Gothic cathedrals are important examples of gothic architecture. Gothic architecture was a way of planning and designing buildings that began in Western Europe in the Late Middle Ages. Gothic architecture grew out of Romanesque architecture, in France in the 12th century. The architecture spread across Europe and lasted until the 16th century when Renaissance architecture became popular.

The single most characteristic feature of Gothic architecture is the pointed arch. This is the main difference from Romanesque architecture which had rounded arches. Other important features are the ribbed vault, flying buttress, and windows with patterns of stone lace called tracery.

Many of the great cathedrals, abbeys and churches of Europe are Gothic architecture. It is also the architecture of many castles, and palaces. It is also found in some  town halls, universities, and some houses.

Many church buildings still remain from this time. Even the smallest Gothic churches are often beautiful, while many of the larger Gothic churches and cathedrals are thought to be priceless works of art. Many are listed with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as World Heritage Sites.

In the 19th century, the Gothic style became popular again, particularly for building churches and universities. This style is called Gothic Revival architecture.

About the word "Gothic"
Gothic architecture was at first called "the French Style" ().
The word "Gothic" was used later during the Renaissance as an insult, relating to the uncivilized ancient Goths, Germanic-people documented living near lower Vistula river.

An Italian writer named Giorgio Vasari used the word "Gothic" in the 1530s, because he thought buildings from the Middle Ages were not carefully planned and measured like Renaissance buildings or the buildings of ancient Rome. He said that, as the barbaric Goths had destroyed the classical world, so this "modern art" had destroyed the architecture of the twelfth century.  After Vasari, many other people used the word "Gothic" to describe architecture with pointed arches.

Background

Towns, states and countries
At the end of the 12th century, Western Europe was divided into different states. Many of these were beginning to become the countries that exist today.

The Holy Roman Empire ruled a big part of Europe including the modern countries of Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Austria, eastern France and much of northern Italy, apart from Venice. Emperor Charlemagne began the Holy Roman Empire in 800 AD.

The modern countries of France and Spain were each divided into different kingdoms. England was ruled by a king whose family also had a lot of land in France. Norway was influenced by England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by German states.

Trade between towns and states began to make the towns grow larger. Germany, Holland and Belgium had many big towns that grew peacefully, often trading with each other. Because of the peace and wealth of these towns, they showed their pride by building huge town halls, often with very tall towers.

In England and France, most people did not live in towns. They lived on farms. Rich noblemen or lords owned these farms. The house of the lord was called a manor house. Italy was mostly split up into small city-states which often fought each other. Cities often had high walls and many of the houses built at this time were tall, high towers.

The Church
In Western Europe, in the Middle Ages, almost everyone belonged to the Roman Catholic Church. The Roman Catholic Church has one head - the Pope. During the Middle Ages, one language was used in churches all across Europe - Ecclesiastical Latin, sometimes called Church Latin, which had developed from ancient Latin.
The churches of each area had a local bishop who came under the Pope. Each Bishop had a throne where he could sit when priests and people came to him. A church which has a Bishop's throne is called a "cathedral". Cathedrals were usually the biggest and most beautiful churches.

In the early Middle Ages, many monasteries were built all over Europe. A group of holy men lived and worked and prayed there.  Monks belonged to different "orders" which had different rules. The biggest number of monasteries were homes to the monks of the Benedictine Order. Their monasteries were generally in towns and they often built very big churches called "Abbeys" for the monks and the townspeople to worship in. Other orders of monks, like the Cistercians, did not live near towns. Nowadays their abbeys are seen as beautiful ruins in the English countryside.

In France, there were also Benedictines, as well as Cluniac Orders. The great monastery at Cluny, built in the Romanesque style, was the biggest in Europe. The abbey and other buildings were very well planned so for hundreds of years other monasteries were influenced by that plan.

In the 13th century St. Francis of Assisi started the Franciscans, who were often called the "Grey Friars" because of their grey-brown robes.  The Dominicans were founded by St. Dominic in Toulouse and Bologna. The Dominicans built many of Italy's Gothic churches.

Abbot Suger and the first Gothic building
Abbot Suger was the head of a large monastery just north of Paris in France. The monastery had a large church, the Abbey of Saint-Denis. There was also a royal palace where the French kings sometimes stayed. Abbot Suger was a close friend to two kings, Louis VI and Louis VII.

In 1127 Suger decided to rebuild the great abbey Church of Saint-Denis. He began by changing the "West Front" or facade. This side of the church was about 200 years old and had only one small door. Suger planned for three big doors like the arches on the Arch of Constantine in Rome. These large entrances let in all the crowds on special Holy Days. The facade also had a big round window in the centre, called a rose window, which was the first one in France.

Abbot Suger did not rebuild the church inside the west doors where most of the ordinary people stood. Next, he rebuilt the eastern end. Suger wanted the east facade to make people think of Heaven. He wanted it to be very light and bright, with very big windows of beautifully coloured glass. He looked at all the most modern designs, and all the clever things that other architects had done. He put all the new ideas together in one building. It was the first building of the new "Gothic" style. It was not yet called Gothic at this time. It was called "the French Style".

The new East End was dedicated or "given to God" on June 11, 1144. Other architects soon copied the design for other big churches and cathedrals in northern France. After Abbot Suger's death, the rest of the church was also rebuilt in the new style, and got two more much larger and more decorated rose windows, one on either side.

The style soon spread to England and through France, the Low Countries, Germany, Spain and northern Italy and Sicily.

Architectural features of Gothic churches
Note:- The architectural vocabulary words are written in bold type and are explained and/or shown on the plan and cross-section.

Romanesque architecture
"Romanesque" was the style of architecture in Europe before the "Gothic" style. Gothic architecture grew out of Romanesque architecture. There was not a clean break between the two styles.  Many of the features of Gothic architecture did not begin in the Gothic period. They were already there in Romanesque architecture, and slowly changed to become Gothic. The main changes were the pointed arch and the flying buttress. These two developments allowed many other changes to happen.

Romanesque buildings had thick walls, small windows, round arches and flat buttresses. Gothic buildings had thinner walls, larger windows, pointed arches and large buttresses.

All the types of buildings, and the general shape of the buildings were already there in the Romanesque period. The types of buildings were:- the cathedral church, the parish church, the monastery, the castle, the palace, the great hall and the gatehouse.

Before the 20th century, the landmark building in almost every town was a church, cathedral, abbey, or town hall with its tall tower or spire rising high above all the houses. Many of these buildings were from the Middle Ages and were Romanesque or Gothic in style.

Plans

The groundplan of most Gothic churches is shaped like a cross. The long nave makes the body of the church and, crossing it, the arms are called the transept. On the other side of the transept is the chancel which is often called the choir because that is where the priest and the choir sing the services.

The nave usually has a passageway or aisle on either side. Sometimes there are two aisles on each side. The nave is usually a lot taller than the aisles, and has high windows which light up the central space. The upper part of the building, where these windows are, is called the clerestory (or clear storey). (It is pronounced "clair-rest-tree")

Some Gothic churches in Germany and Austria and also Milan Cathedral (which was built in the German style) often have nave and aisles of almost the same height and are called "hallenkirke" (hall church). The Cathedral of St. Stephen of Vienna is an example.

In some churches with double aisles, like Notre Dame, Paris, the transept does not stick out beyond the aisles. In English cathedrals the transepts always stick out a long way and sometimes there are two transepts as at Salisbury Cathedral.

It is at the eastern end that Gothic churches are the most different from each other.

In England the eastern end it is usually long and often has two parts. It is usually square or has a "Lady Chapel", a place to pray to the Virgin Mary.

In France the eastern end is often polygonal and has by a passage for walking called an ambulatory. Often French churches have a ring of chapels called a chevette. German churches are often like those of France at the eastern end.

In Italy, there is no long chancel jutting out beyond the transept. There is usually just a semicircular chapel as at Florence Cathedral.

Features of the Gothic style

 Pointed arches
 Very high towers and spires and roofs
 Clustered columns: tall columns that looked like a group of thin columns bundled together
 Ribbed vaults: arched ceilings made of stone. In the Gothic style they were held up by stone ribs.
 A skeleton of stonework with great big glass windows in between.
 Tracery: carved stone lace in the windows and on the walls
 Stained glass: richly colored glass in the windows, often with pictures telling stories
 Buttresses: narrow stone walls jutting out from the building to help hold it up
 Flying buttresses: buttresses that help to hold the vault up. They are made with an arch that jumps over a lower part of the building to reach the outside wall.
 Statues: of Saints, Prophets and Kings around the doors
 Many sculptures, sometimes of animals and legendary creatures. Gargoyles spout water from the roof.

Grand facade
The "facade" or West Front of a large church or cathedral is designed to make a big impression on the worshippers. One of the best known is Notre Dame de Paris.

In the centre of the facade is the main door or portal, often with two side doors as well. In the arch of the middle door is often an important piece of sculpture, usually "Christ in Majesty". Sometimes there is a stone post in the middle of the doorway where there is a statue of the "Madonna and Child". There are many other carved figures in niches set all around the portals. Sometimes there are hundreds of stone figures carved all across the front of the building.

Above the middle door there is a large window, which is usually a rose window like that at Reims Cathedral, but not in England, Scotland, Belgium or Scandinavia where there will nearly always be a very large pointed window to let in lots of light.

In Italy, the facade is often decorated with coloured marble and mosaic made of little coloured tiles, and not so many statues, as at Orvieto Cathedral

The facade of a French cathedral and many English, Spanish and German cathedrals usually has two towers.

Height
Large Gothic churches and cathedrals are often very tall. On the inside, the nave is usually at least twice as high as it is wide, which gives the church a very tall narrow look. Some of the churches in France and Germany have naves that are three times as high as they are wide. Cologne Cathedral is an example. The tallest nave is at Beauvais Cathedral which is 157.5 feet high. Westminster Abbey is 102 feet high.

On the outside most Gothic churches, both big and small, have at least one tower. In Italy there are domes on the churches, and the tower stands to one side. But in most other countries, cathedrals generally have two towers and quite often have three. Some have even more. Laon Cathedral was planned to have seven, but they were not all built.

Sometimes there is just one tower with a huge spire as at Salisbury. Lincoln Cathedral had the tallest spire of the Middle Ages at 527 feet (160 metres).

Because a pointed arch points upwards, it makes people look upwards. In Gothic architecture, the whole building is designed to make people look up. There are long narrow columns, long narrow windows and high pointed roofs. On the inside the arches of the roof rise up like branches. On the outside, there are often lots of fancy bits along the edge of the roof and on the tops of buttresses and above the windows. These are called  pinnacles. Milan Cathedral has hundreds of them.

Light
Gothic architecture usually has a lot of windows. Sainte Chapelle is a famous example. At Gloucester Cathedral in England, the East window is as big as a tennis court. Milan Cathedral also has windows of about the same size.

The flying buttresses which arch across the roof of the aisle were used to support the roof above the windows, so the walls did not have to be so thick.

The columns of the inside, the ribs of the vault (or roof) and the flying buttresses, made a strong stone skeleton. in between these parts, the walls and the filling of the vaults could be of lighter thinner material. Between the narrow buttresses, the walls could be opened up into large windows.

Through the Gothic period, because of the pointed arch, Gothic windows were able to change from simple openings to very rich designs. The windows were very often filled with stained glass which made coloured light in the building, and was used for story-telling pictures.

The pointed arch
Pointed arches were used in Persian architecture, and from 641 AD onwards, they were a feature of Islamic architecture. Knowledge of the pointed arch spread into Europe through the Crusaders who travelled to the Middle East from 1096 onwards. Also, Islamic forces had taken over parts of Spain, where they built cities and Mosques with pointed arches.

Architectural historians think that the pointed arch was also used by some European architects because it was a very strong way of making an arch.

In Gothic Architecture, the pointed arch is used in every place where an arch is needed, both for strength and for decoration. Gothic openings such as doorways, windows, arcades and galleries have pointed arches. A row of arches is called an arcade. A row of arches that is up high on a building is a gallery.

Rows of pointed arches were used to decorate walls. This is known as blind arcading. Often walls were made with tall narrow arched openings in them that could be used to stand statues in. An opening like this is called a niche which is pronounced "neesh".

Vaulted roofs with pointed arches
An arched roof built of bricks or stone is called a vault. In the Romanesque period before the Gothic, some churches had vaulted roofs. They were always based on perfectly semi-circular shapes. There were two main ways to make a nave vault in the Romanesque period. A vault could be long like a tunnel. Churches with this type of vault were always rather dark. Or it could be square, like two tunnels crossing each other. This meant that the columns that carried the vault always had to be placed on a perfectly square ground plan, which was not always possible.

One of the good things about pointed arches was that they could be narrow and tall, or flattened and wide. Using pointed arches, architects could make vaults of very different shapes. They did not even have to be rectangular. A Gothic architect could make a vault with one side narrow, two sides wide and the last side even wider. They could make a vault with three sides or five sides quite easily, by using pointed arches.

The vaults were made of ribs which met each other at the highest part of the vault. In between the ribs were sloping surfaces of stone or brick that could be much thinner and lighter than the ribs. At first the pattern made by the ribs was quite plain, like Romanesque vaults, but architects, particularly in England, soon started adding small ribs in between the main ones and making different patterns. Some vaults like this can also be seen in Spain and Germany, but not usually in France or Italy.

Different shapes of Gothic arches
In the Gothic period the shape and style of pointed arches changed. But the changes were not the same in every country.

With pointed arches, windows could be made very large. Architects made many designs of pointed arches crossing each other in different ways. These designs were often used in windows, which look as if they are filled with beautiful stone lace. This is called "tracery". The stone tracery was used to hold the glass in place. An Architectural Historian can often tell just how old a part of a building is by looking at the window tracery design.

Lancet arch
The simplest Gothic arch is a long opening with a pointed arch known in England as the lancet. A "lancet" is a sharp knife, so these windows are knife-shaped. Very often lancet windows are put together in a group of three or five.

Salisbury Cathedral is famous for the beauty of its Lancet Gothic Architecture. In England the style is called "Early English Gothic". York Cathedral in England has a group of five lancet windows that are 50 feet high and are still full of ancient glass. They are called the Five Sisters.

These simple windows are also found at Chartres Cathedral and Laon Cathedral in France. They are the most usual sort of Gothic windows in Italy.

Equilateral arch
Many Gothic openings have tops that are based upon an equilateral triangle. The Equilateral Arch has a very pleasing look and gives a wide opening useful for doorways, arcades and big windows.

These arches are often filled with tracery in circular designs. In England this style is called Geometric Decorated Gothic. It can be seen at many English and French Cathedrals, for example Lincoln cathedral in England and Notre Dame in Paris.

Flamboyant arch
Some Gothic windows have designs in the tracery, or even in the top of the window itself, that rises up like a flame. This is called Flamboyant Gothic. Tracery like this makes a very rich and lively effect.

Some of the most beautiful and famous windows of Europe have this type of tracery. It can be seen at St Stephen's Vienna, Sainte Chapelle in Paris, at the Cathedrals of Limoges and Rouen in France, and at Milan Cathedral in Italy. In England the most famous windows like this are the West Window of York Minster with its design based on the Sacred Heart, the East Window at Carlisle Cathedral and the East window of Selby Abbey. Architectural Historians sometimes argue about which of these is the most beautiful.

Flame-shaped arches are not as strong as ordinary pointed arches. It is never used for making a vaulted roof. If this shape is used to make a doorway, there is generally another stronger arch around it. Another way is to make a square topped door that has Flamboyant decoration over the top. In France there are many doorways, both in churches and in houses, that are like this. They are rare in England but there is one at Rochester Cathedral.

In England the Flamboyant style was used wall arcading and niches. The most famous examples in are in the Lady Chapel at Ely, the Screen at Lincoln and the facade of Exeter Cathedral. In German and Spanish Gothic architecture the Flamboyant style is often used for opnwork stone screens. The famous "pulpit" in Vienna Cathedral is made like this.

Depressed arch
The Depressed arch is wide and looks as if it has been pushed almost flat. When arches like this are used to make great big windows they need to be supported by many tall thin vertical shafts and horizontal transoms, so that the window looks as if it has been divided up into a grid (lots of rectangles). This sort of decoration is used on walls as well. In England the style is called Perpendicular Gothic style.

At Gloucester Cathedral the Perpendicular East Window is said to be as large as a tennis court. There are three very famous large chapels in this style- King's College Chapel, Cambridge; St. George's Chapel at Windsor Castle; Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster Abbey. The other famous example is Bath Abbey.

Decoration
A Gothic cathedral was designed to be like a model of the universe. Everything about the building was designed to tell a message about God.

The statues, the decoration, stained glass windows and wall paintings told Bible stories such as how God created the world and how he rules over everything that is in the universe, the seasons of the year and the stars in the sky.

Carvings near the door often show the signs of the Zodiac because the patterns of stars in the sky were very important to farming people who did not have calendars to tell them when to plant and when to harvest.

Above the main door is often a sculpture of Jesus on a throne, judging the people of the Earth. Many pictures and sculptures are there to remind people to live good lives because they never know what will happen next.

Many churches were very richly decorated, both inside and out. the statues were often painted in bright colours but nowadays only tiny bits remain at Chartres cathedral and some other places. Wooden ceilings were usually brightly coloured. Sometimes the stone columns were painted as well.

Regional differences
Even though some things about Gothic architecture stay the same, other things look different in different countries.

Building materials
Different building materials were found in different parts of Europe. This is one of the differences in the architecture between different places.
In France, there was limestone. It was good for building because it was soft to cut, but got much harder when the air and rain got on it. It was usually a pale grey colour. France also had beautiful white limestone from Caen which was perfect for making very fine carvings.

England had coarse limestone, red sandstone and dark green Purbeck marble which was often used for architectural decorations like thin columns.

In Northern Germany, Netherlands, Denmark, Baltic countries and northern Poland there was no good building stone, but there was clay for making bricks and tiles. So many of these countries have Brick Gothic churches and even Brick Gothic castles.

In Italy, limestone was used for city walls and castles, but brick was used for other buildings. Because Italy had lots of beautiful marble in many different colours, many buildings have fronts or "facades" decorated in coloured marble. Some churches have very rough brick facades because the marble was never put on. Florence Cathedral, for example, did not get its marble facade until the 1800s.

In some parts of Europe, there were many tall straight trees that were good for making very large roofs. But in England, by the 1400s, the long straight trees were running out. Many of the trees were used for building ships. The architects had to think of a new way to make a wide roof from short pieces of timber. That is how they invented the hammer-beam roofs which are one of the beautiful features seen in many old English churches.

France
French cathedrals, and those in Germany and Belgium are often very high, both inside and outside. The transepts do not stick out far. The facades in France nearly always have three doors, a rose window and two towers. There are often facades with doors on the transepts as well as the front.

England
The thing that makes English cathedrals different from the others is that they are long, and look horizontal, like big ocean liners.
English cathedrals nearly all took hundreds of years to build, and every part is in a style that is quite different to the next part. (Only Salisbury Cathedral was not built in lots of styles.)
The West window is very large and is never a rose window. The west front may have two towers like a French Cathedral, or none. There is nearly always a tower at the middle of the building, which may have a big spire.

Holy Roman Empire
In the territory of the Holy Roman Empire, the towers and spires are often enormously large. Sometimes they are so big that it was impossible to finish them until modern times. The spires are quite different to English spires because they are made of lacy "openwork".
There are also many hallenkirke (or hall-churches) which have no clerestorey windows. The nave and the aisles are about the same height.

Spain and Portugal
Like an English Cathedral, a Spanish or Portuguese Gothic Cathedral is often built in many different styles. They are often wide. Spanish cathedrals often have chapels all around them. The roof often has many different types of towers and spires. Often the central towers are polygonal.

Italy
Italian Gothic cathedrals use lots of colour, both outside and inside. On the outside, the facade is often decorated with marble. On the inside, the walls are often painted plaster. The columns and arches are often decorated with bright coloured paint. There are also mosaics with gold backgrounds and beautifully tiled floors is geometric patterns.
The facades often have an open porch with a wheel windows above it. There is often a dome at the centre of the building. The bell tower is hardly ever attached to the building, because Italy has quite a few earthquakes. The windows are not as large as in northern Europe and, although stained glass windows are often found, the favorite way of decorating the churches is fresco (wall painting).

Related pages
 Castle
 Gothic Revival architecture

References

Notes

Citations

Works cited

 , from Project Gutenberg

Other websites
 GothicMed. A virtual museum of Mediterranean Gothic architecture
 Photographs of 1,700 gothic and romanesque churches

Gothic architecture

Gothic cathedrals


Rugby league is a ball sport. Two teams of thirteen players play against each other. The ball used is oval in shape. The field is a rectangle shape. It is 100 metres long and 70 metres wide. It is played for 80 minutes (40 minutes each half).

A try is scored when a player scores or touches the ball down in the in-goal area (the try line included). A try is worth 4 points and if it's converted (the goal kicker kicks the ball in between the goal posts), the team gets an extra 2 points. Another method of scoring points is through drop goals which are worth 1 or 2 points, or penalty goals which are worth 2 points.

Rugby league is played in over 30 countries in the world. The countries that play it the most are Australia, England, Ireland and New Zealand. The Rugby League World Cup has been played by Australia, New Zealand, England, Ireland, France, Wales, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Scotland, United States, Italy, Cook Islands, Lebanon, Russia and South Africa. The current world champions are Australia, who won the 2017 Rugby League World Cup. The 2021 Rugby League World Cup will be held in England.

Other websites

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Rugby League


A lawn mower (or lawnmower) is a machine that uses blades to cut a lawn. There are different types of lawn mowers. The smallest are pushed by a human, they are good for small lawns and gardens. Ride-on mowers are good for larger lawns. The largest are pulled behind a tractor, they are made for grass at places like golf courses and parks. Always wear safety equipment while working with these machines.

A lawn mower functions  by spinning either a thin blade or a small piece of cable, to cause lacerations on the stems of grass & other plants. Severing the plant and reducing the height of the plant to a more pleasing appearance.

There are several types of lawn mowers available in the market. Some of the most common types are Push mowers, Self-propelled mowers, Riding mowers, Robotic mowers, Tractor mounted mowers, and Hover mowers.

References

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Pectin is a food supplement. It is a source of dietary fiber. It is used to make jellies and jams. Usually it comes in the form of a white powder. It is made from parts of fruit, like oranges. People use pectin to thicken things, like jelly and jam.

Food supplements
It is also seen as a large polysaccharide molecule found in the cell wall of many cells.

Pectin


A trade union (U.S: labor union, UK also trades union) is an organization or group of workers who join together to negotiate pay, hours, benefits, and working conditions. Union members and supporters of unions claim that they are necessary because the people that run companies want to pay as little as possible.

Activities
Unions do many things for their members. This includes:
 Collective bargaining: The leaders of a union work with management (the people who run the business) in order to get a contract that gives workers what they want. This is because union leaders can threaten to strike.
 Benefits: Early unions would give their members unemployment pay in case they were hurt on the job, unfairly fired, or sick. This is usually done by the government today. Unions may also give their members a lawyer to represent them if they are ever sued in court or charged with a crime.
 Politics: Unions often work to get laws passed which help their cause. Some raise money for politicians who are friendly to unions. They also lobby for laws which help out unions. Some political parties are very close to unions, like the Labour Party in the United Kingdom.

Article 8 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ensure the right to form and join trade union and use strikes.

Strikes
If collective bargaining does not work, unions often use strikes to get their demands. However, the threat of a strike is usually enough: over 98% of union contracts are renewed without a strike.

History
Trades unions are the descendants of the trade guilds of mediaeval times. These guilds were made up of independent skilled workers (or artisans) who had been apprenticed and qualified by a guild.

British trades union 1750–1850
A trades union is a collection of people from different trades who want to keep and improve their jobs and their working and living conditions. Member of a trades union will usually working in the same industry.

Trade unionism eventually became accepted as a fact of life by British governments and employers – but with much struggle. The acceptance of trades unions was no coincidence; it took place when British industry was at its most confident, steady economic growth had dampened revolutionary enthusiasm. At the same time providing the means whereby employers could buy off discontent with higher wages and improved conditions of work.

This did not mean that unions were well liked by the Establishment. In fact, trades unions had to take care to create a good image in mid-Victorian terms in order to win tolerance and acceptance. However, in the early part of the nineteenth century the future of Trade Unionism was not certain.

The development of trades unionism
Trades unions developed slowly in Britain but they can be traced right back to the Middle Ages. In medieval towns and villages, trade guilds started to develop. With both the master and the employees assigned to the guild of their particular craft.

In 1563 The Statute of Artificers was passed by Elizabeth 1's government. The Statute had some negative effects such as not allowing apprentices to look for work outside of their parish but it had positive effects as well such as requiring justices of the peace to maintain living standards and to monitor apprentices in their district. This meant that craftsmen received some protection from the state.

By the 19th century attitudes had changed. People now hated government interference in their businesses. As the population increased so did the size of businesses and it was no longer possible for employers to have a personal relationship with each employee. Due to this in 1813 the Statute was repealed. Now workers began to form trade clubs and associations to protect industrial and personal interests.

Early trades unions were only for skilled "artisan" trades. These craft trade unions or "societies" were mainly formed amongst cobblers, printers and mechanics.
Craft trade unions were distinctive because they had:
 Welfare benefits.
 Apprenticeship regulations – new entrants to the trade were strictly limited.
 Entry fees.
 Collective bargaining with employees to fix wage levels.

Craft societies had only a few members and were restricted to a certain trade in a certain town. Members were usually literate and rationalist. The actual society was usually based on a public house, with meetings etc. convened there.

Friendly societies
These were different from trades unions but had some functions in common. Friendly societies were "self help" organisations. In exchange for a subscription fee, they would provide financial support to workers in the event of, for example, death or illness.
They were usually locally based; Tyneside in the 1820s had 165 societies with a total of 10,000 members.
Gradually the societies or groups of workers were formed into larger bodies called "combinations". Instead of just paying out benefits, they became more militant and begun to lobby for better conditions and better pay etc.
Workers were also able to petition parliament when they had a particular grievance over working conditions or wages for instance.
Over the 18th century, these trade clubs became more aggressive and powerful. Small groups joined together into "combinations" and campaigned to improve working conditions and demanded higher wages. Some combinations organised local strikes.

Combination acts
The government realised that something had to be done about combinations. The Aristocracy were worried about the number and power of combinations. The French Revolution only scared them more. As a result of the above-mentioned situation, the Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 were introduced. The acts forbade Labour Unions from combining to campaign for better working conditions and for an increase in wages. If workers broke this new law they could be sent to prison for up to 3 months. This act was strictly enforced.

The combination acts had little success, trades union simply carried on in secret. E.P. Thomson claimed that the number of trade unions had even increased. Some unions called themselves "friendly societies" and thus continued to work. In 1823 a London tailor called Francis Place led the movement for repeal. With the support of MP Joseph Hume the government was convinced to set up a parliamentary committee to look into the issue of repeal. The government no longer feared revolution, combinations and peaceful bargaining now seemed acceptable. The committee recommended the repeal of the Combination Acts and parliament acted accordingly. The combination acts were repealed in 1824. Trades unions were now legal.

Strikes quickly occurred across the country. The government then decided to bring in the Amending Combination Act in 1825 which allowed the existence of trades union but refused them the right to stage protests.

The problems of early trades unionism
Trades unionism faced quite a few problems in their creation and organisation:

1. Preventative legislation (laws etc.) most notably the Combination Acts 1799–1800
2. The prevalence of the domestic system of working.
3. an identity of interest between employer and the domestic employee (domestic employees only had contact with their employer and not with their fellow employees – employers adopted a "paternalistic" approach to their workers)
4. Factory works was undeveloped in the early 19th century. As soon as factories had taken off the 'working classes emerged. The traditional bond of trust between employer and employees were later eroded and working people began to club together.
5. Government fears. The government believed that all working people could club together and react en masse to social change scared the government. The ruling classes associated 'combinations' with revolution. The many Combination acts of 1700–1800 aimed to prevent trade unions from being formed.

Early national trades unions
In the 1820s the idea of creating a national union was spreading.

A cotton spinner from Manchester named John Doherty summoned a conference on the Isle of Man in 1829 to discuss the idea of a national trade union. He then formed the Grand General Union of Operative Spinners of Great Britain and Ireland. The following July he formed National Association for the Protection of Labour which was to be made of most trades. In 1831 the association had disintegrated; mainly due to poor communication links which made it impossible to organise events.

Robert Owen and the GNCTU
In February 1834, the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union was formed, largely as a result of Robert Owen. Owen dreamed of a socialist society, he hoped that a national union would help this happen.

Robert Owen was an important figure in the formation of the GNCTU. Owen and Doherty were associates and the GNCTU was based on Doherty's Grand General Union. The union was heavily influenced by Owenite socialism.

Why was the GNCTU Formed?
The objectives of the GNCTU were straightforward and traditionalist, thus strike action was to be used:
 To improve wages and/or conditions;
 To protect workers from any erosion of wages and/or conditions.

The failure of the GNCTU
It is disputed whether of not his union succeeded. It lasted just six months (February to August 1834). Owen claimed that there was around half a million members, but other estimates put the figure at around 16,000 members.

The union failed for a number of reasons. Owen did not really understand or empathise the suffering of the workers, who had genuine and immense concerns. The general body or workers favoured militant action but Owen preferred a steady, more legalistic approach. The size of the GNTCU also made any strikes difficult to organise. A further problem was the fact that many employers forbade their employees from joining the GNTCU, and refused to let them work if they had not signed a document which renounced the organisation.

Tolpuddle martyrs
In February 1834 six workers for Tolpuddle in Dorset formed a union. 13 shillings was what the average family need to survive but the men were being paid just 9 shillings. Led by George Loveless the farm labourers fought for increased wages. James Frampton, the landowner, was determined to stop industrial action; he reported the group to the Home Secretary Lord Melbourne. The men were arrested, tried and sentenced to seven years transportation. The judge said that he made he did this to make an example of them for the sake of the stability of the nation. The men became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs, and the judge's wishes were carried out. Support for the GNCTU fell dramatically and by August 1834 it had collapsed.

Trades unions between 1835 and 1850
The orthodox view is that trade unionism virtually stopped for the next 15 years after the collapse of the GNCTU, with many workers becoming involved in the alternative reforms adopted by Chartism. However, in the skilled trades unions were flourishing, with trade unions having an estimated 100,000 memberships in the early 1840s.

Criticism
Unions have been criticized for increasing the cost of workers. Because of this, it is said that fewer people will be hired. A union might also protect workers an employer feels are not productive enough. For example, many unions protect workers who have worked for a job for a long time from being punished or fired, even if new workers are faster.

Some unions are also tied to organized crime, political corruption, or even tied to the employers of the workers they represent.

References

Relating page
Freedom of assembly

Trades union


Analisa faktor nyaéta téhnik statistik nu aslina tina psikologi matematis. Ilahar dipaké dina elmu sosial jeung marketing, manajemén produk, risét operasi, sarta elmu praktis séjénna nu merlukeun wilangan data anu loba. Maksudna keur manggihkeun pola di antara variasi nilai sabarabaha variabel. Hal ieu dilakukeun ku jalan ngabangkitkeun dimensi jieunan (disebut faktor) nu patali kacida kuatna jeung variabel nyata.

Analisis faktor dina pamasaran

Léngkah dasarna nyaéta:
 Identify the salient attributes consumers use to evaluate products in this category.
 Use quantitative marketing research techniques (such as surveys) to collect data from a sample of potential customers concerning their ratings of all the product attributes.
 Input the data into a statistical program and run the factor analysis procedure. The computer will yield a set of underlying attributes (or factors).
 Use these factors to construct perceptual maps and other product positioning devices.

Ngumpulkeun informasi

The data collection stage is usually done by marketing reséarch professionals. Survey questions ask the respondant to rate a product from one to five (or 1 to 7, or 1 to 10) on a range of attributes. Anywhere from five to twenty attributes are chosen. They could include things like: éase of use, weight, accuracy, durability, colourfulness, price, or size. The attributes chosen will vary depending on the product being studied. The same question is asked about all the products in the study. The data for multiple products is codified and input into a statistical program such as SPSS or SAS.

Analisis
The analysis will isolate the underlying factors that explain the data. Factor analysis is an interdependence technique. The complete set of interdependent relationships are examined. There is no specification of either dependent variables, independent variables, or causality.  Factor analysis assumes that all the rating data on different attributes can be reduced down to a few important dimensions. This reduction is possible because the attributes are related. The rating given to any one attribute is partially the result of the influence of other attributes. The statistical algorithm deconstructs the rating (called a raw score) into its various components, and reconstructs the partial scores into underlying factor scores. The degree of correlation between the initial raw score and the final factor score is called a factor loading. There are two approaches to factor analysis: "principal component analysis" (the total variance in the data is considered); and "common factor analysis" (the common variance is considered).

The use of principal components in a semantic space can vary somewhat because the components may only "predict" but not "map" to the vector space.  This produces a statistical principle component use where the most salient words or themes represent the preferred Basis

Kapunjulan
 both objective and subjective attributes can be used
 it is fairly éasy to do, inexpensive, and accurate
 it is based on direct inputs from customers
 there is flexibilty in naming and using dimensions

Kalemahan
 usefulness depends on the reséarchers ability to develop a complete and accurate set of product attributes - If important attributes are missed the procedure is valueless.
 naming of the factors can be difficult - multiple attributes can be highly correlated with no appéarent réason.
 factor analysis will always produce a pattern between variables, no matter how random.

analisis faktor dina psikométrika

Sajarah

Charles Spéarman pioneered the use of factor analysis in the field of psychology, méasuring the intelligence of children in a village school.  During his testing, he discovered a high correlation between all scores on the tests.  Spéarman believed that the empirically observed correlation was less than the true correlation between two test subjects.  Using a correctional formula devised from knowledge of the degree of the unreliability of the observed factors, he discovered a perfect correlation between all kinds of intelligence.  This led to the postulation of a general intelligence, or g, that is innate in all humans.  Spéarman went on to test the théory of specialized intelligence, or s.  S, supposedly, déals with specific aréas, such as logic or verbal ability.  According to his théory, all tasks require some use of g and an s factor, so it could be concluded that soméone with a high g will perform well on another test for g.

Raymond Cattell expanded on Spéarman's idéa of a two-factor théory of intelligence after performing his own tests and factor analysis. He used a multi-factor théory to explain intelligence.  Cattell's théory addressed alternate factors in intellectual development, including motivation and psychology.  Cattell also developed several mathematical methods for adjusting psychometric graphs, such as his "scree" test and similarity coefficients.  His reséarch léad to the development of his théory of crystallized and fluid intelligence, in which crystallized is a set memory and reflexive actions, and fluid is the ability for a person to adjust or réason (think on their feet).  Cattell was a strong advocate of factor analysis and psychometrics.  He believed that all théory should be derived from reséarch, which supports the continued use of empirical observation and objective testing to study human intelligence. All of their reséarch, of course, is based on the idéa that intelligence is méasuréable.

Aplikasi dina psikologi
Factor analysis has been used in the study of human intelligence as a method for comparing the outcomes of (hopefully) objective tests and to construct matrices to define correlations between these outcomes, as well as finding the factors for these results.  The field of psychology that méasures human intelligence using quantitative testing in this way is known as psychometrics (psycho=mental, metrics=méasurement).

Kapunjulan
 Offers a much more objective method of testing intelligence in humans
 Allows for a satisfactory comparison between the results of intelligence tests
 Provides support for théories that would be difficult to prove otherwise

Kalemahan
 "...each orientation is equally acceptable mathematically.  But different factorial theories proved to differ as much in terms of the orientations of factorial axes for a given solution as in terms of anything else, so that model fitting did not prove to be useful in distinguishing among theories." (Sternberg, 1977).  This méans that even though all rotations are mathematically equal, they all come up with different results, and it is impossible to judge the proper rotation.
 "[Raymond Cattell] believed that factor analysis was 'a tool that could be applied to the study of behavior and ... might yield results with an objectivity and reliability rivaling those of the physical sciences (Stills, p. 114).'"    In other words, one's gathering of data would have to be perfect and unbiased, which will probably never happen.
 Interpreting factor analysis is based on using a "heuristic", which is a solution that is "convenient even if not absolutely true" (Richard B. Darlington). More than one interpretation can be made of the same data factored the same way.

Bibliograpi
Charles Spéarman. Retrieved July 22, 2004, from http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/spearman.shtml
Factor Analysis. (2004). Retrieved July 22, 2004, from http://comp9.psych.cornell.edu/Darlington/factor.htm
Factor Analysis. Retrieved July 23, 2004, from http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/pa765/factor.htm
Raymond Cattell. Retrieved July 22, 2004, from http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/rcattell.shtml
Sternberg, R.J.(1990). The géographic metaphor. In R.J. Sternberg, Metaphors of mind: Conceptions of the nature of intelligence (pp. 85–111). New York: Cambridge.
Stills, D.L. (Ed.). (1989). International encyclopedia of the social sciences: Biographical supplement (Vol. 18). New York: Macmillan.

Tempo oge
 product positioning
 perceptual mapping
 marketing research
 product management
 list of marketing topics
 Recomendation system

Psikométrika

Analisis faktor


Palazzo Pitti (in English sometimes called the Pitti Palace) is a palace in Florence, Italy. It is from the Renaissance period. The palace was bought by the Medici family in 1549. It became the main home of the ruling families of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. It was the centre of government for the 300 years that Tuscany was a monarchy. Later the palace was used as a base by Napoleon. During the Risorgimento, for a short time it was the royal palace of the newly united Italy.

The palace and its contents were given to the Italian people by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1919. Its doors were opened to the public as one of Florence's largest art galleries. It is the largest museum complex in Florence. It is divided into several main galleries or museums: the Palatine Gallery, the Royal Apartments, the Gallery of Modern Art, the Silver Museum, the Porcelain Museum, the Costume Gallery and the Carriages Museum.

Behind the Pitti palace there is the Boboli's Garden. It is a historical park visited every year by about 800,000 tourists. The park is famous for the beauty of the flowers and for the very old sculptures.

Buildings and structures in Florence
Palaces in Italy
Former royal residences

Palazzo Pitti


Flavour or flavor (US English) is the main quality of anything which affects the taste. When someone remarks on the flavor of something they are trying to describe the specific way something tastes.

Flavor can also be used to describe the act of adding a taste alteration (to change the taste) to something. This is usually done by adding spices or sugars, though in processed food there are oftentimes artificial (fake) flavors. A person who develops natural and/or artificial food additives is called a flavourist or flavorist (US English).

Food and drink
Characteristics

hu:Aroma

Flavor


The azuki bean is a type of reddish-brown colored bean. It can also be spelled adzuki. The bean is grown in East Asia and the Himalayas. It is often boiled in sugar to make a red bean paste. This paste is used in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese cooking. Azuki beans are eaten in many places in the world.  Especially, azuki beans are used in sweet meals, snacks and dishes in Japan, China, Korea and Vietnam. Azuki beans have a long and varied history and there are many recipes.

History and origin

Azuki beans are very famous red beans in Japan.  Excavations suggest that people have been eating Azuki beans since the Jomon period.  At that time, Azuki beans were called "shozu".

Azuki beans have been grown since the Yayoi  period.  The first time the word "Azuki" was used was in the book "Koziki".  Old Japanese said "Aka" for red.  And Azuki beans were called "zuki" because  Azuki beans get soft when they are boiled.  "Aka" plus "zuki" is "Azuki" and this is the origin of Azuki bean's name.  Another Azuki beans has many origins.

Azuki beans are red, so many old people believed Azuki beans were a good luck charm. Azuki beans were used in many events and ceremonies in Japan, China and Korea.  In the Edo period, people made rice mixed with Azuki
beans.  This was called sekihan and many people gave sekihan at ceremonies. Azuki beans were used as medicine, because Azuki beans are nutritious.  Now many people eat sekihan when there are ceremonies in Japan. In addition Azuki beans are used in many Japanese cakes, Many sweets use Azuki raw materials for the taste and colour.  So Azuki beans are closely related to Japanese life from ancient times.

Azuki bean jam
Azuki beans make bean jam. A sweet porridge of boiled and crushed azuki beans are eaten with rice-flour dumplings. Oval-shaped sweets are made from glutinous rice and covered with azuki bean. Bean-jam pancakes and bean-jam filled buns are also popular snacks. Azuki beans are also used in pillows and beanbags.

Recipe
First, the azuki beans are boiled until the azuki skin stretches. The beans are then put into a perforated basket. Next, the azuki are boiled again for a short time to remove harshness. They are again put into perforated basket to drain. While they are draining, a big pan for steaming is prepared. The azuki are put in the pan and covered with a lid. The azuki beans are steamed and then heat is turned off. After steaming you have azuki bean mash, which is then dried on a cloth. The next step is putting them back in a pan to bring to a hot temperature. The azuki are taken out of the pan which is hot from flame. Sugar is added.  The sugar and azuki are mixed and the water from the azuki is left. Finally, the azuki is cooled. When the beans are cold, it is finished.

Azuki bean jam is used in many foods. For example, a fish-shaped waffle is filled with azuki bean jam. Azuki bean jam foods are famous in Japan, and they are eaten by many Japanese.

Beans

Azuki bean


An institution is a social structure in which people cooperate and which influences the behavior of people and the way they live.

An institution has a purpose. Institutions are permanent, which means that they do not end when one person is gone. An institution has rules and can enforce rules of human behavior. The word "institution" can be used in two ways. It can mean a very broad idea, or a very "specific" (narrow) one. For example:
 Government is an institution in the broad sense. Westminster Parliament is an institution in the specific sense.
 Education is an institution in the broad sense. Harvard University is an institution in the specific sense.

Institutions, in the broad sense, are found in every society. The way that each institution works is different in different cultures. Some important institutions are:
 Marriage- This is how society protects itself by controlling the way people live together, have children and care for them.
 Education- A society controls how young ones are prepared to be useful adult members of society.
 Kinship- Society controls how people who are related, or not related, should act to each other. This includes inheritance.
 Religion- Societies have ways in which people's religious beliefs are celebrated.
 Law- Societies decide what is right and wrong, and what punishments there are for doing wrong.
 Trade- Societies have ways of controlling the way food and other goods pass from one person to another.
 Defence- Societies set up institutions to protect themselves against attack.

Some societies have many institutions in the "specific" sense. These societies have an organised government, schools, hospitals, churches, clubs, armies, markets, courts and places for entertainment. Some societies have very few of these things, but this does not mean that there are no "institutions". The way in which the people relate to each other may have just as many "controls" as in a society with schools, markets and a government. An example of a society that has lots of "specific" institutions is Western Europe.

Historians look at institutions to find differences between eras or periods. They sometimes judge political and military events by the effect that they had on institutions.

Sources

 Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann (1966), The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Anchor Books, Garden City, NY.
 Greif, Avner (2006), Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade , Cambridge University Press.
 North, D. (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
 Schotter, A. (1981), The Economic Theory of Social Institutions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Related pages
 State
 Establishment

Other websites
 International Society for New Institutional Economics
 Institutional reform

References

Social sciences

Institution


Lied (pronounced "leet") is the German word for "song" (the plural is Lieder – pronounced "leader").

The word Lied is used in music to describe the songs that were written by German-speaking composers of classical music.  Songs composed by classical composers are sometimes called "art songs".

Lieder are normally songs for a singer with piano accompaniment.  They were mostly composed in the 19th century which was the period known as the Romantic period.  The most famous composers of Lieder were Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Hugo Wolf and Richard Strauss.

In German culture the Lied as an art song goes back to the Middle Ages.  Walther von der Vogelweide was a 12th-13th century minnesinger who composed and sang songs for important people at the royal court.  Like most minnesinger, he was a poet as well as a composer, writing words for his own songs.
The Lied in the Romantic period was usually written by two different people: the poet wrote the words and then the composer "set the words" to music.  19th century composers mostly took great care to choose good poetry for their songs.  The poetry was often by famous poets such as Goethe and Schiller.
Although most Lieder were composed in the Romantic period, the beginnings were there in the Classical music period.  Mozart wrote a song called Das Veilchen (The Violet) and Beethoven wrote several songs.

It was Schubert who was to be the greatest of all Lieder composers.  Schubert wrote over 600 songs.  Very often he wrote in a form which had been used by Walther von der Vogelweide: three verses of which the first two have the same music (A-A-B, or as von der Vogelweide called them: "Stollen, Stollen, Abgesang").  Other songs of his are what is known as "durchkomponiert" ("through composed").  Here each verse is different, so that the composer can express the words of each verse with different music.  The wonderful thing about Schubert's songs is the way in which the piano accompaniments help the voice and show the meaning of the words. The piano was a fairly new instrument at the time and could do things that would have been impossible on the harpsichord.   One of his earliest songs is the famous Erlkönig (Erlking).  The piano accompaniment is very difficult to play because the right hand has continuous repeated octaves which describe the galloping of the horse in the wild, stormy night.  Grettchen am Spinnrade is a song which sets a poem from Goethe's Faust.  The young girl is sitting at the spinning-wheel thinking of her lover.  The piano has a rippling accompaniment which sounds like the gentle clatter of the spinning-wheel.  At the moment when the girl imagines her lover's kiss the piano part comes to a stop, then gradually starts up again as the girl wakes up to the world around her.

Composers often composed groups of songs which belong together.  These are called a "song cycle" ("Liederkreis" in German).  Schubert wrote two long ones: Die Winterreise (The Winter Journey) and Die schöne Müllerin (The Miller's beautiful daughter).  Both are about love affairs which end sadly.

Robert Schumann wrote many fine songs.  He was a pianist before he became a composer, so it is not surprising that the piano parts of his songs are at least as important as the voice part.   His song-cycle Dichterliebe (Poet's love) contains some of his best songs. They often have a dream-like atmosphere.  He especially liked setting words by the poets Joseph von Eichendorff and Heinrich Heine.

Johannes Brahms always made the singer's part more important than the piano part.  He learned a lot by studying Schubert's songs and wrote some very famous Lieder.  One of his best is the humorous Vergebliches Ständchen (Serenade in vain).  His Four Serious Songs are very powerful.  His famous Wiegenlied (Lullaby), a tune which everybody knows, is one of his songs.

Hugo Wolf is known almost only for his songs.  They are very dramatic and he used some unusual harmonies which he had learned by listening to Wagner's music.  Some of Wolf's songs are very short, he says a lot in a short space of time.  His Italian song book and Spanish song book have some of his best songs.

Richard Wagner and Gustav Mahler both wrote wonderful Lieder, although they are mostly with orchestral accompaniment.  Mahler's songs are inspired by folksong.  He even uses them in his symphonies.  Das Lied von der Erde is a song cycle for two singers (mezzo soprano and tenor) and orchestra.

Richard Strauss is one of the last great Lieder composers.  His Four last songs (with orchestra) seem to be saying "goodbye" to a great period of music history.

Song forms

Lied


An actor is a person who acts, or has a role (a part) in a movie, television show, play, or radio show. Actors may be professional or not. Sometimes actors only sing or dance, or sometimes they only work on radio. A woman actor is actress, but the word "actor" is used for both men and women when referring to a group. Actors are also known as 'thespians' because of the first known Greek actor 'Thespis'.

History
The first time we know an actor worked was in 534 B.C. The changes in calendar between then and now make the year uncertain. This actor was called Thespis and he was Greek. The place where the play happened was called the Theatre Dionysus in Athens, and he won a competition. He was the first person to speak words as a character.  This was a big change in storytelling. Before then, people sang and danced stories, but no one had been a person in the story. Today we call actors "thespians" because of Thespis.

Women
In the past, the name "actor" was only for men. Women only began performing often in the 17th century.  People called them "actresses".   In the ancient world and in the Middle Ages, people thought it was bad (shameful) for a woman to act.

Today, the word "actor" is for both men and women, because some people think the name "actress" is sexist. But people also use the word actress very often.

Swapped Roles

Actresses in Men's Roles
Women actors sometimes act the roles of young boys, because in some ways a woman is more similar to a boy than a man is. For example, a woman usually plays the role of Peter Pan. In pantomime, a sort of play for children (not the same as mime), the most important young man is also a woman. Opera has some "pants roles" which women traditionally sing. These women are usually mezzo-sopranos, which means they sing with a voice that is high but not very high. Examples are Hansel in , and Cherubino in The Marriage of Figaro.

Mary Pickford played the part of "Little Lord Fauntleroy" in the first film version of the book. Linda Hunt won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in The Year of Living Dangerously, in which she played the part of a man.

In comic theatre and film, people often use a man for a woman's part, or a woman for a man's part – this has a long history. Most of Shakespeare's comedies have examples of this. Both Dustin Hoffman and Robin Williams were in popular comedy films where they played most scenes as men in women's clothes, pretending to be women.

Actors in Women's Roles
In the time of Shakespeare, and earlier, all roles in an English play were played by men, meaning even characters such as Juliet, Lady Macbeth, and Cleopatra were first played by men or boys.  After the English Restoration women were allowed to perform on-stage.

More recently, men have played female roles as a type of humor. Movies with this role reversal include Mrs. Doubtfire, Tootsie, Big Momma's House, Hairspray, and The Nutty Professor starring Eddie Murphy.

Voice acting
Voice acting is a special type of acting. It is most commonly used in animation for both television and movies. Voice actors are the people who make the voices for the characters. They may be the narrator in non-animated works.

Types
Actors working in theatre, film, and television have to learn different skills. Skills that work well in one type of acting may not work well in another type of acting.

In theatre
To act on stage, actors need to learn the stage directions that appear in the  script, such as "Stage Left" and "Stage Right". These directions are based on the actor's point of view as he or she stands on the stage facing the audience. Actors also have to learn the meaning of the stage directions "Upstage" (away from the audience) and "Downstage" (towards the audience)

Theatre actors need to learn blocking, which is "...where and how an actor moves on the stage during a play."
Most scripts specify some blocking. The Director will also give instructions on blocking, such as crossing the stage or picking up and using a prop.

Theatre actors need to learn stage combat, which is simulated fighting on stage. Actors may have to simulate "hand-to-hand [fighting] or with sword[-fighting]." Actors are coached by fight directors, who help them to learn the choreographed sequence of fight actions.

In movies
D. W. Griffith first developed acting that would "suit the cinema rather than the theater." He realized that theatrical acting did not look good on film. Griffith had his actors and actresses to go through weeks of movie acting training.

Movie actors have to learn to get used to and be comfortable with a camera being in front of them. They need to learn to find and stay on their "mark." This is a position on the floor marked with tape. This position is where the lights and camera focus are best. Movie actors also need to learn how to prepare well and perform well on screen tests. Screen tests are a filmed audition of part of the script.

"Unlike the theater actor, who gets to develop a character during...a two- or three-hour performance, the film actor lacks continuity, forcing him or her to come to all the scenes (often shot in reverse order in which they'll ultimately appear) with a character already fully developed."

"Since film captures even the smallest gesture and magnifies it..., cinema demands a less flamboyant and stylized bodily performance from the actor than does the theater." "The performance of emotion is the most difficult aspect of film acting to master: ...the film actor must rely on subtle facial ticks, quivers, and tiny lifts of the eyebrow to create a believable character." Some theatre stars "...have made the theater-to-cinema transition quite successfully (Olivier, Glenn Close, and Julie Andrews, for instance), others have not..."

In television
"On a television set, there are typically several cameras angled at the set. Actors who are new to on-screen acting can get confused about which camera to look into."  TV actors need to learn to use lav mics (Lavaliere microphones). They need to understand the concept of "frame." "The term frame refers to the area that the camera's lens is capturing."

References

Entertainment occupations

Actor


Rural areas are areas which are not towns or cities. They are often farming or agricultural areas. These areas are sometimes called "the country" or "countryside". People who live "in the country" often live in small villages, but they might also live somewhere where there are no other houses nearby.

Rural is the opposite of urban, which means places such as cities where buildings and places where people work and live are all close together.

Many people who live in cities like to go to the country to relax. They go there for recreation, often for their holidays, or to read.

In the U.S. and Angola the term "rural area" technically describes a place that has less than 500 inhabitants per square mile.

Human geography
Urban and regional sciences

oc:Campagne

Rural area


Barn-owls (family Tytonidae) are one of the two families of owls.  The other is the true owls, Strigidae. They are medium to large sized owls with large heads and heart-shaped faces. They have long, strong legs with powerful talons.

The barn owls are a wide ranging family.  They are not found in northern North America, Saharan Africa and large areas of Asia. They live in a wide range of habitats from deserts to forests, and from temperate latitudes to the tropics.

The barn-owls' main characteristic is the heart-shaped facial disc, formed by stiff feathers. The feathers help to amplify and locate the source of sounds when the bird hunts. Adaptations to the wing feathers eliminate sound caused by flying. This helps both the owl's hearing, and keeps the prey unaware of the owl. To summarise: the owl hunts mainly at dusk and night-time. Its uses sound to detect prey movement: its hearing is sensitive, and its wings are almost silent.

Species
Genus Tyto
 Greater sooty-owl, T. tenebricosa
 Lesser sooty-owl, T. multipunctata
 Australian masked owl, T. novaehollandiae
 Cave-nesting masked owl, T. novaehollandiae troughtoni - disputed; probably extinct (1960s)
 Golden masked owl, T. aurantia
 Lesser masked owl, T. sororcula
 Buru masked owl, T. (sororcula) cayelii - possibly extinct (mid-20th century?)
 Manus masked owl, T. manusi
 Taliabu masked owl, T. nigrobrunnea
 Minahassa masked owl, T. inexspectata
 Sulawesi owl, T. rosenbergii
 Peleng masked owl, T. rosenbergii pelengensis - probably extinct (mid-20th century)
 Common barn owl, T. alba
 Eastern barn Owl, T. (alba) delicatula
 Ashy-faced owl, T. glaucops
 Red owl T. soumagnei
 African grass owl T. capensis
 Australasian grass owl T. longimembris

Genus Phodilus
 Oriental bay owl P. badius
 Samar bay owl P. (badius) riverae
 Congo bay owl, P. prigoginei - sometimes placed in Tyto

Fossil genera. The fossil record of the barn-owls goes back to the Eocene.
 Nocturnavis (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene) - includes "Bubo" incertus
 Necrobyas (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene - Late Miocene) - includes "Bubo" arvernensis and Paratyto
 Selenornis (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene of Quercy, France) - includes "Asio" henrici
 Prosybris (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene of Quercy?  Early Miocene of France)

References
 Bruce M.D. 1999. Family Tytonidae (Barn-owls). In: del Hoyo J.; Elliott A. & Sargatal J. (eds): Handbook of birds of the world, Volume 5: Barn-owls to Hummingbirds: 34-75, plates 1-3. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
Steadman, David William 2006. Extinction and biogeography of tropical Pacific island birds. University of Chicago Press. .

Strigiformes

Tytonidae


A concert (as in a "concert tour") is a performance in which a musician or many musicians play music together to a group of listeners (called an audience). In the case of a concert of classical music there may be an orchestra. There is often an important visual element to the performance, such as with a rock concert. However, if acting out a story is an important part of the performance, then this is called "musical theater" or "opera" but some concerts have dramatic, theatrical music, with lights and special effects. Informal names for a concert include "show" or sometimes, "gig" for musicians who play in lots of different concerts, with different groups. A concert tour is a set of concerts where the performers travel to different cities or towns.

The performers at a concert are usually raised above the level of the audience on a stage. Concerts may be held in concert halls which are built for the purpose, or they may be held in any other suitable large building such as a school hall, a nightclub, a barn or a large house or castle. Some concerts are given to very large audiences in the open air. They may take place in a field or in a stadium. The music for these "open-airs" is usually amplified by loudspeakers so that large audiences can hear it.

A concert given by just one performer (or perhaps two) is usually called a recital.

A group of concerts in one place or in one area that takes place for several days may be called a "festival". Examples are: The Proms, the Edinburgh Festival, the Glastonbury Festival etc.

Before the days of recording, a concert would have been the only opportunity most people would have of hearing concerts given by groups.

Usually people who go to a concert have to pay an admission charge. The money that is made from the ticket sales will usually go to paying the performing artistes, producers, and organisers. However, there are also benefit concerts where either the proceeds (all the ticket money) or profits (the money earned) will go to charity. Tickets for concerts can often be bought at the box-office of the concert hall or bought online. Sometimes concerts are free.

Types of concert

The nature of a concert will vary by musical genre and the individual performers. Concerts by a small jazz combo or small bluegrass band may have the same order of program, mood, and volume, but vary in music and dress. In a similar way, a particular musician, band, or genre of music might attract concert attendees with similar dress, hairstyle, and behavior. For example, the hippies of the 60s often toted long hair (sometimes in dread lock form), sandals and inexpensive clothing made of natural fibers. The regular attendees to a concert venue might also have a recognizable style, comprising that venue's "scene".

Theatrical

Some performers or groups put on very elaborate and expensive affairs, with parts of the show being similar to a theater performance. In order to create a memorable and exciting atmosphere and increase the spectacle, artists will have additional entertainment devices within their concerts. These tend to include: elaborate stage lighting; an image-magnification (IMAG) system and/or pre-recorded video; inflatables, artwork or other set pieces; various special effects, such as theatrical smoke and fog and pyrotechnics; and unusual costumes or wardrobe. Some singers, especially in genres of popular music, augment the sound of their concerts with pre-recorded accompaniment, back-up dancers, and even broadcast vocal tracks of the singer's own voice. Activities which may take place during these concerts include dancing, sing-alongs, and moshing. Some performers well known for including these elements in their performances include: Pink Floyd, Jean Michel Jarre, Sarah Brightman and KISS.

Festivals

Concerts involving a greater number of artists, especially those that last for days, are known as festivals. Unlike other concerts, which typically remain in a single genre of music or work of a particular artist, festivals often cover a broad scope of music and arts. Due to their size, festivals are almost always held outdoors. A few examples of the hundreds of festivals include: Bayreuth Festival, Big Day Out, Coachella, Falls Festival, Glastonbury Festival, Mostly Mozart Festival, Newport Jazz Festival, Oxegen, Parachute Music Festival, Rock In Rio, Rockwave Festival,  Salzburg Festival, Summer Sonic Festival, Tanglewood Music Festival, Woodstock Music and Art Festival, the Warped Tour, or the Umbria Jazz Festival.

Concert tour

A concert tour is a series of concerts by an artist or group of artists in different cities or locations. Often, concert tours are named, to differentiate different tours by the same artist and associate a specific tour with a particular album or product (for example: Michael Jackson's Bad Tour). Especially in the popular music world, such tours can become large-scale enterprises that last for several months or even years. They are seen by thousands or millions of people, and bring in millions of dollars (or the equivalent) in ticket revenues.

Different segments of longer concert tours are known as "legs". The different legs of a tour are denoted in different ways, dependent on the artist and type of tour, but the most common means of separating legs are dates (especially if there is a long break at some point), countries and/or continents, or different opening acts. In the largest concert tours, it is becoming more common for different legs to employ separate touring production crews and equipment, local to each geographical region. Concert tours are often managed on the local level by concert promoters or by performing arts presenters.

Revenue
While admission to some concerts is free, charging for tickets is very common. Historically, concerts were the main source of revenue for musicians. Revenue from ticket sales typically goes to the performing artists, producers, venue and organizers. In the case of benefit concerts, a portion of profits will often go towards a charitable organization.

Additional revenue is also often raised through in-concert advertising, from free local concerts for local sponsorships to sponsorships from corporations during major tours, such as 2009's "Vans' Warped Tour Presented by AT&T". Both Vans and AT&T would have paid significant amounts to have their company names included at the forefront in all marketing material for the Warped Tour.

Concessions and merchandise are also often sold during and after concerts, often by the venue in the case of the former, and by the performing band or artist in the case of the latter.

The highest-grossing concert tour of all time is The Rolling Stones' A Bigger Bang Tour which earned approximately $558 million in between 2005 and 2007. The highest earning tour by a solo artist is the Sticky & Sweet Tour by pop artist Madonna, which earned $408 million in 2008 and 2009.

Related pages
 Concert hall
 Music festival
 Audience
 Applause

References

Other websites

  National Memorial Day Concert - PBS webpage for U.S. concert on Memorial Day

Concert


The ensign of the United States is the flag of the United States when worn as an ensign (a type of maritime flag identifying nationality, usually flown from the stern of a ship or boat, or from an installation or facility of the United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, United States Coast Guard or the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration ashore).  International maritime law—see International Treaty on Law of the Sea, articles 91 and 92—provides that vessels have a "national character" and thus should display a flag (ensign) that corresponds to this national character, especially when in international or foreign waters. Vessels that are formally documented under the federal vessel documentation act, vessels owned by government bodies in the United States, and vessels in the U.S. military unquestionably have U.S. national character, and thus properly hoist a U.S. ensign to show their national character.  Vessels that are numbered by the states (see 46 USC section 411) and small, non-registered craft owned by U.S. citizens and not registered in other countries may also hoist a U.S. ensign to show their national character.

The U.S. Yacht Ensign (a variation of the national ensign;  see below) is often used in place of the national flag by U.S. pleasure craft when operating within U.S. waters; this flag was legally required for licensed yachts from 1848 to 1980, and the practice continues among all U.S. pleasure craft in U.S. waters by longstanding historical use and custom.  Additionally, a few smaller pleasure craft operated by members of the United States Power Squadrons will fly the U.S. Power Squadrons flag as an ensign in inland waters in lieu of the national flag (see below). All vessels of U.S. national character should display the national ensign when operating in international and non-U.S. waters.

Military ensigns

The naval ensign and its first salute

The Grand Union Flag was the de facto first U.S. naval ensign. It was first raised aboard Continental Navy Commodore Esek Hopkins' flagship  on the Delaware River on December 3, 1775; John Paul Jones, then the ship's senior lieutenant, personally claimed this honor.

The current "Stars and Stripes" design was first adopted when the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution of June 14, 1777: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation."  Subsequent flag acts have revised the design as new states joined the union.

Denmark and the Netherlands were the first countries to salute the Grand Union flag, when gun salutes by U.S. ships were returned by officials in the West Indies in late 1776: on Danish St. Croix in October, and on Dutch St. Eustatius in November. (Though later, the better documented St. Eustatius incident involving the  is traditionally regarded as the "first salute".) France was the first country to salute the Stars and Stripes, when a fleet off the French mainland returned a gun salute by Captain John Paul Jones commanding  on February 14, 1778.

In the 19th century the ensigns were quite large; the biggest ensign in 1870 measured . By the early 20th century, as warships took on distinctive forms and could no longer be easily mistaken for merchantmen at a distance, ensigns began to shrink and today are a fraction of their earlier size — the largest ensign for daily use on ships is now .

During the 19th century, for its smaller-sized ensigns, the U.S. Navy used a 13-star flag which became known as "boat flag" due to its predominant use on boats (i.e., launches, gigs and tenders). The Navy appears to have started this practice in the 1850s and is formally documented in the Navy Regulations of 1864. The reason for the lesser number of stars was so that the stars in a smaller size flag would have greater visibility at a distance. Because they flew smaller-sized ensigns, the U.S. Navy's first submarines and destroyers in the early 20th century also used the 13-star ensigns.  In 1912, President President Taft formally recognized the Navy's longstanding use of the 13-star ensign in Executive Order 1637, which defined the flag's precise dimensions.  The "boat flags'" formal recognition lasted just four more years however, as President Wilson acting through Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels discontinued the practice in 1916 with Executive Order 2390, after which all ensigns were supposed to have the full complement of stars.  However, some of the flags remained in the supply system until the 1950s.

Coast Guard Ensign and the Customs Ensign

The United States Coast Guard flies a unique ensign to show that it has the authority to stop, board, examine, and seize vessels.  The U.S. Customs Service flies a very similar flag, but it lacks the badge in the fly. These flags have their origins in a flag that was created in 1799 that was, at that time, intended to be used as an ensign and was in fact so used (i.e., a full standing flag of national character). Today, however, these two flags are called "ensigns" but they are flown in conjunction with, and subordinate to, the U.S. national ensign on Coast Guard and on Customs vessels. Most small craft operated by the U.S. Coast Guard routinely display both the national ensign and Coast Guard Ensign.

These two present-day flags had their origins in a flag that designed by Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott for use by the Revenue Cutter Service in August 1799. On August 1, 1799, Secretary of the Treasury, Oliver Wolcott, issued an order announcing that in pursuance of authority from the President, the distinguishing ensign and pennant for the Cutter Service would consist of, "16 perpendicular stripes, alternate red and white, the union of the ensign to be the arms of the United States in a dark blue on a white field." From 1799 onwards, this flag was used as the national ensign in Revenue Cutters and at the same time, was also flown over Customs Houses ashore. In June 1910, however, President William H. Taft ordered that the plain ensign continue to be flown over Customs Houses ashore, and ordered that the Revenue Cutter Service add their department's emblem to the fly of the ensign in order to distinguish between the differing two branches. The order said: "By virtue of the authority vested in me under the provisions of Sec. 2764 of the revised Statutes, I hereby prescribe that the distinguishing flag now used by vessels of the Revenue Cutter Service be marked by the distinctive emblem of that service, in blue and white, placed on a line with the lower edge of the union, and over the center of the seventh vertical red stripe from the mast of said flag, the emblem to cover a horizontal space of three stripes. This change to be made as soon as practicable."

From 1910 onwards, the U.S. Customs Service has continued to use the plain version of the ensign, while the Revenue Cutter Service (which became the Coast Guard) used the defaced version (version with the badge).

The U.S. Coast Guard inherited the "badged" version of the ensign when the Coast Guard came into being in 1915, and in 1927 the cutter badge was updated to use the Coast Guard's own emblem. The Coast Guard badge was slightly modified in 1966. The Coast Guard continues to use the "badged" or "defaced" version of the ensign, although it is now flown by Coast Guard cutters and facilities in conjunction with the U.S. national ensign, and not as a stand-alone ensign.

The design of both flags' (Customs and Coast Guard) cantons (i.e., the eagle and stars) was altered in 1951 to make them conform to "the arms of the United States," as was specified in Wolcott's original design statement in 1799.

Civilian ensigns

Striped merchant ensign
Information about early U.S. civil ensigns is scant, but there is evidence that at the time of the American Revolution some U.S. merchant ships flew a horizontally striped flag of 13 alternating red and white stripes.  These flags with vertical stripes are similar to ones flown by the Sons of Liberty  (Such ensigns may also have served as early U.S. naval jacks in conjunction with the Grand Union Flag used as a naval ensign.)  In the early years of the United States, ensigns were not yet standardized, leading to number of known variations, such as the Serapis ensign used by John Paul Jones.

Yacht ensign

A modification of the national flag and ensign but with a fouled anchor in a circle of thirteen stars in the canton, was created by Act of Congress in August 1848 as a flag to be used by licensed U.S. yachts. The design was recommended by the New York Yacht Club in 1849. Yachts eligible for the license were initially 20 net tons and over (later reduced to 15 net tons) and otherwise eligible to be enrolled as a U.S. vessel;  the license allowed the yacht to proceed from port to port without the formality of clearing customs.  The 1848 act used the word 'signal' to describe the flag that a licensed yacht would use to identify herself, and use of this flag was required by all licensed yachts ("All such licensed yachts shall use a signal of the form, size, and colors prescribed by the Secretary of the Navy.").  The Secretary of the Navy approved a modification of "the American Ensign" as the signal, and Treasury Decision No. 2727 (March 24, 1876) issued by the Treasury Department confirmed that the flag was to be used as an ensign ("Licensed yachts are required by law to use the American ensign prescribed by the Secretary of the Navy."), and its use as an ensign was reiterated in Treasury Decision 9426 of June 11, 1889 (referring to the "yacht ensign").  While formally licensed yachts were legally required to fly this modification of the national ensign, unlicensed U.S. yachts also started flying this flag as their ensign, too, and eventually the U.S. Navy confirmed that it recognized this practice for all U.S. yachts.  In 1939, the Secretary of the Navy approved the ruling of the Judge Advocate General of the Navy "...that a ship of the Navy should return a dip made by a yacht flying the yacht ensign and that the yacht ensign may properly be made the object of a hand salute to be rendered on boarding or leaving a yacht."

The legal requirement for licensed yachts to fly the Yacht Ensign that was part of United States statute (46 U.S.C. section 109) was repealed by the Vessel Documentation Act of 1980 (Public Law 96–594), which removed several legal provisions pertaining to the by-then very rare category of "licensed yachts" and treated all documented recreational vessels the same.  Nevertheless, owing to its long usage by all U.S. yachts, as well as the fact that the freedom-from-clearance privilege first extended to "licensed yachts" in 1848 had long since been extended to all U.S. pleasure craft regardless of whether they are federally documented or state numbered (see 19 U.S.C. sec. 1441), the yacht ensign is widely flown by many U.S. yachts and pleasure boats in U.S. waters today, continuing a tradition that dates back to the mid-nineteenth century.  The states of Arkansas, Maryland, and Washington<ref>[http://www.secstate.wa.gov/flag/boats.aspx Use of the U.S. Ensign and Washington State Flag on Recreational Boats"] from Washington Secretary of State website.  Retrieved March 5, 2007.</ref> have each adopted flag protocols which provide that the U.S. ensign "and the U.S. Yacht Ensign, with a canton of 13 stars, are interchangeable on all types of recreational vessels while in national waters."  Similarly, the United States Power Squadrons' guide to flags and flag etiquette, prepared in consultation with the Coast Guard, Coast Guard Auxiliary, New York Yacht Club, and others, provides that the Yacht Ensign may be flown as the ensign by U.S. recreational boats of all types and sizes instead of the national ensign in domestic waters, but that the ordinary national ensign should be worn in international or foreign waters.

Power Squadrons ensign

The United States Power Squadrons (or USPS) is a non-profit educational organization whose mission is to improve maritime safety and enjoyability through classes in seamanship, navigation, and other related subjects. In 1914, it adopted its own flag, which was then patented in 1916.  This flag may be worn as a signal flag on the signal hoist, typically in the starboard rigging.  Despite its name and the original intent of its designers, it was never recognized by the U.S. government or navy as a national ensign; however, some smaller boats will wear this flag in place of a national ensign, usually because they lack a mast and do not operate outside home waters. The U.S. Power Squadrons manual of flag etiquette states, "The preferred location for flying the USPS ensign is the starboard yardarm or spreader halyard. It may be worn there day and night."

State Maritime Flags

In April 1776, the Massachusetts Navy adopted, as its flag, a white field charged with a green pine tree and the motto "An Appeal to Heaven."  In 1971 the motto was removed, and the flag was designated "the naval and maritime flag of the Commonwealth".

Maine also has a separate ensign, which is rarely seen. It features symbols from the current flag and the older one, with a white field and green pine tree. The green pine tree has the seaman's anchor, and the words "MAINE" and "DIRIGO" around it.  Dirigo'' (Latin "I direct" or "I lead") is the state motto of Maine.

Massachusetts and Maine are the only two states with their own maritime flags.  These flags are not "ensigns" in the true sense of the word because they are not flags of national character, and are not used as such;  instead, they are special versions of the state flag for use afloat.  The state laws that create them do not use the term "ensign" to describe them, but use the term "flag".  The Massachusetts law describes the flag as "The naval and maritime flag of the commonwealth,"  Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 2, § 3, while Maine's state law says:  "The flag to be known as the merchant and marine flag of the State shall be of white, at the top of which in blue letters shall be the motto "Dirigo"; beneath the motto shall be the representation of a pine tree in green color"  Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 1, § 207.  Although these flags are intended for use afloat, they are not ensigns and should not be called such.

See also
Flags of the U.S. states#Current state ensigns

References

United States
Flags of the United States
Military flags of the United States

Ensign of the United States


Electromagnets are temporary and artificial magnets. They are magnets that are only magnetic when there is a coil of wire with electricity running through it. The coil of wire is called a solenoid. The strength of the magnet is proportional to the current flowing in the circuit.  The electricity running through the wire is called a current. The current is the flow of electrons, which are negatively charged particles. Electromagnets are used for a variety of purposes. In a simple example, an electromagnet can pick up pieces of iron, nickel, and cobalt.

Electromagnets can be made stronger by adding more coils to the copper wire, or adding an iron core through the coils (for example a nail). The current can also be increased to make the magnetism stronger. British electrician William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1825.

An electromagnet is useful because it can be turned on and off easily (using an electric current), whereas a permanent magnet cannot be turned off and will continue to affect its immediate environment.

Different alloys act differently. Iron stops being an electromagnet very quickly, but steel takes time to wear off. To make an electromagnet, copper wire is wound around an iron rod. The two ends of the wire are connected to the + (positive) and - (negative) side of the battery.

Usage
Electromagnets are used in everyday items such as burglar alarms, electric relays and fire bells. Electric motors are basically electromagnets. Their ability to change from the state of non-magnetic to magnetic just by passing an electric current through it allows it to be used in many different items. This ability is used in relays.

Electromagnets can also be used to make electricity. Movement of a magnet back and forth in front of the electromagnet will make an electric current.

Why electromagnets work
Electromagnets work because when electricity flows through a wire it makes a magnetic field around the wire. The direction of the magnetic field can be found by using the right-hand rule. This means that if a person points the thumb of their right hand in the direction of the current, the magnetic field would go around the wire the same way their fingers would wrap around the wire.

The magnetic field made by a single wire is not usually very strong. To make an electromagnet normally the wire is wrapped in many loops to make the fields of each piece of wire add together into one stronger magnetic field.

More reading

Other websites

Tools
Electromagnetism

Electromagnet


Freedom of assembly and freedom of association, is the right  to join together with others peacefully to reach common goals and express common opinions, both in public and in private. This usually includes business groups (or corporation), civic organizations, labor unions, political parties, and protest groups.

Restrictions
Freedom of assemble does not mean that any group can come together for any purpose. Some governments prohibit militias, or groups of people outside the military that gather weapons and train soldiers, from demonstrating in public with their weapons to cause violence and a disturbance.

Protection
Many developed nations protect the freedom of assembly. Many have passed laws or constitutional amendments ensuring that people will be able to freely assemble. These include:
 Canada - Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which is Part I of the Constitution of Canada
 France - article 431-1 of the Nouveau Code Pénal
 Hong Kong - Basic Law Section 27
 Article 27 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran
 Republic of Ireland - Guaranteed by Article 40.6.1 of the Constitution of Ireland
 Turkey - article 33 and 34 of the Constitution of Turkey guarantee the freedom of association and assembly.
 United States - First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States
 United Nations - Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 20 and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 21.

References

Freedom

Freedom of assembly