The Gospel of Luke is a book of the Bible. Like the other gospels, the Gospel of Luke tells the stories of the life and teachings of Jesus. It is the third and longest book of the New Testament and comes after the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Mark. The gospel is believed to be written by Luke, who was a friend of the Apostle Paul.

Luke was a doctor. He wrote his gospel for a man he calls 'most excellent Theophilus' (1:3). Luke wrote another book which is fifth in the New Testament, the Acts of the Apostles which tells what Jesus' disciples did after his rise back to Heaven.

Unlike the gospel writers Matthew, Mark and John, Luke was probably not Jewish but was Greek. He wrote the gospel mainly for non-Jewish people, (who were called Gentile by the Jews). Luke wrote to prove that Jesus is the Son of God. Luke's gospel contains many similar stories of Jesus. He tells more about the Virgin birth of Jesus than the other gospel writers.

Related pages

 Jesus
 Bible
 Christianity
 Christmas
 Emmaus

3
New Testament books

Gospel of Luke


विलियम होगार्थ (November 10, 1697 – October 26,1764) was a major English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic and editorial cartoonist who has been credited with pioneering western sequential art.  His work ranged from excellent realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects".  Much of his work, though at times vicious, poked fun at contemporary politics and customs. Illustrations in such style are often referred to as Hogarthian.

Life

The son of a poor school teacher and textbook writer, William Hogarth was born at Bartholomew Close in London on November 10, 1697. In his youth he was apprenticed to the engraver Ellis Gamble in Leicester Fields, where he learned to engrave trade cards and similar products. Young William also took a lively interest in the street life of the metropolis and the London fairs, and amused himself by sketching the characters he saw.  Around the same time, his father, who had opened an unsuccessful Latin-speaking coffee house at St John's Gate, was imprisoned for debt in Fleet Prison for five years. Hogarth never talked about the fact. By April 1720 he was an engraver in his own right, at first engraving coats of arms, shop bills, and designing plates for booksellers.

In 1727, he was hired by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, to prepare a design for the Element of Earth. Morris, however, heard that he was "an engraver, and no painter", and consequently declined the work when completed.  Hogarth accordingly sued him for the money in the Westminster Court, where the case was decided in his favour on May 28, 1728.

On March 23, 1729 he was married to Jane Thornhill, daughter of artist Sir James Thornhill.

In 1757 he was appointed Serjeant Painter to the King.

Hogarth died in London on October 26, 1764 and was buried at St. Nicholas's Churchyard, Chiswick Mall, Chiswick, London. His friend the actor David Garrick wrote the inscription on his tombstone.

Works

Early works

Early satirical works included an Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme (c.1721), about the disastrous stock market crash of 1720 known as the South Sea Bubble, in which many English people lost a great deal of money. In the bottom left corner, he shows Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish figures gambling, while in the middle there is a huge machine, like a merry-go-round, which people are boarding. At the top is a goat, written below which is "Who'l Ride" and this shows the stupidity of people in following the crowd in buying stock in The South Sea Company, which spent more time issuing stock than anything else. The people are scattered around the picture with a real sense of disorder, which represented the confusion. The progress of the well dressed people towards the ride in the middle shows how foolish some people could be, which is not entirely their own fault.

Other early works include The Lottery (1724); The Mystery of Masonry brought to Light by the Gormogons (1724);  A Just View of the British Stage (1724); some book illustrations; and the small print, Masquerades and Operas (1724). The latter is a satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades of the Swiss impresario John James Heidegger, the popular Italian opera singers, John Rich's pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and last not least, the exaggerated popularity of Lord Burlington's protégé, the architect and painter William Kent. He continued that theme in 1727, with the Large Masquerade Ticket. In 1726 Hogarth prepared twelve large engravings for Samuel Butler's Hudibras. These he himself valued highly, and are among his best book illustrations.

In the following years he turned his attention to the production of small "conversation pieces" (i.e., groups in oil of full-length portraits from 12 to 15 in. high). Among his efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were The Fountaine Family (c.1730), The Assembly at Wanstead House, The House of Commons examining Bambridge, and several pictures of the chief actors in John Gay's popular The Beggar's Opera.

One of his masterpieces of this period is the depiction of an amateur performance of John Dryden's The Indian Emperor, or The Conquest of Mexico (1732–1735) at the home of John Conduitt, master of the mint, in St George's Street, Hanover Square.

Hogarth's other works in the 1730s include A Midnight Modern Conversation (1733), Southwark Fair (1733),  The Sleeping Congregation (1736), Before and After (1736), Scholars at a Lecture (1736), The Company of Undertakers (Consultation of Quacks) (1736), The Distrest Poet (1736), The Four Times of the Day (1738), and Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn (1738).  He may also have printed Burlington Gate (1731), evoked by Alexander Pope's Epistle to Lord Burlington, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great offence, and was suppressed (some modern authorities, however, no longer attribute this to Hogarth).

Moralizing art

Harlot's and Rake's Progresses

In 1731, he completed the earliest of the series of moral works which first gave him recognition as a great and original genius. This was A Harlot's Progress, first as paintings, (now lost), and then published as engravings. In its six scenes, the miserable fate of a country girl who began a prostitution career in town is traced out remorselessly from its starting point, the meeting of a bawd, to its shameful and degraded end, the whore's death of venereal disease and the following merciless funeral ceremony. The series was an immediate success, and was followed in 1735 by the sequel A Rake's Progress showing in eight pictures the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant, who wastes all his money on luxurious living, whoring, and gambling, and ultimately finishes his life in Bedlam. The original paintings of A Harlot's Progress were destroyed in the fire at Fonthill Abbey in 1755; A Rake's Progress is displayed in the gallery room at Sir John Soane's Museum, London.

Marriage à-la-mode

In 1743–1745 Hogarth painted the six pictures of Marriage à-la-mode (National Gallery, London), a pointed skewering of upper class 18th century society. This moralistic warning shows the miserable tragedy of an ill-considered marriage for money. This is regarded by many as his finest project, certainly the best example of his serially-planned story cycles.

Marital ethics were the topic of much debate in 18th century Britain. Frequent marriages of convenience and their attendant unhappiness came in for particular criticism, with a variety of authors taking the view that love was a much sounder basis for marriage. Hogarth here painted a satire – a genre that by definition has a moral point to convey – of a conventional marriage within the English upper class. All the paintings were engraved and the series achieved wide circulation in print form. The series, which are set in a Classical interior, shows the story of the fashionable marriage of the son of bankrupt Earl Squanderfield to the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city merchant, starting with the signing of a marriage contract at the Earl's mansion and ending with the murder of the son by his wife's lover and the suicide of the daughter after her lover is hanged at Tyburn for murdering her husband.

Industry and Idleness

In the twelve prints of Industry and Idleness (1747) Hogarth shows the progression in the lives of two apprentices, one who is dedicated and hard working, the other idle which leads to crime and his execution. This shows the work ethic of Protestant England, where those who work hard get rewarded, such as the industrious apprentice who becomes Sheriff (plate 8), Alderman (plate 10), and finally the Lord Mayor of London in the last plate in the series. The idle apprentice, who begins with being "at play in the church yard" (plate 3), holes up "in a Garrett with a Common Prostitute" after turning highwayman (plate 7) and "executed at Tyburn" (plate 11). The idle apprentice is sent to the gallows by the industrious apprentice himself.

Beer Street and Gin Lane

Later important prints include his pictorial warning of the unpleasant consequences of alcoholism in Beer Street and Gin Lane (1751) Hogarth engraved Beer Street to show a happy city drinking the 'good' beverage of English beer, versus Gin Lane which showed the effects of drinking gin which, as a harder liquor, caused more problems for society. People are shown as healthy, happy and prosperous in Beer Street, while in Gin Lane they are scrawny, lazy and careless. The woman at the front of Gin Lane who lets her baby fall to its death, echoes the tale of Judith Dufour who strangled her baby so she could sell its clothes for gin money. The prints were published in support of what would become the Gin Act 1751.

Hogarth's friend, the magistrate Henry Fielding, may have enlisted Hogarth to help with propaganda for a Gin Act: Beer Street and Gin Lane were issued shortly after his work An Enquiry into the Causes of the Late Increase of Robbers, and Related Writings and addressed the same issues.

The Four Stages of Cruelty
Other prints were his outcry against inhumanity in The Four Stages of Cruelty (1751); a series which Hogarth intended to show some of the terrible habits of criminals. In the first picture there are scenes of torture of dogs, cats and other animals. In the second it shows one of the characters from the first painting, Tom Nero, has now become a coach driver, and his cruelty to his horse caused it to break its leg. In the third painting Tom is shown as a murderer, with the woman he killed lying on the ground, while in the fourth, titled Reward of Cruelty, the murderer is shown being dissected by scientists after his execution. Hogarth is thus using the series to say what will happen to people who carry on in this manner. This shows what crimes people were concerned with in this time, the method of execution, and the dissection reflects upon the 1752 Act of Parliament which had just being passed allowing for the dissection of executed criminals who had been convicted for murder. It shows his reaction against the cruel treatment of animals which he saw around him, that he wished could be stopped.

Portraits

Hogarth was also a popular portrait painter. In 1746 he painted actor David Garrick as Richard III, for which he was paid £200, "which was more," he wrote, "than any English artist ever received for a single portrait." In the same year a sketch of Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat, afterwards beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success. Hogarth's truthful, vivid full-length portrait of his friend, the philanthropic Captain Coram (1740; formerly Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now Foundling Museum), and his unfinished oil sketch of The Shrimp Girl (National Gallery, London) may be called masterpieces of British painting.

Historical subjects
During a long period of his life, Hogarth tried to achieve the status of history painter, but had no great success in this field.

Biblical scenes

Examples of his history pictures are The Pool of Bethesda and The Good Samaritan, executed in 1736–1737 for St Bartholomew's Hospital; Moses brought before Pharaoh's Daughter, painted for the Foundling Hospital (1747, formerly at the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now in the Foundling Museum); Paul before Felix (1748) at Lincoln's Inn; and his altarpiece for St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol (1756).

The Gate of Calais

The Gate of Calais (1748; now in Tate Britain) was produced soon after his return from a visit to France. Horace Walpole wrote that Hogarth had run a great risk to go there since the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, he went to France, and was so imprudent as to be taking a sketch of the drawbridge at Calais. He was seized and carried to the governor, where he was forced to prove his vocation by producing several caricatures of the French; particularly a scene of the shore, with an immense piece of beef landing for the lion d'argent, the English inn at Calais, and several hungry friars following it. They were much diverted with his drawings, and dismissed him.
Back home, he immediately executed a painting of the subject in which he unkindly represented his enemies, the Frenchmen, as cringing, emaciated and superstitious people, while an enormous sirloin of beef arrives, destined for the English inn as a symbol of British prosperity and superiority. He claimed to have painted himself into the picture in the corner, with the solder running him in.

Other later works

Notable Hogarth engravings in the 1740s includeThe Enraged Musician (1741), the six prints of Marriage à-la-mode (1745; executed by French artists under Hogarth's inspection), and The Stage Coach or The Country Inn Yard (1747).

In 1745 Hogarth painted a self-portrait with his pug dog (now also in Tate Britain), which shows him as a learned artist supported by volumes of Shakespeare, Milton and Swift.  In 1749, he represented the somewhat disorderly English troops on their March of the Guards to Finchley (formerly Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now Foundling Museum).

Others were his ingenious Satire on False Perspective (1753); his satire on canvassing in his Election series (1755–1758; now in Sir John Soane's Museum); his ridicule of the English passion for cockfighting in The Cockpit (1759); his attack on Methodism in Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism (1762); his political anti-war satire in The Times, plate I (1762); and his pessimistic view of all things in Tailpiece, or The Bathos (1764).

Writing
Hogarth also wrote and published his ideas of artistic design in his book The Analysis of Beauty (1753). In it, he professes to define the principles of beauty and grace which he, a real child of Rococo, saw realized in serpentine lines (the Line of Beauty).

Analysis

Painter and engraver of modern moral subjects
Hogarth lived in an age when artwork became increasingly commercialized and viewed in shop windows, taverns and public buildings and sold in printshops. Old hierarchies broke down, and new forms began to flourish: the ballad opera, the bourgeois tragedy, and especially, a new form of fiction called the novel with which authors such as Henry Fielding had great success. Therefore, by that time, Hogarth hit on a new idea: "painting and engraving modern moral subjects ... to treat my subjects as a dramatic writer; my picture was my stage", as he himself remarked in his manuscript notes.

He drew from the highly moralizing Protestant tradition of Dutch genre painting, and the very vigorous satirical traditions of the English broadsheet and other types of popular print. In England the fine arts had little comedy in them before Hogarth. His prints were expensive, and remained so until early nineteenth-century reprints brought them to a wider audience.

Parodic borrowings from the Old Masters

When analyzing the work of the artist as a whole, Ronald Paulson, the modern authority on Hogarth, sees an accomplished parodist at work, and a subversive. He says, "In A Harlot's Progress, every single plate but one is based on Dürer's images of the story of the Virgin and the story of the Passion." In other works, he parodies Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper. According to Paulson, Hogarth is subverting the religious establishment and the orthodox belief in an immanent God who intervenes in the lives of people and produces miracles. Indeed, Hogarth was a Deist, a believer in a God who created the universe but takes no direct hand in the lives of his creations. Thus, as a "comic history painter", he often poked fun at the old-fashioned, "beaten" subjects of religious art in his paintings and prints. Hogarth also rejected Lord Shaftesbury's then current ideal of the classical Greek male in favor of the living, breathing female. He said, "Who but a bigot, even to the antiques, will say that he has not seen faces and necks, hands and arms in living women, that even the Grecian Venus doth but coarsely imitate."

Influence and Reputation
His satirical engravings are often considered an important ancestor of the comic strip.

Hogarth's work were a direct influence on John Collier, who was known as the "Lancashire Hogarth".

Hogarth's paintings and prints have provided the subject matter for several other works. For example, Igor Stravinsky's opera The Rake's Progress, with libretto  by W. H. Auden, was inspired by Hogarth's series of paintings of that title. Russell Banks's short story, "Indisposed," is a fictional account of Hogarth's infidelity as told from the viewpoint of his long-suffering wife, Jane.

Hogarth's House in Chiswick, West London, is now a museum (free entry); it abuts one of London's best known road junctions – the Hogarth Roundabout.

References

Bibliography

 Fort, Bernadette, and Angela Rosenthal, The Other Hogarth: Aesthetics of Difference. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2003.
 Peter Quennell, Hogarth's Progress (London, New York 1955)
 Frederick Antal, Hogarth and His Place in European Art (London 1962)
 David Bindman, Hogarth (London 1981)
 Ronald Paulson, Hogarth's Graphic Works (3rd edn, London 1989)
 Ronald Paulson, Hogarth, 3 vols. (New Brunswick 1991-93)
 Jenny Uglow, Hogarth: A Life and a World (London 1997)
 Frédéric Ogée and Peter Wagner, eds., William Hogarth: Theater and the Theater of Life (Los Angeles, 1997)
 Sean Shesgreen, Hogarth 101 Prints. New York: Dover, 1973.
 Sean Shesgreen, Hogarth and the Times-of-the-Day Tradition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1983
 Hans-Peter Wagner, William Hogarth: Das graphische Werk (Saarbrücken, 1998)
 David Bindman, Frédéric Ogée and Peter Wagner, eds. Hogarth: Representing Nature's Machines (Manchester, 2001)
 Christine Riding and Mark Hallet, "Hogarth" (Tate Publishing, London, 2006)
 Robin Simon, Hogarth, France and British Art: The rise of the arts in eighteenth-century Britain (London, 2007)

स्वयादिसँ
English school of painting
बेलायती पेण्टरतेगु धलः
ब्रिटिश आर्ट
होगार्थया छें
False perspective (Hogarth)

ग्यालरी

पिनेया स्वापू

 William Hogarth Archives (130 images from the collection of the University of Wales, Lampeter)
 William Hogarth and 18th-Century Print Culture
 The Site for Research on William Hogarth
 Print series in detail
 'Hogarth's London', lecture by Robin Simon at Gresham College, 8th October 2007 (available for download as MP3, MP4 or text files)
 Museumsportal Schleswig-Holstein
 Hogarth exhibition at Tate Britain (7 Feb - 29 April 2007)
 "The Analysis of Beauty" tribute by Disinformation
 Location of Hogarth's grave on Google Maps
Hogarth's The Rake's Progress and other of his works

English artists
English painters
English caricaturists
British caricaturists
English cartoonists
English engravers
English illustrators
English printmakers
Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts
People from London
१६९७य् बुगु
१७६४य् मदुगु
वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार

विलियम होगार्थ


A political party is an organized group of people or bodies who seek to capture political power through an election in order to run the affairs of a country. It often puts forward candidates for public office. In a democracy, leaders must "run for office" in an election. In a dictatorship, there is generally only one party allowed, that can approve a new leader without non-members having a choice.

About
A political party is similar to a faction, and can be the same thing. In some systems, members of one party in the legislature are all expected to vote the same way. The laws written by the party or faction with the majority of votes become adopted by the country, so this means whatever party is elected to over half the seats, gets to run the government. The next largest party is often called the "opposition". Sometimes when there are more than two parties with seats, no one party has over half of the seats. Then two or more parties might join to form what is called a "coalition".

Some parties are formed around a single issue or interest group. Others form policies to address all matters of government, known as a "platform".

Many political parties have a set of ideas and beliefs (called its "ideology"). People often describe these ideologies using words such as "conservative" and "liberal".

Common ideologies include environmentalism, socialism (ranging from social democracy to Marxism and Communism), conservatism, democracy, liberalism, and nationalism.

The law

Political parties can be against the law in some places. When some parties get a lot of power, they can make all other political parties illegal. For example, the Nazi Party did this in Germany, and the Communist Party did it in several countries. Some countries make extreme-right parties illegal (such as Vlaams Blok in Belgium). At other times, countries have outlawed far-left parties. For example, West Germany banned the Communist Party in 1956.

A handful of countries like China, North Korea and Cuba still have one-party dictatorships. In a few other dictatorships, such as Saudi Arabia, all political parties are banned and there is no parliament at all.

Importance in all big democracies

In all big democratic countries, parties are very important. But there are a few very small countries, such as the island of Jersey, where most politicians do not belong to any party and where parties do not matter much.

In some democracies, there are only two big political parties. For example, in the United States, there is the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. Some other parties exist but are very small and do not hold seats in Congress.

In other countries there are larger numbers of parties. In the German federal Parliament (or Bundestag), six parties have seats. In the United Kingdom, there are two big parties, one medium-sized party, and many small ones.

Parties in each country

 List of political parties in Australia
 List of political parties in Canada
 List of political parties in France
 List of political parties in Germany
 List of political parties in Malaysia
 List of political parties in New Zealand
 List of political parties in Pakistan
 List of political parties in the United Kingdom
 List of political parties in the United States

Political party


Charles Antoine Lemaire (1 November 1800, in Paris – 22 June 1871, in Paris), was a French botanist and botanical author, noted for his publications on Cactaceae.

Education
Born the son of Antoine Charles Lemaire and Marie Jeanne Davio, he had an excellent early education, and acquired the reputation of being an outstanding scholar. He studied at the University of Paris and was appointed as Professor of Classical Literature there. At some stage his botanical interest was sparked and developed by his association with M. Neumann, horticulturist at the Museum of Natural History.

Career
He worked for some time as an assistant to M. Mathieu, at a nursery in Paris, building up a collection of Cactaceae, a group to which he would devote almost all of his life. In 1835, M. Cousin, a Parisian publisher, started a gardening journal and requested that he be its editor. For a number of years, he remained editor of Jardin Fleuriste and L'Horticulteur Universel, contributing greatly to the content. During this period his principal artist was Jean-Christophe Heyland (1792-1866). In 1845 Lemaire moved to Ghent as editor of the journal Flore des Serres et des Jardins de l'Europe, started by Louis van Houtte. In 1854 he turned to editing L'Illustration Horticole, also in Ghent and owned by Ambroise Verschaffelt, and stayed there until 1870 when he returned to Paris where he died in June 1871.

In addition to his enormous contributions to the journals he edited, Lemaire also published numerous papers on the Cactaceae and succulents. Some of these are Cactearum aliquot novarum (1838); Cactearum genera nova speciesque novae (1839); Iconographie descriptive des Cactées (1841–1847); and Les plantes grasses (1869). One of the notable genera he named was Schlumbergera which contains the well-known Christmas Cactus. He never published a major work on the Cactaceae, despite having collected all the material and a wealth of experience. He always lived in semi-poverty and never attracted the attention of a wealthy sponsor.  Édouard André (1840–1911), who succeeded him as editor of L'Illustration Horticole, felt that "Posterity will esteem M. Lemaire more highly than did his contemporaries."

References

External links

Botanists with author abbreviations
French botanical writers
1800 births
1871 deaths
French male non-fiction writers

Charles Antoine Lemaire


An emoticon () is a written symbol, often as 2 or 3 punctuation characters, that stands for the writer's mood or facial expression. Some examples are: a smile ":-)" or wink ";-)" or frown ":(" or dog nose ":O" or le meme arrow ">" (see many other examples in text below). Emoticons are often used to tell a reader about the general tone of a statement, and can change or improve the reading of plain writing. Over the years, many kinds of emoticons have been created, and now there are hundreds of known emoticons. The word "emoticon" is a blend of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon. In web forums,  instant messengers and online games, text emoticons are often automatically replaced with small pictures, which came to be called emoticons as well. Certain complex character combinations can only be accomplished in a double-byte language, giving rise to very complex forms, sometimes known by their romanized Japanese name of kaomoji.

The use of emoticons can be traced back to the 19th century, and they were commonly used in casual or humorous writing. In 1912, a smiling mouth (or snigger point) was shown in typewriter text as "\___/!". Digital forms of emoticons on the Internet were written in an email during 1982.

History

Antecedents

In April 1857, the National Telegraphic Review and Operators Guide wrote about the use of the number 73 in Morse code to mean "love and kisses" (later changed to "best regards"). A few years later, Dodge's Manual talked about a new way to show "love and kisses", the number 88.

A New York Times transcript of an 1862 speech given by Abraham Lincoln contains ";)" (now known as a winky-face). There is some debate as to whether it is a typo, a legitimate form of punctuation, or an emoticon.

Typographical emoticons were published in 1881 by the U.S. satirical magazine Puck. In 1912, Ambrose Bierce created something called a "snigger point". "It is written thus \___/! and presents a smiling mouth."

Emoticons had already come into use in sci-fi fandom in the 1940s, although there seems to have been a lapse in cultural continuity between the communities.

In 1963 the "smiley face", a yellow button with two black dots representing eyes and an upturned thick curve representing a mouth, was created by freelance artist Harvey Ball. This smiley probably inspired many later emoticons; the most basic picture that shows this is in fact a small yellow smiley face.

In a New York Times interview in April 1969, Alden Whitman asked writer Vladimir Nabokov: "How do you rank yourself among writers (living) and of the immediate past?"  Nabokov answered: "I often think there should exist a special typographical sign for a smile – some sort of concave mark, a supine round bracket, which I would now like to trace in reply to your question."

Pre-1980 emoticons
As early early as 1973 or earlier, teletype machine users used "emoticons" to express themselves. Teletypes were limited to the keys of a standard typewriter keyboard plus a few special characters. Teletype operators developed a sort of shorthand to communicate among themselves. These shorthand notations became the foundation of "emoticons" as video terminals began to replace teletypes in general use.

By the early 1970s, people on the PLATO System were using emoticons. They had many of the advantages of later character-based emoticons because they could be used anywhere that you could type text. They also had many of the advantages of later graphical emoticons because they used character overstriking which created graphical images.

Several Internet websites –such as BT's Connected Earth– assert that Kevin Mackenzie proposed -) as a joke-marker in April 1979, on the  MsgGroup ARPANET mailing list. The idea was to indicate tongue-in-cheek, with the hyphen represented a tongue, not a nose:

15-Apr-79 12:05:26-PST,1142;000000000000
Mail-from: MIT-MC rcvd at 12-Apr-79 1740-PST
Date: 12 APR 1979 1736-PST
From: MACKENZIE at USC-ECL
Subject: MSGGROUP#1015  METHICS and the Fast Draw(cont'd)
To:   ~drxal-had at OFFICE-1
cc:   msggroup at MIT-MC, malasky at PARC-MAXC

In regard to your message a few days ago concerning the loss
of meaning in this medium:

I am new here, and thus hesitate to comment, but I too have
suffered from the lack of tone, gestures, facial expressions
etc. May I suggest the beginning of a solution? Perhaps we could
extend the set of punctuation we use, i.e:

If I wish to indicate that a particular sentence is meant
with tongue-in-cheek, I would write it so:

         "Of course you know I agree with all the current
         administration's policies -)."

         The "-)" indicates tongue-in-cheek.

This idea is not mine, but stolen from a Reader's Digest article
I read long ago on a completely different subject. I'm sure there
are many other, better ways to improve our punctuation.

Any comments?

Kevin

Others used :-) for tongue-in-cheek, with the colon representing teeth. Also used was -:) to indicate sticking out your tongue, in derision or anger. Although similar to a sideways smiling face, the intended interpretation was different and this does not appear to have inspired the later smileys.

In the late sixties, the APL programming language and timesharing environment, with its rich character set with backspace and overstrike capability provided a fruitful arena for interactive and creative symbol invention. Union-backspace-dieresis (∪̈) was a recognised and upright smiley in the early seventies.

Creation of :-) and :-(
The first person documented to have used the emoticons :-) and :-(, with a specific suggestion that they be used to express emotion, was Scott Fahlman in the U.S. at Carnegie Mellon University; the text of his original proposal, posted to the Carnegie Mellon University computer science general board on 19 September 1982 (11:44), was thought to have been lost, but was recovered twenty years later by Jeff Baird from old backup tapes.

19-Sep-82 11:44    Scott E  Fahlman             :-)
From: Scott E  Fahlman <Fahlman at Cmu-20c>

I propose that the following character sequence for joke markers:

:-)

Read it sideways.  Actually, it is probably more economical to mark
things that are NOT jokes, given current trends.  For this, use

:-(

Within a few months, it had spread to the ARPANET (the early Internet) and
Usenet.  Many variations on the theme were immediately suggested by Scott and others.

Graphical  replacement
In web forums, instant messengers and online games, text emoticons are often automatically replaced with small corresponding images, which also came to be called "Emoticons." Similarly, in some versions of Microsoft Word, the Auto Correct feature replaces basic smileys such as :-) and :-( with a single smiley-like character. Originally, these image emoticons were fairly simple and replaced only the most straightforward and common character sequences, but over time they became so complex that the more specialized emoticons are often input using a menu or popup windows, sometimes listing hundreds of items. Emoticons have also expanded beyond simple cartoon facial expressions to a variety of still or moving images. Some of these graphical emoticons do not actually represent faces or emotions; for example, an "emoticon" showing a guitar might be used to represent music. Further, some instant messaging software is designed to play a sound upon receiving certain emoticons.

Many applications use text codes, which become replaced with a graphical emoticon. For example, :dance: or (dance) could be replaced with a graphical dancing emoticon. A web-forum software package which performed this transformation was Proxicom Forum, developed in 1996.

An August 2004 issue of the Risks Digest (comp.risks on USENET) pointed out a problem with such features which are not under the sender's control:
It's hard to know in advance what character-strings will be parsed into what kind of unintended image. A colleague was discussing his 401(k) plan with his boss, who happens to be female, via instant messaging. He discovered, to his horror, that the boss's instant-messaging client was rendering the "(k)" as a big pair of red smoochy lips.

Many sites use GIF or PNG graphic files, because of their transparency and small file size capabilities. Files can be created using a raster graphics editor. Many emoticon artists design their emoticons pixel by pixel. Some emoticons are made in vector format, such as SVG, and automatically processed using a graphics library. This allows SVG files to be automatically rendered as a GIF or PNG file, which is compatible with most browsers, which SVG is not.

Western style
Traditionally, the emoticon in Western style is written from left to right, the way one reads and writes in most Western cultures. Thus, most commonly, emoticons have the eyes on the left, followed by the nose and mouth. To more easily recognize them, tilt your head toward your left shoulder (or occasionally toward your right shoulder if the "top" of the emoticon is toward the right).

Common western examples

The most basic emoticons are relatively consistent in form, but each of them can also be transformed by being rotated (making them tiny ambigrams), with or a without hyphen (nose).
There are also some possible variations to emoticons to get new definitions, like changing a character to express a new feeling, or slightly change the mood of the emoticon. For example, :( equals sad and :(( equals very sad or weeping. A :"> blush can be expressed as :"u blushing for you or a surprised blush, o///o . Others include wink ;) a grin :D smug :-> and tongue out :P for disgust or simply just to stick the tongue out for silliness, such as when blowing a raspberry. An often used combination is also <3 for a heart, and </3 for a broken heart. A cute and sometimes gamine smile can be expressed like this: :3

Variation

An equal sign is often used for the eyes in place of the colon, without changing the meaning of the emoticon. In these instances, the hyphen is almost always either omitted or, occasionally, replaced with an 'o' as in =O) . In most circles it has become acceptable to omit the hyphen, whether a colon or an equal sign is used for the eyes, e.g. :) . In some areas of usage, people prefer the larger, more traditional emoticon :-) . In general, similar-looking characters are commonly substituted for one another: for instance, o, O, and 0 can all be used interchangeably, sometimes for subtly different effect. In some cases, one type of character may look better in a certain font and therefore be preferred over another.

Some variants are also more common in certain countries because of reasons like keyboard layouts, for example the smiley =) is common in Scandinavia where the keys for = and ) are placed right beside each other. Also, sometimes, the user can replace the brackets used for the mouth with other, similar shapes, such as ] and [ instead of ) and ( .

Diacritical marks are sometimes used. An O or U with an umlaut, Ö, Ü can be seen as an emoticon, as the upright version of :O (meaning that one is surprised) and :D (meaning that one is very happy). nwn (Meaning one is super happy).

Asian style
Users from East Asia popularized a style of emoticons that can be understood without tilting one's head to the left. This style arose on ASCII NET of Japan in 1986. Similar looking emoticons were used by Byte Information Exchange (BIX) around the same time.

These emoticons are usually found in a format similar to (*_*). The asterisks indicate the eyes; the central character, commonly an underscore, the mouth; and the parentheses, the outline of the face. Two separate studies, in 2007 at Hokkaido University and in 2009 at Glasgow University, showed that Japanese and other East Asians read facial expressions by looking mainly at the eyes, and the researchers noted that this is reflected in East Asian emoticons which put emphasis on the eyes, compared to Western emoticons which emote mainly with the mouth.

Different emotions such as (")(-_-)("), are expressed by changing the character representing the eyes, for example ' T ' can be used to express crying or sadness (T_T). The emphasis on the eyes is reflected in the common usage of emoticons that use only the eyes, e.g. ^^. Looks of stress are represented by the likes of (x_x) while (-_-;) is a generic emote for nervousness, the semicolon indicating sweat that occurs during anxiety. Repeating the /// mark (///) can indicate embarrassment by symbolizing blushing. Characters like hyphens or periods can replace the underscore; the period is often used for a smaller, "cuter" mouth or to represent a nose, e.g. (^.^). Alternatively, the mouth/nose can be left out entirely, e.g. (^^). The parentheses also can often be replaced with braces, e.g. {^_^}. Many times, the parentheses are left out completely, e.g. ^^, >.<, o_O, O.O, <.<;, though this is more likely in Western culture. A quotation mark ", apostrophe ', or semicolon ; can be added to the emoticon to imply apprehension or embarrassment, in the same way that a sweat drop is used in anime.

Microsoft IME 2002 (Japanese) or later supports the use of both forms of emoticons by enabling Microsoft IME Spoken Language Dictionary. In IME 2007, it was moved to Emoticons dictionary.

Further variations of emoticons may be produced by using Combining characters, e.g. ̼⌂̺͛ᴖ̲̿ᴥ̲̿ᴖ̺͛⌂̼ and ٩(͡๏̯͡๏)۶ .

Common eastern examples

All of these can be used also with [ ] instead of ( ), or without the parentheses at all in some of the cases

Korean Style
In South Korea, emoticons using Korean Hangul letters have been getting popular lately as well. Korean styles of face emoticons are similar to those of Japan's, but they contain Korean jamos (letters) instead of other characters. There are countless number of emoticons that can be formed with such combinations of Korean jamos, but popular choices include letter ㅅ or ㅂ as the mouth/nose component and ㅇ,ㅎ,ㅍ for the eyes. For example: ㅇㅅㅇ, ㅇㅂㅇ, -ㅅ-, ㅡㅡ, ㅡ6ㅡ. Faces such as 'ㅅ', "ㅅ", 'ㅂ','ㅇ', using quotation marks " and apostrophes ' are also commonly used combinations. Vowel jamos such as ㅜ,ㅠ can be used in substitute to T, when depicting a crying face. Example: //ㅅ//, ㅜ_ㅜ, ㅠ_ㅠ. Sometimes the underscore is omitted, and the two letters can be mixed together, as in ㅜ_ㅠ, ㅡ^ㅜ, ㅜㅇㅡ . Also, semicolons are used a lot in Korean emoticons. Example: ㅡㅡ;;;;, ㅇㅅㅇ;;;, ㅂㅇㅂ;, ㅎㅇㅎ;;;;.
-_-
Single or multiple ; (Semicolons) are often used together with faces depicting embarrassment, for an added effect. Also, other characters may be added to indicate hands, similar to the Japanese emoticons; but usually they are only attached on the right. Example: -ㅅ-a (scratching one's head), 'ㅅ'b (Thumbs up), 'ㅅ'ㅗ (The finger)

In some cases, like ㅎ_ㅎ, the emoticon can mean an emotion even when it is not depicting a face of any specific emotion. Letters ㅎ and ㅋ are widely used in Korean internet as a sign of laughter (similar to the usage of "w" in Japanese Web)for example ㅋㅇㅋ, ㅎㅇㅎ, ㅋㅅㅋ, ㅋ-ㅋ, ㅎ_ㅎ; and so the emoticons using those letters as the eye component can be interpreted as a laughing face.

Also, ㅇㅈㄴ is a Korean version of Orz - although OTL is used more often- depicting a man kneeling down.

Western use of East Asian style
English-language anime forums adopted those emoticons that could be used with the standard ASCII characters available on western keyboards. Because of this, they are often called "anime style" emoticons in the English-speaking Internet. They have since seen use in more mainstream venues, including online gaming, instant-messaging, and other non-anime related forums. Emoticons such as <(^.^)>,<(^_^<),<(o_o<),<( -'.'- )>,<('.'-^),(.ㅅ.), which include the parentheses, mouth or nose, and arms (especially those represented by the inequality signs < or >) also are often referred to as "Kirbies" in reference to their likeness to Nintendo's video game character, Kirby.  The parentheses are usually dropped when used in the English language context, and the underscore of the mouth may be extended as an intensifier, e.g. ^__^ for very happy.  People also use >< or : ). Usually on MSN, people use O.O or : ( "Screw you" is represented by a smiley showing middle finger(s) .!._(Ò_ó)_.!..

Mixture of Western and East Asian style
Exposure to both Western and East Asian style emoticons or emoji through web blogs, instant messaging, and forums featuring a blend of Western and Asian pop culture, has given rise to emoticons that have an upright viewing format. The parentheses are similarly dropped in the English language context and the emoticons only use alphanumeric characters and the most commonly used English punctuation marks. Emoticons such as -O-, -3-, -w-, '_', ;_;, T_T, :>, and .V., are used to convey mixed emotions that are more difficult to convey with traditional emoticons. Characters are sometimes added to emoticons to convey an anime or manga-styled sweat drop, for example: ^_^' or !>_<! or ^3^' or v3v; as well as: <@>_<@>;; ;O; and *u*
The equal sign can also be used for closed, anime looking eyes, for example: =0=, =3=, =w=, =A=

There are also more faces along those lines like >o<; using the ; as a sweat mark, and the "o" as a mouth, and the inequality signs as the eyes, it shows stress, or slight confusion. The amount of emoticons that can be made are limitless, and all have their own meaning.

In Brazil, sometimes combining character (accent) are added to emoticons to represent eyebrows, like: ò_ó or ó_ò or õ_o or ù_u or o_Ô. They can also replace (or add) "=" or ":" by ">", example: >D or >=D or >P or >:P or >3 or >:3.

2channel style
The Japanese language is usually encoded using double-byte character codes. As a result, there is a bigger variety of characters that can be used in emoticons, many of which cannot be reproduced in ASCII. Most kaomoji contain Cyrillic and other foreign letters to create even more complicated expressions analogous to ASCII art's level of complexity. To type such emoticons, the input editor that is used to type Japanese on a user's system has a dictionary of emoticons, after which the user simply types the Japanese word (or something close to it) that represents the desired emoticon to convert the input into such complicated emoticons. Such expressions are known as Shift JIS art.

Users of 2channel in particular have developed a wide variety of unique emoticons using obscure characters. Some have taken on a life of their own and become characters in their own right, like Mona.

Posture emoticons

Orz
Orz (also seen as Or2, on_, OTZ, OTL, STO, JTO, _no, _冂○, 囧rz, O7Z, _|7O, Sto, and Jto) is a Japanese emoticon representing a kneeling or bowing person, with the "o" being the head, the "r" being the arms and part of the body, and the "z" being part of the body and the legs. This stick figure represents failure and despair. It is also commonly used for representing a great admiration (sometimes with an overtone of sarcasm) for someone else's view or action.

It was first used in late 2002 at the forum on Techside, Japanese personal website. At the "Techside FAQ Forum" (TECHSIDE教えて君BBS(教えてBBS) ), a poster asked about a cable cover, typing "_| ̄|○" to show a cable and its cover. Others commented that it looked like a kneeling person, and the symbol became popular. These comments were soon deleted as they were considered off-topic. However, one of the first corresponding reactions can be found on the thread on , on December 23, 2002. By 2005, Orz spawned a subculture: blogs have been devoted to the emoticon, and URL shortening services have been named after it. In Taiwan, Orz is associated with the phrase "nice guy"–that is, the concept of males being rejected for a date by girls they are pursuing with a phrase like "You are a nice guy."

Orz should not be confused with m(_ _)m, which means an apology.

Multimedia variations
A portmanteau of emotion and sound, an emotisound is a brief sound transmitted and played back during the viewing of a message, typically an IM message or e-mail message. The sound is intended to communicate an emotional subtext. Many instant messaging clients automatically trigger sound effects in response to specific emoticons.

Some services, such as MuzIcons, combine emoticons and Adobe Flash music player in a widget.

In 2004, The Trillian chat application introduced an feature called "emotiblips", which allows Trillian users to stream files to their instant message recipients "as the voice and video equivalent of an emoticon".

In 2007, MTV and Paramount Home Entertainment promoted the "emoticlip" as a form of viral marketing for the second season of the show The Hills. The emoticlips were twelve short snippets of dialogue from the show, uploaded to YouTube, which the advertisers hoped would be distributed between web users as a way of expressing feelings in a similar manner to emoticons. The emoticlip concept is credited to the Bradley & Montgomery advertising firm, which hopes they would be widely adopted as "greeting cards that just happen to be selling something".

In 2008 an emotion-sequence animation tool, called FunIcons was created. The Adobe Flash and Java-based application allows users to create a short animation. Users can then email or save their own animations to use them on similar social utility applications.

Emoticons and intellectual property rights

In 2000 Despair, Inc. obtained a U.S. trademark registration for the "frowny" emoticon :-( when used on "greeting cards, posters and art prints." In 2001, they issued a satirical press release, announcing that they would sue Internet users who typed the frowny; the joke backfired and the company received a storm of protest when its mock release was posted at technology news website Slashdot.  They subsequently issued another press release a month later in response to the reaction their claim had generated.

A number of patent applications have been filed on inventions that assist in communicating with emoticons.  A few of these have issued as US patents. U.S. patent 6987991, for example, discloses a method developed in 2001 to send emoticons over a cell phone using a drop down menu.  The stated advantage over the prior art was that the user saved on the number of keystrokes though this may not address the obviousness criteria.

In Finland, the emoticons :-), =), =(, :) and :( were trademarked in 2006 for use with various products and services. The emoticon :-) was also filed in 2006 and registered in 2008 as a European Community Trademark (CTM).

In 2008, Russian entrepreneur Oleg Teterin claimed to have been granted the trademark on the ;-) emoticon. A license would not "cost that much - tens of thousands of dollars" for companies, but would be free of charge for individuals.

In 2010 in the United Kingdom, the British chocolate company Meltwater Chocolate filed a trademark application for a series of two marks :D and :-D in class 30, covering chocolate and confectionery.

Related pages

References

Notes

Further reading

 Wolf, Alecia. 2000. "Emotional Expression Online: Gender Differences in Emoticon Use." CyberPsychology & Behavior 3: 827-833.

Other websites

Examples

 List of AOL messenger emoticons
 List of Gmail chat emoticons
 List of MSN messenger emoticons
 List of Yahoo messenger emoticons
 List of deviantART community emoticons
 A community effort to categorize and distribute emoticons

Japanese emoticons
 2-byte Japanese emoticons
 Anikaos Japanese Anime emoticons list
 Article - A Guide to Anime Emoticons  - Western usage of kaomoji
 Koto Phone in Japan - Flickr set - Example of default kaomoji on Japanese cell phone
 List of Microsoft Office Input Method Editor emoticons

Internet culture
Internet slang
Symbols

Emoticon


The Kennelly–Heaviside layer, also known as the E-region, is part of the ionosphere.  It is a region which is between 90 km and 150 km from the earth's surface.  It is named after the American engineer  Arthur Edwin Kennelly and the British scientist Oliver Heaviside.  These two scientists both predicted that this area existed, although it was not until some years later that it was proved.

In the Kennelly-Heaviside layer neutral molecules are split into electrons and positively charged molecules.  Radio waves can be bounced off this region so that long-distance radio messages can be sent over long distances around the curved surface of the earth.  This was why Marconi had been able to send radio messages across the Atlantic in 1902, although it was not understood at the time.

References
The New Encyclopædia Britannica vol 4, 15th edition, 1986,

Radio
Layers of Earth's atmosphere

ru:Ионосфера#Слой Е

Kennelly-Heaviside layer


Béntang téh hartina raga plasma di luar angkasa nu ngahasilkeun énergi tina fusi inti. Teu kawas planét, nu cahyana mangrupa pantulan, béntang mah mencarkeun cahya téh alatan panasna anu kacida. Sacara ilmiah, béntang didefinisikeun salaku bal plasma self-gravitating dina kasatimbangan hidrostatik, nu ngahasilkeun énergina sorangan tina prosés fusi inti. Béntang 'leutik' samodél Panonpoé umumna boga permukaan anu kaciri polos jeung boga starspots anu leutik. Béntang nu leuwih badag (raksasa) boga starspot anu leuwih gedé jeung leuwih jelas. Salian ti éta permukaanana nunjukkeun stellar limb-darkening anu leuwih kuat (stellar limb-darkening téh caangna béntang beuki ka gigir kaciri beuki poek). Stellar astronomy nyaéta studi bentang-bentang.

kabéh béntang (kacuali Panonpoé) kaciri ku panon manusa jiga titik cahya di langit peuting, anu kelap-kelip lantaran efek atmosfer planet bumi. Teleskop Interferometer dibutuhkeun pikeun ngahasilkeun gambar-gambar objek-objek eta. Panonpoé kaasup béntang ogé, ngan lantaran deukeut pisan jarakna jadina kaciri jiga piringan, jeung nyadiakeun cahaya panonpoé.

Béntang-béntang di alam semesta téh nyebarna teu rata, nanging biasana mah ngarumpul jadi galaksi-galaksi. Hiji galaksi biasana dibentuk ku ratusan milyar milyar béntang. Mayoritas béntang silih iket alatan gravitasi jeung béntang séjén, ngabentuk bintang kembar. Sedengkeun kumpulan béntang-béntang anu leuwih loba disebut klaster béntang.

Astronom ngira-ngira paling saeutik aya 70 sextillion (7×1022) béntang di alam semesta . Hartina aya 70 000 000 000 000 000 000 000, atawa 230 milyar kali leuwih loba batan 300 milyar di galaksi urang sorangan (galaksi Bima Sakti).

Lolobana bentang téh umurna antara samilyar nepi ka 10 milyar taun. Sababaraha bentang umurna bisa nepi ka 13.7 milyar taun, nyaéta umur alam semesta nu ka ukur. (Tingal Big Bang theory jeung stellar evolution.) They range in size from the tiny neutron stars (which are actually déad stars) no bigger than a city, to supergiants like the North Star (Polaris) and Betelgeuse, in the Orion constellation, which have a diaméter about 1,000 times larger than the Sun —about 1.6 terametres. However, these have a much lower density than the Sun.

One of the most massive stars known is η Carinae, with 100–150 times as much mass as the Sun. Recent work by Donald Figer, an astronomer at the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, Maryland, suggests that 150 solar masses is the upper limit of stars in the current éra of the universe. He used the Hubble Space Telescope to observe about a thousand stars in the Arches cluster, a massive young star cluster néar the core of the Milky Way, and found no stars over that limit despite a statistical expectation that there should be several. The réason for this limit is not precisely known, but the Eddington limit is part of the answer. The very first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger, up to 300 solar masses or more, due to the complete absence of elements héavier than lithium in their composition. This generation of supermassive star is long extinct, however, and currently only théoretical.

With a mass only 93 times that of Jupiter, AB Doradus C, a companion to AB Doradus A, is the smallest known star undergoing nucléar fusion in its core. Smaller bodies are brown dwarfs, which occupy a poorly-defined grey aréa between stars and gas giants. The minimum mass a star can have is estimated to be in the vicinity of 75 Jupiters.

The energy produced by stars radiates into space as electromagnetic radiation, as a stréam of neutrinos from the star's core, and as a stréam of particles from the star's outer layers (its stellar wind). The péak frequency of the light depends on the temperature of the outer layers of the star. Besides the emitted visible light, the ultraviolet and infrared components are typically significant. The apparent brightness of a star is measured by its apparent magnitude.

The néarest star to the éarth, apart from the Sun, is Proxima Centauri, which is 39.9 trillion kilométers, or 4.2 light years away (light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 yéars to réach éarth). Travelling at the orbit speed of the Space Shuttle (5 miles per second—almost 30,000 kilométers per hour), it would take about 150,000 yéars to get there. Distances like this are typical inside galactic discs, where the Sun and éarth are located. Stars can be much closer to éach other in the centres of galaxies and globular clusters, or much further apart in galactic halos.

Star formation and evolution
Star formation occurs in molecular clouds, large regions of high density in the interstellar medium (though still less dense than the inside of an éarthly vacuum chamber). Star formation begins with gravitational instability inside those clouds, often triggered by shockwaves from supernovae or collision of two galaxies (as in a starburst galaxy). High mass stars powerfully illuminate the clouds from which they formed. One example of such a nebula is the Orion Nebula.

Stars spend about 90% of their lifetime fusing hydrogen to produce helium in high-temperature and high-pressure réactions néar the core. Such stars are said to be on the main sequence.

Small stars (called red dwarfs) burn their fuel very slowly and last tens to hundreds of billions of yéars. At the end of their lives, they simply become dimmer and dimmer, fading into black dwarfs. However, since the lifespan of such stars is gréater than the current age of the universe (13.6 billion yéars), no black dwarfs exist yet.

As most stars exhaust their supply of hydrogen, their outer layers expand and cool to form a red giant. In about 5 billion yéars, when the Sun is a red giant, it will be so large that it will consume both Mercury and Venus. Eventually the core is compressed enough to start helium fusion, and the star héats up and contracts. Larger stars will also fuse héavier elements, all the way to iron, which is the end point of the process. Since iron nuclei are more tightly bound than any héavier nuclei, they cannot be fused to reléase energy. Likewise, since they are more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei, energy cannot be reléased by fission. In old, very massive stars, a large core of inert iron will accumulate in the center of the star.

An average-size star will then shed its outer layers as a planetary nebula. The core that remains will be a tiny ball of degenerate matter not massive enough for further fusion to take place, supported only by degeneracy pressure, called a white dwarf. These too will fade into black dwarfs over very long stretches of time.

In larger stars, fusion continues until an iron core accumulates that is too large to be supported by electron degeneracy pressure. This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons, forming neutrons and neutrinos in a burst of inverse beta decay. The shockwave formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a supernova. Supernovae are so bright that they may briefly outshine the star's entire home galaxy. When they occur within the Milky Way, supernovae have historically been observed by naked-eye observers as "new stars" where none existed before. Eventually, most of the matter in a star is blown away by the explosion (forming nebulae such as the Crab Nebula) and what remains will be a neutron star (sometimes a pulsar or X-ray burster) or, in the case of the largest stars, a black hole.

The blown-off outer layers of dying stars include héavy elements which may be recycled during new star formation. These héavy elements allow the formation of rocky planets. The outflow from supernovae and the stellar wind of large stars play an important part in shaping the interstellar medium.

Stellar evolution explains how stars are créated and die in gréater detail.

Star classification

There are different classifications of stars ranging from type W which are very large and bright, to M which is often just large enough to start ignition of the hydrogen. Some of the more common classifications are O, B, A, F, G, K, M, and can perhaps be more éasily remembéréd using the mnemonic "Oh, Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me" (variant: change "girl" to "guy"), invented by Annie Jump Cannon (1863-1941). There are many other mnemonics for star classification; the most frequent addition tacks "Right Now, Sweetheart" for the red dwarf sub-types R, N and S. The new types L and T have also been recently appended to the end of the OBAFGKM sequence to classify the coldest low-mass stars and brown dwarfs, prompting such additions as "Lovingly Tonight" to the mnemonic.

éach letter has 9 subclassifications. Our Sun is a G2, which is very néar the middle in terms of quantities observed. Most stars fall into the main sequence which is a description of stars based on their absolute magnitude and spectral type. The Sun is taken as the prototypical star (not because it is special in any way, but because it is the closest and most studied star we have), and most characteristics of other stars are usually given in solar units.
For example, the mass of the Sun is

MSun = 1.9891×1030 kg

The masses of other stars can be given in terms of MSun.

Naming of stars

Most stars are identified only by catalogue numbers; only a few have names as such.
The names are either traditional names (mostly from Arabic), Flamsteed designations, or Bayer designations. The only body which has been recognized by the scientific community as having competence to name stars or other celestial bodies is the International Astronomical Union (IAU). A number of private companies (e.g. the "International Star Registry") purport to sell names to stars; however, these names are not recognized by the scientific community, nor used by them, and many in the astronomy community view these organizations as frauds preying on péople ignorant of how stars are in fact named.

See star designations for more information on how stars are named. For a list of traditional names, see the list of stars by constellation.

Nuclear fusion reaction pathways

A variety of different nucléar fusion réactions take place inside the cores of stars, depending upon their mass and composition (see Stellar nucleosynthesis).

Stars begin as a cloud of mostly hydrogen with about 25% helium and héavier elements in smaller quantities. In the Sun, with a 107 K core, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton-proton chain:

41H → 22H + 2e+ + 2νe (4.0 MeV + 1.0 MeV)
21H + 22H → 23He + 2γ (5.5 MeV)
23He → 4He + 21H (12.9 MeV)

These réactions result in the overall réaction:

41H → 4He + 2e+ + 2γ + 2νe (26.7 MeV)

In more massive stars, helium is produced in a cycle of réactions catalyzed by carbon, the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle.

In stars with cores at 108 K and masses between 0.5 and 10 solar masses, helium can be transformed into carbon in the triple-alpha process:

4He + 4He + 92 keV → 8*Be
4He + 8*Be + 67 keV → 12*C
12*C → 12C + γ + 7.4 MeV

For an overall réaction of:

34He → 12C + γ + 7.2 MeV

Mitologi
As well as certain constellations and the Sun itself, stars as a whole have their own mythology. They were thought to be the souls of the déad, or gods/goddesses.

Rujukan
 Cliff Pickover (2001). The Stars of Heaven. Oxford University Press
 John Gribbin & Mary Gribbin (2001). Stardust: Supernovae and Life — The Cosmic Connection. Yale University Press.

Baca ogé
 Liang hideung
 Konstélasi béntang
 Uy Scuti

Tumbu kaluar
 Images of starspots on the surface of Betelgeuse
 Find out what is known about any given star by entering its name or position
 Star Classification

Béntang
Astronomi
Sumber cahaya

Béntang


A skeleton is the hard structure that protects the internal organs of a living thing. Skeletons can be inside the body or outside the body. In mammals, which include humans, the skeleton is made of bones. All the bones, when they are joined together, make the "skeletal system" of a body. The skeletal system or "skeleton" is under the skin, the muscle and the tissue of the body. The skeleton supports the skin, muscle and tissue, and all the organs that are inside the body. The skeleton protects important internal organs like the brain, heart and lungs. If humans did not have a skeleton then the body would be flat as the skeleton gives the body its frame.

 Creatures that have skeletons inside their bodies are mammals, birds, reptiles and fish. A skeleton that is on the inside is called an endoskeleton.

 Some creatures, called arthropods, have skeletons outside their bodies. These are insects (like ants and bees), arachnids (spiders and scorpions), and crustaceans (sea creatures like crabs and lobsters). These creatures all have skeletons made of hard plates or shells. This kind of skeleton is called an exoskeleton
A new born baby has 300 bones, but as they grow up to become an adult, their bones join together and the number lowers to 206 bones.

Human skeleton

The important parts of a human body are the head, the spine, the chest, the abdomen, the arms and hands, and the legs and feet.

Bones of the head
The head bones all together are called the skull.
 The skull is made of a group of curved bones fitted together like a ball, which protects the brain, the eyes and the inside parts of the ears. The bones of this part of the head, together, are called the cranium.
 The skull has a top jaw, and a bottom jaw, with teeth in them. The jaws are called the "upper" and "lower" mandibles. The "lower mandible" is moved by strong muscles so that the teeth can bite and chew food.
 There are several other small bones which make up the face. There are also several small bones in the front and side of the neck.
 The smallest bones in the body are three tiny bones inside the ear, which vibrate to help a person hear sounds.

Bones of the spine
The spine supports the head, the chest and the structure that carries the arms. It is made of small bones called vertebrae. The spine, all together, is called the spinal column. It is not straight, but has curves that help to support the body, and help the person to move and bend. One bone is a "vertebra". More than one are "vertebrae".
The "vertebrae" have different names, depending on the part of the body they are joined to.
 The neck vertebrae are called cervical vertebrae. (ser-vick-al ver-ta-bray)
 The chest vertebrae are called thoracic vertebrae. (thor-assic vert-ta-bray)
 The vertebrae of the "lower back" are called the lumbar vertebrae.
 The next vertebrae are joined together in a triangular shape called the sacrum. The hip bones are attached to the sacrum and support it.
 At the bottom of the "sacrum" are some little tail-bones. They are called the coccyx. On many animals the "coccyxal vertebrae" are long, making a tail that the animal can move, but on humans, apes and some other creatures, they are very short.

Bones of the pelvis
This part of the body is made of the sacrum and the two pelvic bones which are joined to it on either side. The pelvic bones are carried by the leg bones, and they support the "spinal column". Each pelvic bone has a strong structure for the leg bone to fit into, so that a person can stand, walk, run and jump. Each pelvic bone spreads into a large flat plate which supports the person's "internal organs". The pelvis of a woman spreads into a wider shape than a man's, so that when the woman is pregnant, the baby is supported by the pelvis, until it is ready to be born. At the bottom of the pelvis is a large opening, big enough for a baby to pass through.

Bones of the chest
The chest is called the thorax, and the vertebrae that are part of it are the thoracic vertebrae. The thorax is made up of long flat curved bones called ribs. At the back, the ribs are joined to the vertebrae. At the front, most of the ribs are joined to the sternum, which is often called the "breast bone". All together, the "thorax" protects the heart, lungs and stomach.

At the top of the "thorax" is the shoulder girdle. This is made of two thin horizontal bones at the front, joined to the "sternum". These two bones are called the clavicles or "collar bones". At the back of the "thorax" are two flat triangular-shaped bones called the scapulae, or "shoulder blades". The "clavicles" and "scapulae" come together on each side to make "shoulders". The bones of the arms fit into sockets (cup-like holes) in the "scapulae".

Bones of the limbs
Arms and legs both have a thicker bone at the top and two thinner bones at the bottom. They both have a rotating joint at the top, and a hinge joint in the middle. The hands and feet have lots of bones and are joined to the arms and legs by small bones with sliding parts.

Bones of the arms
 The upper bone is the humerus,  so when people bang their elbow, they often say that they bumped their "funny bone".
 The bone that sticks out at the elbow and runs down the outside of the arm is the ulna.
 The bone that is on the thumb-side is called the radius. Near the elbow, it is joined to the "ulna" in a way that allows it to rotate. The "radius" and the "ulna" can twist around each other, allowing a person to turn their hand.
 The small bones of the wrist are called carpals, and the bones inside the hand are called metacarpals.
 The finger bones are the phalanges.

Bones of the legs
 The upper bone of the leg, which is the longest bone in the body, is called the femur.
 The bone at the back of the leg is called the tibia, or "shin bone". It makes the inside ankle bone.
 The thinner bone at the side of the leg is called the fibula. It makes the outside ankle bone.
 The small bones that join the foot to the leg bones and allow it to move are called the tarsals. The bones inside the foot are the metatarsals.
 The toe bones are called phalanges, like the finger bones.
 The leg has another bone. At the front of the joint where the "tibia" meets the "femur" is a small round bone like a little shield, to protect the joint. It is called the patella.

Skeletons in culture

Skeletons as symbols
A skeleton, or just a skull, has often been used as a symbol for death and poison.
 Skeletons and skulls can be seen carved on many tombs, from ancient times to the 20th century.
 Skeletons or skulls are often seen in medieval and Renaissance paintings or stained glass windows, reminding people that life is short.
 Skeletons or skulls were often used as a sign to frighten people. Skeletons would be left hanging in public places, such as cross-roads or bridges to remind the people of a town that they would be punished by death if they broke the law.
 Skeletons or skulls were a symbol used by pirates.

Skeletons in popular culture

Skeletons, particularly living skeletons, have often been used in horror stories and comedies.
 There are stories where skeletons rise from the dead. Things that come back to life are called undead. In these stories, most skeletons are controlled by a person who brings them back to life. These people are called necromancers. A necromancer uses magic to make the skeleton move and act upon his/her will.

Bones

Skeleton


A fertilizer is a chemical that helps plants to grow. It is used to replace the mineral salts taken by plants or removed/washed away by rain.

Common fertilizers:

 Ammonia
 Manure (Animal waste) which was the first fertilizer.
 Compost
 Urea

The important things in fertilizer are:
 Nitrogen (N)
 Phosphorus (P)
 Potash (K)

When fertilizers are offered for sale, the percentage of N, P, and K must be written on the bags or boxes, but for historcal reasons, P is shown as %P2O5 and K is shown as %K2O.

E.g.:9-23-30 which means:    9% N, 23%P2O5 and 30%K2O.

In Australia the pecent of elemental sulfur must also be shown.
In the UK, the elemental composition (in percentages) may also be shown alongside the mandatory  traditional system, provided the numbers are put inside square brackets.

Leafy plants need lots of N.  Flowering plants need lots of P and K.

A soil test can tell how much N, P, and K is needed.

Related pages
Farming

Fertilizer


A buisiness is a wey o organeesin wark, whaur ane or mair fowk offers tae sell gear or service tae ither fowk, for mair siller than it costs them tae mak or provide it. The differ gies siller tae pey the boss an his chiels, an likely tae keep a warkshop an ony byordinar gear needit. The nummer o fowk that works for a buisiness can be juist the ane, sic as in a baurber shop in a smaw toun, or as mony as hunders o thoosans o fowk aw ower the warld, sic as in a company that dreels for ile.

Some buisinesses dinna need a fixed place lik an office or a shop. A jyner or an electreecian that works for themsels maistlins taks awthing thay need for wark wi them, an fishermen that bides at sea wark oot o thair boats.

Buisiness, athoot an airticle, maistlins refers tae the current state o the ae buisiness or various buisinesses: "Buisiness is guid."

Business


First lieutenant is a military rank in many armed forces. They are considered commissioned officers and in some militaries an appointment.

The rank of lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations. In the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior (first lieutenant) and junior (second lieutenant) rank. In navies it may relate to a particular post rather than a rank.

U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Air Force
In the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, a first lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer. It is just above the rank of second lieutenant and just below the rank of captain. It is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant (junior grade) in the other uniformed services.

U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard
In the U.S. Navy and Coast Guard, first lieutenant is a position title, instead of a rank. It is held by the officer in command of the deck department. On smaller ships, the first lieutenant holds the rank of lieutenant, junior grade or ensign. On larger vessels, the position is held by a lieutenant or, in the case of extremely large warships such as aircraft carriers, a lieutenant commander or even commander. However, on submarines, where the deck department may only have a few junior sailors, the first lieutenant may be a senior enlisted member, such as a first-class petty officer or chief petty officer.

References

Military ranks

First Lieutenant


The Aprilia RSV Mille is a sport motorcycle manufactured by Aprilia from 1998 to 2003. It was offered in three versions, RSV Mille,  RSV Mille R, and RSV Mille SP.

The first RSV Mille (ME) was made from 1998 to 2000, the updated RSV Mille (RP) from 2001 to 2002 and the last update was made in 2003.

With a 998 cc 60-degree V-twin engine built by the Austrian company Rotax, the RSV Mille was the first large displacement motorcycle made by Aprilia that up to then had made up to 250cc engines.  This same engine was used unmodified in the Tuono and in slightly modified form in the SL1000 Falco.

The Mille featured a type of slipper clutch, which worked by using a vacuum on a closed throttle from the inlet manifold to give the effect of slipper clutch, but only on a closed throttle.

Model History
The first changes were made in 2001 when the fairing was restyled, adding wind deflectors to improve airflow. The fuel tank was changed to a plastic item (with a reduction in capacity), and the rear shock on both the standard and the 'R' models was revised.

In 2002, the front brake calipers were changed to Brembo Monobloc 4 pad calipers - each piston having a separate pad gave an increase in braking performance and feel.

In 2003, the gear ratios were changed to give a slightly closer ratio gearbox, the exhaust system was changed and the tail piece and front mudguard were redesigned.

From 2004, the Mille was replaced by the RSV-R and RSV-R Factory.

RSV Mille R
The RSV Mille R is a lighter, higher spec. version of the standard Mille, introduced in 1999. It features Öhlins suspension, an Öhlins steering damper, forged aluminum wheels, carbon fibre front mudguard and a shorter subframe for one person use only (no passenger seat).

RSV Mille SP
The SP stands for Sport Production and this version was made as a homologation special for the Superbike World Championship. Only 150 motorcycles, the minimum requirement to homologate the model for Superbike World Championship, were manufactured in 1999. It uses a special short-stroke version of the 60-degree V-twin engine, developed in collaboration with Cosworth.

Replicas
In 2002, Aprilia produced 300 limited edition RSV Mille R Haga Replica. The motorcycle has the same livery as the bike used by Noriyuki Haga at the Superbike World Championship and came with a circuit kit, which included a full Akrapovic titanium exhaust system and an Eprom injection unit.

In 2003, an RSV Mille R Edwards Replica with a livery inspired by the Aprilia RS Cube MotoGP motorcycle ridden by Colin Edwards. as with the Haga replica, the motorcycle came with a circuit kit, which included Akrapovic exhausts, a more pressurised airbox, an Eprom injection unit and 57 mm (instead of 51 mm) throttle bodies

External links
 Official website

References

RSV Mille
Sport bikes
Motorcycles introduced in 1998
Motorcycles powered by V engines

Aprilia RSV Mille


Shetland (or the Shetland Islands) is an archipelago, the furthest out part of Scotland in the United Kingdom.

The islands are between the Faroe Islands and the Orkney Islands. They are about 50 miles to the northeast of the Orkney Islands. They are about 100 islands in the group. People live on 16 of them.

The islands form part of the boundary between the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the North Sea to the east.

The largest islands of the group are Mainland, Yell, Unst, Fetlar, Whalsay, and Bressay. In general, the climate of the group is subarctic, and rather bleak.

They used to be called Hjaltland or Zetland. Today, the islands are part of Scotland. The administrative centre is Lerwick.

The economy of the islands is largely based on agriculture. The sheep are known for their fine wool. Other well-known exports are the Shetland ponies and Shetland Sheepdog.

In 1969 crude oil was discovered near the islands, leading to an alternative source of income for them.

History

Scandinavian colonisation

By the end of the 9th century the Norsemen shifted from plundering to invasion, mainly due to the overpopulation of Scandinavia in comparison to resources and arable land available there.

Shetland was colonised by Norsemen in the 9th century. The fate of the native population is unknown. The colonisers established their laws and language. That language evolved into the West Nordic language Norn, which survived into the 19th century.

After Harald Finehair took control of all Norway, many of his opponents fled, some to Orkney and Shetland. From the Northern Isles they continued to raid Scotland and Norway, prompting Harald Hårfagre to raise a large fleet which he sailed to the islands. In about 875 he and his forces took control of Shetland and Orkney. Ragnvald, Earl of Møre received Orkney and Shetland as an earldom from the king as reparation for his son's being killed in battle in Scotland. Ragnvald gave the earldom to his brother Sigurd the Mighty.

Shetland was Christianised in the 10th century. In the Treaty of Perth in 1266 the Norwegian king surrendered his furthest British islands to Scotland. They included the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man. In return, the Scots recognised Norwegian sovereignty over Orkney and Shetland. The islands did not become Scottish until the 15th century, and were  ratified by an Act of Parliament in 1669.

Hanseatic League
For three centuries the Shetlanders sold their fish (salted cod) through the German Hanseatic League, a trading organisation. This arrangement lasted from 1400 to 1700 AD.

World War II
In WWII Shetland was active in covert operations against the Germans in Norway. The 'Shetland Bus' (fishing vessels) sailed in covert operations between Norway and Shetland. They carried intelligence agents, refugees, instructors for the resistance, and military supplies. Many people on the run from the Germans, and much important information on German activity in Norway, were brought back to the Allies this way.

Oil
In the early 1970s, oil and gas were found off Shetland. The East Shetland Basin is one of the largest petroleum sedimentary basins in Europe. Sullom Voe terminal opened in 1978 and is the largest oil export harbour in the United Kingdom with a volume of 25 million tons per year.

Prehistory
Firm geological evidence shows that at around 6100 BC a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slides hit Shetland, as well as the rest of the east coast of Scotland, and may have washed over some of the Shetland Islands completely.

Shetland has been populated since at least 3400 BC. The early people subsisted on cattle-farming and agriculture. During the Bronze Age, around 2000 BC, the climate cooled and the population moved to the coast. During the Iron Age, many stone fortresses were erected, some ruins of which remain today.

Due to the practice of building in stone on the virtually tree-less islands, Shetland is extremely rich in physical remains of all these periods, though Shetland is less rich in material remains than Orkney.

The artifacts of all the eras of Shetland's past can be studied at the newly built (2007) Shetland Museum in Lerwick.

References

Counties of Scotland
Scottish Council Areas
Archipelagos

Shetland


The scissor-tailed flycatcher (Tyrannus forficatus), also known as the Texas bird-of-paradise and swallow-tailed flycatcher, is a type of bird that lives in North America, in the United States and Mexico. It eats insects.  It is grey on top and light grey underneath with pink on the sides.  The wings are dark and it has a long black tail.  It is named "scissor-tailed" because its tail looks like a pair of scissors.  The tail is shorter when it is young, and the bird is not as colorful.

The scissor-tailed flycatcher is closely related to the kingbirds. It is also the state bird of Oklahoma. The common name is derived from its former Latin name-Muscivoria forficata, meaning "flying"-"scissors" and "to devour."  In Oklahoma, scissortails can be found on open prairies, along tree-lined roads, and along roadsides perched on fences, limbs and in isolated trees.  They consume a great number of grasshoppers, crickets, spiders, and other ground-dwelling insects  making them economically important and popular with farmers and ranchers.

Soon after the birds arrive in the state, the males begin their famous "sky dance," a popular site along roadsides during spring and early summer. After climbing about 100 feet in the air, the male makes a series of V-shaped flights, then plunges down in an erratic zigzag course often somersaulting  while uttering a rolling, cackling call.  The performance has been described as "an aerial ballet of incomparable grace." Nesting usually takes place in an isolated tree 7–30 feet  above ground. Often two broods of 4-6 each are raised during the summer.

Scissor-tailed flycatchers are easily identified by their long scissor-like tail, which may reach nine inches in length.  During flight the bird opens its tail like a pair of scissors and folds or closes the "scissors" when perching. The nape of its neck and its back are pearl gray, and the breast is white. Wings are sooty black with a touch of scarlet at the shoulders. The principal threat to scissortails is poaching.  A great number of birds have been killed by poachers who wanted only the bird's tail.

Birds of North America
Tyranni
Symbols of Oklahoma

Scissor-tailed flycatcher


The Cathar faith was a version of Christianity. They were usually considered Gnostics. The word 'Cathar' comes the Greek word katharos meaning 'unpolluted' (from Tobias Churton, The Gnostics) or  "the pure ones".

Principles
The Cathars believed that the world had been made by a bad god.  They believed that this bad god had taken them from the good god and put them in the world, but inside their bodies there was a spirit, and that spirit needed to return to the good god.  They were famous for a belief in a form of reincarnation and believed that when someone died the bad god would put that person's spirit in a new body. They believed this cycle of coming back to life could be escaped by a ritual cleansing.  They were opposed to the doctrine of sin.

Women were prominent in the faith.  They were pacifists.  They didn't eat anything that was made from other animals, including meat and cows milk. The only exception to this was fish. Fish was OK to eat because they believed fishes were not alive but just things that were sometimes produced from dirt and water.

They preached tolerance of other faiths.  They rejected the usual Christian rules of marriage and only believed in the New Testament.  An earlier 10th-century Bulgarian heresy, Bogomilism and also Manichaeism started some of these trends.

Language
They used a bible in the language people spoke. Many other Christians used a Bible in Latin. Latin was spoken only by the priests.

Problems
In 1145, open challenge to Catholic dominance began.  In about 1165, the first Cathars said that the Church was "full of ravening (starving) wolves and hypocrites" and "worshipping the wrong God", right in front of the most powerful Catholics. In 1166, the Council of Oxford in England wiped out the English Cathars.  It was also suppressed in Northern France.  In 1167, Cathar bishops met to discuss organizing a counter Church - in the South of France, the Languedoc nobles protected it, and many noble women became "Perfects".  Parish clergy had low morale, or confidence.

Reactions
The Catholic Church was against Catharism, seeing it as a heresy.

In the South of France there was tremendous religious fervor, and an economy that was starting to grow, and a social class of  merchants and  peasants was starting to grow.  Peasants owned their own land.  Meanwhile, in other parts of Europe, peasants were forced to give up their land to nobles and become serfs or slaves - the system of feudalism.  There was a strong central absolute monarchy that did not exist in the South of France.  The burghers and bankers had more power in this looser system.  R. I. Moore is a historian who believes that it was desire to crush this system and take over the land that drove the attack.

However, there was real cultural and religious difference to cause problems:  Troubadors, who combined some of the traditions of the Bards of the Celts, and Jews, were both part of the multicultural society in the South of France.  Their influences were not appreciated by local or Roman Church figures.  The 12th century Roman Catholic Monks were founding their monasteries outside the towns, drawing the best people there.

Results
The Cathars thus had little competition.  The Cathar "Perfects", the so-called Good Men or Good Women, lived restrained lives and spread their faith in towns - where the Catholics in general did not have their best agents.  Also, Cathars preached that only these Good leaders had to follow the regimens their whole lives - lay people could repent only on their deathbeds.  Many 20th century Christian sects have similar beliefs.

The Albigensian Crusade

Methods
The Pope ordered a crusade against the Cathars in southern France. He said any crusader who answered the call would be given the same rewards as a crusader who went to the Holy Land. This was an absolution of all sin.

In the Launguedoc, on the 22nd of July 1209, a force of about 30,000 Crusaders arrived at the walls of Beziers bearing the cross pattee to mislead and create ease among the Cathars, thinking they were friend, not foe, and  demanded that about 200 Cathars be surrendered.  The people of the town who were mostly Catholic, said that rather than turn over their friends and family, "we would rather be flayed alive."

A mistake by the defenders of Beziers let thousands of attackers in. Arnauld Amaury made the famous quote "Kill them all, God knows his own"  on being asked how to tell who were Cathars during the assault. Everyone in the town was killed, some while taking refuge in the church.  It is guessed that 20,000 were killed, many of whom were Catholics and not Cathars at all.  The crusade became known as the Albigensian crusade after the town of Albi.  It was to wipe out the Cathars almost entirely over forty or so years.  The Crusaders wanted to go home, but were ordered by the Pope to continue until the whole South of France was controlled and all Cathars were dead. In 1210, they attacked the fortress at Minerv and built "the first great bonfire of heretics" - beginning the practice of burning at the stake that would continue in the Inquisition of the Counter-Reformation. It is interesting to note that at the siege of Montsegur when the fires were lit the Cathars ran down the hill and threw themselves on, as their beliefs were very strong.

Result
Catharism disappeared from the northern Italian cities after the 1260s, pressured by the Inquisition. The last known Cathar perfectus in the Languedoc, Guillaume Bélibaste, was killed in 1321.

Other websites
 http://dannyreviews.com/h/Cathars.html
 http://gnosistraditions.faithweb.com/mont.html
 http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gui-cathars.html
 http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/christ/west/cathar.html
 http://pages.britishlibrary.net/forrester-roberts/cathars.html
 Cathar Center in Barcelona: Books, spirituality, exhibition

Gnosticism
Nontrinitarianism
Christianity of the Middle Ages

Catharism


A role-playing game (also called an RPG) is a game in which one plays the role of one or several characters (people), either verbally (traditional RPGS), in a computer or video game, or alone (gamebooks). Often the characters gain experience (EXP) during the game, which makes them stronger.

Traditional RPGs

A traditional role-playing game, or tabletop role-playing game, is a form of role-playing game (RPG) in which each person playing the game will make-believe that he or she is a character in the game. A person playing the game will tell the action of his or her character, and a system of rules will tell whether the action can be done or not.  The game will happen in a made-up world that is controlled by another person playing the game, called a gamemaster (GM). The gamemaster tells the game's story to the players, tells them where they are in the game world, and plays the part of all the Non-Player Characters (NPCs) and monsters that the players meet.

The gamemaster will also give quests or tasks for the characters to complete. Characters usually have things about them that limit their actions, such as strength or speed, and as the character completes the quests, he or she is awarded experience points which can be used to make the character better.

Most tabletop RPGs use dice rolls when a player tries to do something hard in the game (Like attacking a monster, or jumping over a gap). This means that there is luck in the game, as well as skill. Most games have a system of bonuses so that they can succeed more often.

A short example:

GM: "You enter a small room. It is wet and smells bad. You hear water dripping from somewhere. You see a small, shaking pile of gray jelly in the middle of the room."
Player: "I touch the pile with the tip of my sword."
GM: "The jelly starts to move up your sword."
Player: "I drop my sword."
GM: "The jelly starts to eat your sword, but you are safe."

Good GMs balance challenges and rewards, giving the players the chance to recover from mistakes, but at the same time providing consequences for the player's actions. One example of this type of RPG is Dungeons & Dragons

Computer and video game RPGs

Graphical
There are also computer and videogame RPGs, where the player controls one or more characters. A good example is the Final Fantasy series of games. Just like the pre-computer RPGs, the characters in the games level up when they get EXP. They also usually contain a main quest which cannot be completed without completing smaller side quests. These computer RPGs are easier to play because they only need one person, but they also lack the freedom of the older games, where new quests can be made up whenever you want. MMORPGs (Massively-Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game), are computer games where many players meet online in one large game world, and go on quests together. Some examples of these games are World of Warcraft, Everquest, or Runescape.

Text-Based

Text Based RPGs are not too different from Traditional RPGs, generally based on the Dungeons and Dragons game. However some Text Based RPGs are not for combat, but are for socializing and meeting others.
With many Text Based RPGs you need a client, a program to send what you say to the server, which can be located in another country. Many clients are basic and display text in one colour, but there are others that use colours, enhancing the readability of the contents.

Live action role-playing game (LARP)
In LARP, the people play their characters themselves, much like a play. They act out the things their character does, dress like their character, and often talk in the way their character would.

Role-playing game


Cape Horn (; ) is a cape. It was named for the city of Hoorn in the Netherlands. It is the southernmost land area of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago of southern Chile. Many people see Cape Horn as the southern tip of South America. Cape Horn is the most southerly of the great capes. The Drake Passage is directly to the south of it. For many years, it was a major milestone on the clipper route by which sailing ships carried trade around the world. The waters around the cape are very dangerous because of strong winds, large waves, and icebergs. These reasons have made it notorious as a sailors' graveyard.

Today, the Panama Canal has greatly reduced the need for cargo ships to travel via the Horn. However, sailing around the Horn is widely regarded as one of the major challenges in yachting, and a number of recreational sailors continue to sail this route, sometimes as part of a circumnavigation of the globe. Several prominent ocean yacht races, notably the Vendée Globe, sail around the world via the Horn, and speed records for round-the-world sailing follow the same route.

Magallanes Region
Capes
Peninsulas

Cape Horn


In music, the dynamics in the  piece is the variation in loudness between notes or phrases.

In written music the dynamics are shown by letters which stand for Italian words for the dynamic levels. They are listed in the table below. Notice that "piano", as a dynamic level, is pronounced the Italian way ("pi-AH-no").

Use more than two ps or fs to show that the music is very, very quiet, or very, very loud. Tchaikovsky sometimes used five ps or fs, though only up to three are normally found in sheet music.

Dynamic levels are not something that can be measured exactly. Exactly how loud mp should be depends on several things: what is happening in the music, the instrument, the size of the room in which the music is being played etc. The important thing is that dynamic levels should be correct in relation to one another.

Some composers are very precise about writing the dynamics they want. Others leave a lot to the performer to decide. Historically, composers several centuries ago, such as Bach, only wrote occasional dynamic marks. Even Mozart only wrote a few, mostly p and f. By the 19th century composers were writing dynamics in much more detail in their music.

Sometimes accents are shown by marks similar to dynamic marks. Sforzando means a strong, sudden accent and is abbreviated as sf, sfz or fz. The notation sfzp (or sfp) means a sforzando followed immediately by piano

The terms crescendo, and diminuendo (or sometimes decrescendo), mean a gradual getting louder or quieter. They can also be shown by signs known as "hairpins". A hairpin opening out is a crescendo, one which closes is a diminuendo.

For a quick change in dynamics, molto cresc. and molto dim. are often used (molto means a lot). For slow changes poco a poco cresc. and poco a poco dim. are used (poco a poco means little by little, i.e. very gradually.)

Musical notation

Dynamics (music)


Poetry is a kynd o airt form an a kynd o leeteratur.

Poetry uises the qualities o wirds, in sindry weys, for tae be airtistic.
 different lenth an soond (o wirds)
(Poetry can be as short, as a puckle wirds, or as lang as a beuk (an epic).
 meanins (o wirds)
 (Poetry haes) different uises o tone.

 Thare are mony "poetic forms" (forms o poetry).
Some o thaim are : Sonnet, Haiku , Ballad, Stev , Ode, Free verse, Blank verse, thematic, limerick an nursery rhymes.

A man or wumman wha scrieves poetry is cawed a "Makar".
Poetry can be uised for tae descrive (comparin, talkin aboot, or pitten ower emotion) mony things. It can mak sense or be haivers, it can rhyme or no. It can hae mony shapes an sizes; it can be serious, or it can be funny.

"Tae say something poetically" means tae gie information in an airtistic wey.

Poetry

Poetry


An arrangement of a musical composition is a reworking of a piece of music so that it can be played by a different instrument or combination of instruments from the original.  For example, a song written for one voice with piano accompaniment might be arranged so that it can be sung in parts by a choir, or a piece for violin might be arranged so that it can be played on a clarinet instead.  The person who does the arrangement may be the composer themself, or it may be someone else.

In music history, composers often published their compositions, saying that the music could be played or sung by various instruments.  For example, when English composers published madrigals in the late 16th century they often stated that they could be sung by singers or played on viols ("apt for voices as for viols").  In the Classical music period a composer might publish a sonata, stating that it could be played on the violin or flute or recorder.  This helped to sell more copies, because violinists, flautists and recorder players might all want to buy the music.  In a sense this is not really an arrangement, because no changes have been made to the music.

However, when violin or cello music is arranged so that it can be played on a viola, some changes may be necessary as the viola may be playing in a different key, or some chords may be more awkward the way they were originally written.  This is an arrangement.

A popular piece such as The Flight of the Bumble Bee by Rimsky-Korsakov can be played by almost any melodic instrument: violin, xylophone, tuba etc.  These are all arrangements.

When a piece for choir and orchestra is printed for choir members to use, the orchestral part is printed on two staves so that it can be played on a piano for rehearsals.  This is another kind of arrangement.

In music history, many composers have made arrangements of music composed by others.  They did this in order to learn about musical composition, as well as in order to be able to play it on another instrument.  For example, Johann Sebastian Bach made arrangements of four concertos by Vivaldi so that they could be played on the organ.

Arrangements are often made by people who play instruments that have not had much music written for them.  People who play the viola, guitar, tuba etc. often arrange other music so that they have a larger repertoire (more music to play).

Sometimes composers have made changes to the orchestration of works for orchestra written by others.  They may have done this because instruments had changed since the music was written, or simply because they thought they could do it better.  For example, Mozart made an arrangement of Handels  Messiah , adding instruments such as clarinets which Handel would not have known.  Rimsky-Korsakov made arrangements of the operas by Musorgsky thinking that he was improving them.

Arrangements are sometimes made because a player has some disability.  Cyril Smith, a pianist who only had one arm, played piano duets with his wife Phyllis Sellick.  They arranged piano duets so that they could be played by three hands.

Sometimes arrangements are made of well-known classical pieces in which the music is "jazzed up" or made to sound more popular for movie or theatre performances.  Sometimes  musicians think this is not a good thing.  Sometimes small vocal groups such as the Swingle Singers make lighthearted versions of works by Bach and others.

References
New Groves Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; London 1980;

Musical terminology

Arrangement (music)