Events
 January 4 – Palace of Whitehall in London is destroyed by fire.
 June 19 – Volcano of Carguarazon erupts in the Andes and causes a rain of fish
 August 25 – Peter the Great arrives back to Moscow – general Patrick Gordon has already crushed the streltsy rebellion – 341 rebels sentenced to be decapitated. Tradition holds that tsar Peter decapitated some of them himself
 September 5 – In an effort to move his people away from Asiatic customs, Tsar Peter I of Russia imposes a tax on beards; All men except priests and peasants, are required to pay a tax of one hundred rubles a year and the commoners had to pay one kopek each

 Whigs sponsor Captain Kidd of New York as a privateer against French shipping
 Darien Scheme – First Scottish settlers leave for an ill-fated colony in Panama
 Isaac Newton calculates the speed of sound
 Tani Jinzan, astronomer and calendar scholar, observes a fire destroy Tosa (now Kochi) in Japan at the same time as a Leonid Meteor storm, taking it as evidence to reinforce belief in the "Theory of Areas".
 Thomas Savery patents an early steam engine.
 A congress begins in Sremski Karlovci to discuss a treaty between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League.
 Humphrey Hody is appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford.
 Bucharest becomes capital of Wallachia (now part of Romania).
 Mombasa and Zanzibar are captured by Oman.
 George Louis (who would in 1714 become King George I of Great Britain) becomes Elector of Hanover.

1698


Homosexuality is a sexual orientation. A homosexual person is romantically or sexually attracted to people of their own gender. Men who are romantically or sexually attracted to other men are called gay. Women who are romantically or sexually attracted to other women can be called gay as well, but are usually called lesbians. People who are romantically or sexually attracted to men and women are called bisexual.

Together homosexual, bisexual, and transgender people make up the LGBT community, which stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender. It is difficult to say how many people are homosexual. Homosexuality is known to exist in all cultures and countries.

Other titles for homosexuality

Definition
One may say that homosexuality is the term used for people that feel romantically or sexually attracted to their own sex, but other definitions also exist. When one views homosexuality as the term for people that feel romantically or sexually attracted to their own sex, more people are gay than when one might view homosexuality as only a term for people who do have sexual relationships with their own sex. Usually, the term is used to view all the people who are romantically or sexually attracted to their own sex, as well as those with such attractions who have not had a sexual relationship with their own sex yet. Nonetheless, the most visible form of homosexuality is the actual relationship. Most 'evidence' of homosexuality in ancient cultures comes from drawings of the men in an intimate relationship or sex, because it's the most obvious.

The word homosexual comes from the Ancient Greek word homo, meaning "same", and the Latin word for "gender". People in the LGBT community usually say "gay" instead of "homosexual." Some people also use the term homophile (from Greek   ("homos", meaning the same) and  ("philein"; meaning to love). This term emphasizes romantic interest in the same sex, rather than sexual attraction.

Other names
There are many different words to describe homosexual people. Some of these are used to insult homosexual people. However, the LGBT community sometimes uses these words to describe themselves because the word "homosexual" can sound too clinical. This is done to make the words less hurtful. Some words to describe homosexual men are gay and queer.  Words to describe homosexual women are lesbian and dyke. Lesbian is used most often. Dyke is used less often and is sometimes used to describe lesbians who are more masculine (act or dress more like men). However, "queer" and "dyke" are sometimes used against gay people as insults, so they can sometimes be offensive.

Homosexual pride

When homosexual people keep their sexual orientation a secret, they are said to be "in the closet". "Out" or "out of the closet" is a slang term that means a homosexual person is open about their sexual orientation. This means they do not hide the fact that they are homosexual. Some gay and lesbian people stay in the closet because of fear of what would happen or because they live in a place that is not safe for homosexual people.

Sometimes people who are 'out' also say they are 'proud'. "Out" means they are not hiding their sexual orientation. "Proud" means that they are pleased about it. "Proud" or "Pride" has a special meaning in the LGBT community. It means they are celebrating and being happy that they are homosexual. It is not 'pride' meaning that they have done something to be proud of, but 'pride' meaning the opposite of shame. Many cities have "Pride Parades". These used to be protest marches. Today, they are usually celebrations of the LGBT community. They usually occur in June, in memory of the 'Stonewall Riots' that happened in New York City in 1969. These riots happened because police harassed and arrested people for being homosexual. 'Stonewall' or the 'Stonewall Riots' are sometimes called the start of the LGBT rights movement.

Causes
The causes of homosexuality and bisexuality are controversial (people do not agree on them). The causes of homosexuality are not all understood, but genetics and the effects of the prenatal environment and hormones (when a baby is growing in its mother) are thought to be causes. There is not much evidence that the social environment is a cause of homosexuality. Scientists also show that homosexuality happens not only in humans. Some animals (like penguins, chimpanzees, and dolphins) often show homosexuality, and some (rams) even for lifelong periods as is the case with humans.

Doctors used to treat gay people as if they had mental illnesses. However, homosexuality is no longer called a disease by doctors in many countries. There are some religious and non-religious groups who still try to 'cure' homosexuality. This is sometimes called 'conversion therapy'. In therapies like this one, homosexual individuals have tried to become heterosexual and have even claimed they were changed, but most people do not believe it is possible.

Conversion therapy or reparative therapy aims to change people's sexual orientation from homosexual to heterosexual. It is condemned by medical and psychiatry groups such as the American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, Royal College of Psychiatrists, National Association of Social Workers, Royal College of Nursing, and the American Academy of Pediatrics. These scientific and educated groups are concerned that such therapy is a violation of the ethical principles of health care, and violates human rights.

Many people believe that it is unfortunate to discuss causes of homosexuality and bisexuality without discussing causes of heterosexuality, too. Although it is easy to understand why heterosexuality exists (heterosexual sex produces babies), that does not explain how the brain develops to produce heterosexual people. Heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality all have causes, and some people believe that to discuss only the causes of homosexuality and bisexuality suggests that there is something wrong with people who have those orientations.

Relationships

Gay people can fall in love and have lifelong relationships. In most countries, they cannot legally marry their partners. However, they still have relationships in the same way as heterosexual people.

Some homosexual people have wedding ceremonies even though governments do not recognize or accept them. They may call their partner a spouse, wife, or husband despite the law.

But to them, the important part about marriage is not just the name. Married people get many benefits from being married. Depending on the country, these benefits can include paying less taxes, getting their spouse's insurance, inheriting property, social security benefits, having or adopting children together, emigrating to a spouse's country, being able to make choices for a sick spouse, or even being allowed to visit a sick spouse who is in a hospital.

Today there are numerous countries that allow homosexual people to marry, including: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Scotland, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, Uruguay, the United States and Wales. The Netherlands was first in 2001. It is also legal in six Native American tribes.

Instead of marriage, some countries or states offer homosexuals civil unions or domestic partnerships. This gives them some of the protections and benefits of marriage, but not all. Civil unions and domestic partnerships are sometimes seen by the LGBT community as being 'second class' (not as good as 'first class'). They do offer some benefits for gay and lesbian couples, but they also suggest that these couples are not as important or valid as heterosexual couples. Some people even say this is like the "separate but equal" rules that were used to segregate people by race in the United States. They believe that separate is never equal and homosexuals should not accept being second class citizens.

Religion
Many religions teach that homosexual sex is a sin. Such religions traditionally include Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Usually, it is only the act of sexual intercourse that is considered sinful and not natural. Not all believe the attraction, is sinful, just the actions in response to the desire.

However, some denominations (different parts) of these religions and some eastern religions now accept homosexuality. There are several other religions that are accepting of homosexuality, particularly new religions. There are also some religions which are indifferent to homosexuality, such as Zoroastrianism and Jainism.

Problems homosexuals face

In many countries, homosexual people are discriminated against. A homosexual person can be fired from a job because they are gay, even if they are a good worker. Homosexual people can be denied renting a home or being able to eat in a restaurant because of their sexual orientation.

In some countries, homosexual people can experience violence. For example, Islamic law is used in some places to kill homosexuals or place them in jail. Some groups believe over 4,000 homosexual people have been killed in Iran since 1979 because of their sexual orientation. In 2005, after fourteen months of prison and torture, two teenage boys were hanged in Iran for homosexuality.

In modern times, homosexuality has become more accepted in Western countries. Most western countries have laws that protect homosexuals from violence and discrimination.

In the United Kingdom, homosexuality used to be a crime. Oscar Wilde, the famous Irish writer was imprisoned for it, and as a result, it destroyed his reputation and career as a wit and playwright. Alan Turing, the man who helped the Allies in World War II by breaking the Enigma Code used by the Germans, was convicted of this crime and according to some speculations he ultimately killed himself over the effects of the attempt to cure his homosexuality.

Today in the United Kingdom, homosexual people are safer. Homosexual sex between adults is not a crime. Gay and lesbian couples can marry. Gay people can be in the military.

In most of the world, homosexual people still do not have the same rights and freedoms that heterosexuals have.

Homosexual behaviour in animals

Homosexual behaviour has also been seen in animals. Homosexual, transgender and bisexual behaviour includes sex, courtship, affection, pair bonding, and parenting. Homosexual behaviour is widespread among animals. Bruce Bagemihl did research in 1999. It shows that homosexual behaviour has been observed in close to 1500 species, from primates to gut worms, and is well documented for 500 of them. The sexual behaviour of animals takes many different forms, even within the same species. The motivations for these behaviours are only partly known, mainly because the respecive species has not been fully studied yet. According to Bagemihl, "the animal kingdom [does] it with much greater sexual diversity—including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex—than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept."

Related pages
 Heterosexuality
 Bisexuality
 Pansexuality
 Asexuality
 Antisexuality

References

Other websites

There are national and international groups or organizations for the LGBT community. These organizations are often political. They fight for the rights and safety of homosexuals.

Some of the more important political organizations are:
 The International Lesbian and Gay Association
 The Human Rights Campaign
 GLAAD, The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation
 Stonewall UK
 The International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission
 Egale Canada

LGBT variations

Homosexuality


"Desservants" was the name of a class of French parish priests.

Under the old regime, a priest who performed the parochial duties in a vacant parish, or where the parish priest was under censure of some kind was known as a desservant; he was the vicar, or économe-curé, whom the Council of Trent desired to be appointed in each vacant parish.

After the Concordat of 1801, however, the name desservants was applied to a second class of parish priests who were named by the bishop without the sanction of the Government, but could also be removed at any time by the bishop. This institution owed its origin to custom rather than any law, though later on it was fully legalized. Article 9 of the new concordat decreed that "the bishops are to make a new circumscription of the parishes in their dioceses, which will only go into effect after the consent of the Government is obtained". Article 10 adds: "bishops shall make the appointments to parishes; they shall choose only persons approved by the Government." Finally, art. 14 provides "a suitable salary for bishops and parish priests".

These clauses applied to only one kind of parish and parish priests; but the Organic Articles, added by the Government to the concordat, established parishes of a second order, succursal parishes (mission churches), whose titulars were not canonically parish priests (curés) and received no remuneration from the State. Organic Articles 31, 60, 61, 63 provide that "there shall be at least one parish for every justice of the peace", that "the bishop in conjunction with the prefect shall regulate the number and extent of succursal parishes"; that "the officiating priests in succursal parishes shall be appointed by the bishop"; that they shall also be removable by him; preference nevertheless should be given to ecclesiastics pensioned by the Assemblee Constituante. By degrees the succursal parishes increased and equalled in number the municipalities of France; gradually, also, the Government allowed these desservants a small salary. From an ecclesiastical point of view, they were parish priests except for the removability clause.

This condition of affairs, which the concordat had not anticipated, was advantageous to the Church, because it left the bishops free to appoint to most parishes without consulting the State; it was also of advantage to the episcopal administration, which would have been much hampered had all the parish priests been irremovable. It was not formally approved by Rome, however, until May, 1845, under Pope Gregory XVI (reply of the Congregation of the Council to the Bishop of Liège). The pope authorized the continuance of the existing situation until the Holy See decided otherwise. From various quarters, however, arose protests in favour of canonical irremovability of the desservants. In 1839 the Allignol brothers published a survey of the condition of the desservants. It was the cause of several meetings of the French bishops at Rome and finally of the aforesaid rescript of Gregory XVI. Later the Congregation of Bishops and Regulars reproved a similar work by the Abbé Dagomer, "Réhabilitation du desservant". Occasionally, some of the desservants refused to give up their places at the bishop's order, maintaining a common-law right of irremovability; but in this they were always unsuccessful. In this respect the ecclesiastical discipline of France had become fixed and accepted; nor was it modified by the Separation Law of 1905; except that some bishops ceased to use the terms succursale and desservant, replacing them by "parish" and "parish priest", both, however, long since in ordinary ecclesiastical use.

References

Attribution

History of Catholicism in France

Desservant


Bullets are small metal objects fired from guns. Many kinds of bullets are made from lead covered with copper. They are put into a package called a cartridge, which is put into a gun. The bullet is at the front of the cartridge (number 1 in the picture).  The bullet is pushed out of the gun by hot gases at a high pressure. A powder called gunpowder (number 3 in the picture) is put inside the case (number 2).  A small explosion from the primer (number 5 in the picture) lights the gunpowder. The gunpowder burns very fast. It makes hot gases. The hot gases are at a high pressure. The high pressure pushes the bullet out of the gun barrel at a high speed.

Bullets are weapons.  Soldiers and police use them.  They are used for self-defense.  They are used for hunting animals for food or as a sport, but are also used for shooting targets. There are many kinds of bullets.  Each gun takes a certain size, or caliber, of bullet.  Rifles and handguns use different kinds and sometimes a gun uses more than one kind of bullet.

Although the word "bullet" is often used for a cartridge round, a bullet is not a cartridge but rather a part of one.  A round of ammunition cartridge includes the bullet (which is the projectile), the case (which holds everything together), the propellant (which provides most of the energy to shoot it) and the primer (which ignites the propellant).

Design

Bullet designs have to solve two main problems. A bullet must fit tightly in the gun's bore (inside of the barrel). If it does not fit tightly, gas from the burning gunpowder leaks past the bullet and does not help push it out. The bullet must also fit tightly against the rifling (spiral grooves cut into the barrel), but not so tightly that it causes damage. Bullets must have this tight fit without causing too much friction.  Bullets must be made to a high standard. Poorly made bullets may not be accurate. Poorly made bullets can damage the gun or hurt the person using the gun. The way the bullet behaves in the barrel is called 'internal ballistics'.

The laws of physics can be used to understand how a bullet moves after it leaves the barrel.  The way the bullet behaves after it leaves the barrel is called 'external ballistics'. The main factors affecting the aerodynamics of a bullet in flight are the bullet's shape and the rotation from the rifling of the gun barrel. Spinning helps stabilize the bullet gyroscopically and aerodynamically (spinning keeps it on track). Any small differences in the shape of the bullet are mostly canceled as it spins. The first guns did not have rifling. With smoothbore firearms (no rifling), a round bullet was best because it was the same in any position. But these bullets were not very stable. They were also not very accurate. Still, the round shape of bullets did not change very much for hundreds of years.

Bullet design also affects what happens when a bullet hits an object. The way a bullet behaves when it hits a target is called 'terminal ballistics.' The make-up and density of the target material, the angle at which the bullet hits, and the speed and design of the bullet itself are all factors. Bullets are usually made to go into a target, change shape, and/or break apart. For a given material and bullet, the speed of the bullet is the main factor determining what happens.

Making bullets go faster increases the kinetic energy even more. This effect is big, so people have tried (and succeeded) to make bullets that go faster and weigh less. Modern firearms take much lighter bullets and shoot them much faster than was the case in World War I. This makes the firearms better in two ways. The magazine (which holds the cartridges in the gun before they are fired) holds more of the smaller, lighter bullets. Also, the higher speed causes much more damage than the old-style bullets.

Bullet types

Rifle bullet
 Rifles are used for target shooting and killing. A rifle bullet can be described by its accuracy, penetration, shape, size, and mass (weight). There are many different kinds of rifle bullets.

The Full Metal Jacket (FMJ) is a type of bullet commonly used by the military. A lead center (core) is surrounded by a strong metal coating (jacket). This jacket is usually made of a copper alloy, but sometimes it is made of steel.  The FMJ does not spread out when it hits a target. It goes deep into its target and is a general-purpose bullet. The FMJ is not recommended for hunting. It is mostly for target shooting and military use.

The Jacketed Hollow Point (JHP) has a lead center (core) with lead showing at the tip.  It also has a strong metal coating (jacket). The center of the tip has a hole in it (hollow point).  This design makes the tip of the JHP quickly start to spread out (expand) when it hits a target. The hollow point bullet in a rifle can be as small as a pin. When the hollow point is this small, the bullet will go faster and still spread out when it hits a living target. In some hollow point rifle bullets, the front may spread out to two times as wide as the bullet was when it started. It is a good hunting bullet because the energy in the bullet is transferred to the target at a known depth.  The jacketed hollow point tends to be accurate and is sturdy.

The plastic tipped bullet is a hollow point bullet.  The hollow point is filled with a hard, pointed plastic tip. It is used because it can go further than the JHP and does not curve as much. The plastic tipped bullet also spreads out or breaks into pieces when it hits the target.

A solid copper bullet is a bullet that has no lead core or other elements than copper. This bullet expands into a flower shape when it hits a target, because copper bullets are usually hollow point. The copper bullet contains no lead, so it is also better for the environment. In rifles, it is widely used for hunting and other sports.

A frangible bullet will break into many pieces upon contact with any material harder than itself. This bullet is used for safety while shooting. It has little impact on the environment. It also makes the objects behind the intended target a little safer.

Handgun bullet

Handguns are mostly used for sport target shooting or self-defense. Police use the pistol because they can easily carry it and have it ready to use.

Pistol bullets have some of the same names as rifle bullets, such as full metal jacket (FMJ) or jacketed hollow point (JHP).  For example, there are hollow point pistol bullets that also spread out a lot when they hit a target. However, in a pistol bullet, the hollow point can be much larger.  The hollow point causes the pistol bullet to slow down faster due to air resistance.  However, a pistol bullet does not have to travel as far as a rifle bullet.  The hollow point in a pistol bullet can be almost as wide as the bullet. When a hollow point pistol bullet hits a target, it almost completely flattens itself.  A solid copper pistol bullet is usually hollow point, and is mainly used for self-defense and/or target shooting.

A flat nosed bullet is mostly used in handguns, although there are also some rifle bullets called flat nosed. The flat nose on a pistol bullet can be as wide as the bullet. The "flat nose" on a rifle bullet may be much smaller. The flat nosed bullet tends to have a low ballistic coefficient. This means that it slows down faster than pointed bullets. Flat nosed bullets are sometimes used to prevent the explosion of the next cartridge in a magazine when the gun recoils. Flat nosed bullets also spread out quickly when they hit a target.  This makes them useful for fighting at close range when the bullet should not hit what is behind the target.  After hitting the target, it becomes almost inside out.

A frangible pistol bullet will break apart on contact. It is usually made of a copper jacket over pieces of either round or twisted lead pieces that are glued together. The glue breaks apart when the bullet hits the target. The pieces spread out. This creates a larger surface area.  This kind of bullet cannot go deep into a target.  It is safer to use when it is important not to hit anything on the other side of the target.

References

Other websites

http://www.arizonagunlist.com/ammunition_types.html
http://www.midwayusa.com/content/legacy/bullet_composition.htm
http://www.rathcoombe.net/sci-tech/ballistics/methods.html

Ballistics
Ammunition

Bullet


The BBC Symphony Orchestra is the main orchestra of the British Broadcasting Corporation. It is one of the best orchestras in Britain.

History
The orchestra started in 1930. Sir Adrian Boult was the main conductor until 1950, when Sir Malcolm Sargent took over until 1957. Since then there have been several conductors. Now the orchestra is conducted by Jiří Bělohlávek.

As well as these principal conductors there have been others, including the famous Arturo Toscanini, who made a series of recordings with the orchestra in the Queen's Hall from 1937 to 1939.

The BBC often ask composers of today to write music for the BBC Symphony Orchestra. Composers whose new works they have performed include Sally Beamish, Harrison Birtwistle Elliott Carter, James MacMillan, John Tavener and Mark-Anthony Turnage.

The orchestra plays a big part in the BBC Proms, the season of concerts played every summer at the Royal Albert Hall. It plays on both the first and last nights of the prom season. It also plays several concerts in the Barbican during the year. They often make recordings in the BBC studios. They can often be seen on BBC Television. Sometimes they go on tour to other countries. They also play concerts for young people as part of an education programme.

There are other professional BBC orchestras and groups: the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, the BBC National Orchestra of Wales, the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra, the BBC Concert Orchestra, the BBC Big Band and the BBC Singers. There are also two amateur choruses: the BBC Symphony Chorus and the BBC National Chorus of Wales.

Chief conductors of the BBC Symphony Orchestra
Adrian Boult (1930-1950)
Malcolm Sargent (1950-1957)
Rudolf Schwarz (1957-1963)
Antal Doráti (1962-1966)
Colin Davis (1967-1971)
Pierre Boulez (1971-1975)
Rudolf Kempe (1976)
Gennady Rozhdestvensky (1978-1981)
John Pritchard (1982-1989)
Andrew Davis (1989-2000)
Leonard Slatkin (2000-2004)
Jiří Bělohlávek (2006-2013)
Sakari Oramo (2013-present)

Other websites
 The

BBC
British orchestras

BBC Symphony Orchestra


A carpenter is a person who works with wood. They can make cabinets, build houses, or do other things with wood.

Carpenters usually make very good foremen (people who watch over a job) on larger jobs as they deal with so much of the project from ground up. Carpenters are always adding to their tools and always learning how to use the new tools, materials, and ways of working with wood.

Many carpenters will choose to focus their skills in one of two broad ranging categories. Rough carpenters will focus on building things that need to be simple and structural. This includes framing for houses, or crates for shipping. Finish carpenters will focus on things that are detailed and artistic. For example, they can be furniture builders, cabinet makers or toy makers. Wood carvers are sometimes counted as carpenters.

Related pages
 Cabinet making

References

Construction occupations

Carpenter


Alchemy is the very old study and philosophy of how to change basic substances (such as metals) into other substances. It also studied how substances (and how they are changed into other substances) were related to magic and astrology. People who studied alchemy were called alchemists. Some things alchemists tried to do were change lead or mercury into gold, make the philosopher's stone, and make the "elixir of life," which they thought could cure (make better) any disease and make someone young again.

Alchemists believed that substances, mind, philosophies, religion, magic and astrology were related to each other. They tried to find connections between them. They tried to understand one by understanding the other. Some alchemists used metals (like gold or silver) to represent spiritual or occult ideas. People in many different countries studied alchemy.

In the 1600s and 1700s, people started to study only the properties of substances without trying to relate them to secret, old knowledge. They did experiments and wrote down what they discovered so other people could learn from them. One of the important people who did these experiments was Robert Boyle. People called the new study of substances chemistry.

Scientists have since discovered how to change one kind of element (the simplest kind of chemical substance) into another. In 1980, an American scientist named Glenn Seaborg discovered how to change a very tiny amount of bismuth into gold with a nuclear reactor. Making gold this way is much more difficult and expensive (costs a lot of money) than mining or recycling it.

References

Alchemy

Alchemy


A lesbian is a homosexual woman. This means a woman who is sexually attracted to other women, and not to men. A woman who is sexually attracted to both women and men is bisexual or pansexual.

The word lesbian comes from Lesbos (), an island in Greece. An ancient poet, Sappho, lived on Lesbos. Sappho wrote mostly poems about love. Many of her love poems are written to women. So her name and the island where she lived make people think about women who love women. Sometimes lesbians are also called Sapphists from the name Sappho. Sapphic can be used as an umbrella term for love between women, regardless of their sexual or romantic orientation.

Lesbians and feminism
Lesbians were involved in the early feminist (a movement of women who want to be treated equally to men) movement. Feminism is the political and social movements that promote women's equality and rights. However, there was conflict between lesbians and straight (heterosexual) women in the feminist movement. In the 1960s and 1970s some straight (women who like men) feminists wanted the lesbians out of the women's rights movement. They wanted feminism to be accepted by society. They believed lesbians were less accepted by society and might hurt the feminist movement.

Eventually, the women's rights movement accepted its lesbian members. Now many important feminist leaders are out (out means that they make it known that they are lesbians) lesbians.

Lesbians as parents
Many lesbian couples want to have children of their own. In order to raise children, they sometimes adopt. However some places do not allow homosexual couples to adopt children, so many of them want to be able to adopt children.

Some lesbian couples also have their own biological children. To do this they may have artificial insemination. This is when sperm from a donor male is placed in a woman to make a pregnancy. Some lesbian women do this at home with a friend they choose to be the donor. However many may use sperm banks. These are medical businesses that match couples who need donor sperm with men who will donate. Sometimes this is done anonymously which means the couple does not know the donor. Sometimes this is done with the donor known and even chosen by the couple.

Law and religion

Unlike gay sex between males, lesbian sex is not against the law in as many places. Some religions that condemn gay male sex say nothing about lesbian sex. Abrahamic religions usually see gay as well as lesbian relations as immoral. Saint Paul in Epistle to the Romans 1:26 describes lesbianism as 'unnatural' and 'shameful'. There are some religions, however, mostly new religious movements that accept lesbian relations.

In most parts of the world lesbian couples cannot marry. This means they do not have the legal benefits and protection of marriage. This can cause lesbians, and gay men, many problems. Pedophila committed by an adult lesbian upon an underage female may be a crime.

Related pages

 Homosexuality

References

LGBT variations

Lesbian


Comedy drama, also called dramedy, is a style of television and movies when there are similar amounts of both humor and seriousness.

History

Theatre
Traditional theatre was separated from its earliest days into comedy and tragedy. Authors such as Anton Chekov and George Bernard Shaw famously blurred the line between comedy and drama.

Early television
In live theatre the difference between comedy and tragedy became less and less significant, in mass media, comedy and drama were clearly separated. Comedies, especially, were meant to only have jokes and not any serious content.

By the early 1960s, television had started to present half-hour long "comedy" series, or one hour long "dramas." Half-hour series were mostly situation comedy or family comedy. One hour dramas could have detective series, westerns and science fiction.

Recent drama-comedy on television
A drama-comedy today is usually an hour-long dramatic series with funny jokes such as Moonlighting, Northern Exposure, Auf Wiedersehen, Pet, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Eureka, Life on Mars, House, Desperate Housewives, Charmed, Popular, Skins, Monk, Psych, Gilmore Girls, The O.C., Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, Ally McBeal, Ugly Betty, Brothers & Sisters, Grey's Anatomy or ''Boston Legal".

Other websites
 Comedy-drama  at the All Movie Guide

Comedy drama


Popular culture is culture which interests the general masses of people. It is influenced and spread by mass media. People experience or learn popular culture by hearing popular music on the radio, watching television, playing video games, or reading popular books and magazines. Popular culture may affect all kinds of knowledge or thought, including art, religion, or language.

Popular culture does not follow any one system of ideas, customs, philosophy, religion, or morality. Some of its forms include grammar, language, or pictures that are not accepted under a society's customs. For this reason a society or government may not approve of popular culture. If a government thinks that any form of it may harm people or cause society to change in a bad way, the government may ban it. This practice is known as censorship. In some countries popular culture is protected under freedom of speech or other rights.

American popular culture
The United States is an industrialized country (see industrialization) in which citizens use mass media. Its government protects language and cultures under freedom of speech. The U.S. has had periods of popular culture since the 20th century. For instance, after World War II a group of children known as Baby boomers experienced a sudden expansion of popular culture.

Related pages

 Folklore

References

Popular culture


Theology is the study of one or more religions
('Theo-' means God in Greek and '-logy' is study, which makes it 'God study' or 'study of God'). Somebody who studies theology is called a theologian. Books or ideas about theology are called theological.

Theology may be studied for many reasons. Some people study theology to better understand their own religion, while other people study theology so that they can compare religions.

The word 'theology' was first used to describe the study of God in Christianity but some now use it to describe the study of religion generally, but not everyone agrees that it is right to do so. Some people use the words 'comparative theology' in reference to approaching theology within more than one religion at once.

During the High Middle Ages, it was thought that theology was the highest subject learned in universities. Theology at that time was named "The Queen of the Sciences". There was a plan for young men to study easy subjects and then harder subjects. The easiest subjects were called the Trivium. The next harder subjects were called the Quadrivium. Finally, young men were expected to study theology. This meant that the other subjects existed primarily to help with theological thought.

Related pages
Christian theology

Other websites

What is theology? theology.edu

Theology


Computer data storage is the name for a number of components of a computer. The main purpose of these components is to store data. The central processing unit is then able to fetch and change the data. In most computers, there is a computer memory hierarchy: Memory that is "closer" to the CPU is usually faster to access, but it is also smaller; data that is stored in this kind of memory usually needs electrical power to keep the data.

Memory that is farther away is usually slower to access, but also bigger.  Classical storage media of this kind of data include hard drives and USB flash drives.  Some media offer even more capacity, but accessing them is very slow. Examples for such media are tape drives. Modern CPUs have registers that can store data, they also often have several levels of cache.

Finally, there is the main memory the CPU can access. These three are usually referred to as Primary data storage. Some computers also have a cache memory.

Secondary storage is usually not directly accessible by the CPU, and data needs to be transferred to primary storage to be available. Secondary storage includes hard drives and non-volatile random-access memory. Tertiary storage is used for archival and backup; very often it is copied to secondary storage before use. Software is sometimes distributed by tertiary media such as magnetic tape and CD-ROM.

Computing

Computer data storage


Valentine's Day is a celebration that happens on February 14. It is the day of the year when lovers celebrate their love. This can be done by giving flowers, chocolates, Valentine's cards or just a nice gift.  Love notes can be given to one another.  These notes that people give out are also called valentines.   Some people pick one person and call them their "Valentine" as a gesture to show love and appreciation.

Symbols of Valentine's Day are heart shapes, roses, and Cupid with his arrows.

Valentine's Day is named for the martyred Christian saint named Valentine. He was a bishop that performed marriages between forbidden couples.

Since the 14th century, Valentine's pairs are formed in England. English emigrants then took the Valentine's custom to the United States. After  World War II, US soldiers brought this festival to Europe.

Legend
In the third century A.D., Valentine was the bishop of Terni (Italy). He performed weddings for couples who were not allowed to get married. They may not have been allowed to get married because the parents did not agree with the connection or because the bridegroom was a soldier or a slave, so the marriage was forbidden. Valentine gave the married couple flowers from his garden. That's why flowers play a very important role on Valentine's Day. This did not please the emperor. On February 14, 269 AD, Valentine was beheaded because of his Christian faith.

An expansion of the legend combines the day of death of Valentine with the Roman festival Lupercalia. It was the festival of the great goddess Lupa, which is the feminine word for wolf. She was the Great She-Wolf who nursed the twin babies, Romulus and Remus, who later became the founders of Rome. During the annual ceremony, the temple priestesses (lupae) wrote their names on strips of papyrus. These were picked by young men. After the lottery, the youngsters walked through the city and got the blessings of the citizens. The martyr Valentine became the patron saint of the lovers. Still in the Middle Ages, as in France or in Belgium, people were chosen by the lottery to live a year with each other and people prayed to Saint Valentine to make love potions and charms.

United States and Europe
In the 19th century, the custom of sending Valentine's Cards became very popular. The cards usually have pictures of hearts or flowers and contain some sort of poem, message, or code. Codes and simple messages give some people the courage to show their true feelings to the person they love. Today, some people still use mysterious codes to show their love. People can use newspapers to give a coded message to their loved one, giving other readers a view of the couples' intimacy with one another. Sometimes they will give each other chocolates.

Famous for the popularity of the celebration is the folk song called "Die Vogelhochzeit" ("The Birds' Wedding").

China

In China, a holiday called Qi Xi is also called "Chinese Valentine's Day", especially by younger people. Qi Xi is traditionally held on the 7th day of the 7th month of the lunar calendar. In recent years, it has become more like Valentine's Day in other countries.

References

Observances
February events

Valentine's Day


Taxonomy is a branch of biology. It is about the laws and principles of classifying living things. From one type of taxonomy, many classifications might be produced.

Classification
The best-known kind of taxonomy is used for the classification of lifeforms (living and extinct). Each organism has a scientific name. This name is part of the biological classification of that species. The name is the same all over the world, so scientists from different places can understand each other. In addition, a species has a position in the tree of life. Thus the crow is Corvus corone, a member of the Corvidae family, and they are passerine birds. That is well agreed, but the classification of some groups is not agreed at present, and often several classifications are being discussed.

Living things are classified into three domains: bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. The highest rank in a domain is the kingdom. Each kingdom has many smaller groups in it, called phyla. Each phylum has more smaller groups in it, called classes. This pattern looks like branches on a tree with smaller branches growing from them. Each species is put into a group because of what it does, how and what it eats, special body parts, and so on. At the end of the pattern, the groups (genera) are very small. Then each species in the genus is given its own name.

Binomial nomenclature
When someone writes about a living thing and its formal scientific name, they write the genus and species name. This is known as binomial nomenclature, because it uses two names for each organism. The first is the genus name, and the second is the species in that genus. The scientific name of the domestic cat is Felis catus. Sometimes it is enough to write F. catus.

These are the major groups (ranks) used in taxonomy:
Kingdom --> Phylum --> Class --> Order --> Family --> Genus --> Species

Usage of Latin
When people started naming species, Latin was a language widely used in Europe. All species names are still written in Latin. This has some advantages. Since Latin is no longer spoken, it is unchanging, and is owned by no-one. It gets over the problem of every language having its own names for animals and plants.

Scientists used to write the official description of each new species in Latin. On 1 January 2012, the International Botanical Congress changed to allow English (as well as Latin) for describing new plant species. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature recommends choosing a language that is widely used, and that is used in the places where the species lives.

Cladism
An important modern approach to taxonomy is cladism. This approach is based on the branching (tree-like) course of evolution. Like traditional Linnaean classification, it uses traits to decide on the branches of the classification. It insists on groups being monophyletic. This has the effect that birds are not a class but a sub-group of dinosaurs. It also means the ranking system described above would be abolished.

So cladism has different principles of taxonomy, and produces a different kind of taxonomy. Decisions, where possible, are supported by DNA sequence analysis. Present-day biological classification is a mixture of the old Linnaean and the modern cladistic principles of taxonomy. In parts, it is changing rapidly. The classifications presented in Wikipedia at present are often a compromise between the two systems. The details are regularly discussed.

Turmoil in taxonomy
Today, there are many changes in the classification of living things. This turmoil in taxonomy has led to many alternative classifications. It is caused partly from the move from Linnaean to cladistic principles, and partly by the use of DNA sequence data in taxonomy. An example is: the way derived groups like birds should not be classified at the same level as the group they evolved from. Yet birds have traditionally been a class under the Linnaean system.

The turmoil sometimes results in differences between related pages. Pages may rely on different references and different authors' opinions as to the present best arrangement.

The following source is good on the differences between cladistic and taxonomic classification systems:
Grant, Verne 2003. Incongruence between cladistic and taxonomic systems. American Journal of Botany. 90 (9) 1263-1270.

Related pages
 Cladistics
 Molecular clock
 Molecular evolution
 Sequence analysis
 Biological classification
 Military taxonomy

References

Other websites
 Taxonomy Citizendium

Taxonomy


Cotton is a soft, natural fiber that grows with the seeds of the cotton plant.  (Fiber is long and thin, like hair.)  After the cotton fiber is gathered from the plant, it can be spun into cotton thread. The cotton thread can then be made into cloth.  The cloth can be used to make clothes for people and many other things.  People often wear cotton clothing, especially in hot weather. Bandages are usually cotton.

There are different types of cotton plants.  Some cotton plants grow wild in tropical and subtropical areas of the world.  This is how cotton was discovered many years ago.  Most of the cotton gathered to make cloth comes from crops grown on cotton plantations.  Cotton is farmed in Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, and the Americas.  Cotton soaks up to 24-27 of its own weight in water (very absorbent). All parts of cotton plants are useful.

Cotton is in the mallow family and produces delicate, lovely flowers.  Other members of the mallow family include hollyhocks and hibiscus, used to brighten gardens all over the world.  The cotton fiber forms around the seeds of the cotton plant. It helps carry the seeds long distances on the wind so the baby plant can grow up far away. Early humans realized that the soft, fluffy fibers might be suitable for textile use and began to breed the plant, selecting for fluffy, easily spun varieties.

Cotton is one of the oldest fibers under human cultivation, with traces of cotton over 7,000 years old recovered from archaeological sites. Cotton is also one of the most used natural fibers in existence today, with consumers everywhere wearing and using cotton for various purposes. The word "cotton" comes from the Arabic word "qutn".Millions of acres globally are devoted to the production of cotton, whether it be new world cotton, with longer, smoother fibers, or the shorter and coarser old world varieties.

After harvesting, cotton must be combed to remove the seeds. This was a laborious process until the industrial revolution and invention of the cotton gin, which quickly separates the seeds from the fiber and combs them for spinning. While a single cotton fiber is not terribly strong, when multiple curling fibers are straightened and twisted together, they form a strong, smooth thread that can be knitted or woven, as well as dyed.

Other websites
 Cotton -Citizendium

Basic English 850 words
Fibers
Arabic words and phrases

Cotton


Menahem Zioni (Ziyyuni) ben Meir of Speyer (c. 1340 - c. 1410) was a German kabbalist of the middle of the 14th century.

He was the author of the kabbalistic commentary Ẓiyyuni, from which he derives his name. He based his work upon Rashi and Naḥmanides, and especially upon the old kabbalistic literature of the geonic period. The "Ẓiyyuni" is introduced by poems in alphabetic and acrostic order. The division Bereshit begins with a preface on the importance of the assumption of the creation of the world, and in support of this view the arguments of Maimonides are quoted at length. Short poems serve as transitions to the several parashiyyot, and in conclusion there is an acrostic poem, to which, in the second edition, another poem is added.

The verse of Zioni quoted by Leopold Dukes from a manuscript chrestomathy constitutes the last stanza of this final poem. The book is frequently quoted in the Yalḳuṭ Re'ubeni. It was printed by Vincentio Conti at Cremona in 1559, in rabbinic script, and after this edition was burned (in the same year) by marauding Spanish soldiers, it was reprinted there in the following year.

Menahem is not to be identified with Menahem Zion b. Meïr (as does Heidenheim), a payyeṭan of the twelfth century well known under the name of "Menahem b. Machir".

References

 Its bibliography:
Ph. Bloch, Die Jüdische Mystik und Kabbala, in Winter and Wünsche, Die Jüdische Litteratur, iii. 282;
Zunz, Z. G. p. 105;
Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i. 774;
M. Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1742.

Kabbalists
14th-century German rabbis

15th-century German rabbis

1340 births
1410 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain

Menachem Zioni


Dylan Mark Postl (born May 29, 1986) is an American midget professional wrestler. He is better known by his ring name Hornswoggle. Postl is best known for his time working for the WWE. He was the last WWE Cruiserweight Champion ever. Postl originally wrestled under the name of "The World's Sexiest Midget" Shortstack.

Career
Prior to working on SmackDown!, Postl was best known for his work with NWA Wisconsin where he won its X Division Championship.

World Wrestling Entertainment
Postl signed with World Wrestling Entertainment in May 2007. He is the fourth wrestler from NWA Wisconsin to sign with WWE. The others were Daivari, Ken Kennedy and CM Punk.

Postl first showed up as the leprechaun partner of the Irish wrestler Finlay on SmackDown! during the May 26 episode. After Finlay's victory over Paul Burchill, a little man (Postl) crawled out from under the ring and jumped on Burchill. Finlay pulled him off, only to slam him back down onto Burchill again. For the next few weeks the as-yet unnamed man continued to appear from under the ring after matches.

Eventually, SmackDown! commentator Michael Cole began calling him the Little Bastard. The name became popular and became his "official" name. Commentator JBL refused to call him "Little Bastard". JBL said, "he might have parents". He instead called him a leprechaun. This was confirmed in one edition of SmackDown! by Finlay.

Little Bastard soon became meaner. He started attacking during Finlay's matches even though it upset Finlay. Many times, Finlay either physically shoved Little Bastard back under the ring or was forced to tackle him before he could hit the person he was wrestling. At one point, Little Bastard attacked Finlay, biting Finlay when Finlay tried to stop him from attacking Gunner Scott.

Little Bastard was an important part of Finlay winning the United States Championship when he tossed him a shillelagh to knock out champion Lashley to win the match.

On February 23, his name was changed to Hornswoggle on WWE's website and all references to the name "Little Bastard" were removed. The name change became official on the March 2 episode of SmackDown!. Postl attacked JBL and Michael Cole. Afterwards, Finlay told Cole that Little Bastard's name is Hornswoggle. Despite this, Cole continues to occasionally refer to Hornswoggle as "Little Bastard".

On July 22, 2007 at The Great American Bash Hornswoggle won the WWE Cruiserweight Championship. The other people in the match and commentators did not know that he was a participant in the match until the pin and he was given the belt. This made him the first person with dwarfism to win a Championship in WWE history. Hornswoggle is both the lightest and the shortest wrestler to win the Cruiserweight Championship in WWE history. He is also the smallest wrestler to win any title in WWE.

Postl was drafted to ECW on June 25, 2008 as part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft.

Championships and Accomplishments

 World Wrestling Entertainment
 WWE Cruiserweight Championship (1 time, last)

Notes and references

Other websites

1986 births
Living people
American professional wrestlers
Former WWE wrestlers
People with dwarfism
Sportspeople from Wisconsin

Hornswoggle


Physical chemistry uses physics to study chemical systems.  It studies them at macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate levels.  It looks at concepts like motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and dynamics.

Physical chemistry is not the same as chemical physics. Physical chemistry is mostly a macroscopic or supra-molecular science. The majority of physical chemistry concepts relate to bulk properties rather than to molecular/atomic structure alone. These include chemical equilibrium and colloids.

Some of the relationships that physical chemistry tries to resolve include the effects of:
Intermolecular forces on the physical properties of materials (for example, plasticity, tensile strength, surface tension in liquids).
Reaction kinetics on the rate of a reaction.
The identity of ions on the electrical conductivity of materials.
Surface chemistry and electrochemistry of membranes.

History

The term "physical chemistry" was first used by Mikhail Lomonosov in 1752. He presented a lecture course with the title "A Course in True Physical Chemistry" (Russian: «Курс истинной физической химии») to the students of Petersburg University.

Modern physical chemistry was developed in the 1860s to 1880s with work on chemical thermodynamics, electrolytes in solutions, chemical kinetics and other subjects. In 1876, Josiah Willard Gibbs wrote an article called, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances.  This paper introduced many of the main parts of physical chemistry, such as Gibbs energy, chemical potentials, Gibbs phase rule. Other important discoveries include Heike Kamerlingh Onnes' work on enthalpy and macromolecular processes.

The first scientific journal about physical chemistry was the German journal, Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. It was founded in 1887 by Wilhelm Ostwald and Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff.   The two chemists and Svante August Arrhenius were the leading men in physical chemistry in the late 19th century and early 20th century. All three were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Important discoveries were made in the 20th century. These include applying statistical mechanics to chemical systems and Irving Langmuir's work on colloids and surface chemistry. In the 1930's, Linus Pauling and others applied quantum mechanics to develop quantum chemistry. Chemical theories have grown with new experimental discoveries. New forms of spectroscopy started in the 20th century including: infrared spectroscopy, microwave spectroscopy, EPR spectroscopy and NMR spectroscopy.

Physical chemistry also improved with discoveries in nuclear chemistry, especially in isotope separation. This happened around the time before and during World War II. Chemists discovered important facts in astrochemistry.

Journals
These journals cover physical chemistry:
Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie (1887)
Journal of Physical Chemistry A (from 1896 as Journal of Physical Chemistry, renamed in 1997)
Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics (from 1999, formerly Faraday Transactions with a history dating back to 1905)
Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics (1947)
Annual Review of Physical Chemistry (1950)
Molecular Physics (journal)|Molecular Physics (1957)
Journal of Physical Organic Chemistry (1988)
Journal of Physical Chemistry B (1997)
ChemPhysChem (2000)
Journal of Physical Chemistry C (2007)
Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters (from 2010, combined letters previously published in the separate journals)

A historical journal that covered both chemistry and physics was Annales de chimie et de physique.  It started in 1789 and was published under the name given here from 1815–1914.

Branches and related topics

Thermochemistry
Chemical kinetics
Quantum chemistry
Electrochemistry
Photochemistry
Surface chemistry
Solid-state chemistry
Spectroscopy
Biophysical chemistry
Materials science
Physical organic chemistry
Micromeritics

References

Other websites

Physical Chemistry   (Keith J. Laidler, John H. Meiser and Bryan C. Sanctuary)
The World of Physical Chemistry (Keith J. Laidler, 1993)
Physical Chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling (John W. Servos, 1996)
100 Years of Physical Chemistry (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2004)
Physical Chemistry: neither Fish nor Fowl? (Joachim Schummer, The Autonomy of Chemistry, Würzburg, Königshausen & Neumann, 1998, pp. 135–148)
Cathedrals of Science  (Patrick Coffey, 2008)
The Cambridge History of Science: The modern physical and mathematical sciences (Mary Jo Nye, 2003)

Branches of chemistry

Physical chemistry


A patch is a piece of a flexible material used to repair an object that has a hole in it, to protect an object from damage even before it is damaged, or to decorate clothing or other fabric items.

Cloth patches

For repairs
Cloth patches are rectangles of cloth that are used to cover up holes in clothing and other fabric items. Patches are usually used on clothes and soft things like cushions, teddy bears and blankets. Patches are sewn on with a needle and thread or glued on using a hot iron.

For decoration
Many types of uniforms use cloth patches that have embroidered words or images on them. For example, police officers' uniforms have patches that state the name of the police force. Military uniforms have patches that have the flag of the country embroidered on them and the military unit that the soldier is part of. Many uniforms for businesses have cloth patches with the name of the company and the company logo embroidered on them.

As well, many people wear patches on their regular clothing. Some patches are sold by tourist stores. These patches have the name of a region on them. Other patches worn by teenagers have the names and logos of rock bands on them. Motorcycle biker gang members, such as members of the Hells Angels  wear patches on their leather vests that state the name of their gang and the logo of the gang.

Leather patches
Leather patches are rectangles of leather that are used to cover up holes in clothing and other fabric items. Leather patches are usually used on heavy-duty work clothes, or on the elbows of jackets, or on the knees of pants. Leather patches are sewn on with a needle and thread.

Rubber patches
Rubber patches are rectangles, squares, or circular pieces of flat, thin rubber that are glued onto bicycle tire inner tubes, car tire inner tubes, and inflatable toys to repair holes.

Clothing

Patch


Incheon (officially, Incheon Metropolitan City) is a major port city in South Korea and famous for Incheon International Airport.

Incheon is 28 km from the nation's capital, Seoul. It is at 126° 37´ east longitude and 37° 28´ north latitude, the same latitude as San Francisco, Washington, Madrid, and Teheran. Incheon is the third largest city in South Korea, after Seoul and Busan and 2.6 million people live in Incheon (2009).

There are ten administrative districts in Incheon and it is divided into 8 wards ("gu") and 2 counties ("gun").

Incheon Subway and Seoul Metropolitan Subway is linked (line number 1) and it takes approximately an hour from Incheon subway station to Seoul Station.

History
The history of Incheon started from the Goguryeo Kingdom in 475 AD, under the reign of King Jangsu. Its original name was Michuhol and it changed several times and renamed to Incheon-gun in the 13th year of King Taejong's reign during Joseon period. In 1949, after Korea`s 1945 liberation, Incheon City reorganized.  It was finally renamed to Incheon Metropolitan City in 1995.

During the Korean War, there was the battle of Incheon led by an American general of UN Douglas MacArthur and the battle resulted in a decisive victory. It was also a strategic reversal in favor of the United Nations(UN). In a show of gratitude to the American soldier, Koreans in the late 1950s erected the bronze statue of MacArthur in a central park at Incheon that overlooks the sea area through which his troops came ashore.

Culture and Tourism
Incheon is famous for 17th Asian Games,Incheon International Airport, Incheon Port, Songdo International City, Incheon Subway, and Munhak Worldcup Stadium are five major cites of Incheon.

Ganghwa-county
Ganghwa-county (Ganghwa Island) is famous for dolmens registered as one of the World Heritages by UNESCO.
Hwamunseok mats are Incheon's famous local products, a figured mat. The beauty of these hand-woven mats has made them one of the most famous specialty products of Ganghwa-gun, and one of the most beloved traditional Korean crafts.

Wolmido (Wolmi Island)
Wolmido was once a military base of Japanese Army during the Japanese colonial period and a outpost of the battle of Incheon. Nowadays, Wolmido is one of the most famous tourist spots near the Metropolitan area. Along the 1 km-long Wolmido Street of Culture, there are lots of beautiful cafes and restaurants. Wolmido is also famous for street performers, portrait artists and Wolmi Festival.

Incheon Free Economic Zone
To become an international economic hub and a center of business and service industry of Asia, Incheon is developing free economic zone in the three regions of Songdo, Cheongra, and the island of Yeongjong. Incheon's Free Economic Zone, the first in Korea, was officially designated by the Korean government in August 2003 and it is planing to 2020.

References

Other websites

Incheon Metropolitan City homepage
Incheon International Airport

5th-century establishments in Asia
Establishments in South Korea
475 establishments

Incheon


Spain is divided in 17 parts called autonomous communities. Autonomous means that each of these autonomous communities has its own executive, legislative judicial powers. These are similar to, but not the same as, states in the United States of America, for example.

Spain has fifty smaller parts called provinces. In 1978 these parts came together, making the autonomous communities.
Before then, some of these provinces were together but were broken. The groups that were together once before are called "historic communities": Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia.

The Spanish language is the sole official language in every autonomous community but six, where Spanish is co-official with other languages, as follows:
 Catalonia: Catalan and Occitan
 Valencian Community: Catalan (also called Valencian there)
 Balearic Islands: Catalan
 Galicia: Galician
 Basque Country: Basque
 Navarre: Basque (only in the north and near the border with the Basque County)

List of the autonomous communities, with their Capital city (the place where the government has its offices):

 Andalusia (its capital is Sevilla)
 Aragon (its capital is Zaragoza)
 Asturias (its capital is Oviedo)
 Balearic Islands (its capital is Palma de Mallorca)
 Basque Country (its capital is Vitoria)
 Canary Islands (they have two capitals - Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife)
 Cantabria (its capital is Santander)
 Castile-La Mancha (its capital is Toledo)
 Castile and León (its capital is Valladolid)
 Catalonia (its capital is Barcelona)
 Extremadura (its capital is Mérida)
 Galicia (its capital is Santiago de Compostela)
 La Rioja (its capital is Logroño)
 Community of Madrid (its capital is Madrid)
 Region of Murcia (its capital is Murcia)
 Navarre (its capital is Pamplona)
 Valencian Community (its capital is Valencia)

Spain also has two cities on the north coast of Africa: Ceuta and Melilla. They are called "autonomous cities" and have simultaneously the majority of the power of an autonomous community and also power of provinces and power of municipalities.

Autonomous communities of Spain


Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Russian: Влади́мир Ильи́ч Улья́нов, IPA: vla'dʲimʲr ilj'itʂ ul'janʌf), better known as Lenin (Ленин)) (22 April 1870 - 21 January 1924) ek Russian revolutionary aur Bolshevik party ke leader rahaa. Uu Soviet Union ke pahil aleader rahaa. Soviet Union, Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) ke dusra naam hae. Lenin ke Leninism suruu kare khatir bhi jaana jaawe hae, jiske baad me Josif Stalin Marxism-Leninism naam diis rahaa.

School me , Lenin  Latin aur Greek bhasa me achchhaa parrhat rahaa. 1887 me uske Kazan State University se nikal dewa gais rahaa kahe ki uu bahut radical rahaa aur Tsar ke virod me protest karis rahaa.  Wahii saal me  Lenin ke bhaiya, Alexander Ulyanov, ke  Alexander III kr hatya kare ke kosis me faansi pe charrhawa gais rahaa. Lenin apne se parrte rahaa aur 1891 me uske lawyer ke licence mila.

St. Petersburg me jab, Lenin wakiili ke parrhai karat rahaa tab uu Karl Marx aur Friedrich Engels ke bichar ke baare me jaanis. Kaahe ki Marxism ke Russia me allowed nai rahaa, Lenin ke arrest kar ke jahel me kar dewa gais rahaa aur iske baad Siberia bhej dewa gais rahaa.

July 1898 me, jab uu Siberia me rahaa, tav uu ek socialist aurat, Nadezhda Krupskaya se saadi karis. 1899 me uu el book likhis, The Developm me rahaaent of Capitalism in Russia. 1900, Lenin ke Siberia se chhorr dewa gais rahaa.

Iske baad Lenin Europe bhar me ghumis aur ek Marxist newspaper,  Iskra ke chapis, Russian sabd jiske matlab English me "spark" hae. Uu Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) ke ek leader ban gais.

1903 me, Lenin aur RSDLP ke duusra leader, Julius Martov ke biich me matbhed hoe gais, ii khatir ki Party ke kon rakam se organise karaa jaawe. Ii matbhed ke kaaran Party, dui gut (faction) me bat gais. Lenin maangat rahaa ek strict, centralised, aur disciplined model. Martov maangat rahaa ek kamtii strict, aur kamti centralised model. Martov ke gut waale ke Menshevik bola jaawat rahaa (jiske matlab hae "uu jon ki kamti hae"). Lenin ke gut waala logan ke Bolshevik bola jaawat rahaa ( jiske matlab hae "uu jon ki jaada maange hae").

Lenin, 1907 me Finland gais kaahe ki Marxists log khatir Finland, Russia se jaada surakchhit rahaa. Uu Europae bhar me ghumis aur dher socialist meeting aur ghatna me hissa liis rahaa. Ii time me uu London, Paris me dher jagha me rahaa, aur World War I ke time Geneva me. Larrai ke suruu ke time Second International ke ek barraa meeting, jisme Bolsheviks bhi rahin, broke down, kahe ki dher member Parties aapan des ke larrai me madat kare maangat rahin, aur ii idea Marxist idea of internationalism ke nai rahaa. Lenin aur Bolsheviks (jiske communists ke naamse bhi jaana jaawat rahaa) me se khaali kuchh log larrai ke virod karin Marxist kaaran se.

1917

Jab February Revolution ke baad me Nicholas II  Tsar nai rahaa, tab Lenin, Russia laut gais. Uu ek khaas Bolshevik leader banaa, aur public me April Theses ke announce karis jisme uu  Kerensky ke sarkar ke nawaa middle class ke mistake khatir accuse karis aur majuur logan se sarkar ke palte ke khatir Workers' Revolution kare ke batais. Lenin also talked about the mistakes of many members of the Bolshevik Central Committee (including Zinoviev, Kamenev and Stalin) who helped the government to continue to fight the war against Germany, against the wishes of the Leninists.

During July 1917, when people said that Lenin had got money from the Germans; he was afraid and had to flee to Finland.

In October 1917, the Bolsheviks under Lenin and Trotsky headed the Petrograd Soviet and other Soviets all over Russia in a taking of power from Kerensky's Government, known as the October Revolution ended up in the making of the first Marxist Communist State in world history.

On November 8, 1917, Lenin was chosen Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars by the Russian Soviet Congress. This means that he was the leader of Russia.

Because he was shocked by the German invasion, he signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Russia lost a lot of land, but the Germans stopped the invasion.

During the Russian Civil War, Lenin started war communism. But after the war, Lenin brought the New Economic Policy. Some private enterprise was allowed, but not much at all. Businessmen, known as nepmen, can own only light industry, not heavy.

After Fanny Kaplan (opposition party august 30 1918) shot Lenin, he started having many strokes and never recovered. By May 1922, he was badly paralysed. After a stroke in March 1923, he could not speak or move. Lenin's fourth stroke killed him in January 1924. Just before the stroke Lenin wanted to get rid of Stalin, considering him dangerous to the soviet republic.

The city of St. Petersburg had been renamed by the Tsar to Petrograd in 1914, but was renamed Leningrad in Lenin's honour in 1924. But after the end of soviet socialism, in 1991, it was called St. Petersburg again.

Before Lenin died, he said he wished to be buried beside his mother.  When he died, the communists led by dictator stalin let the people of Russia come to look at him.  Because people kept coming, they decided not to bury him.  A building was built, in Red Square, Moscow, over Lenin's body, so that people could see him. Lenin's body was mummified (became mummy). It is called the Lenin mausoleum (a mausoleum is a building for dead people). It is a situated in Moscow, Russia, and many people still go there to see him. The body looks ok but it has deteriorated, years of preservation brought tissue wear.

The Russian orthodox churchs prefers burying him with his family, proposal was give to the government but no official reply has been received because his viewing brings in revenue to the russian government.

Duusra panna

 Communism

References

Russia ke log
Socialists
Marxism

Vladimir Lenin


Stolon is a term used often in botany. It describes a horizontal stem running across or just under the ground. A runner is a stolon which runs on the ground; a rhizome is the same thing, but running underground. Rhizome can be found in Ginger,Turmeric,Banana,Dryopteris

Plants with stolons or stolon-like rhizomes are called stoloniferous. A stolon is a plant propagation strategy. At nodes, rootlets are put down and new stems are put up. All these plant forms are clones from a single genetic individual.

Plant anatomy

Stolon


The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, privilege, and immunity recognized in common law (and sometimes in civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy) as belonging to the sovereign, and which have become widely vested in the government. It is the means by which some of the executive powers of government, possessed by and vested in a monarch with regard to the process of governance of the state, are carried out.

Evolution
In most constitutional monarchies, prerogatives can be abolished by Parliament as the courts apply the constitutional near-absolute of the supremacy of Parliament. In the Commonwealth realms, this draws on the constitutional statutes at the time of the Glorious Revolution, when William III and Mary II were invited to take the throne.

In the United Kingdom, the remaining powers of the royal prerogative are devolved to the head of the government, which, for more than two centuries, has been the Prime Minister; the benefits, equally, such as ratification of treaties and mineral rights in all gold and silver ores, vest in (belong to) the government.

In Britain, prerogative powers were originally exercised by the monarch acting without an observed requirement for parliamentary consent (after its empowerment in certain matters following Magna Carta). Since the accession of the House of Hanover, these powers have been, with minor exceptions in economically unimportant sectors, exercised on the advice of the prime minister or the Cabinet, who are accountable to Parliament (and exclusively so, except in matters of the Royal Family) since at least the time of William IV.

Typically, in liberal democracies that are constitutional monarchies as well as nation states, such as Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the royal prerogative serves in practice as a prescribed ceremonial function of the state power.

Ministerial exercise of the monarch's prerogatives
Today, prerogative powers fall into two main categories:

Those directly exercised by ministers without the approval of parliament, including, in some countries such as the UK, the powers to regulate the civil service, issue passports, and grant honours.
Those exercised nominally by the monarch, "on the advice of" (that is, by constitutional convention, however so requested by) the prime minister and on the advice of the cabinet.

Some key areas of government are carried out by the royal prerogative, but its usage is falling as functions are progressively made statutory.

Commonwealth realms

United Kingdom

In the Kingdom of England (up to 1707), the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800), and the United Kingdom (since 1801), the royal prerogative was, has been, and is one of the central features of the realm's governance.

Constitutional theorist A. V. Dicey defines the scope of prerogative powers as:

The scope of the royal prerogative is difficult to determine due to the uncodified nature of the constitution. It is clear that the existence and extent of the power is a matter of the common law of England, making the courts the final arbiter of whether a particular type of prerogative exists or not. Nevertheless, certain prerogative powers have been widely acknowledged and accepted over time, while others have fallen out of use.

The royal prerogative is not constitutionally unlimited. In the Case of Proclamations (1611) during the reign of King James VI/I, English common law courts judges emphatically asserted that they possessed the right to determine the limits of the royal prerogative. Since the Glorious Revolution in 1688, which brought co-monarchs King William III and Queen Mary II to power, this interpretation of there being a separate and distinct power of the judiciary has not been challenged by the Crown. It has been accepted that it is emphatically the province of the court(s) to say what the law is, or means. This is a crucial corollary and foundation to the concept of the judicial power; and its distinct and separate nature from the executive power possessed by the Crown itself, or its ministers.  In most cases, the Monarch exercises the prerogative powers only on the advice of the Government of the day, either directly or through the Privy Council.

British dependencies
Generally, the Crown retains all the power of the state in an overseas territory (or 'dependent territory' from 1983 to 2002 or 'Crown colony' before that), even if in practice it is not directly exercised. Thus the royal prerogative is in theory an unlimited, arbitrary authority.  In British overseas territories however, each inhabited territory has a constitution by which the territory is governed locally.

The absoluteness of the royal prerogative in the colonies was however defeated in the case of Campbell v. Hall in 1774. This case decided that once a colony gained a representative assembly (or once the governor has been instructed to call one), the royal authority is limited to the familiar prerogatives; without the assembly's consent the Crown could not raise taxation nor change the law. Several of the colonies of the British West Indies thus became "settled colonies", and reverted to "crown colony" status only by Act of Parliament in the nineteenth century.

In August 2009, Michael Misick, first Premier of the Turks and Caicos Islands, a British Overseas Territory, resigned under charges of corruption and abuse of power.  In order to restore the rule of law, the UK government took direct control of the government of the territory, under an Order in Council of 18 March 2009, which suspended and amended parts of the Islands' constitution, and vacated all the offices of ministers and the House of Assembly. This action was not an exercise of the royal prerogative, as it was made under "the West Indies Act 1962 and of all other powers enabling Her to do so", but did vest wide discretionary legislative and executive powers in Her Majesty's governor, who as in all British Overseas Territories, acts on the instructions of the UK government, not the monarch. A new constitution was promulgated in October 2012 and the government was returned to full local administration after the November 2012 elections.

In the case of the Chagos Archipelago, in 2000, the High Court of Justice of England and Wales ruled that a local ordinance made by the Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory exiling the islanders was unlawful, a decision which was accepted by the British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook. That Order was legislation passed under authority given by the royal prerogative, not an exercise of the prerogative itself, and was overturned as being beyond the powers given. After this decision, the British government issued an Order in Council, a primary exercise of the royal prerogative, to achieve the same objective. This Order was also ruled unlawful by the High Court, a ruling upheld in the Court of Appeal.  However, on Wednesday, 22 October 2008, the government won its appeal in the House of Lords against the previous rulings. The House decided by a three-to-two majority that the Order in Council was a lawful exercise of authority. In their speeches, the Law Lords admitted the government of the day was morally wrong to force out some 2,000 residents of the Chagos Archipelago, a British Crown colony, to make way for a US air base in the 1960s. Nevertheless, the majority could not find legal fault in the Order.

Canada
In Canada, the royal prerogative is, for the most part, the same as that in the United Kingdom, as constrained by constitutional convention, although its exercise is usually through the federal governor general in the Privy Council of Canada, or the provincial lieutenant governors in the provincial executive councils. The royal prerogative in Canada is largely set out in Part III of the Constitution Act, 1867, particularly section 9.

As foreign affairs are a matter of royal prerogative, the power to declare war and deploy the armed forces belongs to the Crown, though only in its federal Cabinet (the federal government), as outlined in sections 9 and 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867. Neither legislation nor any other type of parliamentary approval, beyond budgetary matters, is required for such actions, though the Cabinet has on occasion consulted parliament before engaging Canada or extending Canada's involvement in a conflict. Additionally, the federal Crown may ratify treaties.  Again, the endorsement of Parliament is not necessary for these agreements to have force in an international sense, but the federal Parliament and the provincial legislatures must pass statutes in order for them to have domestic effect, under the division of powers set out in sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution Act, 1867. Proposed treaties have also occasionally been presented to parliament for debate before ratification. Members of Parliament have tabled bills seeking to curtail the use of the royal prerogative in foreign affairs by legislating a greater role for parliament, as have Senate standing committees, from time to time, called for the same.

The issuance of passports also remains within the royal prerogative in Canada. The terms for the issuing of passports by the Minister of Foreign Affairs on behalf of the Crown are set out in the Canadian Passport Order, issued by the Governor General-in-Council. The Canadian government has used the royal prerogative on two occasions to deny a passport to a Canadian citizen, Abdurahman Khadr and Fateh Kamel. Lawsuits filed at the Federal Court, Federal Court of Appeal, and ultimately the Supreme Court of Canada did not find in favour of either Khadr, nor Kamel.

The royal prerogative in Canada extends also to the granting of honours, as explained by the Court of Appeal for Ontario in Black v. Chrétien (regarding Conrad Black's entitlement to an appointment to the House of Lords while a Canadian citizen). Other royal prerogatives, such as the prerogative of mercy, also exist in the Canadian context, although largely supplanted for criminal matters by statutory provisions.

Other Commonwealth realms
In the other Commonwealth realms, the royal prerogative can be or is specifically mandated to be exercised by the monarch's representative, the governor-general. In the case of Australia, the royal prerogative is vested specifically in the governor-general of Australia for military affairs, rather than the monarch, and is defined by the Constitution of Australia.

The constitution of a Commonwealth realm may also sharply limit the prerogative. In some cases, governmental acts which would normally require royal prerogative may be enacted through other means in the constitution, or through a legislative act in a Commonwealth realm.

Spain

The Spanish Constitution of 1978, Title II The Crown, Article 62, delineates the powers of the king, while Title IV Government and Administration, Article 99, defines the king's role in government. Title VI Judicial Power, Article 117, Articles 122 through 124, outlines the king's role in the country's independent judiciary. However, by constitutional convention established by Juan Carlos I, the king exercises his prerogatives having solicited government advice while maintaining a politically non-partisan and independent monarchy. Receiving government advice does not necessarily bind the monarch into executing the advice, except where prescribed by the constitution.

See also
 Divine right of kings
 Five Knights case
 Jura regalia
 King-in-Parliament
 Letters patent
 Prorogatio
 Reserve power
 Royal assent
 Royal charter
 Royal order
 Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom
 Statutory instrument

Notes

References

Further reading
 A. B. Keith, The King and the Imperial Crown (1936)
 Joseph Chitty, The Prerogatives of the Crown (monograph from 1820)
 Stanley de Smith and Rodney Brazier, Constitutional and Administrative Law
 Walter Bagehot, The English Constitution
 Blick, Andrew. 2014. "Emergency powers and the withering of the Royal Prerogative." International Journal of Human Rights 18, no. 2: 195–210.

External links

Parliament Report on the powers of the Royal Prerogative
Taming the Prerogative: Strengthening Ministerial Accountability to Parliament (Government Response)
Lecture by Canadian constitutional scholar Kent Roach on the royal prerogative and Omar Khadr
Prerogativa Regis. Of the King's Prerogative (1322)

Sovereignty
Constitutional law

Royal prerogative


Choreography (dance-writing) is the art of making dances. It tells dancers how they should dance and move. The word has been used since the late 18th century to mean the art of composing dance.

A person who does choreography is called a choreographer. A choreographer makes a dance based on music or a synopsis (a writing of what occurs in the dance). They may also act as trainers for professional dancers in ballet, stage shows and competitive ballroom dance. Their ideas may be recorded in dance notation, or on videos.

Choreography is also used in other types of performances. In Ice skating and Ice dancing, the choreographer designs the moves the skates does. In theater, movies and television, a choreographer is used to design fight scenes. For example, Bob Anderson designed many of the sword fight scenes in the Lord of the Rings movies as well as some of the Star Wars movies. A person who does this type of choreography is usually called a fight choreographer.

References

Dance

Choreography


The bassoon is the lowest of the four main instruments of the woodwind family. Like the oboe, it has a double reed. The reed is attached to a curved metal mouthpiece called a "crook" or "bocal" which is joined to the main part of the instrument. This consists of two parts called 'bass joint' and 'wing joint' (or 'tenor joint'). These two are joined at the bottom by a U-shaped piece called the 'boot'. At the top of the instrument is the 'bell joint'. The instrument is quite heavy. Some players have a neckstrap around their neck to support the weight, but usually they use a seat strap that connects at the bottom of the boot and goes across the floor. The bassoonist, a person who plays a bassoon, then sits on that strap. The bassoon is held to the right side of the bassoonist and the top of the boot joint is usually level with the players hip. The bassoon, when played right, can sound very beautiful. The bassoon has one of the largest note ranges, going from low B flat to a high F on the top line of the treble clef. The bassoon can also play in tenor clef, but usually plays bass clef.

Some bassoons have a white, ivory ring round the top of the bell joint. These are German bassoons (called 'Heckel'). French bassoons (called 'Buffet') do not have this ring, and also sound quite different to German bassoons. Bassoons have keys to help the player to cover all the holes, but these keys do not use the Boehm fingering system like the other woodwind instruments. German bassoons use a system called the Heckel system, and French bassoons use the Buffet system.

The Bassoon is usually seen as a comical instrument, however it provides a very important role in the orchestra. In fact, the Saxophone was invented to replace the Bassoon and Oboe, however, was rejected because it didn't sound the same in the orchestra.

Playing the bassoon
To play the bassoon, it is very important to have lots of breathing support. Like with the oboe, fast passages can be played using double tonguing (single tonguing is like saying "tu-tu-tu-tu-tu", double tonguing is like saying "te-ke-te-ke-te-ke"). In most music, the bassoon will spend a lot of time playing a bass line, perhaps the same notes as the cello or tuba. It can sometimes sound quite amusing when playing an "um-cha-um-cha" accompaniment like in the "Dance of the Cygnets" from Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake. It can sound very tuneful and sad as in the second movement of Rimsky Korsakov's Sheherazade. Listen to the opening of Stravinsky's Rite of Spring where it plays some quite high notes to fool people that it is the Cor anglais or the English Horn. Even a famous composer, Saint Saëns, did not know what the instrument was. Prokofiev uses the bassoon for grandfather's tune in Peter and the Wolf. Also, to play the bassoon, a player needs big hands because the bassoon's keys and holes are quite wide.

The holes are drilled in at an angle so that the upper register is not overblown and produces an unpleasant sound. Whisper keys were also invented to prevent overblowing. The bassoon is known for its reedy sound. Its upper register is shrill and sometimes scary. Middle register could be used for lullabies because of its majestic and soothing tone. Its lower register is deep, dark, and could be used for scary movies and such.

History and repertoire
The bassoon developed from a renaissance instrument called the curtal or dulcian. These were double reed instruments which often played with shawms. In the Baroque period the bassoon became popular as an instrument to play the bass line, perhaps playing the same as the cello. A man named Hotteterre made many parts of the modern bassoon. In the late Baroque period composers like Antonio Vivaldi wrote concertos for bassoon and orchestra. Some more famous bassoon concertos include one by Mozart, and in more recent times by Peter Maxwell Davies. The bassoon was a very important instrument in the orchestra. Mozart and Beethoven gave the bassoon important parts in the music.

Contrabassoon
In some pieces with a large orchestra a contrabassoon is used. This plays an octave lower than a bassoon, taking it right down to bottom B flat or C on the piano. Some contrabassoons are made to play a note lower, i.e. the very lowest note of the piano (A). One might expect to see the contrabassoon sticking up high above all the other instruments in the orchestra, but in fact the tube keeps doing U-turns, making four parallel rows of tubing. They are usually made with the bell pointing downwards. The weight is supported by a peg to the floor. The contrabassoon used to be shaped like a bassoon.

The contrabassoon adds richness to the sound of a full orchestra. Listen carefully for the contrabassoon in the hymn-like introduction to the last movement of Symphony no 1 by Brahms. It can be clearly heard, growling away, in the opening of the Piano Concerto for the Left Hand by Ravel.

Double reed instruments

Bassoon


Scrievin is the airt o scartin merks ontae something whauras writin is the act o recordin information on a medium sae that it micht be read by ithers or at a later time. The tairm "scrieve" is defined be the Dictionar o the Scots Leid as "To write, esp. to write easily and copiously".

A writer is ane wha uises written wirds in sindry styles an techniques tae communicate thair ideas. An author is narraely defined as the oreeginator o ony written wirk an can thus be describit as a writer (wi ony distinction primarily bein an implication that an author is a writer o ane or mair major wirks, such as beuks or plays).

The medium is for ordinar paper, tho ither permanent media, sic as claith an cley can be uised. Temporar media sic as televeesion an pictur screens can be uised for tae shaw writin an aw.

Writin is aft duin uisin a haund tuil sic as a pincil, a pen, or a besom, but mair an mair, text is bein creatit by computer prenters unner the guidal o a computer application.

History
In the earliest times, writin wis for ordinar a set o picturs, that stuid for wirds or ideas. The Egyptians uised this kind o method in thair upmak o hieroglyphs. Cheenae uises the same thocht the day, whaur a chairacter staunds for a thing raither nor a soond.

It is anerly in the hintmaist few hunder year that maist fowk haes been able tae write an tae read. Till than, eddication wis anerly for the walthy or feckfu, an acause ilka beuk haed tae be shapit by haund, thare war gey few beuks appen compeart tae the billions in the warld the day.

See forby
 Writin seestem
 Laitin alphabet

Writin
Communication design

ay:Qillqa
kk:Жазу
qu:Qillqa

Scrievin


Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.

The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (analusis, "a breaking up", from ana- "up, throughout" and lysis "a loosening").

In this context, Analysis is the opposite of synthesis, which is to bring ideas together.

The following concepts are closely related to this basic idea:
 Mathematical analysis is the name given to any branch of mathematics that looks at what functions are, how they behave, and what things can be done with them.
 Analytical chemistry looks at the qualities of substances, and their composition.

Some definitions
The process of breaking up a concept, proposition, or fact into its simple or ultimate constituents. Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. 2nd ed, 1999, ed. Robert Audi.
Resolution into simpler elements by analysing. 2. (Maths) Use of algebra and calculus in problem-solving. Concise Oxford Dictionary. 1976, ed. J.B. Sykes.
The isolation of what is more elementary from what is more complex by whatever method. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. 1925, ed. James Mark Baldwin, Vol. I
The original Greek sense [was] a 'loosening up' or 'releasing'. Geometry assumes a proposition to be true and searches for another known truth from which the proposition may be deduced. Physical science resolves complex wholes into their elements. A Kant Dictionary, 1995, by Howard Caygill.
The process of breaking a concept down into more simple parts, so that its logical structure is displayed. Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. 1996, Simon Blackburn
Philosophical analysis is a method of inquiry in which one seeks to assess complex systems of thought by 'analysing' them into simpler elements whose relationships are thereby brought into focus. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 1998, entry under 'Conceptual Analysis' by Robert Hanna

References

Philosophy
Research methods

Analysis


William Butler Yeats (1865–1939) was an Irish poet, dramatist and mystic. He was born in Dublin, Ireland on 13 June 1865. He spent most of his time in Sligo and some time in London.

Yeats' early poetry drew heavily on myth and legend. His later work had more to do with contemporary issues. One of his famous poems is called "Leda and the Swan".

With Lady Gregory and others, he was one of the people who founded the Irish Literary Theatre and the Abbey Theatre.

He was also interested in Hermeticism and Theosophy. He was a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.

Yeats won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1923. He died in Menton, France.

References

1865 births
1939 deaths
Irish poets
Royal Society of Literature
Writers from Dublin
Irish Nobel Prize winners

William Butler Yeats


Sunnandæg is þǣre ƿuce dæg betƿēonan Sæternesdæge and Mōnandæge.  His nama is genumen of Sunne, þǣm Seaxiscan Sunnes gyden, ēac hātte Sōl be þǣm Norþmannum.

Sunnandæg is sometimes held to be the last day of the week (especially in modern Europe and South America), and sometimes the first day (a traditional view derived from ancient Jews and ancient Egyptians).

In orthodox Christian families and communities some activities are not done, e.g. working, doing something that requires somebody else to work such as buying goods or services (including the use of public transport),  driving a car, gardening, washing a car, etc. Exceptions which are allowed are making use of religious services, and, usually, using electricity, and urgent medical matters.

In þǣm folclēoðe, "Þæt cild geboren on Sunnandæge is fæger and ƿīs and gōd and gāl".

In ancient Jewish tradition Sæternesdæg is the sabbath.  Mænig geþēodu forþoliaþ ānlīelpigra ƿorda for "Sæternesdæge" and "Sabate".  Eastern Orthodox churches distinguish between the sabbath (Sæternesdæg) and the Lord's day (Sunnandæg). Roman Catholics put so little emphasis on that distinction that many among them follow -- at least in colloquial language -- the Protestant practice of calling Sunnandæg the sabbath.

Ǣnig mōnaþ þe onginnþ on Sunnandæge hæfþ Frīgedæg þone 13an.

Sunnandæg is se ōðer dæg þæs ƿucende and is hāligdæg in landum of Christian tradition, se dæg þæt Crīstenfolc most commonly attend cirice.

In þǣm Geānlǣhtum Underrīcum, professional football is usually played on Sunnandæg, although Sæternesdæg and Mōnandæg (via Tīƿesniht Fōtball) also see a some professional games.  College fōtball gelimpþ usually on Sæternesdæge, and high-school football tends to take place on Sunnandæg.  It is not uncommon for church attendance to shift on days when a late morning or early afternoon game is anticipated by a local community.

Manig Americisc feorransēora nettƿeorc and stations ēac broadcast their political interview shows on Sunnandæg mornings.

Manig American newspapers publish a larger edition on Sunnandæge, þe oft includes color comic strips and a coupon section.

Sēo ēac
 Hǣƿna laga
 Loƿ Sunnandæg
 Passion Sunnandæg
 Palmsunnandæg
 Septuagesima
 Þrīnessunnandæg

Wucu

Sunnandæg


The Teen Choice Awards is an awards show presented annually by FOX. The program honors the year's biggest achievements in music, movies, sports, and television, as voted on by teens aged 12–19. The program usually features a high number of celebrities and musical performers. The winners are awarded with lifesize surfboards, to fit the summertime theme. The ceremony has also created spin-off teen awards on YouTube.

Starting in 1999, the Teen Choice Awards were presented weeks prior to the televised event up through 2005. Since 2006, the program has been televised live.

References

Fox Broadcasting Company
Entertainment awards

Teen Choice Awards


Christian churches often send individuals, or small groups of people to a foreign country. These people should then convince the local population to convert to the Christian faith. Very often, this couples evangelisation with humanitarian work. The missionaries are priests as well and can administer sacraments, but sometimes they are laypeople. Today, missionary activity often means cooperating with the local church. As an example, the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Tanzania has sent missionaries to Mozambique.

Missionary work is often criticized for the ways used. Examples are forced baptisms, proselytism, and that during colonial times, there were strong ties between colonialism and missionary work. Sometimes, there is the problem that the moral standards of the societies are very different from the moral standards of Christianity, missionary work will force different standards onto indigenous societies.

Christian behavior and experience

Christian mission