placement and licensing opportunities) that are supplied by others (\"Third Party Services\"). YOU EXPRESSLY ACKNOWLEDGE THAT BROADJAM BEARS NO RESPONSIBILITY FOR THIRD PARTY SERVICES; BROADJAM EXPRESSLY DISCLAIMS ANY/ALL LIABILITY FOR THIRD PARTY SERVICES; AND BROADJAM MAKES NO WARRANTY, REPRESENTATION OR GUARANTEE TO YOU REGARDING ANY ASPECT OF THIRD PARTY SERVICES. ANY CLAIM YOU MAY HAVE REGARDING ANY THIRD PARTY SERVICE MUST BE PURSUED DIRECTLY AND EXCLUSIVELY WITH THE INDIVIDUAL OR GROUP, WHETHER OR NOT ORGANIZED AS A LEGAL ENTITY (THE \"THIRD PARTY PROVIDER\"), THAT SUPPLIED THE THIRD PARTY SERVICE. BROADJAM IS NOT A PARTY TO ANY RULES, CONTRACTS OR OTHER AGREEMENTS BETWEEN YOU AND ANY THIRD PARTY PROVIDER, AND YOU EXPRESSLY AGREE NOT TO JOIN OR ATTEMPT TO JOIN BROADJAM AS A PARTY IN ANY DISPUTE BETWEEN YOU AND ANY THIRD PARTY PROVIDER.\nUpon receipt of your written request, Broadjam will remove any of your Materials from the Site within a reasonable period of time. Broadjam's licenses to use such Materials will continue for any copies of such Materials that may have been disseminated in any format or media prior to the actual removal of such Materials from the Site.\nYou agree that, at any time, Broadjam may revise, change or modify any terms and conditions of this Agreement and/or any aspect of any Service, without notice to you. You can review the most current version of this Agreement at any time at: http://www.broadjam.com. When using any Service, you and Broadjam shall also be subject to any guidelines, Policies or rules applicable to such Service which may be posted on the Site from time to time. All such guidelines, Policies or rules are hereby incorporated by reference into this Agreement and you agree to their terms. Any such revisions, changes or modifications shall be binding and effective immediately upon posting of same to the Site.\n(a) Your rights under this Agreement are not assignable and any attempt by your creditors to obtain an interest in your rights under this Agreement, whether by attachment, levy, garnishment or otherwise, renders this Agreement voidable at Broadjam's option.\n(b) This Agreement is binding onthe Parties and their respective heirs, legatees, executors, successors and assigns. Except for Policies and other agreements incorporated by reference herein, this Agreement is the entire agreement between the Parties and supersedes all prior written or oral agreements between the Parties relating to the subject matter hereof. If any portion of this Agreement is found to be void or unenforceable, the remaining portion shall be enforceable with the invalid portion removed, giving all reasonable construction to permit the essential purposes of the Agreement to be achieved. The Parties' various rights and remedies hereunder shall be construed to be cumulative.\n(c) This Agreement shall be deemed to have been made in the State of Wisconsin, and it shall be governed by the substantive laws of the State of Wisconsin without regard to any applicable conflict of laws provisions. The Parties submit to jurisdiction in the state and federal courts sitting in Dane County, Wisconsin, and you hereby waive any jurisdictional, venue or inconvenient forum objections. Provided, however, that if we are sued or joined in an action in any other court or forum in respect of any matter which may give rise to a claim by us hereunder, you consent to the jurisdiction of such court or forum over any such claim. Nothing in this paragraph or Agreement constitutes our consent to the assertion of personal jurisdiction over Broadjam otherwise than in Wisconsin.\n(d) Nothing contained in this Agreement shall be construed to require the commission of any act contrary to law. Nothing in this Agreement shall be construed or deemed to create any partnership, agency, joint venture, employment or franchise relationship between the Parties.\n(e) Each Party hereto agrees to execute all further and additional documents as may be necessary or desirable to effectuate and carry out the provisions of this Agreement.\n(f) Captions and headings used in this Agreement are for purposes of convenience only and shall not be deemed to limit, affect the scope, meaning or intent of this Agreement, nor shall they otherwise be given any legal effect.\n(g) No breach of this Agreement by Broadjam shall be deemed material unless the Party alleging such breach shall have given Broadjam written notice of such breach, and Broadjam shall fail to cure such breach within thirty (30) days after its receipt of such notice.\n(h) All notices required to be sent to Broadjam under this Agreement shall be in writing and shall be sent by certified mail, return receipt requested, postage paid, or by overnight delivery service, to Broadjam Inc., 211 S. Paterson St. Ste. 360 Madison, WI 53703 Attention: Legal (or such other address or addresses as may be designated by Broadjam herein).\n(i) All duties, liabilities, obligations, warranties, representations, covenants, authorizations, agreements and restrictions undertaken by and/or imposed upon you in connection with this Agreement shall be deemed to apply jointly and severally to all members collectively and each member individually of any group at any time comprising the Artist whose recordings or other Materials you post, upload or otherwise make available to Broadjam. You affirmatively represent that you have the authority to bind all such individuals to the terms and conditions of this Agreement.\n(j) You agree that regardless of any statute or law to the contrary, any claim or cause of action against Broadjam, arising out of or related to use of the Site or any Service, must be filed within one (1) year after such claim or cause of action arose or be forever barred.\nSacramento, California 95834, or by telephone at (800) 952-5210.\navailable by contacting Broadjam at the above address, Attention: Customer Service.\n(m) This Agreement has no intended third party beneficiaries.\n(a) This Article II applies to any Person (hereinafter a \"Subscriber\") who subscribes to any member subscription service offered by Broadjam, including but not limited to, by way of example, Mini MoB or PRIMO MoB (hereinafter a \"Subscription Service\"). For purposes of this Agreement all Subscribers are also Users as defined herein.\n(b) You agree to provide true, accurate, current and complete information about yourself as prompted by the subscription registration processes (such information being your \"Account Information\"). You further agree that, in providing such Account Information, you will not knowingly omit or misrepresent any material facts or information and that you will promptly enter corrected or updated Account Information, or otherwise advise us promptly in writing of any such changes or updates. You further consent and authorize us to verify your Account Information as required for your use of and access to the Site and any Service, as applicable.\n(c) As a Subscriber, you will receive a unique username and password in connection with your account (collectively referred to herein as your \"Username\"). You agree that you will not allow another person to use your Username to access and use the Site or any Service under any circumstances. You are solely and entirely responsible for maintaining the confidentiality of your Username and for any charges, damages, liabilities or losses incurred or suffered as a result of your failure to do so. Broadjam is not liable for any harm caused by or related to the theft of your Username, your disclosure of your Username, or your authorization to allow another person to access and use the Site or any Service using your Username. Furthermore, you are solely and entirely responsible for any and all activities that occur under your account, including, but not limited to, any charges incurred relating to the Site or any Service. You agree to immediately notify us of any unauthorized use of your account or any other breach of security known to you. You acknowledge that the complete privacy of your data transmitted while using the Site or any Service cannot be guaranteed.\nThe term of any Subscription Service shall commence when the Subscriber initiates payment for such Subscription Service or, if the Subscription Service is complimentary, when the Subscriber registers for such Subscription Service. All Subscription Services will extend for an initial period of oneyear (the \"Term\") and, unless terminated as provided herein, shall renew automatically for successive one-year periods. During the Term, the Subscriber shall be afforded the full use and benefit of the applicable Subscription Service as described on the Site (the \"Service Benefits\"), which Service Benefits may be revised by Broadjam from time to time without notice to the Subscriber. Due to technical considerations, certain Service Benefits may not be available to the Subscriber immediately upon commencement of the Term, but shall be provided to the Subscriber as soon as commercially reasonable. Please direct any questions about Subscription Services or Service Benefits to Broadjam by email at: customerservice@broadjam.com or by US mail at: Broadjam Inc., 100 S. Baldwin St. Ste. #204, Madison, WI 53703, Attn: Customer Service.\n(b) maintain and update such information as needed to keep it current, complete and accurate.\nSubscriber acknowledges that Broadjam relies and will rely upon the accuracy of such information as supplied by Subscriber.\n(a) Termination by Subscriber. Subscriber may terminate any Subscription Service at any time by providing Broadjam with written notice pursuant to this Agreement. Written notice will be followed by a confirmation request from Broadjam Customer Service. Confirmation is required to implement termination. Such termination will be effective after the paid period. In the case of termination by the Subscriber, the period that is already paid for will not be reimbursed. The Subscription Service will remain active until the end of the paid period.\n(a) As consideration for a Subscription Service, Subscriber agrees to pay Broadjam all applicable subscription fees as posted on the Site at the time Subscriber applies for the Subscription Service. All subscription fees are due immediately pursuant to the payment option Subscriber chooses, and are non-refundable except as otherwise provided herein. Broadjam may exercise all available remedies to collect fees due and owing for any Subscription Service.\n(b) Broadjam may, at its sole discretion and for any Subscription Service, offer Subscriber the option to pay Subscriber's annual subscription fee in monthly installments (a \"Payment Plan\"). If Subscriber elects a Payment Plan, Subscriber agrees to provide Broadjam with a valid credit card number, which Broadjam will charge on a monthly basis for twelve (12) consecutive months, in an amount each month equal to 1/12th of the subscription fee for the Subscription Service, plus a finance charge, until the Subscription Service is terminated pursuant to this Agreement. By providing credit card billing information, Subscriber shall be authorizing Broadjam to charge that credit card until termination of the Subscription Service. Broadjam shall have the right immediately to discontinue Subscriber's Service Benefits if Broadjam does not receive payment when due.\nIn order to change any of Subscriber's account information, Subscriber must use the User Name and the Password that Subscriber selected when Subscriber registered as a Broadjam User. In no event will Broadjam be liable for any unauthorized use or misuse of Subscriber's User Name and Password.\nSubscriber agrees that Subscriber's failure to abide by any provision of this Agreement or any Broadjam operating rule or policy, Subscriber's willful provision of inaccurate or unreliable information as part of the application process, Subscriber's failure to update Subscriber's information to keep it current, complete or accurate, and/or Subscriber's failure to respond to inquiries from Broadjam concerning the accuracy of Subscriber's account information shall be considered a material breach of this Agreement. If within ten (10) calendar days after Broadjam provides notice (in any form and via any method of delivery) to Subscriber of such material breach, Subscriber fails to provide evidence, reasonably satisfactory to Broadjam, that Subscriber has not breached its obligations under this Agreement, Broadjam may terminate all Services, Subscription and otherwise, without further notice to Subscriber.\nThis Article III applies to any Person (hereinafter a \"Hosting Subscriber\") who subscribes to any web hosting subscription service offered by Broadjam, including but not limited to, by way of example, PRIMO MoB (hereinafter a \"Hosting Service\"). For purposes of this Agreement all Hosting Subscribers are also Subscribers and Users as defined herein.\nHosting Subscriber's Website will not be used in connection with any illegal activity.\n(b) Hosting Subscriber is responsible for ensuring that there is no excessive overloading on Broadjam's DNS or servers. Broadjam prohibits the use of software or scripts run on its servers that cause the server to load beyond a reasonable level, as determined by Broadjam. Hosting Subscriber agrees that Broadjam reserves the right to remove Hosting Subscriber's Website temporarily or permanently from its hosting servers if Hosting Subscriber's Website threatens the stability of Broadjam's network.\n(c) Hosting Subscriber may not use Broadjam's servers or Hosting Subscriber's Website as a source, intermediary, reply to address, or destination address for mail bombs, Internet packet flooding, packet corruption, denial of service, or any other abusive activities. Server hacking or other perpetration of security breaches is strictly prohibited and Broadjam reserves the right to remove websites that contain information about hacking or links to such information. 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{"input": "What field does Danny work in in Tennessee?", "context": "My Aspergers Child: COMMENTS & QUESTIONS [for Feb., 2017]\nI emailed you a while back and you mentioned that I could email when I needed to. Thank you. I last wrote you in December that my son became involved in a dispute involving the local police. We have had 3 court dates. It keeps delaying due to not being able to come to an agreement. But the attorney, even though he was just vaguely familiar with Aspergers, has been very good with Craig. He has the compassion and excellence that is needed here. What started out very bad is turning into a good thing. It will probably take another 90 days or more.\nBut Craig is working hard. Too hard sometimes. He goes to therapy 3 times a week. Doing excellent. He's more focused and can calm down easier. He's got a lot on his plate but has support from his family. From his attorney. From therapy. And from his work.\nHe has been renting a room from a lady who has a son with ADHD. It is good for him. I'm a little worried though because since she smokes he wants to find his own place. With all the costs he has to balance it out financially. That is good. I can't help him more than I am which is good. He is stepping up and taking responsibility. He is listening much better.\nHe is going to have an evaluation today to get an accurate diagnosis. I understand that is a little difficult since he is an adult. Also the PTSD may cover it over. The attorney stated it would help to have the diagnosis.\nAware this is a long update, but thanks for reading. I am fighting much guilt still but I have a lot of peace now. My daughter and her 4 year old son also have Aspergers symptoms. So my life chapters may not close for a while. :-)\nMy name is Mac. I'm sure you're quite busy, so I'll get right to it I just wanted to pass on compliments on My Aspergers Child and your post, How to Implement the GFCF Diet: Tips for Parents of Autistic Children.\nMe and my wife absolutely loved it!\nI got a facebook message from him today begging to be able to come home saying he misses home and he will change. He says he will follow rules now. I stated to him the simple rules he has to follow which were - No weed in my house, or smoked in my house, coming home at curfew, going to school, no skipping, no drugs at school, and to drop the attitude of I am 17 I can do whatever I want.\nI have made it very clear that if I see any drugs in my home I will be calling the police, as well as if I see signs of it being sold by him I will report him. (He has never had selling amounts in my house, ... I believe it's being kept at his \"friends\" which of course I have no proof of....I just know it is not here.\nI know my battle is not over by a long shot, I am sure we will have more consequences and possibly another being kicked out, but I am going to think positive and hope that he learned some form of a valuable lesson here.\nThank you so much for the guidance, never in a million years did I ever think I'd be on this side, (the one needing the help, as I am the one who helps.)\nI am going to go back to the start of the program like I said earlier and keep notes close by for reference.\nThanks for all you do, helping us all with ODD children/teens\nI have a small company providing educational support services to a few families who have children with various disabilities in Ohio. One of the families has multiple adopted children of whom several have significant attachment disorders including RAD. As an experienced teacher and foster parent I have some experience in working with children who have extensive trauma backgrounds. However, I could use additional training. Also working with these children are two staff members with minimal background in attachment disorders who would also benefit from training primarily in behavior management. The primary caregiver to the children does a wonderful job managing their needs. In order to further develop team cohesion, I'm hoping to include her in any training as well.\nIs it possible to schedule such a training session with you? If so, please let us know what will work for you including time, place, and cost. Thank you for your assistance.\nI just listed to your tapes on dealing with an out of control, defiant teen. I'd like to ask your advice on a particular situation we have. Our 15 year old daughter is smoking pot almost every day at school. Because we had no way to control the situation, we told her, fine, go ahead and smoke weed. However, you will no longer receive the same support from us. You will not have your phone, lunch money to go off campus (she has an account at the school for the cafeteria she can use), and you will be grounded until you can pass a drug test. We will not be testing you except for when you tell us you are ready to be tested. She is now saying she's suicidal because she feels so isolated, yet she continues to smoke weed. In fact, she tried to sneak out last night but was foiled by our alarm system. For the particular drug test we have, I read it takes about 10 days of not smoking to pass the test. What would you do? Please advise.\nI am having a problem with my 18 year old son, Danny, with high functioning autism. We finally had him diagnosed when he was 16 years old. I always knew something was going on with him but the doctors misdiagnosed him as bipolar. It's been 2 years now and he will not accept his diagnosis. He won't talk about it and when I try to bring it up he gets very angry. I've tried telling him that it's not a bad thing, that there's been many, many very successful people with Aspergers. He won't tell anyone and refuses to learn about managing life with it. He once shared with me that the other kids at school use it as an insult, like saying someone is so autistic when they do something they don't approve of. So he doesn't want anyone to know. He's turned down services that could help him. He has a girlfriend, going on 8 months. He won't tell her and they're having problems arguing a lot and I wonder if it would help for her to know.\nI'm sad that he thinks it's a life sentence to something horrible instead of accepting, embracing it and learning about it more so he maybe can understand why he's struggling. I told him that he doesn't need to shout it out to the whole world but he won't even accept it himself.\nI don't know how to help him with it and because he's almost 19 I have limited control now. It's made my life easier knowing what we're dealing with and I think his life would be easier is he accepted it.\nPlease help me help him.\nI am a clinical psychologist in NYC who now has several (!!) children I see who have RAD. In 20 years of practice, I’d seen only one case. Now, I have at least three children with this. I have no training, per se, in working with this children though I know about setting structure, consistency, etc. I do a lot of work with parents about parenting. I work primarily within the school setting in a charter school whose mission is to educate children on the autism spectrum in a mainstream setting. We use Michelle Garcia Winner’s social thinking program with our ASD kids. I also work with gen ed kids in the school who are at-risk; the school is in the inner city from where the majority of our non-ASD kids live.\nIt would have been so much easier to mention to my adult son that I think (I know he does, but want to ease into the subject)\nhe has Asperger's when we were living together two years ago. He has since moved to Tennessee working in his field of interest\nwhich is 3-D printing and software development. I am so happy for him that he has found his way into a job that he truly enjoys\neven though he's socially isolated.\nHe's not diagnosed and does not know he has it. How I know is his classic symptoms being sensory issues (fabric feeling like sandpaper)\ncommunication difficulties, meltdowns and much more. Throughout his childhood I just felt he was a bit different. Nothing major stood out and time\njust passes, misdiagnosis of ADHD, low frustration, etc. We've talked about his ADHD numerous times (which I now know he doesn't have).\nIt's so much easier to communicate with him now that I know he has Asperger's. I keep it \"slow and low\" in talking, with long moments\nof silence and then we connect. It's really too bad that Asperger's got a diagnostic code back in the 90's, yet all the so called doctors,\nphysiologist's, etc, didn't know how to diagnose it. Too bad.\nThere seems to be no one answer to \"should I tell my adult son he has Asperger's\" from a few specialists I asked. He is typical Asperger,\ncomplicated, highly intelligent (high IQ), anxiety at times, socially isolated, hard to make friends. Not knowing how he will react is the hard part.\nHow will he be better off knowing he has it? Do I wait to tell him in person, or ease into it with him over Skype? He likes direct, honest, concrete communication.\nWhy is this so hard for me? Maybe because no one know's if he is going to be better off knowing or not. Do you know if people are better off\nknowing? I try to get up the courage to just let him know, then I back down.\nI have been searching the web looking for advice and came upon your site. I am trying to read blogs, websites, books, and articles to help guide me. I was so happy when you said that I could ask you a question. My husband and I are struggling with my 27 year old son who lives with us.\nKyle is the youngest of 4 sons. He is a college graduate but never could find the \"right\" job. He has always been quiet and never had a lot of friends. Two years ago, his girlfriend broke up with him. Kyle had an online gambling addiction and was using pot all the time. After the breakup, Kyle was very depressed and started using heroin and finally told my husband he was using. He is now seeing a psychiatrist who has him on suboxone and antidepressants. He is also seeing a psychologist weekly for counseling but it does not seem to be helping.\nLast October,, Kyle lost his job, got drunk, and was agitated and came home , fighting with us, damaging our home and being verbally abusive. My other son , age 32, who also lives with us called the police and Kyle got arrested. He is currently in the family court system. He went through an anger management course and now is in substance abuse classes. Kyle continues to verbally abusive to me and blame me for everything. He says he \"hates me \"and calls me terrible names. At times, he pushes my husband and intimidates me. My husband and I are so upset. We just hired an attorney for him because since he has been going to these classes, he is getting more depressed and not getting better. Kyle continues to drink while taking his meds prescribed by the psychiatrist and then he has his \"moods.\" My husband and I have met once with the psychiatrist just to give him background information when Kyle started with him.\nAt this point, we do not know what to do. We never thought at this stage of our life, we would be supporting and spending our retirement money on adult children. I do not know why Kyle hates me, I could not have been a better mom. My husband and I have no life and just do not know what it the right path we should take. Kyle does not want anything to do with us. He spends all his time in his room playing football online.We have tried tough love versus caring and love and understanding. Do you have any advice for me?\nThis whole ODD and ADHD is killing me as a parent. I work in the field of adult psych and addictions so I am well educated. I have been dealing with my teen being like this for almost 3 years and I totally lost my cool today with my 17-year-old son to the point I told him he is out of the house. He can never simple rules, comes and goes as he pleases sometimes doesn't come home, just recently back in school from several suspension for drug related... I am just so exhausted. He has made me hate life, hate being a parent and sometimes I just feel like not even being here. I bought your program in hopes to it would help, I am at week three and I feel things are getting worse... what am I doing wrong??\nMy partner hasn't been diagnosed yet but I know he has aspergers ..day to day is a struggle . I feel I'm going crazy with how he makes me feel.Feel let down constantly. He lies alot but I've been told they can't but I know he does.I just feel trapped and unloved.We have a 4yr old daughter together and my main worry with how he is that it will effect our daughter ; (his skills as a parent are so weak.He can't disapline at all.Feel so alone .he hides it well too.I just wondered if things will get worse? He's angry so quick in arguments.Scares me etc.I can't leave as he's the main bread winner and our daughter loves him to bits.Don't know why I'm writing this..Sorry if I'm going on and not making sense :(\nI wanted to let you know about a research opportunity for children, teens, and young adults with autism. I am studying the effects of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, and psychotherapy on helping people with autism develop subjective awareness of others.\nI am writing you to see if this might help someone in your practice, or to see if you might know of someone with autism who may benefit from participating in this study. The requirements of the study will be:\n1. A participant should be between 7-21 years of age and have a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder.\n2. The participant should enroll in an approved Jiu Jitsu Academy and attend at least two sessions a week for a period of six months.\n3. The participant should enroll in social skills groups, provided by my office or be in a steady psychotherapeutic relationship in your office, at least once a week, or minimally two to three times a month.\n4. The participant will be given a SRS (Social Responsiveness Scale) test at the beginning of the study, at three months, and again at six months.\nIf you know of anyone who might benefit from this novel approach to helping to develop social awareness in autism, please do not hesitate to contact me for further information.\nI have a 10 year old daughter who has outbursts with prolonged crying almost like tantrums that 2 year olds have when they cannot express themselves.\nI had her in therapy from age 6-8 years old for the same thing but I feel that the sessions didn't really help much.\nShe has severe sensitivities to light, sound, vibration, frequencies which trigger irritability and crying.\nWe changed her diet and tried getting her involved with activities but she is anti-social and prefers reading than being social. She is terrified of change even in daily routine (even that will trigger prolonged crying).\nIt frustrates me because I don't know what else to do with her behavior.\nI've tried acupuncture (she refused at the first session); she refuses massage too.\nShe is an honor-roll student at school and has very minimal issues at school but if she has had a bad day it does result in a tantrum or crying and defiance.\nHow can I get her tested for Asperger's Syndrome?\nLast night our 24 year old son with Aspergers told his dad and I that he is pulling out of the 4 college classes that he recetnly enrolled in because he has not been attending class or turning in his assignments. He paid $2800 (his own money) for tuition and I reminded him of this when he told us but it did not seem to bother him.\nThis is the 3rd time he has started college courses and has not completed them. (He also took some concurrent college classes while he was in high school that he failed). This is a son who basically had a 4.0 grade point average through 10th grade and got a 34 on the ACT the first time he took it.\nWith the news that he was once again not sticking with college courses I did not sleep well. When I got up this mornning I began looking online for help in how to deal with his situation. I found your \"Launching Adult Children With Aspergers\" and purchased it. Most of what is included are things we have done or did with our son throughout his life. I was hoping for more help so I am emailing you now in hopes of more specific ideas.\nWe noticed some things with our son, Taylor, as a yound child but as we had not heard of Aspergers at that time we just did what we thought would help him. As a toddler and a child at pre-school he generally went off on his own to play. When I talked to his pre-school teacher about my concerns (that I was worried he would end up a hermit) she said she did not see him being a loner and that he seemed to interact fine with others in many situations. We worked with him on making eye contact when talking with others. We explained different emotions in people's faces and mannerisms to help him know how to interact with others. We discussed the fact that people would say things that did not mean what they souneded like - such as \"I'm so hungry I could eat a horse\". As we did these things he worked hard to better understand communication with others.\nDuring his 4th grade year I had a teacher from the gifted program ask me if I had ever heard of Aspergers. I told her that I had not heard of it. She proceeded to read me some of the charateristics and so many of them described my son. So we had him tested by the school district during the summer between 4th and 5th grade and they did find that he had Aspergers but that he was high functioning. We then set him up with and EIP which stayed with him until his sophomore year. We pulled him from it at that time because we had moved and the new district was requiring him to take one class a day that was a study class. This reduced the number of required classes he could take and he was doing fine with his studies at the time.\nIt was during the 2nd half of his Junior year that we noticed some of his grades going down. Then during his Senior year is when he started skipping classes and not doing assignments. We had not realized it before then but we soon became aware that he was addicted to gaming. He would go to the library or somewhere else on campus and play games on the computer rather than go to class. It was also at this time that he began lying about his actions (so as not to get in trouble).\nBased on his grades and his ACT score he received offers from colleges for full tuition scholarships. He chose the college where he had taken concurrent classes during his high school years. But he proceeded to skip class and not turn in assignments so he lost his scholarship and quit attending college. During this time he was only able to find employment through an employment agency where he was mostly sent to manuel labor type jobs (which is not something he enjoys but he did it anyway). It was during this time that at one place had gone to on numerous occasions he was told if he came late one more time they would tell the emplyment agency they did not want him to come there anymore. (This seemed to make an impression on him because he has continued to be reliable and responsbile at his places of employment).\nAt 19 1/2 he left to serve a 2 year full-time mission for our church. He completed his mission successfully. (I don't think it was without some struggle, stress and depression, but he was able to pick himself up and move on from those times).\nWhen he came home he started working for the employment agency again but began looking for employment elsewhere. He got a job at a local Chick Fil-A where he has worked for 3 years. He started college again shortly after he came home but as before it was short lived. He did finish out the semester but failed most of the classes due to his skipping class and not turning in assignments. When he skipped class he would usually sleep in his car.\nTaylor's life consists of working (where to the best of our knowledge) he does well, he is reliable and his employer likes him. When he comes home from work he either sleeps or plays video games or other games - such as kakuro. He spendes most of his time in the basement where his bedroom is and this is where he games. Taylor owns his own car, bought his own laptop and very rarely spends money. He pays us $200 /month to still live at home, unloads the dishwasher on a regular basis and does the weekly garbage. However, his room is a mess and he only cleans his bathroom when I tell him he needs to clean it.\nTaylor used to read quite a bit and loved to learn. It has just been in his adult years that he has not read as much - I think because of his gaming addiction. Taylor goes to church on a regular basis but sleeps through the main meeting. In Sunday class room settings he stays awake - I think because he is able to particpate in discussions.\nTaylor has only had 2 real friends since entering Junior High school. And as of now he only keeps in contact with one of them who still lives in Georgia. We have lived in Utah since the summer of 2007 and he has never had a friend to do things with since we have lived here. He has two younger siblings, a brother 22 and a sister 20. They love Taylor and spend time with him when they are home. They are both at college and doing well.\nThroughout Taylor's school years he has seen a counsleor on a fairly regular basis. One summer during junior high he attended a weekly class where he interacted with other kids with Aspergers. We did see a lot of change in him from this group. After he returned from his mission he went to see a counselor for a short period - this counselor tried to help him with some social skills. His dad and I went with him the first 3 or 4 times but we found out that after we quit going with him he only went a few more times and then scheduled appointments but did not show a couple of the times. We only found this out when a bill came for a \"no show\" appointment.\nI don't know if this is too much information but were are in dire need of help for him. In the information that we purchased from you you mentioned that you do coaching for Aspergers adults. I don't know if you can help us but I thought I would check with you just in case.\nAlas I think I have found your information too late to save my marriage but I am hoping to save myself.\nI am currently going through a very very painful separation after a 27 year relationship with my husband whom I am convinced has aspergers syndrome. It is a long and painful story and I am desperately trying to process it all alongside dealing with a very conflictual separation. My partner is angry non communicative and totally dismissive of me and our long shared history.\nHe walked out last year after I discovered he had been visiting massage parlours and developed a relationship with an illegal Chinese escourt whom he subsequently moved in with. He had been seeing this woman behind my back for over 18 months. The pain of all this indescribable and his dismissal of my pain and very existence beyond belief.\nLeading up to this I had been battling anxiety and depression which my husband found very hard to cope with.\nOver the years of our relationship I knew something was off but I just could not put my finger on it. I often felt a complete lack of validation and empathy. Communication was also difficult as my husband was defensive and unwilling to look at issues in our marriage.\nPlease Mark could you help me validate some of this pain and try and make dense of 27 years of my life without drowning in fear guilt and despair about my future.\nThank you for listening and your site.\nI have had problems with drunkenness, being late for school, not handing in school work, buying pot from a dealer etc. I chose to focus on the drinking and did the grounding then (grounding happened 3 times). I also stopped sleep overs at friends 100%. I have stopped handing out money for no reason or even buying treats like chocolate.\nI did lose it one evening (and didn't do the poker face) when I was trying to unplug the internet at midnight on a school night (she’s always late for school so I am trying to get her to sleep at a reasonable hour). I was physically stopped and pushed around so I slapped my daughter (it was not hard). This ended up with her saying she didn’t want to come home (the next day after school). By this stage, I also had enough and didn’t go get her. I thought I am not begging. You will run out of money soon. It was quite a relief to have some peace. Daughter’s Dad was in town (from another country) and called a family meeting with the counsellor. To cut a long story short, daughter and her counsellor put it on the table that daughter wants to go live somewhere else (with her friends family) because of the stress at home with me (we live on our own) (i.e. stricter rules and her bucking up against it).\nI didn’t really want this but made a compromise that daughter would go there Tues morning – Friday afternoon as the friend is an A student whereas my daughter is failing. They do the same subjects. I made the decision at the end of the day based on what is good for me – some time away from the daughter. I also thought of your book when the child went to live with the grandparents – daughter will dig her own hole over at the friend’s house. They have a week day no going out policy which made me think it is OK. I went and discussed with them the problems experienced (drinking, pot, late nights, not handing in work)\nI am also trying to follow the let go of school thing per your book. I find it really difficult to remain calm when I can see daughter on her phone and watching series (when I have her on the weekends) when I know there are projects due. I hired her a private tutor once a week for help with a subject. The tutor has just fired my daughter for not handing in work and being not committed. It’s not the first time private tutoring has not been appreciated. The school give me a report back on a Friday as to whether everything is handed in. The deal is – if the work is not handed in – no pocket money and no Friday night out). Her school is a \"progressive\" school and there are no repercussions for her being late or not handing in work. I would change schools if I could but there are only 8 months left of school (she turns 18 in August).\nWe have just completed the first week and beginning week two of your material. We are agreeing with your take and see our son and ourselves in most of what you are saying. Prior to finding your material and starting your program we had been having extreme out of control behaviors and had to call the police because he was breaking things in our house and pushed my husband. This happened three weeks ago. After that incident we took away privileges ie. PS4, phone (which had already been taken for a few days), and friends. So, last week while doing your program he already didn’t have privileges and has continued with poor behavior – name calling, throwing things, slamming doors. We are not sure when to give privileges back. He has been given the privilege of playing with friends on occasion. His 13th birthday is tomorrow. This past weekend, for his birthday my husband and he went boar hunting. Of course we debated about it but decided to go ahead since it was his bday. We are cooking some of the meet on the grill tomorrow night for his bday and inviting a couple of his friends over for a cookout. No more gifts other than cards and balloons. We are wondering if we should go ahead and give him his privileges back and not sure how to do it. Last Friday morning we attempted to talk giving him a date to return privileges and that conversation ended with him getting angry but he gathered from our conversation that he is getting his stuff back on his bday. We are starting week 2 assignments today but not sure how to handle what was already in place. Of course, we aren’t seeing the respect and responsibility we are looking for but realize it has been a long time. We were wanting him to pay for his phone and thought it might be a good time to introduce that idea. Allowing him to earn his phone. We expect that he will be angry with this idea and not sure how to implement.\nMy son and myself are interested in a inpatient Aspergers program. We line in Calif which is preferable. My son is very high functioning and was diagnosed dry late. He was eight years old. He has never been in or attended a full day of class. Partially due to depression,anxiety, and trouble with his ADHD also his aversion and being bullied and of course his Aspergers. He will not attend his freshmen year due to surgery on both Achilles' tendons from walking on his toes. With physical therapy he should be ready by his sophomore year! We all feel he needs in patient therapy to give him the tools on how to work with his issues in a structured setting and a place that will give him tools for the rest of his life.\nIn my utter desperation to find a way to get some help for my daughter's increasingly challenging behaviour I trawled the internet to see if I could find some strategies that would provide specific methods on dealing with teenagers with Asperger's syndrome. When I came across your website, I couldn't believe that every statement you made was exactly what I have been going through with my daughter. She has just turned 14 last week, and was diagnosed with Asperger's/ Autism Spectrum Disorder 15 months ago. I have already been seeing a child psychologist for the past five months, however the methods she has been advising have not been very effective.\nOur main difficulty with our daughter is her overwhelming obsession to use her cell phone (and to a lesser extent her laptop) constantly. Without any restriction, she will be on it every minute of the day, and will be awake until the early hours every day. We have tried to incorporate her input around rules as to when she has to give in her phone, but she is unwilling to compromise on a time that she should give it to us, believing that she should have unlimited use. I believe she is unable to do any adequate study or homework, as she is constantly having to look at the phone. We have tried to put rules in place that she has to give in her phone and laptop on school nights at 22:15. If she is able to do this then she is given rewards, and if she doesn't then she knows that there will be consequences. The consequence has been restricted use the following day. However, this is usually where we fail, because taking her phone away from her results in tantrums, screaming, and even threatening to harm herself. This behaviour is relentless to the point where the whole family becomes deeply distressed, and inevitably results in her getting the phone back.\nThis obsession is affecting her schoolwork, and more severely her eyesight. She has become very shortsighted, and her eyesight continues to deteriorate as a result of holding the phone or laptop very close, and mostly in the dark without any lights on. My husband and I have a constant battle on our hands daily, in all areas of discipline with our daughter, but our main concern is that we have been unable to find a way to minimise this obsessive behaviour centred around her phone and laptop. Please can you provide some strategies that can help us specifically with this problem.\nFirst of all, I thank you for developing this program and I am only at the first stage of assignment 1. I have loads of books I have bought, attended psychiatrists for my son and myself, family therapy, occupational therapy, begged and prayed for change but have been dealing with behavioural issues for so long I am definitely exhausted and resentful.\nI am a mum to a 15 yr old boy with ASD, dyslexia, OCD and ODD. Sorry to focus on the labels but just to give you an idea of what I am dealing with. I also have a 13 yr old son whom finds his brother’s behaviours difficult, embarassing and challenging. My husband whom is not in great health ( he had a cerebral aneurysm clamped two years ago and has two further aneurysms that are inoperable so endures fatigue, headaches and stress). We have however a pet cat that is very social and a calming influence in the home! I was fortunate enough to have loving parents but I lost both my mum and dad in 2008 and 2015. My inlaws are elderly and quite directly say they are too old to help us so it feels we are alone in dealing with the issues we have.\nI am desperate for change as the household is one of stress and anger and I feel all the control lies in my son Patrick’s hands. I am hopeful your programme can make life better for all of us but I wonder if it is too early to ask you two questions?\nThe first lies with what to do when Patrick goes into my other son Brendan’s room and will either turn on a light when he is sleeping, yell when he is on his phone or create some disturbance. He will not leave the room when asked to do so and the situation always escalates into yelling and Brendan attempting to physically remove him. This happens regularly and always ends badly with doors slamming, my husband being woken and myself in tears feeling the lack of control and also I admit I seem to think “Why me?” which rationally I know is of no help.\nThe second problem is leaving the house for school. Patrick refuses personal hygiene (either morning or night) and any request to even brush his teeth is fraught with swearing and abuse. If I can get him to shower, he will watch the water roll down the drain and turn up the water really high temp (mu husband has had to turn down the thermostat on the hot water service) without so much as getting wet. My husband leaves for work at 6am but I leave at 745 to work as a nurse in a busy outpatients department in the Alfred Hospital (Melbourne). My work is my sanity as it is a paid break from home but most days I am late which is causing considerable stress and anxiety not to mention my responsibility to do my job. Patrick simply refuses to leave the house and as much as I am tempted to just walk out and leave I know the house would be left unlocked and wonder if Patrick would even attend school. The time I need to leave is not negotiable but Patrick uses this to his advantage and seems to delight in stressing me out and subsequently speeding to work in a frazzled mess.\nThe interesting and frustrating element in all of this is that although he is socially isolated at school (he has no friends) and academically challenged his behaviour at school is not a problem. He is quiet and his teachers report he does his best and is compliant and well mannered. It is like a Jekyll and Hyde situation where another side of him at home is so angry and abusive yet at school this behaviour does not happen.\nI’m Jackie, I now work primarily as a freelance tech writer, after starting my career in software development and moving on to teach IT to young adults at a variety of colleges and schools.\nMy freelance work is pretty varied and looks at many aspects of the computer industry as a whole, and I’ve just recently completed a piece which gives help and advice to anyone wanting to become a game designer, which you can read here: http://www.gamedesigning.org/become-a-game-designer/. It highlights the hard work and effort it takes to get into such a role, and also how you can further your career and continue to learn and improve as you go. I hope you’ll agree it shows that starting work in the industry takes dedication and skill and that becoming a game designer isn’t just a fly-by-night job!\nIf you’d be interested in sharing a quick mention of my work on your blog that would be really wonderful and I’d appreciate the chance to get my work out there to a wider audience. Alternatively, I’d be happy to write a short blurb or paragraph or two (or a longer piece - just let me know) highlighting the key points because I think some of your readers might get a lot of value from it.\nMy son just turned 15 and is a freshman in high school. Although this is his first year in a general ed environment, he is struggling with behaviors in school. He has meltdowns and does not express why he would have them until much later. Once we all know what caused it, the school will accommodate him and try to \"change up\" things so as not to cause his meltdown. Once that is resolved, another issue comes up and causes him to melt down. He is a high functioning and academically does well, when he wants to do the work. We battle at home over homework. He does not care how it is done, as long as he hands it in. He thinks failing a test is ok, at least he took the test. Homework is never on his mind when he gets home from school. If I never prompt him, he would never open is backpack. He can be aggressive but is never intentionally trying to hurt anyone. He may push over a chair in school, but it is not directed at anyone. We know how that in itself could hurt someone who gets hit by it though. He is defiant in that he only wants to do what interests him. He does not go out by himself (still immature), or abuse alcohol or drugs and never curses. He is a very funny kid and very talented. His main problems are task avoidance and seeking attention. He can be disrespectful to adults in that he is \"cheeky\" with them, trying to be funny or cute. And he has no \"filters\".\nI’ve just finished reading your Living with an Aspergers Partner ebook. I found it so informative, thank you.\nYou offered some personal advise, and i wanted to run a situation past you and seek your input as to a strategy for what to do next.\nI’ve been seeing a guy for about 7 months now who I believe has Aspergers. I came to this conclusion months ago and I don’t think he realizes, (or acknowledges) although he is aware he has some traits.\nHe’s highly intelligent and successful, a pattern seeker, has a tendency to focus on the project to hand to the total exclusion of all else for as long sit takes (work or home) socially awkward (has learned coping strategies), sensitive to loud noise, high anxiety with control strategies, black and white thinking etc. He’s currently not working and I’ve seen a slow withdrawal over the last 6 weeks, including the need to ‘escape’ and leave a situation at least once.\nHe also has a bipolar ex overseas who has primary custody one daughter where there has been ongoing patterns of drama which has recently increased.\nOver the past couple of months (since stopping work and drama increase) I’ve gone from being ‘wonderful’ in his eyes to him now being sorry and not having the ‘urge’ to spend close/intimate time with me and offering friendship. Since he shared that with me in a message he’s stonewalled and has retreated to the safety of minimal messages and talks about not knowing what best to say and not being able to find the right words somehow.\nHe’s a good kind man who I feel is struggling. I’m concerned about his anxiety and possibly the risk of depression. I’m fairly resilient and whilst i’m disappointed he doesn’t want to pursue a relationship with me, i’m concerned for him and his well being. One of his very few close friends is also just leaving the country to live overseas.\nThe strategy I’ve used so far is simply to back off and give him space. I’ve asked to take him up on an original offer he made to talk but haven’t pushed it. I also haven’t been aggressive or accusatory in the few messages i’ve sent.\nAny advise you could give would be greatly appreciated,\nCarli who is 10 years old and has had behavioral issues her whole life. The other night she came home very upset after having a conflict with a friend. She was at her friend's house and her and her friend wanted to get on the computer and the older sister was using it. Carli made up a story that someone was at the door to get the older sister off the computer. Her friend didn't understand that she was making up a story to get the sister off the computer. She got excited that someone was at the door and ran downstairs to answer the door. In the process of getting the door, she fell and yelled at Carli. Carli became extremely upset. She was able to control her feelings at her friend's house, but when she came home, she proceeded to cry extremely loudly for over an hour. Her dad spent most of that time with her, talking to her and trying to calm her down. After an hour, I asked him if he could please tell her to be more quiet because the other members of the household were trying to go to sleep.\nMy question is....how do I as the girlfriend, handle this? He did not like that I asked her to be quiet. We have a rule that if she is having bad behavior, and can't calm down in 5 minutes, he takes her out of the house because her yelling doesn't stop for a long time and is very upsetting to everyone in the household. I would like to ask him to do this with this kind of situation as well. Is this a reasonable request? His thought was that she shouldn't be made to calm down, because everyone handles being upset in a different way. But, she was literally sobbing and wailing very loudly.\nMy other question is should she have been told that if she wouldn't have lied, this wouldn't have happened? She has a history of lying and of not accepting responsibility for her actions. My boyfriend became very upset with me when I brought this up. He was being very sympathetic and understanding to her. I feel like he was giving her negative attention, and being an over indulgent parent by not putting his foot gown and saying, \"you can't carry on like this, even though you are upset\". Please let me know how we can handle these situations better.\nI am contacting you for help with adult AS. I am taking initiative to pre screen potential therapists to help my current boyfriend get therapy and help with Adult AS.\nHe has seen many therapists, but it seems like they aren’t really helping him with his problems. They don’t seem to understand how his (undiagnosed) AS would affect therapy approaches. For example, he may not share enough in therapy session and I’m assuming an AS therapist would recognize that is part of the AS and employ strategies to get information from him that helps with treatment. Sometime he tunes out when he is processing something heavy or that he doesn’t want to hear necessarily, or he gets distracted and I’m hoping an As therapist would recognize that and get that he may need repeated something for example, if this is happening.\nHe is currently suffering from depression that appears clinical in nature as well as reoccurring negative thoughts about something specific that has been worrying him about our relationship. Today he told me these reoccurring thoughts happen during all waking hours unless he watches TV, he never gets a break from them and they make him feel like he is going crazy. As his girlfriend, I am extremely concerned that he cannot get relief from these thoughts and that the therapists he is seeing are unable to help him with his problems. Therefore, I am taking initiative to try and help him find better therapy options, because I want to see him someone who can better help him get to the bottom of things and help him with the challenges he is facing. He really needs an advocate that will help him go deep to figure things out and not just assume therapies are working well, without seeing changes or getting supporting feedback from him in that regard.\nHere are some questions I am trying to ask in advance to find the right people to help us with this. As you may know, insurance for these therapies are not often available. We don’t have a lot of money to go from therapist to therapist to find the right person and are hoping prescreening will help.\nI recently downloaded your e-book and listened to your talks and your information is by far the most helpful I have been able to find to date. It's very accurately describes my situation as an NT wife married to a very probable AS husband. I think you for taking the time to write this and sharing your insights as well as the experiences of many of your clients. It has really helped me understand the last 32 years of our marriage and get a grasp on how to move forward.\nOne area that is of primary concern to me, that I did not see addressed, is stimming. I believe that is the behavior my husband is showing through constant vocal singing, repetition of words, shouting out, as well as slapping himself in the chest and general nervous activity. It is very loud and disruptive to our household and it is often a relief when he is not at home. I think there may be a level of Tourette's syndrome as well.\nI did some searches on the Internet and could not find anything that really describes his behavior. Most of what I found was flapping or children's behavior. I understand that it is a release of nervous tension but I am really trying to find some strategies to help him stop this behavior as it is extremely frustrating and builds my resentment in dealing with it daily. A lot of it is embarrassing as well and sounds childish to me.\nHe usually does this when close family members are around and will reign himself in if he is around other people besides us. When we are home it is constant. He also has a lot of anger, mostly at himself, and blows up at unimportant things, it is as if he has a ton of negative energy inside him that need to get out and stimming is one outlet.\nI will try to build my acceptance of it, but I also would just like him to stop especially the loudest and most annoying portions. Would you have any resources you could point me to?", "answers": ["3-D printing and software development."], "length": 8501, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "0f101ee4ea9d1d88998598e0405367ad95912c92a7d7a31d"}
{"input": "Who is the program chair of this conference?", "context": "HOFFMAN: I'm delighted to introduce the chair of the last session, Mara Liasson from the National Public Radio. Mara is Congressional correspondent for NPR, and covers activities in Congress in D.C. Right now, this week, she has been covering the tax bill, which people currently are going at hot and heavy. She took time off from her busy schedule to come here to help us sort out some of these key issues for today, and more importantly, for what happens in the next decade and beyond. I'll turn it over to Mara to get the panel going.\nLIASSON: Thank you very much. I am probably the only person here who has absolutely no background in technology. Anyway, I am the only one who does not understand what the panelists are going to be talking about (laughter), and although they have already told me that they do not appreciate people who think that that's a great quality and look down on people who are technical, and I certainly do not, I will reserve the right to insist that they all talk in terms that people like me can understand, since there is more of me out there than you, although not in this room today. (laughter) What we are going to do is introduce each panelist, and each one will make a short three- to five-minute presentation. Then my instructions say that we are going to have a McLaughlin Group discussion, which I guess means lots of yelling and screaming and talking at once. (laughter) After that's over, about 4:10, we'll open up the panel for questions from the audience.\nTo my left is Peter Denning, who is Chairman of the Computer Science Department at George Mason University and also the associate dean for computing. He is the program chair of this conference, has also served as the president of ACM, and he is currently the editor of Communications.\nSimon Davies, to my right, also wears blue suits, but you can tell him from Mitch, because he wears a white hat. (laughter) He is from Sydney, Australia, and is the Director General of Privacy International, which is an international network of privacy advocates. He is also an author, a journalist, and radio commentator.\nTo his right is Roland Homet. He is an information policy writer and thinker who recently opened his own public policy writing firm here in Washington -- it's called Executive Ink, not Inc., as it is written in your programs, so you can scratch that out.\nEsther Dyson, at the end of the panel, is among the most respected commentators on developing technology trends in the personal computer business. She publishes two newsletters, Release 1.0 and Rel-EAST. She has also been one of the driving forces promoting East-West relations through computer networks. She is a board member of the Electronic Frontier Foundation as well.\nI'll ask Peter to start.\nP. DENNING: Thank you. Starting around 1850, people of many countries looked to their governments to regulate commerce, erase inequities, and build societies of better human beings. For over a hundred years, many people, from peasants to intellectuals, had faith that strong governments would bring them a better life. This faith was part of the clearing in which Communist governments flourished; although the United States took an anti-Communist stand, the same faith fostered a strong government that promised salvation by great national programs including Social Security, welfare, food stamps, the War on Poverty, and the Great Society. This faith is now shattered. People no longer trust that powerful government can deliver a better life.\nThe dramatic collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union illustrates this, as does the growing disillusionment of the American people for federal, state, and local governments. The poor track record of government is not the only reason for the shift. Information technology has accelerated the process. Communications that took weeks in the last century now take fractions of a second. Business success depends on what happens around the globe, not only on local conditions. Radio, TV, fax, and now E-mail are common worldwide, so much so that not even a powerful government can control what information its citizens have. Because the space of opportunity for people to engage in transactions with each other has been so enormously enlarged during the past decade, faith in marketplace democracies is on the rise worldwide; correspondingly faith in central management mechanisms is on the decline. This shift has brought with it a shift of the power of institutions. Government institutions tend to try to hold onto their power by regulatory coercion to enforce the old ways. This can produce big tensions and even promote breakage.\nNowhere can this be seen more clearly than in the cryptographic area which we have just been talking about in the previous hour. This technology, cryptography, produces mechanisms for digital signatures, authentication, electronic money, certificates, and private communication -- all offering a way for standard business practices now based on paper to be shifted into the electronic media. The success of worldwide enterprises depends on this shift being completed rapidly and effectively. As more people realize this, the momentum for incorporating cryptographic technology into the information infrastructure is accelerating.\nIn this country, the National Security Agency has long been given the authority to regulate cryptography. This authority was granted in another time when the success of the country depended upon the ability of its government to gather intelligence and communicate in secret. These premises made sense in a world where most of the power resided in governments, but the world is changing. Much economic power is now accumulating in large apolitical transnational corporations. These corporations place their own concerns and strategies ahead of those of governments of the countries in which they do business. Like governments, they are interested in gathering intelligence about competitors and in conducting business in private. Unlike governments, they want open access to the technologies of authentication, electronic money, digital signatures, and certificates that will allow them to conduct business transactions across the network. So it is no longer true that national power and national security are increased when government has the sole right to gather intelligence and encipher communications. Now the strength of a country depends not only on its government, but also on its corporations. The old premises have fallen away in the new reality, but the old policy remains. It's time to rethink the policy, before tensions between a threatened government and corporations produce significant social tension and perhaps breakage.\nWell, digital media -- computer-based communications -- are the printing press of the 21st century, and as the printing press transformed society, created the modern individual, gave rise to the basis of the democratic state and to the notion of individual rights, I suspect that we will see a similar, radical transformation of the very constitution of global society in the next century, facilitated by this enabling technology. I would be the last person to try to sketch out the details, or tell you what the issues are going to be, but I want to share with you some feelings about what is really going to matter, as we go about this -- and I'll start with something about myself.\nYou see a guy wearing a suit; most of you know I have a lot of money -- I'm a successful businessman. God knows what images propagate around the media and settle in people's minds, but I've always seen myself, and felt myself to the core of my being, as an outsider, every bit as much as a self-proclaimed outsider, as Tom Jennings -- who spoke so eloquently about this at the Pioneer awards* yesterday -- was. *The Electronic Freedom Foundation presented its first awards at a related, adjacent reception which was not formally a part of the conference.\nI think we are all outsiders; we are all different, all unique. We're not the same. We share an underlying common humanity, but we should not be asked to subjugate ourselves to some form of mass society that causes us each to become indistinguishable from one another. I believe that computer- based communications technology is an enabling technology to liberate individuals and to free us from the oppressive influence of large institutions, whether those are public or private. And I am talking about an economic restructuring that results in a much more decentralized society, and social restructuring in an affirmation of the simple right to be left alone. I think Cyberspace is good for individuals, and I think that's important. I also think that the flip side of the coin, the creation of community, which we so sorely lack in this country today, can be facilitated through these technologies.\nI have experienced that for myself, as many of you have on your various computer networks on conferencing systems like the WELL. It is enormously liberating to overcome the artificial boundaries of space and time. We are prisoners of geography in the physical world, and our communities are largely a product of who we can see face to face each day, even though our real comrades and colleagues may be scattered all over the world and our interests -- whether they are hobbies or political interests or religious interests, whatever they might be -- can be facilitated if we are able to get in touch with, to form bonds with, to exchange views and ideas with other kindred spirits. And I believe this technology is an enabling technology for the formation of community. My hope is that we will have the wisdom to create policies which enable individuals to flourish free from the chains of mass society, and which enable voluntary communities of people, individuals, groups who come together to be with each other and to work together. I hope both of those become possible.\nDAVIES: I feel very warmed by the various visions of the future that have come out of this conference, but I am a cynic, and cynicism is good, because it adds fiber. (laughter) How nice the world would be if everyone was like Mitch, but they're not, because the future is in the hands of ruthless, greedy little men.\nI want to paint the vision of the future that I have, and I hope it's not too depressing because there is a future, a good future... possibly. I agree, as many of you do, that the future is going to be like some giant informational Yggdrasil* *Reference from Old Norse mythology -- the Yggdrasil was a giant ash tree whose roots held together the universe.. We'll all be part of interconnectivity, the likes of which we can scarcely imagine right now. I imagine it will be like an organism where we're independent and interdependent, and so it's like a two-edged sword. That's all very nice, and we can see that we form part of that new community. But, I see a world with 15 billion beings scrambling for life, where four-fifths of the world lives on half a liter of water a day, where people grow up to see their children dying, where new political frontiers are destroying freedoms and the democracy that we have developed over the last two centuries. I see a world where there is very little hope for nearly everybody on the planet, except for the elite -- that's us -- except for those of us who are plugged into the informational Yggdrasil.\nWhat I see is that 14 of those 15 billion people are a lot of pissed-off people who have their eyes set on what they see, not as a wonderful informational community, but as the beast. And they see that that is where the resources are, and that's where the opportunities are, and that's where the political power is. I can't see a future for us in a world where ultimately the great demon becomes information. It might be good for us, but for the disaffected four-fifths of the world, information is going to be something which, frankly, we can do without, because in a world with almost no resources left, surely information is selfishness.\nHOMET: Thank you. I'm grateful to the organizers for including me in these proceedings -- they are reminiscent for me of some information policy conferences that I organized 15 to 20 years ago for the Aspen Institute. The particulars have certainly changed, but the dynamics remain much the same. For me, these are well-represented by Peter Denning's image of a changeable clearing in the woods. At any given time, as I see it, the clearing is an acceptable standoff between the forces of modernization and of traditional culture, between freedom and discipline, between structure and spontaneity. Now we voice these as opposites, but in fact, they need each other. It is the creative tension between technological innovation and established order that allows society to hold together and progress to take place. Take away freedom and order will be overthrown -- witness the Soviet Union. Take away tradition, and modernization will be crushed -- witness Iran. The clearing must be respected and it must move. Just as Benjamin Cardozo of the U.S. Supreme Court said 65 years ago, the genius of the American system is its penchant for ordered liberty. When both halves of the equation work against each other and together in Hegelian terms, the clearing that they produce is, at any given time, a prevailing hypothesis, which is challenged by a new antithesis. Together they can produce a fresh synthesis. And all that is very familiar. What is new and trying is the sweep and pace of innovation today, plus -- and this is what we sometimes forget -- the political volatility of the value systems that this can induce. If you doubt that, consider the Buchanan campaign and what's been going on with the Endowment for the Arts and public broadcasting. These are signs of people running scared, and they can cause damage.\nSo the answer for the 21st century is to proceed under power, but with restraint, to practice what Mitch Kapor in another connection called toleration for opposing forces and perspectives. We need each other to keep the enterprise together and on course. For computer practitioners represented in this room, this means restraint from provoking unnecessary and damaging social backlash. A good example might be New York telcos offering free per-call and per-line blocking with this caller identification service. For regulators and law enforcers, restraint means asking, \"Do you know enough to freeze emerging conduct in a particular form or pattern?\" I was very taken by the role reversal exercise organized by Michael Gibbons on Wednesday night. It led me to wonder what might have happened to the government's wiretapping and encryption proposals had they been subjected to a comparable advanced exercise before introduction.\nSixteen years ago in Aspen, Colorado, I convened a gathering of federal policymakers and invited them to consider a suggested matrix of policy values and processes in the information society. The first two of those values -- it will not surprise you to know -- were freedom of discourse and individual privacy. But there were more: freedom of economic choice is one; the general welfare another; popular sovereignty, worth pausing on, I described as avoiding concentrations of economic and political power in any sector of industry or government that impinge unduly on the freedoms or welfare of the citizenry. And then there is progress, social progress, the fostering, I said, of market incentives and opportunities for technological and service innovations and for widened consumer choice among technologies and services. Now obviously if you give just a moment's thought to it, you will recognize, as I think we have in this conference, that these values can collide with each other at key points, and therefore accommodations must be made. For that we need processes of accommodation. I also suggested some of those. After you identify the relevant values and goals, you then should ask yourself about the necessity and the appropriateness of having government make any decision on the matter. And this has to do with such things like the adequacy of decision-making standards, the availability of adequate information, and the adequacy of personnel resources to deal with it. Then you get into dividing up the possible roles of the various elements of government -- the regulatory agencies, the Executive Branch, the Judiciary, and the Congress. It doesn't stop there, because you need to ask about international implications, which we have done some of here. And federal/state implications -- very often allowing the state to make a stab at social ordering in the first instance is, as Justice Brandeis often said, the best way, through the social laboratory technique, to try out what is the right answer, without endangering the whole society. And as we have heard today, we need also to think about the availability of non-coercive instruments of accommodation, like a federal data protection board.\nDYSON: I want to just say one thing about this business of crypto technology -- it is a very simple sentence, and everyone seems to slip slightly by it; that is, if you outlaw guns, only outlaws will have guns. Crypto technology is fundamentally a defensive weapon. It may protect murderers and thieves, but it is not a weapon that murders, kills, does anything bad; and so it is a very different kettle of fish from any other kind of weapon. The whole point is that information is powerful, and that the free flow of information, privacy-protected, empowers the powerless and is dangerous to the powerful -- and that's why we need our privacy protected.\nNow let me just talk a wee bit about the future. A couple of days ago, a reporter called me and asked what the EFF stood for. I kind of floundered around and said, \"Well, we want privacy, we want good hackers to be protected and bad crackers to be punished. We want people to understand the difference, and we want all these good things, but we really don't want to grab power.\" The guy kept on not quite getting it. The real answers were pro choice. We don't want someone else to make all these decisions for anybody. We don't even want the majority to rule. In every way that is possible, we want the minorities to control their own conditions in their own lives. There are very few things that are the province of government, but way too many things nowadays are being given to the government carelessly, fearfully, whatever. In my terms -- and I happen to be a right-wing person in terms of the economy and private freedoms -- I want more markets and fewer governments. Markets give choices to individuals. They let people trade what they don't want for what they do want. Again, to the extent possible, they want people to make individual choices.\nWhat worries me is large concentrations of power, making choices for people. Big business, big government, even big media. The media until now have mostly been our protectors, because they go out and produce information, they use anonymous sources where necessary, and they make that information free. What protected global networking is going to do is give more and more of that power to individuals, and help reduce the power of big institutions of any kind. We are going to have small businesses flourishing, because it is easier for them to collect resources. You don't need to have a giant monolithic corporation to be efficient any more, and so a lot of marketplace economies of scale will even disappear, as we have better networking, better coordination. We have markets like the American Information Exchange, and if you don't know what that is, come and see me, or Hugh Daniel, or a couple of other people.\nOn the social side, I think 20 years ago... when you mentioned 15 years ago, I thought, Yes, that must have been about 1940. Then I realized... Anyway, some time ago there was all this talk about the global village. We're going to have mass broadcasting, we're going to have mass E-mail, we're going to have this global village. We don't. What we have is a lot of global villages, but as Mitch said, they're no longer geographical, physical villages. They're small, geographical villages of people with like interests. The big question becomes, How do we avert tribalism? It might not be nation against nation any more, but it certainly will be rich against poor, and franchised versus disenfranchised.\nLIASSON: Thank you all very much. Now we can all try to stir up the pot a little bit. Somewhere between Mitch's paradise and the Simon's apocalypse is probably what's really going to happen. I want to just jump off from what Esther said about you all being in a minority and what kind of responsibility you owe to the rest of the world. We're in the midst of a presidential election and not one single candidate has said anything about Cyberspace. I am wondering if you think they should, and what are the kinds of extremely important issues that you think should be discussed? Should they be discussed in a kind of mass, political forum? Or should they be left to an elite like you to discuss and decide, and not really spend a whole lot of energy trying to translate or disseminate them to the great masses of people? I guess what I am wondering is, if you were an advisor to one of the presidential candidates, or a candidate yourself, how would you go about interjecting these things? Or wouldn't you bother at all?\nDYSON: Does he want to get elected, or does he want to make a point?\nLIASSON: I think he wants to make a point. If he wants to get elected, I think the discussion would stop right now.\nDYSON: Let me just try a serious answer. I think what a candidate could say is, \"I'm no longer going to protect the textile industry, the peanut butter interests, the sugar guys, the antediluvian steel mills. If I'm going to have an industrial policy and help anyone, it's going to be new technology. I'm going to focus on investment in R&D. I am going to create a national infrastructure for telecommunications, just the way we created a highway system years ago. I'm going to put people to work doing these things.\" I think that would go over reasonably well. I think it's something most of us would agree on. (laughter) We have an industrial policy -- we might as well acknowledge it, and we might as well have it be forward-looking.\nKAPOR: Now there is something about the question as to whether this is presidential material that I think is ironic, given that most people really want to vote for \"none of the above.\" We know in our hearts that we have come to a particular period in history in which the presidential spectacle seems to be particularly irrelevant to whatever set of problems we have on our minds. As a great believer in democracy, I think this is incredibly lamentable. We need to do something about this, because there are a lot of issues, but Cyberspace is not ready for prime time. It would be trivialized -- I have seen what Geraldo did to hackers, and I don't need to see any more.\nIt seems to me that the presidential candidates are really not the leaders that they ought to be, but are always putting their finger to the wind to see if they can detect some current of values or beliefs that can help get them elected. And I think that -- I'm not espousing utopian vision -- there needs to be an utopian vision out there, so people have something to give them some inspiration. But values are a lot more important than technology. There are some values in this community -- and I'm not sure if it's an elite or a minority or both -- but it's really in the propagation of a sense of values about openness and tolerance, acting on that basis and living one's life, and saving capitalism from itself and things like that where we can make a difference. If some of the expressions are technological, that's fine. We are living in an era where people like buttons, and so on. If we do that well, the presidential candidates are going to be coming to us.\nLIASSON: You talk about Cyberspace not being ready for prime time -- I still want a definition of Cyberspace in 25 words or less -- but I think you want to transform prime time to a certain extent.\nDYSON: Mostly I agree with this, but the press does have two roles: one is collecting information and uncovering things, and the other is setting the agenda. If 12,000 voices are crying out, who's going to listen to them? Who's going to notice when they do discover that the President did something wrong? Again, it's a check and balance sort of thing, but there is a certain community that is created by collective media.\nKAPOR: Esther, what makes you believe that in Cyberspace Mara won't have two hours a day of her own that everyone listens to. (laughter) She might get more time than she gets today, because people trust her.\nDYSON: But then she becomes prime time.\nLIASSON: But you said before that instead of one global village, we have a lot of little global villages. I'm wondering if instead, we won't have millions of little huts. I mean individual huts. There are just so many different choices.\nLIASSON: What I'm wondering is, if everybody becomes their own producer, publisher, what does that mean for the future?\nKAPOR: I think we'll get a much more fluid, self-organizing state. I don't think in practice everybody is going to be what we think of today as a broadcast publisher. I just want things to be able to sort themselves out in a much more equitable fashion. We have this enormous, artificial scarcity today over the means of communication, because the government awards licenses which self-perpetuate. They are about to do the same thing, and give every broadcast television station another license for HDTV. So if you've got a license today, you get a second one; if you don't have one, you get nothing. That is going to be our policy about HDTV. I think it would be a lot better if we had more markets, more choices, and better values. I don't know how to do better values, but we know how to do more choices. So the point is, we'll wind up with some new regime which I don't think that we can particularly predict. I don't think that it is going to be chaotic or anarchic. I think there is something about people as social animals or creatures -- we will create some new forms of social organization. There will be information middlemen; there will be the equivalent of editors and packagers. There will be trusted intermediaries who help organize these new media. If you open it up and equalize things so that everybody can participate, you will get more diversity of points of view, you will get less homogenization. One of the reasons that tons of people have just dropped out, or are in terminal couch-potato-dom is that the sets of choices and the values that come across the tube are not ones that stir the human heart. And people know that. They can't figure out what to do about that, so they sort of fuzz out on drugs and alcohol. I say let's edit TV, which is the electronic drug. Let's do something about that.\nDAVIES: I like your idea, Mitch. I think it's sweet. (laughter) The problem is that I really worry that the ultimate test of the future is going to be the outcome of the quest, the battle between those who are looking for the sort of vision you've got of the right of the individual, the individual being the producer. And that, probably, is the way we solve our problems on this planet. But there is the other side, and that's the planetary managers. Planetary management is the path of the least resistance. You know all the powermongers go for the planetary management model, because they all think they can clamber over the bodies to get to the top. Ultimately the test is going to be who comes out on the top, the individual rightist or the planetary managers. Unfortunately, I'm not a betting man, but at the moment I'd like to bet on the planetary managers.\nDYSON: Part of this issue is reducing the value of incumbency, whether it's incumbency in prime time live, or incumbency in the government. There is much more fluidity of movement; you can't accumulate power because the unorganized forces have more power than you do.\nP. DENNING: I feel a little strange being on the left end of the stage, because most people think of me as being on the far right sometimes, but right now I'd like to comment on something that is halfway between what Mitch is saying, and what Simon is saying. The way I hear what Simon is saying, is that there is a disease of today which I will call inward- centeredness. We are very worried about ourselves and our organizations. We find in that orientation a lot of instability of things and technologies that change rapidly. In order to achieve the world that Mitch is talking about, we need to cure the disease, and instead come from an orientation that we could call outward-centeredness, instead of inward-centeredness. The question is the shift from, How do we accumulate power? to, How do we help others accumulate power? How do we go from looking for stability in things to looking for stability in relationships? In watching my own children grow up, I am convinced that they know more about this than I do. In listening to some of the younger people here, I'm more convinced that they know more about this than I do. They know something about the outward-centeredness that I have yet to learn. Observing this among children and among students gives me a lot of optimism, as a matter of fact, against the apocalypse that Simon talks about, because Simon is talking about the world that would be created if we continued \"us,\" and I think that the world that is being created by our children with their outward-centeredness is going to be the kind of world that Mitch is pointing towards. And I am much more optimistic about that than Simon is.\nLIASSON: Roland, I wonder if we can interject you into this discussion a little bit. You have been a policymaker. What can be done to make sure that Simon's vision doesn't come true, and something a little closer to what Esther and Mitch describe does happen?\nHOMET: I think we probably need both doom seers and paradise seekers. We'll always have them, and we should have them. It's between the swing of those two views that things happen. I think that this notion of replacing the gatekeepers and letting everybody perform his own dance, to the amusement of those who chose to tune in, is one that many of us were promoting 20 years ago. That's not 1940 -- that's 1970 (laughter), and we were quite convinced that was likely to happen by the end of that decade. Now it's 12 years beyond the end of that decade, and we're nowhere near having that happening. We just have newly-named controversies, and so, as you heard me say in my little short remark, I think that our objective ought to be more modest, and that is to keep the questions open, not let them be foreclosed -- certainly not prematurely, and not on the basis of inadequate evidence. I would say something about the apocalyptic view, which is, I think there is a difference between information policy questions and welfare questions. The poor we have always with us, as somebody once said, and whether information, Cyberspace -- whatever you want to call it -- is promoted or not, that is true. It may become more glaringly true in an advanced information society, in which case, more may be done about it. So I wouldn't despair about that, and I wouldn't hold back on the development of instruments of interconnection simply because we can see that there is and will remain an underclass. Perhaps if we do the one, we'll be better equipped to do the other.\nLIASSON: In just a minute or two, we're going to open this up to your questions, but I want to try to end maybe with a discussion of something quite specific, which is, Who should own the new infrastructure and information systems? Should they be publicly owned? There are lots of conflicts even within the vision that you lay out.\nKAPOR: The first point I'd make is let's not make the unnecessary mistake of betting on a single infrastructure. Technologically, we don't need to do that. In the 1930s, pre-digital, the old Bell system was the social contract. You get a monopoly, you have an obligation to provide universal service. We've learned a few things about how to do things with interoperable standards and how to interconnect multiple, independent providers and carriers. One of the fathers of the Internet, Vint Cerf, is sitting here in the front row, and he deserves an enormous amount of credit for insisting on this vision and promulgating it. A lot of the risks that come with private ownership of infrastructure go away when it's no longer a monopoly. The abusive problems that are sometimes experienced with local phone service and cable companies -- both of which are private sector monopolies -- I would say come more from not their private sector character, but from their monopoly character. If it is possible for there to be competition, that serves as the most effective check that we know of in this society against abuse. So I would opt for private infrastructure, but lots of it. Government has to make sure that everybody stays interconnected -- it's the referee that keeps the playing field level, doesn't let people cheat, and sort of bangs a few heads together when people get a little too greedy, or a little too selfish. If we do that, that will provide for the most choice and the most diversity.\nLIASSON: Are we all in agreement on that?\nHOMET: Not entirely. I think the question is less who should own infrastructure than how it should be classified. There may be a role for government in, for example, extending communication pipes to rural America for at least a period, as with the TVA. We have always had that question. There has always been a mixed economy with government doing some things and private sector others. It's a debate and should be a debate about who does what best. It should be revised from time to time, but the important question is, If we get a significant distribution system like cable television, how should we classify it? I speak here from the heart, because 20 years ago, I was trying to fasten onto, or gain the recognition for, cable as a broadband distribution system which was only trivially in the program production and publishing business, but was very much in the distribution business and ought to have been treated as a common carrier open to all information suppliers. Had that happened, we would have been very much further along in the vision that some of us had 20 years ago. (applause) It tends to support what I said about not going in for premature freezing or characterization of how things look. It was decided, because the broadcasters felt threatened, to treat cable as a species of broadcasting. That's the greatest frittering away of resources in my lifetime, and perhaps in the lifetime of the United States of America. Let's not make that mistake again. Let's be clear-eyed and ask the broad-scale questions about public use and benefit. Thank you.\nLIASSON: Let's open it up to the audience. If you have any questions ... oh my God, wrestle your way to the microphone!\nAUDIENCE MEMBER: Let us not forget the history of the commons in which a wealthy society creates in its overflowing abundance structures on which all people can participate. This was originally, back in medieval society, the structure that was created for the support of the poor. In the abundance of the land in which the overpopulation was not a question, and there was much agriculture to go around, and the poor were supported out of the commonly-owned things that were jointly owned by all society. That's all I have to say.\nLIASSON: Who wants to start?\nDAVIES: Sticking to my apocalyptic vision just for the moment, because that's how I'm characterized, what I would like to see, just as my own social experiment, if you like, is for the various groups that this room represents and groups that you are all involved in, is to actually set up the apocalyptic vision, and then see how you as part of the information technology community can utilize it, stop it, or reverse it. It's only when you see the vision and see your own part in it that we are actually going to set up solutions. I mean, that is a straight, outright homework assignment, and I think would be a great benefit for everybody. Then go on and publish them through the E-mail, or the Internet, whatever.\nDYSON: Something along the lines of go find the most influential person you know well enough to influence, who you do not agree with -- assuming that you all agree with me, of course -- and attempt to win that person over to your point of view. In other words, don't stick to your own community. Don't just talk to the people who only agree with you. Go out and evangelize or proselytize to people who don't understand what this stuff is about. Do it in such a way that you are not superior or offputting; don't try to be right; try to win and expand this community, not in terms of pressure or rightness, but in terms of understanding what we are about. The biggest problem is ganging up on some of these politicians and having them think that this stuff is not cute, or weird, or colorful, or irrelevant, but incredibly important. Make the rest of the world know about us.\nHOMET: I would like to second that motion. The story is told that when a beautiful woman comes out on a street in Paris, every man within eyeshot becomes in that instant much more intensively himself. (laughter) What I would suggest to you, if you are energized by this subject, is to be yourself. To thine own self be true, and perhaps to add to that the biblical admonition to the apostles -- if I remember it correctly -- and this picks up what Esther was saying -- to be wise as snakes, and cunning as foxes. Go out there to persuade.\nP. DENNING: I'd like to add to that. It is not only within yourself that you have to look, it's within others. Don't assume that you know the answers, but go talk to people. Don't just talk to us, because we already know what \"us\" has to say, but go to talk to people that we haven't talked to and find out what concerns them.\nAUDIENCE MEMBER: Hi, my name is Lou Woleneck. I'm from the LBJ School of Public Affairs at the University of Texas. I'm a graduate student. I have a question, a general policy question, about how we should go about providing the information resources to the have-nots that the information elites have access to now. What sort of strategy that you all would have for that?\nKAPOR: A 30-second or less answer, which is to set a national policy that updates a universal service for the 21st century that says everybody needs to have basic minimal access to a digital platform that reaches into every home, into every office and school in the country. We should focus our attention on how to put in place the least expensive amount of infrastructure that will produce that. What we find is, if we do that, then the overwhelming majority of American families will find it already within their budget to be able to do that, because it will be priced like basic phone service. To the extent that we need to continue or even slightly expand the kinds of lifeline programs that subsidize today's basic voice telephone service for a small percentage of the population, we should be prepared to renew that commitment. We don't need to bankrupt ourselves to give everybody access to a digital platform.\nJIM WARREN: My name is Jim Warren. Two quick observations: there were several cynical comments during the last several days about a number of IRS people being here. It turns out, because they never had a platform to say this, that the whole crowd from the IRS who are here, as I understand it, are from the IRS privacy project, intent on developing policies to assure privacy protection for taxpayer information. So let us not be so cynical about their being here; otherwise, remember that they are simply doing what they are told to do by our representatives. (laughter and hisses) I was also bothered by both Simon's, and (my God!) Esther's comments on those evil little men, and the men in politics, etc. Gee, this is a modern age, let's say \"men and women,\" for evil deeds, as well as good deeds.\nDYSON: There aren't enough women in politics for there to be any evil ones.\nWARREN: Well, I am sure that I can find some evil ones for you. (laughter) Anyway, to the main points: I would say that we are not so much elite, in that we are open to anyone who takes the initiative to join us, and many of us are active mentors in trying to get others to join us. I would say simply that we are a minority, and it occurs to me that revolution has always been a minority activity. It was not millions of Russians who opposed the attempted coup several months ago. It was ten, twenty, or thirty thousand in Moscow, with the aid of communications. It was not a massive movement, a populist movement, in America that resisted the Crown, two centuries ago. It was a small minority of activists and we are the activists here -- we are the revolutionaries. Freedom has always been a do-it-yourself activity, but the key syllable in that word activity is act. Let us reaffirm freedom of speech, press, assembly, security against undue search and seizure -- the basic constitutional freedoms and privileges. Let us demand that our politicians and our political candidates do the same in explicit formal commitments to act in behalf of protecting electronic civil liberties, just as they validate and speak favorably for traditional civil liberties. We can write our politicians, write our candidates and say, \"Take a position in favor of civil liberties, regardless of the technology of the moment.\" Thank you.\nGLENN TENNEY: Thank you for the introduction, Jim.\nLIASSON: Are you from the IRS?\nTENNEY: No. (laughter) My name is Glenn Tenney, and I have a question for you, Mara. I think that I have enough supporters on the panel. I'm not too curious about their views, but they are welcome to them. You questioned if the presidential election and race is ready for Cyberspace. What about Congress? I'm running for Congress -- is it ready for me?\nAUDIENCE MEMBER: Ms. Liasson, I believe that you have opened a can of worms called politics for this little hacker community. You certainly have with me in your comment about asking for comments for the Cyberspace era from presidential candidates. I have very strong reactions to that. I think that I am going to try to express them, as a pure statement, or maybe an actual story. Several years ago, I was discussing with a friend of mine the current presidential, the then-current presidential election. He was asking me why I wasn't rabidly supporting Jesse Jackson. I thought about it, and my first response was, \"Well, let's talk about the other candidates for a second. What about -- and I'll take a random name -- Michael Dukakis?\" And my friend looked at me and said, \"Michael Dukakis, he's just an administrator, he's not a visionary.\" I thought about it, and I said, \"Hold on, I'm an American, I'm not someone who's a slave of the Queen of England, or something like that. I'm my own visionary, I decide where I am going.\" I don't want the politicians walking around telling me that I am going to have an expressway system that's going to pave over all my favorite swamps to play in. I don't want the politicians walking around defining what I'm going to do in my life. I want to elect politicians to manage government for me, to provide the barest minimum necessities to keep us smoothly greased as individuals in living together, and I want those politicians to be of the people, and I don't want them to tell me what my opinions should be. Finally, I want to cap that off with when we have government deciding how our systems work for us, we can then end up with situations where we can say, \"Oh yeah, that IRS guy or that government net guy, he was just doing his job when he banned cryptography,\" or something like that. That's not the sort of world that I want to live in. I want to live in a world, where each of us defines our little space in it. Thank you all.\nLIASSON: I think we have time for just two more and then we'll have to wrap it up.\nAUDIENCE MEMBER: Hi, to the apocalypse types. I'd like to say just one thing that somebody said: The truth will make you free. In that this technology is a vehicle of communication, I believe that it is a vehicle of the truth, and as long as we keep it free, the truth will be heard that much more. Now I have kind of a question with a bit of a statement. I am a learning-disabled college student. I didn't ever finish high school. I had a freshmen education in high school, because of educational problems, and adjustment problems, I never really got too far beyond that. I write probably a fifth of the speed of anyone in this room and I have a real hard time doing math without a calculator. That's part of the reason why I wasn't able to do well in school. I read very well, fortunately, so I was able to go in when I was eighteen and take my GED just flat out without studying for it. I'm not dumb, or uneducated by any standards, but what has allowed me to get an associate's degree in college, and what has allowed me to approach graduation and get a bachelor's degree in college is the kind of technology that we are dealing with. I have never had easy access to that technology. The barriers that I have faced have been ones of order, regimentation, and where people try and say, \"Oh well, you don't fit in, you're not a CS student, you don't need those resources.\" I'm good with computers, I do a lot with them, I spend a lot of time with them. I hack, I don't do anything illegal, but I took a hacksaw to the frame of my nasty little 8088 about two years ago to cram some RAM into it, because that was the only way I could get it to fit and I needed it. Now I'm in a little bit better shape. I'm approaching the point where I would like to see ISDN real soon, because I need that kind of connectivity. You know, I'm doing interesting things that I find absolutely wonderful, but the idea that the kind of technology that is available to us, that is just there for the using, could be limited and unavailable to people, or that people would have to go through some of the things that I have had to go through, not being able to do well on tests, because I had no word processor available to me. That type of thing, even though they are all over the place, elsewhere. It was just that that wasn't an acceptable solution. That type of policy planning, that type of government, that type of order scares me. And I have to ask, what is your answer to that?\nDAVIES: The apocalyptic vision of a world in grief and individual rights in crisis has nothing to do with a Luddite mentality, and it would be very dangerous for the people in this room to link the two together. I, for one, believe in technology. I am very grateful for it, and I think the world is a better place for it. I have great faith in the future, but technology's not a silver lining for the future. It's not an El Dorado, it's more like plutonium. The very great thing that technology does for all of us can also be used by the people who would repress our freedoms and all I am saying is be aware of that. Let's not marginalize people like me, who are saying, Hey look, we are going to have 15 billion people on the planet. We are going to have a political inversion, you know, that is going to create massive tensions that are going to repress our rights, or at least create a tension that we have never known before. Don't marginalize me -- don't shoot the messenger. I believe in technology, so please don't equate the apocalypse with Ludditism -- the two do not match.\nLIASSON: We're about out of time. I'm going to turn this over to Lance.\nHOFFMAN: Thank you, Mara. I'm really unhappy that we are out of time, but I feel that we have a contract to those who want to leave in a moment or two. Those who want to stay, can stay up here, are welcome to continue, until the hotel throws us out. Since Lu Kleppinger is in the room at the moment, I don't know when that will be, but we can probably have it for a little while. I just want to make a couple of comments before I formally close this meeting.\nWe have seen an awful lot happen in these last three days and there has been building, and indeed we will be continuing to some extent the work that Jim Warren started at CFP-1 -- a sense of community. It has been increased by the participation of various diverse groups. My one hope is that you do not stop that here. When each and every one of you goes home, contact -- I don't care whether it's by letter, or electronic mail, or even telephone, if you must -- three people that you have met here that you didn't know, or didn't know very well before, or perhaps only knew electronically, and now you know them in person, and continue talking with them and to their friends and colleagues. If you do that, this will be a success.\nThe other comment that I want to make is that Bruce Koball is going to need a lot of help for CFP-3. Please talk to him -- he is listed in the roster. Or better yet, don't do that, talk to him here, and then give him a month to chill out in Berkeley before he has to start working real hard. Check the message board, there are some messages that have not been picked up. You have your evaluation forms. If you haven't filled them out and you would like to, please do and turn them in. I have nothing else, except to thank you all for being such a good group and, hopefully, we'll see you next year in California. Thank you very much.\nSupport efforts at engaging society and government on the appropriate legal and social uses of technology.", "answers": ["Peter Denning."], "length": 8784, "dataset": "multifieldqa_en_e", "language": "en", "all_classes": null, "_id": "80a04c9306d232e6327b14f03e260d28060fe12395d87e31"}