Christian VII of Denmark (29 January 1749 – 13 March 1808)  was the King of Denmark and Norway from 1766 to 1808, and the duke of Schleswig and Holstein. He was the son of King Frederick V of Denmark and Louise of Great Britain.

Early life
He lost his mother at the age of three. His stepmother, Juliana Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, did not take an interest in him, and preferred her own son, Frederik. Christian suffered from epileptic seizures. His educator, Count Detlev of Reventlow, educated him very severely, locking him up in dark chambers for hours at times. Starting at an early age, Christian showed signs of mental illness. At age 17, he was married to his cousin, Caroline Matilda of Great Britain. Caroline Matilde bore a son, the future King Frederick VI of Denmark.

Court life
When he became king, his cabinet ruled, much like in his father's time. The cabinet was led by Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff. When he toured Europe, he met Johann Friedrich Struensee, a medical doctor, who was influenced by the ideas of Enlightenment. Struensee soon gained influence at the court. Struensee initiated a number of liberal reforms. He also became the lover of queen Louise, who Christan neglected. In the year 1771, Princess Louise Auguste of Denmark was born. People think that Struensee was probably her father. Struensee was executed on 28 April 1772 outside the gates of Copenhagen. The queen was banned from the court. One of the last decrees of Struensee was to create the town of Christiansfeld, where people from the Moravian Church found shelter.

After the execution, Ove Høegh-Guldberg led the kingdom, supported by Queen Juliane and her son. Many of Struensee's reforms were undone. Andreas Peter Bernstorff stepped down in 1780. In the year 1784, Christian's son Frederick took power, reigning in the place of his father. Frederick was influenced by Enligtenment, and made a number of reforms; for example, the abolition of serfdom. Ernst Heinrich von Schimmelmann was made minister of finances. Together with Christian Ditlev Reventlow they boosted trade. Von Bernstorff returned to power in 1784, and was a strong supporter of the neutrality of Denmark. There was an economic boom.

Death
Christian VII died in 1808 as a result of a stroke.

Kings and Queens of Denmark
Dukes and duchesses
1749 births
1808 deaths

Christian VII of Denmark


For the computer software named Paint, see Microsoft Paint
Paint is the general term for liquid that is used to add colour to the surface of an object by covering it with a pigmented (coloured) coating.  As a verb, painting means "applying paint" (putting paint onto something). Someone who paints is called a painter.

Paint is made from a coloured pigment which is usually a powder. The powder is made from different chemicals. Some of the pigments come straight from natural things like clay. The pigment must be made wet by mixing it with something that will make it stick onto the surface and not come off easily. The wet stuff is called the "medium" or "vehicle". Water-based paints are mixed with water. Other paints are mixed with oils or chemicals of different sorts. Most painters buy paint that is already mixed. House-painters use paint already mixed in large cans. Artists buy paint in tubes. Some artists buy dry pigment and mix it for themselves.

The paint is usually put onto the surface with a paint brush. Paint brushes are used by painters of all sorts. House painters also use rollers and spray-guns to put on paint. A modern invention is paint in a pressurized can which can be sprayed on. Some modern artists also use spray paint. Factory paint shops have machines which spray paint onto objects. Cars are usually painted in this way.

Paint must be allowed to dry. Some paints such as watercolour, dries in a few minutes. Other paints, such as artist's oil paint, can take days or even weeks to dry. Most other types of paints fit between these two. Many types of paint are best if they are put on in several layers. The painter must first prepare the surface so it is smooth, clean and dry. The first layer of paint is often an "undercoat" or "ground" which is smooth and sticks very well. The coloured paints are put on over the top. A house-painter who is using oil paint on a wooden window frame might used three layers of paint to give very good protection from the weather. Other types of modern house paint only need one layer, particularly on the inside. Artists using oil paint and tempera often use many layers to get just the right effect.

Uses of paint

Paint has four important uses.

Protection
Paint is used to protect all sorts of buildings and structures from the effects of water and sun. Wooden buildings such as houses are usually painted because a coat of paint prevents water seeping into the wood and making it rot. The paint also helps to prevent the wood from drying out in the hot sun.

Metal structures and objects of all sorts are painted to stop them from rusting. A very large steel structure such as a bridge must have a team of painters who keep the paint in good condition all the time.

Decoration
Paint is used to decorate all sorts of objects. Since pre-historic times, people have painted the inside walls of their houses to make them look attractive. Painting and decorating the exterior (outside) and interior (inside) of houses is an important industry in many countries. There are many types and colours of paint to chose from.

All sorts of other objects are painted to make them attractive. This includes furniture, toys, tools and utensils, and street fittings. Sometimes things made of wood such as furniture are painted in decorative patterns. In some countries, many people enjoy decorating furniture and other small things like trays and boxes. This is one form of what is often called Folk Art. In other countries such as Japan, painting furniture is a very skilled profession and an antique piece of decorated furniture is very valuable.
Other people enjoy the hobby of painting small objects such as model planes or soldiers.

Art

Paintings are pictures that are done in paint. Many different types of paint are used for paintings. They include tempera, oil paint, gouache, watercolours and acrylic paints. The paintings are usually done on board, canvas or paper. Many other famous paintings are done on the walls and ceilings of buildings, such as the Sistine Chapel ceiling which was painted by Michelangelo.

Many artists are famous for their painted pictures. Old, beautiful and famous paintings are very valuable and are sometimes sold for millions of dollars. Famous painters include Giotto, Leonardo da Vinci, Titian and Rembrandt.

Information
Paint is a very good way to give important information to people, using painted signs. Painted signs include lane markings on the road, street signs of all sorts, advertising signs and warning signs.

Related pages
 Tempera
 Oil paint
 Oil painting
 Watercolour

References

Other websites

 History of Paint

Basic English 850 words

Paint


Catholicism is the traditions and beliefs of Catholic Churches. It refers to their theology, liturgy, morals and spirituality. The term usually refers to churches, both western and eastern, that are in full communion with the Holy See.

In 2012, there were more than 1.1 billion Catholics worldwide. This makes up more than 17% of the world population.

The word "Catholicism" comes from the Greek word catholikismos (). This means "universal".

Characteristics

The word "Catholicism" refers to so many things, including its religious beliefs (called theologies and "doctrines"), and its form of religious worship (called liturgies).  The word also refers to Catholic religious beliefs about ethics (things that are right and wrong). It also refers to the ways that members of the Catholic religion live and practice their religion.

Many people use the word Catholicism to talk about religious beliefs of the Catholic Church, whose leader is called the "Bishop of Rome" and often called the "Pope". The Catholic Church is based in the Vatican City, a small independent country in the city of Rome, Italy. Sometimes the word also refers to beliefs of other Christian churches, including the Eastern Orthodox Churches, who have many beliefs similar to the Catholic Church, but do not believe the Bishop of Rome is their leader.

The word Catholicism is often used to tell the difference between the beliefs of Catholic Christians and the beliefs of others called Protestant Christians. Catholic and Orthodox churches use church leaders, called bishops, to determine beliefs. Protestants, however, often use each member's own understanding of the Bible to determine beliefs. Protestants use guidelines from the 16th-century Protestant Reformation to understand the Bible. It is the world's second largest religious denomination after Sunnism.

Where the word Catholic came from
The oldest document that uses the name "Catholic Church" is a letter written by a man named Ignatius. Ignatius lived in the ancient city of Antioch. In the year 107, Ignatius wrote a letter addressed to the Christian community in the ancient city of Smyrna. In this letter, Ignatius encouraged the Christian Community to be loyal to their leader, the Bishop. Ignatius wrote:

"Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude of the people also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."

Groups who call themselves "Catholic"
Many different denominations (groups) of Christians call themselves "catholic". Often these groups have special beliefs about their leaders, called bishops. They believe Jesus of Nazareth (whom Christians believe is the Son of God) appointed the first bishops, who appointed future bishops, who eventually appointed each community's current bishops. This appointing of leaders is called "Apostolic Succession".

The groups that use the term "Catholic" to talk about themselves are the:

 Catholic Church, which is also called the Roman Catholic Church.
 Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox
 Old Catholic, Anglican, and some Lutheran and other groups
 Communities that believe they lost their "Apostolic Succession", but asked a different community to "ordain" new leaders for them. ("Ordain" or consecrate" is a word for the ceremony that makes a bishop or new religious leader.)

Not all communities believe that other communities use the term "catholic" properly. Also, not all communities believe that the other communities have apostolic succession either. For example, the Catholic Church believes that the Eastern Orthodox have apostolic succession. However, the Catholic Church does not believe that the Anglicans or Lutherans have it.

Eastern Orthodox have similar beliefs about Anglicans and Lutherans. Not all Eastern Orthodox believe that the Catholic Church has apostolic succession. Different members of the Eastern Orthodox churches have different opinions.

However, the Anglicans and Lutherans generally believe that all Christians are part of the "catholic" church. These groups have a very different understanding of the term "Catholic".

History

How it was started
Catholicism was started as a result of Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish man whom Christians believe is the Son of God, a Christian belief known as the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). Catholics believe Jesus to be a descendant of David, a Jewish king from a long time ago. Jesus was crucified by the Romans in the year 33 AD. Catholics believe Jesus rose from the dead, and spoke to his followers, called the twelve Apostles. They also believe that Jesus rose into Heaven, and then sent the Holy Spirit to guide his followers at an event known as Pentecost.

One of his followers, the apostle named Saint Peter, was appointed leader by Jesus and later became recognized as the first Pope, or Bishop of Rome, soon after that he was captured and was martyred in Rome. Catholics believe that Saint Peter was given the "keys of the Kingdom of Heaven," meaning that Jesus made him and the apostles in charge of forgiving sins. Catholics believe that Saint Peter passed the Apostolic Power (the ability to ordain priests and consecrate the Eucharist), given to him by Christ, to the Popes, who continue to pass the power through the papacy to this day. At the current time, the pope is Pope Francis, who is the leader of the Catholic Church. The word pope comes from the Latin word for "father."

In 325, the First Council of Nicaea agreed on how to organize the church. The council agreed the Church had five patriarchs (patriarch was the highest type of church leader). The five leaders were the archbishops of Rome (the Pope), Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and Jerusalem. The Patriarch of Rome was honored as "first among equals."

Quarrels within the church
In time, several groups split off from the Catholic Church because of differing opinions of theology. This caused breaks from the Church called schisms. Most schisms happened because people had different beliefs about what is true.

In 451, a church division happened when all the church leaders meeting at the Church Council in the city of Chalcedon excommunicated (cut off) three leaders, because they held to monophysitism and would not accept the view that Jesus had two natures (fully divine and fully human). These three were the bishops of Egypt, Syria, and Armenia. Of course, these three bishops did not accept being excommunicated either, so the churches under them are still known today as Oriental Orthodox Churches.

In 1054, an Eastern part of the Catholic Church severed itself, in the East-West Schism. The church in Western Europe which followed the Pope, became known as the Roman Catholic Church. The churches in the rest of the world, which did not think that the Pope should lead all Christians, became known as the Orthodox Church. "Orthodox" means "correct belief;" as they believe that they have kept the teachings of the early church, and the Roman Catholics have not.

The next big secession was the Protestant Reformation. Protestants resisted the valid central authority of the Church in Rome and rejected many practices, beliefs and disciplines. The Reformation started in Germany, where Martin Luther sent his demands for change to the Church. Because of politics in Europe, many nations supported Luther. The Lutheran Church was started. Later the Calvinist or Presbyterian Church started.

In England, King Henry VIII started the Anglican church. He wanted to divorce his first wife; but the Pope wouldn't allow it, as the marriage was valid. At first, the church of King Henry VIII, the Church of England, was very similar to the Catholic Church. The major difference was that the king was head of the church, instead of the Pope. Later, under his son, Edward VI, the Anglican Church became more reformed or Protestant. Anglicans, and several other Protestant denominations, still believe they are reformed Catholics. Puritanism arose among Anglicans who thought the reforms didn't go far enough.

After the Reformation, many other Churches began because of disagreements over beliefs and practices of earlier Protestant doctrine. According to the 2010 U.S. Religious Congregations and Membership Study, this accounts for most of the Protestant denominations in the United States. There are about 314,000 of these. Two examples of these Protestant (or Reformed) churches are Methodist and Baptist.

Religious Beliefs

The same aspects of Catholic and other Christians
 The Ten Commandments
 The belief that God knows everything, that God has unlimited power, and that everything God does is good
 The belief that Jesus Christ died for the sins of the world, rose again, and one day "will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead."
 The importance of worshipping God.
 The infallibility of the bible

What is different from Eastern Orthodox Christians
 The supremacy of the Bishop of Rome (also known as the pope)
 the Filioque clause (Nicene creed)

What is different from mainstream Protestants
 Catholics believe in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist (this is called Transubstantiation).
 Catholics believe God forgives mortal sins through the sacrament of reconciliation (confession), which is performed through a priest, while most Protestants do not believe in the sacrament.
 Catholics hold to the authority of Scripture and Tradition, which the teaching authority of the Church Magisterium (the bishops in communion with the Pope) comes from, while most Protestants believe in Sola Scriptura (the Bible alone)
 Catholics believe that papal authority (in very specific, solemn occasions called "ex Cathedra"), the Bible, and the conclusions of ecumenical councils are infallible, while most Protestants believe in an infallible Bible but not an infallible Pope. Papal infallibility has been declared twice in the history of the Catholic Church. Once to state that Mary was conceived without sin and another to state that Mary was assumed into heaven body and soul.
 Catholics hold to a larger 72 book bible canon, while Protestants typically hold to 66 books.
 Catholics venerate saints, especially the Virgin Mary (Mother of God). "Venerating saints" means that Catholics give special honor to saints (people in heaven) because they believe that saints can pray for them directly to God. Many Protestants do not, because they regard "venerating saints" as "worshiping saints". Because they believe that only God should be worshiped, they do not venerate. Many Protestants also simply do not believe that any veneration is necessary.
 Catholics have an elaborate mariology, while most Protestants do not.

References

Other websites
 Catholicism -Citizendium

Catholicism


Maui is the second largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States.
It has a population of just over 100,000 and is 727 square miles (1883 km²) in size. Maui is part of Maui County, Hawaii. The larger (or better known) towns include Kahului, Wailuku, Lahaina, Hana, and Wailea. Main industries are agriculture and tourism.

Maui was named for the demi-god Maui. In Hawaiian legend, he raised all the islands from the sea. Maui is also known as the "Valley Isle" for the large fertile isthmus (narrow land connection) between two volcanoes.

Geography
Maui is a volcanic doublet: an island formed from two volcanic mountains that are joined. The older volcano, Mauna Kahalawai, is much older and has been very worn down. In common talk it is called the West Maui Mountain. The larger volcano, Haleakala, rises above 10,000 feet (3,050 m). The last eruption of Haleakala happened over 200 years ago, and this lava flow can be seen between Ahihi Bay and La Perouse Bay on the southeast shore.

Places
Other places on Maui popular with visitors include:
 Ī'ao Valley.
 Haleakala crater
 Road to Hāna
 Wai'ānapanapa

Golf courses on Maui include:
 Grand Waikapu Country Club
 Ka'anapali Golf Course
 Kapalua Golf Club
 Makena Golf Club
 Maui Country Club
 Pukalani Country Club
 Sandalwood Country Club
 Silversword Golf Course
 Wai'ehu Municipal Golf Course
 Wailea Golf Club

Islands of Hawaii

Maui


A bellows is something that blows air into a small opening in order to make something work. The bellows will have a kind of sack which has air in it. When the sack is squeezed the air is pushed out. Bellows can be quite small and operated by hand, for example for stoking a fire in an open fireplace. They can also be very large, such as bellows that produce air for a large pipe organ to be played. Such bellows used to be pumped by hand (sometimes by several people), but nowadays electricity is used. Bellows are used by blacksmiths or metalworkers for smelting and welding. They are also used in small musical instruments such as bagpipes, accordions and concertinas. The harmonium has bellows which the player operates by pumping with the his feet.

Tools

Bellows


The heart is an organ found in every vertebrate. It is a very strong muscle. It is on the left side of the body in humans and is about the size of a fist. It pumps blood throughout the body. It has regular contractions, or when the heart squeezes the blood out into other parts of the body.

Cardiac and cardio both mean "about the heart", so if something has the prefix cardio or cardiac, it has something to do with the heart.

Myocardium means the heart muscle: 'myo' is from the Greek word for muscle - 'mys', cardium is from the Greek word for heart - 'kardia'.

Structure
The human heart has four chambers or closed spaces. Some animals have only two or three chambers.

In humans, the four chambers are two atria and two ventricles. Atria is talking about two chambers; atrium is talking about one chamber. There is a right atrium and right ventricle. These get blood that comes to the heart. They pump this blood to the lungs. In the lungs blood picks up oxygen and drops carbon dioxide. Blood from the lungs goes to the left atrium and ventricle. The left atrium and ventricle send the blood out to the body. The left ventricle works six times harder than the right ventricle because it carries oxygenated blood.

Blood is carried in blood vessels. These are arteries and veins. Blood going to the heart is carried in veins. Blood going away from the heart is carried in arteries. The main artery going out of the right ventricle is the pulmonary artery. (Pulmonary means about lungs.) The main artery going out of the left ventricle is the aorta.

The veins going into the right atrium are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. These bring blood from the body to the right heart. The veins going into the left atrium are the pulmonary veins. These bring blood from the lungs to the left heart.

When the blood goes from the atria to the ventricles it goes through heart valves. When blood goes out of the ventricles it goes through valves. The valves make sure that blood only goes one way in or out.

The four valves of the heart are:
 Atria to ventricle valves
 Tricuspid valve – blood goes from right atrium to right ventricle
 Mitral valve – blood goes from left atrium to left ventricle
 Ventricles to arteries
 Pulmonic valve – blood goes out of the right ventricle to the lungs (through the pulmonic artery)
 Aortic valve – blood goes out of the left ventricle to the body (through the aorta)

The heart has three layers. The outer covering is the pericardium. This is a tough sack that surrounds the heart. The middle layer is the myocardium. This is the heart muscle. The inner layer is the endocardium. This is the thin smooth lining of the chambers of the heart.

Cardiac cycle

A heart beat is when the heart muscle contracts. This means the heart pushes in and this makes the chambers smaller. This pushes blood out of the heart and into the blood vessels. After the heart contracts and pushes in, the muscle relaxes or stops pushing in. The chambers get bigger and blood coming back to the heart fills them.

When the heart muscle contracts (pushes in) it is called systole. When the heart muscle relaxes (stops pushing in), this is called diastole. Both atria do systole together. Both ventricles do systole together. But the atria do systole before the ventricles. Even though the atrial systole comes before ventricular systole, all four chambers do diastole at the same time. This is called cardiac diastole

The order is: atrial systole → ventricular systole → cardiac diastole. When this happens one time, it is called a cardiac cycle.

Heart's pacemaker
Systole (when the heart squeezes) happens because the muscle cells of the heart gets smaller in size. When they get smaller we also say they contract. Electricity going through the heart makes the cells contract. The electricity starts in the sino-atrial node (acronym SA Node) The SA Node is a group of cells called pacemaker cells in the right atria. These cells start an electrical impulse. This electrical impulse sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract. This motion is called 'atrial systole'. Once electrical impulse goes through the atrio-ventricular node (AV Node). The AV Node makes the impulse slow down. Slowing down makes the electrical impulses get to the ventricles later. That is what makes the ventricular systole occur after atrial systole, and lets all the blood leave the atria before ventricle contracts (meaning squeeze).

After the electrical impulse goes through the AV Node, the electrical impulse will go through the conduction system of the ventricle. Conduction means heat or electricity traveling through something. This brings the electrical impulse to the ventricles. The first part of the conduction system is the bundle of His. His is named for the doctor (Wilhelm His, Jr) who discovered it. Bundle means strings or wires grouped together in parallel. Once the bundle (meaning a group of strings or wires going in parallel directions) goes through the ventricle muscle, it divides into two bundle branches, the left bundle branch and the right bundle branch. The left bundle branch travels to the left ventricle and the right bundle branch travels to the right ventricle. At the end of the bundle branches, the electrical impulse goes into the ventricular muscle through the Purkinje Fibers. This is what makes ventricle contraction take place and makes ventricular systole.

The order is:
Sino-Atrial Node → Atria (systole) → Atrio-Ventricular Node → Bundle of His → Bundle branches → Purkinje Fibers → Ventricles (systole)

ECG
ECG is an acronym for ElectroCardioGram. It is also written EKG for ElectroKardioGram in German. The ECG shows what the electricity in the heart is doing. An ECG is done by putting electrodes on a person's skin. The electrodes see the electricity going through the heart. This is written on paper by a machine. This writing on the paper is the ECG.

Doctors learn about the person's heart by looking at the ECG. The ECG shows some diseases of the heart like heart attacks or problems with the rhythm of the heart (how the electricity goes through the heart's conduction system.)

The ECG shows atrial systole. This is called a P-wave. Then ventricular systole happens. This is called the QRS or QRS-complex. It is called a complex because there are three different waves in it. The Q-wave, R-wave, and S-wave. Then the ECG shows ventricular diastole. This is called the T-wave. Atrial diastole happens then too. But it is not seen separate from ventricular diastole.

The PR-Interval is the space between atrial systole (P) and ventricular systole (QRS). The QT-Interval is from when the QRS starts to when the T ends. The ST-segment is the space between the QRS and T.

References

Other websites

Symptoms of heart disease
What is the heart? - NIH
The gross physiology of the cardiovascular system (2nd Ed., 2012) – Robert M. Anderson, M.D. (CC-BY-NC)
Atlas of human cardiac anatomy
" healthy heart  " Blog
Basic English 850 words

Anatomy of the cardiovascular system

Heart


Grapes, otherwise known as berries, are the fruit of a woody grape vine. Grapes can be eaten raw, or used for making wine, juice, and jelly/jam. Grapes come in different colours; red, purple, white, and green are some examples. Today, grapes can be seedless, by using machines to pit the fruit. Wild grapevines are often considered a nuisance weed, as they cover other plants with their usually rather aggressive growth.

Raisins are the dried fruit of the grapevine, and the name actually comes from the French word for "grape."

Since the early 21st century in the United States and other countries, and the global functional food industry, there has been a fast-growing recognition of red grapes for their popularity, nutrient content and antioxidant qualities. This has given them commercial status as a "superfruit".

The leaves of the grapevine itself are considered edible (eatable). They are used to make dolmades.

Grapevines are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species.

Distribution

According to the "Food and Agriculture Organization" (FAO), almost 76,000 square kilometres of the world is used to grow grapes. About 71% of grapes are used for wine. 27% are used as fresh fruit, and 2% are used as dried fruit. A part of grape production goes to making grape juice to be used as a sweetener for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.

The following list of top wine-producers shows the areas used to grow grapes for wine making, although of course country size is a limiting factor, as well as the economic demand for their product.

 Spain – 11,750 km²
 France – 8,640 km²
 Italy – 8,270 km²
 Turkey – 8,120 km²
 United States – 4,150 km²
 Iran – 2,860 km²
 Romania – 2,480 km²
 Portugal – 2,160 km²
 Argentina – 2,080 km²
 Australia – 1,642 km²

Comparing diets among western countries, researchers have found that although the French usually eat more animal fat than other countries, the number of cases of heart disease remains low in France. Many scientists think this is because the French drink more red wine than other countries. Something in the grape helps lower the amount of cholesterol in the body. This helps prevent clogging of the arteries. Doctors do not recommend drinking a lot of red wine, but three or four glasses a week is good and encouraged.

Grapes of all colors offer benefits. Red wine offers health benefits that are not found in white wine. This is because many of the good nutrients are found in the skins of the grapes, and only red wine is fermented with the skins.

White grapes
White grapes are derived from the green grape by evolution. Changes in two genes turn off creation of anthocyanin. Anthocyanin is what makes red grapes the color green.

Raisins, currants, and sultanas
A raisin is any dried grape. A currant is a dried Zante grape. The name is a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape). A sultana was originally a raisin made from a specific type of grape of Turkish origin. The word is now used for raisins made from common North American grapes and chemically treated to resemble the traditional sultana.

Note that, while raisin is a French loanword, the word in French means the fresh fruit. Grappe (Where the English word grape comes from) means the bunch (as in une grappe de raisin).

Note also that currant has also come to mean to the blackcurrant and redcurrant. These two berries completely unrelated to grapes.

References

Related pages
The Fox and the Grapes

Other websites

 Integrated Taxonomic Information System entry for Grape family
 How To Grow Grapes – Article on how to grow grapes
 Area under vine (pdf)
 Wild Grapes
 300 Grape Varieties for Wine
 Wine Wiki

Fruits
Vitaceae
National symbols of Turkey

Grape


Peace is a time without any fights or wars. In a larger sense, peace (or peacefulness) can mean a state of harmony, quiet or calm that is not disturbed by anything at all, like a still pond with no ripples.

Many people and organizations want peace. One organization that was set up to bring peace among the nations and try to make war a thing of the past was the League of Nations after World War I.  When it did not stop World War II, it was replaced by the United Nations which tries to make the world peaceful. This means that if any member is attacked or invaded by another country without attacking that country first, the other members will come to help the country that was attacked first. This idea was used by the United Nations to defend both South Korea and Kuwait when they were attacked.

Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote in a letter he sent from the Birmingham jail that, "True peace is not merely the absence of tension: it is the presence of justice." In other words, Real peace is more than just problems being gone: there must be fairness to have peace.

Alfred Nobel created an annual award, the Nobel Peace Prize, for the person who had done the most to bring peace to the world.

Religious beliefs and peace

Buddhists think that peace can be gotten once all suffering ends.To get rid of suffering and get this peace, many try to follow a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths

Jews and Christians believe that true peace comes from a personal relationship with God. Jesus Christ (also called the "Prince of Peace" in the Book of Isaiah) said: "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid." ()

Muslims follow Prophet Muhammad who teaches them that peace is the glue that holds communities together and sustains the world.

Inner peace

Inner peace (or peace of mind) refers to a state of being mentally and spiritually at peace, with enough knowledge and understanding to keep oneself strong in the face of stress. Being "at peace" is considered by many to be healthy and the opposite of being stressed or anxious. Peace of mind is generally associated with bliss and happiness.

Peace of mind, serenity, and calmness are descriptions of a disposition free from the effects of stress. In some cultures, inner peace is considered a state of consciousness or enlightenment that may be cultivated by various forms of training, such as prayer, meditation, Tai chi chuan or yoga, for example. Many spiritual practices refer to this peace as an experience of knowing oneself.

Movements and activism

Peace movement

A movement that seeks to get ideals such as the ending of a particular war, minimize inter-human violence in a particular place or type of situation, often linked to the goal of achieving world peace. Means to achieve these ends usually include advocacy of pacifism, non-violent resistance, conscientious objector, diplomacy, boycotts, moral purchasing, supporting anti-war political candidates, demonstrations, and lobbying to create legislation on human rights or of international law.

Theories on peace
Many different theories of "peace" exist in the world of peace studies, which involves the study of conflict transformation. The definition of "peace" can vary with religion, culture, or subject of study.

Peace is a state of balance and understanding in yourself and between others, where respect is gained by the acceptance of differences, tolerance persists, conflicts are resolved through dialog, people's rights are respected and their voices are heard, and everyone is at their highest point of serenity without social tension.

Related pages
Anti-war movement
Ceasefire
Pacifism
Peace makers
Peace treaty
World peace

Basic English 850 words
Society

Peace


Johnny Cash (born J. R. Cash; February 26, 1932 - September 12, 2003) wis an American sangster-sangwriter. He is ane o the maist weel-kent an maist influential muisickers o the 20t century.

Bairnheid an Early Life

Johnny Cash wis born J.R. Cash in Kingsland, Arkansas, tae Ray an Carrie (née Rivers) Cash, an raised in Dyess, Arkansas. It is thocht that he wis gien the name J.R. acause his paurents coudna gree whit tae cry him, anely the initials. Houaniver, whan he jynt the Unitit States Air Force, they wadna accept J.R., so he chynged it tae John R. Cash.

He wis ane o sieven bairns: Jack, Joanne Cash Yates, Louise Garrett, Reba Hancock, Roy, and Tommy. Bi the time he wis five, he wis awreadies wirkin in the cotton fields on his faimlies ferm. In 1944, Johnny's brither, wha he wis gey close tae, wis killt in an amshach in a mill whaur he wirkit. Cash aft spake o feelin guiltfu ower the incident, as Jack wis meant tae gae fishin wi Cash that day but insistit on gaun tae wirk, as the faimlie needit the siller.

As a young lad, he leart guitar, an stairtit tae scrieve sangs. He wis influenced bi gospel muisic. In schuil, he e'en singit on the local radio station. Cash listit in the Unitit States Air Force, serrin as a morse code decoder on Roushie transmissions in Germany. Efter he wis honourably discharged in 1954, he gaed back tae Texas. Durin basic trainin he met Vivian Liberto, wha he mairit whan he gat back fae Germany in 1954. They haed fower dochters Rosanne (born May 24, 1955), Kathy (born April 16, 1956), Cindy (born July 29, 1958), and Tara (born August 24, 1961).

Career

Early Career
Cash an Vivian flittit tae Memphis, Tennessee in 1954, whaur he stairtit a baun wi Luther Perkins an Marshall Grant. Thay decidit tae audition for Sam Phillips o Sun Records, but he wisna impressed wi thair gospel muisic, thiknin he coudna sell gospel onymair. Cash wan ower Phillips wi mair sangs that war mair kintra. His first sangs "Hey Porter" an "Cry Cry Cry" war met wi complowsible success.

His neist sang, "Folsom Prison Blues", makkit the kintra muisic chairt Tap 5, an "I Walk The Line" becam a kintra muisic nummer 1 an made the pop chairts Tap 20. He lea'd Sun Records an jynt Columbia Records, an became ane o thair maist successfu airtists.

In the early 60s, he tourt wi the Carter Familie, whaur he met June Carter, wha he wuid gae on tae mairy.

Eemage

In the early 60s, he stairtit drinkin a heap an becam addictit tae amphetamines an barbiturates. E'en tho his addiction war gaun oot on guidal, he still haed muisickal success, wi ane o his maist weel-kent sangs, "Ring of Fire", bein released durin this time.In 1965, his truck caucht fire, causin a forest fire that brunt hunders o acres o Los Padres Natinal Forest, California, killin 49 o the forests 53 endangert condors but Cash didna care, an the govrenment sued him for $82,001. Altho Cash haed an ootlaw eemage, he niver gaed tae preeson. Houaniver, he did spend a nicht in jyle on sieven occasions, for misdemeanours. His addiction tae drogs wis at it's warst at this pynt. Whilk led tae a divorce fae his wife. Houaniver in 1968, Cash quat uisin drogs, efter a spiritual epiphany in Nickajack Cove. He haed gaed intae the cove tae commit suicide unner the influence o drogs. He gaed deep intae the cove tryin tae tyne hissel, but he passt oot. Whan he woke up he chynged his mynd, an managed tae git oot o the cove bi follaein a faint licht an a breeze. The Carter faimlie muived him intae thair hame tae help him bate his addiction. He proponed tae June Carter onstage in London, Ontario, an thay gat mairit a week efter. He than rediskivert his Christian faith.

The Man in Black

In the late 60s, he stairtit tae perform in preesons. These led tae a couple o gey successfu albums "Johhny Cash at Folsom Prison" an "Johnny Cash at San Quentin". This included the single "A Boy Named Sue", a sang that raucht nummer 1 on the kintra chairts an nummer 2 on the pop chairts. He pleyed at a Swadish preeson an aw. Fae 1969 tae 1971 he haed his ain T.V. shaw, The Johnny Cash Show, wi guests like Bob Dylan, Ray Charles an Kris Kristofferson. By the early 70s, he wis weel-kent for performin aw in black, an wis kent as The Man in Black, e'en releasin a sang o the same name. He becam pals wi ilka Preses o the Unitit States, stairtin wi Richard Nixon, but he wis closest tae Jimmy Carter. His first autobiography, Man in Black, wis published in 1975 an selt 1.3 million copies.

Later Career

Durin the 80s he wis inductit intae the Kintra Muisic Haw o Fame, but didna hae muckle success wi his muisic. Hounaiver in the 90s he wis signed by American Recordings, a record label maist weel-kent for rap an rock. It wis wi thaim he recordit the album "American Recordings" in 1994. It wis a muckle hit, an wan a Grammy for Best Contemporar Folk Album. He gat a gey guid reception at Glastonbury Festival in 1994, whilk he said wis ane o the heichlichts o his career. He scrieved anither autobiography, Cash: The Autobiography, an aw. In 1997 he wis diagnosed wi Shy-Drager Syndrome. The albums American III: Solitary Man (2000) and American IV: The Man Comes Around (2002) conteened Cash's response tae his unweelness in the furm o sangs o a mair sombre tone nor the first twa American albums. Thay war ruised by critics an war gey faur-ben. His wife, June, dee'd on May 15, 2003, at the age o sieventy-ane. Johnny Cash dee'd less nor fower month after his wife, on September 12, 2003, while hospitalised at Baptist Hospital in Nashville, Tennessee. He wis birriet neist tae his wife in Hendersonville Memory Gardens naurhaund his hame in Hendersonville, Tennessee.

1932 births
2003 daiths
20t-century American sangsters
21st-century American sangsters
Male actors frae Arkansas
American autobiografers
American bass-baritones
American country guitarists
American country sangster-sangwriters
American folk guitarists
American folk sangsters
American male film actors
American male sangster-sangwriters
American male televeesion actors
American male vyce actors
American fowk o Inglis strynd
American fowk o Scots strynd
American performers o Christian muisic
American Christians
American Christian writers
American acoustic guitarists
American male guitarists
Buirials in Tennessee
Cash–Carter faimily
Charly Records airtists
Columbia Records airtists
Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
Country muisickers frae Arkansas
Daiths frae diabetes
Disease-relatit daiths in Tennessee
Grammy Legend Awaird winners
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Awaird winners
Grand Ole Opry members
Guitarists frae Arkansas
Guitarists frae Tennessee
Kennedy Center honourees
Members o the Country Music Association
Muisickers frae Nashville, Tennessee
Native Americans' richts activists
Fowk frae Arkansas
Fowk frae Cleveland Coonty, Arkansas
Fowk frae Hendersonville, Tennessee
Rock and roll muisickers
American rockabilly muisickers
Southern gospel performers
Sun Records airtists
The Highwaymen (country supergroup) members
Unitit States Air Force airmen
20t-century American guitarists
20t-century American male actors

Johnny Cash


The Minoan civilization was a civilization on Crete called after Minos. It began in the Bronze Age between 3000 and 2700 BC. It lasted until about 1450 BC. The Minoan civilization is famous for its sea trading and well-planned cities. The Minoans had an agricultural system which relied mainly on olives and grapes. Their religion worshipped mostly goddesses. The Minoan civilization was later replaced by the Mycenaean culture.

Minoan Architecture

Cretans built palaces during their architecture era. In a non-royal palace there were many small rooms with cooler places to sit, because Crete got very hot in the summer. Palaces were used for many things. They were used as government centers, storerooms, stores, and administrative offices. Most palaces were very big. The Cretans might have gotten the money to create these palaces from working for the Egyptians. The royal palace was very different. Everyone had toilets, baths, and running water. The ones for the king and queen were very fancy. Their palace was fancy also. The architecture era was ended by a great fire. This era went from 2000 B.C. to 1450 B.C. Then they were no more

Further reading

http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/greeks/history/minoans.htm
http://photo.pds.org:5005/student/article?id=ar028740
Minoan civilization -Academic Kids

Minoan culture

Minoan civilization


A minister-president (German: Ministerpräsident) is the head of government in a number of European countries or subnational governments, who presides over the council of ministers. The title is similar to Prime Minister, First Minister, and President of the Council.

The German word means "president of the ministers"; "Ministers' President" would be a more accurate translation.

This person is the equivalent of a state premier in Australia, a provincial premier in Canada, or the Governor of a state in the USA.

Each year one of the ministers-president, or one of the senior Mayors of the city states of Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen, is the President of the Bundesrat. Because Germany does not have a vice president, The President of the Bundesrat will act as the Federal President if the Federal President dies or is out of the country.

Government occupations
Titles

Minister-president


Skene's glands (also called lesser vestibular glands or paraurethral glands) are glands in the upper wall of the vagina. They empty into the urethra. Their location is known as the Gräfenberg spot. In males, their homologue is the prostate gland.

The glands are named after the person who described them first, Alexander Skene. He was a physician.

Anatomy of the female reproductive system
Glands

Skene's gland


Idomeneo is an opera seria with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The libretto (words) are in Italian and were written by Giambattista Varesco. He based it on  a French text by Antoine Danchet. In 1780 Mozart and Varesco were asked by the Elector of Bavaria to write an opera for a court carnival.

Idomeneo  was first performed in Munich on 29 January 1781.  Mozart was only 24 years old.  It was the first of his great operas.

Mozart wrote three different types of opera:  Idomeneo is an opera seria (serious opera).  These were written in Italian, and are about serious, dramatic stories, often stories from Ancient Greece or Rome.  La Clemenza di Tito  is also an opera seria.  Don Giovanni  is an example of a mixture of comic and serious opera, while The Magic Flute  is a German opera in the Singspiel tradition.

Idomeneo  has traditional recitatives and arias. The choruses, marches, and ballets were very much like French opera tradition.  Mozart was inspired by the operas of Gluck.

The story of the opera

Act 1
The story, based on an Ancient Greek story,  takes place on the Island of Crete, shortly after the Trojan War. Ilia is the daughter of the Trojan King Priam who has lost the war.  Ilia has been taken to Crete.  She loves Prince Idamante, son of the Cretan King Idomeneo, but does not want to tell him about her love for him. Idamante is kind and frees the Trojan prisoners. He tells Ilia that it is not his fault that their fathers were enemies. The Trojans and Cretans (people from Crete) both welcome the return of peace, but Electra, daughter of the Greek King Agamemnon is jealous of Ilia.  She is annoyed that Idamante had been kind and let the prisoners free.  Arbace, the king's trusted friend, brings news that Idomeneo has been drowned at sea while returning to Crete from Troy. Electra, worried that Ilia, a Trojan, soon will be Queen of Crete, feels the furies of Hades tormenting her.

Idomeneo is not lost at sea, but instead is saved by Neptune (god of the sea) and is washed up on a Cretan beach. There he remembers the promise he made to Neptune: he had promised to sacrifice (kill for the Gods) the first creature he should meet, whether it be a human or an animal.  The first person he meets is his own son, Idamante.  Because the two have not seen each other for a long time, they do not recognize one another at first. When Idomeneo finally realizes it is his own son he must kill, he tells Idamante to go away and never see him again.  Idamante does not understand why his father is saying this.  He is terribly upset, but runs off.  The Cretan soldiers get off Idomeneo's ship and are met by their wives, and all praise Neptune.

Act 2
At the king's palace, Idomeneo asks Arbace what he should do, because he has disobeyed the god.  Arbace says that Neptune would be happy if another victim could be sacrificed so long as Idamante is sent into exile (to another country). Idomeneo tells his son to take Electra to her home, Argos.  Idomeneo's kind words to Ilia make her say very kindly that, because she has lost everything, he will be her father and Crete will be her country. As she leaves, Idomeneo realizes that sending Idamante into exile has made Ilia unhappy. Electra is happy about going to Argos with Idamante.

At the port of Sidon, Idomeneo says goodbye to his son and tells him to rule like a good king.  Before the ship can sail, however, a storm breaks out, and a sea serpent appears. It is a messenger from Neptune, who is angry with Idomeneo.  Idomeneo offers his life to the god.

Act 3
In the royal garden, Ilia asks the gentle winds to carry her love to Idamante.  Idamante says he must go to fight the serpent. When he says he would like to die because Ilia does not love him.  This makes Ilia tell him that she loves him. They are surprised by Electra and Idomeneo. When Idamante asks his father why he sends him away, Idomeneo cannot tell him the truth. Ilia asks Electra for some kindness, but Elektra is madly jealous of Ilia now, and she wants revenge. Arbace comes with news that the people, led by the High Priest of Neptune, are shouting that they want Idomeneo.  The High Priest tells the king that Neptune's monster is destroying things, and asks Idomeneo to say the name of the person whose sacrifice is demanded by the god. When the king says that his own son is the victim, the people are horrified.

Outside the temple, the king and High Priest join with Neptune's priests to pray that the god will be kind and merciful. Arbace brings news that Idamante has killed the monster. Idomeneo is now worried that Neptune will want even more revenge.  Idamante enters in sacrificial robes, saying he understands his father's terrible worries and he is ready to die., Idomeneo says a tragic goodbye to his own son and is about to kill him, when Ilia steps forward and offers to die instead.   Neptune now changes his mind.  We hear his voice saying that if Idomeneo gives up being king and lets Idamante and Ilia rule as king and queen, he will forgive. Everyone is happy except Electra, who wants to die.  Idomeneo says that Idamante and his bride are the new rulers. The people call upon the god of love and marriage to bless the royal pair and bring peace.

Compositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
1780s operas
1781

Idomeneo


In mammals, the lymphatic system is a network of thin vessels that branch, like blood vessels, into tissues throughout the body. It is part of the immune system. It is a one-way system which carries cells and fluid back to the blood system.

Lymphatic vessels carry lymph, a colorless, watery fluid, and white blood cells. It comes from interstitial fluid in the tissues which is squeezed out of the blood vessels. The lymphatic system transports infection-fighting cells called lymphocytes, and is involved in the removal of foreign matter and cell debris by phagocytes. A second function is to transport fats from the small intestine to the blood.

Lymphatic fluid gathers from the tissues and enters the valved lymphatic ducts. These valves make sure the lymph flows the right way. On its way back to the blood system, the lymph passes through glands called lymph nodes, in places like the back of the neck, the armpits and the groin. Lymph nodes swell in the region of an infected body part. This acts to keep the infection from spreading. It prevents or reduces the pathogens getting into the general blood circulation and reaching other parts of the body.

Lymph ends up back in the blood system. In mammals under normal conditions, most of the lymph is returned to the blood stream through lymph-vein communications at the base of the neck. Some vertebrates have more complex lymphatic systems. Amphibians for example have multiple "lymph hearts" to control the flow of lymph.

References

Physiology
Immunology

Lymphatic system


Henry Purcell (born in Westminster, ; died in Westminster, 21 November 1695) was an English composer. Many musicians think he is the greatest English composer of all time. Although he only lived until he was 36, he wrote a large amount of music. His compositions include church music, instrumental music, music for the theatre, even popular drinking songs. He wrote the first English opera. He lived in the time called the Baroque period. He liked Italian and French music, and combined those styles to make something that was typically English.

His life

Early years
We do not know very much about Purcell's childhood. His mother's name was Elizabeth. In 1664, Henry Purcell senior died and the widow took her children to live with her brother in law, Thomas Purcell, who was very kind to them. Thomas Purcell was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal which meant that he sang in the king's choir. Soon Henry was singing in the Chapel Royal. This was the best musical training a boy could have in England. His teachers were Captain Henry Cooke, and then Pelham Humfrey. Henry sang in the choir until his voice broke in 1673. He was then given the job of looking after the king's musical instruments.

Purcell may have been composing already when he was nine. We know that he wrote an ode for the King's birthday in 1670. When Humfrey died Purcell studied with the famous composer John Blow. He went to Westminster School. In 1676 he was made organist at Westminster Abbey. He started writing music for the theatre. He also wrote church music, including an anthem for a singer called John Gostling who had a very good, deep bass voice. Purcell wrote several anthems for him during his life. One is called "They that go down to the sea in ships". It goes down to a low D.

Later career
In 1680, Blow, who had been made organist of Westminster Abbey in 1669, resigned so that the 22-years-old Purcell could have his job. Purcell then spent the next six years just writing sacred (religious) music. Later he went back to writing music for the theatre, including the first English opera Dido and Aeneas.

In 1682 Purcell became organist of the Chapel Royal. He did this job as well as being organist at Westminster Abbey. His first printed composition, Twelve Sonatas, was published in 1683. Music printing was expensive in those days, so it was unusual to have something printed. He continued to write music including odes to the king and royal family. In 1685, he wrote two of his finest anthems, "I was glad" and "My heart is inditing", for the coronation of King James II.

In 1687 he wrote more theatre music. Sometimes this music was for masques (a kind of ballet with some singing as well), sometimes it was music for tragedies, e.g. plays by Dryden. In 1691, he wrote King Arthur, also written by Dryden. In 1692, he composed songs and music for The Fairy-Queen (an adaptation of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream). Purcell's music for this was lost for many years, and was rediscovered and published in 1901. In these works the characters in the plays do not sing, they speak their lines.

Purcell's Te Deum and Jubilate was written for Saint Cecilia's Day, 1693, the first English Te Deum ever composed with orchestral accompaniment. He composed an anthem and two elegies for Queen Mary II's funeral.

Death
He was very famous when he died in 1695, possibly from tuberculosis. His wife and two of his six children survived him.

Purcell is buried next to the organ in Westminster Abbey. His epitaph reads, "Here lyes Henry Purcell Esq., who left this life and is gone to that blessed place where only his harmony can be exceeded."

His music

Purcell wrote a lot of music for the theatre. He was born one year before the time known in England as the "Restoration". Before the Restoration Oliver Cromwell had been ruling England for nearly 20 years. Most music had been banned. People were therefore very glad to be able to make music again, and they wanted lots of songs and instrumental music in their plays. Opera, however, was not wanted. In Europe opera was very popular in countries such as Italy, Germany and France, but it did not become popular in England until Handel came to England in 1709 and introduced Italian opera.

Dido and Aeneas is an exception because it is a real opera: everything is sung, and the words are in English. It was written for a performance at a girls' school. It is quite short, lasting just one hour. It contains the famous lament When I am laid in earth sung by Dido.

Purcell wrote a very large amount of music for the church. This includes anthems and service settings. Although he was an organist he wrote very little for organ. He wrote chamber music, including some very beautiful fantasias for viols.

Influence

Although Purcell was recognized as a great composer at the time he did not have much influence on other composers after his death. He was the last in a line of great English musicians in the 16th and 17th centuries. After his death English music was not as important as it had been. In the 18th century the music heard in England was largely imported from the continent, e.g. Italian opera.

Much later, in the 20th century, English composers were often inspired by Purcell's music. Benjamin Britten wrote a piece called The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra which is based on a tune from Purcell's Abdelazer. The aria "I know a bank" from Britten's opera A Midsummer Night's Dream is inspired by Purcell's aria "Sweeter than Roses". Sir Michael Tippett loved Purcell's harmonies and rhythms and they influenced him in his compositions.

English composers
Baroque composers
1659 births
1695 deaths
People buried in Westminster Abbey
Gentlemen of the Chapel Royal

Henry Purcell


Dette er en liste over byene i England. Tradisjonelt skal byene i blant annet England bli utnevnt av en britisk monark. Men siden 1974 kan alle verdslige sogn utnevne seg selv som en by.

De større byene i England er merket med uthevet skrift.

A
Abingdon, Accrington, Acton, Adlington, Alcester, Aldeburgh, Aldershot, Aldridge, Alford, Alfreton, Allendale, Alnwick, Alsager, Alston, Alton, Altrincham, Amble, Amersham, Amesbury, Ampthill, Andover, Appleby-in-Westmorland, Arlesey, Arundel, Ashbourne, Ashburton, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Ashford, Ashington, Ashton-in-Makerfield, Ashton-under-Lyne, Askern, Aspatria, Atherstone, Attleborough, Axbridge, Axminster, Aylesbury, Aylsham

B
Bacup, Bakewell, Baldock, Banbury, Barking, Barnard Castle, Barnet, Barnoldswick, Barnsley, Barnstaple, Barrow-in-Furness, Barton-upon-Humber, Basildon, Basingstoke, Bath, Batley, Battle, Bawtry, Beaconsfield, Beaminster, Bebington, Beccles, Bedale, Bedford, Bedlington, Bedworth, Beeston, Belper, Bentham, Berkhamsted, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Beverley, Bewdley, Bexhill-on-Sea, Bicester, Biddulph, Bideford, Biggleswade, Billericay, Bilston, Bingham, Bingley, Birkenhead, Birmingham, Bishop Auckland, Bishop's Castle, Bishop's Stortford, Bishops Waltham, Blackburn, Blackheath, Blackpool, Blandford Forum, Bletchley, Bloxwich, Blyth, Bodmin, Bognor Regis, Bollington, Bolsover, Bolton, Bootle, Borehamwood, Boroughbridge, Boston, Bottesford, Bourne, Bournemouth, Brackley, Bracknell, Bradford, Bradford on Avon, Brading, Bradley Stoke, Bradninch, Braintree, Brentford, Brentwood, Bridgnorth, Bridgwater, Bridlington, Bridport, Brierley, Brierley Hill, Brigg, Brighouse, Brightlingsea, Brighton & Hove, Bristol, Brixham, Broadstairs, Bromley, Bromsgrove, Bromyard, Broseley, Brownhills, Buckfastleigh, Buckingham, Bude, Budleigh Salterton, Bungay, Buntingford, Burford, Burgess Hill, Burnham-on-Crouch, Burnham-on-Sea, Burnley, Burntwood, Burton Latimer, Burton upon Trent, Bury, Bury St Edmunds, Buxton

C
Caistor, Calne, Camberley, Camborne, Cambridge, Camelford, Cannock, Canterbury, Carlisle, Carnforth, Carterton, Castle Cary, Castleford, Chadderton, Chagford, Chard, Charlbury, Chatham, Chatteris, Chelmsford, Cheltenham, Chesham, Cheshunt, Chester, Chesterfield, Chester-le-Street, Chichester, Chippenham, Chipping Campden, Chipping Norton, Chipping Ongar, Chipping Sodbury, Chorley, Christchurch, Church Stretton, Cinderford, Cirencester, Clacton-on-Sea, Cleator Moor, Cleckheaton, Cleethorpes, Cleobury Mortimer, Clevedon, Clitheroe, Clun, Coalville, Cockermouth, Coggeshall, Colchester, Coleford, Coleshill, Colne, Congleton, Conisbrough, Consett, Corbridge, Corby, Corsham, Cotgrave, Coventry, Cowes, Cramlington, Cranbrook, Craven Arms, Crawley, Crayford, Crediton, Crewe, Crewkerne, Cromer, Crook, Crowborough, Crowle, Crowthorne, Croydon, Cuckfield, Cullompton

D
Dagenham, Dalton-in-Furness, Darlaston, Darley Dale, Darlington, Dartford, Dartmouth, Darwen, Daventry, Dawley, Dawlish, Deal, Denton, Derby, Dereham, Desborough,  Devizes, Dewsbury, Didcot, Dinnington, Diss, Doncaster, Dorchester, Dorking,  Dover, Downham Market, Driffield, Dronfield, Droitwich Spa, Droylsden, Dudley, Dukinfield, Dunstable, Durham, Dursley

E
Ealing, Earley, Easingwold, Eastbourne, East Grinstead, East Ham, Eastleigh, Eastwood, Edenbridge, Egham, Egremont, Ellesmere, Ellesmere Port, Ely, Enfield, Epping, Epsom, Epworth, Erith, Esher, Eston, Eton, Evesham, Exeter, Exmouth, Eye

F
Failsworth, Fairford, Fakenham, Falmouth, Fareham, Faringdon, Farnborough, Farnham, Farnworth, Faversham, Featherstone, Felixstowe, Fenny Stratford, Ferndown, Ferryhill, Filey, Filton, Fleet, Fleetwood, Flitwick, Folkestone, Fordingbridge, Fordwich,  Fowey, Framlingham, Frinton-on-Sea, Frodsham, Frome

G
Gainsborough, Garstang, Gateshead, Gillingham, Dorset, Gillingham, Medway, Glastonbury, Glossop, Gloucester, Godalming, Godmanchester, Goole, Gosport, Grange-over-Sands, Grantham, Gravesend, Grays, Great Dunmow, Great Torrington, Great Yarmouth, Grimsby, Guildford, Guisborough

H
Hackney, Hadleigh, Hailsham, Halesowen, Halesworth, Halewood, Halifax, Halstead, Haltwhistle, Hammersmith, Harlow, Harpenden, Harrogate, Harrow, Hartlepool, Harwich, Haslemere, Hastings, Hatfield, Havant, Haverhill, Hawes, Haxby, Hayle, Haywards Heath, Heanor, Heathfield, Hebden Bridge, Heckmondwike, Hedon, Helmsley, Helston, Hemel Hempstead, Hemsworth, Henley-in-Arden, Henley-on-Thames, Hendon, Hereford, Herne Bay, Hertford, Hessle, Heswall, Hetton-le-Hole, Hexham, Heywood, Higham Ferrers, Highbridge, Highworth, High Wycombe, Hinckley, Hitchin, Hoddesdon, Holmfirth, Holsworthy, Honiton, Horley, Horncastle,  Hornsea, Horsforth, Horsham, Horwich, Houghton-le-Spring, Hounslow, Hove, Howden, Hoylake, Hucknall, Huddersfield, Hugh Town, Hungerford, Hunstanton, Huntingdon, Hyde, Hythe, Hampshire, Hythe, Kent

I
Ilford, Ilfracombe, Ilkeston, Ilkley, Ilminster, Immingham, Ipswich, Irthlingborough, Ivybridge

J
Jarrow

K
Keighley, Kempston, Kendal, Kenilworth, Kesgrave, Keswick, Kettering, Keynsham, Kidderminster, Kidsgrove, Killingworth, Kimberley, Kingsbridge, King's Lynn, Kingston-upon-Hull, Kingston upon Thames, Kington, Kirkby, Kirkby-In-Ashfield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Kirkby Stephen, Kirkham, Kirton-in-Lindsey, Knaresborough, Knottingley, Knutsford

L
Lancaster, Launceston, Leatherhead, Leamington Spa, Lechlade, Ledbury, Leeds, Leek, Leicester, Leigh, Leighton Buzzard, Leigh-on-Sea, Leiston, Leominster, Letchworth, Lewes, Lewisham, Leyburn, Leyland, Leyton, Lichfield, Lincoln, Linton Liskeard, Littlehampton, Liverpool, Loftus, London, Long Eaton, Longridge, Looe, Lostwithiel, Loughborough, Loughton, Louth, Lowestoft, Ludlow, Luton, Lutterworth, Lydd, Lydney, Lyme Regis, Lymington, Lynton, Lytchett Minster, Lytham St Annes

M
Mablethorpe, Macclesfield, Madeley, Maghull, Maidenhead, Maidstone, Maldon, Malmesbury, Maltby, Malton, Malvern, Manchester, Manningtree, Mansfield, March, Margate, Market Deeping, Market Drayton, Market Harborough, Market Rasen, Market Warsop, Market Weighton, Marlborough, Marlow, Maryport, Matlock, Melksham, Melton Mowbray, Mexborough, Middleham, Middlesbrough, Middleton, Middlewich, Midhurst, Midsomer Norton, Millom, Milton Keynes, Minehead, Mirfield, Morecambe, Moretonhampstead, Moreton-in-Marsh, Morley, Morpeth, Mossley, Much Wenlock

N
Nailsea, Nailsworth, Nantwich, Needham Market, Neston, Newark-on-Trent, Newbiggin-by-the-Sea, Newbury, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Newent, Newhaven, Newmarket, New Mills, New Milton, Newport, Isle of Wight, Newport, Shropshire, Newport Pagnell, Newquay, New Romney, Newton Abbot, Newton Aycliffe, Newton-le-Willows, Normanton, Northallerton, Northam, Northampton, Northleach, North Petherton, North Shields, North Walsham, Northwich, Norton Radstock, Norton-on-Derwent, Norwich, Nottingham, Nuneaton

O
Oakengates, Oakham, Okehampton, Oldbury, Oldham, Ollerton, Olney, Ormskirk, Orpington, Ossett, Oswaldtwistle, Oswestry, Otley, Ottery St Mary, Oundle, Oxford

P
Paddock Wood, Padstow, Paignton, Painswick, Peacehaven, Penistone, Penrith, Penryn, Penzance, Pershore, Peterborough, Peterlee, Petersfield, Petworth, Pickering, Plymouth, Pocklington, Pontefract, Polegate, Poole, Portishead, Portslade, Portsmouth, Potters Bar, Potton, Poulton-le-Fylde, Prescot, Preston, Princes Risborough, Prudhoe, Pudsey

Q
Queenborough

R
Ramsbottom, Ramsgate, Raunds, Rawtenstall, Rayleigh, Reading, Redcar, Redditch, Redhill, Redruth, Reeth, Reigate, Retford, Richmond upon Thames, Richmond (Yorkshire), Rickmansworth, Ringwood, Ripley, Ripon, Robin Hood's Bay, Rochdale, Rochester, Rochford, Romford, Romsey, Ross-on-Wye, Rothbury, Rotherham, Rothwell, Rowley Regis, Royston, Royton, Rugby, Rugeley, Runcorn, Rushden, Ryde, Rye

S
Saffron Walden, St. Albans, St. Austell, St. Blazey, St. Columb Major, St. Helens, St. Ives (Cambridgeshire), St. Ives (Cornwall), St. Neots, Salcombe, Sale, Salford, Salisbury, Saltash, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Sandbach, Sandhurst, Sandown, Sandwich, Sandy, Sawbridgeworth, Saxmundham, Scarborough, Scunthorpe, Seaford, Seaton, Sedbergh, Sedgefield, Sedgley, Selby, Selsey, Settle, Sevenoaks, Shaftesbury, Shanklin, Shaw and Crompton, Sheerness, Sheffield, Shefford, Shepshed, Shepton Mallet, Sherborne, Sheringham, Shifnal, Shildon, Shipley, Shipston-on-Stour, Shoreham-by-Sea, Shrewsbury, Sidmouth, Silsden, Sittingbourne, Skegness, Skelmersdale, Skipton, Sleaford, Slough, Smethwick, Snaith, Snodland, Soham, Solihull, Somerton, Southall, Southam, Southampton, Southborough, South Elmsall, Southend-on-Sea,  South Kirkby & Moorthorpe, South Molton, Southport, South Shields, Southwell, Southwold, South Woodham Ferrers, Sowerby Bridge, Spalding, Spennymoor, Spilsby, Stafford, Staines, Stainforth, Stalybridge, Stamford, Stanley, Stapleford, Staveley, Stevenage, Stockport, Stocksbridge, Stockton-on-Tees, Stoke-on-Trent, Stokesley, Stone, Stony Stratford, Stourbridge, Stourport-on-Severn, Stowmarket, Stow-on-the-Wold, Stratford-upon-Avon, Streatham, Stretford, Strood, Stroud, Sudbury, Sunderland, Sutton, Sutton Coldfield, Sutton-in-Ashfield, Swadlincote, Swaffham, Swanage, Swanley, Swindon, Swinton

T
Tadcaster, Tadley, Tamworth, Taunton, Tavistock, Teignmouth, Telford, Tenbury Wells, Tenterden, Tetbury, Tewkesbury, Thame, Thatcham, Thaxted, Thetford, Thirsk, Thornaby, Thornbury, Thorne, Thrapston,  Tickhill, Tilbury, Tipton, Tiverton, Todmorden, Tonbridge, Torpoint, Torquay, Totnes, Tottenham, Tottington, Totton and Eling, Towcester, Tring, Trowbridge, Truro, Tunbridge Wells, Twickenham

U
Uckfield, Ulverston, Uppingham, Upton-upon-Severn, Uttoxeter, Uxbridge

V
Ventnor, Verwood

W
Wadebridge, Wadhurst, Wakefield, Wallasey, Wallingford, Walmer, Walsall, Waltham Abbey, Waltham Cross, Walthamstow, Walton-on-Thames, Walton-on-the-Naze, Wandsworth, Wantage, Ware, Wareham, Warminster, Warrington, Warwick, Washington, Watchet, Waterlooville, Watford, Wath-upon-Dearne, Watton, Wavertree, Wednesbury, Wednesfield, Wellingborough, Wellington (Somerset), Wellington (Shropshire), Wells, Wells-next-the-Sea, Welwyn Garden City, Wem, Wendover, West Bromwich, Westbury, Westerham, West Ham, Westhoughton, West Mersea, Westminster, Weston-super-Mare, Wetherby, Weybridge, Weymouth, Whaley Bridge, Whiston, Whitby, Whitchurch, Whitehaven, Whitley Bay, Whitnash, Whitstable, Whitworth, Wickford, Widnes, Wigan, Wigston, Willenhall, Wimbledon, Wimborne Minster, Wincanton, Winchcombe, Winchelsea, Winchester, Windermere, Windsor, Winsford, Winslow, Wisbech, Witham, Withernsea, Witney, Wivenhoe, Woburn, Woking, Wokingham, Wolverhampton, Wombwell, Woodbridge, Woodstock, Wooler, Woolwich, Wootton Bassett,  Worcester, Workington, Worksop, Worthing, Wotton-under-Edge, Wymondham

Y
Yarm, Yarmouth, Yate, Yateley, Yeadon, Yeovil, York

England

Liste over byer i England


कस वा फ्लिन्त खनिज क्वार्टज्‌या छगू कडा, सेडिमेन्टरी क्रिप्टोक्रिस्टलिन प्रकार ख।  थुकियात chertया भेराइटीया रुपय् वर्गीकृत याना तःगु दु। थ्व प्राथमिक रुपय् सेदिमेन्तरी लोँह(दसु: चक व लाइमस्तोन)य् नोद्युल व धीया रुपय् दयाच्वनि।  थःगु धी दुने फ्लिन्त साधारनकथं गाढा ह्यंग्वा रंग, हाकुगु, वांगु, तुयु वा सिं रंगय् खा वा मैन थें न्यागु रुपय् दयाच्वनि। थुकिया धीया पिनेया छगू सालुगु पत्रया रंग भतिचा पाइ व आपालं तुइसे व छागु जुइ। पेत्रोलोजीया विचाकथं, "flint" refers specifically to the form of chert which occurs in chalk or marly limestone. Similarly, "common chert" (sometimes referred to simply as "chert") occurs in limestone.

फ्लिन्त गथे जुया दयावइ धाइगु खं आतक्क बांलाक्क मथुनि, तर थ्व पदार्थ कम्प्रेस्द सेदिमेन्तरी लोँहय् दायाजेनेसिस प्रक्रिया बिलय् जूइगु रसायनिक परिवर्तनं दयावै धैगु विश्वास दु। One hypothesis is that a gelatinous material fills cavities in the sediment, such as holes bored by crustaceans or molluscs and that this becomes silicified. This theory certainly explains the complex shapes of flint nodules that are found. The source of dissolved silica in the porous media could arise from the spicules of silicious sponges.

छ्य्‌ला

ज्याभः

फ्लिन्तयात लोँह युगय् फ्लिन्त ज्याभः दयेकेत छ्यलातल। थ्व लोँहयात मेगु लोँहं छ्याना सालूगु, धाः दूगु ब्लेदय् तछ्याये छिंगुलिं थुकियात ज्याभः व ल्वाभःया रुपय् छ्यलाहल।

अबिलय्‌या युरोपय् दकलय् बांलाःगु भः बेल्जियमय् ), इंग्लिश च्यानलय्, पोल्यान्दय् आदि थासय् लूगु दु। फ्लिन्तया उत्खनन प्यालियोलिथिक युग निसें जूगु जुसां नियोलिथिक युगय् थुकिया छ्यला विस्तार जूगु खनेदु।

मि
When struck against steel, flint will produce sparks, which when directed onto tinder can be used to start a fire.  This occurs when the hard flint knocks off a particle of the steel, which is heated by the impact, and then burns with oxygen from the atmosphere. This method is popular in woodcraft and among campers who want to have an 'authentic' experience.  The components are also part of many survival kits, such as those issued by many military units, because they have the ability to work while wet, have a very long shelf-life, and will last a very long time in an extended survival situation (unlike matches or a lighter which not only need to be specially design to be able to light when wet, but which would be exhausted sooner than a flint-and-steel fire starter in a longer-duration survival scenario).  Striking a lump of flint against a piece of steel to make fire is not particularly easy or convenient (although it is much easier than other primitive fire-making methods such as using a bow and drill, and requires little practice to employ).  Matches and lighters are a much quicker and more convenient way of starting a fire, but have the disadvantages of being unable to function when wet (except for special designs) and of being more limited (than flint and steel) in the number of times that they can be used before exhausting their fuel supply.

Even so, many lighters still use a variant of the ancient technology as the ignition source for their primary fuel, due to the ease with which those materials generate a sufficiently hot spark.  Ferrocerium now replaces the steel and has been miniaturized and integrated into such lighters. The ferrocerium used in these lighters, while sometimes called "flint", has the opposite role than the flint in true flint-and-steel. Ferrocerium is much softer than modern steel and can be scraped with knife with minimal damage to the knife. In lighters, a small steel wheel is turned by the user rotating it with the thumb, creating a high-temperature spark, which ignites the lighters' primary fuel source (which is either present, such as in liquid fuel lighters, or which is also released by the same thumb motion, such as in butane-gas lighters), which then produces a small flame that burns until extinguished.  Common examples include the disposable Bic lighter and the reusable Zippo lighter.  The small ferrocerium cylinder in Zippo's spark producing mechanism is eventually consumed, and Zippo and other companies (e.g., Ronson) sell replacements that are marketed as "flints," even though they are ferrocerium.  Such mechanisms are more popular in liquid fuel lighters than in butane-gas lighters, which more commonly have a piezoelectric ignition system.

A later major use was to create the spark that would ignite the powder that would fire a ball or bullet from a flintlock firearm. While the military use of a flintlock declined after the British military generally applied the percussion cap on their muskets in 1842, it is still popular to use the flintlock as a hunting rifle during special muzzleloader seasons or general rifle seasons in several states in the US.

भवन
Flint, knapped or unknapped, has been used since antiquity (for example at the Late Roman fort of Burgh Castle in Norfolk) up to the present day as a material for building stone walls, using lime mortar, and often combined with other available stone or brick rubble.  It was most common in parts of southern England, where no good building stone was available locally, and brick-making not widespread until the later Middle Ages.  It is especially associated with East Anglia, but also used in chalky areas stretching through Sussex, Surrey and Kent to Somerset   Flint was used in the construction of many churches houses and other buildings, for example the large stronghold of Framlingham Castle.  Many different decorative effects have been achieved by using different types of knapping or arrangement and combinations with stone (flushwork), especially in the 15th and early 16th centuries.

सेरामिक्स
Flint pebbles are used as the media in ball mills to grind glazes and other raw materials for the ceramics industry. The pebbles are hand-selected for colour, with those showing a reddish tint, indicating the presence of iron, being discarded. The remaining blue-grey stones have a low content of chromophoric oxides and so should impart lesser amounts of colouring contaminants.

In the UK, flint pebbles were traditionally an important raw material for clay-based ceramic bodies.  After calcination to remove organic impurities and induce certain physical reactions, and milling to fine particle size, flint was added as a filler to pottery bodies. However, flint is no longer used and has been replaced by quartz as is used in other countries.  Because of this historical use, the word "flint" is used by US potters to refer to siliceous materials which are not flint.

स्वयादिसँ

Chert
Eolith
Obsidian
Grimes Graves, a prehistoric flint mine in Norfolk, England

पिनेया स्वापू
 Flintsource.net European Artefacts - detailed site
 Flint mine in South Moravia 9,400 yrs old
 Flint Architecture of East Anglia Book by Stephen Hart

लिधंसा

Sedimentary rocks
Lithics
Quartz varieties
Firelighting
Symbols of Ohio
Building stone
विज्ञान

कस


[[File:Hercules fighting the Centaurs.jpg|thumb|260px|Hercules fighting the Centaurs, engraving by Sebald Beham]]
Engraving is putting a design onto a hard, flat surface, by carving into it. The result may be a decorative piece in itself, as when silver, gold or steel are engraved, or may provide a printing plate of copper or another metal, for printing images on paper which are also called engravings. Engraving was an important method in history of making images on paper, both in artistic ways, such as making a decorative print, and also for printing books and magazines. It has long been replaced by photography in its commercial uses and, is nowadays much less common in printmaking, where it has been almost completely replaced by etching and other techniques.

The engraving process

Engravers use a steel tool called a burin to cut the picture or pattern into the surface, mostly a copper plate. Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that give different line types when used. The burin gives us a line that is unique because of its steady appearance and smooth edges. The angle tint tool has a slightly curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines on them, used to do work on larger areas. Flat gravers are used for doing work on letters, as well as most musical instrument engraving work. Round gravers are commonly used on silver as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel.

History and usage
In ancient history, the only engraving that could be made were the shallow grooves found in some jewellery after 1000 B.C.

In the European Middle Ages goldsmiths used engraving to decorate metal. It is thought that they began to print impressions of their designs to record them. From this grew the engraving of copper printing plates to make artistic images on paper in Germany in the 1430s. The first and greatest period of engraving was from about 1470 to 1530, with such masters as Martin Schongauer, Albrecht Dürer, and Lucas van Leiden.

Thereafter engraving tended to lose popularity to etching, which was a much easier technique for an artist to learn. By the nineteenth century, most engraving was for commercial picture-making.

Before the invention of photography, engraving was used to reproduce other forms of art, for example paintings. Engravings continued to be common in newspapers and many books into the early 20th century, because they were cheap to use in printing.

 When two sets of parallel line hatchings crossed each other for higher density, the pattern was known as cross-hatching. Claude Mellan is well known for his technique of using lines of different thicknesses. One example is his Sudarium of Saint Veronica, an engraving of the face of Jesus from a single spiralling line that starts at the tip Jesus's nose (pictured).

Modern engraving
Because of the high level of detail that can be done by a master engraver, faking engraved designs is almost impossible, and modern banknotes are almost always engraved, as are plates for printing money, checks, bonds and other papers that should not be faked. Engraving is so fine that a normal printer can not make the detail of hand engraved images properly. In the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing, more than one engraver will work on the same printing plate, making it nearly impossible for any person to duplicate all the engraving on almost any banknote or document.

Many classic postage stamps were engraved, although the practice is now mostly confined to particular countries, or used when a more "elegant" design is desired and a limited amount of different colours is acceptable.

Engraving machines such as the K500 or K6 by Hell Gravure Systems use a diamond "pen" to cut cells. Each cell creates one printing dot later in the process. A K6 can have up to 18 engraving heads each cutting 8,000 cells per second to an accuracy of 0.1 µm and below. They are of course fully computer controlled and the whole process of cylinder making is fully automatic.

The engraving process with diamonds is state of the art since the 1960s.

Now, laser engraving machines are being made and even today the mechanical cutting has proven its strength in economical terms and quality. More than 4,000 engravers make about 8 million printing cylinders worldwide per year.

Biblical references

The earliest allusion to engraving in the Bible may be the reference to Judah's seal ring. (Genesis 38:18), followed by (Exodus 39.30). Engraving was commonly done with pointed tools of iron or even with diamond points. (Jeremiah 17:1).

Each of the two onyx stones on the shoulder pieces of the high priest's ephod was engraved with the names of six different tribes of Israel, and each of the 12 precious stones that adorned his breastpiece was engraved with the name of one of the tribes. The holy sign of dedication, the shining gold plate on the high priest's turban, was engraved with the words: "Holiness belongs to Jehovah." Bezalel, along with Oholiab, was qualified to do this specialized engraving work as well as to train others.—Ex 35:30-35; 28:9-12; 39:6-14, 30.

 References
 A. M. Hind (1923, repr. 1963). History of Engraving and Etching. Dover.
 A. Gross (1970). Etching, Engraving, and Intaglio Printing. G. Duplessis (1989). Wonders of Engraving.''

Other websites
 Engraving from the Metropolitan Museum of Art Timeline of Art History
 Blog on Old Master Engravings and Etchings

Printmaking

Engraving


Svante August Arrhenius (19 February 1859 – 2 October 1927) was a Nobel Prize-winning Swedish scientist who made discoveries in physics, chemistry and earth science.

Originally he was a physicist, but he won the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and was a founder of physical chemistry.

Later in life, he turned to other scientific problems. He was the first person to predict that emissions of carbon dioxide, from the burning of fossil fuels, would cause global warming.

Early work
His early work was on the conductivity of electrolytes. In 1884, based on this work, he submitted a 150-page essay on electrolytic conductivity to University of Uppsala for his doctorate. It did not impress the professors, and he received a low-class degree. Later, extensions of this work would earn him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

The most important idea in the thesis was his explanation that neither pure salts nor pure water is a conductor, but solutions of salts in water are.

Arrhenius' explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt splits up into charged particles (which Michael Faraday had given the name ions many years earlier). Faraday's belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis; Arrhenius' idea was that, even in the absence of an electric current, solutions of salts contained ions. He proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions.

In an extension of his ionic scientific theory Arrhenius proposed definitions for acids and bases, in 1884. He believed that acids were substances which produce hydrogen ions in a solution and that bases were substances which produce hydroxide ions in a solution.

The Nobel Prize
About 1900, Arrhenius became involved in setting up the Nobel Institutes and the Nobel Prizes. For the rest of his life, he would be a member of the Nobel Committee on Physics and a member of the Nobel Committee on Chemistry.

He used his positions to arrange prizes for his friends (Jacobus van't Hoff, Wilhelm Ostwald, Theodore Richards) and to attempt to deny them to his enemies (Paul Ehrlich, Walther Nernst). In 1903 he became the first Swedish persn to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Later work
After he had made his name, he turned to other scientific questions.

Physiology
In 1904 he delivered (at the University of California) several lectures, to try and show the application of the methods of physical chemistry to the study of the theory of toxins and antitoxins, and which were published in 1907 under the title Immunochemistry.

Earth and planetary sciences
He also turned his attention to geology (the origin of ice ages), astronomy, physical cosmology, and astrophysics, accounting for the birth of the solar system by interstellar collision.
He considered radiation pressure as accounting for comets, the solar corona, the aurora borealis, and zodiacal light.

He thought life might have been carried from planet to planet by the transport of spores. This idea is now known as panspermia.

Greenhouse effect
Arrhenius thought of a theory to explain the ice ages, and in 1896 he was the first scientist to think that changes in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere could make a big change to the surface temperature through the greenhouse effect. He was influenced by the work of others, including Joseph Fourier. Arrhenius used infrared observations of the moon to work out the absorption of infrared radiation by atmospheric CO2 and water vapour.
In its original form, Arrhenius' greenhouse law reads as follows:
"If the quantity of carbonic acid increases in geometric progression, the augmentation of the temperature will increase nearly in arithmetic progression".
This simplified expression is still used today:
ΔF = α ln(C/)

His book Worlds in the making (1908) was directed at a general audience. He suggested that the human emission of CO2 would be strong enough to stop the world from entering a new ice age, and that a warmer Earth would be needed to feed the rapidly increasing population:
 "To a certain extent the temperature of the earth's surface... is [related to] the atmosphere surrounding it, and particularly by the permeability of the latter for the rays of heat". (p46)
 "[The] theory has been styled the hot-house theory, because they thought that the atmosphere acted after the manner of the glass panes of hot-houses." (p51)
 "If the quantity of carbonic acid in the air should sink to one-half its present percentage, the temperature would fall by about 4°; a diminution to one-quarter would reduce the temperature by 8°. On the other hand, any doubling of the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air would raise the temperature of the earth's surface by 4°; and if the carbon dioxide were increased fourfold, the temperature would rise by 8°". (p53)
 "Although the sea, by absorbing carbonic acid, acts as a regulator of huge capacity, which takes up about five-sixths of the produced carbonic acid, we yet recognize that the slight percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere may by the advances of industry be changed to a noticeable degree in the course of a few centuries". (p54)
 "By the influence of the increasing carbonic acid in the atmosphere, we may hope to enjoy ages with more equable and better climates, especially as regards the colder regions of the earth, ages when the earth will bring forth much more abundant crops than at present, for the benefit of rapidly propagating mankind". (p63)

He was the first person to predict that emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels and other combustion processes would cause global warming. Arrhenius clearly believed that a warmer world would be a positive change. Nevertheless, until about 1960, most scientists dismissed the greenhouse effect because they thought it was very unlikely to happen. Milutin Milankovitch had presented a mechanism for ice ages: it used cyclical changes in the orbit of the Earth (Milankovitch cycles). Nowadays, the accepted explanation is that orbital forcing sets the timing for ice ages with CO2 acting as amplifying feedback.

Human affairs
He thought of the idea of a universal language (one language that would be spoken by everybody), proposing a modification of the English language.

Arrhenius was one of several leading Swedish scientists who helped create The State Institute for Racial Biology in 1922. This was a eugenics-influenced idea. It had originally been proposed as a Nobel Institute. Arrhenius was a member of the institute's board, as he had been in The Swedish Society for Racial Hygiene (Eugenics), founded in 1909.

References

Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners
Swedish Nobel Prize winners
Swedish physicists
Swedish chemists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
1859 births
1927 deaths

Svante Arrhenius


Live It Up! was a Canadian lifestyle, entertainment and consumer awareness television program, which aired nationally on CTV from 1978 to 1990. Reruns of the show aired on talktv until January 2005.

The program's hosts included Jack McGaw, Alan Edmonds, Mary Lou Finlay, Liz Grogan, Dianne Buckner and Sharon Seto.   Live It Up! featured a mix of serious consumer-affairs topics and lighter consumer topics, mostly delivered in a tongue-in-cheek style. Regular segments included the Watchdog (played by Ron Carlyle, a man whose face is never shown while testing different brands of a product), "What bugs you?" (concerned consumers talk about problems with household products, and those involved in those products explain why those problems occur and/or mentions how they are improving them; segments began and end with a person (Miss Judy) in a bug costume flying around, saying "What bugs you?" in a high-pitched voice), "The Legal Beagle" with lawyer, Jonathan Rudin explaining unusual Canadian laws in humorous sketches performed by the Live It Up Players (notably Tracie Tighe and Art Szoczi) and "The Great Canadian Joke-Off" (a nationwide search to find the funniest joke in Canada, with each segment ending with an annoyed monkey). Segments were mainly filmed at first, but moved permanently to videotape in 1987.

References

External links

1970s Canadian television news shows
CTV Television Network original programming
1978 Canadian television series debuts
1990 Canadian television series endings
1980s Canadian television news shows
Television series by Bell Media
1990s Canadian television news shows

Live It Up! (TV series)


The performing arts are those forms of art in which individual people perform separately or together. The artist's own body, face, and presence is needed for the performance.

Performing arts differ from the plastic arts, which use materials such as clay, metal or paint which can be moulded or transformed. A plastic art produces some physical art object. The term 'performing arts' first appeared in the English language in the year 1711.

Types of performing arts
Performing arts include the dance, music, opera, drama, magic, oratory and circus arts.

Artists who participate in performing arts in front of an audience are called performers, including actors, comedians, dancers, magicians, musicians, and singers. Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting and stagecraft.

Performers often adapt their appearance, such as with costumes and stage makeup, etc.

There is also a specialized form of fine art in which the artists perform their work live to an audience. This is called performance art. Most performance art also involves some form of plastic art, perhaps in the creation of props. Dance was often referred to as a plastic art during the Modern dance era.

Music

Music focuses on three career paths, music performance, music education, and musicology (theory, history, etc.). Students learn to play musical instrument, but also study music theory, musicology, history of music and musical composition. In the arts tradition, music is also used to broaden skills of non-musicians by teaching skills such as concentration and listening.

Drama

Drama (Greek 'to do', 'seeing place') is the branch of the performing arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience. It uses speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle—indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative dialogue style of plays, theatre takes such forms as musicals, opera, ballet, illusion, mime, Indian dance, kabuki, mummers' plays, stand-up comedy, pantomime, and non-conventional or arthouse theatre.

Dance

Dance (from Old French dancier) generally refers to human movement either used as a form of expression or in a social, spiritual or performance setting.

'Dance' is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (bee dance, mating dance), motion in inanimate objects (the leaves danced in the wind), and certain music genres.

Choreography is the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a choreographer.

The definition of what is dance depends on society, and ranges from  folk dance to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet. In sports, rhythmic gymnastics, figure skating, ice dancing and synchronized swimming are dance disciplines. Some martial arts have dance-like moves.

History of Western performing arts

Starting in the 6th century BC, the first recorded performing art began in Ancient Greece, ushered in by the tragic poets such as Aeschylus and Sophocles. These poets wrote plays which, in some cases, incorporated dance (see Euripides). Aristophanes is noted for his satyrical comedies (5th century BC).

By the 6th century AD, the Western performing arts died out as the Dark Ages began. Between the 9th century and 14th century, performing art in the West was limited to religious historical enactments and morality plays, organized by the Church in celebration of holy days and other important events.

Non-verbal communication

Performing arts


Modernism was a cultural movement of the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. It was a philosophy and it was also an art movement. It changed art, literature, music, architecture and drama.

Modernism rejected tradition. It was interested in new ways of doing old things. Also, there was a belief that science and technology could change the world for the better. The details differ greatly, and the term covers some movements which are somewhat contradictory.

Art
Modern art replaced classical art. It included abstract art, cubism, pop art, minimalism, and Dadaism. It affected sculpture quite strongly, though at the beginning sculptors like Rodin and Epstein made both traditional and modernist works. Henry Moore is one of the most famous modernist sculptors.

Typical modernist painters were Picasso, Braque, Matisse, Kandinsky and Mondrian.

Music
Composers such as Stravinsky, George Antheil and Schoenberg are modernists. Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (Le Sacre du Printemps) is a landmark work.

Dance
Ballets such as The Rite of Spring and Les Noces (The Wedding) mark the arrival of modernism into this traditional dance form. Modern dance outside of ballet started with Isadora Duncan, Loie Fuller and Ruth St. Denis.

Literature
James Joyce's Ulysses is the classic example of modernism in the novel. Ulysses (1922) has been called "a demonstration and summation of the entire Modernist movement". Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis (1915), The Trial (1925) and T.S. Eliot's poem The Waste Land (1922) are also prime examples. Looking back, it is clear that: Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment (1866) had a great influence on other writers.

The arrival of magic realism is part of modernism. The novels and short stories of Mikhail Bulgakov such as Diabolidad and The Master and Margarita are examples.

Architecture

Modernism in architecture is found in the work of Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius the founder of Bauhaus, and Mies van der Rohe. Le Corbusier's famous remark "A building is a machine for living in" shows how different his thinking was to architects of the 19th century. The skyscraper, such as Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York (1956–1958), became the archetypal modernist building.

Criticism
A criticism of the modern movement is that it does not value tradition, and goes in for change for the sake of change. What modernists want most is freedom of expression, or, perhaps, freedom of experimentation. This is why many modern paintings avoid making visual copies of real things. In modernist literature, an author may leave out plots or narrative or characterization in books.

These experiments were not random. They drew on the ideas of their day: mass media, science and technology, Marxism, Freudian psychology, and so on. There was a general search for new materials, new methods and new ideas. There was often a rejection of elitism, and a love of populism and popular culture.

Another criticism was of the connection between modernism and socialism. Certainly many modernists were also socialists. In the early days of socialism it seemed to offer hope of a new future without the baggage of the past. This also explains their rejection of tradition.

References

Related pages
Avant-garde
Modernist literature
Modernist music
Postmodernism

Art movements
Architectural styles
Literature
Philosophical movements and positions

Modernism


Jean-Jacques Rousseau, (28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a famous French-speaking philosopher. He was born in Geneva, Switzerland and always described himself as being Genevan.

Early life
Rousseau lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment. His political ideology influenced the French Revolution and aided the development of nationalism and socialist theories.

Career
Rousseau was also a composer, writing numerous books about music theory. Rousseau authored Confessions, an autobiography, one of the first of its kind. Many later philosophers were influenced by him. He wrote a novel Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, which was a best-seller and influenced 19th century writers of romanticism.

Rousseau believed that men were born good and innocent, and that corruption and sadness happened because of life experiences and experiences in society.  He believed that if society were gone, man would be happy and pure once again.

Rousseau is most famous for his social contract ideology, which is often compared to the social contract of John Locke. This ideology is stated in Rousseau's book, The Social Contract.

References

1712 births
1778 deaths
Classical era composers
Swiss composers
Music theorists
18th-century philosophers
Writers from Geneva

Jean-Jacques Rousseau