Mercury-Redstone 4 was the second United States human spaceflight, on July 21, 1961. The suborbital Project Mercury flight was launched with a Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle, MRLV-8. The spacecraft, Mercury capsule #11, was nicknamed Liberty Bell 7. It was piloted by astronaut Virgil "Gus" Grissom.

The spaceflight lasted 15 minutes 30 seconds, reached an altitude of more than , and flew  downrange, landing in the Atlantic Ocean. The flight went as expected until just after splashdown, when the hatch cover, designed to release explosively in the event of an emergency, accidentally blew. Grissom was at risk of drowning, but was recovered safely via a U.S. Navy helicopter. The spacecraft sank into the Atlantic and was not recovered until 1999.

Mission parameters
 Mass: 1 286 kg
 Maximum altitude: 190.39 km
 Range: 486.15 km
 Launch vehicle: Redstone rocket

Spacecraft
The MR-4 spacecraft, Mercury capsule #11, was designated to fly the second crewed suborbital flight in October 1960. It came off McDonnell's St. Louis production line in May 1960. Capsule #11 was the first Mercury operational spacecraft with a centerline window instead of two portholes. It was closer to the final orbital version than was Alan Shepard's Freedom 7. Dubbed Liberty Bell 7 by its pilot, it featured a white, diagonal, irregular paint stripe starting at the base of the capsule and extending about two-thirds toward the nose, emulating the crack in the famed Liberty Bell in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Explosive hatch

Liberty Bell 7 also had a new explosive hatch release. This would allow an astronaut to exit the spacecraft quickly in the event of an emergency. Emergency personnel could also trigger the explosive hatch from outside the spacecraft by pulling on an external lanyard. Both the pop-off hatch and the lanyard are standard features of ejection seats used in military aircraft, but in the Mercury design, the pilot still had to exit the craft himself, or be removed by emergency personnel. The original exit procedure was to climb out through the antenna compartment, after removing a small pressure bulkhead. This was a difficult and slow procedure. Removal of an injured or unconscious astronaut through the top hatch would be nearly impossible. The original side hatch was bolted shut with 70 bolts and covered with several spacecraft shingles, making it a slow process to open the original hatch.

McDonnell Aircraft engineers devised two different quick release hatches for the Mercury spacecraft. The first had a latch, and was used on Ham's (a chimpanzee) MR-2 and Shepard's MR-3 missions. The second design was an explosive release hatch. The quick release latching hatch weighed 69 lb (31 kg), too much of a weight addition to use on the orbital version of the spacecraft. The explosive hatch design used the 70 bolts of the original design, but each quarter-inch (6.35 mm) titanium bolt had a  hole bored into it to provide a weak point. A mild detonating fuse (MDF) was installed in a channel between the inner and outer seal around the periphery of the hatch. When the MDF was ignited, the resulting gas pressure between the inner and outer seal would cause the bolts to fail in tension.

There were two ways to fire the explosive hatch during recovery. On the inside of the hatch was a knobbed plunger. The pilot could remove a pin and press the plunger with a force of 5 or 6 lbf (25 N). This would detonate the explosive charge, which would shear off the 70 bolts and propel the hatch  away in one second. If the pin was left in place, a force of 40 lbf (180 N) was required to detonate the bolts. An outside rescuer could blow open the hatch by removing a small panel near the hatch and pulling a lanyard. The explosive hatch weighed .

Window
The new trapezoidal window on Liberty Bell 7 replaced the two  side portholes that were on Freedom 7. The Corning Glass Works of Corning, New York designed and developed the multilayered panes that comprised the new window. The outer pane was  thick Vycor glass. It could withstand temperatures of . The inner pane was made of three inner glass panels bonded to form a single inner pane. One panel was a  thick sheet of Vycor, while the others were tempered glass. This new window assembly was as strong as any part of the spacecraft pressure vessel.

Controls
The manual controls of Liberty Bell 7 incorporated a new rate stabilization control system. This allowed fine control of spacecraft attitude movements by small turns of the hand controller. Previously a lot of jockeying of the device was needed to maintain the desired attitude. This rate damping, or rate augmentation system, gave finer and easier handling qualities and a redundant means of firing the pitch, yaw, and roll thrusters.

Before the Mercury-Redstone 4 mission, Lewis Research Center and Space Task Group engineers had determined that firing the posigrade rockets into the booster-spacecraft adapter, rather than in the open, developed 78 percent greater thrust. This achieved a greater spacecraft-booster separation through a kind of "pop-gun" effect. By using this technique, the spacecraft separated at velocity of about  rather than  using the old procedure. The Mercury-Redstone 4/Liberty Bell 7 mission would take advantage of this new procedure.

Additional hardware changes to Liberty Bell 7 were a redesigned fairing for the spacecraft-Redstone adapter clamp-ring and additional foam padding added to the head area of the contour couch. The fairing changes and additional foam were used to reduce vibrations the pilot experienced during the boost phase of flight. The spacecraft instrument panel was rearranged to provide a better eye scan pattern.

Naming
Captain Grissom dubbed his capsule "Liberty Bell 7", the seven in honor of the the seven original astronauts selected for Mercury, a tradition inadvertently started by prior Mercury pilot, Alan Shepard, who incorporated the seven in "Freedom 7" as his spacecraft was factory model no. 7. The other astronauts liked the symbolism, and so each appended 7 to their spacecraft names as well.

Grissom chose "Liberty Bell" due to the capsule's resemblance to a bell, and because it evoked the iconic Liberty Bell. Grissom went as far as having the Liberty Bell on the spacecraft complete with the crack that characterizes the real bell. This detail motivated a degree of teasing of Grissom after the spacecraft sank in the ocean at the end of its mission.

Mission description
In January 1961, NASA's Director of the Space Task Group, Robert Gilruth, told Gus Grissom that he would be the primary pilot for Mercury-Redstone 4. John Glenn was the backup pilot for the mission.

Redstone launch vehicle MRLV-8 arrived at Cape Canaveral on June 8, 1961. A mission review on July 15, 1961, pronounced Redstone MRLV-8 and Mercury spacecraft #11 ready to go for the Mercury-Redstone
4 mission.

The Mercury 4 mission was planned as a repeat of MR-3. It was to reach an apogee of . The planned range was . Grissom would experience a maximum acceleration of 6.33 g (62 m/s) and deceleration of 10.96 g (107 m/s).

The launch of Liberty Bell 7 was first planned for July 16. The cloud cover was too thick and the launch was postponed until July 18. On July 18, it was again postponed due to weather. Both times, the pilot had not yet boarded the spacecraft. On July 19, 1961, Grissom was on board when the flight was delayed again due to weather. At that point, it had just 10 minutes 30 seconds to go before launch.

On the morning of July 21, 1961, Gus Grissom entered the Liberty Bell 7 at 8:58 UTC and the 70 hatch bolts were put in place. At 45 minutes prior to the scheduled launch, a pad technician discovered that one of the hatch bolts was misaligned. During a 30-minute hold that was called, McDonnell and NASA Space Task Group engineers decided that the 69 remaining bolts should be sufficient to hold the hatch in place and blow it at the appropriate time. The misaligned bolt was not replaced.

Liberty Bell 7 was launched at 12:20:36 UTC, July 21, 1961.

Launch

Grissom later admitted at the postflight debriefing that he was "a bit scared" at liftoff, but he added that he soon gained confidence along with the acceleration increase. Hearing the engine roar at the pedestal, he thought that his elapsed-time clock had started late. Like Shepard, he was amazed at the smooth quality of the liftoff, but then he noticed gradually more severe vibrations. These were never violent enough to impair his vision.

Grissom's cabin pressure sealed off at the proper altitude, about , and he felt elated that the environmental control system was in good working order. The cabin and suit temperatures, respectively about  were quite comfortable. Watching his instruments for the pitch rate of the Redstone, Grissom saw it follow directions as programmed, tilting over at about one deg/s.

During a 3 g (29 m/s) acceleration on the up-leg of his flight, Grissom noticed a sudden change in the color of the horizon from light blue to jet black. His attention was distracted by the noise of the tower-jettison rocket firing on schedule. Grissom felt the separation, and he watched the tower through the window as it drifted off, trailing smoke, to his right. At two minutes and 22 seconds after launch, the Redstone's Rocketdyne engine cut off after building a speed of . Grissom had a strong sensation of tumbling during the transition from high to zero acceleration, and, while he had become familiar with this sensation in centrifuge training, for a moment he lost his bearings.

The Redstone coasted for 10 seconds after its engine cut off; then a sharp report signaled that the posigrade rockets were popping the spacecraft loose from the booster. Although Grissom peered out his window throughout his ship's turnaround maneuver, he never caught sight of his booster.

Ballistic flight
With turnaround accomplished, the Air Force jet pilot for the first time became a space pilot, assuming manual-proportional control. A constant urge to look out the window made concentrating on his control tasks difficult. He told Shepard back in Mercury Control that the panorama of Earth's horizon, presenting an  arc at peak altitude, was fascinating. His instruments rated a poor second to the spectacle below.

Turning reluctantly to his dials and control stick, Grissom made a pitch movement change, but was past his desired mark. He jockeyed the handcontroller stick for position, trying to damp out all oscillations, then made a yaw movement and went too far in that direction. By the time the proper attitude was attained, the short time allocated for these maneuvers had been used, so he omitted the roll movement altogether. Grissom found the manual controls very sluggish when compared to the Mercury procedures trainer. He then switched to the new rate command control system and found perfect response, although fuel consumption was high.

After the pitch and yaw maneuvers, Grissom made a roll-over movement so he could see the ground from his window. Some land beneath the clouds (later determined to be western Florida around the Apalachicola area) appeared in the hazy distance, but the pilot was unable to identify it. Suddenly Cape Canaveral came into view so clearly that Grissom found it hard to believe that his slant-range was over .

He saw Merritt Island, the Banana River, the Indian River, and what appeared to be a large airport runway. South of Cape Canaveral, he saw what he believed to be West Palm Beach.

Reentry
With Liberty Bell 7 at an altitude of , it was now time to position the spacecraft in its reentry attitude. Grissom had initiated the retrorocket sequence and the spacecraft was arcing downward. His pulse reached 171 beats per minute. Retrofire gave him the distinct and peculiar feeling that he had reversed his backward flight through space and was actually moving face forward. As he plummeted downward, he saw what appeared to be two of the spent retrorockets pass across the periscope view after the retrorocket package had been jettisoned.

Pitching the spacecraft over into a reentry attitude of 14 degrees from Earth-vertical, the pilot tried to see the stars out his observation window. Instead the glare of sunlight filled his cabin, making it difficult to read the panel dials, particularly those with blue lights. Grissom thought that he would not have noticed the 0.05 g (0.5 m/s) light if he had not known it was about to flash on.

Reentry presented no problem. Grissom could not feel the oscillations following the acceleration buildup; he could only read them on the rate indicators. Meanwhile, he continued to report to the Mercury Control Center on his electric current reading, fuel quantity, acceleration, and other instrument indications. Condensation and smoke trailed off the heatshield at about  as Liberty Bell 7 plunged back into the atmosphere.

The drogue parachute deployed on schedule at . Grissom said he saw the deployment and felt some resulting pulsating motion, but not enough to worry him. Main parachute deployment occurred at , which was about  higher than the design nominal altitude. Watching the main chute unfurl, Grissom spotted a  L-shaped tear and another  puncture in the canopy. Although he worried about them, the holes grew no bigger and his rate of descent soon slowed to about . Dumping his peroxide control fuel, the pilot began transmitting his panel readings.

Splashdown
A "clunk" confirmed that the landing bag had dropped in preparation for impact. Grissom then removed his oxygen hose and opened his visor, but deliberately left the suit ventilation hose attached. Impact was milder than he had expected, although the spacecraft heeled over in the water until Grissom was lying on his left side. He thought he was facing downward. The spacecraft gradually righted itself, and, as the window cleared the water, Grissom jettisoned the reserve parachute and activated the rescue aids switch. Liberty Bell 7 still appeared to be watertight, although it was rolling badly with the swells.

Preparing for recovery, he disconnected his helmet and checked himself for debarkation. The neck dam did not unroll easily; Grissom tinkered with his suit collar to ensure his buoyancy in the event that he had to get out of the spacecraft quickly. When the recovery helicopters, which had taken to the air at launch time and visually followed the contrails and parachute descent, were still about  from the impact point, which was only  beyond the bullseye, Lieutenant James L. Lewis, the pilot of the primary recovery helicopter, radioed Grissom to ask if he was ready for pickup. He replied that he wanted them to wait five minutes while he recorded his cockpit panel data. Using a grease pencil with the pressure suit gloves was awkward, and several times the suit ventilation caused the neck dam to balloon, but Grissom simply placed his finger between neck and dam to allow the air to escape.

Hatch blows open

After logging the panel data, Grissom asked the helicopters to begin the approach for pickup. He removed the pin from the hatch-cover detonator and lay back in the couch. "I was lying there, minding my own business," he said afterward, "when I heard a dull thud." The hatch cover blew away, and salt water splashed into the spacecraft as it bobbed in the ocean. The capsule began taking on water and started to sink.

Grissom had difficulty recollecting his actions at this point, but he was certain that he had not touched the hatch-activation plunger. He had earlier unbuckled himself from most of his harness; he now removed his helmet, grasped the instrument panel with his right hand, and climbed though the hatchway.

The copilot of the nearest recovery helicopter said that as he was preparing, per procedure, to cut off the spacecraft's antenna whip with a squib-actuated cutter at the end of a pole, the hatch cover flew off, struck the water about  away, then skipped over the waves. Next he saw Grissom climb through the hatch and swim away.

Failed spacecraft recovery

Leaving aside the swimming astronaut, Lewis completed his approach to the sinking spacecraft, as both he and co-pilot John Reinhard were intent on spacecraft recovery. This action was a conditioned reflex based on past training experience. While training off the Virginia beaches the helicopter pilots had noted that the astronauts seemed at home in and to enjoy the water. So Reinhard quickly cut the high-frequency antenna as soon as the helicopter reached Liberty Bell 7. Throwing aside the antenna cutting device, Reinhard picked up the shepherd's-hook recovery pole and carefully threaded the crook through the recovery loop on top of the spacecraft. By this time Lewis had lowered the helicopter to assist Reinhard in his task to a point that the helicopter's three wheels were in the water. The capsule sank out of sight, but the pickup pole tangled as the attached cable went taut, indicating to the helicopter pilots that they had made the catch.

Reinhard immediately prepared to pass the floating astronaut the personnel hoist, but at that moment Lewis called a warning that a detector light had flashed on the instrument panel, indicating that metal chips were in the oil sump because of engine strain. Considering the implication of impending engine failure, Lewis told Reinhard to retract the personnel hoist while he called the second helicopter to retrieve Grissom.

Meanwhile, Grissom, having made certain that he was not snared by any lines, noticed that the primary helicopter was having trouble raising the submerged spacecraft. He swam back to the spacecraft to see if he could assist, but found the cable properly attached. When he looked up for the personnel line, he saw the helicopter start to move away.

Suddenly, Grissom realized that he was not riding as high in the water as he had been. All the time he had been in the water he kept feeling air escape through the neck dam. The more air he lost, the less buoyancy he had. Moreover, he had forgotten to secure his suit inlet valve. Swimming was becoming difficult, and now with the second helicopter moving in he found the rotor wash between the two aircraft was making swimming more difficult. Bobbing under the waves, Grissom was scared, angry, and looking for a swimmer from one of the helicopters to help him tread water. Then he caught sight of a familiar face, that of George Cox, aboard the second helicopter. Cox was the copilot who had retrieved both the chimpanzee Ham and Shepard on the first Mercury flight. With his head barely above water, Grissom found the sight of Cox heartening.

Cox tossed the "horse-collar" lifeline straight to Grissom, who immediately wrapped himself into the sling backwards. Lack of orthodoxy mattered little to Grissom now, for he was on his way to the safety of the helicopter, even though swells dunked him twice more before he got aboard. His first thought was to get a life preserver on. Grissom had been either swimming or floating for a period of only four or five minutes, "although it seemed like an eternity to me," as he said afterward.

As the first helicopter moved away from Grissom, it struggled to raise the spacecraft high enough to drain the water from the impact bag. At one point the spacecraft was almost clear of the water, but like an anchor it prevented the helicopter from moving forward. The flooded capsule weighed over ,  beyond the helicopter's lifting capacity. The pilot, watching his insistent red warning light, decided not to chance losing two craft in one day. He finally cast loose, allowing the spacecraft to sink swiftly. Martin Byrnes, aboard the carrier, suggested that a marker be placed at the point so that the spacecraft might be recovered later. Rear Admiral J. E. Clark advised Byrnes that in that area the depth was about .

Aftermath
Substantial controversy ensued, as Grissom reported that the hatch had blown prematurely without his authorization. An independent technical review of the incident between August and October 1961 raised doubts regarding the theory that Grissom had blown the hatch and was responsible for the loss of the spacecraft. There is strong evidence that the Astronaut Office did not accept Grissom's guilt in the fact that he was maintained in the prime rotation spot for future flights, commanding the first Gemini flight, and the first planned Apollo flight.

Three Mercury flights later, Astronaut Wally Schirra manually blew Sigma 7'''s hatch after recovery when his spacecraft was on the deck of the recovery ship, in a deliberate attempt to dispel the rumor that Grissom might have blown the capsule's hatch deliberately. As anticipated, the kickback from the manual trigger left Schirra with a visible injury to his right hand. Grissom was uninjured when he exited the spacecraft, as documented by his postflight physical. This strongly supports his assertion that he did not accidentally hit the trigger, since in that case he would have been even more likely to injure himself.

In a 1965 interview, Grissom said that he believed the external release lanyard came loose, triggering the hatch release. On the Liberty Bell 7, this release lanyard was held in place by only one screw. This theory was accepted by Guenter Wendt, the Pad Leader for most early American crewed spaceflights.

During a launch simulation on Apollo 1 in 1967, the combination of a cabin fire and an inward-opening hatch contributed to the death of Grissom, as well as that of the astronauts Ed White and Roger B. Chaffee in a launch-pad fire. Use of an explosive hatch had been rejected following the discovery by engineers that, in fact, an explosive egress system on a spacecraft could inadvertently fire without being triggered. Following the Apollo fire, Block II Apollo spacecraft were equipped with rapid-opening systems.

In 2021, analysis of video of the recovery suggested that static electricity may have caused the premature detonation of the hatch bolts. Helicopters are known to build up a charge of static electricity due to the rotors moving through the air. Marine Corps Lt. John Reinhard, the crewman aboard the helicopter who used a set of shears containing explosive charges to snip off the antenna on the floating spacecraft (to allow the helicopter to go lower) reported that "when I touched the antenna there was an arc, and both cutters fired. At the same time, the hatch came off. It could be that some static charge set [the hatch] off."

Recovery of Liberty Bell 7

After several unsuccessful attempts in 1992 and 1993, Oceaneering International, Inc. lifted the Liberty Bell 7 off the floor of the Atlantic Ocean and onto the deck of a recovery ship on July 20, 1999, the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar landing. The team was led by Curt Newport and financed by the Discovery Channel.
The spacecraft was found after a 14-year effort by Newport at a depth of nearly ,  east-southeast of Cape Canaveral. Among the items found within were part of the flight gear and several Mercury dimes which had been taken to space to be souvenirs of the flight.

After Liberty Bell 7 was secured on the deck of the recovery ship, the "Ocean Project", experts removed and disposed of an explosive device (SOFAR bomb) that was supposed to detonate in the event of the spacecraft's sinking, but which failed to explode. The spacecraft was then placed in a container filled with seawater to prevent further corrosion. The Cosmosphere, in Hutchinson, Kansas, disassembled and cleaned the spacecraft, and it was released for a national tour through September 15, 2006. The spacecraft was then returned to the Cosmosphere where it is on permanent display. In 2016, it was temporarily lent to The Children's Museum of Indianapolis.

Dramatization in film
Philip Kaufman's 1983 film The Right Stuff includes a dramatization of the Liberty Bell 7 mission in which Fred Ward played Gus Grissom.
Additional fictional representations also occur in HBO's 1998 From the Earth to the Moon with Mark Rolston as Gus Grissom and 2016's Hidden Figures movie with Devin McGee as Gus Grissom.

Timeline

Notes

References

 Mercury-Redstone 4 transcripts on Spacelog
 This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury - NASA SP-4201
 NASA MR-4 News Conference July 22, 1961, Cocoa Beach, FL
 Results Of The Second U.S. Manned Suborbital Spaceflight July 21, 1961 (NASA)
 Liberty Bell 7 Recovery Evaluation and Nondestructive Testing - NASA - December 1999 (PDF format)
 NASA Mercury MR4 press kit - July 13, 1961

External links
 Field Guide to American Spacecraft Pictures of Liberty Bell 7'' on display after recovery and restoration.

1961 in spaceflight
Project Mercury
Suborbital human spaceflights
1961 in Florida
July 1961 events
Gus Grissom

Mercury-Redstone 4


The bivalves are a large class of molluscs, also known as pelecypods.

They have a hard calcareous shell made of two parts or 'valves'. The soft parts are inside the shell. The shell is usually bilaterally symmetrical.

There are over 30,000 species of bivalves, including the fossil species. There are about 9,200 living species in 1,260 genera and 106 families. All of them live in the water, most of them in the sea or in brackish water. Some live in fresh water. All are filter feeders: they lost their radula in the course of evolution. A few are carnivorous, eating much larger prey than the tiny microalgae eaten by other bivalves.

The best known examples of bivalves are clams, mussels, scallops and oysters.

Shell
Bivalves have two shells or valves connected by a hinge with hinge teeth. They are made of a calcareous mineral, calcite or aragonite. The valves are covered by a periostracum, which is an organic horny substance. This forms the familiar coloured layer on the shell.

The shells are usually held shut by strong adductor muscles. Scallops can use their muscles to flap the valves and swim.

Food
A bivalve takes in water that has plankton and other things floating in it.

Some (but not all) molluscs have a part of their mantle known as the siphon (a tube). Siphons, if they exist, come in pairs, one to suck in, one to expel.

Anything that is small enough to fit inside the hole of its incurrent siphon enters the bivalve. When the floating material comes in, it gets stuck in slimy mucus that is on the surface of the bivalve's gills. The food is moved down to the mouth, which is on the other side of the siphon. Food is digested in the bivalve's stomach and intestine, and everything that is not digested goes out through the other siphon, with water.

The siphons are an adaptation of burrowing molluscs. Those that live above the substrate (sediment), such as scallops and oysters, do not need them.

Feeding types
There are four feeding types, defined by their gill structure:
Protobranchs use their ctenidia solely for respiration, and the labial palps to feed
Septibranchs possess a septum across the mantle cavity which pumps in food.
Filibranchs and lamellibranchs trap food with a mucous coating on the ctenidia; the filibranchs and lamellibranchs are differentiated by the way the ctenidia are joined

Movement

Digging
As a group, the bivalves are adapted to penetrate into, and to move along horizontally along, soft ground such as mud and sand. Common examples of this are razor shells, which can dig themselves into the sand with great speed to escape enemies, and cockles.

Swimming
Scallops and file clams can swim to escape a predator, clapping their valves together to create a jet of water. Cockles can use their foot to leap from danger. However these methods quickly exhaust the animal. In the razor shells the siphons can break off only to grow back later.

Defensive secretions
The file shells can produce a noxious secretion when threatened, and the fan shells of the same family have a unique, acid-producing organ.

Comparison with brachiopods
Bivalves are superficially similar to brachiopods, but the construction of the shell is completely different in the two groups. In brachiopods, the two valves are on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body, while in bivalves, they are on the left and right sides.

Bivalves appeared late in the Cambrian explosion and came to increase in the Palaeozoic, and dominate over brachiopods during the Mesozoic. So, it was thought that bivalves are better adapted to aquatic life than the brachiopods, and this caused brachiopods to be out-competed and relegated to minor niches.

However, after the Permian-Triassic extinction event bivalves had a huge adaptive radiation while brachiopods were devastated, losing 95% of their diversity.

"The supposed replacement of brachiopods by clams is not gradual and sequential. It is a product of one event: the Permian extinction (which affected brachiopods profoundly and clams relatively little)".

The upshot was that bivalves took over the desirable inshore habitats. Brachiopods now live in deeper waters where food is scarcer.

References

Bivalve


Worcester may refer to:

Places

United Kingdom
 Worcester, England, a city and the county town of Worcestershire in England
 Worcester (UK Parliament constituency), an area represented by a Member of Parliament
 City of Worcester, a district of Worcestershire
 Worcester Park, London, England
 Worcestershire, a county in England

United States
 Worcester, Massachusetts, the largest city with the name in the United States
 Worcester County, Massachusetts
 Worcester, Missouri
 Worcester, New York, a town
 Worcester (CDP), New York, within the town
 Worcester Township, Pennsylvania
 Worcester, Vermont
 Worcester (CDP), Vermont, within the town
 Worcester, Wisconsin, a town
 Worcester (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
 Worcester County, Maryland
 Barry, Illinois, formerly known as Worcester
 Marquette, Michigan, formerly known as New Worcester

Other places
 Worcester, Limpopo, South Africa
 Worcester, Western Cape, South Africa
 Worcester Summit, Antarctica

Transportation
 Worcester, a GWR 3031 Class locomotive that was built for and run on the Great Western Railway between 1891 and 1915
 Union Station (Worcester, Massachusetts), called "Worcester" by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
 HMS Worcester, several ships of the British Royal Navy
 USS Worcester, several ships of the United States Navy
 Worcester, a 1785 launched British East Indiaman

People
 John of Worcester, English monk and chronicler
 Roger of Worcester, Bishop of Worcester
 Sylvester of Worcester, Bishop of Worcester
 Worcester (surname)

Foods
 Worcester Pearmain, an English apple cultivar
 Worcestershire sauce, often "Worcester sauce", a spicy condiment devised in Worcester, England, in the 19th c.

Other uses
 Worcester Academy
 Worcester, Bosch Group, a British domestic heating company
 Worcester College (disambiguation)
 Royal Worcester, an English bone china and porcelain manufacturer

See also
 Worcester v. Georgia, an 1832 U.S. Supreme Court Case
 Wooster (disambiguation)

Worcester


Jesus or Jesus Christ wis a Jewish prophet that lived in the 1st century in Roman Palestine. In Christianity, he is the anly son o God an Mary is his mither. Jesus is kent as prophet in Islam an aw. In Christianity, Jesus Christ sacrifeed hissel for humanity an his follaeers fur that they can be forgien for their sins.

(Aw Biblical quotes in this airticle haes been taen frae W.L Lorimer's translate)

His Life an Darg

Bairnheid an Early Life
Gaun by the Gospels, Jesus wis born in the clachan o Bethlehem, sax mile frae Jesusalem. Tho his faimily wis frae Nazareth, his faither haed come frae Bethlehem oreeginally an haed tae gang there for tae be registrate durin a census, an while there Jesus wis born. Maist modren historians jalouses that he was born atween 6 an 4 BC. Christians jalouses that he wis born (or "begatten") o the Haly Speerit an his mither Mary, wha they threap wis a maiden at the time. E'en sae, he haed a yirdly faither, cried Joseph. Joseph semss tae hae been a skeely craftsman o some kynd, aften hauden tae hae been a jyner, an it is for ordinar said that Jesus wis a jyner an aw whan he grew up. Like aw Jewish lads, he wad hae been circumcised at aicht day auld an brocht up wi kennin o the Torah (Jewish Law) an Jewish customs.

Gey little is kent anent his bairnheid, tho in his Gospel Matthew scrieves that efter his birth his faimily flee'd for some time tae Egypt for tae evyte King Herod, wha haed ordered that aw bairns in Bethlehem be kilt, syne the wyce men frae the East tauld him they jaloused the King o the Jews haed been born. This pit Herod in a richt fankle an, syne he kent fine weel he wisna popular ava wi the fowk, he thocht this new born bairn micht kythe as a leader o opposeetion tae him. Joseph wis wairned anent this in a dream, an teuk the gate tae Egypt till Herod wis deid.

The ae story o Jesus' bairnheid kythes in The Gospel o Luke tellin that the faimily war in Jerusalem for the Passower festival (ane o the maist important Jewish festivals). The story gaes that Jesus cam tae be skailed frae his fowks, an whan they realised this, they gaed tae the Temple for tae find him. There he wis settin toung tae issues anent the Torah wi Doctors o the Law that wwis amazed at his kennin (syne tradeetion hauds that he wis anerly aboot twal year auld, tho this nummer disna kythe in the accoont Luke gies). Some scholars haes threapit that Jesus wisna a bairn at the time, an the Doctors o the Law wis in fact amazed bi a laich jyner kennin sae muckle anent the Law.

Bapteesim an Temptation
Aw three o The Seenoptic Gospels records the Bapteesm o Jesus bi John the Bapteezer, (that Luke threaps wis Jesus' kizzen) an pynt tae this as the stairtin o Jesus' meenistry-darg. It seems that Jesus gaed doun tae the River Jordan whaur John wad bapteeze the fowk that cam til him, an speired that John dae the same til him. John wis at first sweirt tae dae sae syne he jaloused Jesus wis greater nor himsel:

But John socht tae hender him: "I hae need tae be baptízed by ye," qo he, "an come ye tae me?
But Jesus answert, "Lat it be sae for the nou; we behuive tae dae this, gin we ar tae dae God's will in aathing." Syne John loot him hae his will. (Matthew 3: 14-15)

Efter this, God sent doun his Speerit in the form o a dou, for tae bliss him. Syne Jesus gaed tae the muirs for fowerty days for tae fast an pray afore his meenistry-darg. While he wes there, Sautan cam til him an temptit him for tae turn him aside frae the gate he ettelt tae tak (i.e. Sautan ettelt tae rauchle Jesus' meenistry-darg wi sin). Housome'ev, Jesus resistit thir temptations an efter the fowerty days wis ower he quat the muirs for tae stairt his wark.

Meenistry-Darg
Efter he quat the muirs, Jesus stairtit his meenistry-darg. Hou lang this lestit for isna clear. The Gospel o John seems tae indicate that it lestit for three year (syne three sindry Passower feasts kythes in his Gospel), but some interpretations o The Seenoptic Gospels coud be said tae haud that it lestit anerly the ae year. The problem is made mair teuch bi the fact that the Gospels aften taks a raither theological sklant tae chronology, sae events coud be pitten in deeferent orders for tae mak a theological pynt.
Still an on, it is certain that while he wis at his darg, Jesus wis attractin muckle thrangs that cam tae hear him speak an preach the Kinrick o Heiven. His teachins wis anent sic things as bein hummle, luve for God an Man an ither things sib tae them forby thon. He taucht anent the need tae repent o sins an the comin o the end o the yird an aw. The Gospels records that durin his meenistry-darg, Jesus performed mony ferlies, sic as healins, ruisin up the deid an siclike. Muckle o his time wes spent ettlin tae bring ower sinners sic as hures an tax-gaitherers (that war seen as traitors tae their ain fowk syne they sidit wi the Romans) syne he threapit that:

"It isna the haill an fere hes need o the doctor, but the síck an dwinin...I haena come tae invíte the weill-lívin, but outlans an ill-daers. (Matthew 9: 12-13)

Forby thon, Jesus taucht anent the heepocrisy o the Jewish leaders an agin strict legalism, that made-him-na popular wi the authorities. His claims anent himsel (re: bein the Messiah) gart mony o the leaders tae haud him as a blasphemer an aw, an it seems it wisna lang afore they war drauchtin again him.

Arrest, Trial, Daith an Yirdin
Somtime aboot the Passower, the Jewish leaders decidit tae kill Jesus, an teuk in the hulp o Judas Iscariot, ane o Jesus' follaers. He begeckit Jesus tae thaim, an he wis reestit an pitten on trial. Efter bein speired at bi the Sanhedrin (the Jewish waldin cooncil) an Pontius Pilate (the Roman heidman o Jerusalem), it wis decidit that he wad be execute. Syne Jesus' releegious "crimes" wadna be wirth the daith penalty unner Roman Law, the Jewish leaders tauld Pilate that syne he threapit tae be "King o the Jews" he wis a thrait tae Rome an Roman owerins - a rebel (anti-Roman sentiment wis dreidit, an unco common, an wad later lead tae open rebellion an the rauchle o Jerusalem in AD 70). Sae it wis that Jesus wis crucifee'd. The Gospels aw grees that Jesus dee'd muckle faster nor maist fowk that's crucifee'd.

Christians jalouses that Jesus haed tae dee as a saicrifice for aw the sins o aw the fowk, an that he kent anent Judas' begeckin aforehaund. In Judaism, saicrifices o beasts sic as sheep an gaits wis needit for the forgien o sins, but Christains haud that Jesus wis the ae perfit saicrifice, an that he cam til the yird:

tae gíe his life as a ransom for monie. (Mark 10:45)

Efter he wis deid, ane o the Seenagogue leaders, a chiel cried Joseph o Arimathea teuk his corp an yirdit him in his ain graff.

The feck o Muslims hauds that Jesus dee'dna on the cross ava, an haes twa-three theories anent hou he joukit frae daith includin that he wis substitute for anither chiel (sic as Judas Iscariot or Simon o Cyrene) afore the crucifeection, an that he joukit frae Jerusalem.

Raisin Up
Christians jalouses that Jesus wis raised up days efter his daith. He wis kilt on the Friday efternuin, an gaun by The Gospels he wis raised up frae the deid on the Sunday morn that in Jewish upcastin is three days (syne in Jewish upcast pairt o a day coonts as ae day). Tho The Gospel accoonts isna exact the same, they aw gree that a smaw curn o weemen, includin Mary Magdalene an Mary the Mither o Jesus cam til the graff for tae annynt Jesus' corp wi spices efter the Jewish cuistom. They record twa-three kythins tae the disciples an Luke scrieves o his gaun up til the lift afore a thrang. Christians jalouses that in his raisin up, Jesus defeatit daith an the pouer o Sautan, an this is ane o the maist important Christian beliefs.

Name
The name Jesus is an translate o a common Jewish name kent as Joshua (bein in Ebrue Yahosha - The Laird is ma hulp). He is aften cried Jesus Christ - frae the Greek Χριστός (Christós) that means The Annyntit Ane that in Ebreu is מָשִׁיחַ (Mašía), for ordinar transleeterate as Messiah. This comes frae the Jewish custom o annyntin kings wi ile at their crounin. It shoud be merkit that Christ an Messiah is teetles an no names. Jesus is cried Jesus o Nazareth forby, syne Nazareth is the clachan whaur he is jaloused tae hae bidit for maist o his life.

Ither airticles sib tae this ane
 Christenmas
 The Bible
 The New Testament
 Lorimer's translate

Fremmit Airtins
 Papist Kirk Encyclopaedia entries anent Jesus
 Jesus in airt
 Wassup With Jesus?

Christianity
Releegion
0s BC births
30s daiths

Jesus Christ


Cost is the value of money that has been used up to produce something or deliver a service, and hence is not available for use anymore. In business, the cost may be one of acquisition, in which case the amount of money expended to acquire it is counted as cost. In this case, money is the input that is gone in order to acquire the thing. This acquisition cost may be the sum of the cost of production as incurred by the original producer, and further costs of transaction as incurred by the acquirer over and above the price paid to the producer. Usually, the price also includes a mark-up for profit over the cost of production.

More generalized in the field of economics, cost is a metric that is totaling up as a result of a process or as a differential for the result of a decision.  Hence cost is the metric used in the standard modeling paradigm applied to economic processes.

Costs (pl.) are often further described based on their timing or their applicability.

Types of accounting costs

In accounting, costs are the monetary value of expenditures for supplies, services, labor, products, equipment and other items purchased for use by a business or other accounting entity. It is the amount denoted on invoices as the price and recorded in book keeping records as an expense or asset cost basis.

Opportunity cost, also referred to as economic cost is the value of the best alternative that was not chosen in order to pursue the current endeavor—i.e., what could have been accomplished with the resources expended in the undertaking. It represents opportunities forgone.

In theoretical economics, cost used without qualification often means opportunity cost.

Comparing private, external, and social costs

When a transaction takes place, it typically involves both private costs and external costs.

Private costs are the costs that the buyer of a good or service pays the seller. This can also be described as the costs internal to the firm's production function.

External costs (also called externalities), in contrast, are the costs that people other than the buyer are forced to pay as a result of the transaction. The bearers of such costs can be either particular individuals or society at large. Note that external costs are often both non-monetary and problematic to quantify for comparison with monetary values. They include things like pollution, things that society will likely have to pay for in some way or at some time in the future, even so that are not included in transaction prices.

Social costs are the sum of private costs and external costs.

For example, the manufacturing cost of a car (i.e., the costs of buying inputs, land tax rates for the car plant, overhead costs of running the plant and labor costs) reflects the private cost for the manufacturer (in some ways, normal profit can also be seen as a cost of production; see, e.g., Ison and Wall, 2007, p. 181). The polluted waters or polluted air also created as part of the process of producing the car is an external cost borne by those who are affected by the pollution or who value unpolluted air or water. Because the manufacturer does not pay for this external cost (the cost of emitting undesirable waste into the commons), and does not include this cost in the price of the car (a Kaldor-Hicks compensation), they are said to be external to the market pricing mechanism. The air pollution from driving the car is also an externality produced by the car user in the process of using his good. The driver does not compensate for the environmental damage caused by using the car.

Cost estimation

When developing a business plan for a new or existing company, product or project, planners typically make cost estimates in order to assess whether revenues/benefits will cover costs (see cost-benefit analysis). This is done in both business and government. Costs are often underestimated, resulting in cost overrun during execution.

Cost-plus pricing is where the price equals cost plus a percentage of overhead or profit margin. In business economics, the profitability of a trade or sales prospect relies on the ability of an enterprise to sustain market prices that cover all costs and leave a surplus for owner interest, as expressed by:

Manufacturing costs vs. non-manufacturing costs

Manufacturing costs are those costs that are directly involved in manufacturing of products. Examples of manufacturing costs include raw materials costs and charges related to workers. Manufacturing cost is divided into three broad categories:

Direct materials cost.
Direct labor cost.
Manufacturing overhead cost.

Non-manufacturing costs are those costs that are not directly incurred in manufacturing a product. Examples of such costs are salary of sales personnel and advertising expenses. Generally, non-manufacturing costs are further classified into two categories:

Selling and distribution costs.
Administrative costs.

Other costs

A defensive cost is an environmental expenditure to eliminate or prevent environmental damage. Defensive costs form part of the genuine progress indicator (GPI) calculations.

Labour costs would include travel time, holiday pay, training costs, working clothes, social insurance, taxes on employment &c.

Path cost is a term in networking to define the worthiness of a path, see Routing.

See also

 Average cost
 Cost accounting
 Cost curve
 Cost object
 Direct cost
 Fixed cost
 Incremental cost
 Indirect cost
 Life-cycle cost
 Outline of industrial organization
 Repugnancy costs
 Semi-variable cost
 Total cost
 Variable cost

Notes

References

Cost


该是印度个南方部分。
<P>
勒《大唐西域记》里向有讲到古老个辰光南印度有十八个王国 : 案达罗国、驮那羯磔迦国、珠利耶国、达罗毗荼国、秣罗矩咤国、恭建那补罗国、摩诃剌他国、跋禄羯占婆国、摩腊婆国、阿咤厘国、契咤国、伐腊毗国、阿难陀补罗国、苏剌他国、瞿折罗国、邬阇衍那国、掷枳陀国、摩醯湿伐罗补罗国。。。

乃歇包含仔

 Andhra Pradesh
 Karnataka
 Kerala
 搭仔Tamil Nadu
 搭仔 territories of Lakshadweep
 and Pondicherry

The South India lies in the peninsular Deccan Plateau and is bounded by the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal in the west, south and east respectively. The geography of the region is diverse, encompassing two mountain ranges — the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats and a plateau heartland. Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri rivers are important non-perennial sources of water. Inhabitants of South India are referred to as South Indians. A majority of South Indians speak one of the four Dravidian languages — Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu. During its history, a number of dynastic kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history and cultures of modern nation-states such as Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia. The region was colonised by Britain and gradually incorporated into the British Empire.

外部链接

 More about South India
 A list of attractions of South India

印度南部个地方
印度

南印度


Liste over fylker i Missouri. Den amerikanske delstaten Missouri består av 114 fylker.

 Adair County
 Andrew County
 Atchison County
 Audrain County
 Barry County
 Barton County
 Bates County
 Benton County
 Bollinger County
 Boone County
 Buchanan County
 Butler County
 Caldwell County
 Callaway County
 Camden County
 Cape Girardeau County
 Carroll County
 Carter County
 Cass County
 Cedar County
 Chariton County
 Christian County
 Clark County
 Clay County
 Clinton County
 Cole County
 Cooper County
 Crawford County
 Dade County
 Dallas County
 Daviess County
 DeKalb County
 Dent County
 Douglas County
 Dunklin County
 Franklin County
 Gasconade County
 Gentry County
 Greene County
 Grundy County
 Harrison County
 Henry County
 Hickory County
 Holt County
 Howard County
 Howell County
 Iron County
 Jackson County
 Jasper County
 Jefferson County
 Johnson County
 Knox County
 Laclede County
 Lafayette County
 Lawrence County
 Lewis County
 Lincoln County
 Linn County
 Livingston County
 Macon County
 Madison County
 Maries County
 Marion County
 McDonald County
 Mercer County
 Miller County
 Mississippi County
 Moniteau County
 Monroe County
 Montgomery County
 Morgan County
 New Madrid County
 Newton County
 Nodaway County
 Oregon County
 Osage County
 Ozark County
 Pemiscot County
 Perry County
 Pettis County
 Phelps County
 Pike County
 Platte County
 Polk County
 Pulaski County
 Putnam County
 Ralls County
 Randolph County
 Ray County
 Reynolds County
 Ripley County
 Saline County
 Schuyler County
 Scotland County
 Scott County
 Shannon County
 Shelby County
 St. Charles County
 St. Clair County
 St. Francois County
 St. Louis County
 St. Louis City
 Ste. Genevieve County
 Stoddard County
 Stone County
 Sullivan County
 Taney County
 Texas County
 Vernon County
 Warren County
 Washington County
 Wayne County
 Webster County
 Worth County
 Wright County

Referanser

Missouri

Liste over fylker i Missouri


IEEE 1394 is the name for a set of standards. The standards specify a serial bus which can be used to transfer information. Other names for the standards include Firewire, i.Link and Lynx. The standard is often used to connect a computer to an external device, like a hard drive or digital camcorder. It also has uses to transfer data in cars and airplanes.
It is similar to the contemporary USB. Firewire replaced the earlier SCSI for many applications: Making a device understand Firewire is easier than having it understand SCSI; handling Firewire cables is also much easier than SCSI cabling.

Advantages
FireWire is popular in industrial systems for machine vision and professional audio systems. It is preferred over the more common USB because of its greater effective speed and power distribution capabilities, and because it does not need a computer host. Perhaps more importantly, FireWire makes full use of all SCSI (older connecting possibility) capabilities. Compared to USB 2.0, it usually has higher data transfer rates. This feature is important for audio and video editors.
Also many computers intended for home or professional audio/video use have built-in FireWire ports, including all Apple Inc. and Sony laptop computers and most Dell and Hewlett-Packard models currently produced. It is available to general public on retail motherboards for do-it-yourself PCs, alongside USB.
FireWire is produced in wireless, optical fiber, and coaxial cable versions.
However, the copyright fees demanded from users of FireWire and the more expensive hardware needed to implement it has prevented FireWire from displacing USB in mass-market, where cost of product is crucial.

History and development
FireWire is Apple Inc.'s name for the IEEE 1394 High Speed Serial Bus. Apple intended FireWire to be a serial replacement for the parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) bus while also providing connectivity for digital audio and video equipment.
Apple's development of the original IEEE 1394 was completed in 1995.It was followed by several modifications: The IEEE Std. 1394a-2000, the IEEE Std. 1394b-2002, and the IEEE Std. 1394c-2006 amendment. The aim of current work is to incorporate all four of these documents into new revision of the 1394 standard.
Sony's version of the system is known as i.LINK, and uses only the four signal pins, omitting the two pins which provide power to the device because of a separate power connector on Sony's i.LINK products

Versions

FireWire 400 (IEEE 1394)
FireWire 400 can transfer data between devices at 100, 200, or 400 Mbit/s data rates. The 6-pin connector is commonly found on desktop computers, and can supply the connected device with power.
Typically a device can pull about 7 to 8 watts from the port; However, the voltage varies significantly from different devices.

Enhancements (IEEE 1394a)
Modification IEEE 1394a was released in 2000. It standardized the 4 pin connector already widely in use. The 4-pin version is used on many consumer devices such as camcorders, some laptops and other small FireWire devices. It is fully data compatible with 6-pin interfaces.

FireWire 800 (IEEE 1394b)
9-pin FireWire 800 was introduced commercially by Apple Inc. in 2003. This newer specification (1394b) and corresponding products allow a transfer rate of 786.432 Mbit/s. It is backwards compatibility to the slower rates and 6-pin connectors of FireWire 400. However, while the IEEE 1394a and IEEE 1394b standards are compatible, connectors are different, making the cables used by previous versions incompatible.

FireWire S3200
In December 2007, the 1394 Trade Association announced the products will soon be available using S3200 mode. It will use the same 9-pin connectors as the existing FireWire 800 and will be fully compatible with existing S400 and S800 devices. The future products are intended to compete with the USB 3.0.

Technical description

Speeds
The numbers given after the FireWire, or the S give the approximate speed in MBit/s, rounded up to the next 100. The first version can transfer 98.304.000 Bits/s, or 12.288.000 Bytes/s. The versions that came afterwards can do this speed, and multiples of it. Using the SI prefix, this is exactly 98.304 kbit/s, using the binary prefix, it is 96.000 kiBit/s. To avoid confusion, it is rounded to the next closest 100. That way, S3200 does not transfer 3.200 Mbit/s, nor 3.200 MiBit/s, but 3.145,728 Mbit/s, or 3.000 MiBit/s. This is approximately 2,93 Gibit/s.

Addressing and Bus management
Unlike with USB, there is no one device that manages the bus all the time. Each device is able to manage the bus. When a new device is connected, there will be negotiations between the devices which of them does the management.

Addresses have a length of 64 Bits. Of these, 10 are used to identify segments (as part of the network), 6 are used for nodes, and 48 are freely available. The standard used to connect several segments has not yet been ratified. For this reason, all Firewire networks currently only use one segment.

Security issues
Devices on a FireWire bus can communicate by direct memory access. With Direct Memory access (DMA) a device can use hardware to map internal memory to FireWire's "Physical Memory Space". The SBP-2 (Serial Bus Protocol 2) used by FireWire disk drives uses this capability to minimize interrupts and buffer copies. In SBP-2, the initiator (controlling device) sends a request by remotely writing a command into a specified area of the target's FireWire address space. This command usually includes buffer addresses in the initiator's FireWire "Physical Address Space". The target is supposed to use this space to move I/O data to and from the initiator.

Many implementations use hardware to do the mapping between the FireWire "Physical Memory Space" and device physical memory. Among these, are those used by PCs and Macs, especially those using OHCI. In this case, the operating system is not involved in the transfer. This allows for high speed transfers with a low latency and avoids that the data is copied around unnecessarily. It can however be a security risk if devices that are not trusted are connected to the bus. Installations where security is a concern will therefore either use newer hardware, which use virtual memory to map the Firewire Physical memory space, or disable the mapping the OHCI does. They might also disable the whole Firewire subsystem, or not provide Firewire at all.

This feature can also be useful, for example to debug a machine where the operating system has crashed. Some systems can use it to provide a remote console. On FreeBSD, the dcons driver provides both, using gdb as debugger. Under Linux, firescope and fireproxy exist.

Related pages
 USB
 SCSI

References

Other websites
 Apple FireWire technology
 IEEE 1394 _Citizendium

Computer buses
Electrical connectors

IEEE 1394


Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125, is a symphony written by Ludwig van Beethoven. It is one of the most famous pieces of music ever written.

A symphony is a piece of music for orchestra. Beethoven wrote nine symphonies. This one, the last one he wrote, is very unusual because the last movement also has singing in it: there are four soloists (soprano, alto, tenor and bass) and a choir. This is why it is known as the "choral" symphony ("choral" means: "for choir"). It is a very long work, lasting more than an hour. This, too, was unusual.

This symphony has four movements. The first movement is in sonata form. The second and third movements come the other way round from the usual order: the second movement is the scherzo and the third movement is the slow movement. It is a theme and variations. The last movement sets the words of a poem by Friedrich Schiller, a famous poet who had only recently died. The poem was called Ode an die Freude (in English: Ode to Joy). The poem has a strong message to all mankind: it is about living in peace and harmony together. It was written at the time of the French Revolution when these ideas were becoming very important in Europe.

The main tune of the last movement (sung to the words: "Freude, schöne Götterfunken, Tochter aus Elysium") is one of the best known tunes in the world. Many children like to play it on instruments because the first part of the tune only uses five notes (it can be played on C, D, E, F, G). When the tune comes the first time in the symphony it is played by the cellos and double basses.

The Ode to Joy was adopted as Europe's "National anthem" in 1972, with an official arrangement for orchestra written by Herbert von Karajan.

Beethoven had been interested in Schiller's famous poem since he was young. In 1817 he started to write the first two movements of the symphony. In 1822 he decided to use Schiller's poem in the symphony. Most of the rest of the symphony was written in 1823 and he finished it in 1824. It was first performed in May of that year. Beethoven conducted the performance. The story is told that he wondered why the audience were not applauding when it had finished. They were applauding, but Beethoven was deaf so he could not hear. Caroline Unger, the alto soloist, made him turn round, and he saw that people were applauding enthusiastically.

Symphony 09

Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)


A deity is thought to be a powerful spirit that controls events and the nature of things. Deities are also called gods. A female god is often called a goddess. The adjective of deity is 'divine'. This word comes from the Latin deus (female: dea).

Different religions believe in different deities. Since there are many religions in the world there are many different ideas about how many deities there are, what they are, and what they can do.  Followers of many ancient religions and some modern religions believe in many deities, which is called polytheism.

The two largest religions on earth, Christianity and Islam, believe in only one God, which is called monotheism. Deism is the belief that a deity exists, but that the deity does not very often change or never changes things in the universe. Pantheism is the belief that the universe is the deity, while atheism is the belief that there are no deities.

In most religions, believers think deities are immortal (cannot die), and have powers far beyond human powers.

Examples

Some of the deities of different religions are:

From the Ancient Greek religion: Zeus, Apollo, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Poseidon, Hades, Thanatos, Dionysus, Hera, Artemis, Hephaestus, Hermes, nymph
From the Ancient Norse religion: Thor, Odin, Tyr, Frey, Freya, Baldur, Loki, Idunn, Njord, Frigg
From the Ancient Roman religion: Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Juno, Vulcan, Pluto, Bacchus, Neptune,
From the Ancient Egyptian religion: Isis, Osiris, Horus, Thoth, Ra, Hathor,  Bastet, Nut, Geb, Seth, Shu, Apophis,
From Christianity: Jesus, Yahweh, the Holy Spirit (Considered to Christians as the three parts of one God)
From Judaism: Hashem
From Hinduism: Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Durga, Ganesha and many more.
From Buddhism: Deva
From Islam: Allah
From Shinto called kami: Amaterasu the Sun goddess, Inari the Fox god, Izanagi the first human, Ryuujin the Sea god, Shinigami the death gods, Susanoo the Storm god
From Aztec Mythology: Nanahuatl, Tecuciztecatl, Teotihuacan, Quetzalcoatl, Coatlicue,

References

Deity


A shield is the name used to refer to any object or force used to block something.

History
The oldest shield known was a device used to block hand weapons and arrows. The shield has been constructed differently over time, even animal hides were used, and the size and weight were largely different as well.

Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, Kite shields were commonly used. The Kite shield is a shield in the form of a kite. Because of the lack of mobility due of the kite shields' weight, kite shields were given up for more mobility and two handed weapons. The Buckler was a shield with a round shape. It was commonly used as a replacement for the heavy Kite shields.

Modern Shields

Shields were used even after gunpowder weapons. the shield is still used by police and army forces today. Many shields now in days are usually made from advanced material, as well as electronics. Shields also vary from not only hand helds, but clothing, such as vests and, in a way, boots and gloves.

Future
The future of shields have varied from multiple ideas and fiction, usually force fields and energy shields.

Armour

Shield


Plato (; Greek:  , Plátōn, "broad"; 428/427 BC – 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science. In the famous words of A.N. Whitehead:
The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them.

Plato's sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him.  Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts.

Plato's dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics.

Itokasi

àwọn amòye

Plato


In engineering mechanics, deformation is a change in shape that is result of a force that influences the object.

It can be a result of tensile (pulling) forces, compressive (pushing) forces, shear, bending or torsion (twisting).

Types of deformation

Depending on the type of material, size and shape of the object, and the forces used, various types of deformation may result.

Elastic deformation

This type of deformation is reversible. Once the forces are no longer applied, the object returns to its original shape. As the name implies, elastic (rubber) has a rather large elastic deformation range. The thermoplastics and metals have moderate elastic deformation ranges while ceramics, crystals, and hard thermosetting polymers undergo almost no elastic deformation. Malleable materials do not undergo elastic deformation.

Metal fatigue

A phenomenon only discovered in modern times is metal fatigue, which occurs primarily in ductile metals. It was originally thought that a material deformed only within the elastic range returned completely to its original state once the forces were removed. However, faults are introduced at the molecular level with each deformation. After many deformations, cracks will begin to appear, followed soon after by a fracture, with no apparent plastic deformation in between. Depending on the material, shape, and how close to the elastic limit it is deformed, failure may require thousands, millions, billions, or trillions of deformations.

Metal fatigue has been a major cause of aircraft failure, especially before the process was well understood.

Plastic deformation

This type of deformation is not reversible.  But an object in the plastic deformation range will first have undergone elastic deformation, which is reversible, so the object will return part way to its original shape.  Soft thermoplastics have a rather large plastic deformation range as do ductile metals such as copper, silver, and gold.  Steel does, too, but not iron.  Hard thermosetting plastics, rubber, crystals, and ceramics have minimal plastic deformation ranges.  Perhaps the material with the largest plastic deformation range is wet chewing gum, which can be stretched dozens of times its original length.

Fracture

This type of deformation is also not reversible.  A break occurs after the material has reached the end of the elastic, and then plastic, deformation ranges.  At this point forces accumulate until they are sufficient to cause a fracture.  All materials will eventually fracture, if sufficient forces are applied.

Misconceptions

A popular misconception is that all materials that bend are "weak" and all those which do not are "strong".  In reality, many materials which undergo large elastic and plastic deformations, such as steel, are able to absorb stresses which would cause brittle materials, such as glass, with minimal elastic and plastic deformation ranges, to break.  There is even a story to describe this observation (paraphrased below):

"The mighty oak stands strong and firm before the wind, while the willow yields to the slightest breeze.  However, in the strongest storm, the oak will break while the willow will bend, and thus survive.  So, in the end, which is the stronger of the two ?"

Solid mechanics
Materials science

Deformation


Norse or Scandinavian mythology is the belief and legends of the Scandinavian people.  Norse mythology is a version of the older Germanic mythology and was later replaced by Christianity for the most part.

Norse mythology is a set of beliefs and stories shared by Northern Germanic tribes. It was not handed down from the gods to the mortal. It had no scripture. The mythology was passed on from one generation to the next in the form of poetry. It continued to be passed down this way through the time of the Vikings. The original beliefs were long lost. Our knowledge about it is mainly based on the Eddas and other medieval texts. These were written down while and after they turned to Christianity.

Cosmology

In Norse mythology, the universe was thought to have 9 realms or "worlds". Asgard is where the gods lived. Asgard could only be reached by walking across the rainbow (the Bifröst bridge). The Frost Giants lived in a place called Jötunheimr. Jötunheimr means giant realm.

A cold, dark place called Niflheim was ruled by Hel. She was the daughter of Loki. This was the eventual home of most of the dead. Located somewhere in the south was the fiery realm of Muspelheim, home of the fire giants.

In between Asgard and Niflheim was Midgard, the world of men.

Supernatural beings

There are three "clans" of deities, the Æsir, the Vanir, and the Jötnar (referred to as giants in this article). After a long war, the Æsir and Vanir made peace and joined together.

The Æsir and the Vanir are enemies with the Jötnar or giants. The Æsir are descendants of Jötnar. Both Æsir and Vanir intermarry with them. There are two kinds of giant: frost-giants and fire-giants.

There are many other supernatural beings. These include:
Fenrir the gigantic wolf
Jörmungandr the sea-serpent that is coiled around the world.
Hugin and Munin (thought and memory), the two ravens who keep Odin informed of what is happening on earth.
Ratatoskr, the squirrel which scampers in the branches of the world tree, Yggdrasil.

Sources
Most of this mythology was passed down orally as Skaldic poetry, and much of it has been lost. Some of it was recorded by Christian scholars. The earlier detailed records come from the Eddas and the Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson though the mentioning of their deities And mythology goes back to Cornelius Tacitus' report "Germania" in 98 AD.

There are also several runestones and image stones that show scenes from Norse mythology, such as Thor's fishing trip and Odin being devoured by Fenrir.

Modern influences

The Germanic gods have affected elements of every day western life in most countries that speak Germanic languages. An example is some of the names of the days of the week. The days were named after Roman gods in Latin (named after Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn). The names for Tuesday through Friday were replaced with Germanic versions of the Roman gods. In English, Saturn was not replaced. Saturday is named after the sabbath in German, and is called "washing day" in Scandinavia.

Modern popular culture

J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings was influenced by the myths of the Northern Europeans. As it became popular, parts of its fantasy world moved into how people see the fantasy genre. In almost any modern fantasy novel, you can find Norse creatures like elves, dwarves, and giants.

Other websites
 W. Wagner's "Asgard and the Home of the Gods" e-book
  Peter Andreas Munch's "Norse Mythology: Legends of Gods and Heroes" e-book
 heimskringla.no Old Norse Prose and Poetry
 Timeless Myths - Norse Mythology - Information and tales from Norse and Germanic literatures
 Norse Gods, Goddesses, Giants, Dwarves and Wights
 CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology

Norse mythology


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Death penalty, a form of capital punishment, is when a government or state executes (kills) someone, usually but not always because they have committed a serious crime. A crime that can be punished with the death penalty is called a capital crime or a capital offense.

Executions in most countries have become rarer in recent centuries. The death penalty is a disputed and controversial topic. Generally, right-wing parties are supportive of the death penalty: centrist and left-wing parties are opposed to it.

About one third of the countries in the world have laws that allow the death penalty. The United States, the People's Republic of China, Japan, Indonesia and Iran are examples of countries that have a death penalty. Canada, Australia, Mexico and all members of Council of Europe are examples of countries that have abolished the death penalty. 109 countries have gotten rid of the capital punishment for all crimes. Another 28 can be considered abolitionist in practice. Countries are considered abolitionist in practice if they retain the death penalty in law but have not carried out any executions for the past 10 years or more.

Most of the countries that have a death penalty use it on murderers, and for other serious crimes such as rape or terrorism. Other countries especially ones with Authoritarian or Totalitarian governments, however, also use it for smaller crimes like theft, drugs, or for saying bad things about the government.

 Which countries execute the most people?
A study by Amnesty International found that the following countries did the most executions in 2012:

 China (4000+) data not officially released.
 Iran (at least 314+)
 Iraq (at least 129+)
 Saudi Arabia (79+)
 United States (43)
 Yemen (28+)
 Oman (25+)
 Sudan (19+)
 Afghanistan (14)

Here's the list for 1998:
 China (1,067)
 Democratic Republic of the Congo (100)
 United States (68)
 Iran (66)
 Egypt (48)
 Belarus (33)
 Taiwan (32)
 Saudi Arabia (29)
 Singapore (28)
 Rwanda (24)
 Sierra Leone (24)
Although unconfirmed, Amnesty International also received reports of many hundreds of executions in Iraq.

A total of 557 people were executed in the United States between 1977, when the death penalty was reintroduced after a 10-year break, and 2000. During this period, 20 states did not carry out any executions. Here are the states with the most executions during this time:
 Texas (239)
 Virginia (81)
 Florida (50)
 Missouri (46)
 Oklahoma (30)
 Louisiana (26)
 South Carolina (25)
 Alabama (23)
 Arkansas (23)
 Georgia (23)

 First countries to abolish capital punishment
*The Russian Soviet Socialist Republic, as part of the Soviet Union, reinstated capital punishment during the time of the Soviet Union.

 Common reasons for execution
It is common to have people executed for crimes including murder, manslaughter and attempted murder, but there are also other crimes that carry the death penalty. Some of these are:
 Bank robbery (Saudi Arabia)
 Kidnapping (India)
 Treason (North Korea, India)
 Trafficking with human beings (this is like slavery) (China)
 General robbery if at least one person dies (America)
 Rape (North Korea, China, Saudi Arabia)
 Trafficking or possessing certain illegal drugs in a certain quantity (Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan, North Korea and others)
 Bribery and Corruption (China)
 Piracy (North Korea)
 Adultery (Saudi Arabia, Iran and Afghanistan)
 Homosexuality (Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Sudan and Mauritania)
 Prostitution (both prostituting oneself and forcing others to do the same) (Iraq until 2003, Saudi Arabia)
 Apostasy in Islam (Afghanistan, Iran, Yemen, Mauritania, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia and Sudan)
 Witchcraft (Saudi Arabia, Qatar)

During war time, the following crimes are punished by death:
 Treason (attempting to overthrow a government)
 Espionage (spying)
 Sabotage
 Desertion

 Who may not be executed
According to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that became valid in 1976, people that were less than eighteen years old when they committed the crime may not be executed. According to the European Convention on Human Rights (which is effective in many European countries), specifically its 13th amendment (2002), no one can be executed.

 Controversy

There is a lot of different opinions on the topic of capital punishment.  As it is an important topic, each country has very strong feelings. Many people say the death penalty is reasonable because it scares people away from doing things that are illegal. However, many others say there is a potential of executing an innocent person. Some people say the death penalty supports justice, retribution, and punishment. The other side says that execution is murder. Most people know the threat of crime to their lives, but the question lies in the methods and action that should be used to deal with it.

Throughout human history, governments and rulers have used many death penalty methods to execute people, such as crucifixion, flaying, and hanging. Some methods like crucifixion and flaying are no longer used by governments, because people think that these methods of killing are too cruel. The gas chamber was found unconstitutional in the United States (that is: against the United States constitution not allowing "cruel and unusual punishments") and is no longer used.

The Council of Europe has abolished all death penalty by 13th amendment of the European Convention on Human Rights. Amnesty International oppose all death penalty on ground of the right to life and prohibition of all tortures or any cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment insisted by Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

 Forms of death

The following forms of execution are in use today:
 Electric chair: The prisoner is killed by a strong source of electricity attached to their head and leg.
 Lethal injection: The prisoner is poisoned with a mix of chemicals that are put into their body. Some countries use chemicals that are controversial. After the electric chair was abolished as a form of death penalty in the United States by be considered a too brutal punishment and be replaced by lethal injection, this method became the most widely used since then. China also use lethal injection.
 Firing squad: Some people shoot the prisoner with rifles. Firing squads are often used for soldiers during wars. One or more of those firing may have false ammunition that does not kill so that no one knows which person fired the shot that killed. A firing squad is a traditional military execution. Deserters, traitors and spies are sometimes shot. The firing squad is still used in Cuba, Indonesia and Nigeria, and was used in Mexico, Chile and Philippines in the past.
 Hanging: The prisoner has a rope tied around their neck. They are then dropped from a height. The person can die from their neck being broken. They might die from choking (asphyxiation), if the drop is too small or knot was badly made. If the drop is too long or the prisoner too heavy, their head might be torn off. Japan, India and former British colonies use hanging.
 Strangulation, by hand or by garrote. The garrote was the main type of capital punishment in Spain for hundreds of years. Originally, the convict was killed by hitting him with a club (garrote'' in Spanish). This later developed into putting a loop of rope placed around the neck.  A wooden stick was placed in the loop, and rotated to tighten the rope until the condemned person was strangled to death.
 Stoning: Stones are thrown at the prisoner until they die. Stoning is still used in some Middle Eastern countries.
 Decapitation: The victim has his or her head cut off with a sharp blade, such as sword, axe or guillotine. This was the traditional means of execution in central Europe and many other places. Decapitation is also called beheading'''. Decapitation is still used in some Middle Eastern countries, but the only country to actively use it is Saudi Arabia.

Gallery

References

Further reading

Other websites
Ten anti-death penalty fallacies: the case against capital punishment relies on myth, misinformation, and misplaced emotionalism. (Crime and Punishment)- The Open Library

Punishments

Death penalty


A rock is a naturally occurring solid. Rocks are made of collections of mineral grains that are held together in a firm, solid mass. They are made of minerals (which are crystalline), or other mineral-like substances.

The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. That means the Earth's crust is made of rock. The different minerals in the rocks make different kinds of rock.

Rock is often covered by soil or water. It is beneath the oceans, lakes, and rivers of the earth, and under the polar icecaps. Petrology is the scientific study of rocks.

Rock classification
Rocks are classified by their minerals and chemical make-up. The processes that formed them are also noted. Rocks may be igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Rock types may change in a so-called 'rock cycle'.

Igneous rocks
For the main article, see Igneous rock

Igneous rocks are formed when molten magma cools, either above or below the surface. They are divided into two main categories: plutonic rock and volcanic rock. Plutonic or intrusive rocks are made when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust (example granite). Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or ejecta (examples pumice and basalt). There are over 700 hundred types of igneous rocks, and they are generally the hardest and heaviest of all rocks.

Sedimentary rock
For the main article, see Sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rocks are the most common rocks on Earth. They form at or near the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rock is formed in layers which were laid down one by one on top of another. Some of the layers are thin, some are thick. Layers are made by deposition of sediment, organic matter, and chemical precipitates. Of the rocks exposed on the Earth's surface, 66 percent of it are sedimentary rocks.
Deposition is followed by squeezing of sediment under its own weight, and cementation. This process is called 'consolidation': it turns the sediment into a more or less hard substance.

The approximate amounts of different kinds of sedimentary rock are:
Shale (including mudstone, and siltstone): 60%
Sandstones 20%.
Carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite): 15%.
All others: 5%.

Only sedimentary rocks have fossils.

Metamorphic rock
For the main article, see Metamorphic rock

Metamorphic rocks are formed by rocks coming under great pressure and high temperatures. These temperatures and pressures are found under mountains and volcanoes, especially when continental plates move together. These conditions change the make-up of the original minerals.

Impact on human life
Rocks have had an impact on human life. They have been used by humans for over two million years. The mining of rocks for their metals has been one of the most important things in human advancement. Rocks are mined for building materials of all kinds.

Related pages
 Geology
 Quarrying
Bedrock

References

Rock (geology)


A hamlet is a small settlement, smaller than a village. Usually, all settlers in a hamlet are centered around a single economic activity. A hamlet may consist of a farm, a mill, a mine or a harbor. All the people living there would be workers on that farm, mill, mine or harbour. Hamlets, especially those with a medieval church may have resulted from a medieval village, that was abandoned for some reason.

Because of the small size of the settlement, there are usually no buildings which have a central or admninistratrive function. There usually is no church, town hall or pub. Roads and streets in the hamlet do not have names, most of the time. 5-6 families may live there usually within a 2km radius area.

In Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Alsace region of France, such hamlets often have names that end in -wil, -wil(l)er, -wyhl or -viller.

Types of settlements

Hamlet (place)


Colonialism occurs when a country or a nation takes control of other countries, regions, or territories outside of its borders (boundaries of the country) by turning those other countries, regions, or territories into a colony. Usually, it is a more powerful, richer country that takes control of a smaller, less powerful region or territory. Sometimes the words "colonialism" and "imperialism" are used to mean the same thing. Colonialism is one of the main results of imperialism.

In the 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, many of the richer, more powerful European countries (such as Britain, Portugal, France, Spain, and the Netherlands) established colonies in the continents of Africa, South America, Asia, and the Caribbean.

Some countries use colonialism to get more land for their people to live in. They helped settlers move to the new area. The indigenous people living in the land or territories were usually moved away by using force and violence from armies. To protect these settlers from the indigenous people who were pushed aside, colonial nations often set up a military fort or colonial police system.

Other countries use colonialism to get more land so that they can use the land for farming or to extract (take out) resources such as trees (wood), coal, or metals, or to create a local government or military fort.

Other countries use colonialism so that they can get workers from the poorer country to work in factories or farms (either in the richer country, or in the poorer country). In the past, powerful countries that were colonizing poorer countries or regions often forced the people from the poorer countries to work as slaves.

History

The Phoenicians started many trade colonies around the Mediterranean. Carthage was the largest and most famous colony, and also made other colonies including Cartagena in Spain.

Later, the Ancient Greeks expanded their territories with colonies. Ancient Greece was many city-states. Each city was independent with a government in place. Those cities also fought wars against each other and traded goods. To get more influence, or to secure a trade route, the city would send settlers to a new place. These people would then make a new city called a colony. Sometimes a new city had to pay some form of taxes to the mother city in exchange for protection, for example. The colonies, however, ruled themselves. The mother city did not send them a governor. Syracuse is the most famous of these Greek colonies.

If the Greek settlers found a local tribe living in the new territory, they would fight to force them to leave. The local tribe was usually made into slaves. The new colony would exploit the land it found, by growing crops or by raising cattle.

Ancient Rome invented the word "colonia" from the word "colonus" meaning "farmer". "Colonia" at that time meant a new town to which some Romans moved, including farmers. Many of the settlers were veterans. In later centuries the word "colony" less often meant settlers, and more often meant rule by foreigners.

Types of colonialism
There are several different types of colonialism.  Some countries that expanded their territory made settler colonies.  Some countries that started out as settler colonies include the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the states of Latin America.  In all of these countries, people from European countries moved to the best parts of the new place, and forced the indigenous peoples (such as Indians, Maori, etc.) to move. When the local people or tribes had to move, it caused a lot of problems. Many of these indigenous peoples were also enslaved, killed through genocide or died in pandemics because they had no immunity against infectious diseases brought by the settlers.

With the plantation colony, the powerful, rich country use the poorer country's land to grow crops.  Typically, slaves work on the farms.  Examples of plantation colonies include Barbados, Saint-Domingue and Jamaica.

In some regions which were colonized, the settlers married the local people and had children with them. An example is Mexico, where a new people called the mestizos came from the marriages of the settlers and the local tribes. In other regions which were colonized, the settlers and the local people lived in separate areas, without living together or marrying. An example of this situation is French Algeria (when France colonized the African country of Algeria) or Southern Rhodesia.

Another type of colonialism is when a powerful country sets up (establishes) dependencies. With a dependency, the colonizing country does not send over thousands of settlers to the new territory. Instead, the colonizing country sets up administrators (a governing organization) that controls the existing local (native) populations or tribes. Examples include the British Raj, (geraldine) in which the British government controlled India; the Dutch East Indies, in which the Netherlands controlled parts of the East Indies; and the Japanese colonial empire, in which Japan controlled Asian territories.

Another type of colony is the trading post colony. Rich and powerful countries set up trading post colonies so that there would be a territory where trading, selling, and business could be conducted. The rich and powerful countries usually set up military forts or police forces to enforce the rules and laws of the colonizing country. Examples of trading colonies include Macau, Malacca, Deshima and Singapore.

Massive colonization took place in Ancient India too. But the history of colonization is attributed to Greece only. In Ancient India Colonization began not with political conquest but with cultural conquest. Hinduism, and after centuries Buddhism became the main source of colonization. It was a colonization that began with cultural expansion leading to economic colonization. Indians were in the role of masters for a few centuries and in the role of slaves for centuries.

Related pages
 Colonization
 Neocolonialism

Other websites
 Liberal opposition to colonialism, imperialism and empire (pdf)  - by professor Daniel Klein
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 Colonialism -Citizendium

Colonialism