The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek ("ny" means "new" in Danish; "Glyptotek" comes from the Greek root glyphein, to carve, and theke, storing place), commonly known simply as Glyptoteket, is an art museum in Copenhagen, Denmark. The collection represents the private art collection of Carl Jacobsen (1842–1914), the son of the founder of the Carlsberg Breweries.

Primarily a sculpture museum, as indicated by the name, the focal point of the museum is antique sculpture from the ancient cultures around the Mediterranean, including Egypt, Rome and Greece, as well as more modern sculptures such as a collection of Auguste Rodin's works, considered to be the most important outside France. However, the museum is equally noted for its collection of paintings that includes an extensive collection of French impressionists and Post-impressionists as well as Danish Golden Age paintings.

The French Collection includes works by painters such as Jacques-Louis David, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, Degas and Cézanne, as well as those by Post-impressionists such as van Gogh, Toulouse-Lautrec and Bonnard. The museum's collection includes all the bronze sculptures of Degas, including the series of dancers. Numerous works by Norwegian-Danish sculptor Stephan Sinding are featured prominently in various sections of the museum.

History

First Glyptoteque
Carl Jacobsen was a dedicated art collector. He was particularly interested in antique art, but over the years he also acquired a considerable collection of French and Danish sculptures. When his private villa in 1882 was extended with a winter garden, sculptures soon outnumbered plants in it. The same year the collection was opened to the public. In the following years the museum was expanded on a number of occasions to meet the need for more space for his steadily growing collections. In 1885 his 'house museum' had grown to a total of 19 galleries, the first 14 of which had been designed by Vilhelm Dahlerup while Hack Kampmann had built the last four as well as conducted a redesign of the winter garden.

New museum

In spite of the many extensions, it was finally clear the existing premises were inadequate and that a new building was needed. On 8 March 1888 Carl Jacobsen donated his collection to the Danish State and the City of Copenhagen on condition that they provided a suitable building for its exhibition. Copenhagen's old fortifications had recently been abandoned and a site was chosen on a ravelin outside Holcks Bastion in the city's Western Rampart, just south of the Tivoli Gardens which had been founded in 1843. Jacobsen was displeased with the location which he found to be too far from the city centre and he had also reservations about the proximity of Tivoli which he found common. Instead he wanted a building on the emerging new city hall square, yet in the end he accepted.

It was Carl Jacobsen who chose the name for the museum, with inspiration from Ludwig I's Glyptothek in Munich, as well as Vilhelm Dahlerup as the architect for the assignment. The moat around the radan was filled and the new museum opened first on 1 May 1897. At first it only included Jacobsen's modern collection with French and Danish works from the 18th century.

In January 1899 Carl Jacobsen donated his collection of Antique art to the museum which made an expansion necessary. It was designed by Hack Kampmann while Dahlerup designed a winter garden which connected the new wing to the old building. It was inaugurated in 1906.

In 1996 the museum was once again extended, this time with an infill constructed in one of its courtyards to the design of Henning Larsen. In 2006, the building underwent a major renovation programme under the direction of Danish architects Dissing + Weitling. and Bonde Ljungar Arkitekter MAA.

Architecture
The building is often noted for its elegance in its own right and the synthesis it creates with the works of art.

The Dahlerup Wing, the oldest part of the museum, is a lavish historicist building. The façade is in red brick with polished granite columns in a Venetian renaissance style. It houses the French and Danish collections.

The Kampmann Wing is a more simple, neo-classical building, built as a series of galleries around a central auditorium used for lectures, small concerts, symposiums and poetry readings.

The two wings are connected by the Winter Garden with mosaic floors, tall palms, a fountain and topped by a dome made in copper and wrought iron.

The Henning Larsen Wing is a minimalistic infill, built in a former inner courtyard and affording access to the roof.
Official meetings and banquets sometimes take place in the Glyptotek, such as the certification of Polio-free Europe, 21 June 2002.

Collections
The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek's collections comprise more than 10,000 works of art.

Antique collection
The Antique collection displays sculptures and other antiquities from the ancient cultures around the Mediterranean.

The extensive Greek, Roman and Etruscan Collection comprises marble statues, small terra cotta statues, reliefs, pottery and other artifacts. The Etruscan collection is the largest outside Italy. Theidoit Jacobsen's broker in Rome for 25 years, acquiring more than 950 sculptures and Etruscan antiquities for the Ny Carlsberg Museum.

The Egyptian Collection comprises more than 1,900 pieces, dating from 3000 BCE to the 1st century CE and representing both Ancient Egypt, the Middle Kingdom and the Roman Period. It was founded in 1882 when Carl Jacobsen made his first Egyptian acquisition, a Sarcophagus purchased from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Many of the objects in the collection were augmented when the Ny Carlsberg Foundation sponsored excavations in Egypt in the beginning of the 20th century led by the English Egyptologist W. M. F. Petrie . The holdings include several mummies, displayed in a crypt-like gallery below the normal galleries.

The Near Eastern Collection spans a period of 7150 years, the oldest artifact being from 6500 BCE and the youngest being from 650 CE, featuring such cultures as the Levant, Mesopotamia, Anatolia and Persia.

French Collection

The main focus of the French Collection is 19th-century French painting and sculpture. The painting collection contains works by such painters as David and Manet, as well as a large collection of Impressionist painters such as Monet, Cézanne and Bonnard. The single painter represented with most paintings is Paul Gauguin with more than 40 works. The museum also holds a large collection of French 19th-century sculpture by artists such as Carpeaux and Rodin, the Rodin collection being one of the largest in the world, as well as a complete collection of Degas' bronze sculptures.

Danish Collection
The Danish Collection contains a large collection of Danish Golden Age paintings by painters such as Eckersberg, Købke and Lundbye. It also contains the largest representation of Danish Golden Age Sculpture in the country.

European Collection
The European Collection comprises works from the 18th to the 20th century. Represented sculptors include Neoclassicists such as Canova, Sergel, Carstens, Flaxman, Rauch and Baily, as well as Modernists like Meunier, Klinger, Picasso and Giacometti.

The collection also comprises a small collection of Modern paintings of artists such as
Arp, Ernst, Miró, Poliakoff and Gilioli.

Auditorium

Concerts
The Auditorium is mainly used for classical concerts, including the Helge Jacobsen concert series. Helge Jacobsen Concerts have included the Austrian Hagen Quartet, the Russian violinist Alina Ibragimova, the French pianist Cédric Tiberghien, the Russian bariton Sergei Leiferkus, the French Ysaÿe Quartet and German tenor Jonas Kaufmann among others.

The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek is in general noted for its good acoustics, both in the auditorium and in the surrounding long halls. The Auditorium has been used as a rehearsal room by the Early music vocal ensemble Musica Ficta, often within opening hours of the museum, occasionally adding music to the museum experience, and it has also regularly performed concerts, both in the Auditorium and the surrounding halls. Pioneer overtone singer David Hykes in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in 1997.

Occasionally the Auditorium is also used for other musical genres, such as the Danish Klezmer group Mames Babegenush.

Other cultural events
The Auditorium is also used for other cultural events, such as poetry readings, lectures and debates.

In popular culture
The museum is used as a location in the films Stjerneskud (1947), Fodboldpræsten (1951), Dorte (1951), Mød mig på Cassiopeia (1951), Bruden fra Dragstrup (1955) and Den kære familie (1962).

The building was the inspiration for the set design of the Valkyries' Rock in Kasper Holten's 2006 production of Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen at the Copenhagen Opera House.

Gallery

See also
 Carlsberg Foundation
 The Carlsberg District
 H. C. Andersens Boulevard
 Paul Dubois (sculptor)
 Laurentian Sow (sculpture)

References

External links
 Museum website
 Renderings in the Danish National Art Library
Virtual tour of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek provided by Google Arts & Culture

Art museums and galleries in Copenhagen
Historicist architecture in Copenhagen
Neoclassical architecture in Copenhagen
Cultural infrastructure completed in 1897
Music venues in Copenhagen
Vilhelm Dahlerup buildings
Hack Kampmann buildings
Art museums established in 1882
1882 establishments in Denmark
Sculpture galleries in Denmark
Egyptological collections
Former private collections
Museums of ancient Greece
Museums of ancient Rome
Collections of classical sculpture

Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek


The Acarina, or Acari, are the mites and ticks. They are an order of Arachnids.

Their fossil history goes back to the Devonian era. Most acarines are tiny: less than a millimetre. It is estimated that over 50,000 species have been described, but a million or more species may be currently living. The study of mites and ticks is called acarology.

Acarines live in practically every habitat, and include aquatic (freshwater and sea water) and terrestrial species. They outnumber other arthropods in the soil and detritus. Many are parasitic, and they affect both vertebrates and invertebrates. Most parasitic forms are external parasites, while the free living forms are generally predators and may even be used to control undesirable arthropods. Others help to break down forest litter and dead organic matter such as skin cells. Others still are herbivorous and may damage crops. Damage to crops is perhaps the most costly economic effect of mites, especially by the spider mites and their relatives, earth mites, thread-footed mites and the gall and rust mites.

Some parasitic forms affect humans and other mammals, causing damage by their feeding, and can even be vectors of diseases such as scrub typhus and rickettsia. A well-known effect of mites on humans is as an allergen which stimulates asthma. Predatory mites may be used in pest control and herbivorous mites used to attack weeds. A positive contribution of the Acari is their normal functioning in ecosystems, especially their roles in the decomposer subsystem.

Mites

A hugely successful group with a large number of species. Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups, but because of their small size (most are microscopic) go largely unnoticed. They have exploited many habitats. Many live freely in the soil or water, but there are also a large number of species that live as parasites on plants, animals, and some that feed on mould (fungi).

Ticks
Ticks are blood-sucking ectoparasites, mostly of mammals and birds. They wait on grass or bushes, and jump onto passing animals. A number of birds specialise in picking them off larger animals: the Cattle Egret and the Oxpecker for example. They are quite serious pests, and can be hard to get rid of. They are vectors, carrying diseases such as Lyme disease.

Related pages
Chigger
Lyme disease

References

Arachnids
Parasites

Acarina


Baptist is a word describing a tradition within Christianity and may also refer to individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. The tradition takes its name from the belief that followers of Jesus Christ should be placed in water to show their faith. Baptists do not practice infant baptism.

In 1639, Roger Williams began a Baptist church in Providence, Rhode Island and John Clarke began a Baptist church in Newport, Rhode Island. It is not clear which church opened first. Records for both churches are missing information.

Baptist beliefs and principles
Baptist churches do not have a central principal authority. Therefore, beliefs are not the same from one Baptist church to another, mainly beliefs that may be considered minor. However, on major issues, most are held in common among almost all Baptist churches.

Baptists share so-called "orthodox" Christian beliefs with most other moderate or conservative Christian denominations. Some of them are beliefs about one God; Jesus' death, burial, and bodily resurrection; the Trinity (the divinity of Jesus and the Holy Spirit, together with God the Father); the need for salvation; grace; and evangelism and missions.

Membership
There are over 90 million Baptists in the world in nearly 300,000 churches. There are about 47 million members in the United States. Other large populations of Baptists also exist in Asia, Africa and Latin America. There are 2.4 million Baptists in India, 2.3 million in Nigeria, 1.9 million in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and 1.5 million in Brazil.

In a poll in the 1990s, about 20% of Americans said they are Baptist.

Views
Many people outside the community see them as Protestant, but some baptists do not. In their view, Baptists have existed separately since early church days. Those holding this view believe that Baptists have never been a part of the Roman Catholic Church, and that Baptists are not "protesting" against Catholicism.

They also point out that Baptists have no connections with the Reformationists like Luther, Calvin, or Zwingli. Other Baptists accept the Protestant label as a category for churches who have similar religious views of sola scriptura, sola fide, the priesthood of all believers and other positions that Luther or Calvin had in contrast to the Roman Catholic Church in the 1500s.

The tag: denomination, is rejected by some because of the autonomous system used by Baptist churches for control. Being a denomination is viewed by them as having a hierarchy instead of the Roman Catholic Church. Another reason for the rejection of the tag is the influence of the Restoration period on Baptist churches, which tore down denominational barriers. Other Baptists accept the tag. They feel that it does not lie or have any bad meanings. It is just used as a synonym for a Christian or religious group with common beliefs.

The tag: Evangelical, is rejected by some fundamentalist Baptists who think that the term  is not 'fundamentalist' enough. It is also rejected by some liberal Baptists who think that the term is too conservative. It is accepted by moderate Baptists believing in the revival in the United States in the 1700s called the First Great Awakening. Some Evangelicals also reject the tag: fundamentalist, because they think that it is too extreme.

References

Baptist


English Dissenters or English Separatists were Protestants who separated from the Church of England in the 17th and 18th centuries.

A dissenter (from the Latin dissentire, "to disagree") is one who disagrees in opinion, belief and other matters. English Dissenters opposed state interference in religious matters, and founded their own churches, educational establishments and communities. Some emigrated to the New World, especially to the Thirteen Colonies and Canada. Brownists founded the Plymouth colony. English dissenters played a pivotal role in the spiritual development of the United States and greatly diversified the religious landscape. They originally agitated for a wide-reaching Protestant Reformation of the established Church of England, and they flourished briefly during the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell.

King James VI of Scotland, I of England and Ireland, had said "no bishop, no king", emphasising the role of the clergy in justifying royal legitimacy. Cromwell capitalised on that phrase, abolishing both upon founding the Commonwealth of England. After the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the episcopacy was reinstalled and the rights of the Dissenters were limited: the Act of Uniformity 1662 required Anglican ordination for all clergy, and many instead withdrew from the state church. These ministers and their followers came to be known as Nonconformists, though originally this term referred to refusal to use certain vestments and ceremonies of the Church of England, rather than separation from it.

Organised dissenting groups (17th century)

In existence during the English Interregnum (1649–1660):

Anabaptists and Baptists

Anabaptists

Anabaptist (literally, "baptised again") was a term given to those Reformation Christians who rejected the notion of infant baptism in favour of believer's baptism.

It is generally assumed that during the Interregnum, the Baptists and other dissenting groups absorbed the British Anabaptists. Despite this, evidence suggests that the early relations between Baptists and Anabaptists were quite strained. In 1624, the then five existing Baptist churches of London issued an anathema against the Anabaptists. Even today there is still very little dialogue between Anabaptist organisations (such as the Mennonite World Conference) and the Baptist bodies.

Baptists

Baptist historian Bruce Gourley outlines four main views of Baptist origins:

 The modern scholarly consensus that the movement traces its origin to the 17th century via the English Separatists.
 The view that it was an outgrowth of the Anabaptist movement of believer's baptism begun in 1525 on the European continent.
 The perpetuity view, which assumes that the Baptist faith and practice has existed since the time of Christ.
 The successionist view, or "Baptist successionism", which argues that Baptist churches actually existed in an unbroken chain since the time of Christ.

Barrowists

Henry Barrowe maintained the right and duty of the Church to carry out necessary reforms without awaiting the permission of the civil power; and advocated congregational independence. He regarded the whole established church order as polluted by the relics of Roman Catholicism, and insisted on separation as essential to pure worship and discipline.

Behmenists

The Behmenists religious movement began on continental Europe and took its ideas from the writings of Jakob Böhme (Behmen being one of the adaptations of his name used in England), a German mystic and theosopher who claimed Divine Revelation. In the 1640s, his works appeared in England and English Behmenists developed. Eventually, some of these merged with the Quakers of the time.

Böhme's writings primarily concerned the nature of sin, evil and redemption. Consistent with Lutheran theology, Böhme believed that humanity had fallen from a state of divine grace into a state of sin and suffering, that the forces of evil included fallen angels who had rebelled against God, and subsequently that God's goal was to restore the world to a state of grace.

However, in some ways, Behmenist belief deviated significantly from traditional Lutheran belief. For example, Böhme rejected the concepts of sola fide and sola gratia.

Brownists

By 1580, Robert Browne had become a leader in the movement for a congregational form of organisation for the Church of England and attempted to set up a separate Congregational Church in Norwich, Norfolk, England. He was arrested but released on the advice of William Cecil, his kinsman. Browne and his companions moved to Middelburg in the Netherlands in 1581. He returned to England in 1585 and to the Church of England, being employed as a schoolmaster and parish priest.

Diggers

The Diggers were an English group of Protestant agrarian communists, begun by Gerrard Winstanley as True Levellers in 1649, who became known as Diggers due to their activities.

Their original name came from their belief in economic equality based upon a specific passage in the Book of Acts. The Diggers tried (by "levelling" real property) to reform the existing social order with an agrarian lifestyle based on their ideas for the creation of small egalitarian rural communities. They were one of a number of nonconformist dissenting groups that emerged around this time.

Enthusiasts

Several Protestant sects of the 16th and 17th centuries were called Enthusiastic. During the years that immediately followed the Glorious Revolution, "enthusiasm" was a British pejorative term for advocacy of any political or religious cause in public. Such "enthusiasm" was seen in the time around 1700 as the cause of the previous century's civil war and its attendant atrocities, and thus it was an absolute social sin to remind others of the war by engaging in enthusiasm. During the 18th century, popular Methodists such as John Wesley or George Whitefield were accused of blind enthusiasm (i.e., fanaticism), a charge against which they defended themselves by distinguishing fanaticism from "religion of the heart".

Familists

The Familia Caritatis ("Family of Love", or the "Familists") were a religious sect that began in continental Europe in the 16th century. Members of this religious group were devout followers of a Dutch mystic named Hendrik Niclaes. The Familists believed that Niclaes was the only person who truly knew how to achieve a state of perfection, and his texts attracted followers in Germany, France, and England.

The Familists were extremely secretive and wary of outsiders. For example, they wished death upon those outside of the Family of Love, and re-marriage after the death of a spouse could only take place between men and women of the same Familist congregation. Additionally, they would not discuss their ideas and opinions with outsiders and sought to remain undetected by ordinary members of society: they tended to be members of an established church so as not to attract suspicion and showed respect for authority.

The group were considered heretics in 16th-century England. Among their beliefs were that there existed a time before Adam and Eve, Heaven and Hell were both present on Earth, and that all things were ruled by nature and not directed by God.

The Familists continued to exist until the middle of the 17th century, when they were absorbed into the Quaker movement.

Fifth Monarchists

The Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men were active from 1649 to 1661 during the Interregnum, following the English Civil Wars of the 17th century. They took their name from a prophecy in the Book of Daniel that four ancient monarchies (Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, and Roman) would precede Christ's return. They also referred to the year 1666 and its relationship to the biblical Number of the Beast indicating the end of earthly rule by carnal human beings. They were one of a number of Nonconformist dissenting groups that emerged around this time.

Grindletonians

In a sermon preached at St Paul's Cross on 11 February 1627, and published under the title of The White Wolfe, 1627, Stephen Denison, minister of St Katherine Cree in London, charges the 'Gringltonian [sic] familists' with holding nine points of an antinomian tendency. These nine points are repeated from Denison by Pagitt (1645), and glanced at by Ross (1655).
In 1635 John Webster, curate at Kildwick in North Yorkshire, was before a church court charged with being a Grindletonian, and simultaneously in New England John Winthrop thought that Anne Hutchinson was one. The last known Grindletonian died in the 1680s.

Levellers

The Levellers were a political movement during the English Civil War that emphasised popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Levellers tended to hold fast to a notion of "natural rights" that had been violated by the king's side in the civil wars (1642–1651). At the Putney Debates in 1647, Colonel Thomas Rainsborough defended natural rights as coming from the law of God expressed in the Bible.

Muggletonians

The Muggletonians, named after Lodowicke Muggleton, was a small Protestant Christian movement which began in 1651 when two London tailors announced they were the last prophets foretold in the biblical Book of Revelation. The group grew out of the Ranters and in opposition to the Quakers. Muggletonian beliefs include a hostility to philosophical reason, a scriptural understanding of how the universe works and a belief that God appeared directly on this earth as Christ Jesus. A consequential belief is that God takes no notice of everyday events on earth and will not generally intervene until it is to bring the world to an end.

Muggletonians avoided all forms of worship or preaching and, in the past, met only for discussion and socialising amongst members. The movement was egalitarian, apolitical, and pacifist, and resolutely avoided evangelism. Members attained a degree of public notoriety by cursing those who reviled their faith.

Puritans

The Puritans were a significant grouping of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some Marian exiles from the clergy shortly after the accession of Queen Elizabeth I in 1558, as an activist movement within the Church of England. The designation "Puritan" is often used incorrectly, based on the assumption that hedonism and puritanism are antonyms: historically, the word was used to characterise the Protestant group as extremists similar to the Cathari of France, and according to Thomas Fuller in his Church History dated back to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that time used it and "precisian" with the sense of stickler. T. D. Bozeman therefore uses instead the term precisianist in regard to the historical groups of England and New England.

Philadelphians

The Philadelphians, or the Philadelphian Society, were a Protestant 17th-century religious group in England. They were organised around John Pordage (1607–1681), an Anglican priest from Bradfield, Berkshire, who had been ejected from his parish in 1655 because of differing views, but then reinstated in 1660 during the English Restoration. Pordage was attracted to the ideas of Jakob Böhme, a Lutheran theosophist and Christian mystic.

Quakers

The Quakers were a loosely knit group of teachers that grew out of the Seekers. George Fox's journal attributes the name "Quaker" to a judge in 1650 calling them Quakers "because I bid them tremble before the Lord".

Ranters

The Ranters were a sect in the time of the Commonwealth (1649–1660) who were regarded as heretical by the established Church of that period. Their central idea was pantheistic, that God is essentially in every creature; this led them to deny the authority of the Church, of scripture, of the current ministry and of services, instead calling on men to hearken to Jesus within them. Many Ranters seem to have rejected a belief in immortality and in a personal God, and in many ways they resemble the Brethren of the Free Spirit in the 14th century. The Ranters revived the Brethren of the Free Spirit's beliefs of amoralism and followed the Brethren's ideals which "stressed the desire to surpass the human condition and become godlike". Further drawing from the Brethren of the Free Spirit, the Ranters embraced antinomianism and believed that Christians are freed by grace from the necessity of obeying Mosaic Law. Because they believed that God was present in all living creatures, the Ranters' adherence to antinomianism allowed them to reject the very notion of obedience, thus making them a great threat to the stability of the government.

Sabbatarians

Sabbatarians were known in England from the time of Elizabeth I (1558–1603). Access to the Bible in English allowed anyone who could read English to study scripture and question Church doctrines. Sabbatarians challenged the Church's day of rest being on Sunday rather than Saturday. Some Dutch Anabaptists embraced Sabbatarianism, and may have helped to introduce these practices into England. Socinians and Reformed Church members were also known to hold Sabbatarian beliefs. Sabbatarian practitioners were also to be found within the Church of England in one form or another. Even the Puritans were known to harbour Sabbatarian views (cf Puritan Sabbatarianism). English Sabbatarianism is generally associated with John Traske (1585–1636), Theophilus Brabourne (1590–1662) and Dorothy Traske (c. 1585–1645), who also played a major role in keeping the early Traskite congregations growing in numbers.

Seekers

The Seekers were not a distinct religion or sect, but instead formed a religious society. Like other Protestant dissenting groups, they believed the Roman Catholic Church to be corrupt, which subsequently applied to the Church of England as well through its common heritage.

Seekers considered all churches and denominations to be in error, and believed that only a new church established by Christ upon his return could possess his grace. Their anticipation of this event was found in their practices. For example, Seekers held meetings as opposed to religious services, and as such had no clergy or hierarchy. During these gatherings they would wait in silence and speak only when felt that God had inspired them to do so.

Furthermore, to this, the Seekers denied the effectiveness of external forms of religion such as the sacraments, baptism and the Scriptures as a means of salvation.

Socinians

The followers of Socinianism were Unitarian or Nontrinitarian in theology and influenced by the Polish Brethren. The Socinians of 17th century England influenced the development of the English Presbyterians, the English Unitarians and the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland.

18th century dissenters
In the 18th century, one group of Dissenters became known as "Rational Dissenters". In many respects they were closer to the Anglicanism of their day than other Dissenting sects; however, they believed that state religions impinged on the freedom of conscience. They were fiercely opposed to the hierarchical structure of the Established Church and the financial ties between it and the government. Like moderate Anglicans, they desired an educated ministry and an orderly church, but they based their opinions on the Bible and on reason rather than on appeals to tradition and authority. They rejected doctrines such as the original sin or Trinity, arguing that they were irrational. Rational Dissenters believed that Christianity and faith could be dissected and evaluated using the newly emerging discipline of science, and that a stronger belief in God would be the result.

Another significant dissenting tradition that emerged at the end of the 18th century is the Swedenborgian church, which continues today in several branches around the world. It originated in London in 1780. Beginning as groups reading Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), whose members were composed largely of Methodists, Baptists, and Anglicans, some of the Swedenborgian enthusiasts became disillusioned with the prospects for thorough Swedenborgian theological reform within their respective traditions. These left those churches to form the General Conference of the New Jerusalem, often called simply the New Church. Other Swedenborgian converts, such as Anglican Rev. John Clowes and Rev. Thomas Hartley, argued for remaining within existing traditions. Swedenborg himself did not call for a new organisation, but for profound theological reform for the existing churches. At the end of his life, he endured a rare Swedish heresy inquiry by the Swedish Lutheran Consistory. He died before it was concluded, and the Consistory shelved the inquiry without reaching a decision. Swedenborg's primary critiques of orthodox theology centred on the tri-personal constructions of the Trinity, the idea of salvation by faith alone, and the vicarious atonement. He revived an allegorical tradition of reading scripture, which he believed was composed in correspondences. He believed in a theory of symbolic values in the literal text, which could produce an inner sense wherein the individual could ascertain the new theology.

Dissenting groups continuing today
Baptists
Congregationalists
Presbyterians (majority in Scotland but classified as dissenters in England, see English Presbyterianism)
other Reformed groups: e.g. United Reformed Church
Quakers
Unitarians and Unitarian Universalists
 Swedenborgians
Anabaptists
Nondenominational Protestants
and others

See also

17th century denominations in England
Christian anarchism
Dissenting academies
Ecclesiastical separatism
English Independents
History of the Puritans in North America
Freedom of religion
Global Fellowship of Confessing Anglicans
Nonconformist
Independent (religion)
Recusancy
Religion in the United Kingdom
Separatists

Notes

References

 Fitzpatrick, Martin. "Heretical Religion and Radical Political Ideas in Late Eighteenth-Century England." The Transformation of Political Culture: England and Germany in the Late Eighteenth Century. Ed. Eckhart Hellmuth. Oxford: Oxford University Press; London: German Historical Institute, 1990. .
 Mullett, Charles F. "The Legal Position of English Protestant Dissenters, 1689–1767." Virginia Law Review (1937): 389–418. .
 Philip, Mark. "Rational Religion and Political Radicalism." Enlightenment and Dissent 4 (1985): 35–46.
 ExLibris, Early English dissenters

Further reading
Driver, Christopher. A Future for the Free Churches? London: S.C.M. Press, 1962.
 Hahn-Bruckart, Thomas, Dissenters and Nonconformists: Phenomena of Religious Deviance Between the British Isles and the European Continent, EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2017, retrieved: 8 March 2021 (pdf).

Politics of England
Christian terminology
Christian radicalism

English Dissenters


A race track is a special place built for racing. The racing may be for people, animals, or vehicles. Examples of animal racing are horse racing. Examples of vehicle racing are automobiles and motorcycles. A race track may have seats for the spectators to watch the race.

Other name for race tracks are race course, speedway, and circuit.

Often race tracks are the place where people will bet on animals and vehicles to win.

Design
Modern racetracks are designed with safety as the first priority. This is very important for race tracks used in auto racing. Safety for the spectator, track workers, and racers. Fences are often used to protect the spectators from the race track. Barriers, sometimes padded, are used to stop race cars if they run off the track.

Most race tracks are a closed loop. The start and finish line is at the same place. Some tracks are open. They start at one point and end at a different location.

Oval
 Some race tracks are in the general form of a circle or oval. Michigan International Speedway is an example of an oval track. The racers always turn in the same direction. In the United States, they normally turn left. NASCAR runs most of its races on oval tracks.

Road course
 Some race tracks are called road courses. The racers turn both left and right. Donington Park in England is an example of a road course. Formula One runs most of its races on road courses. These types of tracks are often called circuits, especially in Europe.

Street circuit
Some races tracks are temporary street courses. Regular public roads are temporally closed, and the race couse is set-up using the closed roads. One of the most famous street course is Circuit de Monaco. Every year, the Formula One Monaco Grand Prix is held on this course. These types of tracks are usually called circuits.

References

Sports buildings

Race track


This article is about Popes in general. For the current Pope, see Pope Francis.

The Pope is the head of the Catholic Church.

Popes are elected by Cardinals of the Catholic Church. Once they are elected they hold the position until they die or resign. Usually they do not resign, though; Pope Benedict XVI is the only Pope to resign in the last 500 years.  A newly elected Pope chooses a regnal name.  Everyone is told this new name when the Habemus Papam is read out. The current pope (Francis) was called Jorge Bergoglio before he became a pope.

The name Pope comes from the Greek word pappas, meaning "father". Catholics believe that when making statements ex cathedra, that is official statements teaching about faith and morals, the Pope is infallible - which means God will not allow his followers to be misled by allowing their leader to make a wrong statement. Only two of any Pope's statements have been ex cathedra.

Popes today travel to many countries around the world preaching. The Pope is the only person in the world who both leads the church and government. Like other bishops he wears a big hat called a mitre and holds a staff called a crosier.

Recent popes
Some recent Popes, and the time they were Pope:
 Pope John XXIII, 1958-1963
 Pope Paul VI, 1963-1978
 Pope John Paul I, 1978
 Pope John Paul II, 1978-2005
 Pope Benedict XVI, 2005-2013
 Pope Francis, current pope

The Popes in Avignon
During parts of the Middle Ages, the French kings had a lot of influence in Europe. For this reason, seven popes (and two anti-popes) lived in Avignon, rather than Rome. The Avignon Papacy was from 1309 to 1377. During that time, the popes were known for their greed and corruption. These popes were allies of France; the enemies of France were also their enemies.

The Bishops of Rome who lived in Avignon were:
Pope Clement V: 1305–1314
Pope John XXII: 1316–1334
Pope Benedict XII: 1334–1342
Pope Clement VI: 1342–1352
Pope Innocent VI: 1352–1362
Pope Urban V: 1362–1370
Pope Gregory XI: 1370–1378

Two antipopes were based in Avignon as well:
Clement VII: 1378–1394
Benedict XIII: 1394–1423 (expelled from Avignon in 1403)

Antipopes were people that were elected by small groups who did not like the official choice.
Catherine of Siena convinced pope Gregory XI to move back to Rome. Unfortunately, he died shortly after moving. The cardinals then elected Urban VI to be the next pope. The French cardinals did not recognise this election as legitimate. They declared the papal see as vacant; which led to the Western Schism. The schism lasted until the Council of Constance in 1417. During this time, there was a pope in Rome, an Antipope in Avignon, and for some time, a second antipope. Each of the three was recognised as legitimate pope by different European powers. This led to a big split in the church as a whole. The council elected Pope Martin V as a new pope, recognised by all parties.

Related pages
 List of popes
 Abdication
 Habemus Papam
 Papal name

References

Other websites

Christian religious occupations

Pope


Rotation in mathematics is a concept originating in geometry. Any rotation is a motion of a certain space that preserves at least one point. It can describe, for example, the motion of a rigid body around a fixed point. Rotation can have a sign (as in the sign of an angle): a clockwise rotation is a negative magnitude so a counterclockwise turn has a positive magnitude.
A rotation is different from other types of motions: translations, which have no fixed points, and (hyperplane) reflections, each of them having an entire -dimensional flat of fixed points in a -dimensional space.

Mathematically, a rotation is a map. All rotations about a fixed point form a group under composition called the rotation group (of a particular space). But in mechanics and, more generally, in physics, this concept is frequently understood as a coordinate transformation (importantly, a transformation of an orthonormal basis), because for any motion of a body there is an inverse transformation which if applied to the frame of reference results in the body being at the same coordinates. For example, in two dimensions rotating a body clockwise about a point keeping the axes fixed is equivalent to rotating the axes counterclockwise about the same point while the body is kept fixed.  These two types of rotation are called active and passive transformations.

Related definitions and terminology
The rotation group is a Lie group of rotations about a fixed point. This (common) fixed point or center is called the center of rotation and is usually identified with the origin. The rotation group is a point stabilizer in a broader group of (orientation-preserving) motions.

For a particular rotation:
 The axis of rotation is a line of its fixed points. They exist only in .
 The plane of rotation is a plane that is invariant under the rotation. Unlike the axis, its points are not fixed themselves. The axis (where present) and the plane of a rotation are orthogonal.

A representation of rotations is a particular formalism, either algebraic or geometric, used to parametrize a rotation map. This meaning is somehow inverse to the meaning in the group theory.

Rotations of (affine) spaces of points and of respective vector spaces are not always clearly distinguished. The former are sometimes referred to as affine rotations (although the term is misleading), whereas the latter are vector rotations. See the article below for details.

Definitions and representations

In Euclidean geometry

A motion of a Euclidean space is the same as its isometry: it leaves the distance between any two points unchanged after the transformation. But a (proper) rotation also has to preserve the orientation structure. The "improper rotation" term refers to isometries that reverse (flip) the orientation. In the language of group theory the distinction is expressed as direct vs indirect isometries in the Euclidean group, where the former comprise the identity component. Any direct Euclidean motion can be represented as a composition of a rotation about the fixed point and a translation.

In one-dimensional space, there are only trivial rotations. In two dimensions, only a single angle is needed to specify a rotation about the origin – the angle of rotation that specifies an element of the circle group (also known as ). The rotation is acting to rotate an object counterclockwise through an angle  about the origin; see below for details. Composition of rotations sums their angles modulo 1 turn, which implies that all two-dimensional rotations about the same point commute. Rotations about different points, in general, do not commute. Any two-dimensional direct motion is either a translation or a rotation; see Euclidean plane isometry for details.

Rotations in three-dimensional space differ from those in two dimensions in a number of important ways. Rotations in three dimensions are generally not commutative, so the order in which rotations are applied is important even about the same point. Also, unlike the two-dimensional case, a three-dimensional direct motion, in general position, is not a rotation but a screw operation. Rotations about the origin have three degrees of freedom (see rotation formalisms in three dimensions for details), the same as the number of dimensions.
A three-dimensional rotation can be specified in a number of ways. The most usual methods are:
 Euler angles (pictured at the left). Any rotation about the origin can be represented as the composition of three rotations defined as the motion obtained by changing one of the Euler angles while leaving the other two constant. They constitute a mixed axes of rotation system because angles are measured with respect to a mix of different reference frames, rather than a single frame that is purely external or purely intrinsic. Specifically, the first angle moves the line of nodes around the external axis z, the second rotates around the line of nodes and the third is an intrinsic rotation (a spin) around an axis fixed in the body that moves. Euler angles are typically denoted as α, β, γ, or φ, θ, ψ. This presentation is convenient only for rotations about a fixed point.

 Axis–angle representation (pictured at the right) specifies an angle with the axis about which the rotation takes place. It can be easily visualised. There are two variants to represent it:
 as a pair consisting of the angle and a unit vector for the axis, or
 as a Euclidean vector obtained by multiplying the angle with this unit vector, called the rotation vector (although, strictly speaking, it is a pseudovector).
 Matrices, versors (quaternions), and other algebraic things: see the section Linear and Multilinear Algebra Formalism for details.

A general rotation in four dimensions has only one fixed point, the centre of rotation, and no axis of rotation; see rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space for details. Instead the rotation has two mutually orthogonal planes of rotation, each of which is fixed in the sense that points in each plane stay within the planes. The rotation has two angles of rotation, one for each plane of rotation, through which points in the planes rotate. If these are  and  then all points not in the planes rotate through an angle between  and . Rotations in four dimensions about a fixed point have six degrees of freedom. A four-dimensional direct motion in general position is a rotation about certain point (as in all even Euclidean dimensions), but screw operations exist also.

Linear and multilinear algebra formalism

When one considers motions of the Euclidean space that preserve the origin, the distinction between points and vectors, important in pure mathematics, can be erased because there is a canonical one-to-one correspondence between points and position vectors. The same is true for geometries other than Euclidean, but whose space is an affine space with a supplementary structure; see an example below. Alternatively, the vector description of rotations can be understood as a parametrization of geometric rotations up to their composition with translations. In other words, one vector rotation presents many equivalent rotations about all points in the space.

A motion that preserves the origin is the same as a linear operator on vectors that preserves the same geometric structure but expressed in terms of vectors. For Euclidean vectors, this expression is their magnitude (Euclidean norm). In components, such operator is expressed with  orthogonal matrix that is multiplied to column vectors.

As it was already stated, a (proper) rotation is different from an arbitrary fixed-point motion in its preservation of the orientation of the vector space. Thus, the determinant of a rotation orthogonal matrix must be 1. The only other possibility for the determinant of an orthogonal matrix is , and this result means the transformation is a hyperplane reflection, a point reflection (for odd ), or another kind of improper rotation. Matrices of all proper rotations form the special orthogonal group.

Two dimensions

In two dimensions, to carry out a rotation using a matrix, the point  to be rotated counterclockwise is written as a column vector, then multiplied by a rotation matrix calculated from the angle :

.

The coordinates of the point after rotation are , and the formulae for  and  are

The vectors  and  have the same magnitude and are separated by an angle  as expected.

Points on the  plane can be also presented as complex numbers: the point  in the plane is represented by the complex number

This can be rotated through an angle  by multiplying it by  , then expanding the product using Euler's formula as follows:

and equating real and imaginary parts gives the same result as a two-dimensional matrix:

Since complex numbers form a commutative ring, vector rotations in two dimensions are commutative, unlike in higher dimensions. They have only one degree of freedom, as such rotations are entirely determined by the angle of rotation.

Three dimensions

As in two dimensions, a matrix can be used to rotate a point  to a point . The matrix used is a  matrix,

This is multiplied by a vector representing the point to give the result

The set of all appropriate matrices together with the operation of matrix multiplication is the rotation group SO(3). The matrix  is a member of the three-dimensional special orthogonal group, , that is it is an orthogonal matrix with determinant 1. That it is an orthogonal matrix means that its rows are a set of orthogonal unit vectors (so they are an orthonormal basis) as are its columns, making it simple to spot and check if a matrix is a valid rotation matrix.

Above-mentioned Euler angles and axis–angle representations can be easily converted to a rotation matrix.

Another possibility to represent a rotation of three-dimensional Euclidean vectors are quaternions described below.

Quaternions

Unit quaternions, or versors, are in some ways the least intuitive representation of three-dimensional rotations. They are not the three-dimensional instance of a general approach. They are more compact than matrices and easier to work with than all other methods, so are often preferred in real-world applications.

A versor (also called a rotation quaternion) consists of four real numbers, constrained so the norm of the quaternion is 1. This constraint limits the degrees of freedom of the quaternion to three, as required. Unlike matrices and complex numbers two multiplications are needed:

where  is the versor,  is its inverse, and  is the vector treated as a quaternion with zero scalar part. The quaternion can be related to the rotation vector form of the axis angle rotation by the exponential map over the quaternions,

where  is the rotation vector treated as a quaternion.

A single multiplication by a versor, either left or right, is itself a rotation, but in four dimensions. Any four-dimensional rotation about the origin can be represented with two quaternion multiplications: one left and one right, by two different unit quaternions.

Further notes
More generally, coordinate rotations in any dimension are represented by orthogonal matrices.  The set of all orthogonal matrices in  dimensions which describe proper rotations (determinant = +1), together with the operation of matrix multiplication, forms the special orthogonal group .

Matrices are often used for doing transformations, especially when a large number of points are being transformed, as they are a direct representation of the linear operator. Rotations represented in other ways are often converted to matrices before being used. They can be extended to represent rotations and transformations at the same time using homogeneous coordinates. Projective transformations are represented by  matrices. They are not rotation matrices, but a transformation that represents a Euclidean rotation has a  rotation matrix in the upper left corner.

The main disadvantage of matrices is that they are more expensive to calculate and do calculations with. Also in calculations where numerical instability is a concern matrices can be more prone to it, so calculations to restore orthonormality, which are expensive to do for matrices, need to be done more often.

More alternatives to the matrix formalism
As was demonstrated above, there exist three multilinear algebra rotation formalisms: one with U(1), or complex numbers, for two dimensions, and two others with versors, or quaternions, for three and four dimensions.

In general (even for vectors equipped with a non-Euclidean Minkowski quadratic form) the rotation of a vector space can be expressed as a bivector. This formalism is used in geometric algebra and, more generally, in the Clifford algebra representation of Lie groups.

In the case of a positive-definite Euclidean quadratic form, the double covering group of the isometry group  is known as the Spin group, . It can be conveniently described in terms of a Clifford algebra. Unit quaternions give the group .

In non-Euclidean geometries
In spherical geometry, a direct motion of the -sphere (an example of the elliptic geometry) is the same as a rotation of -dimensional Euclidean space about the origin (). For odd , most of these motions do not have fixed points on the -sphere and, strictly speaking, are not rotations of the sphere; such motions are sometimes referred to as Clifford translations. Rotations about a fixed point in elliptic and hyperbolic geometries are not different from Euclidean ones.

Affine geometry and projective geometry have not a distinct notion of rotation.

In relativity

A generalization of a rotation applies in special relativity, where it can be considered to operate on a four-dimensional space, spacetime, spanned by three space dimensions and one of time. In special relativity, this space is called Minkowski space, and the four-dimensional rotations, called Lorentz transformations, have a physical interpretation. These transformations preserve a quadratic form called the spacetime interval.

If a rotation of Minkowski space is in a space-like plane, then this rotation is the same as a spatial rotation in Euclidean space. By contrast, a rotation in a plane spanned by a space-like dimension and a time-like dimension is a hyperbolic rotation, and if this plane contains the time axis of the reference frame, is called a "Lorentz boost". These transformations demonstrate the pseudo-Euclidean nature of the Minkowski space. Hyperbolic rotations are sometimes described as squeeze mappings and frequently appear on Minkowski diagrams that visualize (1 + 1)-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean geometry on planar drawings. The study of relativity is deals with the Lorentz group generated by the space rotations and hyperbolic rotations.

Whereas  rotations, in physics and astronomy, correspond to rotations of celestial sphere as a 2-sphere in the Euclidean 3-space, Lorentz transformations from  induce conformal transformations of the celestial sphere. It is a broader class of the sphere transformations known as Möbius transformations.

Discrete rotations

Importance
Rotations define important classes of symmetry: rotational symmetry is an invariance with respect to a particular rotation. The circular symmetry is an invariance with respect to all rotation about the fixed axis.

As was stated above, Euclidean rotations are applied to rigid body dynamics. Moreover, most of mathematical formalism in physics (such as the vector calculus) is rotation-invariant; see rotation for more physical aspects. Euclidean rotations and, more generally, Lorentz symmetry described above are thought to be symmetry laws of nature. In contrast, the reflectional symmetry is not a precise symmetry law of nature.

Generalizations

The complex-valued matrices analogous to real orthogonal matrices are the unitary matrices , which represent rotations in complex space.  The set of all unitary matrices in a given dimension  forms a unitary group  of degree ; and its subgroup representing proper rotations (those that preserve the orientation of space) is the special unitary group  of degree . These complex rotations are important in the context of spinors. The elements of  are used to parametrize three-dimensional Euclidean rotations (see above), as well as respective transformations of the spin (see representation theory of SU(2)).

See also
 Aircraft principal axes
 Charts on SO(3)
 Rotations and reflections in two dimensions
 CORDIC
 Squeeze mapping
 Infinitesimal rotation matrix
 Irrational rotation
 Orientation (geometry)
 Rodrigues' rotation formula
 Rotation of axes
 Vortex

Footnotes

References

Euclidean symmetries
Rotational symmetry
Linear operators
Unitary operators

Rotation (mathematics)


Liquor is any alcoholic drink containing ethanol and produced by distilling. They are also called distilled beverages. The term hard liquor is used around North America and India to tell distilled beverages from those that are weaker. If the beverage carries no added sugar or has at least 20% alcohol by volume, it is referred to as a spirit. Alcoholic beverages are under different regulations around the world.

Alcoholic drinks

Liquor


Tax is money that people have to pay to the government.

The government uses the money it gets from taxes to pay for things. For example, taxes are used to pay for people who work for the government, such as the military and police, provide services such as education and health care, and to maintain or build things like roads, bridges and sewers. The earliest known taxes were those of the Egyptian Old Kingdom.

Types of taxes

There are many different kinds of taxes. They may be direct tax or indirect  tax.
 Taxes that are based on how much money a company earns are called corporate taxes
 Taxes that are based on how much money a person earns are called income taxes.

 Taxes that are based on how much a person buys are called sales taxes.
 Taxes that are based on how much a person owns are called property taxes. Things like houses have a property tax on them.
 Taxes that are paid when official documents are approved are called stamp duties (because in the past the document would have a stamp put on it). Changing who owns a house will often need a document approving.
 Taxes that are paid when somebody dies are called inheritance or estate taxes.

Taxes can also be split into 3 groups:
 Flat taxes: Everybody pays the same percentage. Russia has a flat income tax and everybody in Russia has to pay 13% of the income.
 Progressive taxes: The more money a person makes, the higher percentage of their income they have to pay. Most countries have progressive income taxes.
 Regressive taxes: The less money a person makes, the higher percentage of their income they have to pay. Sales taxes are usually called regressive as poor people spend a higher percentage of their money than rich people.

Paying lots of different taxes
Often because different parts of governments use taxes for different things, people end up paying lots of taxes.

In the United States, for example, the national government has an income tax; most states have an income tax or a sales tax, or both; and cities and towns may have a sales tax or a property tax. In some states such as Ohio, the sales tax is different in each county.

Before Taxes
In ancient times, people from one city or area would attack another place, and make the people there pay tribute. Tribute meant that the attacked people would pay money (or other things), and the attacker would stop attacking them. A famous tribute was the Danegeld, when people from Denmark conquered part of England and made the English pay thousands of silver coins.

Groups who are against taxes
Anarchists and Libertarians are against all taxes or against high taxes. As people are paying them unwillingly and under the threat of sanctions, they say that taxation is the same as robbery. (Taxation as theft)

References

Related pages
Income tax in the United States
Tithe

Basic English 850 words

Tax


Bima Sakti atawa catang bobo (  alihbasa tina basa Latin Via Lactea, diturunkeun tina basa Yunani Γαλαξίας (Galaxias), kadang-kadang dirujuk sacara baasjan minangka "Galaksi"), mangrupa barred spiral galaxy tina Grup Lokal. Sanajan Bima Sakti sapersamiliar tina galaksi dina jagat, Galaksi miboga kapentingan husus kana kamanusaan sabab mangrupa tempatna Sistim tatasurya. Democritus (450 BC–370 BC) mimiti nyebutkeun yén Bima Sakti ngawengku béntang-béntang nu jarauh.

Ucapan "milky" asalna tina kumpulan cahaya bodas nu ngabaur, ngebat sapanjang bola langit katinggali ti Bumi, nu ngandung bentang - bentang jeung benda - benda laina nu ngalayah dina widang galaksi. The galaxy appéars brightest in the direction of Sagittarius, towards the galactic center. Relative to the celestial equator, the Milky Way passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux, indicating the high inclination of éarth's equatorial plane and the plane of the ecliptic relative to the galactic plane.The fact that the Milky Way divides the night sky into two roughly equal hemispheres indicates that the solar system lies close to the galactic plane.

The main disk of the Milky Way Galaxy is about 80,000 to 100,000 light years in diameter, about 250-300 thousand light yéars in circumference, and outside the Galactic core, about 1,000 light yéars in thickness. It is composed of 200 to 400 billion stars . As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the galaxy were reduced to 130 km (80 mi) in diameter, the solar system would be a méré  2 mm (0.08 in) in width. The Galactic Halo extends out to 250,000 to 400,000 light years in diameter. As detailed in the Structure section below, new discoveries indicate that the disk extends much farther than previously thought.

The Milky Way's absolute magnitude, which cannot be méasured directly, is assumed by astronomical convention to be −20.5, although other authors give an absolute magnitude of -21.3.

Umur
The age of the Galaxy is currently estimated to be about 13.6 billion (109) years, which is néarly as old as the Universe itself.

This estimate is based upon reséarch performed in 2004 by a téam of astronomers: Luca Pasquini, Piercarlo Bonifacio, Sofia Randich, Daniele Galli, and Raffaele G. Gratton. The téam used the UV-Visual Echelle Spectrograph of the Very Large Telescope to measure, for the first time, the beryllium content of two stars in globular cluster NGC 6397. This allowed them to deduce the elapsed time between the rise of the first generation of stars in the entire Galaxy and the first generation of stars in the cluster, at 200 million to 300 million years. By including the estimated age of the stars in the globular cluster (13.4 ± 0.8 billion yéars), they estimated the age of the Galaxy at 13.6 ± 0.8 billion yéars.

Struktur

As of 2005, the Milky Way is thought to comprise a large barred spiral galaxy of Hubble type SBbc (loosely wound barred spiral).
As of 2006, the Milky Way's mass is thought to be about 5.8 M☉ comprising 200 to 400 billion stars. Its integrated absolute visual magnitude has been estimated to be -21.3.

It was only in the 1980s that astronomers began to suspect that the Milky Way is a barred spiral rather than an ordinary spiral, which observations in 2005 with the Spitzer Space Telescope have since confirmed, showing that the galaxy's central bar is larger than previously suspected.

The galactic disk, which bulges outward at the galactic center, has an estimated diameter of about 100,000 light-years. The distance from the Sun to the galactic center is now estimated at 26,000±1400 light-yéars while older estimates could put our parent star as far as 35000 light-yéars from the central bulge.

The galactic center harbors a compact object of very large mass (named Sagittarius A*), strongly suspected to be a supermassive black hole.  Most galaxies are believed to have a supermassive black hole at their center.

As is typical for many galaxies, the distribution of mass in the Milky Way is such that the orbital speed of most stars in the galaxy does not depend strongly on its distance from the center. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar velocity is between 210 and 240 km/s. Hence the orbital period of the typical star is directly proportional only to the length of the path travelled. This is unlike in the solar system where different orbits are also expected to have significantly different velocities associated with them, and is one of the major pieces of evidence for the existence of dark matter.

The galaxy's bar is thought to be about 27,000 light yéars long, running through the center of the galaxy at a 44±10 degree angle to the line between our sun and the center of the galaxy. It is composed primarily of red stars, believed to be ancient.
The bar is surrounded by a ring called the "5-kpc ring" that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the galaxy and most of the Milky Way's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest féature of the Milky Way

éach spiral arm describes a logarithmic spiral (as do the arms of all spiral galaxies) with a pitch of approximately 12 degrees. There are believed to be four major spiral arms which all start at the Galaxy's center. These are named as follows, according to the image at right:
 2 and 8 - 3kpc and Perseus Arm
 3 and 7 - Norma and Cygnus Arm (Along with a newly discovered extension - 6)
 4 and 10 - Crux and Scutum Arm
 5 and 9 - Carina and Sagittarius Arm

There are at léast two smaller arms or spurs, including:
 11 - Orion Arm (which contains the solar system and the Sun - 12)

Outside of the major spiral arms is the Outer Ring or Monoceros Ring, a ring of stars around the Milky Way proposed by astronomers Brian Yanny and Heidi Jo Newberg, which consists of gas and stars torn from other galaxies billions of yéars ago.

The galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of old stars and globular clusters approximately 250,000 to 400,000 light years in diameter. While the disk contains gas and dust obscuring the view in some wavelengths, the spheroid component does not. Active star formation takes place in the disk (especially in the spiral arms, which represent aréas of high density), but not in the halo. Open clusters also occur primarily in the disk.

Most of the mass of the Milky Way is thought to be dark matter, forming a dark matter halo of an estimated 600-3000 billion solar masses (M☉) which is concentrated towards the Galactic Center.

Recent discoveries have given added dimension to our knowledge of the structure of the Milky Way. With the discovery that the disc of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) extends much further than previously thought, the possibility of the disk of the Milky Way extending further is apparent, and this is supported by evidence of the newly discovered Outer Arm extension of the Cygnus Arm. With the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy came the discovery of a ribbon of galactic debris as the polar orbit of Sagittarius and its interaction with the Milky Way téars it apart. Similarly, with the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, a ring of galactic debris from its interaction with the Milky Way encircles the galactic disk.

On January 9, 2006 Mario Juric and others of Princeton University announced that the Sloan Digital Sky Survey of the northern sky has found a huge and diffuse structure (spréad out across an aréa around 5,000 times the size of a full moon) within the Milky Way that does not seem to fit within our current modéls.  The collection of stars rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the Milky Way.  The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy is merging with the Milky Way.  This galaxy is tentatively named the Virgo Stellar Stream and is found in the direction of Virgo about 30,000 light yéars away.

On May 9, 2006, Daniel Zucker and Vasily Belokurov announced that the Sloan Digital Sky Survey has discovered two dwarf galaxies towards the constellations Canes Venatici and Boötes.

Tempat Panonpoé dina Bima Sakti
The Sun (and therefore the Earth and Solar System) may be found close to the inner rim of the Orion Arm, in the Local Fluff, at a distance of 7.94±0.42 kpc from the Galactic Center. The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 6,500 light-years. Our Sun, and thus the solar system, is found in what scientists call the galactic habitable zone.

The Apex of the Sun's Way, or the solar apex, refers to the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the sun's galactic motion is towards the star Vega néar the constellation of Hercules, at an angle of roughly 86 degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. The sun's orbit around the galaxy is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions.

It takes the solar system about 225-250 million yéars to complete one orbit (a galactic year), and so is thought to have completed about 20-25 orbits during its lifetime or 0.0008 orbit since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the solar system is 217 km/s, i.e. 1 light-yéar in ca. 1400 yéars, and 1 AU in 8 days.

The Hayden Planetarium uses 8.0 kpc in their interactive 3D Milky Way Atlas, which just includes the Galactic Center.

Lingkungan Bima Sakti

The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are a binary system of giant spiral galaxies. Together with their companion galaxies they form the Local Group, a group of some 50 closely bound galaxies. The Local Group is part of the Virgo Supercluster.

The Milky Way is orbited by two smaller galaxies and a number of dwarf galaxies in the Local Group. The largest of these is the Large Magellanic Cloud with a diameter of 20,000 light yéars. It has a close companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud. The Magellanic Stream is a peculiar stréamer of neutral hydrogen gas connecting these two small galaxies. The stréam is thought to have been dragged from the Magellanic Clouds in tidal interactions with the Milky Way. Some of the dwarf galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are Canis Major Dwarf (the closest), Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, and Leo I Dwarf. The smallest Milky Way dwarf galaxies are only 500 light yéars in diameter. These include Carina Dwarf, Draco Dwarf, and Leo II Dwarf. There may still be undetected dwarf galaxies, which are dynamically bound to the Milky Way. Observations through the zone-of-avoidance are frequently detecting new distant and néarby galaxies. Some galaxies consisting mostly of gas and dust may also have evaded detection so far.

In January 2006, reséarchers reported that the heretofore unexplained warp in the disk of the Milky Way has now been mapped and found to be a ripple or vibration set up by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds as they circle the Milky Way, causing vibrations at certain frequencies when they pass through the edges of our Galaxy.  Previously, these two galaxies, at around 2% of the mass of the Milky Way, were considered too small to influence the Milky Way.  However, by taking into account dark matter, the movement of these two galaxies créates a wake that influences the larger Milky Way.  Taking dark matter into account results in an approximately twenty-fold incréase in mass for the Milky Way.  This calculation is according to a computer modél made by Martin Weinberg of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. In this modél, the dark matter is spréading out from the Milky Way disk with the known gas layer.  As a result, the modél predicts that the gravitational impact of the Magellanic Clouds is amplified as they pass through the Milky Way.

Kagancangan ngaliwatan angkasa
In the general sense, the absolute speed of any object through space is not a méaningful question according to Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, which declares that there is no "preferred" inertial frame of reference in space with which to compare the galaxy's motion. (Motion must always be specified with respect to another object.)

With this in mind, many astronomers believe the galaxy is moving through space at approximately 600 km per second relative to the observed locations of other néarby galaxies. Most recent estimates range from 130 km/s to 1,000 km/s. If indeed the Milky Way is moving at 600 km per second, we are travelling 51.84 million km per day, or more than 18.9 billion km per yéar. For comparison, this would méan that éach yéar, we are travelling about 4.5 times the distance that Pluto lies from the éarth (at its closest). The Milky Way is thought to be moving in the direction of the constellation Hydra, and may someday become a close-knit member of the Virgo cluster of galaxies. Our galaxy may also collide with the Andromeda galaxy in roughly 4 billion yéars. See below.

Another reference frame is provided by the CMB. The Milky Way is moving at around 552 km/s with respect to the photons of the cosmic microwave background. This can be observed by satellites such as COBE and WMAP as a dipole contribution to the CMB, as photons in equilibrium at the CMB frame get blue-shifted in the direction of the motion and red-shifted in the opposite direction.

Mitologi

There are many creation myths around the world regarding the Milky Way. In particular, there are two similar ancient Greek stories that explain the etymology of the name Galaxies (Γαλαξίας) and its association with milk (γάλα). Some myths associate the constellation with a herd of cattle whose milk gives the sky its blue glow. In éastern Asia, péople believed that the hazy band of stars was the "Silvery River" of Héaven.  This is written in hanzi as 銀河.

Akashaganga is the Indian name for the Milky Way Galaxy, which méans Ganges River of the Sky.

According to Greek mythology, the Milky Way was formed by Hera, who spilled milk in the sky after discovering that Zeus had tricked her into feeding young Heracles. In another variant, Hermes snuck Heracles into Olympus to drink from the bréasts of Hera who was asleep. Heracles bit Hera's nipple shooting her milk into the skies forming the Milky Way.

In Finnish mythology the Milky Way was called Linnunrata (pathway of the birds). The Finns observed the migratory birds used the galaxy as a guideline to travel south, where they believed Lintukoto (bird home) resided. Only later the scientists indeed confirmed the observation correct; the migratory birds use the Milky Way as a guide and dwell the winters in warm, southern lands. The Milky Way is even today called Linnunrata in the Finnish language.

In Swedish, the Milky Way is known as Vintergatan (winter street), for apparent réasons; it is most visible in the winter in Scandinavia.

Ancient Armenian mythology called the Milky Way the "Straw Thief's Way", relating to one of the gods stéaling straw and attempting to flee across the héavens in a wooden chariot, spilling some of the straw along the way.

In Hindu mythology the galaxy is called the s'is'umara cakra: the dolphin disc.  Looking in the night sky one recognized the band of stars as the belly of a dolphin.

In Slovene, the galaxy is called Rimska cesta, literally "The Roman Road" (or "The Road to Rome", alluding to the ancient pilgrim path). Sometimes, infrequently, it is also called Mlečna cesta, which is a literal translation of its Greek/Latin name. i.e. "Milky Way".

In Spanish, the galaxy is sometimes called "Camino de Santiago", "The Road to Santiago <de Compostela>", alluding to the ancient pilgrim road to the town of Santiago de Compostela, in Spain.

Bima Sakti keur ka hareupna
Current méasurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at 300 kilometers per second, and that the Milky Way might collide with it in several (3-4) billion yéars, depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies' relative motion. If they do collide, it is thought that our sun and the other stars of the Milky Way will probably not collide with the stars of Andromeda, but they will merge to form an elliptical galaxy over the course of about a billion yéars.

Référénsi

Tumbu luar
 The Milky Way Galaxy, SEDS Messier pages
 MultiWavelength Milky Way  NASA site with images and VRML modéls
 Composite image of the Milky Way
 Widefield Image of the Summer Milky Way
 The Milky Way Galaxy from An Atlas of the Universe
 Proposed Ring around the Milky Way
 Milky Way spiral gets an extra arm New Scientist.com
 Possible New Milky Way Spiral Arm Sky and Telescope .com
 The Milky Way spiral arms and a possible climate connection
 The 1920 Shapley - Curtis Debate on the size of the Milky Way
 Galactic center mosaic via sun-orbiting Spitzer infrared telescope
 Milky Way Plan Views
 Scientific American Magazine (January 2004 Issue) Our Growing, Breathing Galaxy
 Deriving The Shape Of The Galactic Stellar Disc  (SkyNightly) Mar 17, 2006
 Digital Sky LLC , Digital Sky's Milky Way Panorama and other images

Subgrup Bima Sakti
Grup lokal
Astronomi galaksi

Bima Sakti


The Apollo program (or Project Apollo) was a project by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The program was named after the Greek god Apollo. The goal was to send a human to explore the Moon and bring him home to earth safely. It was started by US President John F. Kennedy in 1961. He said:

One reason the program started was that the Soviet Union was the first country to send a person into outer space. Since this was during the Cold War, many in the US thought that the US needed to stay ahead of the USSR in space exploration.

The Apollo spacecraft was made up of a Command and Service Module, and a Lunar Module. The Command Module was a space capsule. The Lunar Module was a lander. These spacecraft docked on the way to the Moon. Mercury and Gemini spaceships were very small and cramped, but the Apollo capsule was much bigger. Astronauts could move around and not have to stay in their seats. The Lunar Lander was also big on the inside. The only part of the Apollo spacecraft to come back to Earth was the capsule, the Lunar Module would crash on the moon.

The Apollo program ended in 1975. After that, NASA began to work on the Space Shuttle program, the International Space Station, and many unmanned space exploration projects.

There was a movie made about the problems that happened on the Apollo 13 mission.

Missions

In September 1967, Owen Maynard of the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas proposed a series of Apollo missions that would lead to landing a person on the Moon. There were seven types of mission, each testing a specific set of parts and tasks. Each step would need to be completed successfully before the next mission type could begin. These were:

 A - Unmanned Saturn V and Command/Service Module (CSM) development (Apollo 4, Apollo 6)
 B - Unmanned Lunar Module (LM) development (Apollo 5)
 C - Manned CSM evaluation in low Earth orbit (Apollo 7)
 D - Manned CSM and LM development in low Earth orbit (originally planned for Apollo 8; flown as Apollo 9)
 E - Manned CSM and LM operations, a practice lunar mission in a medium Earth orbit with an apogee of 4600 mi (7400 km), but never flew
 F - Manned CSM and LM operations in lunar orbit, a "dress rehearsal" for the first landing (Apollo 10)
 G - First manned lunar landing (Apollo 11)

The first manned Lunar Module, LM-3, was not ready for the December 1968 launch date of Apollo 8. The mission flew as a lunar orbital mission, using just the CSM. The E mission was canceled.

The first landing would be followed by more advanced lunar missions:
 H - precision landings with up to two-day stays on the Moon, with two lunar Extra-Vehicular Activities or "moonwalks" (Apollo 12, Apollo 13 (planned), Apollo 14)
 I - long duration CSM lunar orbital surveys using a Scientific Instrument Module mounted in an empty Service Module bay. These were added into the J missions.
 J - longer three-day stays using an Extended LM, with three LEVAs and a Lunar Roving Vehicle (Apollo 15, Apollo 16, Apollo 17). Apollo 18 to 20 would have been J missions. Apollo 15 was originally an H mission but was changed to J as the program was cut short.

Apollo flights

The Apollo flights were carried into space by the Saturn I and V rockets.

Uncrewed
 AS-101 was launched on May 28, 1964. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.
 AS-102 was launched on September 18, 1964. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.
 AS-103 was launched on February 16, 1965. The flight was designed to test the Command Module. It also carried a Pegasus satellite.
 AS-104 was launched on May 25, 1965. The flight was designed to test the Command Module. It also carried a Pegasus satellite.
 AS-105 was launched on July 30, 1965. The flight was designed to test the Command Module. It also carried a Pegasus satellite.
 AS-201 was launched on February 26, 1966. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.
 AS-202 was launched on August 25, 1966. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.
 Apollo 4 was launched on November 9, 1967. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.
 Apollo 5 was launched on January 22, 1968. The flight was designed to test the Lunar Module.
 Apollo 6 was launched on April 4, 1968. The flight was the last flight to check all the systems.

Crewed
 Apollo 1 caught fire during pre-flight training on January 27, 1967, killing three astronauts: Edward White, Gus Grissom, and Roger Chaffee.
 Apollo 7 was launched on October 11, 1968. This was the first flight with a crew, Wally Schirra, Donn Eisele, and Walter Cunningham. The flight, which orbited the Earth for several days, tested the command Module.
 Apollo 8 was launched December 21, 1968. The crew, Frank Borman, Jim Lovell, and William Anders, were the first astronauts to go into orbit around the Moon.
 Apollo 9 was launched March 9, 1969. The crew, James McDivitt, David Scott, and Russell Schweickart, tested the Lunar Module in orbit around the Earth and practised docking with the Command Module.
 Apollo 10 was launched on May 18, 1969. This was the first complete Apollo rocket carrying all the equipment. The crew, Thomas Stafford, John Young, and Eugene Cernan, studied possible landing sites while in orbit around the Moon.
 Apollo 11 was launched on July 16, 1969. This was the first spacecraft to land on the Moon with astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on July 20, 1969. Michael Collins was in control of the Command Module which stayed in orbit around the moon.
 Apollo 12 was launched on November 14, 1969. The crew Pete Conrad and Alan Bean were the second team to land on the Moon on November 19, 1969. They collected moon rocks and examined the Surveyor 3 spacecraft that had landed on the Moon in 1967. Richard Gordon stayed in the Command Module
 Apollo 13 was launched on April 11, 1970. An explosion in one of the oxygen tanks nearly caused the death of the three astronauts, Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise. Emergency repairs were made and the they were able to return safely to Earth.
 Apollo 14 was launched on January 31, 1971. On February 5, 1971 astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell became the third group to land on the Moon. They collected rocks and carried out experiments while Stuart Roosa stayed in orbit in the Command Module.
 Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971. It continued the collecting and experiments of earlier landings. David Scott and James Irwin landed on the Moon on July 30, 1971, while Alfred Worden stayed in orbit.
 Apollo 16 was launched on April 16, 1972. John Young and Charles Duke landed on the Moon on April 21, 1972, while Ken Mattingly stayed in orbit.
 Apollo 17 was launched on December 7, 1972. This was the final Moon visit, landing on December 11, 1972, and was the first to take a scientist, Harrison Schmitt with astronaut Eugene Cernan. Ronald Evans stayed in orbit.
 Skylab 2 was launched on May 25, 1973. Pete Conrad, Paul Weitz and Joseph Kerwin were the first crew of the Skylab space station.
 Skylab 3 was launched on July 28, 1973. Alan Bean, Jack Lousma and Owen Garriott were the crew of the Skylab space station.
 Skylab 4 was launched on November 16, 1973. Gerald Carr, William Pogue and Edward Gibson were the last crew of the Skylab space station.
 Apollo-Soyuz was launched on July 15, 1975. It was the last mission of Apollo.

Related pages
 Moon landing conspiracy theories
 NASA

References

1960s in spaceflight
1970s in spaceflight

Apollo program


Matsuo Munefusa, known as Matsuo Bashō (, 1644 - November 28, 1694) was a Japanese poet. He is known as the greatest maker of haiku, a kind of poetry with 17 syllables. The Japanese written language was difficult to master, but haiku was easy for him to write. Matsuo's haikus included characteristics of nature and the four seasons. The reader has to use their imagination to understand his poems.

According to Japanese custom, he is usually called Basho without his family name, and his signature as a poet does not include his house name. He signed usually "はせを". He is one of the greatest writers of the Edo period, and he raised the haiku form to its highest level.

He was born in Iga, now a part of Mie prefecture in a samurai (Japanese warrior) family. After many years of samurai life he found that poetry would be his life work, and gave up being a samurai. He started his life as a poet when he served his lord as a samurai. Matsuo became educated in classical Japanese poems. First he named himself Tosei (桃青) meaning "unripe peach in blue". Basho took this name because he admired a Chinese poet, Li Po whose name means plum in white.

He quit samurai life 1666, and in 1675 he moved to Edo, today called Tokyo. There, in 1678, he got to be a haiku master ("Sosho") and began the life of a working poet. In 1680, he moved to Fukagawa, where he had a house. This was just outside of Edo. One of his followers gifted him a banana plant (basho-an). He planted the plant and called himself Basho because it became his favorite tree in his garden.

In his life, Basho visited many places. Those travels were important for his writings. He visited his disciples (followers) and taught them by making renga, a series of haiku, with them. He also visited famous places in Japanese history. These visits made his writing much stronger.

His most famous book is Oku no Hosomichi ("The Narrow Road Through the Deep North"). This book was written after a trip. On the trip, Basho and his disciple left Edo on March 24, 1689. They went around Tohoku and Hokuriku, and returned to Edo in 1691. The trip in this book ends in Ogaki, Mino (Gifu prefecture today) with one of his haiku where he hinted that he wanted to visit Ise shrine after staying in Ogaki. Matsuo was considered to have written some of the most beautiful travel diaries ever written in Japanese.

Basho died because of disease in early autumn of 1694 in Osaka, while staying at a house of his disciple on a trip.  Before his death, he made a haiku as his last words:

Tabini yande / yume ha kareno wo / kake meguru
On travel I am sick
My dream is running around
a field covered with dried grass

Notes

1644 births
1694 deaths
Japanese poets

Matsuo Basho


Peripheral equipment (also called: input and output devices) connects a computer to other things. It gives a computer system more features. Input is anything that goes in and output is anything that goes out. Any device for the computer that the computer can work without is peripheral equipment. This equipment is always separated from the central processing unit (CPU) by a device controller.

Peripheral equipment is necessary for people to interact with a computer system. Some peripheral equipment displays information (such as a computer monitor). Some peripherals, such as touchscreens, work for both input and output.

Peripheral equipment is often labelled I/O device (Input/Output device). I/O devices are connected to a device controller which is connected to the electronics in the computer system. An example of an output device is a set of computer speakers. Computer speakers are plugged into a device controller called an audio device. The device is connected to the rest of the system inside. An example of an input device is a computer mouse. It is connected in the same way as an output device. Most peripherals connect by cable but some connect by Bluetooth radio.

One peripheral device can be connected to many systems.

Sometimes extra memory devices such as a second hard disk can be called peripheral equipment. People who make computer programs call everything except the processor and main memory an I/O device. To an engineer working on the design of a processor, everything except the processor is called an I/O device.

Input devices
An input device is anything that puts information inside a computer. It is a hardware device that sends information into the CPU. Without any input devices a computer would simply be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, similar to a TV. Below is a listing of different types of computer input devices.

Examples
 Computer mouse: The device for moving the cursor or arrow around the screen.
 Digital camera: A digital camera takes pictures to put into the computer. The pictures become information inside the computer.
 Image scanner: Digitizes a document or other two-dimensional object.
 Keyboard: The device for typing characters into the computer.
 Webcam
 Joystick

Output devices
An output device is anything to which the computer sends signals, for example things that display information from the computer or make sound from the computer.

Input/Output devices
 Hard disk: A data storage device
 Optical drive: Reads and writes CDs and DVDs
 Other data storage devices
 etc.

Computer hardware
Computer science

Peripheral equipment


A Postal code is a series of numbers or letters and numbers used by a post office to help identify where a letter or parcel should be sent.
The code can be read by machines, this speeds up sorting mail.

In the United Kingdom the first part of the post code has one or two letters and one or two numbers. This identifies the post town and an area in the post town. The second part is used to identify an even smaller area, down to just one street or a few house in a long street.

The post town is the main town in an area. Sometimes this is a lot bigger than the real town. Ipswich, for example is the post town for most of east Suffolk.

In Europe most postal codes are all numbers. Often the one or two letter country code is put in front of the code to make sure that towns and cities are not mixed up, or for international post.

In France the first two numbers of the postal code relate to the department. Codes for Monaco start with 98 as if it was part of France, but has the letters "MC" instead of "F" for international mail.

Related pages
ZIP code
 Postal codes in the United Kingdom

Postal services

Postal code


Theatre (frae the French: "théâtre", frae the Greek "theatron", θέατρον, meanin "place o seein") is the brainch o the performin airts defined juist as whit "occurs whan ane or mair human being, isolatit in time an/or space, presents themsels tae anither or ithers." By this braid defineetion, theatre haes existit syne the daw o man, as an affcome o the human prattick for story tellin. Sin its upmak, theatre haes come tae tak on mony furms, aften uisin elements sic as speech, gestur, muisic, dance, an spectacle, souderin the ither performin airts, aften as weel as the veesual arts, intae an aesome airteestic furm. Modren Wastren theatre is dominate by realism, awtho mony ither furms, includin clessical an experimental furms, as weel as Eastren furms, is aften performed.

Theatre

Theatre


Sweat, or perspiration, is a liquid made by the skin when the body is hot. Sweat is made in sweat glands under the surface of the skin. It comes out of tiny holes in the skin called pores. Sweat is mostly water, but it also contains some salts.

The body makes sweat to cool itself down. It is part of the body's thermoregulation. The sweat takes the heat from the body when it evaporates (turns to gas).

Some people think sweat makes a person smell bad. Many people use special sprays to stop this from happening. Deodorants hide the odor of sweat. Anti-perspirants stop the body from sweating.

The sweat glands in our skin contains two different groups of sweat glands: apocrine sweat glands and merocrine sweat glands.

Perspiration, or sweat, is your body's way of cooling itself, whether that extra heat comes from hardworking muscles or from overstimulated nerves. The average person has over 4 million sweat glands in their skin. Sweat glands are distributed over the entire body, except for the lips, nipples and external genital organs. The sweat gland is in the layer of skin called the dermis along with other "equipment," such as nerve endings, hair follicles and so on.

Sweat glands
The sweat gland is a long, coiled, hollow tube of cells. The coiled part in the dermis is where sweat is made, and the long part is a duct that connects the gland to the opening or pore on the skins's outer surface. Nerve cells from the sympathetic nervous system are connected to the sweat glands. There are two types of sweat glands:

Eccrine - the most numerous type that are found all over the body, particularly on the palms of the hands, soles of the feet and forehead. They are smaller, are active from birth, and they produce a sweat with no proteins.
Apocrine - the ones in the armpits (axilla) and the anal-genital area. They are larger than eccrine glands and they normally end in hairs rather than pores. Also, they do not do anything until puberty.

How sweat is made
We are constantly sweating, even though we may not notice it. Sweating is your body's major way of getting rid of excess body heat, which is produced by metabolism or working muscles. The amount of sweat produced depends upon our states of emotion and physical activity. Sweat can be made in response to nerve stimulation, hot air temperature, and/or exercise. First, let's concentrate on how sweat is made in an eccrine sweat gland.

When the sweat gland is stimulated, the cells secrete a fluid (primary secretion) that is similar to plasma -- that is, it is mostly water and it has high concentrations of sodium and chloride and a low concentration of potassium -- but without the proteins and fatty acids that are normally found in plasma. The source of this fluid is the spaces between the cells (interstitial spaces), which get the fluid from the blood vessels (capillaries) in the dermis. This fluid travels from the coiled portion up through the straight duct. What happens in the straight duct depends upon the rate of sweat production or flow:

Low sweat production (rest, cool temperature) - Cells in the straight duct reabsorb most of the sodium and chlorine from the fluid. This happens because there is enough time for reabsorption. In addition, water is reabsorbed osmotically. So not much sweat reaches the outside. Also, the composition of this sweat is significantly different from the primary secretion. There is not as much sodium and chloride, and there is more potassium.
High sweat production (exercise, hot temperature) - Cells in the straight portion do not have enough time to reabsorb all of sodium and chloride from the primary secretion. So, a lot of sweat makes it to the surface of the skin and the composition is close to, but not exactly like the primary secretion. The sodium and chloride concentrations are about half as much, and potassium is about 20 percent higher.

Sweat is produced in apocrine sweat glands in the same way. However, the sweat from apocrine glands also contains proteins and fatty acids, which make it thicker and give it a milkier or yellowish color. This is why underarm stains in clothing appear yellowish. Sweat itself has no odor, but when bacteria on the skin and hair metabolize the proteins and fatty acids, they produce an unpleasant odor. This is why deodorants and anti-perspirants are applied to the underarms instead of the whole body.

The maximum volume of sweat that a person who is not adapted to a hot climate can produce is about one liter per hour. Amazingly, if you move to a hot climate such as the American desert southwest or the tropics, your ability to produce sweat will increase to about two to three liters per hour within about six weeks! This appears to be the maximum amount that you can produce.

Function of sweat
When sweat evaporates from the surface of your skin, it removes excess heat and cools you. This is actually due to a neat principle in physics, which goes like this. To convert water from a liquid to a vapor, it takes a certain amount of heat called the heat of vaporization. This heat energy increases the speed of the water molecules so that they can escape into the air. For water, this value is 540 calories/gram or 2.26 x 106 joules/kilogram. So, if you can produce one liter of sweat, which is equal to 1000 g or 1 kg (density of water is 1 g/ml or 1 kg/l) in one hour, then 540,000 calories of heat can be removed from your body. This is an extreme example using the maximum amount of sweat that a person can make. Typically, all of the sweat does not evaporate, but rather runs off your skin. In addition, not all heat energy produced by the body is lost through sweat. Some is directly radiated from the skin to the air and some is lost through respiratory surfaces of the lungs.

A major factor that influences the rate of evaporation is the relative humidity of the air around you. If the air is humid, then it already has water vapor in it, probably near saturation, and cannot take any more. Therefore, sweat does not evaporate and cool your body as efficiently as when the air is dry.

Finally, when the water in the sweat evaporates, it leaves the salts (sodium, chloride and potassium) behind on your skin, which is why your skin tastes salty. The loss of excessive amounts of salt and water from your body can quickly dehydrate you, which can lead to circulatory problems, kidney failure and heat stroke. So, it is important to drink plenty of fluids when you exercise or are outside in high temperatures. Sports drinks contain some salts to replace those lost in the sweat.

Effect of emotion
Sweating responds to emotional state. So when you are nervous, anxious or afraid, there is an increase in sympathetic nerve activity in your body as well as an increase in epinephrine secretion from your adrenal gland. These substances act on your sweat glands, particularly those on the palms of your hand and your armpits, to make sweat. Thus, you feel a "cold" sweat. Also, the increased sympathetic nerve activity in the skin changes its electrical resistance, which is the basis of the galvanic skin response used in lie detector tests.

Excessive sweating
Excessive sweating usually occurs on the palms of the hand or the armpits. If it is not caused by emotional or physical activity it is called diaphoresis or hyperhidrosis. It is often an embarrassing condition. The cause or causes are unknown. The condition may be due to the following:

hormonal imbalances (e.g., menopause in women)
overactive thyroid gland (The thyroid hormone increases body metabolism and heat production)
certain foods and medications (e.g., coffee with its high amounts of caffeine)
overactivity of the sympathetic nervous system
The condition can be treated.

Other websites

Integumentary system

Sweat