2013 (twenty thirteen) (MMXIII) was . It was the first year since 1987 to have all four of its digits being different numbers.

Events

January

 January 1 – Marseille, France and Košice, Slovakia become European Capital of Culture.
 January 1 - The Republic of Ireland starts its six-month Presidency of the Council of the European Union.
 January 1 - A crush after a New Year celebration in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, kills over 60 people.
 Early January - Bushfires affect parts of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, as the most widespread fires there since 2009.
 January 10 - Bombings in Quetta and the northern Swat Valley, Pakistan, kill a total of 130.
 January 11 - President of France Francois Hollande sends troops to Mali, after a request from Mali for foreign aid during the Northern Mali conflict.
 January 16 - Islamist extremists take a group of international workers hostage in an attack on a gas facility in eastern Algeria. An Algerian attempt at rescuing the workers results in at least 39 deaths.
 January 19 - The European Union introduces the new EU-wide driving licence.
 January 19 - An attempted murder occurs against Bulgarian politician Ahmed Dogan, who survives, after security guards stop the gunman.
 January 20 – At noon, Barack Obama starts his second term as President of the United States.  The public swearing-in was on January 21, as the 20th was a Sunday.
 January 26 - 37 people are killed in rioting in Port Said, Egypt, after guilty verdicts for football fans involved in violence at the end of a league game almost a year earlier.
 January 27 - At least 232 people are killed in a fire at a night club in Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
 January 28 - Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands announces that she will leave the throne on April 30, when Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange will become King. She is the third Dutch monarch in a row to leave the throne.
 January 29 - James Lee Dykes takes a five-year old hostage and kills one bus driver in Alabama.
 January 30 - President Barack Obama says he will try to pass an immigration reform that will stop deportation and will give citizenship to 11 million immigrants in the United States. The reform might go into law at the end of the year.

February

 February 1 - A suicide bomber in Turkey blows up the United States Embassy in Ankara. One guard is killed.
 February 1 - Hillary Clinton's term as United States Secretary of State ends and nominee John Kerry was sworn in.
 February 4 - Human remains found under a car park in Leicester, England, are announced to have been those of King Richard III of England.
 February 4 - The hostage crisis in Alabama ended after James Lee Dykes is shot dead. The five-year-old boy survived.
 February 7 - Winter Storm Nemo hits the northwestern part of the United States and parts of Canada. The snow reached about 30 inches and was the largest snow storm in some states. The storm ended on February 10.
 February 9 - A massive earthquake of 6.9 hits border cities between Colombia and Ecuador. No one is killed.
 February 10 - Final of the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations football competition in South Africa, which is won 1-0 by the Nigeria national football team over the Burkina Faso national football team. This is Nigeria's third African title, after 1980 and 1994.
 February 11 - Pope Benedict XVI announces that he would resign from being the Pope because of ill health and age. He leaves as pope on February 28. He is the first pope to resign since 1415.
 February 12 - North Korea announces that it has carried out an underground nuclear test, at a depth of around a kilometer, despite criticism from many countries around the world.
 February 15 - An meteor hits in Chelyabinsk, Russia. 1,200 people are injured due to shattered glass. The meteor was about 49 feet long.
 February 15 - Asteroid 2012 DA14, with an estimated diameter of 50 meters, flies to within 27,700 kilometers of Earth.
 February 16 - A bomb attack in Quetta, Pakistan, kills over 80 people.
 February 21 - Over 50 people are killed in a bombing in Damascus, Syria.
 February 24/25 - Parliamentary election in Italy.
 February 25 - Park Geunhye officially becomes the first female President of South Korea.
 February 28 - Pope Benedict XVI officially resigns as Pope, as the first Pope to resign in almost 600 years.

March
 March 4 - Presidential election in Kenya: Uhuru Kenyatta is declared the winner after a few days.
 March 8 - Milos Zeman becomes President of the Czech Republic.
 March 8 - Funeral of Hugo Chávez in Caracas.
 March 10/11 - In a referendum in the Falkland Islands, almost all voters chooses to remain a UK territory, with only three people voting against.
 March 13 - Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio of Argentina is elected Pope. He is the first non-European Pope since 741, and the first Latin American Pope. He chooses to be known as Pope Francis.
 March 15 - Xi Jinping officially takes over as President of the People's Republic of China, with Li Keqiang as Premier, completing a transition of power in the Communist Party.
 March 19 - Inauguration of Pope Francis.
 March 19 - 50 people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Baghdad, considered to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the start of the Iraq War.
 March 23 - Pope Francis meets Pope Benedict XVI at Castel Gandolfo in Italy. The last time two living popes met was almost 600 years ago.
 March 24 - In the Central African Republic, President Francois Bozize is overthrown after he flees to the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo on the onset of rebels capturing the nation's capital city, Bangui.
 March 25 - The European Union agree to €10 billion bailout for Cyprus. The bailout loan will be equally split between the European Financial Stabilisation Mechanism, the European Financial Stability Facility, and the International Monetary Fund. The deal precipitates a banking crisis in the island nation.
 March 27 - Canada becomes the first country to withdraw from the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.

April

 April 2 - The United Nations General Assembly adopts the Arms Trade Treaty to regulate the international trade of conventional weapons.
 April 3 - Floods kill over 50 people in La Plata and Buenos Aires, Argentina.
 April 9 - Inauguration of Uhuru Kenyatta as President of Kenya.
 April 9 - A shooting in a village south of Belgrade, Serbia, kills 13 people.
 April 13 - The art museum Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam re-opens after 10 years of restoration work.
 April 14 - Presidential election in Venezuela: Nicolas Maduro narrowly defeats Opposition candidate Henrique Capriles.
 April 15 - 2013 Boston Marathon bombings: About three hours after the winners crossed the line in the Boston Marathon, two loud explosions occur near Copley Square just before the photo bridge that marks the finish line. 3 people are killed and over 170 are injured. A few days later suspect Tamerlan Tsarnaev is killed in a shoot-out with police after killing an officer. His brother Dzhokhar Tsarnaev is later arrested.
 April 16 - A magnitude 7.8 earthquake occurs, centred in southeast Iran, near the border with Pakistan. Casualties and damage are reported on both sides of the border.
 April 17 - New Zealand legalizes same-sex marriage.
 April 17 - The funeral of Margaret Thatcher takes place in London, attended by both current and former political figures from around the world.
 April 17 - West Fertilizer Plant explosion: A fertilizer plant in West, Texas explodes, killing several people and injuring over 100.
 April 19 - Jiroemon Kimura becomes the first man in history verified to reach 116 years of age.
 April 20 - A magnitude 6.6 earthquake strike's China's Sichuan province, with hundreds of people killed.
 April 20 - Giorgio Napolitano is elected to a second term as President of Italy, the first time an Italian President will serve a second term in office.
 April 23 - The Parliament of France supports the legalizing of same-sex marriage in the country.
 April 24 - A clothing factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh, collapses, killing over 1,100 people in one of the worst-ever industrial accidents.
 April 26 - A fire at a psychiatric hospital near Moscow, Russia, kills 38 people.
 April 28 - Enrico Letta becomes Prime Minister of Italy. At the same time, two police officers are injured in a shooting outside his office in central Rome.
 April 29 - NBA player Jason Collins announces that he is openly gay, the first active sportsman in the US to do so.
 April 30 - Accession of Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, the first King of the Netherlands since 1890, after Beatrix of the Netherlands officially abdicated the throne after 33 years as Queen.

May

 May 6 – 2013 Cleveland, Ohio, missing trio: Between nine and eleven years after going missing, Amanda Berry, Gina DeJesus and Michelle Knight are freed from being held captive in Cleveland, Ohio. 52-year-old Ariel Castro is arrested and charged.
 May 8 – In football, Alex Ferguson announces his intent to resign as manager of Manchester United after May 19. With over 26 years in charge, he is one of the game's longest-serving managers. David Moyes is selected to replace him.
 May 10 – Solar eclipse in the South Pacific, visible in Australia.
 May 11 – Nawaz Sharif is elected Prime Minister of Pakistan.
 May 15 – In a study published in Nature, Oregon Health & Science University researchers describe the first creation of human embryonic stem cells by cloning.
 May 18 – Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Malmo, Sweden: Emmelie de Forest of Denmark wins with the song "Only Teardrops".
 May 20 – Bomb attacks across Iraq kill a total of 70 people.
 May 20 – The 2013 Moore tornado kills 24 people and injures 377 people in Moore, Oklahoma.
 May 21 – French far-right historian and writer Dominique Venner commits suicide by gunshot inside Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris.
 May 23 – Sigmundur David Gunnlaugsson becomes Prime Minister of Iceland, succeeding Johanna Sigurdardottir.
 May 29 – The first same-sex marriage in France takes place.
 May 31 – Start of several days of anti-government protests in Istanbul, Turkey.
 May 31 – A tornado in central Oklahoma kills 9 people and is the widest ever measured.
 The 2013 Stockholm riots erupt in Stockholm, Sweden.

June

 early June – After heavy rain in May, widespread flooding occurs in Central Europe, affecting parts of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Poland. 19 people in total are known to have died, most of them in the Czech Republic.
 June 5 - Nawaz Sharif becomes Prime Minister of Pakistan.
 June 8 - Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela is re-hospitalized for a lung infection in Pretoria.
 June 9 - In an interview with The Guardian newspaper, Edward Snowden says that he leaked information about surveillance carried out by the National Security Agency.
 June 9 - US President Barack Obama meets for talks with Chinese leader Xi Jinping.
 June 9 - Rafael Nadal sets a record in singles tennis when he wins the French Open title for the 8th time. This is a record for any Grand Slam tournament.
 June 12 - The government of Greece takes the national broadcaster off air.
 June 14 - Hassan Rouhani is elected President of Iran.
 June 14 onwards - Major flooding occurs in the northern Indian states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana, killing at least 1,000 people and leaving many people missing. Parts of Nepal and western Tibet also experience heavy rainfall.
 June 15 to June 30 - The 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup is held in Brazil, while there are major protests against corruption in the country.
 June 19 - A haze spreads across Southeast Asia, mainly affecting Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia, causing major fog and disruption. Illegal forest fires on Sumatra are blamed.
 June 23 - Edward Snowden leaves Hong Kong for Moscow.
 June 23 - Nelson Mandela's health is said to be in a "critical" state.
 June 25 - Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, hands power to his son, Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani.
 June 27 - Kevin Rudd becomes Prime Minister of Australia for a second time, after Julia Gillard loses a vote of confidence within the Australian Labor Party.

July

 July 1 - Croatia becomes the 28th member country of the European Union.
 July 1 - Lithuania starts its six-month Presidency of the Council of the European Union.
 July 3 - During mass protests across the country, Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi is deposed in a coup d'état.
 July 3 - King Albert II of Belgium announces that he will leave the throne on July 21.
 July 6 - A 73-car unmanned freight train carrying crude oil crashes into the centre of the town of Lac-Megantic, southern Quebec, Canada, and explodes, killing at least 24 people.
 from July 6 - Floods affect parts of Sichuan and Yunnan provinces in south-central China, killing at least 58 people and leaving 175 missing.
 July 11 - The government of Luxembourg, led by Jean-Claude Juncker, is brought down by a scandal over its state security agency. New elections are set for October.
 July 12 - A train crash occurs at a station in Bretigny-sur-Orge, south of Paris, France, killing six people.
 July 15 - Scientists report the discovery of another moon around the planet Neptune. The moon is called S/2004 N 1.
 July 16 - At a school in Bihar state, northern India, 23 children die after eating school meals poisoned with insecticide.
 July 18 - Detroit, Michigan, files for Chapter 9 bankruptcy.
 July 21 - Albert II of Belgium leaves the throne after almost 20 years as king. His son becomes King Philippe of Belgium, and is the 7th King of the Belgians.
 July 21 - Chris Froome wins the 100th Tour de France.
 July 22 - Two earthquakes in Gansu province, People's Republic of China, kill at least 89 people.
 July 22 - Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge gives birth to a baby boy, Prince George of Cambridge. He is third in line to become King of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms.
 July 24 - A train with 218 passengers on board crashes in Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, northwest Spain, killing at least 79 people and injuring at least 130. It was travelling from Madrid to Ferrol on the Galician coast.
 July 25 - Tunisian opposition politician Mohamed Brahmi is shot dead, causing widespread protests.
 July 26 - 2013 Cleveland, Ohio, missing trio: Ariel Castro pleads guilty to all charges, and is sentenced to life in prison on August 1.
 July 28 - A coach crash near Avellino, close to Naples, Italy, kills 39 people.
 July 29 - United States Secretary of State John Kerry hosts a peace conference between Palestine and Israel in Washington, D.C. to make peace between the two nations. It was the first peace conference between Palestine and Israel in over three years.
 July 31 - An election is held in Zimbabwe, with President Robert Mugabe claiming victory, though there are reports of irregularities.

August

 August 1 - A court in Italy confirms the prison sentence against Silvio Berlusconi on charges of tax fraud.
 August 1 - Edward Snowden is given temporary asylum in Russia.
 August 3 - Hassan Rouhani becomes President of Iran.
 August 4 - American embassies in the Middle East and in parts of North Africa are closed due to a threat from Al-Qaeda. These embassies will be closed throughout the month of August.
 August 5 - The first laboratory-grown beef burger is eaten in London.
 August 10 - Dozens of people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Baghdad.
 August 14 - Egypt declares a national state of emergency as hundreds of pro-Mohamed Morsi demonstrators are killed by security forces.
 August 14 - Carmelo Flores Laura of Bolivia might become the world's oldest living person in history if his documents prove that he is in fact 123 years old, after his baptism certificate is released. It is hard to prove as birth certificates did not exist in Bolivia until 1940.
 August 15 - A new species of mammal is found in northwestern South America. Scientists name the new species Olinguito.
 August 15 - Horacio Cartes becomes President of Paraguay.
 August 21 - A suspected chemical gas attack occurs in Syria.
 August 26 - UN weapons inspectors start taking samples at the scene of a suspected chemical gas attack on Syria.
 August 28 - The 50th anniversary of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s speech "I Have A Dream" is celebrated across the United States. A ceremony is held at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.. Barack Obama, Bill Clinton, and Jimmy Carter attend the celebration.
 August 29 - The majority of MPs in the British House of Commons votes against military action in Syria.

September

 September 1 - Former South African President Nelson Mandela is released after a three-month stay.
 September 3 - Ariel Castro, the man responsible for 2013 Cleveland, Ohio, missing trio commits suicide in his prison cell in Cleveland, Ohio.
 September 4 - The United States Congress approves for a forced military strike on Syria to remove President Bashar al-Assad from power.
 September 6 - NASA's unmanned LADEE space probe is launched to the Moon.
 September 7 - Parliamentary election in Australia: The coalition led by the Liberal Party of Australia, under Tony Abbott, defeats the Australian Labor Party under Kevin Rudd.
 September 7 - Tokyo is announced as the city which will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, beating competition from Istanbul and Madrid.
 September 8 - Mamnoon Hussain becomes President of Pakistan.
 September 9 - Parliamentary election in Norway: The Centre-Right Venstre Party wins the most seats in parliament.
 September 10 - Thomas Bach is elected to replace Jacques Rogge as the head of the International Olympic Committee.
 September 12 - Colorado is hit by major flooding.
 September 15 - Mexico is struck by Hurricane Ingrid on the east coast, and Hurricane Manuel on the west coast, causing massive flooding, and killing at least 67 people.
 September 16 - A lone gunman armed with a shotgun, Aaron Alexis, killed twelve people and injured fourteen others in a mass shooting at Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C. The attack occurred around 8:20 a.m. in Building 197. Alexis was subsequently killed by police.
 September 18 - Tony Abbott becomes the 28th Prime Minister of Australia.
 September 21 - At least 62 people are killed in a terrorist attack and siege on the Westgate Shopping Mall in Nairobi, Kenya. Al-Shabaab claims responsibility.
 September 22 - A bomb attack on a church in Peshawar kills at least 70 people.
 September 22 - Elections are held for the German Bundestag. Angela Merkel's CDU/CSU coalition comes close to an overall majority, while the FDP is voted out of the Bundestag.
 September 24 - A magnitude 7.7 earthquake in southern Pakistan kills over 400 people.
 September 29 - An election to the Austrian parliament is held. The coalition led by Chancellor Werner Faymann narrowly wins.

October

 October 1 - The United States Government temporarily shuts down over failure to agree on a budget.
 October 3 - A boat travelling from North Africa, carrying migrants from the East African countries of Eritrea and Somalia, catches fire off the coast of Italy's Mediterranean Sea island of Lampedusa, killing over 360 people.
 October 3 - The Gambia withdraws from the Commonwealth.
 October 8 - Francois Englert of Belgium and Peter Higgs of the United Kingdom win the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on finding the Higgs boson particle.
 October 10 - Delegates from some 140 countries and territories signed Minamata Treaty, a UNEP treaty designed to protect human health and the environment from emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds.
 October 11 - The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
 October 11 - A boat travelling from North Africa, carrying migrants, gets into difficulty off Lampedusa, killing over 30 people, in the second such incident there in the space of a week.
 mid-October - Bush fires affect large parts of New South Wales, Australia.
 October 16 - Erna Solberg becomes Prime Minister of Norway, succeeding Jens Stoltenberg.
 October 16 - The United States Government reopens after the shutdown.
 October 20 - An election is held in Luxembourg.
 October 27 - Sebastian Vettel wins the Formula One world championship, becoming the youngest driver to achieve this four times in-a-row.
 October 28 - The St Jude Storm, also referred to as "Christian", "Carmen" and "Simone", hits the southern UK, northern France, the Low Countries, Germany, Denmark and southern Sweden, killing at least 15 people and disrupting transport services. Denmark records its highest-ever wind speed during the storm.
 October 29 - A new underground rail link is opened across the Bosphorus in Istanbul.

November

 November 3 – Hybrid (total/annular) solar eclipse.
 November 5 - Bill de Blasio wins the 2013 New York City mayoral election in a landslide. He becomes the first New York City Democratic mayor in over two decades. He is expected to succeed Michael Bloomberg as mayor on January 1, 2014.
 November 8 - Typhoon Haiyan strikes the Philippines with some of the strongest typhoon winds recorded, destroying many towns and cities, and killing thousands of people.
 November 10 - Spanish motorcycle racer Marc Marquez becomes the youngest Moto GP world champion, at age 20.
 November 12 - One World Trade Center is announced as having become the tallest building in the United States.
 November 12 - Three Studies with Lucian Freud, a series of paintings by Francis Bacon, becomes the most expensive work of art sold at auction, selling for 142.4 million US Dollars.
 November 16 - Sachin Tendulkar, one of the greatest cricketers of all time, retires from playing after his last test match.
 November 21 - A supermarket collapse in Riga, Latvia, kills over 50 people.
 November 22 - 50th anniversary of the Assassination of John F. Kennedy is honored across the United States and parts of Ireland.
 November 24 - Iran agrees to limit their nuclear development program in exchange for sanctions relief.
 November 28 - Three unpublished books by J. D. Salinger is leaked online to the public.
 November 29 - A helicopter crash into the Clutha pub in Glasgow, Scotland, kills 10 people.

December

 Throughout December - Anti-government protests in Thailand and Ukraine.
 December 1 - A train crash in New York City's The Bronx area, on the banks of the Hudson River, kills 4 people and injures over 60.
 December 4 - Xavier Bettel becomes Prime Minister of Luxembourg, ending Jean-Claude Juncker's almost-19-year period in office.
 December 6 - The groups for the 2014 FIFA World Cup are drawn.
 December 7 - Ninth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization delegates sign the Bali Package agreement aimed at loosening global trade barriers.
 December 10 - A public memorial service is held for Nelson Mandela in a football stadium in Johannesburg where he had made his last public appearance.
 December 14 - Chinese spacecraft Chang'e 3, carrying the Yutu rover, becomes the first spacecraft to "soft"-land on the Moon since 1976 and the third ever robotic rover to do so.
 December 15 - The funeral of Nelson Mandela takes place.
 December 15 - Michelle Bachelet is elected President of Chile. She previously held this position from 2006 to 2010.
 December 23 - Heavy winds and rain cause destruction across Northern Europe. Meanwhile, snowstorms cut electricity from millions of homes in the Northeastern US and southeastern Canada.
 December 29 - A bomb attack on a train station in Volgograd, southern Russia, kills at least 16 people. A similar attack on a bus in the same city kills at least 15 people a day later.
 December 29 - Formula One racing champion Michael Schumacher is severely injured in a skiing accident in the French Alps.
 December 31 – Australia's last analogue Television signal was turned off.

Nobel Prizes
 Chemistry – Martin Karplus, Michael Levitt, and Arieh Warshel
 Economics – Eugene Fama, Lars Peter Hansen and Robert J. Shiller
 Literature – Alice Munro
 Peace – Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
 Physics – François Englert and Peter Higgs
 Physiology or Medicine – James Rothman, Randy Schekman, and Thomas C. Südhof

Major religious holidays
 January 6 - Epiphany or Twelfth Night, important in some countries' Christmas celebrations.
 January 7 – Christmas – Eastern Orthodox Churches
 February 1 – Imbolc, a Cross-quarter day (Celebrated on February 2 in some places).
 February 2 - Candlemas (Western Christianity)
 February 10 - Chinese New Year - Year of the Snake
 February 12 - Shrove Tuesday (Western Christianity)
 February 13 - Ash Wednesday (Western Christianity), start of Lent
 March 20 – March Equinox, also known as Ostara.
 March 24 - Palm Sunday (Western Christianity)
 March 28 - Maundy Thursday (Western Christianity)
 March 29 - Good Friday (Western Christianity)
 March 31 – Easter (Western Christianity)
 April 1 - Easter Monday (Western Christianity)
 May 1 – Beltane, a Cross-quarter day.
 May 5 – Easter (Eastern Christianity)
 May 9 - Feast of the Ascension (Western Christianity)
 May 19 - Pentecost (Western Christianity)
 May 30 - Corpus Christi (Western Christianity)
 June 21 – June solstice, also known as Midsummer or Litha, in the Northern Hemisphere.
 July 9 - Beginning of Ramadan, a month of fasting in the Islamic calendar.
 August 1 – Lammas, a Cross-quarter day.
 August 7 - Eid-al-Fitr, end of Ramadan
 August 15 - Assumption of Mary (Roman Catholicism)
 September 4 - Rosh Hashanah, new year festival in Judaism.
 September 14 - Yom Kippur (Judaism)
 September 16 - Onam (Hinduism), celebrated in Kerala.
 September 22 – September Equinox, also known as Mabon.
 November 1 – Samhain, a Cross-quarter day and Neopagan new year.
 November 1 - All Saints Day (Roman Catholicism)
 November 2 - All Souls Day (Roman Catholicism)
 November 3 - Divali (Hinduism)
 November 27 - Hanukkah (Judaism)
 December 1 - First Sunday of Advent (Western Christianity)
 December 21 – December solstice, also known as Yule in the Northern Hemisphere.
 December 24 - Christmas Eve (Western Christianity)
 December 25 – Christmas (Western Christianity)
 December 26 - Boxing Day/Saint Stephen's Day/Second Day of Christmas (Western Christianity)

In fiction and popular culture

Comic books
 X-Men: The X-Men try to overthrow the dystopian rule of the robot Sentinels in the Days of Future Past storyline (1980).
  In the comic book Legion of Super-Heroes (Number 6, July 2005, DC Comics), Cosmic Boy avers that the Bar Code on the cover of comic books is "destined to become outlawed in the Design Aesthetic Wars of 2013."

Computer and video games
 Shattered Union (2005): The District of Columbia is destroyed this year by a low-yield nuclear weapon.
 Ghost Recon: Advanced Warfighter (2006)
 Gyakuten Saiban 3 (2007), Flashbacks to this year occur.

Movies
 Escape From LA (1996)
 The Postman (1997)
 A Scanner Darkly (2006)

Television
 In the BBC mockumentary Time Trumpet, British retail chain, Tesco launches an invasion of Denmark on January 21 of this year.
 The last few minutes of the Season 4 finale and Season 5 of Desperate Housewives is set in this year.
 BBC Drama Spooks: Code 9 is set in this year.
 The anime version of Death Note ends in this year, when the main character, Light Yagami, dies from a heart attack after being shot multiple times.

Mathematical interest
 The date will comprise four distinct digits, for the first time since 1987.
 The date will comprise of four consecutive digits, for the first time since 1980.

Births
 May 24 - Grayson Eddey, American child actor (On the Rocks)
 July 22 - Prince George of Cambridge, 3rd in-line to the British throne

Deaths

References

2013

2013


Social Engineering (also known as "Social Manipulation") is a type of confidence trick to influence people with the goal to illegally obtain sensitive data (i.e. passwords, credit card information). Social Engineers observe the personal environment of their victims and use fake identities to gain secret information or free services. In most cases Social Engineering is used to infiltrate third party computer systems to spy on sensitive data; in that case social engineering is also called Social Hacking.

Development

The beginning
An early way of Social Engineering first occurred in the 1980s and was named Phreaking. Phreakers called phone companies and claimed to be system administrators and asked for passwords which they used to connect illegally and free of charge to the Internet.

Nowadays
A more modern form of Social Engineering is called Phishing (Phishing is derived from "fishing"), which is an attempt to get access to Internet user's data via faked WWW-addresses. The most common way of Phishing is Fraud Mailing also known as Scam Mailing, where the victim is being sent a fake E-Mail i.e. of a bank. In most Scam Mails the letter includes a link that is redirecting to a fake website which is logging the login id and the appropriate password of the victim. The hackers are often using DNS-Spoofing to fake the sender's E-Mail address.

Main model

How it works
The main model of Social Engineering shows up with faked phone calls: the Social Engineer calls employees of a company and impersonates a technician who needs sensitive data to complete important technical operations. In advance the attacker has gathered information about work routines of the target company from public sources or former raid attempts, that gives him advantage in further Social Engineering trials.
The invader tries to confuse his victims and to seem trustful, using trade language and involving the victims in small talk. Further the assaulter pretends authority to frighten his victims. Under circumstances the employee actually requested technical support and is expecting such a phone call.

Protection
The prevention of Social Engineering is difficult. By influencing the victim subconsciously, the invader abuses typical human behavior like helpfulness in emergency situations or to respond with help to the seemingly helpful attacker.
General mistrust would disturb the efficient and trustful team work of an organization. The most effective way to avoid Social Engineering is to assure the identity of the caller. This can already be done by asking for the caller's name and phone number and to politely ask for patience, even if the caller's issue seems to be very urgent. Even if one could verify the caller's identity, one should only hand out the absolutely necessary information.

Famous social engineers
Social Engineering became generally known through Kevin David "Condor" Mitnick (movies: "Takedown" also known as "Hackers 2"), who became one of the most wanted persons of the United States of America because of successfully invading government systems such as the Pentagon and the NSA.

Further well known Social Engineers are the check scammer Frank Abagnale (movie: "Catch Me If You Can").

References
 DATA PROTECTION ESSENTIALS  Knowledge about SE, Information about Kevin Mitnick

Psychology
Sociology

Social engineering (security)


The English Interregnum was the period of parliamentary and military rule in the land occupied by modern-day England and Wales after the English Civil War. It began with the execution of Charles I in 1649 and ended when Charles II became king, after Oliver Cromwell died in 1660.

This era in English history can be divided into four periods.
 The first period of the Commonwealth of England from 1649 until 1653
 The Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell from 1653 to 1658
 The Protectorate under Richard Cromwell from 1658 to 1659
 The second period of the Commonwealth of England from 1659 until 1660

Life during the Interregnum
Oliver Cromwell was a Puritan and during the Interregnum, he imposed a very strict form of Christianity upon the country.  Although a main cause of the English Civil War was oppression under Charles I, England during the Interregnum became oppressive in its own fashion. Cromwell granted religious freedom otherwise previously unknown in England, but other forms of expression were suddenly limited (for instance, theatre, which had thrived under the Stuart kings and Elizabeth I, was banned).  Cromwell also made certain that his own personal vision of Christianity was enforced upon the masses. Many of Cromwell's actions were called "harsh, unwise, and tyrannical" by some commentators.

His son and successor, Richard Cromwell gave up his position as Lord Protector with little hesitation, resigning or "abdicating" after a demand by the Rump Parliament. This was the beginning of a short period of restoration of the Commonwealth of England.

Related pages
Richard Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell
Commonwealth of England
The Protectorate

17th century in England

English Interregnum


The axilla (also known as the armpit, underarm, or oxter) is the area on the human body right under where the joint where the arm connects to the shoulder. The axilla is one of the four places where a medical thermometer can be used to measure human body temperature. The other places are the rectum, mouth, and ear canal.

What is in the area of the axilla
In the area where the axllia is, the body parts that are found are the axillary vein, axillary artery, brachial plexus, lymph nodes, and fat.

Hair of the axilla

During puberty, hair will grow in the underarms. Many women choose to shave or remove this hair because it gives a neater and cleaner look when wearing some types of clothes, however some women do not shave and choose to have a natural look for cultural or symbolic reasons.

Body odor
Body odor occurs in the axilla due to microorganisms.

Due to this, many companies make deodorants to help remove the bad odor.

What the axilla is known for
Many people think of the axilla as being a ticklish spot.

Other words for axilla
In the U.K., the axilla is called the oxter.

Underarm, another word for axilla, only is the outside of the axilla.

Armpit, like underarm, refers to the axilla, but also means an object or place that is smelly or greasy.

Gallery

References

Body parts

Axilla


A play is a piece of writing (literature) which can be seen at a theatre or on television, or heard on the radio. Plays often show conversations between people. A play is usually watched, rather than being read.

The people who appear in a play are actors; in a theatre they stand on a stage so the people watching (the audience) can see them better. A director helps the actors to work better, or tells them how he wants the play to be.

Plays can be very interesting because they can be understood in many different ways. When the writer - the playwright - makes the play, he can not say how the actors or director will use it. Sometimes the playwright is also the director or an actor: Molière, for example, was often an actor in his plays. But the director can change the play in different ways: the actors' costume, the music, how people say things, how they move or what they hold. Modern directors can direct plays by Shakespeare, and these old plays seem modern now, too.

There are many sorts of plays, but there are six important sorts:

Tragedy - the end is sad, because of bad luck, because the hero is not perfect, or because of the gods.
Comedy - the end is happy. Some things in this sort of play are funny; it makes us laugh.
Domestic drama - the play is about normal life, family and friends.
Tragicomedy - this play is both a tragedy and a comedy.
Melodrama - this sort of play often has a happy ending. In it there is a villain - a bad person - but the hero (and often a heroine) win. The emotions are very strong.
Symbolic - this sort of play is about ideas. The people in the play are not so important.
Symbolic can also be called expressionistic. Its all about how the writer or director presents ideas in a very different point of view.
(Experimental) - this is a play in which the director and actors can try out new ideas.  Anything can be tried out.  It is an experiment.

Related pages
Drama
Intermission

Play (theatre)


Myspace is a social networking website owned by News Corp. Digital Media where people can communicate using messages, video and photo uploads, blogs, social groups, and music. Myspace was founded in 2003 and used to be the 24th most popular website in the world. Myspace was popular with young people between 2005 and 2010. MySpace's head office is in New York City.

Controversy
Some people think Myspace is a bad site, because it makes personal information very easy to find. Many parents do not like Myspace. They would like it to shut down. Myspace says that they are a safe place for all people, and has rules to keep people safe.

NBC's Dateline has a "To Catch a Predator" series that talks about Myspace's safety problems. Although Myspace has many contradictions against them, they have not shut down.

About
Myspace Inc. is a web page where individuals can communicate, and exchange information with their network of friends. Users can set up a personal profile, which can be changed, and new graphics and pictures and additional material can be added. All members can upload pictures to share with their friends, and others have permission to comment on their pictures and uploaded materials.

Also the user can choose to play games on, and post blogs to share with their friends and family.

Myspace has users all over the world which includes:

 Australia
 New Zealand
 France
 Germany
 Ireland
 Italy
 Japan
 Mexico
 Spain
 Canada
 The United Kingdom
 The United States

References

Other websites
 Myspace homepage

2003 establishments in the United States
Companies based in New York City
Social networking

Myspace


Heart disease is a general term that means that the heart is not working normally. Babies can be born with heart disease. This is called congenital heart disease. If people get heart disease later, it is called acquired heart disease. Most heart disease is acquired.

Types of heart disease
The three most common types of acquired heart disease are:
 Coronary Artery Disease (acronym CAD) – This is a problem with the blood vessels that deliver blood to the heart muscle. If these blood vessels get very small, or if they become blocked, blood cannot flow through them normally. Since less blood is supplied to the heart muscle, the muscle cannot work at normal capacity. The heart muscle can become sick and weak. Heart muscle can even die if blood flow stops. Blocked arteries in the heart are often caused by smoking, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, diabetes, and inherited traits from parents. All of these problems damage the lining of the heart's blood vessels and make them become narrowed or blocked completely.
 Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) – This is a condition that means that the heart is not pumping at normal levels. Two common causes are a weak or sick heart muscle and abnormal heart valves. The valves may not let enough blood through because they are too narrowed. Or the valve may "leak" and let blood flow backwards (the wrong direction) inside the heart. When the heart valves do not work normally, the heart muscle has to do extra work and it can become tired.
 Bad Heart Rhythms – This is a problem with electrical activity in the heart. This can make the heart beat too fast or too slow. Very bad heart rhythms may make the heart stop pumping blood. The heart needs a normal rhythm to pump the blood well. If the rhythm is too fast, the heart may not have time for blood to enter the chambers, so there is not enough blood moving through the heart with each beat. If the heart is too slow, there may not be enough contractions of the heart to supply the body with the blood that it needs.

Symptoms
A person can have heart disease and not feel sick. Some people with heart disease have symptoms. This is when there are changes or pain in the body to show a disease is there. Some symptoms of heart disease are:
 Pain in the chest—the heart muscle is not getting enough flow to keep it going.
 Trouble breathing—blood may back up into the lungs.
 Palpitations (a feeling that the heart is beating too fast, too hard, or not regularly).
 Swelling of feet or legs—blood is backing up from the heart into the lower body.
 Feeling weak because the body and brain are not getting enough blood to supply them with oxygen.
 Cyanosis (skin turning a blue colour) means that too little oxygen is in the bloodstream to supply the cells in the body.

Deaths
Heart disease is the biggest killer of both men and women in the United States, England, Wales, and Canada. For example, heart disease causes 4 out of every 10 deaths in the United States. This is more than all kinds of cancer put together. Also, one person dies of heart disease about every minute in the United States alone.

Congenital heart disease
Congenital heart disease refers to a form of heart problem that starts before birth (congenital). Congenital heart disease includes a large number of conditions. The formation of the heart before birth is very complex and is sometimes abnormal. For example, if a part of the main artery that comes from the heart is narrowed, that is called coarctation of the aorta. There may be holes inside the heart which keep the blood from flowing normally inside the heart. Other congenital heart problems are caused by abnormal heart valves. In some cases, congenital heart problems are discovered at birth. Other times the problems may not be detected until the person is older.

Other websites
 Mayo Clinic
 WebMD Heart Disease
 Freedom Years Heart Disease
 American Heart Association
 Understanding Heart Disease: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

Heart disease


King Frederick William IV of Prussia () (15 October 1795 – 2 January 1861) was the eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia. He reigned as King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861.

Life
Frederick William was educated by private tutors.  He served in the army during the War of Liberation against Napoleon I of France in 1814, but he was not interested in the army.  He loved both architecture and landscape gardening and was a patron of several great German artists, such as architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel and the composer Felix Mendelssohn.  He married Elisabeth Ludovika of Bavaria in 1823, but the couple had no children.

Frederick William was a Romanticist, and had a nostalgia for the Middle Ages, therefore he was conservative already at an early age. He was against both liberalisation and unification of Germany and preferred to allow Austria to remain the first power in the German states.

In the beginning of his reign he did not continue the reactionary policies of his father, he reduced press censorship and promised a constitution, but he did not want a popular legislative assembly, but preferred to work with the aristocracy. He was Lutheran, but he released the imprisoned Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cologne, and he decided to help the construction of Cologne Cathedral.  In 1844, he attended the celebrations of the completion of the cathedral, so he was the first king of Prussia who entered a Roman Catholic building.  When he finally called a national assembly in 1847, it was not a representative body, but rather a United Diet which cold speak for all the provincial estates and had the right to grant taxes and loans but no right to meet at regular intervals.

When revolution broke out in Prussia in March 1848, as part of the European Revolutions of 1848, the king initially decided to fight it with the army, but later decided to recall the troops and place himself at the head of the movement on 19 March.  He committed himself to German unification, formed a liberal government, accepted a national assembly, and ordered that a Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia should be drawn up. When his position was more secure again, however, he quickly led the army to reoccupy Berlin and dissolved the assembly in December.  But he was still in favour of unification for some time. So the Frankfurt Parliament offered him the crown of Germany on 3 April 1849. He did not accept it, but he tried to establish a union of German states excluding Austria. But rather soon after gave up this plan, when Austria did not accept it.

When he had dismissed the national assembly, Frederick William decided to have a constitution with a parliament with two chambers, an aristocratic upper house and an elected lower house.  The lower house was elected by all taxpayers, but in a system that was based on the amount of taxes paid so that the rich had more influence than the poor.  The constitution also reserved for the king the power to appoint all ministers and reestablished the conservative district assemblies and provincial diets. And it guaranteed that the bureaucracy and the military remained firmly in the hands of the king.  This was a more liberal system than had existed in Prussia before 1848, but was still a conservative system of government in which the monarch, the aristocracy, and the military kept most of the power.  This constitution lasted until the end of the Prussian kingdom in 1918.

After a stroke in 1857 the king was partially paralyzed and largely mentally weak, therefore his brother William became regent from 1858 until the king's death in 1861, then he became king himself as William I.

Ancestry

Works
Frederick William IV of Prussia: Die Königin von Borneo. Ein Roman. Nicolai-Verlag, Berlin 1997,

References

Frederick William IV and the Prussian Monarchy 1840–1862, by David E. Barclay, (Oxford, 1995).

1795 births
1861 deaths
People from Berlin
House of Hohenzollern
Knights of the Garter
Kings and Queens of Prussia

Frederick William IV of Prussia


Dr Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips is a Jamaican Canadian Islamic Scholar who converted to Islam in the early seventies after journeying politically and intellectually from Christianity to Communism. Shortly after his reversion to Islam, he embarked on a spiritual academic journey to the other side of the world seeking Islamic knowledge. This journey took him to Saudi Arabia where he completed a BA in Islamic studies in Madeenah, and an MA in Islamic Theology in Riyadh, then to the University of Wales, UK, where he completed a PhD in Islamic Theology in the early nineties.

After graduation from Madeenah, Dr Bilal became a teacher of Islamic studies for 10 years in an Islamic High School, Manaret Riyadh, and a lecturer of Arabic and Islamic studies in the American University in Dubai, UAE, for another 10 years. During his 10 years in the UAE, he founded and taught at the Islamic Information Center in Dubai, and during his subsequent 7 years in Qatar he has been an Islamic consultant and lecturer for the Islamic Information wing of Sh. Eed Charity. Bilal Philips has written, translated and commented on over 50 published books on various Islamic topics. He has also edited and published the 56 book Eemaan Reading Series for children and presented Islamic programs for a number of years on Riyadh Channel 2TV, Sharjah TV for ten years, as well as Peace TV, Huda TV, Islam Channel, UK, and the Deen Show, Chicago, USA.

In 2002 Dr Philips founded and headed the Islamic studies department of Preston University, Ajman, UAE, and in 2007 he founded and headed the Islamic Studies Academy, Doha, Qatar, while simultaneously launching the International Open University (https://iou.edu.gm/) which is currently offering free Islamic courses to over 100,000 registered students from over 207 different countries world wide, and for which he was included in the Jordanian publication, The 500 Most Influential Muslims (latest edition).

Bilal subsequently founded and headed, in 2008, the English medium Islamic studies department of Knowledge International University, who's Chancellor is Shaikh Dr. 'Abdur-Rahman ibn 'Abdil-Azeez Al Sudais and who's President of the board of trustees is Shaikh 'Abdul-Azeez ibn 'Abdullah Al Shaikh, Mufti of Saudi Arabia. More recently, in 2009, Dr Bilal Philips founded and headed the College of Da'wah and Islamic Culture (English Section), Omdurman Islamic University, Sudan, and established and directed Preston International College (www.prestonchennai.ac.in) in Chennai, India.

In March 2010, Dr Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips launched, for the first time in history, an accredited tuition-free BA in Islamic Studies degree course at the International Open University. (https://iou.edu.gm/stream/bais/)

Reference

Other websites

 Bilal Philips Official Website

Imams
Canadian Muslims
Converts to Islam
Islamic University of Madinah alumni
Living people
1946 births
King Saud University alumni

Bilal Philips


Suatu tarian morris adalah sebentuk tarian rakyat Inggeris biasanya ditemani dengan muzik.  Ia berasas rentak berirama dan melaksanakan tokoh-tokoh koreograf oleh sekumpulan penari. Perkakas seperti kayu, pedang, sapu tangan dan loceng dapat juga digunakan oleh para penari. Dalam suatu bilangan kecil tarian untuk satu atau dua lelaki, langkah-langkah dipersembah berhampiran dangan di sepanjang sepasang paip tembakau tanah liat dibaring di sepanjang sesama sendiri di lantai.

Dakwaan bahawa rakaman Inggeris, bermula pada 1448, menyebut tarian morris terbuka pada pertikaian. Tiada sebutan tarian "morris" lebih awal dari lewat abad ke-15, walaupun rekod awal seperti Bishops' "Visitation Articles" menyebut tarian pedang, suatu pemuatan halaman istana, dan kedua-dua lelaki dan perempuan disebut menari, dan sedikit kemudian dalam Lord Mayors' Processions di London. Ia hanya kemudian bahawa ia bermula untuk menyebut sebagai suatu dipersembah di kariah. Sudah tentu tiada bukti yang ia adalah suatu upacara amal pra-Kristian, seperti ia sering didakwa.

Pada hari moden, ia adalah umum difikir sebagai aktiviti yang secara unik Inggeris, walaupun ada sekitar 150 tepi morris (atau pasukan) di Amerika Syarikat. Ekspatriat British membentuk suatu bahagian yang lebih besar tradisi morris di Australia, Kanada, New Zealand, dan Hong Kong. Ada kumpulan-kumpulan terpencil di negara-negara lain, contohnya mereka di Utrecht, Belanda, Arctic Morris Group of Helsinki and Stockholm, dan jua di Cyprus dan Alsace, France.

Asal-usul istilah

While there is still some dispute as to the origin of the term "Morris", the most widely accepted theory is that the term was moorish dance,  morisques in France, Moriskentanz in Germany, moreška in Croatia, and moresco, moresca or morisca in Italy and Spain, which eventually became morris dance. Dances with similar names and some similar features are mentioned in Renaissance documents in France, Italy, Germany, Croatia, and Spain; throughout, in fact, Catholic Europe. This is hardly surprising; by 1492 Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille succeeded in driving the Moors out of Spain and unifying the country. In celebration of this a pageant known as a Moresca was devised and performed. This can still be seen performed in places such as Ainsa, Aragon. Incorporated into this pageant was the local dance — the Paloteao. This too can still be seen performed in the villages of Aragon. The original ´Moresca´ is a sword dance. The sticks in Morris dance are a residual of the swords in the 'Moresca'. The similarity to what became known as the English "morris" is undoubted. Early court records state that the "moresque" was performed at court in her  honour, including the dance — the "moresque" or "morisce" or "morys" dance.

"Morris" is sometimes capitalized, though in this context it is not a proper noun.

Sejarah di England

Before the English Civil War, the working peasantry took part in morris dances, especially at Whitsun. In 1600 the Shakespearean actor William Kempe morris danced from London to Norwich, an event chronicled in his Nine Daies Wonder (1600). The Puritan government of Oliver Cromwell, however, suppressed Whitsun Ales and other such festivities. When the crown was restored by Charles II, the springtime festivals were restored. In particular, Whitsun Ales came to be celebrated on Whitsunday, as the date coincided with the birthday of Charles II.

Morris dancing continued in popularity until the industrial revolution and its accompanying social changes. Four teams claim a continuous lineage of tradition within their village or town: Abingdon (their morris team was kept going by the Hemmings Family), Bampton, Headington Quarry, and Chipping Campden. Other villages have revived their own traditions, and hundreds of other teams across the globe have adopted (and adapted) these traditions, or have created their own styles from the basic building blocks of morris stepping and figures.

Several English folklorists were responsible for recording and reviving the tradition in the early 20th century, often from a bare handful of surviving members of mid-19th-century village sides. Among these, the most notable are Cecil Sharp, Maud Karpeles, and Mary Neal.

Boxing Day 1899 is widely regarded as the starting point for the morris revival. Cecil Sharp was visiting at a friend's house in Headington, near Oxford, when the Headington Quarry morris side arrived to perform. Sharp was intrigued by the music and collected several tunes from the side's musician, William Kimber; not until about a decade later, however, did he begin collecting the dances, spurred and at first assisted by Mary Neal, a founder of the Espérance Club (a dressmaking co-operative and club for young working women in London), and Herbert MacIlwaine, musical director of the Espérance Club. Neal was looking for dances for her girls to perform, and so the first revival performance was by young women in London.

In the first few decades of the 20th century, several men's sides were formed, and in 1934 the Morris Ring was founded by six revival sides. In the 1960s and especially the 1960s, there was an explosion of new dance teams, some of them women's or mixed sides. At the time, there was often heated debate over the propriety and even legitimacy of women dancing the morris, even though there is evidence as far back as the 16th century that there were female morris dancers. There are now male, female and mixed sides to be found.

Partly because women's and mixed sides are not eligible for full membership of the Morris Ring, two other national (and international) bodies were formed, the Morris Federation and Open Morris. All three bodies provide communication, advice, insurance, instructionals (teaching sessions) and social and dancing opportunities to their members. The three bodies co-operate on some issues, while maintaining their distinct identities.

Lihat juga

 Ball de bastons
 Căluşari
 Tarian Kebangsaan Inggeris
 Maculelê (dance)
 Pipe and Tabor
 Tarian senjata
Morris: A Life with Bells On

Nota

Rujukan
 Forrest, John.The History of Morris Dancing, 1483-1750. Cambridge:James Clarke & Co Ltd, 1999.

Pautan luar
Morrisbook Networking site for morris dancers
Bordering on the Insane: Confessions of a Shropshire Bedlam by John Kirkpatrick
The Complete Morris On and Other Plain Capers
The Morris Book A history of morris dancing by Cecil J. Sharp, from Project Gutenberg
The Moreska Dance in Island Korcula, Croatia
The Morrisdancing Page Links to morris sides and organizations
Morris Dancing FAQs  Database of morris-related questions
The Origins of Morris By Chris Farr of Dartington Morris Men
The English Folk Dance and Song Society at Cecil Sharp House, London]
From Ritual to Romance By Jesse L. Weston, at Project Gutenberg
Goths and Pagans reinventing Morris Dancing (The Independent (UK), retrieved 11 May 2008)
Morris dancing facing extinction (The Daily Telegraph (UK),
Morris: A Life with Bells On IMDB article
Welsh Morris
"Everybody Dance Now!" an interview with London Morris Men
MorrisDance.com

Budaya rakyat Inggeris
Mitologi Inggeris
Muzik Inggeris
Tarian

Tarian morris


Amnesia is what doctors call a loss or disturbance of memory. It is a loss of memory, that is to say, a person cannot remember certain things. Amnesia can be caused when someone has brain damage, a disease or when something really stressful happens.

There are two "main types":
Anterograde amnesia: Short term memory is not transferred to long-term memory any more. People with this type of amnesia cannot remember things for long periods of time.
Retrograde amnesia: The person can no longer recall information that happened before a certain date. The date is usually the date of an accident or an operation.

The fact that adults usually cannot remember events that occurred in early childhood is called "infantile amnesia". It is attributed to the development of the brain or that of the child. It is not seen as a form of amnesia comparable to the other types.

Causes
There are three main categories in which amnesia can happen to a person.

Head trauma. This includes any kind of injury to the brain that might cause amnesia.
Traumatic events. This happens when a person's mind is so stressed that it chooses to forget what happened rather than to deal with it.
Physical deficiencies. These are things that happen to your brain but it is different than head trauma because it mostly deals with complications that happen after surgery.

Some other different types of amnesia include:
Caused by an [Injury|trauma], for example a head injury; called post-traumatic amnesia.
Dissociative amnesia: Here the cause is psychological, and usually not related to physical damage in the brain. This includes
Repressed memory (where it is not possible to remember a specific event) - The memory is usually still there, but the person blocks access to it; Stressful events such as being raped may lead to Dissociative amnesia
 Childhood amnesia - the inability of adults to remember certain parts of their childhood.
Drug (usually [alcohol])-induced blackout - anterograde amnesia, affecting the immediate past

Amnesia can be permanent, or it can be temporary. Damage to the [brain], or the use of certain [drug]s can cause amnesia. Some of these drugs are [sedative]s. Another well known cause for amnesia can be drinking too much [alcohol]. Those kinds of causes are called organic, because they can been directly seen. Other causes cannot directly be seen, they are called functional.  Rather they are [psychology|psychological] in their nature. People may want to shield off a traumatic event they witnessed, for example.

Another minor cause of amnesia is "heartbreak" in a relationship. It can lead to trauma, but it is not necessarily traumatic.

Treatment
Sometimes certain types of amnesia fix themselves without being treated. There are also different types of therapy that work with the brain to help with amnesia. There is no medicine that can directly help with amnesia.

Memory
Symptoms

Amnesia


A number is a concept from mathematics, used to count or measure. Depending on the field of mathematics, where numbers are used, there are different definitions:
 People use symbols to represent numbers; they call them numerals. Common places where numerals are used are for labeling, as in telephone numbers, for ordering, as in serial numbers, or to put a unique identifier, as in an ISBN, a unique number that can identify a book.
 Cardinal numbers are used to measure how many items are in a set. For example, {A,B,C} has size "3".
 Ordinal numbers are used to specify a certain element in a set or sequence (first, second, third).

Numbers are also used for other things like counting. Numbers are used when things are measured. Numbers are used to study how the world works. Mathematics is a way to use numbers to learn about the world and make things. The study of the rules of the natural world is called science. The work that uses numbers to make things is called engineering.

Numbering methods

Numbers for people
There are different ways of giving symbols to numbers. These methods are called number systems. The most common number system that people use is the base ten number system. The base ten number system is also called the decimal number system. The base ten number system is common because people have ten fingers and ten toes. There are 10 different symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) used in the base ten number system. These ten symbols are called digits.

A symbol for a number is made up of these ten digits. The position of the digits shows how big the number is. For example, the number 23 in the decimal number system really means (2 times 10) plus 3. Similarly, 101 means 1 times a hundred (=100) plus 0 times 10 (=0) plus 1 times 1 (=1).

Numbers for machines
Another number system is more common for machines. The machine number system is called the binary number system. The binary number system is also called the base two number system. There are two different symbols (0 and 1) used in the base two number system. These two symbols are called bits.

A symbol for a binary number is made up of these two bit symbols. The position of the bit symbols shows how big the number is. For example, the number 10 in the binary number system really means 1 times 2 plus 0, and 101 means 1 times four (=4) plus 0 times two (=0) plus 1 times 1 (=1). The binary number 10 is the same as the decimal number 2. The binary number 101 is the same as the decimal number 5.

Names of numbers

English has special names for some of the numbers in the decimal number system that are "powers of ten". All of these power of ten numbers in the decimal number system use just the symbol "1" and the symbol "0". For example, ten tens is the same as ten times ten, or one hundred. In symbols, this is "10 × 10 = 100". Also, ten hundreds is the same as ten times one hundred, or one thousand. In symbols, this is "10 × 100 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000". Some other powers of ten also have special names:

 1 – one
 10 – ten
 100 – one hundred
 1,000 – one thousand
 1,000,000 – one million

When dealing with larger numbers than this, there are two different ways of naming the numbers in English. Under the "long scale", a new name is given every time the number is a million times larger than the last named number. It is also called the "British Standard". This scale used to be common in Britain, but is not often used in English-speaking countries today. It is still used in some other European nations.

Another scale is the "short scale", under which a new name is given every time a number is a thousand times larger than the last named number. This scale is a lot more common in most English-speaking nations today.

 1,000,000,000 – one billion (short scale), one milliard (long scale)
 1,000,000,000,000 – one trillion (short scale), one billion (long scale)
 1,000,000,000,000,000 – one quadrillion (short scale), one billiard (long scale)

Types of numbers

Natural numbers
Natural numbers are the numbers which we normally use for counting: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, etc. Some people say that 0 is a natural number, too. The set of all natural numbers is written as .

Another name for these numbers is positive numbers. These numbers are sometimes written as +1 to show that they are different from the negative numbers. But not all positive numbers are natural (for example,  is positive, but not natural).

If 0 is called a natural number, then the natural numbers are the same as the whole numbers. If 0 is not called a natural number, then the natural numbers are the same as the counting numbers. So if the words "natural numbers" are not used, then there will be less confusion about whether zero is included or not. But unfortunately, some say that zero is not a whole number, while others say that whole numbers can be negative. "Positive integers" and "non-negative integers" are another way to include zero or exclude zero, but only if people know those words.

Negative numbers
Negative numbers are numbers less than zero.

One way to think of negative numbers is to use a number line. We call one point on this line zero. Then we will label (write the name of) every position on the line by how far to the right of the zero point is. For example, the point one is one centimeter to the right, and the point two is two centimeters to the right.

However, the point one centimeter to the left of the zero point cannot be point one, since there is already a point called one. We therefore call this point minus one (−1, as it is one centimeter away but in the opposite direction).

A drawing of a number line is below.

All the normal operations of mathematics can be done with negative numbers:

 Adding a negative number to another is the same as taking away the positive number with the same numerals. For example, 5 + (−3) is the same as 5 − 3, and equals 2.
 Taking away a negative number from another is the same as adding the positive number with the same numerals. For example, 5 − (−3) is the same as 5 + 3, and equals 8.
 Multiplying two negative numbers together produces a positive number. For example, −5 times −3 is 15.
 Multiplying a negative number by a positive number, or multiply a positive number by a negative number, produces a negative result. For example, 5 times −3 is −15.

Since finding the square root of a negative number is impossible for real numbers (as negative times negative equals positive for real numbers), the square root of -1 is given a special name: i. This is also called the imaginary unit.

Integers
Integers are all the natural numbers, all their opposites, and the number zero. Decimal numbers and fractions are not integers.

Rational numbers
Rational numbers are numbers which can be written as fractions. This means that they can be written as a divided by b, where the numbers a and b are integers, and b is not zero.

Some rational numbers, such as 1/10, need a finite number of digits after the decimal point to write them in decimal form. The number one tenth is written in decimal form as 0.1. Numbers written with a finite decimal form are rational. Some rational numbers, such as 1/11, need an infinite number of digits after the decimal point to write them in decimal form. There is a repeating pattern to the digits following the decimal point. The number one eleventh is written in decimal form as 0.0909090909 ... .

A percentage could be called a rational number, because a percentage like 7% can be written as the fraction 7/100. It can also be written as the decimal 0.07. Sometimes, a ratio is considered as a rational number.

Irrational numbers
Irrational numbers are numbers which cannot be written as a fraction, but do not have imaginary parts (explained later).

Irrational numbers often occur in geometry. For example, if we have a square which has sides of 1 meter, the distance between opposite corners is the square root of two, which equals 1.414213 ... . This is an irrational number. Mathematicians have proved that the square root of every natural number is either an integer or an irrational number.

One well-known irrational number is pi. This is the circumference (distance around) of a circle divided by its diameter (distance across). This number is the same for every circle. The number pi is approximately 3.1415926535 ... .

An irrational number cannot be fully written down in decimal form. It would have an infinite number of digits after the decimal point, and unlike 0.333333 ..., these digits would not repeat forever.

Real numbers
Real numbers is a name for all the sets of numbers listed above:
 The rational numbers, including integers
 The irrational numbers
The real numbers form the real line. This is all the numbers that do not involve imaginary numbers.

Imaginary numbers
Imaginary numbers are formed by real numbers multiplied by the number i. This number is the square root of minus one (−1).

There is no number in the real numbers which when squared, makes the number −1. Therefore, mathematicians invented a number. They called this number i, or the imaginary unit.

Imaginary numbers operate under the same rules as real numbers:
 The sum of two imaginary numbers is found by pulling out (factoring out) the i. For example, 2i + 3i = (2 + 3)i = 5i.
 The difference of two imaginary numbers is found similarly.  For example, 5i − 3i = (5 − 3)i = 2i.
 When multiplying two imaginary numbers, remember that i × i (i2) is −1.  For example, 5i × 3i = ( 5 × 3 ) × ( i × i ) = 15 × (−1) = −15.

Imaginary numbers were called imaginary because when they were first found, many mathematicians did not think they existed. The person who discovered imaginary numbers was Gerolamo Cardano in the 1500s. The first to use the words imaginary number was René Descartes. The first people to use these numbers were Leonard Euler and Carl Friedrich Gauss. Both lived in the 18th century.

Complex numbers
Complex numbers are numbers which have two parts; a real part and an imaginary part. Every type of number written above is also a complex number.

Complex numbers are a more general form of numbers. The complex numbers can be drawn on a number plane. This is composed of a real number line, and an imaginary number line.

            3i|_
              |
              |
            2i|_          . 2+2i
              |
              |
             i|_
              |
              |
  |_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|
 −2    −1     0     1     2     3     4     5     6
              |
            −i|_                .3−i
              |
              |
  .−2−2i   −2i|_
              |
              |
           −3i|_
              |

All of normal mathematics can be done with complex numbers:
 To add two complex numbers, add the real and imaginary parts separately. For example, (2 + 3i) + (3 + 2i)  = (2 + 3) + (3 + 2)i= 5 + 5i.
 To subtract one complex number from another, subtract the real and imaginary parts separately. For example, (7 + 5i) − (3 + 3i) = (7 − 3) + (5 − 3)i = 4 + 2i.

To multiply two complex numbers is more complicated. It is easiest to describe in general terms, with two complex numbers a + bi and c + di.

For example, (4 + 5i) × (3 + 2i) = (4 × 3 − 5 × 2) + (4 × 2 + 5 × 3)i = (12 − 10) + (8 + 15)i = 2 + 23i.

Transcendental numbers
A real or complex number is called a transcendental number if it can not be obtained as a result of an algebraic equation with integer coefficients.

Proving that a certain number is transcendental can be extremely difficult. Each transcendental number is also an irrational number. The first people to see that there were transcendental numbers were Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Leonhard Euler. The first to actually prove there were transcendental numbers was Joseph Liouville. He did this in 1844.

Some well-known transcendental numbers include:
 e
 π
 ea for algebraic a ≠ 0

Related pages

 Names of numbers in English

Notes

Basic English 850 words

Number


Digital Light Processing (DLP) is a set of chipsets based on optical micro-electro-mechanical technology that uses a digital micromirror device. It was originally developed in 1987 by Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instruments. While the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP-based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for the DLP projector technology. DLP is used in a variety of display applications from traditional static displays to interactive displays and also non-traditional embedded applications including medical, security, and industrial uses.

DLP technology is used in DLP front projectors (standalone projection units for classrooms and business primarily), DLP rear projection television sets, and digital signs. It is also used in about 85% of digital cinema projection, and in additive manufacturing as a light source in some printers to cure resins into solid 3D objects.

Smaller ″pico″ chipsets are used in mobile devices including cell phone accessories and projection display functions embedded directly into phones.

Digital micromirror device

In DLP projectors, the image is created by microscopically small mirrors laid out in a matrix on a semiconductor chip, known as a digital micromirror device (DMD). These mirrors are so small that DMD pixel pitch may be 5.4 µm or less. Each mirror represents one or more pixels in the projected image. The number of mirrors corresponds to the resolution of the projected image (often half as many mirrors as the advertised resolution due to wobulation). 800×600, 1024×768, 1280×720, and 1920×1080 (HDTV) matrices are some common DMD sizes. These mirrors can be repositioned rapidly to reflect light either through the lens or onto a heat sink (called a light dump in Barco terminology).

Rapidly toggling the mirror between these two orientations (essentially on and off) produces grayscales, controlled by the ratio of on-time to off-time.

Color in DLP projection
There are two primary methods by which DLP projection systems create a color image: those used by single-chip DLP projectors, and those used by three-chip projectors.  A third method, sequential illumination by three colored light emitting diodes, is being developed, and is currently used in televisions manufactured by Samsung.

Single-chip projectors

In a projector with a single DLP chip, colors are produced either by placing a color wheel between a white lamp and the DLP chip or by using individual light sources to produce the primary colors, LEDs or lasers for example. The color wheel is divided into multiple sectors: the primary additive colors: red, green, and blue, and in many cases white (clear). Newer systems substitute the primary subtractive colors cyan, magenta, and yellow for white. The use of the subtractive colors is part of the newer color performance system called BrilliantColor which processes the additive colors along with the subtractive colors to create a broader spectrum of possible color combinations on the screen.

The DLP chip is synchronized with the rotating motion of the color wheel so that the green component is displayed on the DMD when the green section of the color wheel is in front of the lamp. The same is true for the red, blue and other sections. The colors are thus displayed sequentially at a sufficiently high rate that the observer sees a composite "full color" image. In early models, this was one rotation per frame. Now, most systems operate at up to 10× the frame rate.

The black level of a single-chip DLP depends on how unused light is being disposed. If the unused light is scattered to reflect and dissipate on the rough interior walls of the DMD / lens chamber, this scattered light will be visible as a dim gray on the projection screen, when the image is fully dark. Deeper blacks and higher contrast ratios are possible by directing unused HID light away from the DMD / lens chamber into a separate area for dissipation, and shielding the light path from unwanted internal secondary reflections.

The color wheel "rainbow effect"
1 chip DLP projectors utilizing a mechanical spinning color wheel may exhibit an anomaly known as the "rainbow effect". This is best described as brief flashes of perceived red, blue, and green "shadows" observed most often when the projected content features high contrast areas of moving bright or white objects on a mostly dark or black background. Common examples are the scrolling end credits of many movies, and also animations with moving objects surrounded by a thick black outline. Brief visible separation of the colors can also be apparent when the viewer's gaze is moved quickly across the projected image. Some people perceive these rainbow artifacts frequently, while others may never see them at all.

This effect is caused by the way the eye follows a moving object on the projection.  When an object on the screen moves, the eye follows the object with a constant motion, but the projector displays each alternating color of the frame at the same location for the duration of the whole frame.  So, while the eye is moving, it sees a frame of a specific color (red, for example).  Then, when the next color is displayed (green, for example), although it gets displayed at the same location overlapping the previous color, the eye has moved toward the object's next frame target.  Thus, the eye sees that specific frame color slightly shifted.  Then, the third color gets displayed (blue, for example), and the eye sees that frame's color slightly shifted again.  This effect is not perceived only for the moving object, but the whole picture. Multi-color LED-based and laser-based single-chip projectors are able to eliminate the spinning wheel and minimize the rainbow effect, since the pulse rates of LEDs and lasers are not limited by physical motion. Three-chip DLP projectors function without color wheels, and therefore do not manifest this rainbow artifact."

Three-chip projectors
A three-chip DLP projector uses a prism to split light from the lamp, and each primary color of light is then routed to its own DMD chip, then recombined and routed out through the lens. Three chip systems are found in higher-end home theater projectors, large venue projectors and DLP Cinema projection systems found in digital movie theaters.

According to DLP.com, the three-chip projectors used in movie theaters can produce 35 trillion colors. The human eye is suggested to be able to detect around 16 million colors , which is theoretically possible with the single chip solution. However, this high color precision does not mean that three-chip DLP projectors are capable of displaying the entire gamut of colors we can distinguish (this is fundamentally impossible with any system composing colors by adding three constant base colors).  In contrast, it is the one-chip DLP projectors that have the advantage of allowing any number of primary colors in a sufficiently fast color filter wheel, and so the possibility of improved color gamuts is available.

Light source

DLP technology is independent of the light-source and as such can be used effectively with a variety of light sources.  Historically, the main light source used on DLP display systems has been a replaceable high-pressure xenon arc lamp unit (containing a quartz arc tube, reflector, electrical connections, and sometimes a quartz/glass shield), whereas most pico category (ultra-small) DLP projectors use high-power LEDs or lasers as a source of illumination.
Since 2021 a laser light source has become very common on many professional projectors, for example the Panasonic PT-RZ990.

Xenon arc lamps
For xenon arc lamps, a constant-current supply is used, which starts with a sufficiently high open-circuit voltage (between 5 and 20 kV, depending on lamp) to cause an arc to strike between the electrodes, and once the arc is established, the voltage across the lamp drops to a given value (typically 20 to 50 volts) while the current increases to a level required to maintain the arc at optimal brightness. As the lamp ages, its efficiency declines, due to electrode wear, resulting in a reduction in visible light and an increase in the amount of waste heat. The lamp's end of life is typically indicated by an LED on the unit or an onscreen text warning, necessitating replacement of the lamp unit.

Continued operation of the lamp past its rated lifespan may result in a further decrease in efficiency, the lightcast may become uneven, and the lamp may eventually become hot enough to the point that the power wires can melt off the lamp terminals. Eventually, the required start-up voltage will also rise to the point where ignition can no longer occur. Secondary protections such as a temperature monitor may shut down the projector, but a thermally over-stressed quartz arc tube can also crack or explode. Practically all lamp housings contain heat-resistant barriers (in addition to those on the lamp unit itself) to prevent the red-hot quartz fragments from leaving the area.

LED-based DLPs
The first commercially available LED-based DLP HDTV was the Samsung HL-S5679W in 2006, which also eliminated the use of a color wheel. Besides long lifetime eliminating the need for lamp replacement and elimination of the color wheel, other advantages of LED illumination include instant-on operation and improved color, with increased color saturation and improved color gamut to over 140% of the NTSC color gamut. Samsung expanded the LED model line-up in 2007 with products available in 50-, 56- and 61-inch screen sizes. In 2008, the third generation of Samsung LED DLP products were available in 61- (HL61A750) and 67-inch (HL67A750) screen sizes.

Ordinary LED technology does not produce the intensity and high-lumen output characteristics required to replace arc lamps. The special patented LEDs used in all of the Samsung DLP TVs are PhlatLight LEDs, designed and manufactured by US-based Luminus Devices. A single RGB PhlatLight LED chipset illuminates these projection TVs. The PhlatLight LEDs are also used in a new class of ultra-compact DLP front projector commonly referred to as a "pocket projector" and have been introduced in new models from LG Electronics (HS101), Samsung electronics (SP-P400) and Casio (XJ-A series). Home Theater projectors will be the next category of DLP projectors that will use PhlatLight LED technology. At InfoComm, June 2008 Luminus and TI announced their collaboration on using their technology on home theater and business projectors and demonstrated a prototype PhlatLight LED-based DLP home theater front projector. They also announced products will be available in the marketplace later in 2008 from Optoma and other companies to be named later in the year.

Luminus Devices PhlatLight LEDs have also been used by Christie Digital in their DLP-based MicroTiles display system. It is a modular system built from small (20 inch diagonal) rear projection cubes, which can be stacked and tiled together to form large display canvasses with very small seams. The scale and shape of the display can have any size, only constrained by practical limits.

Laser-based DLPs
The first commercially available laser-based DLP HDTV was the Mitsubishi L65-A90 LaserVue in 2008, which also eliminated the use of a color wheel. Three separate color lasers illuminate the digital micromirror device (DMD) in these projection TVs, producing a richer, more vibrant color palette than other methods. See the laser video display article for more information.

Digital cinema

DLP Cinema systems have been deployed and tested commercially in theatres since 1999. In June 1999, Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace was the first movie to be entirely scanned and distributed to theaters. Four theaters installed digital projectors for the movie's release. The same was done for the animated film Tarzan that same year. Later that year, Toy Story 2 was the first movie to be entirely created, edited, and distributed digitally, with more theaters installing digital projectors for its release.  DLP Cinema was the first commercial digital cinema technology and is the leading digital cinema technology with approximately 85% market share worldwide as of December 2011. Digital cinema has some advantages over film because film can be subject to color fading, jumping, scratching and dirt accumulation.  Digital cinema allows the movie content to remain of consistent quality over time. Today, most movie content is also captured digitally. The first all-digital live action feature shot without film was the 2002 release, Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones.

DLP Cinema does not manufacture the end projectors, but rather provides the projection technology and works closely with Barco, Christie Digital and NEC who make the end projection units.  DLP Cinema is available to theatre owners in multiple resolutions depending on the needs of the exhibitor.  These include, 2K – for most theatre screens, 4K  - for large theatre screens, and S2K, which was specifically designed for small theatres, particularly in emerging markets worldwide.

On February 2, 2000, Philippe Binant, technical manager of Digital Cinema Project at Gaumont in France, realized the first digital cinema projection in Europe with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments. DLP is the current market-share leader in professional digital movie projection, largely because of its high contrast ratio and available resolution as compared to other digital front-projection technologies. As of December 2008, there are over 6,000 DLP-based Digital Cinema Systems installed worldwide.

DLP projectors are also used in RealD Cinema and newer IMAX theatres for 3-D films.

Manufacturers and marketplace

Since being introduced commercially in 1996, DLP technology has quickly gained market share in the front projection market and now holds greater than 50% of the worldwide share in front projection in addition to 85% market share in digital cinema worldwide. Additionally, in the pico category (small, mobile display) DLP technology holds approximately 70% market share.   Over 30 manufacturers use the DLP chipset to power their projection display systems.

Pros
 Smooth (at 1080p resolution), jitter-free images.
 Perfect geometry and excellent grayscale linearity achievable.
 Usually excellent ANSI contrast.
 The use of a replaceable light source means a potentially longer life than CRTs and plasma displays (this may also be a con as listed below).
 The light source is more-easily replaceable than the backlights used with LCDs, and on DLPs is often user-replaceable.
 The light from the projected image is not inherently polarized.
 New LED and laser DLP display systems more or less eliminate the need for lamp replacement.
 DLP offers affordable 3D projection display from a single unit and can be used with both active and passive 3D solutions.
 Lighter weight than LCD and plasma televisions.
 Unlike their LCD and plasma counterparts, DLP screens do not rely on fluids as their projection medium and are therefore not limited in size by their inherent mirror mechanisms, making them ideal for increasingly larger high-definition theater and venue screens.
 DLP projectors can process up to seven separate colors, giving them a wider color gamut.

Cons

 Some viewers are bothered by the "rainbow effect" present in colour-wheel models - particularly in older models (explained above). This can be observed easily by using a camera's digital viewfinder on projected content.
 Rear projection DLP TVs are not as thin as LCD or plasma flat-panel displays (although approximately comparable in weight), although some models as of 2008 are becoming wall-mountable (while still being  thick)
 Replacement of the lamp / light bulb in lamp-based units.  The life span of an arc lamp averages 2000–5000 hours and the replacement cost for these range from $99 – 350, depending on the brand and model.   Newer generations' units use LEDs or lasers which effectively eliminate this issue, although replacement LED chips could potentially be required over the extended lifespan of the television set.
 Some viewers find the high pitch whine of the color wheel to be an annoyance. However, the drive system can be engineered to be silent and some projectors don't produce any audible color wheel noise.
 Dithering noise may be noticeable, especially in dark image areas. Newer (post ≈2004) chip generations have less noise than older ones.
 Error-diffusion artifacts caused by averaging a shade over different pixels, since one pixel cannot render the shade exactly
 Response time in video games may be affected by upscaling lag. While all HDTVs have some lag when upscaling lower resolution input to their native resolution, DLPs are commonly reported to have longer delays. Newer consoles that have HD output signals do not have this problem as long as they are connected with HD-capable cables.
 Reduced viewing angle as compared to direct-view technologies such as CRT, plasma, and LCD
 May use more electricity, and generate more heat, than competing technologies.

DLP, LCD, and LCoS rear projection
The most similar competing system to DLP is known as LCoS (liquid crystal on silicon), which creates images using a stationary mirror mounted on the surface of a chip, and uses a liquid crystal matrix (similar to a liquid crystal display) to control how much light is reflected. DLP-based television systems are also arguably considered to be smaller in depth than traditional projection television.

See also

 3LCD
 Comparison of display technology
 Handheld projector
 Inflatable movie screen
 Large-screen television technology
 Laser video display
 Liquid crystal on silicon
 Organic light-emitting diode (OLED)
 Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED)

References

Further reading
 Binant, Philippe. Au coeur de la projection numérique, Actions, 29, 12–13, Kodak, Paris, 2007.

External links
 Boxlight Corp. DLP White Paper, Netsuite.com

American inventions
Display technology
Home video
Optoelectronics
Projectors
Texas Instruments hardware

Digital Light Processing


William Bligh (9 September 1754–7 December 1817) was an English officer in the British Navy. He sailed with Captain James Cook on his third and final voyage in 1776. In 1787 Bligh was made captain of HMS Bounty and sailed to Tahiti to collect breadfruit trees. A Mutiny on the Bounty prevented finishing this task. In 1806 he was made Governor of New South Wales. After going back to England, Bligh was made a Rear-Admiral and later a Vice-Admiral in the Royal Navy.

Early Life
Bligh joined the navy at age 16 when he became an able seaman on HMS Hunter in 1770. In September 1771 he changed ships and served on HMS Crescent. At 21 (17 March 1776) he was made the master of Captain James Cook's ship, the Resolution, part of Cook's third and final voyage. Bligh got back to England in 1780. He left the Royal Navy and worked as a captain in the merchant navy from 1783 to 1787.

The Bounty

In 1787 Bligh became leader of a small expedition to be sent to Tahiti to get breadfruit trees. These would be planted in the West Indies as food for the slaves.  The Bounty left Tahiti loaded with breadfruit trees on 4 April 1789. Three weeks later, a seaman named Fletcher Christian led a mutiny (take over) of the ship. Christian wanted to go back to Tahiti. This event is called the Mutiny on the Bounty. Bligh and 18 seamen were put into a small boat, with little food or water, four swords, a sextant, a pocket watch, but no map. They were able to get to Batavia (now Jakarta), a distance of 6701 km, in 47 days. Bligh finally got back to England in March, 1790. He wrote a book about the mutiny called A Narrative of the Mutiny on board His Majesty's Ship "Bounty".

In August 1791 Bligh set out again to get breadfruit trees. He was also told to find out more about Torres Strait, between Australia and New Guinea. He took two ships, the Providence and the Assistant, getting back to England in August 1793.

Governor
Bligh spent the next 10 years in the Royal Navy. In March 1805 he was given the job of Governor of New South Wales. He left England in February 1806 and arrived in Sydney in August. One of his jobs was to control the supply of alcohol into the young colony. In Sydney at this time, alcohol was used as a form of money, which caused a lot of unrest among the settlers. The army officers and several other people in New South Wales had a monopoly on bringing alcohol into the country. They were very angry with Bligh because he tried to control their alcohol business.

The Rum Rebellion

The officers started legal actions against Bligh who then had one of the settlers John Macarthur arrested for sedition (trying to start a rebellion against the government). One of the soldiers, Major George Johnston, let Macarthur out of jail, and on 26 January 1808, he led the army to Government House and put Bligh under arrest. The army then took over the government. This became known as the Rum Rebellion. After one year Bligh was released on the condition that he went back to England. He agreed, but then sailed to Hobart to try and get help from Colonel David Collins who was the Lieutenant-Governor of Tasmania. Collins did not offer help and Bligh remained in Hobart for another year.

The British government sent out a new governor, Lachlan Macquarie. Bligh and Major Johnston went back to London, arriving on 25 October 1810. In the legal action all the charges against Bligh were found not to be true, and Johnston was found to be guilty. Johnson was sacked from the army, and in 1811 Bligh was made a Rear-Admiral, and later a Vice-Admiral. He retired to Kent. Bligh died on a visit to London on 7 December 1817.

Related pages
Mutiny on the Bounty

References

 Australian Encyclopaedia, Vol 2, pgs. 32-33, Angus and Robertson, 1958
Dictionary of Biography On-line

Other websites
 Notebook of William Bligh

1754 births
1817 deaths
British admirals
English explorers
Governors of New South Wales
Mutiny on the Bounty
People from Cornwall

William Bligh


A mayor is a person who is in charge of the administration of a city.  Some mayors are elected by the people who live in that city.  For other cities, a central government body may choose the mayor.  Some large cities have a Lord Mayor.

In federal countries like Germany the mayor can also be head of the government of a city state. The Mayor of Hamburg runs the government just like the Minister President of Bavaria runs the Bavarian government. In some big cities such as Tokyo the Mayor is a Governor.

In many countries, such as the United Kingdom and Australia, the mayor is not in charge of the daily functions of a city or town. That job is done by a Town Clerk or Chief Executive, who is appointed to a full-time paid job. The mayor works part-time, usually without payment, and represents the city at events and civic functions.

Government occupations

Mayor