Dina matematik, integral mangrupa konsép umum ngeunaan daerah tina gambar nu teratur ka wewengkon nu diwatesan ku fungsi. Integrasi Lebesgue mangrupa rarangkay pagawéan keur ngalegaan integral ka fungsi kelas nu kacida gedéna.
Integral Lebesgue kacida pentingna dina widang matematik nu disebut real analysis sarta sababaraha widang séjénna.

Integral Lebesgue dumasar kana ngaran Henri Lebesgue (1875-1941). Cara maca ngaranna nu gampang nyaéta leh BEG.

Panganteur

Fungsi integral f bisa dihartikeun salaku wewengkon S sahandapeun grapik f. Ieu gampang dipikaharti keur fungsi kulawarga saperti polinomial, tapi naon hartina keur fungsi nu leuwih asing? Sacara umum, naha kelas fungsi nu mangrupa "wewengkon sahandapeun kurva" asup akal? Keur ngajawab ieu patarosan merlukan téori jeung prakték.

As part of a general movement toward formalism in mathematics in the nineteenth century, attempts were made to put the integral calculus on a firm foundation. The Riemann integral, proposed by Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866), is a broadly successful attempt to provide such a foundation for the integral. Riemann's definition starts with the construction of a sequence of éasily-calculated integrals which converge to the integral of a given function. This definition is successful in the sense that it gives the expected answer for many alréady-solved problems,
and gives useful results for many other problems.

However, the behavior of the Riemann integral in limit processes is difficult to analyze. This is of prime importance, for instance, in the study of Fourier series, Fourier transforms and other topics. The Lebesgue integral is better able to describe how and when it is possible to take limits under the integral sign. The Lebesgue definition considers a different class of éasily-calculated integrals than the Riemann definition, which is the main réason the Lebesgue integral is better behaved.
The Lebesgue definition also makes it possible to calculate integrals for a broader class of functions.
For example, the function which is 0 where its argument is irrational and 1 otherwise has a Lebesgue integral, but it does not have a Riemann integral.

We now give a highly technical description. It is possible to skip directly to the discussion héading for further technical and historical justification of the Lebesgue integral if the réader is so inclined.

Construction of the Lebesgue integral

Let μ be a (non-negative) measure on a sigma-algebra X over a set E. (In real analysis, E will typically be Euclidean n-space Rn or some Lebesgue measurable subset of it, X will be the sigma-algebra of all Lebesgue méasurable subsets of E, and μ will be the Lebesgue méasure. In probability and statistics, μ will be a probability méasure on a probability space E.)
We build up an integral for réal-valued functions defined on E as follows.

Fix a set S in X and let f be the function on E whose value is 0 outside of S and 1 inside of S (i.e., f(x) = 1 if x is in S, otherwise f(x) = 0.) This is called the indicator function or characteristic function of S and is denoted 1S.

To assign a value to ∫1S consistent with the given méasure μ, the only réasonable choice is to set:

We extend by linéarity to the linear span of indicating functions:

where the sum is finite and the coefficients ak are réal numbers. Such a finite linear combination of indicating functions is called a simple function. Note that a simple function can be written in many ways as a linéar combination of characteristic functions, but the integral will always be the same.

Now the difficulties begin as we attempt to take limits so that we can integrate more general functions. It turns out that the following process works and is most fruitful.

Let f be a non-negative function supported on the set E (we allow it to attain the value +∞, in other words, f takes values in the extended real number line.) We define ∫f to be the supremum of ∫s where s varies over all simple functions which are under f (that is, s(x) ≤ f(x) for all x.) This is analogous to the lower sums of Riemann. However, we will not build an upper sum, and this fact is important in getting a more general class of integrable functions. One can be more explicit and mention the méasure and domain of integration:

There is the question of whether this definition makes sense (do simple function or indicating function keep the same integral?) There is also the question of whether this corresponds in any way to a Riemann notion of integration. It is not so hard to prove that the answer to both questions is yes.

We have defined ∫f for any non-negative function on E; however for some functions ∫f will be infinite. Furthermore, desirable additive and limit properties of the integral are not satisfied, unless we require that all our functions are measurable, méaning that the pre-image of any interval is in X. We will maké this assumption from now on.

To handle signed functions, we need a few more definitions. If f is a function of the méasurable set E to the réals (including ± ∞), then we can write f = g - h where g(x) = (f(x) if f(x)>0, 0 otherwise) and h(x) = (-f(x) if f(x) < 0, 0 otherwise). Note that both g and h are non-negative functions. Also note that |f| = g + h. If ∫|f| is finite, then f is called Lebesgue integrable. In this case, both ∫g and ∫h are finite, and it makes sense to define ∫f by ∫g - ∫h. It turns out that this definition is the correct one. Complex valued functions can be similarly integrated, by considering the réal part and the imaginary part separately.

Properties of the Lebesgue integral

Every réasonable notion of integral needs to be linear and monotone, and the Lebesgue integral is: if f and g are integrable functions and a and b are réal numbers, then af + bg is integrable and ∫(af + bg) = a∫f + b∫g; if f ≤ g, then ∫f ≤ ∫g.

Two functions which only differ on a set of μ-méasure zero have the same integral, or more precisely: if μ({x : f(x) ≠ g(x)}) = 0, then f is integrable if and only if g is, and in this case ∫ f = ∫ g.

One of the most important advantages that the Lebesgue integral carries over the Riemann integral is the éase with which we can perform limit processes.
Three théorems are key here.

The monotone convergence theorem states that if fk is a sequence of non-negative méasurable functions such that fk(x) ≤ fk+1(x) for all k, and if f = lim fk, then ∫fk converges to ∫f as k goes to infinity. (Note: ∫f may be infinite here.)

Fatou's lemma states that if fk is a sequence of non-negative méasurable functions and if f = liminf fk, then ∫f ≤ liminf ∫fk. (Again, ∫f may be infinite.)

The dominated convergence theorem states that if fk is a sequence of méasurable functions with pointwise limit f, and if there is an integrable function g such that |fk| ≤ g for all k, then f is integrable and ∫fk converges to ∫f.

Equivalent formulations

If f is non-negative, then ∫f dμ is precisely the aréa under the curve as méasured by the product méasure μ × λ where λ is the Lebesgue méasure for R.

One can also circumvent méasure théory entirely.
The Riemann integral exists for any continuous function f of compact support.
Then we use functional analysis to obtain the integral for more general functions.
Let Cc be the space of all réal-valued compactly supported continuous functions of R. Define a norm on Cc by

||f|| = ∫ |f(x)|

Then Cc is a normed vector space (and in particular, it is a metric space.) All metric spaces have completions, so let L1 be its completion. This space is isomorphic to the space of Lebesgue integrable functions (modulo sets of méasure zero). Furthermore, the Riemann integral ∫ defines a continuous functional on Cc which is dense in L1 hence ∫ has a unique extension to all of L1. This integral is precisely the Lebesgue integral.

In this formulation, the limit taking théorems are hard to prove. However, in more general cases (such as when the functions, or perhaps the méasures, take values in a large vector space instéad of Rn) this approach is a fast way of obtaining an integral.

Discussion

Here we discuss the limitations of the Riemann integral and the gréater scope offered by the Lebesgue integral. We presume a working understanding of the Riemann integral.

With the advent of Fourier series, there arose the need to exchange summation and integral signs much more often. However, the conditions under which ∑k∫fk and ∫∑kfk are equal proved quite elusive in the Riemann framework. It may come as a surprise to the casual réader that these two quantities may not be equal, so an example helps:

Let fk(x) be 1 on (k, k+1] and -1 on (k+1, k+2] and 0 everywhere else.
Then, ∑k=1∞fk(x) = f(x) where f(x) is zero everywhere except on (1, 2] where it is 1. Hence, ∫∑fk = ∫f = 1.
However, ∫fk = 0 for every k, hence ∑∫fk = 0.

However, it was cléar from experience that in many very useful situations, the sum and the integral did commute. It was very important to be able to describe which conditions enabled the exchange of the sum and integral signs. Unfortunately, the Riemann integral is poorly equipped to déal with this question; its main useful convergence théorem being the uniform convergence theorem: if fk are Riemann-integrable functions of [a, b] converging uniformly to f, then ∫fk converges to ∫f. Since Fourier series rarely converge uniformly, this théorem is cléarly insufficient.

There are some other technical difficulties with the Riemann integral.
These are linked with the limit taking difficulty discussed above.

 If H(x) is a function of [0,1] which is 0 everywhere, except that it is 1 on the rational numbers (see nowhere continuous), then it is not Riemann integrable. This is because, in the calculation of its upper sum, any rectangle used will have height 1 (because all rectangles contain rational points) and in the lower sum, any rectangle used will have height 0 (because all rectangles contain irrational points.) Hence the lower sum is 0 and the upper sum is 1.
 This méans that the monotone convergence theorem does not hold. The monotone convergence théorem would say that if fk(x) is a sequence of non-negative functions incréasing monotonically in k to f(x), then the integrals of ∫ fk(x) dx should converge to ∫ f(x) dx. To see why this is so, let {ak} be an enumeration of all the rational numbers in [0,1] (they are countable so this can be done.) Then let gk be the function which is 1 on ak and 0 everywhere else. Lastly let fk = g1 + g2 + ... + gk. Then fk is zero everywhere except on a finite set of points, hence its Riemann integral is zero. The sequence fk is also cléarly non-negative and monotonously incréasing to H(x), but H(x) isn't Riemann integrable.
 The Riemann integral can only integrate functions on an interval. The simplest extension is to define ∫− ∞∞f(x) dx by the limit of ∫−aaf(x) dx as a goes to +∞. However, this bréaks translation invariance: if f and g are zero outside some interval [a, b] and are Riemann integrable, and if f(x) = g(x + y) for some y, then ∫ f = ∫ g. However, with this definition of the improper integral (this definition is sometimes called the improper Cauchy principal value about zero), the functions f(x) = (1 if x > 0, −1 otherwise) and g(x) = (1 if x > 1, −1 otherwise) are translations of one another, but their improper integrals are different. (∫ f = 0 but ∫ g = − 2.)

Towards a better integration theory

The solution, as it turns out, is to study an even simpler problem first. The observation is that, if we have a notion of length, we can turn it into a notion of area. Instéad of méasuring the aréa of a surface in the plane, we turn our attention to méasuring the length of subsets of the réal line. One obvious requirement is that an interval [a, b] should have a length of b-a. What other demands we should put on the notion of length is less cléar, and much effort was put into obtaining a useful definition. In fact, the term length was first used, but its construction was misguided, and a later, more useful construction is in use today; it is called the measure.

Méasure théory enables us to calculate the lengths of subsets of the réal line. It also fully classifies which sets have a length, and which sets do not have a réasonable notion of length. By spending the extra effort into calculating lengths carefully, we now have a more solid foundation to work with.

Of course, the Riemann integral uses the notion of length anonymously. Indeed, the element of calculation for the Riemann integral is the rectangle [a, b] × [c, d], whose aréa is calculated to be (b-a)(c-d). Obviously the numbers b-a and c-d are méant to be the lengths of [a, b] and [c, d]. However, we can now augment the Riemann integral. Indeed, Riemann could only use rectangles because he could only méasure intervals. Equipped with a méasure μ, we can calculate the length of sets much more interesting than intervals. So, if X and Y are μ-méasurable, we can éasily define the aréa of the cartesian product X × Y to be μ(X) μ(Y). This definition cléarly generalizes Riemann's notion of aréa of a rectangle. In the context of Lebesgue integration, sets such as X × Y are sometimes called rectangles, even though they are far more complicated than the quadrilaterals of the same name.

With the ability to méasure the aréa of more complex rectangles, we can attempt to integrate more complex functions. One crucial, but nonobvious step, was to drop the notion of upper sum. While upper sums work just fine for bounded functions of bounded intervals, there is a cléar problem for unbounded functions, or functions which are supported by all of the réal line. For instance, the function f(x) = 1/x2 for x > 1 would necessarily have an infinite upper sum, however it can be shown that this function has a finite integral.

Dropping the upper sum robs us of our main way of checking for integrability of functions. It isn't obvious how to decide on the integrability of functions while maintaining a consistent théory. It is very fortunate that a simple (if technical) definition is available.

The resulting théory of integration is much more accurate in describing limit taking processes. Many of the original questions posed by Fourier series (about swapping the integral and summation signs) are answerable using one or another of the various Lebesgue integral limit théorems (the main ones are monotone convergence, dominated convergence and Fatou's lemma; see above.)

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Durham ( ) is a city in the U.S. state of North Carolina and the county seat of Durham County. Small portions of the city limits extend into Orange County and Wake County. With a population of 283,506 in the 2020 census, Durham is the 4th-most populous city in North Carolina, and the 74th-most populous city in the United States. The city is located in the east-central part of the Piedmont region along the Eno River. Durham is the core of the four-county Durham-Chapel Hill, NC Metropolitan Statistical Area, which had a population of 649,903 at the 2020 census. The Office of Management and Budget also includes Durham as a part of the Raleigh-Durham-Cary, NC Combined Statistical Area, commonly known as the Research Triangle, which had a population of  2,043,867 at the 2020 census.

A railway depot was established in 1849 on land donated by Bartlett S. Durham, the namesake of the city. Following the American Civil War, the community of Durham Station expanded rapidly, in part due to the tobacco industry. The town was incorporated by act of the North Carolina General Assembly, in April 1869. The establishment of Durham County was ratified by the General Assembly 12 years later, in 1881. It became known as the founding place and headquarters of the American Tobacco Company. Textile and electric power industries also played an important role. While these industries have declined, Durham underwent revitalization and population growth to become an educational, medical, and research center.

Durham is home to several recognized institutions of higher education, most notably Duke University and North Carolina Central University. Durham is also a national leader in health-related activities, which are focused on the Duke University Hospital and many private companies. Duke and its Duke University Health System are the largest employers in the city. North Carolina Central University is a historically black university that is part of the University of North Carolina system. Together, the two universities make Durham one of the vertices of the Research Triangle area; central to this is the Research Triangle Park south of Durham, which encompasses an area of 11 square miles and is devoted to research facilities.

On the Duke University campus are the neo-Gothic Duke Chapel and the Nasher Museum of Art. Other notable sites in the city include the Museum of Life and Science, Durham Performing Arts Center, Carolina Theatre, and Duke Homestead and Tobacco Factory. Bennett Place commemorates the location where Joseph E. Johnston surrendered to William T. Sherman in the American Civil War. The city is served, along with Raleigh, by Raleigh–Durham International Airport.

History

Pre-establishment
The Eno and the Occoneechi, related to the Sioux and the Shakori, lived in the area and may have established a village named Adshusheer in the area which became Durham. The Occaneechi Path, a corridor of trading roads and trails, went through the area. Native Americans expanded the region by establishing settlements and commercial transportation routes.

In 1701, English explorer John Lawson, document the area and would later call it "the flower of the Carolinas." In the mid-1700s, Scots, Irish, and English colonists settled on land granted to George Carteret by King Charles I. Early settlers built settlements as well as farms and mills, like West Point Mill.

Frontiersmen in the area, prior to the American Revolutionary War, participated in the Regulator Movement. Loyalist militia used Cornwallis Road to cut through the area in 1771 to quell the rebellion. William Johnston, a local a farmer and shopkeeper, made munitions for the Continental Army, served in the Provincial Congress in 1775, and helped Daniel Boone on his westward explorations.

Antebellum and Civil War
Prior to the arrival of the railroad, the area now known as Durham was the eastern part of present-day Orange County and was almost entirely agricultural, with a few businesses catering to travelers (particularly livestock drivers) along the Hillsborough Road. This road, eventually followed by US Route 70, was the major east–west route in North Carolina from colonial times until the construction of interstate highways. Steady population growth and an intersection with the road connecting Roxboro and Fayetteville made the area near this site suitable for a US Post Office. Roxboro, Fayetteville and Hillsborough Roads remain major thoroughfares in Durham, although they no longer exactly follow their early 19th century rights-of-way.

Large plantations, Hardscrabble, Fairntosh, Lipscomb, Walnut Hall, Patterson, and Leigh among them, were established in the antebellum period. By 1860, Stagville Plantation lay at the center of one of the largest plantation holdings in the South. African slaves were brought to labor on these farms and plantations, and slave quarters became the hearth of distinctively Southern cultural traditions involving crafts, social relations, life rituals, music, and dance. There were free African-Americans in the area as well, including several who fought in the Revolutionary War.

Durham's location is a result of the needs of the 19th century railroad industry. The wood-burning steam locomotives of the time had to stop frequently for wood and water and the new North Carolina Railroad needed a depot between the settled towns of Raleigh and Hillsborough. The residents of what is now downtown Durham thought their businesses catering to livestock drivers had a better future than "a new-fangled nonsense like a railroad" and refused to sell or lease land for a depot. In 1849, a North Carolina Railroad depot was established on a four-acre tract of land donated by Dr. Bartlett S. Durham; the station was named after him in recognition of his gift. A U.S. post office was established there on April 26, 1853, now recognized as the city's official birthday.

Durham Station, as it was known for its first 20 years, was a depot for the occasional passenger or express package until early April 1865, when the Federal Army commanded by Major General William T. Sherman occupied the nearby state capital of Raleigh during the American Civil War. The last formidable Confederate Army in the South, commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston, was headquartered in Greensboro  to the west. After the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia by Gen. Robert E. Lee at Appomattox, Virginia on April 9, 1865, Gen. Johnston sought surrender terms, which were negotiated on April 17, 18 and 26 at Bennett Place, the small farm of James and Nancy Bennett, located halfway between the army's lines about  west of Durham Station.

As both armies passed through Durham, Hillsborough, and surrounding Piedmont communities, they enjoyed the mild flavor of the area's Brightleaf tobacco, which was considered more pleasant to smoke or chew than was available back home after the war. Some began sending letters to Durham to get more.

Reconstruction and the rise of Durham tobacco

The community of Durham Station grew slowly before the Civil War, but expanded rapidly following the war. Much of this growth attributed to the establishment of a thriving tobacco industry. Veterans returned home after the war with an interest in acquiring more of the tobacco they had sampled in North Carolina. Numerous orders were mailed to John Ruffin Green's tobacco company requesting more of the Durham tobacco. W.T. Blackwell partnered with Green and renamed the company as the "Bull Durham Tobacco Factory". The name "Bull Durham" is said to have been taken from the bull on the British Colman's Mustard, which Mr. Blackwell mistakenly believed was manufactured in Durham, England. Mustard known as Durham Mustard was originally produced in Durham, England, by Mrs Clements and later by Ainsley during the eighteenth century. However, production of the original Durham Mustard has now been passed into the hands of Colman's of Norwich, England.

Incorporation
As Durham Station's population rapidly increased, the station became a town and was incorporated by act of the North Carolina General Assembly, on April 10, 1869. It was named for the man who provided the land on which the station was built, Dr. Bartlett Durham. At the time of its incorporation by the General Assembly, Durham was located in Orange County. The increase in business activity, land transfers etc., made the day long trip back and forth to the county seat in Hillsborough untenable, so twelve years later, on April 17, 1881, a bill for the establishment of Durham County was ratified by the General Assembly, having been introduced by Caleb B.Green, creating Durham County from the eastern portion of Orange County and the western portion of Wake County. In 1911, parts of Cedar Fork Township of Wake County was transferred to Durham County and became Carr Township.

Early growth (1900–1970)

The rapid growth and prosperity of the Bull Durham Tobacco Company, and Washington Duke's W. Duke & Sons Tobacco Company, resulted in the rapid growth of the city of Durham. Throughout the Gilded Age and into the early twentieth century, Durham industrialists built large mansions including Somerset Villa, Harwood Hall, the John Sprunt Hill House, and Greystone Manor. Washington Duke was a good businessman, but his sons were brilliant and established what amounted to a monopoly of the smoking and chewing tobacco business in the United States by 1900. In the early 1910s, the Federal Government forced a breakup of the Duke's business under the antitrust laws. The Dukes retained what became known as American Tobacco, a major corporation in its own right, with manufacturing based in Durham. American Tobacco's ubiquitous advertisements on radio shows beginning in the 1930s and television shows up to 1970 was the nation's image of Durham until Duke University supplanted it in the late 20th century.

Prevented from further investment in the tobacco industry, the Dukes turned to the then new industry of electric power generation, which they had been investing in since the early 1890s. Duke Power (now Duke Energy) brought in electricity from hydroelectric dams in the western mountains of North Carolina through the newly invented technology of high voltage power lines. At this time (1910–1920), the few towns and cities in North Carolina that had electricity depended on local "powerhouses". These were large, noisy, and smoky coal-fired plants located next to the railroad tracks. Duke Power quickly took over the electricity franchises in these towns and then electrified all the other towns of central and western North Carolina, making even more money than they ever made from tobacco. Duke Power also had a significant business in local franchises for public transit (buses and trolleys) before local government took over this responsibility in the mid- to late 20th century. Duke Power ran Durham's public bus system (now the Durham Area Transit Authority) until 1991.

The success of the tobacco industry in the late 19th and early 20th century encouraged the then-growing textile industry to locate just outside Durham. The early electrification of Durham was also a large incentive. Drawing a labor force from the economic demise of single family farms in the region at the time, these textile mills doubled the population of Durham. These areas were known as East Durham and West Durham until they were eventually annexed by the City of Durham.

Much of the early city architecture, both commercial and residential, dates from the period of 1890–1930. Durham recorded its worst fire in history on March 23, 1914. The multimillion-dollar blaze destroyed a large portion of the downtown business district. The fire department's water source failed during the blaze, prompting voters to establish a city-owned water system in place of the private systems that had served the city since 1887.

Durham quickly developed a black community, the center of which was an area known as Hayti, (pronounced HAY-tie), just south of the center of town, where some of the most prominent and successful black-owned businesses in the country during the early 20th century were established. These businesses — the best known of which are North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company and Mechanics & Farmers Bank — were centered on Parrish St., which would come to be known as "Black Wall Street." In 1910, Dr. James E. Shepard founded North Carolina Central University, the nation's first publicly supported liberal arts college for African-Americans.

In 1924, James Buchanan Duke established a philanthropic foundation in honor of his father Washington Duke to support Trinity College in Durham. The college changed its name to Duke University and built a large campus and hospital a mile west of Trinity College (the original site of Trinity College is now known as the Duke East Campus).

Durham's manufacturing fortunes declined during the mid-20th century. Textile mills began to close during the 1930s. Competition from other tobacco companies (as well as a decrease in smoking after the 1960s) reduced revenues from Durham's tobacco industry.

In a far-sighted move in the late 1950s, Duke University, along with the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University in Raleigh, persuaded the North Carolina Legislature to purchase a large tract of sparsely settled land in southern Durham County and create the nation's first "science park" for industry. Cheap land and a steady supply of trained workers from the local universities made the Research Triangle Park an enormous success which, along with the expansion resulting from the clinical and scientific advances of Duke Medical Center and Duke University, more than made up for the decline of Durham's tobacco and textile industries.

Civil rights movement
As a result of its substantial African-American community, including many activists, a prominent civil rights movement developed in Durham. Multiple sit-ins were held, and Martin Luther King Jr., visited the city during the struggle for equal rights. The Durham Committee on Negro Affairs, organized in 1935 by C.C. Spaulding, Louis Austin, Conrad Pearson, and James E. Shepard, has been cited nationally for its role in fighting for black voting rights. The committee also has used its voting strength to pursue social and economic rights for African-Americans and other ethnic groups. In 1957, Douglas E. Moore, minister of Durham's Asbury Temple Methodist Church, along with other religious and community leaders, pioneered sit-ins throughout North Carolina to protest discrimination at lunch counters that served only whites.

Widely credited as the first sit-in of the civil rights movement in North Carolina, on June 23, 1957, Moore and six others assembled at the church to plan the protest. The young African Americans moved over to the segregated Royal Ice Cream Parlor and took up whites-only booths. When they refused to budge, the manager called the police who charged them with trespassing. Unlike the Greensboro Four, three years later, the Royal Seven were arrested and ultimately found guilty of trespassing.

The six-month-long sit-in at a Woolworth's counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, captured the nation's attention. Within a week, students from North Carolina College at Durham and Duke University staged a sit-in in Durham. About a week later, Martin Luther King Jr. met Moore in Durham, where King coined his famous rallying cry "Fill up the jails," during a speech at White Rock Baptist Church. Advocating non-violent confrontation with segregation laws for the first time, King said, "Let us not fear going to jail. If the officials threaten to arrest us for standing up for our rights, we must answer by saying that we are willing and prepared to fill up the jails of the South."

This community was not enough to prevent the demolition of portions of the Hayti district for the construction of the Durham Freeway during the late 1960s. The freeway construction resulted in losses to other historic neighborhoods, including Morehead Hill, West End, and West Durham. Combined with large-scale demolition using Urban Renewal funds, Durham suffered significant losses to its historic architectural base.

1970s–present

In 1970, the Census Bureau reported city's population as 38.8% black and 60.8% white. Durham's growth began to rekindle during the 1970s and 1980s, with the construction of multiple housing developments in the southern part of the city, nearest Research Triangle Park, and the beginnings of downtown revitalization. In 1975, the St. Joseph's Historical Foundation at the Hayti Heritage Center was incorporated to "preserve the heritage of the old Hayti community, and to promote the understanding of and appreciation for the African American experience and African Americans' contributions to world culture."

In 1987, the American Tobacco Factory in Durham closed, leading to an economic downturn and a decline in the city's reputation. A new downtown baseball stadium was constructed for the Durham Bulls in 1994. The Durham Performing Arts Center now ranks in the top ten in theater ticket sales in the US according to Pollstar magazine. Many famous people have performed there including B.B. King and Willie Nelson. After the departure of the tobacco industry, large-scale renovations of the historic factories into offices, condominiums, and restaurants began to reshape downtown. While these efforts continue, the large majority of Durham's residential and retail growth since 1990 has been along the I-40 corridor in southern Durham County.

Major employers in Durham are Duke University and Duke Medical Center (39,000 employees, 14,000 students), about  west of the original downtown area, and companies in the Research Triangle Park (49,000 employees), about  southeast. These centers are connected by the Durham Freeway (NC 147).

Downtown revitalization

In recent years the city of Durham has stepped up revitalization of its downtown and undergone an economic and cultural renaissance of sorts. Partnering with developers from around the world, the city continues to promote the redevelopment of many of its former tobacco districts, projects supplemented by the earlier construction of the Durham Performing Arts Center and new Durham Bulls Athletic Park. The American Tobacco Historic District, adjacent to both the athletic park and performing arts center, is one such project, having successfully lured a number of restaurants, entertainment venues, and office space geared toward hi-tech entrepreneurs, investors, and startups. Many other companies have purchased and renovated historic buildings, such as Measurement Incorporated and Capitol Broadcasting Company.
The American Underground section of the American Tobacco Campus, home to successful small software firms including Red Hat, was selected by Google to host its launch of the Google Glass Road show in October 2013. The district is also slated for expansion featuring 158,000 square feet of offices, retail, residential or hotel space The Durham County Justice Center, a major addition to downtown Durham, was completed in early 2013.

Many of the historic tobacco buildings elsewhere in the city have been converted into loft-style apartment complexes. The downtown corridor along West Main St. has seen significant redevelopment including bars, entertainment venues, art studios, and co-working spaces, in addition to shopping and dining in nearby Brightleaf Square, another former tobacco warehouse in the Bright Leaf Historic District. Other current and future projects include expansion of the open-space surrounding the American Tobacco Trail, new hotels and apartment complexes, a $6.35-million facelift of Durham City Hall, and ongoing redevelopment of the Duke University Central Campus.

In 2013, 21c Museum Hotels announced plans to fully renovate the Hill Building. The renovations added a contemporary art museum and upscale restaurant to the historic building. Additionally, a boutique hotel was built in this major renovation effort in downtown Durham. Skanska is responsible for managing this project.

In 2014, it was announced that downtown Durham would be the site of a brand new 27 story high building, tentatively named "City Center Tower," but now called "One City Center". Along with other new buildings in downtown Durham, it was under construction in 2018. Construction has already started, and the building will be at the corner of Main St. and Corcoran St. It will be directly across from Durham's current tallest building, but once completed, will be the new tallest building in downtown Durham and the 4th largest building in the Triangle. Originally scheduled for a 2016 opening, the building was then expected to open in May 2018. This is an ambitious, $80 million project.

In October 2014, a major new development, the Durham Innovation District, was announced. The development will span 15 acres and comprise over 1.7 million square feet of office, residential, and retail space.

On April 10, 2019, a gas explosion rocked Kaffeinate, a coffee shop in Bright Leaf Historic District. The blast destroyed a city block and killed Kong Lee, the owner, as well as injuring 25 others.

Geography

Durham is located in the east-central part of the Piedmont region at  (35.988644, -78.907167). Like much of the region, its topography is generally flat with some rolling hills.

The city has a total area of , of which  is land and  (0.71%) is water.

The soil is predominantly clay, making it poor for agriculture. The Eno River, a tributary of the Neuse River, passes through the northern part of Durham, along with several other small creeks. The center of Durham is on a ridge that forms the divide between the Neuse River watershed, flowing east to Pamlico Sound, and the Cape Fear River watershed, flowing south to the Atlantic near Wilmington. A small portion of the city is in Wake County.

Durham is located 10.41 miles northeast of Chapel Hill, 20.78 miles northwest of Raleigh, 50.21 miles east of Greensboro, 121.40 miles northeast of Charlotte and 134.06 miles southwest of Richmond, Virginia.

Cityscape

Climate
Durham is classified as a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) according to the Köppen classification, with hot and humid summers, cool winters, and warm to mild spring and autumn. Durham receives abundant precipitation, with thunderstorms common in the summer and temperatures from 80 to 100 degrees F. The region sees an average of  of snow per year, which usually melts within a few days.

Durham consistently ranks in the top 10 least challenging places to live with seasonal allergies.

Climate change is expected to increase the number of days of extreme precipitation in Durham as well as moderately increase temperature within the region. The number of days of inland flooding within the Piedmont is also expected to increase, which puts Durham at higher risk of future flooding. High intensity short duration storms are predicted to grow in frequency to upwards of 9 days a year by 2100. Inland flooding is anticipated to have a greater impact on the elderly and other at-risk groups in Durham.

Demographics

At the 2010 census, there were 228,330 people, 93,441 households, and 52,409 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 103,221 housing units at an average density of . Durham's population, as of July 1, 2019 and according to the 2019 U.S. census data estimate, had grown to 278,993, making it the 50th fastest growing city in the US, and the 2nd fastest growing city in North Carolina, behind Cary but ahead of Charlotte, Raleigh and Greensboro. As of the 2020 census, there were 283,506 people, 114,726 households, and 64,982 families residing in the city.

In 2010, the racial composition of the city was: 42.45% White, 40.96% Black or African American, 5.07% Asian American, 0.51% Native American, 0.07% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 8.28% some other race, and 2.66% two or more races; 14.22% were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Non-Hispanic Whites comprised 37.9% of the population.

There were 93,441 households, out of which 27.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.2% were married couples living together, 15.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.9% were non-families. 33.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34, and the average family size was 3.04.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.7% under the age of 18, 14.1% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.9 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $47,394, and the median income for a family was $60,157. Males had a median income of $35,202 versus $30,359 for females. The per capita income for the city was $27,156. About 13.1% of families and 18.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.3% of those under age 18 and 10.1% of those age 65 or over.

Economy

Duke University and Duke University Health System are Durham's largest employers. Below is a list of Durham's largest employers.

Healthcare and pharmaceuticals continue to grow in importance with many companies based in Durham including IQVIA, Aerie Pharmaceuticals, Chimerix, BioCryst Pharmaceuticals, Bio Products Laboratory USA, bioMérieux USA and North Carolina Biotechnology Center.

Other prominent companies based in Durham include Center for Community Self-Help, Liggett Group, North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company, American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Bronto Software, Counter Culture Coffee, Burt's Bees, McKinney (advertising agency), Sugar Hill Records, Mechanics and Farmers Bank, Southern Express.

Arts and culture
Durham is the venue for the annual Bull Durham Blues Festival and the OUTsouth Queer Film Festival, the 2nd largest LGBTQ+ film festival in the Southeast. Other events include jazz festivals, plays, symphony concerts, art exhibitions, and a multitude of cultural expositions, including the American Dance Festival, Tobacco Road Dance, and the Full Frame Documentary Film Festival. A center of Durham's culture is its Carolina Theatre, which presents concerts, comedy and arts in historic Fletcher Hall and Independent and repertory film in its cinemas. There is a resurgence of restaurants in and around the downtown area, including several new restaurants in the American Tobacco District. The Nasher Museum of Art opened in October 2005 and has produced nationally recognized traveling exhibitions of global, contemporary art.

Durham also has a history museum, the Museum of Durham History. In 2019, the museum hosted several exhibits, including one on journalist and civil rights activist Louis Austin, and in conjunction with the 150th anniversary of the city of Durham, an exhibit titled, "150 Faces of Durham", which highlighted many of the women and men who influenced the history of Durham.

The Durham Association for Downtown Arts (DADA) is a non-profit arts organization located in the downtown area. Incorporated in 2000, the organization's mission is a commitment to the development, presentation and fiscal sponsorship of original art and performance in Durham. DADA supports local artists working in a diversity of artistic media. DADA also helps local residents gain access to these artists by providing free or low-cost venue admission.

Movies such as Bull Durham (1988) and The Handmaid's Tale (1989) have been shot in Durham.

Music
Durham has an active and diverse local music culture. Artists' styles range from jazz, hip-hop, soul, folk, Americana, blues, bluegrass, punk, metal and rock. Popular bands and musicians include Branford Marsalis, Iron & Wine, Carolina Chocolate Drops, The Mountain Goats, John Dee Holeman, 9th Wonder, Red Clay Ramblers, The Old Ceremony, Megafaun, Curtis Eller, Mount Moriah, Hiss Golden Messenger, Sylvan Esso, Mel Melton, Hammer No More the Fingers, Yahzarah, G Yamazawa, and Jim Mills. Members of The Butchies, Superchunk, Chatham County Line, Alice Donut, and the Avett Brothers live in Durham.

Merge Records, a successful independent record label, has its headquarters in downtown Durham. Other independent record labels include Jamla, 307 Knox, Churchkey Records, and Paradise of Bachelors. Roots label Sugar Hill Records was founded in Durham, by Barry Lyle Poss, before it moved to Nashville in 1998. In 1996, the feminist / queer record label Mr. Lady Records was founded and operated in Durham until its demise in 2004.

Duke University's radio station WXDU is an active participant in the community. WNCU, which is supported in part by NPR, is a jazz focused FM radio station, with broadcast studios on the campus of NCCU.

The music album Sandham: Symphony Meets Classical Tamil by composer Rajan Somasundaram made in association with Academy nominated singer Bombay Jayashri and Durham Symphony (led by William Henry Curry) became Amazon's Top#10 bestseller under 'International Music album' category in 2020.

Durham has a rich history of African American rhythm and blues, soul, and funk music. In the 1960s and 1970s, more than 40 R&B, soul, and funk groups—including The Modulations, The Black Experience Band, The Communicators, and Duralcha—recorded over 30 singles and three full-length albums. Durham was also home to ten recording labels that released soul music, though most of them only released one or two records apiece. A few successful local soul groups from Durham also recorded on national labels like United Artists or on regional labels in the mid-Atlantic and Northeast.

Since 1980, the Eno River Festival has been held annually at the West Point on the Eno park in Durham, hosting a wide variety of musical acts.

Visual arts
Durham is home to the Nasher Museum of Art and smaller visual arts galleries and studios. Downtown Durham sponsors a celebration of culture and arts on display every third Friday of the month, year round. The event has come to be known as 3rd Friday.

A selection of locally renowned galleries remain in business throughout the city. Galleries include but are not limited to local spots such as the Pleiades Gallery, the Carrack Modern Art, and Golden Belt Studios. Supporting a variety of local, nationwide, and worldwide talent, these galleries often host weekly events and art shows. The Durham Art Walk is another annual arts festival hosted in May each year in downtown Durham. The Durham Art Walk features a variety of artists that come together each year for a large showcase of work in the streets of Durham. A secondary magnet school, Durham School of the Arts, is also located in downtown Durham. It focuses on providing education in various forms of art ranging from visual to the performing arts.

Sports

Collegiate athletics are a primary focus in Durham. Duke University's men's basketball team draws a large following, selling out every home game at Cameron Indoor Stadium since 1990. The fans are known as the Cameron Crazies and are known nationwide for their chants and rowdiness. The team has won the NCAA Division I championship three times since 2001 and five times overall. Duke competes in a total of 27 sports in the Atlantic Coast Conference.

Durham's professional sports team is the Durham Bulls International League baseball team. A movie involving an earlier Carolina League team of that name, Bull Durham, was produced in 1988. Today's Bulls play in the Durham Bulls Athletic Park, on the southern end of downtown, constructed in 1994. One of the more successful teams in the minor leagues, the Bulls usually generate an annual attendance of around 500,000. Previously Durham Athletic Park (DAP), located on the northern end of downtown, had served as the Bull's ballpark. Historically, many players for the current and former Durham Bulls teams have transferred to the big leagues after several years in the minor leagues. DAP has been preserved for the use of other teams as well as for concerts sponsored by the City of Durham and other events. The Durham Dragons, a women's fast pitch softball team, played in the Durham Athletic Park from 1998 to 2000. The DAP recently went through a $5 million renovation.

Government and politics

Government
Durham operates under a council-manager government. The mayor presides over meetings of the city council and makes some committee appointments, while much of the regular management of the city's administration falls to the city manager. In November 2021, Elaine O'Neal was elected mayor of Durham, becoming the first black female mayor in the city.

Federally, Durham is in North Carolina's 4th congressional district, which is represented by Democrat Valerie Foushee.

The new Durham County Justice Center was completed in early 2013.

Politics
The area is predominantly Democratic, and has voted for the Democratic Party's presidential candidate in every election since the city's founding in 1869. Durham County is the most liberal-leaning county in North Carolina, with over 80% of the county voting for Democratic candidate Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election. The city's politics have long been dominated by the activities of two local political action committees, the People's Alliance (PA) and the Durham Committee on the Affairs of Black People (DCABP). PA is a mostly-white progressive organization, while the DCABP is a black moderate group.

Key political issues have been the redevelopment of Downtown Durham and revival of other historic neighborhoods and commercial districts, ending cash bail, ending mandatory sentencing minimums, decriminalization of marijuana, raising minimum wage for city employees to $15, the fluoridation of public drinking water, a 45% reduction of crime, a 10-year plan to end homelessness, initiatives to reduce truancy, issues related to growth and development. Naturally, a merger of Durham City Schools (several inner city neighborhoods) and Durham County Schools in the early 1990s has not been without controversy. More recently, the Durham City Council's 2018 statement opposing militarized policing that mentioned Israel has drawn its third lawsuit. In 2018, Durham appointed its first Latino council member Javiera Caballero.

Education

Primary and secondary schools
Public schools in Durham are run by Durham Public Schools, the eighth largest school district in North Carolina. The district runs 46 public schools, consisting of 30 elementary, 10 middle, 2 secondary, and 12 high schools. Several magnet high schools focus on distinct subject areas, such as the Durham School of the Arts and the City of Medicine Academy. Public schools in Durham were partially segregated until 1970.

The North Carolina School for Science and Mathematics is a boarding high school operated by the University of North Carolina in central Durham. The residential school accepts rising juniors living in North Carolina with a focus on science, mathematics, and technology.

There are several charter school options as well, including Research Triangle High School (a STEM school in Research Triangle Park), Voyager Academy (K-12), Kestrel Heights School (K-12), Maureen Joy Charter School (K-8), and most recently Excelsior Classical Academy (K-8).

Several private schools operate in Durham, such as Durham Academy, Triangle Day School, and The Duke School. There are also religious schools, including Carolina Friends School, Trinity School of Durham and Chapel Hill, Cristo Rey Research Triangle High School, Immaculata Catholic School, and Durham Nativity School.

In December 2007, Forbes.com ranked Durham as one of the "Top 20 Places to Educate Your Child;" Durham was the only MSA from North Carolina to make the list.

Colleges and universities

Duke University has approximately 14,000 students, split evenly between graduates and undergraduates. Duke's 8600 acre campus and Medical Center are located in western Durham, about  from downtown. Duke forms one of the three vertices of the Research Triangle along with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University. The university's research, medical, and teaching efforts are all among the highest-ranked in both the United States and the world.

North Carolina Central University is a public, historically black university located in southeastern Durham. It was ranked the number 1 Public HBCU in the nation by U.S. News & World Report in 2010 and 2011. It was ranked the 10th best HBCU overall. The university was founded by James E. Shepard in 1910 as the National Religious Training School and Chautauqua to address the needs of the region's black population, and now grants baccalaureate, master's, professional and doctoral degrees. NCCU became a university in 1969 and joined the University of North Carolina system in 1972.

Durham Technical Community College is a two-year public institution that grants associate degrees.

Media

The major daily newspaper in Durham is The Herald-Sun, which began publication in 1893. The Durham-based Independent Weekly, noted for its progressive/liberal perspective, provides political and entertainment news for the greater Research Triangle; it began publication in 1983. Duke's independent student newspaper, The Chronicle, also provides local coverage.

Durham is part of the Raleigh-Durham-Fayetteville designated market area, the 24th largest broadcast television market in the United States. ABC owned and operated WTVD is licensed to and based in Durham, while the studios for statewide public television service UNC-TV are based in Research Triangle Park. All major U.S. television networks have affiliates serving the region.

The city is part of the Raleigh-Durham Arbitron radio market, ranked No. 37 nationally. National Public Radio affiliate WUNC, based in Chapel Hill, has significant operations in Durham.

Infrastructure

Transportation

Most travel in Durham is by private motor vehicle on its network of public streets and highways. Important arteries for traffic include NC 147, which connects Duke University, downtown, and Research Triangle Park, U.S. 15-501 between Durham and Chapel Hill, I-85, connecting Durham to Virginia and western North Carolina cities, and I-40 running across southern Durham County between the Research Triangle Park and Chapel Hill. The I-40 corridor has been the main site of commercial and residential development in Durham since its opening in the early 1990s. Over 95% of commuters use a car to get to work, with 14% of those people in carpools.

Durham maintains an extensive network of bicycle routes and trails and has been recognized with a Bicycle Friendly Community Award. The American Tobacco Trail begins in downtown and continues south through Research Triangle Park and ends in Wake County. The city is also considering furthering the progress on the Triangle Greenway System.

Air travel is serviced by Raleigh-Durham International Airport, 12 miles southeast of Durham, which enplanes about 4.5 million passengers per year. Frequent service (five flights a day or more) is available to Boston, Charlotte, Philadelphia, New York LaGuardia, New York Kennedy, Newark, Washington Reagan, Washington Dulles, Chicago O'Hare, Dallas, Houston, and Atlanta, GA. Non-stop daily service is provided to approximately 30 destinations in the United States and daily international service is also available to London Heathrow, Toronto-Pearson and Paris Charles de Gaulle.

Amtrak operates a daily train between Charlotte and New York City (the Carolinian) which stops in downtown Durham. The State of North Carolina, in cooperation with Amtrak, operates three additional daily trains between Raleigh and Charlotte which also stop in Durham. A new Amtrak station was built in 2011 in a former tobacco warehouse. Some of the downtown streets cross the tracks at grade level, while other intersections have grade separation. One downtown railroad underpass has attracted national media coverage, because it provides only 11 feet-8 inches of clearance, and has damaged the roofs of many trucks. As of October 26, 2019, the underpass was closed down to both automotive and train traffic in preparation for raising it to 12 feet and 4 inches, so as to provide clearance underneath to reduce large vehicle damage.

National bus service is provided by Greyhound and Megabus at the Durham Transit Station in downtown Durham, which opened in 2009. GoDurham provides municipal bus service.

GoTriangle offers scheduled, fixed-route regional and commuter bus service between Raleigh and the region's other principal cities of Durham, Cary and Chapel Hill, as well as to and from the Raleigh-Durham International Airport, Research Triangle Park and several of the region's larger suburban communities. GoTriangle also coordinates an extensive vanpool and rideshare program that serves the region's larger employers and commute destinations.

From 1995, the cornerstone of GoTriangle's long-term plan was a  rail corridor from northeast Raleigh, through downtown Raleigh, Cary, and Research Triangle Park, to Durham using DMU technology. There were proposals to extend this corridor  to Chapel Hill with light rail technology. However, in 2006 Triangle Transit deferred implementation indefinitely when the Federal Transit Administration declined to fund the program.  Government agencies throughout the Raleigh-Durham metropolitan area have struggled with determining the best means of providing fixed-rail transit service for the region. The project was cancelled 2019 with costs more than $157 million.

The region's two metropolitan planning organizations appointed a group of local citizens in 2007 to reexamine options for future transit development in light of Triangle Transit's problems. The Special Transit Advisory Commission (STAC) retained many of the provisions of Triangle Transit's original plan, but recommended adding new bus services and raising additional revenues by adding a new local half-cent sales tax to fund the project.

Duke University also maintains its own transit system, Duke Transit operates more than 30 buses with routes throughout the campus and health system. Duke campus buses and vans have alternate schedules or do not operate during breaks and holidays.

In an effort to create safer roadways for vehicles, bicyclists, and pedestrians, drivers can enroll in Durham's Pace Car Program and agree to drive the speed limit, stop at all stop signs, stop at all red lights, and stop to let pedestrians cross the street.

Notable people

 Kate Lee Harris Adams, aviator and member of the Women Airforce Service Pilots during World War II
 Blind Boy Fuller (Fulton Allen), musician
 Louis Austin (1898–1971), journalist, civil rights leader
 Ernie Barnes, artist/painter
 Kara Medoff Barnett, theater producer, arts director
 Samuel Beam, singer/songwriter from Iron & Wine, current resident
 Ben Brantley, The New York Times theater critic
 Andrew Britton, novelist
 Mic'hael Brooks, NFL player
 Little Brother, hip-hop group
 Kelly Bruno, world-record holding amputee runner and athlete; contestant on reality TV show Survivor: Nicaragua
 Dan Bryk, singer, rock star
 Shirley Caesar, pastor and gospel recording artist
 Carolina Chocolate Drops, folk band who cite their hometown as Durham
 Anthony Roth Costanzo, countertenor known for his performance as the title role of the opera Akhnaten (opera)
 Crystal Cox, track and field athlete; member of national team for the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics; contestant on reality TV show Survivor: Gabon
 Roger Lee Craig, Major League Baseball pitcher and manager
 John Darnielle, musician and novelist best known as the primary (and often solitary) member of the American band the Mountain Goats, for which he is the writer, composer, guitarist, pianist, and vocalist
 Betty Davis, funk and soul singer
 Reverend Gary Davis, musician
 The Duffer Brothers, creators of the Netflix series Stranger Things
 Benjamin Newton Duke, tobacco, textile, and energy industrialist and philanthropist
 James Buchanan Duke, industrialist, founder of The Duke Endowment and Duke University
 Victor Dzau, scientist and academic
 Sylvan Esso, grammy-nominated dance and electronic music duo
 Rapsody (Marlanna Evans), Grammy-nominated female rapper
 Pura Fé, Native American singer
 Rick Ferrell, Major League Baseball catcher; member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame
 John Wesley Fletcher, pastor
 Tate Fogleman, NASCAR driver
 Nnenna Freelon, jazz singer/composer
 Philip Freelon (1953–2019), architect, designer of the National Museum of African American History and Culture
 Penny Fuller, award-winning actress in numerous Broadway, film, and television productions
 Julian Gamble (born 1989), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
 David Garrard, NFL quarterback from 2002 to 2013
 David Gergen, advisor to presidents Ford, Reagan, and Clinton
 Heather Gordon (born 1967), artist
 John H. Hager, former Virginia lieutenant governor (1998–2002) and the father-in-law of former First Daughter Jenna Bush Hager
 Mary Katharine Ham, Conservative journalist; grew up in Durham
 Michael Hardt, philosopher and theorist of globalization, politics and culture
 Jay Huff, college basketball player for Virginia Cavaliers
 Brandon Hargest, singer for Jump5
 Brittany Hargest, singer for Jump5
 Heather Havrilesky, author, essayist, and humorist raised in Durham
 Biff Henderson, Late Show with David Letterman comedian and television personality
 Wilbur Hobby, labor leader and former president of the North Carolina AFL-CIO
 Alexander Isley, designer and educator
 Fredric Jameson, literary critic and Marxist political theorist
 Big Daddy Kane, hip-hop artist and actor
 John P. Kee, pastor and gospel recording artist
 Stuart Krohn (born 1962), professional rugby union player
 Mike Krzyzewski, former head coach of the Duke men's basketball team and former head coach of Team USA
 Patrick Kypson, professional tennis player
 Mur Lafferty, podcaster and writer
 James G. Leyburn, sociologist, professor, author
 Caitlin Linney, singer/songwriter
 John D. Loudermilk, songwriter ("Tobacco Road", "Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye")
 John Lucas II, NBA player and coach
 David Lynch, film and TV director; lived in Durham as a child; parents met at Duke University
 John Malachi, jazz pianist
 Crystal Mangum, accuser in the 2006 Duke lacrosse case, who was later found guilty of fatally stabbing her boyfriend
 Leo Mangum, Major League Baseball pitcher
 John H. Manning, lawyer, officer and Adjutant General of North Carolina
 Pigmeat Markham, comic actor and novelty musician
 Doug Marlette, Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist; lived in Durham as a child
 Branford Marsalis, resident of Durham for several years. The Branford Marsalis Quartet's 2006 album Braggtown was titled after Braggtown Baptist Church, located in northeastern Durham, just north of Highways 70/85.
 Frank Matthews, drug trafficker during the late 1960s and early 1970s
 Tracy McGrady, attended Mount Zion Christian Academy his senior year, NBA player
 Clyde McPhatter, singer/songwriter, founding member of The Drifters
 LeRoi Moore of the Dave Matthews Band, contemporary jazz musician
 Anita Morris, actress (Ruthless People, The Hotel New Hampshire, nominated for a Tony for her work in Nine)
 The Mountain Goats, indie rock band
 Pauli Murray (1910–1985), civil rights and women's activist, attorney, author, poet and priest, lived here as a child with grandparents; in 1977 was the first black woman to be ordained as an Episcopal priest; in 2012 was named as an Episcopal saint (one of its "Holy Women, Holy Men")
 Link Neal, YouTuber with Rhett McLaughlin for the channels Rhett & Link & Good Mythical Morning
 Mike Nifong, Durham County district attorney disbarred in 2006 for actions in Duke University lacrosse case that year
 David Noel, NBA player for the Milwaukee Bucks
 Wye Oak, musical duo composed of Jenn Wasner and Andy Stack
 Ike Opara, Major League Soccer defender for Sporting Kansas City
 Robert Martin Patterson, United States Army soldier and Medal of Honor recipient
 Sidney Powell, prosecutor and attorney
 Brian Roberts, Major League Baseball player, second baseman for the Baltimore Orioles
 Leah Roberts, former North Carolina State University student who abruptly left Durham in March 2000 and has remained missing ever since
 Rodney Rogers, NBA power forward from 1993 to 2005
 Ben Ruffin, civil rights activist, educator, and businessman
 Don Schlitz, songwriter (Kenny Rogers's "The Gambler")
 James E. Shepard (1875–1947), educator, founder and president of North Carolina College for Negroes (now North Carolina Central University)
 Robert K. Steel, former Undersecretary of the Treasury
 Jamie Stewart, art-pop musician best known as the frontman of Xiu Xiu
 Andre Leon Talley, (1948-2022) Vogue editor, fashion luminary, and current judge of America's Next Top Model
 Grady Tate, American musician and singer
 Justin Tornow, dancer and choreographer
 Emilie Townes, dean of Vanderbilt Divinity School, former president of the American Academy of Religion
 Jeff Tremaine, filmmaker known for Jackass
 Teresa Trull, singer, songwriter, and record producer
 LeRoy T. Walker (1918–2012), former United States Olympic president; former chancellor of North Carolina Central University (NCCU)
 Dewayne Washington, NFL cornerback from 1994 to 2005
 Seth Wescott, Olympic champion snowboarder
Josh Whitesell, Major League Baseball first baseman of the Arizona Diamondbacks
 T. J. Warren, NBA player for the Indiana Pacers
Bull City Red (birth name George Washington), blues musician
 Harvey D. Williams (1930–2020), African-American U.S. Army major general
 Walter Lee Williams, one of the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives
 Morgan Wootten, head basketball coach at DeMatha Catholic High School and member of the Basketball Hall of Fame
 James B. Wyngaarden, American physician, researcher and academic administrator.
 Freekey Zekey (Ezekiel Giles), rapper; spent almost three years in jail at Durham Correctional Center on drug charges before being released on November 20, 2006

Sister cities
Durham's sister cities are:

 Arusha, Tanzania
 Celaya, Mexico
 Durham, County Durham, England, United Kingdom
 Kavala, Greece
 Kostroma, Russia
 Sibiu, Romania
 Tilarán, Costa Rica
 Toyama, Japan
 Zhuzhou, China

See also

 List of municipalities in North Carolina
 Norfolk Southern–Gregson Street Overpass
 Triangle J Council of Governments
 List of U.S. cities with large Black populations

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

 Durham Convention and Visitors Bureau
 Greater Durham Chamber of Commerce

Duke family
Planned communities in the United States
Populated places established in 1853

Durham, North Carolina


In sports broadcasting, a sports commentator (also known as sports announcer or sportscaster) provides a real-time commentary of a game or event, usually during a live broadcast, traditionally delivered in the historical present tense. Radio was the first medium for sports broadcasts, and radio commentators must describe all aspects of the action to listeners who cannot see it for themselves. In the case of televised sports coverage, commentators are usually presented as a voiceover, with images of the contest shown on viewers' screens and sounds of the action and spectators heard in the background. Television commentators are rarely shown on screen during an event, though some networks choose to feature their announcers on camera either before or after the contest or briefly during breaks in the action.

Types of commentators

Main/play-by-play commentator

The main commentator, also called the play-by-play commentator or announcer in North America, blow-by-blow in combat sports coverage, lap-by-lap for motorsports coverage, or ball-by-ball for cricket coverage, is the primary speaker on the broadcast. Broadcasters in this role are adept at being articulate and carry an ability to describe each play or event of an often fast-moving sporting event. The play-by-play announcer is meant to convey the event as it is carried out. Because of their skill level, commentators like Al Michaels, Brian Anderson, Ian Eagle, Kevin Harlan, Jim Nantz, and Joe Buck in the U.S., David Coleman in the UK and Bruce McAvaney in Australia may have careers in which they call several different sports at one time or another. Other main commentators may, however, only call one sport (Mike Emrick, for example, is known almost exclusively as an ice hockey broadcaster and Peter Drury for the association football). The vast majority of play-by-play announcers are male; female play-by-play announcers had not seen sustained employment until the 21st century.

Radio and television play-by-play techniques involve slightly different approaches; radio broadcasts typically require the play-by-play host to say more to verbally convey the on-field activity that cannot be seen by the radio audience. It is unusual to have radio and television broadcasts share the same play-by-play commentator for the same event, except in cases of low production budgets or when a broadcaster is particularly renowned (Rick Jeanneret's hockey telecasts, for example, were simulcast on radio and television from 1997 until his 2022 retirement).

Analyst/color commentator

The analyst or color commentator provides expert analysis and background information, such as statistics, strategy on the teams and athletes, and occasionally anecdotes or light humor. They are usually former athletes or coaches in their respective sports, although there are some exceptions.

The term "color" refers to levity and insight provided by analyst. The most common format for a sports broadcast is to have an analyst/color commentator work alongside the main/play-by-play announcer. An example is NBC Sunday Night Football in the United States, which is called by color commentator Cris Collinsworth, a former NFL receiver, and play-by-play commentator Mike Tirico, a professional announcer. In the United Kingdom, however, there is a much less distinct division between play-by-play and color commentary, although two-man commentary teams usually feature an enthusiast with formal journalistic training but little or no competitive experience leading the commentary, and an expert former (or current) competitor following up with analysis or summary. There are however exceptions to this — most of the United Kingdom's leading cricket and snooker commentators are former professionals in their sports, while the former Formula One racing commentator Murray Walker had no formal journalistic training and only limited racing experience of his own (he had come from an advertising background and his initial hiring was more of a comic double act than a traditional sports commentary pairing). In the United States, Pat Summerall, a former professional kicker, spent most of his broadcasting career as a play-by-play announcer. Comedian Dennis Miller's short-lived run as part of the Monday Night Football booth in 2001 caused what Miller himself described as a "maelstrom" of perplexed reviews.

Although the combination of a play-by-play announcer and color commentator is now considered the standard, it was much more common for a broadcast to have only one play-by-play announcer working alone. Vin Scully, longtime announcer for the Los Angeles Dodgers, was one of the few examples of this practice lasting into the 21st century until he retired in 2016. The three-person booth is a format used on Monday Night Football, in which there are two color commentators, usually one being a former player or coach and the other being an outsider, such as a journalist (Howard Cosell was one long-running example) or a comedian (such as the aforementioned Dennis Miller).

Sideline reporter
A sideline reporter assists a sports broadcasting crew with sideline coverage of the playing field or court. The sideline reporter typically makes live updates on injuries and breaking news or conducts player interviews while players are on the field or court because the play-by-play broadcaster and color commentator must remain in their broadcast booth. Sideline reporters are often granted inside information about an important update, such as injury, because they have the credentials necessary to do so. In cases of big events, teams consisting of many sideline reporters are placed strategically so that the main commentator has many sources to turn to (for example some sideline reporters could be stationed in the dressing room area while others could be between the respective team benches). In the United States, sideline reporters are heavily restricted by NFL rules; in contrast, both the 2001 and 2020 incarnations of the XFL featured sideline reporters in a much more prominent role.

In motorsports, it is typical for there to be multiple pit reporters, covering the event from along pit road. Their responsibilities include covering breaking news trackside, probing crew chiefs and other team leaders about strategy, and commentating on pit stops from along the pit wall. On occasion in motorsport, the reporter on the sideline is an understudy to the lead commentator, as Fox NASCAR has used this tactic numerous times based on the career of Cup lead Mike Joy, a former pit reporter. Those who made the switch included Steve Byrnes (Truck Series, 2014), Vince Welch (Truck Series since late 2015), and Adam Alexander (did Cup for Fox-produced TNT broadcasts from 2010–14, Xfinity on Fox since 2015) did the same too.

Sports presenter/studio host
In British sports broadcasting, the presenter of a sports broadcast is usually distinct from the commentator, and often based in a remote broadcast television studio away from the sports venue. In North America, the on-air personality based in the studio is called the studio host. During their shows, the presenter/studio host may be joined by additional analysts or pundits, especially when showing highlights of various other matches (e.g. in 1985, Jim Nantz was the studio host for The Prudential College Football Report in Studio 43 in New York for CBS Sports, and during his four-year tenure there [the 1985 through 1988 college football seasons], he had Pat Haden [in 1985] and Ara Parseghian [in 1987 and 1988] as his co-hosts/pundits).

Other roles
Various sports may have different commentator roles to cover situations unique to that sport. In the 2010s, as popularized by Fox, American football broadcasts began to increasingly employ rules analysts to explain penalties and controversial calls, and analyze instant replay reviews to predict whether a call will or will not be overturned. These analysts are typically former referees.

Sportscaster
In North American English, sportscaster is a general term for any type of commentator in a sports broadcast. It may also refer to a sports talk show host or a newscaster covering sports news.

Esports
In video games, and particularly esports, commentators are often called shoutcasters; this term is derived from Shoutcast, an internet audio streaming plugin and protocol associated with the Winamp media player. They are also sometimes referred to as simply casters.

United States

While sports broadcasts took place from 1912, Florent Gibson of the Pittsburgh Post newspaper broadcast the first sports commentary in April 1921, covering the fight between Johnny Ray and Johnny "Hutch" Dundee at the Motor Square Garden, Pittsburgh.

The highest-paid sportscaster in the United States is Tony Romo, a former NFL quarterback and professional golfer who serves as lead color analyst for the NFL on CBS; Romo earns $17,000,000 per year for his contributions to the network.

Women
In 1975, the National Hockey League (NHL) made headlines when two coaches of the NHL All-Star Game in Montreal allowed Robin Herman (The New York Times) and Marcelle St. Cyr (CKLM radio in Montreal) access into the men's locker room. Both were believed to have been the first women ever allowed to enter a professional men's locker room to conduct a post-game interview. Sport organizations began to follow in the NHL's footsteps and allowed for other female sportswriters to be given the same access as men sportswriters.

It was not until the year 1977 when Melissa Ludtke, a sportswriter from Sports Illustrated, was given the assignment to cover the New York Yankees playoff series but was denied entry into the men's locker room. Baseball commissioner Bowie Kuhn and other officials chose to discriminate against her based on her sex. Knowing that this would put Sports Illustrated in a disadvantage from other publishers, Time Inc. and Ludtke filed a lawsuit against Kuhn.

The lawsuit was taken to the United States District Court in 1978 where Judge Constance Baker Motley ruled the act as violating the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution. The court ruled that the Yankees organization devise a plan to protect the players of their privacy while female sportswriters conducted interviews, suggesting the use of towels.

After the access of allowing women in was put into effect, the Yankees organization allowed reporters to spend ten minutes interviewing players and was then asked to leave and wait. Male reporters were unhappy with this and blamed the women from keeping them out and not being able to do their job.

In 1990, the issue made its way back into the headlines when Lisa Olson made a public statement revealing that players from the New England Patriots had exposed themselves while interviews were being conducted. This prompted other female reporters who had been harassed to come forward. Their credibility was undermined by accusations that female interviewers appeared as being "too friendly" or conversing too long with players as though they were flirting. Thus, the issue of sexism was still present, despite the equal access to men's locker rooms.

In professional wrestling

Though not always the case, in professional wrestling, the color commentator is usually a "heel sympathizer" (or a supporter of the "bad guys") as opposed to the play-by-play announcer, who is more or less the "voice of the fans" as well as "babyface sympathizers" (or supporters of the "good guys"). Though both are supposed to show neutral stance while announcing, the color commentators (especially when they support heels) are usually more blatant about their stance than the play-by-play announcers. Jesse "The Body" Ventura and Bobby "The Brain" Heenan pioneered the "heel sympathizer" for color commentary in wrestling. Jerry "The King" Lawler later made a successful transition into the role, though Lawler has since shown more sympathy for faces (partially due to being over with fans after nearly forty years in wrestling).

"Rowdy" Roddy Piper and "Macho Man" Randy Savage pioneered the "babyface sympathizer" for color commentary in wrestling. Michael Cole has served as a babyface sympathizer for most of his announcing career. From 2010-2012, Cole served as a heel announcer, showing arrogance and contempt for faces and more sympathy for the heels (partially due to being bullied by other face wrestlers like Stone Cold Steve Austin, The Rock, and John Cena, and the jealousy of Smackdown! General Manager Teddy Long, and other WWE Hall of Famers like Jerry "The King" Lawler and "Good Old J.R." Jim Ross). However, on the September 10, 2012 episode of WWE Raw, Lawler suffered a legitimate on-air heart attack during the broadcast. Cole provided updates on Lawler's condition throughout the episode for television viewers, and Cole received praise for how he handled the emergency in a classy and professional manner. He also began favoring face wrestlers and received cheers from WWE fans. Michael Cole successfully cemented his face turn when he hugged Jerry Lawler in the ring when Lawler returned to his commentator duties on the November 12, 2012 episode of Raw.

In some cases, commentators are also active managers for wrestlers, usually following continuity as heels. Former Extreme Championship Wrestling color commentator Cyrus was known for having dual roles as a heel manager and a somewhat neutral commentator. Acting as a commentator has also been used to keep injured wrestlers in the public eye while recuperating. Special guest color commentators serve a two purposes: the primary is usually to place them in position to interfere with the match they are calling, the second is to provide promoters with the opportunity to determine if this performer can speak well extemporaneously.

See also
 Announcerless game, December 1980, experimental broadcast of an NFL game without TV commentators
 List of sports announcers
 List of Major League Baseball retired numbers#Broadcasters

References

External links

 Sportcaster Chronicles – Internet radio show in which John Lewis interviews leading American sports announcers

Broadcasting occupations

Sports terminology
Television terminology
Sports mass media people

Sports commentator


The Church of England is the leading Christian church in England. It is the church established by law: its formal head is the English monarch (Charles III). It is the mother church of the Anglican Communion. Its headquarters are at Church House, Westminster, in London.

The Church of England understands itself to be both Catholic and Reformed:
Catholic because it views itself as a part of the universal church of Jesus Christ in unbroken continuity with the early apostolic church. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as in the Apostles' Creed, Nicene Creed and Athanasian Creed.
Reformed because it has been shaped by the doctrinal ideas of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, in particular by the Thirty-Nine Articles and the Book of Common Prayer.

There are other Protestant churches in England which are not part of the Anglican Communion.

History
The Church of England became independent under King Henry VIII in 1534. Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Aragon, but asked the Pope to annul the marriage (say that it was a mistake and that Henry and Catherine were never really married).  He wanted to annul the marriage because he wanted a male heir to his throne and Catherine could not produce one. When the annulment was refused, Henry VIII used his position as King to break the Church away from the Roman Catholic Church. This established the independence of the Church of England, sometimes called the Anglican (English) Church. Methodism broke away from the church in the 18th century. The Oxford Movement brought some Catholic beliefs and practices back into the church in the 19th century.

Under his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant forms of worship were adopted. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer started more changes. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles.

Related pages
Archbishop of Canterbury
Thomas Cranmer
Reformation
House of Lords
Supreme Governor of the Church of England

Other websites
CofE website

Anglicanism
Religion in England

Church of England


An icon (from the Greek language: , eikon, "image") is an image, picture, or representation which has a religious meaning. It is a sign or a likeness that stands for a real object or person. Although the word icon can be used for images of other religions, it is most often used to describe a painting on a wooden panel that has been done in the Orthodox Christian tradition, and may also be used for carved ivory panels and panels of silver or gold. These icons show a holy being such as Jesus, Mary, a saint or an angel. They also show scenes from the Bible such as the Crucifixion and scenes from lives of the saints. In Orthodox Christianity an icon is thought of as a window through which a person can get a view of God's truth.

How a Christian Orthodox icon is painted

The traditional way of making an icon was used in Egypt in Early Christian times to make portraits of dead people to use for their funerals. Like icons, these funeral portraits were done on a wooden panel and the paint was mixed with yolk of egg. From the time that Christianity was made legal by Constantine the Great in the early 300s, artists began to use the same method for painting holy pictures.

It was always hoped that a painting would last for a long time, so everything had to be very carefully prepared. A board had to be chosen that would not crack or warp (bend), and which did not have any knotty bits that might fall out. The board was sanded smooth and then coated with a gluey paint called "size" which would hold the coloured paint well, but stop the expensive colours from being soaked up by the wood. The artist would prepare the paints very carefully. Some of the colours were made from gound-up semi-precious stones. Others were made from chemicals.

Before the artist could start on the panel, he had to prepare the design. It was not important for the artist to think of something new and different. It was much more important that he could copy another icon very accurately. The same designs were used over and over.

Although all icons were thought of as a window to Heaven, some icons were believed to have special properties. It was believed that praying and lighting candles before some icons would bring healing, or the help of the saint who was shown in the picture. These icons became very famous and were often copied.

After the artist had drawn the design onto the surface of the size in thin green or brown paint, he would put the paint on in  layers, building up the colours bit by bit. Most of the colours were quite transparent and this made the painting look glowing. When the figures were finished the artist would set the work in a wooden frame and "gild" it by covering the background with a little pieces of gold leaf that had been beaten into very thin sheets. When a candle was lit near the icon, it shone on the gold surface and made the figures stand out.

Icons in other religions
Throughout history, some religions such as Christianity and Hinduism, have often used images such as paintings and statues, while others, such as Judaism and Islam, do not often use images of people.

In Hinduism there is much use of sacred objects because there is a belief in murti, the idea that the Spirit of God can be present in an icon (or holy object).

Related pages
 Tempera
 Oil painting
 Mosaic
 Sculpture
 Byzantine art

Other websites

Pictures
Online exhibitions of over 1000 ancient icons
Icons of Mount Athos
Russian Icons from 12th to 18th century
Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America: Icons
Gallery of icons, murals and mosaics (mostly Russian) from 11th to 20th century
Two 19th century Russian icons depicting Saint Nicholas
Sacred Icons painted by the famous artist David Ongaro

Orthodox
The Iconic and Symbolic in Orthodox Iconography
Church of the Nativity - Explanation of Orthodox Christian Icons
On the difference of Western Religious Art and Orthodox Iconography
Romanian glass icons

Catholic
Catholic Encyclopedia: "Veneration of Images"

Protestant
Theology of Icons: a Protestant Perspective

Christian art

Icon


A Jew is a person who is of Jewish heritage or who has converted to the Jewish religion. Jews typically consider themselves as a people and not only as adherents of a religion, therefore a Jew is not only one that practices the religion of Judaism, but it is also one who is of Jewish ethnic heritage. Jews originated as an ethnoreligious group in the Middle East. According to traditional Jewish law, called Halakha, someone is Jewish if their mother was a Jew or if they have converted to Judaism.  Judaism has been described as a religion, a race, an ethnic group, a culture, a nation, and an extended family.

Israel is the only modern country with a Jewish majority, but there are Jewish minorities in many places in the world. Most of them live in large cities in the United States, Argentina, Europe and Australia.  Both Israel and the U.S. have over five million Jews. In the Soviet Union there were more than two million Jews, but many of them moved to Israel, the U.S. and other Western countries since the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Jews have been victims of various persecutions. The most well known happened during the Second World War, when almost six million Jews were killed by the Nazis. It is known as the Holocaust.

Jewish ethnic groups
All ethnic (non-convert) Jews have genetic heritage from the Levant (the region now known as Israel and/or Palestine). Within all of the world's Jews, there are Jewish ethnic groups. The two biggest are called Ashkenazi (who have historically lived in Central and Eastern Europe) and Sephardic (who have historically lived in lands around the Mediterranean Sea, particularly Spain and Portugal). Jews from the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia are called Mizrahi Jews. There are also Ethiopian Jews, Indian Jews (Bene Israel) and Chinese Jews (Kaifeng Jews).  Many of these groups have moved from one place to another.  For example, many Ashkenazi Jews live in the United States, and many Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews live in France.

Jews speak the languages of the countries where they live. Hebrew is the  language of Judaism because it is the language in which the Bible was written. It is still used for prayers. In Israel, Ivrit, which is the name for the new Hebrew language, is the common language. There are also other Jewish languages such as Yiddish and Ladino which are still spoken and written by some Jews.

History
The Jewish scriptures say that Judaism began with a man named Abram who lived in the city of Ur, in present-day Iraq. According to the Midrash, Abram strongly believed that the people in Ur were wrong to pray to different gods and statues. He believed that there was really only one god who was not a statue. The Torah tells that God spoke to Abram and told him to leave Ur with his family and move to Canaan, where he started a new religion. God told him that his name would be changed to Abraham. The Midrash also says that angels taught Abraham a new holy language, which Jews believe is the language today known as Hebrew. Hebrew continues to be the language of Judaism. Abraham's grandson Jacob is said to be the one who first had the name of "Israel".

When the Jews were turned into slaves in Egypt, God told Moses to ask for the 12 tribes of Israel to be freed. Pharaoh said "No" time and again and each time he did God sent many terrible punishments to the Egyptians to make him to free the Hebrews. Finally, the Pharaoh let the Hebrews go free, but then decided to send the Egyptian army to capture the Jews back. To help them escape God commanded the Red Sea to open a path for them. The waters then returned and drowned the Egyptian army. The Torah says that after this, Moses met with God on Mount Sinai and received the Ten Commandments and the Torah from God.

The Hebrews or Israelites, in twelve tribes, began a country called Israel in Canaan. They fought many wars against other peoples in the area. The name Jew comes from the name of one of these tribes, Judah. Later Judah was conquered by Babylonia in the early 6th century BC, and its people were taken captive to Babylon. They were allowed to go back to Judah again when Babylon was conquered by the Persian Empire. Some Jewish people stayed in Babylon (now Iraq) and others also lived in other countries.

By 50 BC, Judah (then called Judea) was ruled by the Roman Empire. During this time, the main language of Judea was Aramaic. The Jews did not like the Roman government or customs, and often made trouble for the Romans. In 70 AD, after a revolt against the government by the Jewish community, the Romans destroyed Judea's capital city, Jerusalem and sent almost all Jews into exile.

After this, the Jewish people did not have their own country. They were a small minority in almost every place they lived. This time is called the Diaspora, when Jews spread around the world. They lived in many other countries. Jews living in Spain and Portugal used the language Ladino (also called Judeo-Spanish). Jews living in Germany, Poland, Russia, and other countries in Central-Eastern Europe spoke the language Yiddish. Jews living in North Africa spoke Judeo-Arabic or Haketia, the local name for Ladino.  Jews have lived in most, but not all, places in the world, including India, China, Yemen, and Ethiopia.  Even today, Jews who do not live in Israel are often said to live "in the Diaspora". In some places, like India, Jews lived without any problems. In other places, like most of Europe and Islamic countries, there was bigotry or even hatred against Jews and they lived under discriminatory laws. Sometimes Jews suffered from outright persecution (that is: systematic hatred and violence), sometimes they were forced to dress in special, ugly clothes, pay higher taxes than others, not build higher houses than others, not to ride a horse or donkey, wear certain badges etc. In Europe, where the Roman Catholic church forbade Christians from lending money against interest, some Jews worked as bankers and money-lenders, and became known as skillful bankers.

One nomad nation, the Khazars, converted to Judaism in the 8th century. The Khazar khanate, which was in the modern Ukraine and Byelorussia, was the only independent Jewish state before modern day Israel. The Khazar state was destroyed by the Eastern Vikings (Rus) in 987.

The Jewish people have always believed that they have a special mission from God. They do things in their own ways, such as having special rules about food and eating, not working on the Shabbat, keeping their own holidays, and not marrying people from other religions. Because of this, people in many different times and countries have thought that the Jews were strange, and maybe dangerous. Many countries made laws that the Jews could not work in some jobs or live in some places. Sometimes Jewish people were killed because of their religion. The word "antisemitism" describes the hatred for Jews.

During the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazi, or National Socialist government of Germany conquered most of Europe. They did terrible things to the Jewish people. The Nazi government killed more than six million Jewish people.  Before they were killed, often by means of a gas chamber, many of the Jews were made to be forced workers, and some of them were forced to help in the killing and capturing of the others.

In 1948, after World War II, the United Nations made the country of Israel for the Jews in Palestine, which is in the same place as the original Israel, in the Middle East. The land had been part of the Ottoman Empire before World War I. Then Britain controlled the area under the oversight of the United Nations.  Many Jews moved back to Israel, then called Palestine, starting in the late 1800s. When the country of Israel was made in 1948, there were about 600,000 Jews in it. Today there are about 5,600,000 Jews in it.

When Jews moved back to Palestine, there were some people living there now.  Most of them did not want to live in a Jewish country.  This was the beginning of the Israeli-Arab or Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which continues today.

Jews have come to Israel from all over the world, bringing different languages, music, food, and history to create a unique culture.  Israel is the only country in the world where most people are Jews and where Hebrew is the main language.

Jewish history continues today in both Israel and the Diaspora. Outside of Israel, there are many Jews in the United States, Great Britain, Canada, France, Russia, Ukraine, Germany, Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, and Australia.  There are smaller numbers of Jews living in other parts of the world.

Some of the major problems faced by the Jewish people today include resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and dealing with high rates of assimilation (loss of Jewish identity) in some countries, like the United States.

Famous Jews

Many Jewish people have done great things in science, literature, business, and the arts.  Some of the most famous include:

 David Ben-Gurion, Israeli politician
 Mel Brooks, movie director
 Noam Chomsky, American linguist and writer
 Aaron Copland, composer
 Bob Dylan, American singer
 Albert Einstein, scientist
 Anne Frank, writer
 Sigmund Freud, father of psychoanalysis
 George Gershwin, composer
 Emma Goldman, anarchist
 Theodor Herzl, founder of modern Zionism
 Jesus, central figure of Christianity
 Franz Kafka, writer
 Henry Kissinger, former American Secretary of State
 Emma Lazarus, author
 Rosa Luxemburg, politician
 Moses Maimonides, Jewish philosopher
 Marx Brothers, comedians
 Golda Meir, Israeli politician
 Benjamin Netanyahu, Israeli politician
 Shimon Peres, Israeli politician
 Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli politician
 Philip Roth, American writer
 Mark Rothko, American painter
 Steven Spielberg, movie director
 Baruch Spinoza, philosopher
 Mark Spitz, swimmer
 Barbra Streisand, singer and actress
 Natalie Portman, actress
 Bernie Sanders, United States senator

References

Jew