Prussia (; , , Old Prussian: Prūsa or  Prūsija) was a series of countries. Originally it was a historically prominent German state that originated in 1525. Mostly, the name is used for the Kingdom of Prussia, which was in northern Europe. It was part of Germany for a while, and it included land in Poland, France, and Lithuania. The name "Prussian" has had a lot of different meanings in the past and now:
 The land of the Baltic Prussians (today parts of southern Lithuania, Kaliningrad, and north-eastern Poland);
 The lands of the Teutonic Knights (a group of religious soldiers in the 12th century);
 Part of the lands of the Polish Crown, Royal Prussia;
 A fief of the Polish Crown, Ducal Prussia, later under control of the Hohenzollern family of Brandenburg;
 All Hohenzollern land, inside or outside Germany;
 An independent Kingdom, from the 17th century until 1871;
 The largest part of the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, and Nazi Germany from 1871 to 1945.

In 1934, Germany stopped using the name Prussia for that area, and in 1947 the Allies abolished the state of Prussia and divided its territory among themselves and the new States of Germany. Today, the name is only for historical, geographical, or cultural use.

The name Prussia comes from the Borussi or Prussi people who lived in the Baltic region and spoke the Old Prussian language. Ducal Prussia was a fiefdom of the Kingdom of Poland until 1660, and Royal Prussia was part of Poland until 1772. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, most German-speaking Prussians started thinking of themselves as part of the German nation. They thought the Prussian way of life was very important:
 Perfect organization
 Sacrifice (giving other people something you need)
 Obeying the law

From the late 18th century, Prussia had a lot of power in northern Germany and throughout central Europe; it was the strongest in politics and economics, and it had the most people. After Chancellor Otto von Bismarck dissolved the German Confederation, Prussia annexed almost all of northern Germany. In 1871, after the Franco-Prussian War, von Bismarck created the German Empire, and Prussia was the center of the empire, with the Kings of Prussia being the Emperors of Germany.

Geography
Prussia's borders have changed over time.  It has not always been the exact same place.  Mostly, Prussia was a small part of what is today northern Poland. After a small number of Prussian people moved there to live, Germans came to live there too. In 1934, Prussia's borders were with France, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Lithuania. Some parts of Prussia are in eastern Poland. Before 1918, a lot of western Poland was also in Prussia. Between 1795 and 1807, Prussia also controlled Warsaw and most of central Poland.

Before 1934, these regions were also in Prussia:
 West Prussia and East Prussia, which are now in Poland and Russia
 Pomerania
 Silesia
 Brandenburg
 Lusatia
 Province of Saxony (now Saxony-Anhalt)
 Kingdom of Hanover
 Schleswig-Holstein
 Westphalia
 parts of Hesse
 the Rhineland
 some small areas in the south, for example Württemberg-Hohenzollern, the home of the leaders of Prussia

However, some regions were never part of Prussia, such as Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, and the Hanse city-states.

Northeast Germany was Protestant, so Prussians were mostly Protestant. But there were a lot of Catholic people in the Rhineland, East Prussia, Posen, Silesia, West Prussia, and Ermland. The states of south Germany (especially Austria and Bavaria) were Catholic, so they did not want Prussians to rule them. Prussia was mostly German, but in the late 18th century, the new Polish areas had a lot of Polish people too. In 1918, these Polish areas were given to Poland, and in 1945, Pomerania and East Prussia were given to Poland. Northern East Prussia, specifically Kaliningrad, was given to Russia.

History
In 1226, Polish Prince Conrad of Mazovia (Mazovia is a place in Northern Poland) asked the Teutonic Knights from Transylvania to come to Mazovia. He wanted them to fight the Prussian tribes on his borders. They fought for more than 100 years. Then they created a new state. After some time, this state controlled most of today's Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and parts of northern Poland. In 1466, the Knights were under the King of Poland and Lithuania. In 1525, the leader of the Knights became a Protestant. He made part of the Knights' land into the Duchy of Prussia, which was then part of the Kingdom of Poland.

At that time, the Duchy of Prussia was only the area east of the place where the Vistula River enters the sea. In 1618, the new Duke of Prussia was the Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg. He was also Margrave of Brandenburg. Brandenburg was ruled by the Hohenzollern family. The Duchy of Prussia was important to the Hohenzollern family because it was not part of the Holy Roman Empire. The name for the new state was Brandenburg-Prussia. In the middle of the state was Polish land, but Brandenburg-Prussia was moving away from Poland. Under Frederick William, who was called the Great Elector, Prussia took some new land in Magdeburg and areas west of the Rhine.

Kingdom of Prussia

In 1701, the Holy Roman Emperor and Polish King allowed Brandenburg-Prussia to call itself "Kingdom of Prussia" with Frederick I as its king. Under Frederick II ("the Great"), Prussia waged war against Austria and took Silesia. The wars ended in 1763; Prussia was then the most powerful state in eastern Germany. Other parts of Germany, including Pomerania, went to Prussia because of marriage or death.

During this time, the Prussian army got bigger, and so did the administration system. Until 1945, these were at the most important parts of the German state. Between 1772 and 1795, Prussia, Russia and Austria divided Poland into parts (the Partitions of Poland). Prussia controlled land in the far east, including the city of Warsaw.

Frederick William II had Prussia join the war with France in 1792. He lost at Valmy and gave his western land to France. Frederick William III started a new war, but lost at Jena. He gave more land to France at the Treaty of Tilsit.

In 1813, Prussia again started war with Napoleonic France. In 1815, Prussia won back the land it lost in earlier wars and also all the Rhineland and Westphalia and some other land. This land in the west was very important, especially the Ruhr valley. It was the new center of Germany's industrialization and the home of the weapons industry. After the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia was the strongest power in Germany and more powerful than Austria.

In the early 19th century, there were two political groups in Germany.  The liberals wanted a democratic system with one strong central government. The conservatives wanted Germany to be made of a group of independent, weak states . In 1848, revolution came to Europe. Frederick William IV was worried. He allowed a National Assembly and a constitution. The new Frankfurt Parliament wanted to give Frederick William the crown of all Germany, but he did not want it. He said that revolutionaries could not name kings. Now Prussia had a semi-democratic constitution, but really the nobility with land (the Junkers) had the power, especially in the east.

Imperial Prussia

In 1862, Prussian King Wilhelm I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the prime minister of Prussia. Bismarck wanted the liberals and the conservatives to lose. He wanted to create a strong, united Germany, but he wanted to do so under the Junker, not under the western German liberals. So, he started three wars:
 with Denmark in 1864 – this gave Prussia control of the Schleswig-Holstein area
 with Austria in 1869 (Austro-Prussian War) – this allowed Prussia to take Hanover and most other northern German territories that had been ruled by Austria
 with France in 1870 (Franco-Prussian War) - so Bismarck could control Mecklenburg, Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, and Saxony.  After this, these states (but not Austria) became part of a united German Empire, and Wilhelm I took the title of Emperor (Kaiser).

This was Prussia's high moment. The economic and political future looked good. But after 99 days, in 1888, the state had a new leader, Kaiser Wilhelm II. He fired Bismarck, who lost his job in 1890, and Wilhelm II started a new foreign policy.  He made the army bigger, and the navy much bigger, and he took risks. This is part of why Germany entered World War I. When the Germans and their allies lost that war, the Prussian Junkers lost power.  The Prussian king and the other German kings had to leave.  Germany became the Weimar Republic. In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles re-created the Polish state, and Prussia had to give up much of its land.  The Polish Corridor was split between East Prussia and Germany.

The end of Prussia

At the end of World War I, the Treaty of Versailles separated West Prussia from the rest of Germany to make the Free City of Danzig and Polish Corridor, so Poland would have access to the ocean instead of being landlocked. Some people also wanted to break Prussia into smaller states, but this did not happen. Prussia became the "Prussian Free State" (Freistaat Preußen), the largest state in the Weimar Republic.   The Prussian Free State made up more than 60% of all the land in the Weimar Republic. The Prussian Free State contained the industrial Ruhr area the city of Berlin, so many people with left-leaning political ideas lived there. The Social Democrats and the Catholic Centre had power for most of the 1920s.

In 1932, Germany's conservative Chancellor Franz von Papen took control of Prussia, ending the state's democratic constitution. It was the end of German democracy too. In 1933, Hermann Göring became Interior Minister of Prussia; he was now very strong. In 1934, the Nazis took the German states' power.

In 1945, the Soviet Union's army captured all of eastern and central Germany (and Berlin). Poland took everything east of the Oder-Neisse line, e.g. Silesia, Pomerania, eastern Brandenburg, and East Prussia. The Soviet Union took the northern third of East Prussia, including Königsberg, now Kaliningrad.  About ten million Germans had to run away from these areas. Polish and Russian people moved in in their place. Because of this, and because the Communists took control of land in the GDR, also called East Germany, the Junker and Prussia were finished.

In 1947, the United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union formally agreed the end of Prussia. In the Soviet Zone (which was called the GDR starting in 1949), which included Prussian lands, were now the states of Brandenburg and Saxony-Anhalt. The Prussian parts of Pomerania went to Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. In 1952, the GDR government stopped using states and used districts instead. In 1990, the end of the GDR, the states returned. In the West, (called the Federal Republic of Germany or West Germany starting in 1949), the Prussian lands went to North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony, Hesse, Rhineland-Palatinate and Schleswig-Holstein. Baden-Württemberg took the Hohenzollern land.

The idea of Prussia is not completely dead in Germany. Some people want to put together the states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and Berlin and call them Prussia. But German politicians are not interested in the idea.  The constitution of Berlin allows for Berlin and Brandenburg to become one state, but the people of Berlin voted against doing this on May 5, 1996.

References

Other websites

 1660 map of Prussia 1660
 map of Prussian Provinces
 Part Map of Prussia by Gerard Mercator, Atlas sive cosmographica., Amsterdam 1594
 Part Map of Prussia by Kasper Henneberger, Koenigsberg 1629
 Map of Old Prussia by K. Henneberger, 17th century.
 Map of Prussia by K. Henneberger  in: Christoph Hartknoch, Alt- und neues Preussen..., Frankfurt 1684
 Map of Prussia and Freie Stadt Danzig from 18th c.
 Map of East Prussia  K. Flemming, F. Handtke, Głogów ca. 1920, after Treaty of Versailles

1525 establishments
House of Hohenzollern

States and territories disestablished in the 20th century
1947 disestablishments
16th-century establishments in Germany
1940s disestablishments in Europe

German Empire

Prussia


The stack is one of the most important data structures in computer science. To understand how a stack works, think of a deck of playing cards that is face down. We can only easily access the card that is on top. When we want to look at the top card, there are two things we can do: we can peek at it, but leave it on the stack, or we can pop it off. When we pop off the top object, we are taking it off the stack. If we want to add another card to the top of the stack, we push.

A stack is called a last-in-first-out (LIFO) collection. This means that the last thing we added (pushed) is the first thing that gets pulled (popped) off. If the last card we put on our stack of cards was an ace, then the first card we pulled from the top is that same ace.

History
The stack was first proposed in 1955, and then patented in 1957, by the German Friedrich L. Bauer. The same concept was developed independently, at around the same time, by the Australian Charles Leonard Hamblin.

Other operations
In modern computer languages, the stack is usually implemented with more operations than just "push" and "pop". Some implementations have a function which returns the current length of the stack. Another typical helper operation is "top" (also known as "peek"), which can return the current top element of the stack without removing it. Another common operation is "dup," which makes a copy of the element at the top of the stack.

Related pages
 Stack machine

Computer science
Data structures

Stack (data structure)


E Prime (it means English Prime) defines a way of speaking English without using the verb "to be" in any way ("be, is, am, are, was, were, been, and being"). Instead, an E Prime speaker or writer uses different verbs like "to become," "to remain," and "to equal" or they might choose to rearrange the sentence to show that the "thing" does not actually "act". For example, in E Prime, a writer would change the statement "Mistakes were made" to "Joe made mistakes." This change in wording reveals an actor (Joe) where the previous form concealed the actor. Users of E Prime would consider the changed sentence more accurate.

What E Prime is
D. David Bourland, Jr. first suggested E Prime in 1965. Bourland had studied the discipline (way of thinking) of General Semantics. The main idea of General Semantics is that people can only know what they observe and experience when they see, hear, touch, taste, smell, think, and feel, and furthermore, that what they observe and experience can affect how they observe and experience in the future. Because each person has different experiences throughout their lives, they interpret their experiences differently.

Students of General Semantics and users of E Prime contend that to say "This cat is soft" leaves out many other attributes, and implies that the outside "object" of the cat is the "same as" the inside experience of "softness". Instead, E Prime users say "This cat feels soft TO ME" to remind themselves of the following:
That their experience of "softness" involves both the outside "object" called "cat" and the eyes, hands, brain and nervous system of the observer.
 That someone else might experience different aspects of the cat.
 That they themselves might experience something different at a different time or in different circumstances. (The cat might scratch them, or look or feel wet or matted with dirt.)

What E Prime is not
Although languages like Russian, Arabic, Turkish, and Cantonese do not always use a separate verb for "to be," they do have the idea of "being." For example, an English speaker might say "This apple is red." An Arabic speaker might say "This apple red." Most languages can be used to express the idea of a red apple. An E Prime user chooses to say "This apple looks red to me" to remind themselves that "seeing red" involves both the apple and the eye and brain of the person looking at the apple.

Many teachers of English encourage students to use verbs other than "to be." To them, using more active verbs makes writing clearer and more interesting. These teachers want to improve their students' writing and may not agree with the ideas of General Semantics or E Prime.

Different functions of 'to be'
In English, 'to be' can have different functions:
It talks about Identity: The cat is my only pet, The cat is Garfield
It talks about belonging to a class, or a group: The cat is an animal
It can talk about properties: The cat is furry
It can be an auxiliary verb: The cat is sleeping, The cat is bitten by the dog
It can talk about existence: There is a cat
It can talk about location: The cat is here

English language

E Prime


Ultraviolet is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum shown on the left side of the picture below as black—because humans cannot see light of such short wavelength (or high frequency). Many animals such as some insects, some reptiles, crocodiles, salamanders, and small birds can see things that reflect this light. UV is a common abbreviation of ultraviolet, mainly used in technical contexts.

Ultraviolet is beyond the visible violet light in terms of frequency, wavelength, and energy. Its wavelengths are between about 10 nanometers (nm) to about 400 nanometers. Frequency and wavelength are closely related. The equation that shows this relationship is: ν = c/λ . Saying that something has a short wavelength is the same as saying that it has a high frequency.

Ultraviolet radiation
Ultraviolet light is a type of ionizing radiation. It can damage or kill cells. Any electromagnetic radiation (light) that has a wavelength shorter than 450 nm may cause trouble. Therefore, humans that live in places with more ultraviolet light have adapted by getting darker skins. Pigments absorb the ultraviolet radiation, so it does not get through the skin to kill or injure cells inside. Injury to the skin by ultraviolet is called "sunburn."

The violet light and ultraviolet light differ in their wavelength, frequency, and quantum energy. The differences between ultraviolet light and x-rays are also wavelength, frequency and quantum energy. In the electromagnetic spectrum, ultraviolet is beyond violet, x-rays are beyond ultraviolet, and gamma rays are beyond x-rays.

Electromagnetic waves with a wavelength from about 400 nanometers down to about 10 nanometers are commonly called ultraviolet. Their characteristic photon energy is about 3 to 124 electronvolts.

Although the air of the Earth is transparent to a broad range of ultraviolet, some ultraviolet sunlight is absorbed at a very high altitude by the ozone layer. Recent and ongoing destruction of ozone in high altitudes caused by human influence—mostly by industrial chemicals and air travel—has greatly increased the amount of ultraviolet light reaching the Earth's surface. This, in turn, has increased the risk of skin cancer to mankind, and this risk will only increase with time unless the ozone layer is better protected.

Ultraviolet wavelengths less than 200 nanometers, X-rays, and gamma rays, are collectively called ionizing radiation since the energy in any such light quantum is high enough to 'kick' an electron out of an atom. This is why these kinds of radiation are dangerous to life. Ultraviolet light is subdivided into three main bands. UV-C has the shortest wavelengths and is dangerous ionizing radiation. Nitrogen and oxygen absorb the UV-C from solar radiation. UV-B has medium wavelength and is less dangerous to living things. The Earth's ozone layer absorbs most of it. UV-A from the Sun gets through the atmosphere entirely. It has wavelength almost as long as visible light, and many animals can see it but humans cannot.

Ordinary glass does not let radiation through if its wavelength is less than 200 nanometers, so it acts as a shield against the more dangerous range of ultraviolet light, but some special sorts of glass do not shield as well, including many car windows.

One use for ultraviolet radiation is tanning. Use of tanning devices can cause skin cancer because ultraviolet goes through the skin and causes destruction to cells, causing sunburn.

Because of the destructive power of ultraviolet light, it can be used to kill germs. Sunlight is a powerful disinfectant.

People need some ultraviolet light to convert cholesterol into vitamin D.

Ultraviolet lamp

An ultraviolet lamp is one that emits mostly ultraviolet light. These germicidal lamps are often used to kill microbes (germs). They can be very powerful, so the people who work around them when they are turned on may need to wear protective glasses and keep their skin covered to avoid injury.

In the laboratory pictured, ultraviolet lights are turned on when the workers are gone, so that anything on the table surface will be killed. Besides ultraviolet light, which makes up most of the light produced by these lamps, there is also a little violet and blue light. This lets people know when the ultraviolet lamps are turned on.

Electromagnetic radiation

Ultraviolet


Abba Judan (or Judah) was a philanthropist who lived in Antioch in the early part of the second century. As an example of his generosity, it is recorded that once he sold half of his property, already considerably reduced by the demands of charity, to avoid turning away empty-handed Rabbis Eliezer, Joshua, and Akiba, who were collecting donations for educational purposes. The record adds that the blessings conferred upon him by these rabbis bore fruit, for shortly afterward, by a happy accident, he discovered a treasure. His name was not permitted to fall into oblivion, and for centuries later the name "Abba Judan" seems to have been applied in Palestine to every unusually benevolent man. It is thus the Jewish parallel to the name Mæcenas which is still applied, two thousand years after the life of its original bearer, to every great patron of art.

References

2nd-century people
People from Antioch
Turkish philanthropists
Turkish Jews

Abba Judan


The short story is a genre of literature. It is usually fictional narrative prose and tends to be more direct and less-detailed than longer works of fiction, like novels.

Short stories are closely related to oral (spoken) story-telling traditions and prose anecdotes. They all develop the story very quickly and come to a conclusion quickly too.

Many authors today release their short stories together in a book, instead of one at a time. A short story can be written in only 10 words or less.

Short story


Cley, clabber or glaur is a kynd o syle that is slairgy tae the titch. It is aften uised in the makkin o gairdenin pats. Dependin on the kynd, it whiles haes a shairp textur, an is whiles gey mingin. Cleys are complex materials containin mony different kynds o atoms, houaniver, aw cleys conteen muckle nummers o silicon (Si) an oxygen (O) atoms, jyned thegether for tae mak silicate. Thay furm whan stanes are brak doun or wathered. For tae mak laim, cley is moolded in shape, dried, an than fired in a furnace or kil for tae mak it haird.

Teeps o syle
Sculptur materials
Naitural materials
Sedimentology
Sediments
Phyllosilicates

Cley


A bass guitar (also called an electric bass or bass) is a string instrument which is related to the electric guitar. The bass guitar is shaped like an electric guitar, but it is longer than an electric guitar. The electric bass has many of the same parts as an electric guitar. However, the bass guitar produces lower tones than the electric guitar.

The bass guitar is used to play low musical sounds called "bass lines" in many styles of music such as rock, pop, country, jazz fusion and many more.

History
The idea for the bass guitar was first made in the 1930s by inventor Paul Tutmarc in Seattle, Washington. However, very few musicians were interested in the instrument that Tutmarc made. The need for a new instrument developed in the 1950s. At that time, the double bass was the main bass instrument used in jazz, blues, folk, early rock music and bluegrass. The problem was that the double bass was big, heavy, hard to carry around, hard to play precise notes on, and it was hard to make it louder with a bass amplifier. Musicians wanted a smaller instrument that weighed less and was easier to play and amplify. Inventors tried to think of ways of building a smaller and lighter bass instrument. One of these inventors was a man named Leo Fender in the United States. Leo Fender developed a bass guitar in the 1950s using the ideas developed by Tutmarc.

Leo Fender used many parts for the bass guitar that are similar to the parts of an electric guitar. Leo Fender called the instrument the "Fender Precision Bass". He used the word "Precision" in the name because his instrument had metal frets on the neck. The double bass did not have frets on its neck. The frets on the bass guitar made it easier for musicians to play precise notes. The bass guitar developed by Leo Fender became very popular. In the 2000s, many bass guitars are still designed to look like his Fender Precision Bass.

Description

Bass guitars are normally made out of wood. The main pieces are the body, neck, fingerboard, frets, and strings. The body is made out of wood. A wooden neck is glued or bolted onto the body. A wooden fingerboard is then glued onto the neck. Thin metal strips called frets are glued onto the fingerboard. The frets are placed at specific places along the fretboard, with each fret representing one half step in the Western tonal scale.

At the bottom of the body is an assembly called the bridge, a large metal assembly into which one end of the strings are fitted. On some designs, the strings are fasted through the back of the body into the bridge; on others, the strings fit into the front side of the bridge. In some basses, there is a cavity inside the back of the body that contains the electrical parts of the bass. These are usually called active basses. The bridge often has adjustments that allow the height of the strings to be changed. Other components found on the body include one or more pickups and various knobs or switches that control the sound of the bass.

The pickups are magnetic devices that sit below the strings. As the strings vibrate, an electrical signal is produced which is sent via an instrument cable to an amplifier. Pickups are either "passive", which means they send the signal with no additional amplification, or "active", which process the signal through a pre-amplifier. Some basses have pickups that can be set to passive or active mode. Basses that have two pickups (generally referred to as bridge and neck pickups) often have a switch that lets the player select neck-only, bridge-only, or a blended signal. Each pickup may have different tonal qualities that results from its placement relative to the bridge and its components.

At the other end of the fretboard from the body sits the headstock, which generally holds the tuners that letsthe  player adjust the tuning of the strings. At the very en of  the fretboard, where the strings pass from the fretboard to the tuners, there is a nut, a piece made of metal or plastic, with grooves to hold the strings off the fretboard.

Inside most fretboards is a long metal rod, called a truss rod, that is used to adjust the tension on the neck. The neck is slightly concave, which allows the strings to clear all frets without "buzzing." The amount of bow, along with adjustments made on the bridge, will determine the height of the strings along the fretboard.

The scale of an electric bass - the length of the strings from the nut to the bridge - is generally 34 inches (84 centimeters), although shorter and longer basses are produced. In earlier decades, short-scale basses were more common, since many designers adapted guitar parts for early models. Because in some styles of music, such as heavy metal, the strings are tuned down, longer scaled basses are sometimes favored for such styles, as string tension is higher.

Standard bass guitars have four metal strings, but models with five, six or eight strings are also made. The strings themselves are made in different ways and with different materials to change their tonal qualities.

In the 1960s and 1970s some musicians took the frets off their bass guitars. This changes the sound of the bass, particularly as the player slides their fingers along the strings. A bass guitar without frets is called a fretless bass guitar. For example, Pino Palladino played a fretless bass during the 1980s. He was a session musician, playing for high-profile musicians like Eric Clapton and David Gilmour. While fretless basses are often used in jazz and jazz fusion, bassists from other genres use fretless basses, such as metal bassist Steve DiGiorgio and Colin Edwin of modern/progressive rock band [Porcupine Tree].

Strings and sound
The standard design for the electric bass guitar has four strings, generally tuned E, A, D and G (low to high). It is not uncommon for players to tune strings to a lower pitch, particularly in styles, such as heavy metal, that favor deeper sounds. Five string basses add a lower string, usually tuned to B, while six-string-basses add a higher string tuned to C. In standard tunings, each string is tuned a perfect fourth interval above the next lower string (e.g. E to A).

Sounds are produced from the strings in a number of ways. The most common form of playing is called fingerstyle, in which the player plucks the fingers upwards with the ends of the fingers. It is common to use the index and middle fingers as the plucking fingers, but players may use more fingers or even employ their thumb to pluck downwards. Other finger-based techniques include slap-and-pop, in which the player strikes the lower-pitched strings firmly with their thumb, and pulls higher-pitched strings upwards and lets them snap against the fretboard, and tapping, in which the player hammers downward with their fingertips on the fretboard.

Picks made of metal or plastic may also be used, and yield a sharper sound than plucking with fingers. Picking is sometimes combined with muting techniques to create distinctive sounds.

The bridge of the bass guitar may be fitted with a tremolo, which enables the player to vary the pitch of their strings while playing.

Where the strings are struck relative to bridge changes to the tone of the sound considerably. Plucking or picking close the bridge generally produces a more muted note, while sounding the string closer to the neck produces a fuller, more resonant tone.

Bass guitars also have magnetic pickups mounted on the body underneath the strings. A musician plucks the strings with their fingers. This makes the strings vibrate. The magnetic pickups detect the vibrations. Then the vibrations from the strings are converted into an electronic signal which is sent with a metal cable to an electronic amplifier and a loudspeaker. The musician rotates a volume control knob that is located on the body of the bass to make the sound

References

Bass guitars
Jazz instruments

Bass guitar


George Gershwin (September 26, 1898; Brooklyn, New York – July 11, 1937; Hollywood, California) was an American composer and a pianist.

Story of his life

Childhood
George Gershwin was born on September 26, 1898, in Brooklyn, New York.
His family immigrated to the United States. Gershwin, his two brothers and sister had a close, happy family life. George liked playing games on the streets of New York. He liked exploring the city, but he did not like school or studying.

While exploring the city, Gershwin heard jazz and blues music spilling out of public drinking places. However, he did not become seriously interested in music until he heard another boy playing the violin in a concert at his school. Gershwin began to take piano lessons. His teacher was a fine classical musician. He immediately recognized Gershwin's unusual ability. The teacher wrote about him to a friend: "I have a student who will make his mark in music, if anybody will. The boy is a genius, without doubt."

Younger days as a student
Gershwin studied classical piano, and he was a first-rate pianist,but his strongest interest continued to be jazz and popular music. He loved playing piano and it was his passion. At the age of fifteen, he left school and went to work in the music business. The New York City street where most music publishers had their offices was called "Tin Pan Alley."

The phonograph and radio had been invented in the late 1800s. But it would be many years before there were musical recordings or regular radio broadcasts. Tin Pan Alley publishers needed another way to sell new songs, so they employed people to play the piano to do this.

The piano players played the songs all day long to interested singers and other performers. Gershwin was one of the youngest piano players in Tin Pan Alley. Soon, he was considered one of the finest there. He was already writing his own songs. He succeeded in getting one published when he was only 18 years old. It had a long title: "When You Want 'Em, You Can't Get 'Em, When You've Got 'Em, You Don't Want 'Em. "

Success as a songwriter
Gershwin was now a real composer. The rest of his life was an unbroken record of success. He wrote song after song. His ideas were so endless that he was not even troubled when he once lost some music he had been writing. "There is plenty more where that came from," he said.

Gershwin had his first big hit in 1919, when he was twenty-one years old. It was a song called "Swanee." A popular entertainer, Al Jolson, sang the song. "Swanee" was made into one of the first musical recordings. Gershwin was suddenly famous. He also was in the Grammy Hall of Fame.

Music critics note that "Swanee" is not like most of Gershwin's music. Later, he wrote true love songs. Some were light and funny. Some were full of intense feeling. Many of these songs were written for the popular musical theater. One of his most emotional love songs never became part of a musical play, however. It is called "The Man I love." The song was sung by the Francine Evans role [played by Liza Minnelli in Martin Scorsese's film, New York, New York] and supposedly 'written' by her character for her soon to be husband, Jimmy Doyle [superbly played by Robert De Niro], of the Jimmy Doyle Orchestra. His character also 'wrote' the title song, New York, New York, who was actually written by Fred Ebb, music by Kanter, his partner. The song became New York's official anthem in 1985.

His brother Ira
Gershwin's older brother, Ira, wrote the words to "The Man I Love". As George became famous, Ira wrote the words to more and more of his songs.

The two brothers were very different. Ira, the writer, was quiet and serious. George, the musician, was outgoing—the life of any party. When they had to finish a new musical Ira locked George in a hotel room until it was done. But George wrote better songs with Ira than with anyone else.

Music of Gershwin

As a songwriter
One of many examples of the Gershwin's combined work is the song "They Can't Take That Away From Me." The Gershwins wrote the song for dancer and actor Fred Astaire for the film "Shall We Dance." That was George and Ira Gershwin's first movie musical.

Many of George Gershwin's songs were first written for musical plays performed in theaters in New York City. These comedies, with plenty of songs, were a popular form of entertainment in the 1920s and 1930s.

One of Gershwin's musical plays, "Girl Crazy," introduced a young singer named Ethel Merman. She became one of the most celebrated performers in America. In the play, Merman sang a song George Gershwin wrote just for her. It was called "I Got Rhythm".

Many songs that George Gershwin wrote for musical plays and movies have remained as popular as ever. Over the years, they have been sung and played in every possible way—from jazz to country.

One example is the song, "Someone to Watch Over Me." It was written for the 1926 musical "Oh, Kay!"

Jazz and his music
In the nineteen twenties, there was a debate in the United States about jazz music. Could jazz, some people asked, be considered serious music?

In 1924, jazz musician and orchestra leader Paul Whiteman decided to organize a special concert to show that jazz was serious music. Gershwin agreed to compose something for the concert before he realized how little time he had to do it. The concert was just a few weeks away. Gershwin got busy, and, in that short time, he composed a piece for piano and orchestra. He called it "Rhapsody in Blue."

Gershwin himself played the piano part of "Rhapsody in Blue" at the concert. The audience included some of the greatest classical musicians of the time. When they heard his music, they were electrified. It seemed to capture, for the first time, the true voice of modern American culture. Today, we can still hear Gershwin playing "Rhapsody in Blue." An old mechanical piano recording Gershwin created has been reproduced exactly. There are also very early versions of "Rhapsody in Blue" which feature Gershwin playing the piano with Whiteman's orchestra. Those recordings, because they are early, do not sound like modern recordings. But they are recordings of Gershwin at the piano. This makes those recordings important.

"Rhapsody in Blue" made George Gershwin famous all over the world. Several hundred thousand copies of the printed music sold immediately. Gershwin was satisfied that he had shown that jazz music could be both serious and popular.

Musical works and opera
Gershwin also wrote an opera, "Porgy and Bess. " It was based on a book by DuBose Heyward. It is a tragic love story about black Americans along the coast of South Carolina.

"Porgy And Bess" opened in Boston, Massachusetts in 1935. Audiences loved it. But most critics did not know what to think of it. It was not like any other opera or musical play they had ever seen.

Gershwin did not care about the critics' opinions. He believed some of his greatest music had gone into the opera. He said he had created a new musical form—an opera based on popular culture. Today "Porgy And Bess" is considered a masterpiece.

Another well-known Gershwin piece is "An American in Paris. " It is a long tone poem for orchestra. Its first public performance was by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in 1928.

Once again, opinion was mixed. Most people loved "An American in Paris," as they loved all of Gershwin's music. Some critics liked it, too. They called it happy and full of life. Others hated it. They called it silly and long-winded.

Last days
George Gershwin died in 1937, just days after doctors learned he had brain cancer. He died while having surgery to remove the brain tumor. He was only thirty-eight years old. Newspapers all over the world reported his death on their front pages. Everyone mourned the loss of the man and all the music he might have written. Gershwin is still considered one of America's greatest composers. His works still are performed by many singers and groups. They are probably performed more often than any other serious American composer.

Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg was one of the people who praised George Gershwin. Schoenberg said Gershwin was a man who lived in music and expressed everything through music, because music was his native language.

Influences
Gershwin stated composers like Henry Cowell, Frédéric Chopin, Maurice Ravel, Stephen Foster, Aaron Copland, Igor Stravinsky, Scott Joplin and Zez Confrey as influences.

References
The most part of the above article originally came from Voice of Ameria's program, which was broadcast in the past.

Other websites

 Gershwin Collection from the Library of Congress

American songwriters
American pianists
American Jews
20th-century American composers
Deaths from brain cancer
1898 births
1937 deaths

George Gershwin


Photografie is a wey o makin a pictur uisin a camera. A body that maks picturs uisin a camera is cried a photographer. A pictur made uisin a camera is cried a photograph or photae.

Camera

A camera is like a wi a hole in the front. There is a byordinar bit o gless afore the hole cried a lens. Tae mak a photograph o something, the lens thraws a wee pictur o't inside the camera. The lens daes this by focusin licht. A lens in a camera wirks like a lens in glesses (spectacles) or a magnifeein gless.

For tae mak a photae wi a camera the shutter release button is pressed. Pressin the button opens the shutter. The shutter is like a door. It kivers the hole in the camera. The shutter is ahint the lens. Whan the shutter is closed nae licht can enter the camera. Whan the shutter is open licht can enter the camera. Whan the button is pressed the shutter opens an syne closes. This happens gey fast. The lenth o time the shutter steys open for is cried the shutter speed. The shutter speed can chynge atween 1/1000t o a seicont (0.001 s) tae a puckle seiconts. Maistlins the time it taks for the shutter tae open an close is faur less nor a seicont.

A camera haes an apertur ring forby. The apertur ring is ahint the lens, but afore the shutter. The purpose o the apertur ring is tae control whitna licht enters the camera. The apertur ring is a flat circle wi a smaw hole in the centre. The smaw hole is cried the apertur. The size o the apertur can be chynged. Whan the apertur is real smaw juist a bit licht can enter the camera. Whan the apertur is lairge, loads o licht can get in.

Film
The pictur the lens maks is recordit on photographic film. Film is pitten intil the camera. Licht comin throu the lens, apertur an open shutter shines on the film. Photographic film is coatit wi chemicals that reacts whan licht shines on it. Lattin licht shine on the film is cried exposin the film.

There's mony differin kinds o photographic film. There's films for takkin colour photographs an films for takin black an white photographs. There's differin sizes o film. The maist common size is 35 mm. It is cried 35 mm sith the width o the film is 35 millimetres. Maist cameras uises 35 mm film.

Anither differ atween films is hou sensitive they are tae licht. Films haes a code nummer, cried an ISO nummer. The ISO nummer says hou fast a film reacts whan licht shines on it. Exemplars o ISO nummers is ISO 50, ISO 100, IS0 200, ISO 400, ISO 800, an ISO 1600. The ISO nummer is whiles cried the ASA number or the film speed. Whan the ISO nummer is law, ISO 50 for exemplar, the film taks a lang time tae record the pictur. This is cried a slaw film. This means the shutter haes tae stey open for a lang time. Whan the ISO nummer is heich, ISO 800 for exemplar, the pictur is duin gey quick. This is a fast film. This means the shutter haes tae open an close quick.

Processin
Ance the film haes been exposed, it is processed. Processin haes to be duin in richt darkness or the film will be exposed ower muckle an the pictur will be tint. Processin stops the film reactin tae licht ony mair. Efter the film haes been processed the pictur can be seen on the film.

A photographic prent is a photograph creatit on paper. A licht-sensitive paper is uised. The pictur on the film is pitten in an enlairger. An enlairger is a machine that sheens licht throu the film an maks a bigger pictur on the licht-sensitive paper. A chemical reaction happens in the paper. Syne the paper is processed for tae stop it bein licht-sensitive. Lastly it is developed. Developin maks the pictur kythe on the paper – nou it is a photograph.

Deegital photography
Deegital photography is photography duin uisin a deegital camera. Whiles it is cried deegital eemagin. A deegital camera haes a lens, apertur, an shutter. The pictur the lens maks is recordit by a licht-sensitive lectronic sensor. A deegital camera daesna uise photographic film tae record a pictur. Deegital photographs is hained in a computer but paper prints can be made forby frae deegital picturs. Deegital cameras can be dear tae keep an aw. Tae hae yer picturs prented at hame the same wey commercial prents is made, ye need a byordinar kind o prenter an paper.

Makkin a photograph
The maist important thing whan takkin a photograph is focusin the lens. Gin the lens daesna focus the pictur weel, the photograph will be bleart. Autofocus cameras focus themsels whan the shutter release is pressed. The photographer haes tae focus manual cameras (maistlins aulder anes).

Three ither things is important whan takin a photograph. They control hou bricht or dark the photograph will be.
 The shutter speed – hou lang the shutter is open for.
 The apertur – whitna licht gangs intil the camera.
 The film speed – hou quick the film records the pictur.

A slaw shutter speed, a bigger apertur, an a fast film will mak a brichter pictur. A fast shutter speed, a smaw apertur, an a slaw film will gie a darker pictur. A guid pictur isna ower bricht nor ower dark. An automatic camera chynges thae things itsel whan the shutter release is pressed.

French inventions
Optics
1822 introductions

Photografie


Berikut adalah daftar kota di Iowa, Amerika Serikat:

A
 Ackley
 Ackworth
 Adair
 Adel
 Afton
 Agency
 Ainsworth
 Akron
 Albert City
 Albia
 Albion
 Alburnett
 Alden
 Alexander
 Algona
 Alleman
 Allerton
 Allison
 Alyssa
 Alta
 Alta Vista
 Alton
 Altoona
 Alvord
 Ames
 Anamosa
 Andover
 Andrew
 Anita
 Ankeny
 Anthon
 Aplington
 Arcadia
 Archer
 Aredale
 Argyle
 Arion
 Arispe
 Arlington
 Armstrong
 Arnolds Park
 Arthur
 Asbury
 Ashton
 Aspinwall
 Atalissa
 Atkins
 Atlantic
 Auburn
 Audubon
 Aurelia
 Aurora
 Avoca
 Ayrshire

B
 Badger
 Bagley
 Baldwin
 Balltown
 Bancroft
 Bankston
 Barnes City
 Barnum
 Bassett
 Batavia
 Battle Creek
 Baxter
 Bayard
 Beacon
 Beaconsfield
 Beaman
 Beaver
 Bedford
 Belle Plaine
 Bellevue
 Belmond
 Bennett
 Benton
 Berkley
 Bernard
 Bertram
 Berwick
 Bettendorf
 Bevington
 Birmingham
 Blairsburg
 Blairstown
 Blakesburg
 Blanchard
 Blencoe
 Blockton
 Bloomfield
 Blue Grass
 Bode
 Bonaparte
 Bondurant
 Boone
 Booneville
 Bouton
 Boxholm
 Boyden
 Braddyville
 Bradford
 Bradgate
 Brandon
 Brayton
 Breda
 Bridgewater
 Brighton
 Bristow
 Britt
 Bronson
 Brooklyn
 Brunsville
 Buckeye
 Buck Grove
 Buffalo
 Buffalo Center
 Burlington
 Burt
 Bussey

C
 Calamus
 Callender
 Calmar
 Calumet
 Camanche
 Cambridge
 Cancun
 Cantril
 Carbon
 Carlisle
 Carpenter
 Carroll
 Carson
 Carter Lake
 Cascade
 Casey
 Castalia
 Castana
 Cedar Falls
 Cedar Rapids
 Center Junction
 Center Point
 Centerville
 Central City
 Centralia
 Chariton
 Charles City
 Charlotte
 Charter Oak
 Chatsworth
 Chelsea
 Cherokee
 Chester
 Chillicothe
 Churdan
 Cincinnati
 Clare
 Clarence
 Clarinda
 Clarion
 Clarksville
 Clayton
 Clearfield
 Clear Lake
 Cleghorn
 Clemons
 Clermont
 Clinton
 Clio
 Clive
 Clutier
 Coburg
 Coggon
 Coin
 Colesburg
 Colfax
 College Springs
 Collins
 Colo
 Columbus City
 Columbus Junction
 Colwell
 Conesville
 Conrad
 Conway
 Coon Rapids
 Coppock
 Coralville
 Corning
 Correctionville
 Corwith
 Corydon
 Cotter
 Coulter
 Council Bluffs
 Craig
 Crawfordsville
 Crescent
 Cresco
 Creston
 Cromwell
 Crystal Lake
 Cumberland
 Cumming
 Curlew
 Cushing
 Cylinder

D
 Dakota City
 Dallas Center
 Dana
 Danbury
 Danville
 Davenport
 Davis City
 Dawson
 Dayton
 Decatur City
 Decorah
 Dedham
 Deep River
 Defiance
 Delaware
 Delhi
 Delmar
 Deloit
 Delphos
 Delta
 Denison
 Denver
 Derby
 Des Moines
 De Soto
 De Witt
 Dexter
 Diagonal
 Dickens
 Dike
 Dixon
 Dolliver
 Donahue
 Donnellson
 Doon
 Dougherty
 Dow City
 Dows
 Drakesville
 Dubuque
 Dumont
 Duncombe
 Dundee
 Dunkerton
 Dunlap
 Durango
 Durant
 Dyersville
 Dysart

E
 Eagle Grove
 Earlham
 Earling
 Earlville
 Early
 East Peru
 Eddyville
 Edgewood
 Elberon
 Eldon
 Eldora
 Eldridge
 Elgin
 Elkader
 Elkhart
 Elk Horn
 Elkport
 Elk Run Heights
 Elliott
 Ellston
 Ellsworth
 Elma
 Elvira
 Ely
 Emerson
 Emmetsburg
 Epworth
 Essex
 Estherville
 Evansdale
 Everly
 Exira
 Exline

F
 Fairbank
 Fairfax
 Fairfield
 Farley
 Farmersburg
 Farmington
 Farnhamville
 Farragut
 Fayette
 Fenton
 Ferguson
 Fertile
 Floris
 Floyd
 Fonda
 Fontanelle
 Forest City
 Fort Atkinson
 Fort Dodge
 Fort Madison
 Fostoria
 Franklin
 Fraser
 Fredericksburg
 Frederika
 Fredonia
 Fremont
 Fruitland

G
 Galt
 Galva
 Garber
 Garden Grove
 Garnavillo
 Garner
 Garrison
 Garwin
 Geneva
 George
 Gibson
 Gilbert
 Gilbertville
 Gillett Grove
 Gilman
 Gilmore City
 Gladbrook
 Glenwood
 Glidden
 Goldfield
 Goodell
 Goose Lake
 Gowrie
 Graettinger
 Graf
 Grafton
 Grand Junction
 Grand Mound
 Grand River
 Grandview
 Granger
 Grant
 Granville
 Gravity
 Gray
 Greeley
 Greene
 Greenfield
 Greenville
 Grimes
 Grinnell
 Griswold
 Grundy Center
 Gruver
 Guernsey
 Guthrie Center
 Guttenberg

H
 Halbur
 Hamburg
 Hamilton
 Hampton
 Hancock
 Hanlontown
 Hansell
 Harcourt
 Hardy
 Harlan
 Harper
 Harpers Ferry
 Harris
 Hartford
 Hartley
 Hartwick
 Harvey
 Hastings
 Havelock
 Haverhill
 Hawarden
 Hawkeye
 Hayesville
 Hazleton
 Hedrick
 Henderson
 Hepburn
 Hiawatha
 Hills
 Hillsboro
 Hinton
 Holland
 Holstein
 Holy Cross
 Hopkinton
 Hornick
 Hospers
 Houghton
 Hubbard
 Hudson
 Hull
 Humboldt
 Humeston
 Huxley

I
 Ida Grove
 Imogene
 Independence
 Indianola
 Inwood
 Ionia
 Iowa City
 Iowa Falls
 Ireton
 Irwin

J
 Jackson Junction
 Jamaica
 Janesville
 Jefferson
 Jesup
 Jewell Junction
 Johnston
 Joice
 Jolley

K
 Kalona
 Kamrar
 Kanawha
 Kellerton
 Kelley
 Kellogg
 Kensett
 Kent
 Keokuk
 Keomah Village
 Keosauqua
 Keota
 Keswick
 Keystone
 Kimballton
 Kingsley
 Kinross
 Kirkman
 Kirkville
 Kiron
 Klemme
 Knierim
 Knoxville

L
 Lacona
 Ladora
 Lake City
 Lake Mills
 Lake Park
 Lakeside
 Lake View
 Lakota
 Lambs Grove
 Lamoni
 Lamont
 La Motte
 Lanesboro
 Lansing
 La Porte City
 Larchwood
 Larrabee
 Latimer
 Laurel
 Laurens
 Lawler
 Lawton
 LeClaire
 Ledyard
 Le Grand
 Lehigh
 Leighton
 Leland
 Le Mars
 Lenox
 Leon
 Le Roy
 Lester
 Letts
 Lewis
 Libertyville
 Lidderdale
 Lime Springs
 Lincoln
 Linden
 Lineville
 Linn Grove
 Lisbon
 Liscomb
 Littleport
 Little Rock
 Little Sioux
 Livermore
 Lockridge
 Logan
 Lohrville
 Lone Rock
 Lone Tree
 Long Grove
 Lorimor
 Lost Nation
 Lovilia
 Lowden
 Low Moor
 Luana
 Lucas
 Luther
 Lu Verne
 Luxemburg
 Luzerne
 Lynnville
 Lytton

M
 McCallsburg
 McCausland
 McClelland
 Macedonia
 McGregor
 McIntire
 Macksburg
 Madrid
 Magnolia
 Malcom
 Mallard
 Maloy
 Malvern
 Manchester
 Manilla
 Manly
 Manning
 Manson
 Mapleton
 Maquoketa
 Marathon
 Marble Rock
 Marcus
 Marengo
 Marion
 Marne
 Marquette
 Marshalltown
 Martelle
 Martensdale
 Martinsburg
 Marysville
 Mason City
 Masonville
 Massena
 Matlock
 Maurice
 Maxwell
 Maynard
 Maysville
 Mechanicsville
 Mediapolis
 Melbourne
 Melcher-Dallas
 Melrose
 Melvin
 Menlo
 Meriden
 Merrill
 Meservey
 Middletown
 Miles
 Milford
 Millersburg
 Millerton
 Millville
 Milo
 Milton
 Minburn
 Minden
 Mingo
 Missouri Valley
 Mitchell
 Mitchellville
 Modale
 Mondamin
 Monmouth
 Monona
 Monroe
 Montezuma
 Monticello
 Montour
 Montrose
 Moorhead
 Moorland
 Moravia
 Morley
 Morning Sun
 Morrison
 Moulton
 Mount Auburn
 Mount Ayr
 Mount Pleasant
 Mount Sterling
 Mount Union
 Mount Vernon
 Moville
 Murray
 Muscatine
 Mystic

N
 Nashua
 Nemaha
 Neola
 Nevada
 New Albin
 Newell
 Newhall
 New Hampton
 New Hartford
 New Liberty
 New London
 New Market
 New Providence
 New Sharon
 Newton
 New Vienna
 New Virginia
 Nichols
 Nodaway
 Nora Springs
 Northboro
 North Buena Vista
 North English
 North Liberty
 North Washington
 Northwood
 Norwalk
 Norway
 Numa

O
 Oakland
 Oakland Acres
 Oakville
 Ocheyedan
 Odebolt
 Oelwein
 Ogden
 Okoboji
 Olds
 Olin
 Ollie
 Onawa
 Onslow
 Orange City
 Orchard
 Orient
 Orleans
 Osage
 Osceola
 Oskaloosa
 Ossian
 Osterdock
 Otho
 Oto
 Ottosen
 Ottumwa
 Owasa
 Oxford
 Oxford Junction
 Oyens

P
 Pacific Junction
 Packwood
 Palmer
 Palo
 Panama
 Panora
 Panorama Park
 Parkersburg
 Parnell
 Paton
 Patterson
 Paullina
 Pella
 Peosta
 Perry
 Persia
 Peterson
 Pierson
 Pilot Mound
 Pioneer
 Pisgah
 Plainfield
 Plano
 Pleasant Hill
 Pleasanton
 Pleasant Plain
 Pleasantville
 Plover
 Plymouth
 Pocahontas
 Polk City
 Pomeroy
 Popejoy
 Portsmouth
 Postville
 Prairieburg
 Prairie City
 Prescott
 Preston
 Primghar
 Princeton
 Promise City
 Protivin
 Pulaski

Q
 Quasqueton
 Quimby

R
 Radcliffe
 Rake
 Ralston
 Randalia
 Randall
 Randolph
 Rathbun
 Raymond
 Readlyn
 Reasnor
 Redding
 Redfield
 Red Oak
 Reinbeck
 Rembrandt
 Remsen
 Renwick
 Rhodes
 Riceville
 Richland
 Rickardsville
 Ricketts
 Ridgeway
 Rinard
 Ringsted
 Rippey
 Riverdale
 Riverside
 Riverton
 Robins
 Rock Falls
 Rockford
 Rock Rapids
 Rock Valley
 Rockwell
 Rockwell City
 Rodman
 Rodney
 Roland
 Rolfe
 Rome
 Rose Hill
 Rossie
 Rowan
 Rowley
 Royal
 Rudd
 Runnells
 Rushville
 Russell
 Ruthven
 Rutland
 Ryan

S
 Sabula
 Sac City
 Sageville
 St. Ansgar
 St. Anthony
 St. Charles
 St. Donatus
 St. Lucas
 St. Marys
 St. Olaf
 St. Paul
 Salem
 Salix
 Sanborn
 Sandyville
 Scarville
 Schaller
 Schleswig
 Scranton
 Searsboro
 Sergeant Bluff
 Seymour
 Shambaugh
 Shannon City
 Sharpsburg
 Sheffield
 Shelby
 Sheldahl
 Sheldon
 Shell Rock
 Shellsburg
 Shenandoah
 Sherrill
 Shueyville
 Sibley
 Sidney
 Sigourney
 Silver City
 Sioux Center
 Sioux City
 Sioux Rapids
 Slater
 Sloan
 Smithland
 Soldier
 Solon
 Somers
 South English
 Spencer
 Spillville
 Spirit Lake
 Spragueville
 Springbrook
 Spring Hill
 Springville
 Stacyville
 Stanhope
 Stanley
 Stanton
 Stanwood
 State Center
 Steamboat Rock
 Stockport
 Stockton
 Storm Lake
 Story City
 Stout
 Stratford
 Strawberry Point
 Struble
 Stuart
 Sully
 Sumner
 Superior
 Sutherland
 Swaledale
 Swan
 Swea City
 Swisher

T
 Tabor
 Tama
 Templeton
 Tennant
 Terril
 Thayer
 Thompson
 Thor
 Thornburg
 Thornton
 Thurman
 Tiffin
 Tingley
 Tipton
 Titonka
 Toledo
 Toronto
 Traer
 Treynor
 Tripoli
 Truesdale
 Truro
 Turin

U
 Udell
 Underwood
 Union
 Unionville
 University Heights
 University Park
 Urbana
 Urbandale
 Ute

V
 Vail
 Valeria
 Van Horne
 Van Meter
 Van Wert
 Varina
 Vedic City
 Ventura
 Victor
 Villisca
 Vincent
 Vining
 Vinton
 Volga

W
 Wadena
 Wahpeton
 Walcott
 Walford
 Walker
 Wallingford
 Wall Lake
 Walnut
 Wapello
 Washington
 Washta
 Waterloo
 Waterville
 Waucoma
 Waukee
 Waukon
 Waverly
 Wayland
 Webb
 Webster
 Webster City
 Weldon
 Wellman
 Wellsburg
 Welton
 Wesley
 West Bend
 West Branch
 West Burlington
 West Chester
 West Des Moines
 Westfield
 Westgate
 West Liberty
 West Okoboji
 Westphalia
 West Point
 Westside
 West Union
 Westwood
 What Cheer
 Wheatland
 Whiting
 Whittemore
 Whitten
 Willey
 Williams
 Williamsburg
 Williamson
 Wilton
 Wilton
 Windsor Heights
 Winfield
 Winterset
 Winthrop
 Wiota
 Woden
 Woodbine
 Woodburn
 Woodward
 Woolstock
 Worthington
 Wyoming

Y
 Yale
 Yarmouth
 Yetter
 Yorktown

Z
 Zearing
 Zwingle

Lihat pula
 Daftar kota di Amerika Serikat
 Daftar county di Iowa
 Daftar tempat di Iowa

Iowa

Daftar kota di Iowa


The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of six main parts of the United Nations. The Security Council deals with maintaining peace and security between nations.

Membership
There are 15 members of the UNSC but only five are permanent members. They are:
 China
 France
 Russia
 United Kingdom
 United States

The ten temporary seats are held for two years with member states (countries) voted in by the United Nations General Assembly on a regional basis. The Presidency of the Security Council (i.e. the leadership) is rotated alphabetically each month. Currently, the members are:

Powers
If a country has behaved in a way seen as bad, the member countries of UNSC can make a ruling, known as a United Nations Security Council Resolution. All five of the permanent member countries must either agree to this ruling or at least not vote against it; if any of them do, it is said to have been "vetoed" and does not come into effect. This Resolution may call for UN members to take certain actions to punish the country, called "sanctions".

An example is that the UNSC had long banned all imports of nuclear fuel to Iran as they felt Iran was going to make nuclear weapons. These sanctions resulted in rules which made it much harder for Iran to do business with people in the rest of the world. These actions made life harder in Iran, both for its government and regular people as well. Most people think that is why Iran was willing to promise to change how it used nuclear material in order to end these rules. The Permanent Members of the Security Council worked together in ending this problem; Germany has also conferenced with the permanent UN Security Council members about this issue.

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is the most powerful part of the United Nations. The Security Council deals with maintaining peace and security between nations. For members of the UN to engage in war or major military activity against another country or a large armed group outside of their own country they are supposed to have the agreement of the Security Council to do so but recent history shows that this rule is often not closely followed by everyone. All members of the UN retain the right to "self-defense"; they can engage in actions to defend their people and land whenever this becomes necessary but are then expected to refer the matter to the Security Council as soon as they can.

References

Other websites
 UNSC website

Security Council

United Nations Security Council


An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal.

The difference from a digital signal is that also very small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. When one speaks of analog one often means an electrical context, however mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals.

An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information.
Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal is a measured change in physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure.

For example, in sound recording, changes in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which causes related changes in a voltage or the current in an electric circuit.  The voltage or the current is said to be an "analog" of the sound.

See digital for a discussion of digital vs. analog.

Physics
Electronics

Analog signal


In spoken leids, a phoneme is a basic, theoretical unit o soond that disteenguishes wirds (that is, bi chyngin a phoneme in ae
wird,  the ootcome is anither wird that's meanin differs). The phoneme is a basic soond lith, that's lingueestic function is tae disteenguish
the  morphemes o a wird.  Phonemes isna pheesical soonds, but abstractions. Phonemes is for ordinar seen as a faimlie o phones,
that's seen as a single soond, an is pitten ower wi a common seembol. Phones that's phoneme instance variants, an represents the
phonetic qualities o actual soond lithes, is kent as allophones. The basic soond unit comes oot throu phonemic analysis. Phonemic
seembology is pitten atween slashes (//). A cuttit wey tae descrieve the notion o a phoneme is the wee-est differ atween wirds, that's ootcome is an unalike meanin.

A phoneme micht weel represent a wheen categorically  phonetically seemilar or phonologically sib soonds.
The sibness micht no be phonetically obvious, whit is itsel, ane o the kinches wi this conceptual scheme.

Leid

Phoneme


A garden is usually a piece of land that is used for growing flowers, trees, shrubs, and other plants. The act of caring for a garden by watering the flowers and plants and removing the weeds is called gardening.

Types of gardens
There are many types of gardens. People have small private gardens in the backyard outside their house. Some gardens are built indoors in malls, public buildings, or greenhouses. Greenhouses are special buildings where plants are grown. A greenhouse has a transparent glass or plastic roof and walls that let sunlight in.

Water gardens are plants that are grown in ornamental (decorative) pools and ponds. People doing water gardening plant water lilies and other aquatic (water) plants.

Gardening can be done outside of the home, as well. There are in city gardens, botanical gardens (places where plants are grown), zoos which have gardens, and theme parks which have gardens. These types of gardens are cared for by people called gardeners or groundskeepers.

Gardens compared with farms
Gardens are related to farms (agriculture); both gardens and farms are used for growing plants. But farms are much larger than gardens. A farm may have hundreds of square kilometers of plants and crops. A garden in a person's backyard is usually only measures a few square meters.

Farms are businesses which sell the crops, fruit, and vegetables that are produced. Some gardens are businesses, which charge a fee to enter the garden. However, private gardens in people's backyards are usually used as a hobby or as a recreation, not as a business.

Features of gardens

In addition to plants, many gardens also have landscaping features such as pathways, seats, rock gardens, ponds, fountains, a small stream with or without a waterfall. Some incorporate gazebos and structural designs to accommodate for places to sit or to place a hammock for a siesta. Roman gardens will have its own columns, fountains and statures placed at strategic places depending on its sizes and uses. Japanese gardens have their own unique designs and features.

Role of gardens
Some gardens are created in people's backyards, outside their home (note that in Britain the whole area is called a "garden", not a "yard"). People with gardens in their backyards use gardens as a place to do gardening. Gardening is a type of physical activity which can use enough energy and increase your heart rate that it can be rated as a form of exercise for to relax and exercise certain muscles depending on whether on the activity you do that day such as planting, pruning, weeding, or simply just walk around your garden continuously for 15 minutes or more.

Many people find gardens relaxing especially if the garden is full flowers with strong scents. Some flowers like roses, bougainvilleas, orchids and many others are just beautiful to look at. Many people think that gardens are very beautiful and a place to relax and /or entertain. A garden can have a place to barbecue, to sit and to read.

In many countries and cultures, designing pretty gardens is considered to be an art. In Japan, for instance, Zen monks build decorative gardens with stone and waterfall features using natural materials such as bamboo, rock and BONSAI trees like spruce, pine, and other trees with they trained into miniature forms. In Europe in the 1700s, kings and queens had formal gardens built (for example, the gardens at Versailles, France). In China they also feature Chinese forms of gardens. Now some enterprising people start to have herbal gardens to feature useful herbs used in alternative, traditional, and homeopathic medicine

Related pages

 Botanical garden
 List of garden plants
 Zoo

Basic English 850 words

Garden


Island of the Hungry Ghosts is a hybrid documentary film by director Gabrielle Brady that explores the conflict faced by trauma therapist Poh Lin Lee, who works in the Australian Detention Centre for Asylum Seekers on Christmas Island.
It premiered at Tribeca Film Festival in 2018 where it won the Award for Best International Documentary. It was shown at festivals all over the world, winning several prizes. It was also released in cinemas in the United Kingdom, Australia, North America and Germany.

Summary

Located off the coast of Indonesia, the Australian territory of Christmas Island is inhabited by migratory crabs travelling in their millions from the jungle towards the ocean, in a movement that has been provoked by the full moon for hundreds of thousands of years.

Poh Lin Lee is a "trauma therapist" who lives with her family in this seemingly idyllic paradise. Every day, she talks with the asylum seekers held indefinitely in a high-security detention centre hidden in the island's core, attempting to support them in a situation that is as unbearable as its outcome is uncertain. As Poh Lin and her family explore the island's beautiful yet threatening landscape, the local islanders carry out their "hungry ghost" rituals for the spirits of those who died on the island without a burial. They make offerings to appease the lost souls who are said to be wandering the jungles at night looking for home.

In the intimacy of her therapy sessions, as Poh Lin listens to the growing sense of despair of the people she counsels, she begins to feel the creeping dystopia reverberate through her own life.

Island of the Hungry Ghosts is a hybrid documentary that moves between the natural migration and the chaotic and tragic migration of the humans, which is in constant metamorphoses by the unseen decision-making structures.

Accolades

References

External links
  Official Website

2018 films
Documentaries about psychology
Documentary films about immigration
Christmas Island
2010s English-language films

Island of the Hungry Ghosts


Ramadan (sometimes spelled Ramazan, Ramzan, Ramadhan) is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, during which Muslims  fast or do not eat or drink during the daytime. It is the holiest month in Islam. As mentioned in Sura Bakarah, verse number 183:
O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to
those before you, that ye may [learn] self-restraint,-

Overview
The date for the start of Ramadan is slightly different each year, depending on the position of the moon.  Once Ramadan starts, Muslims should not eat or drink between dawn and sunset. This usually continues for thirty days, but sometimes twenty-nine days.

Fasting is supposed to teach Muslims about patience and ibadah (faith).  It is a time for Muslims to think about how the poor and homeless suffer without lots of food, it helps Muslims to be more obedient, and less greedy.  During Ramadan, Muslims ask to be forgiven for their sins, and they pray for help in stopping them from doing bad things.
Muslims believe Ramadan is the month in which the first verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad.

Not everyone has to fast in Ramadan.  Children do not have to fast.  They should start when they reach the age of puberty, so long as they are healthy.  People who are travelling long distances do not have to fast. Pregnant women do not have to if they think it might harm their unborn baby.  Sometimes sportsmen do not observe the fast, although there are disagreements about this.  For example, the Olympic Games in 2012 fell in the middle of the holy month.  This made it very difficult for the sportsmen who could not eat or drink during daytime.

When the sun goes down and it gets dark the Muslim people will start eating again (this is called "breaking the fast").  This meal is known as Iftar.  There are often big meals enjoyed together by lots of Muslims.  Sometimes markets open after Iftar and stay open during the night. Ramadan is also the month when the "Quran" was sent down into Earth by an Angel called "Jibrill" ("Gabriel").

References

Other websites
 Ramadan 2016  - Islamic calendar makkah

Arabic words and phrases

Ramadan


Robert Burns Woodward (April 10, 1917 – July 8, 1979) was an American organic chemist. He made many important discoveries in modern organic chemistry. He worked on the synthesis and structure of complex natural products. He worked closely with Roald Hoffmann on the theory of chemical reactions. Woodward won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 1965.

Early life and education
Woodward was born in Boston, Massachusetts. When he was one year old, his father died in the influenza pandemic of 1918.

He was interested in chemistry at an early age. By the time he entered high school, he had already done most of the experiments in Ludwig Gattermann's textbook of experimental organic chemistry. In 1928, Woodward asked the Consul-General of the German consulate in Boston, to send him copies of a few original papers published in German journals. He was fascinated to read Otto Diels and Kurt Alder's original communication about the Diels–Alder reaction.

In 1933, he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), but did not do well enough to continue. MIT readmitted him in 1935, and by 1936 he had received the Bachelor of Science degree. Only one year later, MIT awarded him the doctorate. This was very unusual at the time, because most MIT students earned only a Bachelor of Science degree after four years. Woodward's studies were about the synthesis of the female sex hormone estrone, a natural type of estrogen. He held a Junior Fellowship at Harvard University from 1937 to 1938, and stayed at Harvard for the rest of his life. In the 1960s, Woodward was named Donner Professor of Science, a post which allowed him to spend all his time on research.

Early work
In the early 1940s Wooward was using ultraviolet spectroscopy to discover the structure of natural products. Woodward collected a large amount of information, and then worked out a series of rules, later called the Woodward's rules. These rules could be used to find out the structures of new natural products, as well as non-natural synthesized molecules. Woodward was always quick to use newly developed techniques. Woodward's discovery saved chemists from spending a lot of time using chemical methods to work out the structures of compounds.

In 1944 Woodward and William von Eggers Doering reported the synthesis of the alkaloid quinine, used to treat malaria. The synthesis was a breakthrough, as quinine was hard to get from Japanese occupied southeast Asia. In fact, Woodward's method could not be used on a practical scale, but it was a landmark for chemical synthesis. Organic synthesis was still largely a matter of trial and error, and nobody thought such complex structures could actually be constructed. Woodward showed that organic synthesis could be made into a science. Woodward's synthesis of quinine was the first of many of his very complicated and elegant syntheses.

Later work and its impact
By the 1930s, the British chemists Christopher Ingold and Robert Robinson among others had studied the mechanisms of organic reactions. They had come up with rules which could predict reactivity of organic molecules. Woodward was probably the first synthetic organic chemist who used these rules to predict what steps would work in a synthesis.

Organic syntheses and Nobel Prize
During the late 1940s, Woodward synthesized many complex natural products including quinine, cholesterol, cortisone, strychnine, lysergic acid, reserpine, chlorophyll, cephalosporin, and colchicine. With these, Woodward opened up a new era of synthesis, sometimes called the 'Woodwardian era'. He showed that natural products could be synthesized by careful applications of the principles of physical organic chemistry, and by very careful planning.

Many of Woodward's syntheses were described as spectacular by his colleagues. Before he did them, some people thought it would be impossible to create these substances in the lab. Woodward's syntheses were also described as having an element of art in them, and since then, synthetic chemists have always looked for elegance as well as utility in synthesis. His work also involved the exhaustive use of the then newly developed techniques of infrared spectroscopy and later, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Another important feature of Woodward's syntheses was their attention to stereochemistry or the particular configuration of molecules in three dimensional space. Most natural products of medicinal importance are effective, for example as drugs, only when they possess a specific stereochemistry. This creates the demand for 'stereospecific synthesis', producing a compound with a defined stereochemistry. Woodward was a pioneer in showing how one could conduct reactions that were stereospecific. Many of his syntheses involved forcing a molecule into a certain configuration by installing rigid structural elements in it, another tactic that has become standard today. In this regard, especially his syntheses of reserpine and strychnine were landmarks.

During World War II, Woodward was an advisor to the War Production Board on the penicillin project.
Woodward also applied the technique of infrared spectroscopy and chemical degradation to determine the structures of complicated molecules. Notable among these structure determinations were santonic acid, strychnine, magnamycin and terramycin.  About terramycin, Woodward's colleague and Nobel Laureate Derek Barton said:
"The most brilliant analysis ever done on a structural puzzle was surely the solution (1953) of the terramycin problem. It was a problem of great industrial importance, and hence many able chemists had performed an enormous amount of work trying to determine the structure. There seemed to be too much data to resolve the problem, because a significant number of observations, although experimentally correct, were very misleading. Woodward took a large piece of cardboard, wrote on it all the facts and, by thought alone, deduced the correct structure for terramycin. Nobody else could have done that at the time."

In each one of these cases, Woodward again showed how rational facts and chemical principles, combined with chemical intuition, could be used to achieve the task.

In the early 1950s, Woodward, and British chemist Geoffrey Wilkinson, proposed a structure for ferrocene, a compound consisting of a combination of an organic molecule with iron. This marked the beginning of the field of transition metal organometallic chemistry. The field later grew which grew to be important to the chemical industry. Wilkinson won the Nobel Prize for this work in 1973, with Ernst Otto Fischer. Some historians think that Woodward should have shared this prize along with Wilkinson. Woodward himself thought so, and voiced his thoughts in a letter sent to the Nobel Committee.

Woodward won the Nobel Prize in 1965 for his synthesis of complex organic molecules. In his Nobel lecture, he described the total synthesis of the antibiotic cephalosporin, and claimed that he had pushed the synthesis schedule so that it would be completed around the time of the Nobel ceremony.

B12 synthesis and Woodward-Hoffmann rules
In the early 1960s, Woodward began work on what was the most complex natural product synthesized to date- vitamin B12. In a remarkable collaboration with his colleague Albert Eschenmoser in Zurich, a team of almost one hundred students and postdoctoral workers worked for many years on the synthesis of this molecule. The work was finally published in 1973, and it marked a landmark in the history of organic chemistry. The synthesis included almost a hundred steps, and involved the rigorous planning and analyses that had always characterised Woodward's work. This work, more than any other, convinced organic chemists that the synthesis of any complex substance was possible, given enough time and planning. However, as of 2006, no other total synthesis of Vitamin B12 has been published.

That same year, based on observations that Woodward had made during the B12 synthesis, he and Roald Hoffmann devised rules (now called the Woodward–Hoffmann rules) for elucidating the stereochemistry of the products of organic reactions. Woodward based his ideas on his experiences as a synthetic organic chemist; he asked Hoffman to perform theoretical calculations to verify the ideas. This was done using Hoffmann's Extended Hückel method. The predictions of these rules were verified by many experiments. Hoffmann shared the 1981 Nobel Prize for this work along with Kenichi Fukui, a Japanese chemist who had done similar work using a different approach. Woodward had died two years before and so was not eligible to share this Prize.

A recent paper in the journal Nature describes how mechanical stress can be used to reshape chemical reaction pathways to lead to products that apparently violate Woodward–Hoffman rules.

Woodward Institute and later life
While at Harvard, Woodward took on the directorship of the
Woodward Research Institute, based at Basel, Switzerland in 1963. He also became a trustee of his alma mater, MIT, from 1966 to 1971, and of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.

Woodward died in Cambridge, Massachusetts from a heart attack in his sleep. At the time, he was working on the synthesis of an antibiotic, erythromycin. A student of his said:

"I owe a lot to Woodward. He showed me that one could attack difficult problems without a clear idea of their outcome, but with confidence that intelligence and effort would solve them. He showed me the beauty of modern organic chemistry, and the relevance to the field of detailed careful reasoning. He showed me that one does not need to specialize. Woodward made great contributions to the strategy of synthesis, to the deduction of difficult structures, to the invention of new chemistry, and to theoretical aspects as well. He taught his students by example the satisfaction that comes from total immersion in our science. I treasure the memory of my association with this remarkable chemist."

Publications
During his lifetime, Woodward authored or coauthored almost 200 publications, of which 85 are full papers. The remainder comprising preliminary communications, the text of lectures, and reviews. The pace of his scientific activity soon outstripped his capacity to publish all experimental details, and much of the work in which he participated was not published until a few years after his death. Woodward trained more than two hundred Ph.D. students and postdoctoral workers, many of whom later went on to distinguished careers.

Idiosyncracies
His lectures were legendary and frequently used to last for three or four hours. [His longest known lecture defined the unit of time known as the "Woodward", and thereafter his other lectures were deemed to be so many "milli-Woodwards" long!] In many of these, he eschewed the use of slides and used to draw beautiful structures by using multicolored chalk. As a result, it was always easy to take good notes at a Woodward lecture. Typically, to begin a lecture, Woodward would arrive and lay out two large white handkerchiefs on the countertop.  Upon one would be four or five colors of chalk (new pieces), neatly sorted by color, in a long row.  Upon the other handkerchief would be placed an equally impressive row of cigarettes. The previous cigarette would be used to light the next one.  His famous Thursday seminars at Harvard often lasted well into the night. He had a fixation with blue, and all his suits, his car, and even his parking space were coloured in blue. In one of his laboratories, his students hung a large black and white photograph of the master from the ceiling, complete with a large blue "tie" appended. There it hung for some years (early 1970s), until scorched in a minor laboratory fire.  He detested exercise, could get along with only a few hours of sleep every night, was a heavy smoker, and enjoyed Scotch whisky and a martini or two. Hoffmann would correspond with Woodward using blue paper.

References

Sources

 Robert Burns Woodward: Architect and Artist in the World of Molecules; Otto Theodor Benfey, Peter J. T. Morris, Chemical Heritage Foundation, April 2001.
 Robert Burns Woodward and the Art of Organic Synthesis: To Accompany an Exhibit by the Beckman Center for the History of Chemistry (Publication / Beckman Center for the History of Chemistry); Mary E. Bowden; Chemical Heritage Foundation, March 1992

Other websites
Robert Burns Woodward
Video podcast of Robert Burns Woodward talking about cephalosporin

1917 births
1979 deaths
Scientists from Boston
American chemists
American Nobel Prize winners
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Deaths from myocardial infarction

Robert Woodward


Pamagat
Christmas in the Trenches
Petsa
Mang-aawit
KompositorJohn McCutcheon

Liriko
My name is Francis Tolliver, I come from Liverpool.

Two years ago the war was waiting for me after school.

To Belgium and to Flanders, to Germany to here

I fought for King and country I love dear.

'Twas Christmas in the trenches, where the frost so bitter hung,

The frozen fields of France were still, no Christmas song was sung

Our families back in England were toasting us that day

Their brave and glorious lads so far away.

I was lying with my messmate on the cold and rocky ground

When across the lines of battle came a most peculiar sound

Says I, ``Now listen up, me boys! each soldier strained to hear

As one young German voice sang out so clear.

``He's singing bloody well, you know! my partner says to me

Soon, one by one, each German voice joined in harmony

The cannons rested silent, the gas clouds rolled no more

As Christmas brought us respite from the war

As soon as they were finished and a reverent pause was spent

``God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen struck up some lads from Kent

The next they sang was ``Stille Nacht. ``Tis `Silent Night',
says I

And in two tongues one song filled up that sky

``There's someone coming toward us! the front line sentry cried

All sights were fixed on one long figure trudging from their side

His truce flag, like a Christmas star, shown on that plain so bright

As he, bravely, strode unarmed into the night

Soon one by one on either side walked into No Man's Land

With neither gun nor bayonet we met there hand to hand

We shared some secret brandy and we wished each other well

And in a flare-lit soccer game we gave 'em hell

We traded chocolates, cigarettes, and photographs from home

These sons and fathers far away from families of their own

Young Sanders played his squeezebox and they had a violin

This curious and unlikely band of men

Soon daylight stole upon us and France was France once more

With sad farewells we each prepared to settle back to war

But the question haunted every heart that lived that wonderous night

``Whose family have I fixed within my sights?''

'Twas Christmas in the trenches where the frost, so bitter hung

The frozen fields of France were warmed as songs of peace were sung

For the walls they'd kept between us to exact the work of war

Had been crumbled and were gone forevermore

My name is Francis Tolliver, in Liverpool I dwell

Each Christmas come since World War I, I've learned its lessons well

That the ones who call the shots won't be among the dead and lame

And on each end of the rifle we're the same

Awiting Pamasko
Pamaskong Ingles

Christmas in the Trenches


tos ditampi sailaharna, Linguistik nyaéta élmu panggunaan basa manusya, sertos linguist nyaéta jalmi nu kalebet dina widang ulikan ieu. Ulikan linguistik wisa dipikirkeun sapanjang tilu hal utami, nu tungtungna tiasa dijéntrékeun saperti di handap:

 Sinkronis jeung diakronis—Ulikan basa sinkronis tumali jeung wangun dina hiji kajadian; ulikan diakronis ngawengku sajarah basa (grup) sertos parobahan strukturalna sapanjang waktu.
 Téoritis jeung terapan—Linguistik Téoritis paduli kana carangka pikeun ngagambarkeun basa sertos téori individual ngeunaan aspék universal tina basa; lingusitik terapan nerapkeun téori ieu ka widang séjén.
 Kontékstual jeung indepénden—Linguistik disawang gumantung kana kumaha basa kumait jeung dunya sabudeureunana: fungsi sosialna, kumaha éta diakuisisi, kumaha éta diproduksi sertos dirasa. Linguistik Independen narimbang basa pikeun tujuan manusya saindividuna, iwal externalities nu nyambung jeung hiji basa. Istilah pikeun dikotomi ieu lain pohara mapan—Encyclopædia Britannica ngagunakeun macrolinguistics sertos microlinguistics minangka gantina.

Kalawan dikotomi ieu, sarjana nu nyebut dirina ngan ahli basa atawa ahli basa téoritis baé, kalawan tanpa kualifikasi deui, condong ka independen, linguistik sinkronis anu téoritis, nyaéta ngaku ayana sabot inti ti disiplin élmu.

 Téoritis jeung terapan—Théoretical linguistics is concerned with frameworks for describing individual languages and théories about universal aspects of language; applied lingusitics applies these théories to other fields.
 Kontékstual jeung indepénden—Contextual linguistics is concerned with how language fits into the world: its social function, how it is acquired, how it is produced and perceived. Independent linguistics considers languages for their own sake, aside from the externalities related to a language.  Terms for this dichotomy are not yet well established—the Encyclopædia Britannica uses macrolinguistics and microlinguistics instéad.

Given these dichotomies, scholars who call themselves simply linguists or theoretical linguists, with no further qualification, tend to be concerned with independent, théoretical synchronic linguistics, which is acknowledged as the core of the discipline.

Linguistic inquiry is pursued by a wide variety of specialists, who may not all be in harmonious agreement; as Russ Rymer flamboyantly puts it:

"Linguistics is arguably the most hotly contested property in the academic realm. It is soaked with the blood of poets, theologians, philosophers, philologists, psychologists, biologists, and neurologists, along with whatever blood can be got out of grammarians."  1

Widang linguistik téoritis
Théoretical linguistics is often divided into a number of separate aréas, to be studied more or less independently. The following divisions are currently widely acknowledged:

 Fonétik, the study of the different sounds that are employed across all human languages;
 Fonologi, the study of patterns of a language's basic sounds;
 Morfologi, the study of the internal structure of words;
 Sintaksis, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences
 Semantik, the study of the méaning of words (lexical semantics), and how these combine to form the méanings of sentences;
 Stilistik, the study of style in languages;
 Pragmatik, the study of how utterances are used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in communicative acts;

The independent significance of éach of these aréas is not universally acknowledged, however, and néarly all linguists would agree that the divisions overlap considerably. Nevertheless, éach subaréa has core concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry and reséarch.

Linguistik diakronis
Wheréas the core of théoretical linguistics is concerned with studying languages at a particular point in time (usually the present), diachronic linguistics examines how language changes through time, sometimes over centuries. Historical linguistics enjoys both a rich history (the study of linguistics grew out of historical linguistics) and a strong théoretical foundation for the study of language change.

In American universities, the non-historic perspective seems to have the upper hand. Many introductory linguistics classes, for example, cover historical linguistics only cursorily. The shift in focus to a non-historic perspective started with Saussure and became predominant with Noam Chomsky.

Explicitly historical perspectives include historical-comparative linguistics and etymology.

Linguistik terapan
Wheréas théoretical linguistics is concerned with finding and describing generalities both within languages and among all languages, as a group, applied linguistics takes the results of those findings and applies them to other aréas. Usually applied linguistics refers to the use of linguistic reséarch in language téaching, but linguistics is used in other aréas, as well. Speech synthesis and Speech recognition, for example, use linguistic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers.

Linguistik kontékstual
Contextual linguistics is that réalm where linguistics interacts with other  academic disciplines. Wheréas core théoretical linguistics studies languages for their own sake, the inder-disciplinary aréas of linguistic consider how language interacts with the rest of the world. But that rather depends upon their world-view.

Sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology are where the social sciences that consider societies as whole and linguistics interact.

Critical discourse analysis is where rhetoric and philosophy interact with linguistics.

Psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics is the where the medical sciences meets linguistics.

Other cross-disciplinary aréas of linguistics include  language acquisition, evolutionary linguistics, stratificational linguistics, and cognitive science.

Individual speakers, language communities, and linguistic universals
Linguists also differ in how broad a group of language users they study. Some analyze a given spéaker's language or language development in gréat detail. Some study language pertaining to a whole speech community, such as the language of all those who spéak Black English Vernacular. Others try to find linguistic universals that apply, at some abstract level, to all users of human language everywhere. This latter project has been most famously advocated by Noam Chomsky, and it interests many péople in psycholinguistics and cognitive science. It is thought that universals in human language may revéal important insight into universals about the human mind.

Description and prescription
Most work currently done under the name "linguistics" is purely descriptive; the linguists seek to clarify the nature of language without passing value judgments or trying to chart future language directions. Nonetheless, there are many professionals and amateurs who also prescribe rules of language, holding a particular standard out for all to follow.

Wheréas prescriptivists might want to stamp out what they perceive as "incorrect usage", descriptivists seek to find the root of such usage; they might describe it simply as "idiosyncratic", or they may discover a regularity that the prescriptivists don't like because it is perhaps too new or from a dialect they don't approve of.

Speech versus writing
Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken language is more fundamental, and thus more important to study, than writing. réasons for this standpoint include:
 Speech appéars to be a human universal, wheréas there are and have been many cultures that lack written communication;
 Péople léarn to spéak and process oral language éasier and éarlier than writing;
 A number of cognitive scientists argue that the brain has an innate "language module", knowledge of which is thought to come more from studying speech than writing.

Of course, linguists agree that that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For linguistic reséarch that uses the methods of corpus linguistics and computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpuses of spoken language are difficult to créate and hard to find.

Furthermore, the study of writing systems themselves falls under the aegis of linguistics.

Research areas of linguistics

phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, etymology, lexicology, lexicography, theoretical linguistics, historical-comparative linguistics and descriptive linguistics, linguistic typology, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics,  semiotics.

Interdisciplinary linguistic research

applied linguistics, historical linguistics, orthography, writing systems, comparative linguistics,  cryptanalysis, decipherment, sociolinguistics, critical discourse analysis, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, evolutionary linguistics, anthropological linguistics, stratificational linguistics, text linguistics, cognitive science, neurolinguistics, and in Computational linguistics there is
natural language understanding, speech recognition, speaker recognition (authentication), speech synthesis, and more generally, speech processing

Important linguists and schools of thought

éarly scholars of linguistics include Jakob Grimm, who devised the principle of consonantal shifts in pronunciation known as Grimm's Law in 1822, Karl Verner, who discovered Verner's Law, August Schleicher who créated the "Stammbaumtheorie" and Johannes Schmidt who developed the "Wellentheorie" ("wave model") in 1872. Ferdinand de Saussure was the founder of modérn structural linguistics. Noam Chomsky's formal modél of language, transformational-generative grammar, developed under the influence of his téacher Zellig Harris, who was in turn strongly influenced by Leonard Bloomfield, has been the dominant one from the 1960s.

Other important linguists and schools include Michael Halliday, whose systemic functional grammar is pursued widely in the U.K., Canada, Australia, China, and Jepang; Dell Hymes, who developed a pragmatic approach called The Ethnography of Spéaking; George Lakoff, Len Talmy, and Ronald Langacker, who were pioneers in cognitive linguistics; Charles Fillmore and Adele Goldberg, who are associated with construction grammar; and linguists developing several varieties of what they call  functional grammar, including Talmy Givon and Robert Van Valin, Jr..

Representation of speech

 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), a system used to write down and reproduce the sounds of human speech.
 SAMPA, an ASCII-only transcription for the IPA used by some authors. See also http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm

Narrower conceptions of "linguistics"

"Linguistics" and "linguist" may not always be méant to apply as broadly as above. In some contexts, the best definitions may be "what is studied in a typical university's department of linguistics", and "one who is a professor in such a department." Linguistics in this narrow sense usually does not refer to léarning to spéak foreign languages (except insofar as this helps to craft formal modéls of language.) It does not include literary analysis. Only sometimes does it include study of things such as metaphor. It probably does not apply to those engaged in such prescriptive efforts as found in Strunk and White's The Elements of Style; "linguists" usually seek to study what péople do, not what they should do. One could probably argue for a long while about who is and who is not a "linguist".

Tempo ogé
 Daptar linguist
 Sajarah linguistik
 Jejer dasar linguistik, a page designed to organize information about linguistics on Wikipedia
 Daptar jejer linguistik
 Filologi, ulikan téks kuna jeung basana.
 Strukturalisme

Rujukan
 Geoffrey Sampson: "Schools of Linguistics.", Hutchinson, London (1980), ISBN 0-8047-1084-8
 Rymer, p. 48, quoted in Fauconnier and Turner, p. 353)
 Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner (2002). The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind's Hidden Complexities. Basic Books.
 Rymer, Russ (1992). "Annals of Science: A Silent Childhood-I". New Yorker, April 13.
 Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct

Tumbu luar
 Multilingual Morphology Software
 Grammar Book
 Automated word analysis for the German language
 Syllabification algorithm
 The hyphenation block

Linguistik


In music, a musical note, otherwise referred to as a musical tone or simply a note or tone, is a small bit of sound of a note system known as the solfege, especially in the United States, similar to a syllable in spoken language. For example: in the first two lines of the song "Twinkle, twinkle, little star, how I wonder what you are" there are 14 notes: one for each syllable.

Confusingly, the word "note" can also mean the pitch of a note (how high or low it is). For example: the whole of the song "Twinkle, twinkle, little star" can be played using six different notes: C, D, E, F, G and A.

The word "note" can also mean the written symbol of the note, which shows the note value.

Nearly all music is made up of notes. Music without notes might be sound effects.

Music
In some Western countries, like the United Kingdom, Germany and the US, the notes (in the sense of the pitches) are given a letter of the alphabet according to their pitch. From lowest sounding to highest sounding: Rest, C, D, E, F, G, A, B. This pattern repeats, so that after G will come A. This A is an octave higher than the first A.

Because there are 12 notes needed in Western music, these 7 notes can have modifiers (symbols or words that change them). The two main modifiers are sharps, which raise the pitch a half-step, and flats, which lower the pitch a half-step. The symbol for a sharp is ♯ (like the hash symbol (American: number symbol): #). The symbol for a flat is ♭ (like a lower-case italic b). To un-flat or un-sharp a note, the natural symbol, ♮, is written before the note. When writing in words (like this page), the symbols are written after the note name, for example: "B♭" means B flat and "F♯" represents F sharp. However, when writing in music notation, the flat, sharp or natural signs are written before the note. A way to remember this is to say: if the sign came after the note, it would be too late, and you would have already played it, so it must go before so that you know what is coming.

Sharps and flats can also be written in key signatures. A key signature is written at the beginning of the piece, and repeated at the beginning of each line. It gives the sharps or flats which are going to be regular in the piece.

Two other modifiers are double sharps, which raise the note a whole step, and double flats, which lower the note a whole step. These are much less common that the simple sharp or flat, but can still be seen in some types of music. The symbol for a double sharp is × and the symbol for a double flat is ♭♭. For example, E♭♭ is another name for D. This is called an enharmonic equivalent. Another enharmonic equivalent is C and B♯.

Other note names

In some languages, such as the Romance languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian), seven of the notes are named "Do", "Re", "Mi", "Fa", "Sol", "La" and "Si" (or "Ti") instead of "C", "D", "E", "F", "G", "A" and "B". These names are the focus for a song in The Sound of Music.

Drum kits do not have notes; they have places on the manuscript where each line means each Drum,
each symbol means each Cymbak on the Kit - how many times to hit it in what speed and beats
in a bar there are usually shown as 4/4 and you count 1 2 3 4 each bar.

Musical notation

Musical note