Winfield Scott Hancock (February 14, 1824 – February 9, 1886) was a United States Army officer and the Democratic nominee for President of the United States in 1880. He served with distinction in the Army for four decades, including service in the Mexican–American War and as a Union general in the American Civil War. Known to his Army colleagues as "Hancock the Superb," he was noted in particular for his personal leadership at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. His military service continued after the Civil War, as Hancock participated in the military Reconstruction of the South and the U.S.' ethnic cleansing of Native Americans at the Western frontier. This concluded with the Medicine Lodge Treaty. From 1881 to 1885 he was president of the Aztec Club of 1847 for veteran officers of the Mexican-American War.

Hancock's reputation as a war hero at Gettysburg, combined with his status as a Unionist and supporter of states' rights, made him a potential presidential candidate. When the Democrats nominated him for President in 1880, he ran a strong campaign, but was narrowly defeated by Republican James A. Garfield. Hancock's last public service involved the oversight of President Ulysses S. Grant's funeral procession in 1885.

Early life and family

Winfield Scott Hancock and his identical twin brother Hilary Baker Hancock were born on February 14, 1824, in Montgomery Square, Pennsylvania, a hamlet just northwest of Philadelphia in present-day Montgomery Township. The twins were the sons of Benjamin Franklin Hancock and Elizabeth Hoxworth Hancock. Winfield was named after Winfield Scott, a prominent general in the War of 1812.

The Hancock and Hoxworth families had lived in Montgomery County for several generations, and were of English, Scottish, and Welsh descent. Benjamin Hancock was a schoolteacher when his sons were born. A few years after their birth, he moved the family to Norristown, the county seat, and began to practice law. Benjamin was also a deacon in the Baptist church and participated in municipal government (as an avowed Democrat).

Hancock was at first educated at Norristown Academy, but removed to the public schools when the first one opened in Norristown in the late 1830s. In 1840, Joseph Fornance, the local Congressman, nominated Hancock to the United States Military Academy at West Point. Hancock's progress at West Point was average. He graduated 18th in his class of 25 in 1844, and he was assigned to the infantry.

Early military career

Mexican War
Hancock was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 6th U.S. Infantry regiment, and initially was stationed in Indian Territory in the Red River Valley. The region was quiet at the time, and Hancock's time there was uneventful. Upon the outbreak of war with Mexico in 1846, Hancock worked to secure himself a place at the front. Initially assigned to recruiting duties in Kentucky, he proved so adept at signing up soldiers that his superiors were reluctant to release him from his post. By July 1847, however, Hancock was permitted to join his regiment in Puebla, Mexico, where they made up a part of the army led by his namesake, General Winfield Scott.

Scott's army moved farther inland from Puebla unopposed and attacked Mexico City from the south. During that campaign in 1847, Hancock first encountered battle at Contreras and Churubusco. He was appointed a brevet first lieutenant for gallant and meritorious service in those actions. Hancock was wounded in the knee at Churubusco and developed a fever. Although he was well enough to join his regiment at Molino del Rey, fever kept Hancock from participating in the final breakthrough to Mexico City, something he would regret for the rest of his life. After the final victory, Hancock remained in Mexico with the 6th Infantry until the treaty of peace was signed in 1848.

Marriage and peacetime
Hancock served in a number of assignments as an army quartermaster and adjutant, mostly in Fort Snelling, Minnesota, and St. Louis, Missouri. It was in St. Louis that he met Almira ("Allie") Russell and they married on January 24, 1850. Allie gave birth to two children, Russell in 1850 and Ada in 1857, but both children died before their parents. Hancock was promoted to captain in 1855 and assigned to Fort Myers, Florida. Hancock's young family accompanied him to his new posting, where Allie Hancock was the only woman on the post.

Hancock's tour in Florida coincided with the end of the Third Seminole War. His duties were primarily those of a quartermaster, and he did not see action in that campaign. As the situation in Florida began to settle down, Hancock was reassigned to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He served in the West during the partisan warfare of "Bleeding Kansas", and in the Utah Territory, where the 6th Infantry arrived after the Utah War. Following the resolution of that conflict, Hancock was stationed in southern California in November 1858. He remained there, joined by Allie and the children, until the Civil War broke out in 1861, serving as a captain and assistant quartermaster under future Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston. In California, Hancock became friendly with a number of southern officers, most significantly Lewis A. Armistead of Virginia. At the outbreak of the Civil War, Armistead and the other southerners left to join the Confederate States Army, while Hancock remained in the service of the United States. When Armistead left, he turned to Hancock and said, "You'll never know what this is costing me, but goodbye, goodbye."

Civil War

Joining the Army of the Potomac

Hancock returned east to assume quartermaster duties for the rapidly growing Union Army, but was quickly promoted to brigadier general on September 23, 1861, and given an infantry brigade to command in the division of Brig. Gen. William F. "Baldy" Smith, Army of the Potomac. He earned his "Superb" nickname in the Peninsula Campaign, in 1862, by leading a critical counterattack in the Battle of Williamsburg; army commander Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan telegraphed to Washington that "Hancock was superb today" and the appellation stuck. McClellan did not follow through on Hancock's initiative, however, and Confederate forces were allowed to withdraw unmolested.

In the Battle of Antietam, Hancock assumed command of the 1st Division, II Corps, following the mortal wounding of Maj. Gen. Israel B. Richardson in the horrific fighting at "Bloody Lane". Hancock and his staff made a dramatic entrance to the battlefield, galloping between his troops and the enemy, parallel to the Sunken Road. His men assumed that Hancock would order counterattacks against the exhausted Confederates, but he carried orders from McClellan to hold his position. He was promoted to major general of volunteers on November 29, 1862. He led his division in the disastrous attack on Marye's Heights in the Battle of Fredericksburg the following month and was wounded in the abdomen. At the Battle of Chancellorsville, his division covered Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker's withdrawal and Hancock was wounded again. His corps commander, Maj. Gen. Darius N. Couch, transferred out of the Army of the Potomac in protest of actions Hooker took in the battle and Hancock assumed command of II Corps, which he would lead until shortly before the war's end.

Gettysburg

Hancock's most famous service was as a new corps commander at the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1 to 3, 1863. After his friend, Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds, was killed early on July 1, Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, the new commander of the Army of the Potomac, sent Hancock ahead to take command of the units on the field and assess the situation. Hancock thus was in temporary command of the "left wing" of the army, consisting of the I, II, III, and XI Corps. This demonstrated Meade's high confidence in him, because Hancock was not the most senior Union officer at Gettysburg at the time. Hancock and the more senior XI Corps commander, Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard, argued briefly about this command arrangement, but Hancock prevailed and he organized the Union defenses on Cemetery Hill as more numerous Confederate forces drove the I and XI Corps back through the town. He had the authority from Meade to withdraw, so he was responsible for the decision to stand and fight at Gettysburg. At the conclusion of the day's action, Maj. Gen. Henry Warner Slocum arrived on the field and assumed command until Gen. Meade arrived after midnight.

On July 2, Hancock's II Corps was positioned on Cemetery Ridge, roughly in the center of the Union line, while Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee launched assaults on both ends of the line. On the Union left, Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's assault smashed the III Corps and Hancock sent in his 1st Division, under Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell, to reinforce the Union in the Wheatfield. As Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill's corps continued the attack toward the Union center, Hancock rallied the defenses and rushed units to the critical spots. First, he sent the 3rd Brigade of the 3rd Division, under Col. George Willard, into the fray to stop the advance of Confederate Brigadier General William Barksdale's Brigade. In one famous incident, he sacrificed a regiment, the 1st Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiment, by ordering it to advance and charge a Confederate brigade four times its size, causing the Minnesotans to suffer 87% casualties. While costly, this sacrifice bought time to organize the defensive line and saved the day for the Union Army. Following the action toward his right, he sent the 13th Vermont Volunteer Infantry Regiment of the 1st Corps, which had come from Cemetery Hill to help quell the crisis, to recover some artillery pieces the Confederates had captured and were pulling away. The Vermonters were successful. Having stabilized his line, he turned his attention to the sound of fighting on East Cemetery Hill. There, with darkness falling, Confederates from Maj. Gen. Jubal Early's Division had gotten into Union batteries and were fighting the cannoneers hand-to-hand. Hancock sent the First Brigade of his Third Division, under Colonel Samuel S. Carroll, to the fighting. The brigade was crucial in flushing the enemy out of the batteries and dispatching them back down the face of East Cemetery Hill.

On July 3, Hancock defended his position on Cemetery Ridge and thus bore the brunt of Pickett's Charge. During the massive Confederate artillery bombardment that preceded the infantry assault, Hancock was prominent on horseback, reviewing and encouraging his troops. When one of his subordinates protested, "General, the corps commander ought not to risk his life that way," Hancock is said to have replied, "There are times when a corps commander's life does not count." During the infantry assault, his old friend, Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead, now leading a brigade in Maj. Gen. George Pickett's division, was wounded and died two days later. Hancock could not meet with his friend because he had just been wounded himself, a severe wound caused by a bullet striking the pommel of his saddle, entering his inner right thigh along with wood fragments and a large bent nail. Helped from his horse by aides, and with a tourniquet applied to stanch the bleeding, he removed the saddle nail himself and, mistaking its source, remarked wryly, "They must be hard up for ammunition when they throw such shot as that." News of Armistead's mortal wounding was brought to Hancock by a member of his staff, Capt. Henry H. Bingham. Despite his pain, Hancock refused evacuation to the rear until the battle was resolved. He had been an inspiration for his troops throughout the three-day battle. Hancock later received the thanks of the U.S. Congress for "... his gallant, meritorious and conspicuous share in that great and decisive victory."

One military historian wrote, "No other Union general at Gettysburg dominated men by the sheer force of their presence more completely than Hancock." As another wrote, "his tactical skill had won him the quick admiration of adversaries who had come to know him as the 'Thunderbolt of the Army of the Potomac'."

Virginia and the end of the war

Hancock suffered from the effects of his Gettysburg wound for the rest of the war. After recuperating in Norristown, he performed recruiting services over the winter and returned in the spring to field command of the II Corps for Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's 1864 Overland Campaign, but he never regained full mobility and his former youthful energy. Nevertheless, he performed well at the Battle of the Wilderness and commanded a critical breakthrough assault of the Mule Shoe at the "Bloody Angle" in the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House on May 12, shattering the Confederate defenders in his front, including the Stonewall Brigade. His corps suffered enormous losses during a futile assault Grant ordered at Cold Harbor.

After Grant's army slipped past Lee's army to cross the James River, Hancock found himself in a position from which he might have ended the war. His corps arrived to support William Farrar Smith's assaults on the lightly held Petersburg defensive lines, but he deferred to Smith's advice because Smith knew the ground and had been on the field all day, and no significant assaults were made before the Confederate lines were reinforced. One of the great opportunities of the war was lost. After his corps participated in the assaults at Deep Bottom, Hancock was promoted to brigadier general in the regular army, effective August 12, 1864.

Hancock's only significant military defeat occurred during the siege of Petersburg. His II Corps moved south of the city, along the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad, tearing up track. On August 25, Confederate Maj. Gen. Henry Heth attacked and overran the faulty Union position at Reams's Station, shattering the II Corps, capturing many prisoners. Despite a later victory at Hatcher's Run, the humiliation of Reams's Station contributed, along with the lingering effects of his Gettysburg wound, to his decision to give up field command in November. He left the II Corps after a year in which it had suffered over 40,000 casualties, but had achieved significant military victories. His next assignment was to command the ceremonial First Veteran Corps. He performed more recruiting, commanded the Middle Department, and relieved Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan in command of forces in the now-quiet Shenandoah Valley. He was promoted to brevet major general in the regular army for his service at Spotsylvania, effective March 13, 1865.

Post-war military service

Execution of Lincoln assassination conspirators

At the close of the war, Hancock was assigned to supervise the execution of the conspirators in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln had been assassinated on April 14, 1865, and by May 9 of that year, a military commission had been convened to try the accused. The actual assassin, John Wilkes Booth, was already dead, but the trial of his co-conspirators proceeded quickly, resulting in convictions. President Andrew Johnson ordered the executions to be carried out on July 7. Although he was reluctant to execute some of the less-culpable conspirators, especially Mary Surratt, Hancock carried out his orders, later writing that "every soldier was bound to act as I did under similar circumstances."

Service on the Plains
After the executions, Hancock was assigned command of the newly organized Middle Military Department, headquartered in Baltimore. In 1866, on Grant's recommendation, Hancock was promoted to major general and was transferred, later that year, to command of the military Department of the Missouri, which included the states of Missouri and Kansas and the territories of Colorado and New Mexico. Hancock reported to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and took up his new posting.

Soon after arriving, he was assigned by General Sherman to lead an expedition to negotiate with the Cheyenne and Sioux, with whom relations had worsened since the Sand Creek massacre. The negotiations got off to a bad start, and after Hancock ordered the burning of an abandoned Cheyenne village in central Kansas, relations became worse than when the expedition had started.

The official report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission found that the actions of George Custer and other subordinates just after Hancock's arrival led to an instigation of violent reprisals by the Native Americans:

Reconstruction

Hancock's time in the West was brief. President Johnson, unhappy with the way Republican generals were governing the South under Reconstruction, sought replacements for them. The general who offended Johnson the most was Philip Sheridan, and Johnson soon ordered General Grant to switch the assignments of Hancock and Sheridan, believing that Hancock, a Democrat, would govern in a style more to Johnson's liking. Although neither man was pleased with the change, Sheridan reported to Fort Leavenworth and Hancock to New Orleans.

Hancock's new assignment found him in charge of the Fifth Military District, covering Texas and Louisiana. Almost immediately upon arriving, Hancock ingratiated himself with the secessionist white population by issuing his General Order Number 40 of November 29, 1867. In that order, written while traveling to New Orleans, Hancock expressed sentiments in support of President Johnson's policies, writing that if the residents of the district conducted themselves peacefully and the civilian officials perform their duties, then "the military power should cease to lead, and the civil administration resume its natural and rightful dominion." The order continued:

Hancock's order encouraged white Democrats across the South who hoped to return to civilian government more quickly, but discomforted blacks and Republicans in the South who feared a return to the antebellum ways of traditional white dominance.

Hancock's General Order Number 40 was quickly condemned by Republicans in Washington, especially by the Radicals, while President Johnson wholeheartedly approved. Heedless of the situation in Washington, Hancock soon put his words into action, refusing local Republican politicians' requests to use his power to overturn elections and court verdicts, while also letting it be known that open insurrection would be suppressed. Hancock's popularity within the Democratic party grew to the extent that he was considered a potential presidential nominee for that party in the 1868 election. Although Hancock collected a significant number of delegates at the 1868 convention, his presidential possibilities went unfulfilled. Even so, he was henceforth identified as a rare breed in politics: one who believed in the Democratic Party's principles of states' rights and limited government, but whose anti-secessionist sentiment was unimpeachable.

Return to the Plains
Following General Grant's 1868 presidential victory, the Republicans were firmly in charge in Washington. As a result, Hancock found himself transferred, this time away from the sensitive assignment of reconstructing the South and into the relative backwater that was the Department of Dakota. The Department covered Minnesota, Montana, and the Dakotas. As in his previous Western command, Hancock began with a conference of the Indian chiefs, but this time was more successful in establishing a peaceful intent. Relations worsened in 1870, however, as an army expedition committed a massacre against the Blackfeet. Relations with the Sioux also became contentious as a result of white encroachment into the Black Hills, in violation of the Treaty of Fort Laramie.

It was during this tour that Hancock had the opportunity to contribute to the creation of Yellowstone National Park. In August 1870, he ordered the 2nd Cavalry at Fort Ellis to provide a military escort for General Henry D. Washburn's planned exploration of the Yellowstone Region.  The expedition, which was a major impetus in creating the park, became known as the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition. Hancock's order led to the assignment of Lt. Gustavus Cheyney Doane and a troop of 5 cavalrymen from Fort Ellis to escort the expedition.  In 1871, Captain John W. Barlow during his exploration of the Yellowstone region formally named a summit on what would become the southern boundary of the park Mount Hancock to honor the general's decision to provide the escort.

Command in the East and political ambitions
In 1872, General Meade died, leaving Hancock the army's senior major general. This entitled him to a more prominent command, and President Grant, still desirous to keep Hancock from a Southern post, assigned him command of the Division of the Atlantic, headquartered at Fort Columbus on Governors Island, in New York City. The vast department covered the settled northeast area of the country and was militarily uneventful with the exception of the army's involvement in the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. When railroad workers went on strike to protest wage cuts, the nation's transportation system was paralyzed. The governors of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Maryland asked President Hayes to call in federal troops to re-open the railways. Once federal troops entered the cities, most of the strikers melted away, but there were some violent clashes.

All the while Hancock was posted in New York, he did his best to keep his political ambitions alive. He received some votes at the Democrats' 1876 convention, but was never a serious contender as New York governor Samuel J. Tilden swept the field on the second ballot. The Republican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes, won the election, and Hancock refocused his ambition on 1880. The electoral crisis of 1876 and the subsequent end to Reconstruction in 1877 convinced many observers that the election of 1880 would give the Democrats their best chance at victory in a generation.

Election of 1880

Democratic convention
Hancock's name had been proposed several times for the Democratic nomination for president, but he never captured a majority of delegates. In 1880, however, Hancock's chances improved. President Hayes had promised not to run for a second term, and the previous Democratic nominee, Tilden, declined to run again due to poor health. Hancock faced several competitors for the nomination, including Thomas A. Hendricks, Allen G. Thurman, Stephen Johnson Field, and Thomas F. Bayard. Hancock's neutrality on the monetary question, and his lingering support in the South (owing to his General Order Number 40) meant that Hancock, more than any other candidate, had nationwide support. When the Democratic convention assembled in Cincinnati in June 1880, Hancock led on the first ballot, but did not have a majority. By the second ballot, Hancock received the requisite two-thirds, and William Hayden English of Indiana was chosen as his running mate.

Campaign against Garfield

The Republicans nominated James A. Garfield, a Congressman from Ohio and a skillful politician, as well as a former general from the Civil War. Hancock and the Democrats expected to carry the Solid South, but needed to add a few of the Northern states to their total to win the election. The practical differences between the parties were few, and the Republicans were reluctant to attack Hancock personally because of his heroic reputation. The one policy difference the Republicans were able to exploit was a statement in the Democratic platform endorsing "a tariff for revenue only." Garfield's campaigners used this statement to paint the Democrats as unsympathetic to the plight of industrial laborers, a group that would benefit by a high protective tariff. The tariff issue cut Democratic support in industrialized Northern states, which were essential in establishing a Democratic majority. In the end, the Democrats and Hancock failed to carry any of the Northern states they had targeted, with the exception of New Jersey. Hancock lost the election to Garfield. Garfield polled only 39,213 more votes than Hancock, the popular vote being 4,453,295 for Garfield and 4,414,082 for Hancock. The electoral count, however, had a much larger spread, as Garfield polled 214 electoral votes and Hancock only 155. Garfield would be shot four months into his Presidency on July 2, 1881, and would die on September 19, 1881.

Later life
Hancock took his electoral defeat in stride and attended Garfield's inauguration. Following the election, Hancock carried on as commander of the Division of the Atlantic. He was elected president of the National Rifle Association in 1881, explaining that "The object of the NRA is to increase the military strength of the country by making skill in the use of arms as prevalent as it was in the days of the Revolution." Hancock was a Charter Director and the first president of the Military Service Institution of the United States from 1878 until his death in 1886. He was commander-in-chief of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States veterans organization from 1879 until his death in 1886. He was the author of Reports of Major General W. S. Hancock upon Indian Affairs, published in 1867. Hancock's last major public appearance was to preside over the funeral of President Grant in 1885, although he also made a less publicized trip that year to Gettysburg.

Hancock died in 1886 at Governors Island, still in command of the Military Division of the Atlantic, the victim of an infected carbuncle, complicated by diabetes. He is buried in Montgomery Cemetery in West Norriton Township, Pennsylvania, near Norristown, Pennsylvania. Hancock's wife, Almira, published Reminiscences of Winfield Scott Hancock in 1887.

In 1893, Republican General Francis A. Walker wrote,Although I did not vote for General Hancock, I am strongly disposed to believe that one of the best things the nation has lost in recent years has been the example and the influence of that chivalric, stately, and splendid gentleman in the White House. Perhaps much which both parties now recognize as having been unfortunate and mischievous during the past thirteen years would have been avoided had General Hancock been elected.

His noted integrity was a counterpoint to the corruption of the era, for as President Rutherford B. Hayes said,If, when we make up our estimate of a public man, conspicuous both as a soldier and in civil life, we are to think first and chiefly of his manhood, his integrity, his purity, his singleness of purpose, and his unselfish devotion to duty, we can truthfully say of Hancock that he was through and through pure gold.

The last public act performed by Hancock was his oversight of the funeral of Ulysses S. Grant in 1885, and his organizing and leading of Grant's nine mile funeral procession in New York City. From Grant's home at Mount McGregor, New York, to its resting-place in Riverside Park, the casket containing Grant's remains was in the charge of General Hancock. As he appeared on the scene at the commencement of Grant's funeral procession, Hancock was met with a mild applause, but with a gesture he directed a silence and respect for Grant.

Legacy

Winfield Scott Hancock is memorialized in a number of statues:
 An equestrian statue on East Cemetery Hill on the Gettysburg Battlefield.
 A portrait statue by Cyrus Dallin as part of the Pennsylvania Memorial at Gettysburg.
 An alto-relievo representing Hancock's wounding during Pickett's Charge, on the New York State Monument at Gettysburg.
 An equestrian statue located at Pennsylvania Avenue and 7th Street, NW in Washington, D.C.
 An equestrian statue atop the Smith Memorial Arch in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
 A monumental bronze bust in Hancock Square, New York City, by sculptor James Wilson Alexander MacDonald.
 Fort Hancock, Texas
 Fort Hancock on Sandy Hook, New Jersey, was named for General Hancock.
The original Winfield Scott Hancock Elementary School, located at Arch and East Spruce Streets in Norristown, Pennsylvania, was built in 1895 in memory of the General who grew up not far from the site. It was replaced in 1962 by a new building still in use by the Norristown Area School District only a few blocks away at Arch and Summit Streets, which is also named after General Hancock.  The original 1895 building still stands and is used by a community non-profit organization.

A Pennsylvania historical marker was dedicated September 11, 1947, along Bethlehem Pike (PA 309), just south of US 202, where Hancock was born.

Hancock's portrait adorns U.S. currency on the $2 Silver Certificate series of 1886. Approximately 1,500 to 2,500 of these bills survive today in numismatic collections. Hancock's bill is ranked number 73 on a list of "100 Greatest American Currency Notes".

Hancock was an important character in the Shaara family's Civil War historical novels: The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara, and Gods and Generals and The Last Full Measure by Jeffrey Shaara. In the films Gettysburg (1993) and Gods and Generals (2003), based on the first two of these novels, Hancock is portrayed by Brian Mallon, and is depicted in both films in a very favorable light. A number of scenes in the novel Gods and Generals that depict Hancock and his friend Lewis A. Armistead in Southern California before the war were omitted from the film.

See also

 List of American Civil War generals (Union)
 List of equestrian statues in the District of Columbia
 List of equestrian statues in Pennsylvania

Notes

References
 "REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT BY THE INDIAN PEACE COMMISSION, JANUARY 7, 1868", in Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1868, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1868), 26–50.
 Cluff, Mary Lynn. "Winfield Scott Hancock." In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. .
 Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .

 Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 2, Fredericksburg to Meridian. New York: Random House, 1958. .
 Grant, Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. 2 vols. Charles L. Webster & Company, 1885–86. .
 Hancock, Almira Russell. Reminiscences of Winfield Scott Hancock. New York: Charles L. Webster, 1887. .
 Jamieson, Perry D. Winfield Scott Hancock: Gettysburg Hero. Civil War Campaigns and Commanders Series. Abilene, TX: McWhiney Foundation Press, 2003. .
 Jordan, David M. Winfield Scott Hancock: A Soldier's Life. Bloomfield: Indiana University Press, 1988. .
 Kopel, David, et al. National Review Online, July 2, 2004.
 Sears, Stephen W. Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983. .
 Tagg, Larry. The Generals of Gettysburg. Campbell, CA: Savas Publishing, 1998. .
 Trefousse, Hans L. Andrew Johnson, A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991. .
 Tucker, Glenn. Hancock the Superb. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1960. .
 Walker, Francis A. General Hancock. Great Commanders series, edited by James Grant Wilson. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1894. .
 Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964. .

Further reading
 Chalfant, William Y. Hancock's War: Conflict on the Southern Plains. Norman, OK: Arthur H. Clark Company, 2010.

  Google eBook

External links

 The Democratic Trojan Horse; Harper's Weekly political cartoon about the 1880 presidential election
 W.S. Hancock Society
 Hancock Memorial at Gettysburg
 Hancock Memorial in Washington D.C.
 Hancock's report of the Battle of Gettysburg
 Hancock Park in New York City

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American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
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Candidates in the 1868 United States presidential election
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Candidates in the 1880 United States presidential election
Deaths from diabetes
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Winfield Scott Hancock


An engineer is a person with a proper education in the field of engineering. The word engineer is derived from the Latin root ingenium, meaning "cleverness". Engineers design materials, structures, machines and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, safety and cost. Much of the work is applied science, using information given by scientists to do their work. Apart from working with things, an engineer must also be good at working with people and money.

Types of engineer

 Aerospace engineers design space vehicles or airplanes.
 Biomedical engineers design and work with medical equipment.
 Chemical engineers use chemicals to make products like drugs and medicines or fertilizers for crops.
 Civil engineers work on roads, bridges, buildings and other public structures.
 Computer engineers design and build computers and the parts that computers are made of.
 Electrical engineers work with electricity and design electrical equipment, from small things like radios and computers to large things like the wires that carry electricity across the country.
 Electronic engineers work with electronics, which are used to build computer parts and electrical equipment.
 Environmental engineers design and implement solutions to remediate and restore the environment.
 Manufacturing engineers design and improve the machines and assembly lines that make things. They work with robots, hydraulics and air-operated devices to help companies work faster and better with fewer mistakes.
 Mechanical engineers design machines or things that move, like cars and trains. A mechanical engineer also might help design electricity generating stations, oil refineries, and factories.
 Mechatronics engineers build robots and things that are like robots, but not exactly. They do things that are robotic-like.
Ocean engineering and Naval Architecture works on construction of ships, submarines and off shore bodies.
 Nanotechnology engineers study very small things, like strings of atoms and how they are put together.
 Nuclear engineers design and build nuclear plants. They also study the characteristic behaviors of certain radioactive or unstable elements.
 Structural engineers are dealing with design and analysis of buildings and large non-building structures to withstand both the gravity and wind loads as well as natural disasters.
 Software engineers design and write programs for computers.
 Systems engineers look at how complicated things work and try to make them faster and smarter. They look at the big picture.

Many engineering projects are large and very complicated.
Often different kinds of engineers work together and help each other.  As an example, computer engineers need help from electrical engineers to
build a computer.  The computer needs programs written by software engineers.  The computer could be used by aerospace engineers to control an
airplane.  An airplane is a big mechanical system with many parts, so a mechanical engineer and a systems engineer are also needed.

Related pages
 National Academy of Engineering

Notes

Science occupations

Engineer


Sulfuric acid, also known as sulphuric acid, is a strong acid. It is also a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is H2SO4. It was known as "Oil of Vitriol" in ancient times.

Properties
It is a dense (thick), clear, corrosive liquid that can dissolve in water. It can also melt through some weak substances.

History
It was once known as "oil of vitriol". This name was created by Jabir ibn Hayyan, the person who discovered it. It used to be prepared by the reaction of potassium nitrate with sulfur. This reaction would produce sulfur trioxide which would dissolve in steam to produce sulfuric acid. Then this reaction was done in lead containers. The contact process, the most common process, was invented in 1831 and is still used today.

Production
It is made by reacting sulfur trioxide with sulfuric acid to produce oleum. Then oleum is dissolved in water to produce more sulfuric acid. The sulfur trioxide is produced by burning sulfur to produce sulfur dioxide, which was then oxidized to sulfur trioxide with a catalyst. This process is called the contact process.

Uses
Sulfuric acid has many uses. World production in 2001 was 165 million tons, worth about $8 billion US dollars. Uses include ore processing, fertilizer manufacturing, oil refining, wastewater processing, lead acid batteries, and combining chemicals for scientific reasons. For example, phosphate rocks are reacted with sulfuric acid to produce soluble phosphates, useful in fertilizers. This reaction is also used to make phosphoric acid, useful in soda. Potassium compounds are dissolved in sulfuric acid to produce potassium sulfate, useful in fertilizers. Ammonia is also reacted with sulfuric acid to produce ammonium sulfate. These three chemicals are solids and provide the three main minerals needed in plants. Lead acid batteries use sulfuric acid as their electrolyte.

Reactions and safety
Sulfuric acid is very poisonous because of its acidity and corrosiveness. When it is mixed with sugar, it turns it into carbon. When it is dissolved in water, it becomes less harmful (does not make things black) but is still corrosive like normal acids. It reacts with metals to produce hydrogen and the metal sulfate. Some metals, such as tin, make sulfur dioxide and tin(II) sulfate. It reacts with sodium chloride to make hydrogen chloride.

Related pages
Sulfurous acid
Hydrogen sulfide

References

Acids
Sulfur compounds

Sulfuric acid


Puebla, Mexico is a Mexican city. It is  southeast of Mexico City in a broad valley. The city has had many names over the years including City of Angels, City of Tiles, and Heroic City of Zaragoza.

Puebla was the main city of colonial Mexico. The architecture and look of Puebla is the most European of all the colonial cities. This is because it was built completely by a Spanish. Most cities at the time were built within an existing Native American community.

Puebla is highly industrialized, having factories belonging to Volkswagen, Audi, and Bimbo. The historic downtown area remains a Spanish colonial treasure. It is filled with 17th and 18th century European architecture. The city has a nice climate all year around, friendly and courteous people living there and good food.

Capital cities in Mexico
Puebla (state)

Puebla, Puebla


Michael Dalgan Lyons (1 November 1910 – 19 November 1991) was an Irish Fine Gael politician from Ballyhaunis, County Mayo.

A farmer and former employee of the Irish Sugar Company, he stood unsuccessfully as a Fine Gael candidate for Dáil Éireann in the Mayo South constituency at three successive general elections (1954, 1957, and 1961) before finally winning the seat at the 1965 general election to the 18th Dáil. He served only one term in the Dáil, losing his seat at the 1969 general election.

Lyons did not stand for the Dáil again, but after his 1969 defeat he was elected to the 12th Seanad on the Oireachtas sub-panel of the Labour Panel. He was re-elected in 1973 to the 13th Seanad and in 1977 to the 14th Seanad, but did not contest the 1981 Seanad election.

References

1910 births
1991 deaths
Fine Gael TDs
Members of the 18th Dáil
Members of the 12th Seanad
Members of the 13th Seanad
Members of the 14th Seanad
Politicians from County Mayo
20th-century Irish farmers
Fine Gael senators
Labour Panel senators

Michael Lyons (politician)


Heresy is a word used by different religious groups, used to describe someone who has ideas that are different from what the religion or law teaches. Such a person is known as heretic.

In the Middle Ages it was not uncommon to accuse someone of heresy. If the accusations could be proven, the culprit would go through a ritual. Since torture could be used, the accusations were often proven. The ritual was done to save the soul of the convicted criminal.  It involved being burnt while tied to a post.

Still in the 21st century Muslims who apostatize are often treated very harshly and frequently killed.

Jesus Christ himself was regarded as a heretic by the Jewish leaders at the time- see Gospel of Matthew 26:57-67

The Roman Catholic Church in early times had great trouble with heretical christological doctrines, such as Monophysitism and Arianism. The Church sees several heresies in Protestantism:
Protestants claim only scripture (the Bible) is relevant for the faith (sola scriptura); the Catholic Church says traditions are also important.
Protestants say that belief is enough to be saved (sola fide). Catholics say that good deeds are necessary as well.
Protestants say that anyone can be a priest; the only requirement is that the person is baptised. In the Catholic and Orthodox churches, priests are ordained. This means that some people are not priests, even though they have been baptised.
According to Protestants, there is no Transubstantiation during mass (liturgy).
The Roman Missal contains heresies, according to Protestants

As a result of the Protestant Reformation, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith was created in the Roman Catholic Church which protects the Church against heresies. It is the last instance to decide what constitutes a heresy, and how to deal with it.

References

Theology

Heresy


Chaos theory is a part of mathematics. It looks at certain systems that are very sensitive. A very small change may make the system behave completely differently.

Very small changes in the starting position of a chaotic system make a big difference after a while. This is why even large computers cannot tell the weather for more than a few days in the future. Even if the weather was perfectly measured, a small change or error will make the prediction completely wrong. Since even a butterfly flapping its wings can make enough wind to change weather, a chaotic system is sometimes called the "butterfly effect". No computer knows enough to tell how the small wind will change the weather.

Some systems (like weather) might appear random at first look, but chaos theory says that these kinds of systems or patterns may not be. If people pay close enough attention to what is really going on, they might notice the chaotic patterns.

The main idea of chaos theory is that a minor difference at the start of a process can make a major change in it as time progresses. Quantum chaos theory is a new idea in the study of chaos theory. It deals with quantum physics.

Examples
As an example, take a pendulum that is attached at some point, and swings freely. Connecting a second pendulum to the first will make the system completely different. It is very hard to start in exactly the same position again - a change in starting position so small that it cannot even be seen can quickly cause the pendulum swing to become different from what it was before.

A very important part to the study of chaos theory is the study of mathematics functions that are known as fractals. Fractal functions work like chaotic systems: a small change in the starting values can change the value of the function in ways that look random. Due to the fact that they are mathematical, they are easy to study.

Related pages
Discontinuous function
Lorenz attractor
Systems theory

Fields of mathematics
Basic physics ideas
Systems theory

Chaos theory


Bal-balan (Basa Indonesiané Sepak bola, Basa Inggrisé soccer) kuwe salah siji olahraga sing populer pisan nang planet bumi. Nang olahraga kiye diadu 2 kelompok utawa tim sing masing-masing berjuang kanggo ngelebokaken bola ming gawang tim lawane. Masing-masing tim anggotane ana 11 pemain, mulane biasa diarani kesebelasan.

Peraturan

Peraturan Resmi (Laws of the Game)
1863 - Formasi saka Assosiasi Bal-balan

This, then was the sequence of events that led to the forming of the Football Association, a turning point in the history of soccer. The following clubs sent representatives to the meeting at the Freemason's Tavern on October 26: Forest (later to become the Wanderers, first winners of the FA Cup); NN Kilburn (NN stands for No Names but the club was always known by its initials - like WBA); Barnes; War Office; Crusaders; Perceval House, Blackheath; Crystal Palace; Blackheath; Kensington School; Surbiton; Blackheath School. In addition Charterhouse School sent an observer and some unattached footballers were present.

It was agreed that "the clubs represented at this meeting now form themselves into an association to be called The Football Association."

The ordeal of adopting a common set of rules however could not be carried out immediately because a minority of clubs led by Blackheath favoured the inclusion of the Rugby School game - the ancestor of today's Rugby Union game. At a further meeting on December 1st the Rugby advocates were defeated by 13 votes to 4 and withdrew from the Association. On December 8th the proposed rules were formally accepted. For the record these first F.A. Laws were:

Aturan Assosiasi Bal-balan taun 1863

1. The maximum length of the ground shall be 200 yards, the maximum breadth shall be 100 yards, the length and breadth shall be marked off with flags; and the goal shall be defined by two upright posts, eight yards apart, without any tape or bar across them.

2. A toss for goals shall take place, and the game shall be commenced by a place kick from the centre of the ground by the side losing the toss for goals; the other side shall not approach within 10 yards of the ball until it is kicked off.

3. After a goal is won, the losing side shall be entitled to kick off, and the two sides shall change goals after each goal is won.

4. A goal shall be won when the ball passes between the goal-posts or over the space between the goal-posts (at whatever height), not being thrown, knocked on, or carried.

5. When the ball is in touch, the first player who touches it shall throw it from the point on the boundary line where it left the ground in a direction at right angles with the boundary line, and the ball shall not be in play until it has touched the ground.

6. When a player has kicked the ball, any one of the same side who is nearer to the opponent's goal line is out of play and may not touch the ball himself, nor in any way whatever prevent any other player from doing so, until he is in play; but no player is out of play when the ball is kicked off from behind the goal line.

7. In case the ball goes behind the goal line, if a player on the side to whom the goal belongs first touches the ball, one of his side shall he entitled to a free kick from the goal line at the point opposite the place where the ball shall be touched. If a player of the opposite side first touches the ball, one of his side shall be entitled to a free kick at the goal only from a point 15 yards outside the goal line, opposite the place where the ball is touched, the opposing side standing within their goal line until he has had his kick.

8. If a player makes a fair catch, he shall be entitled to a free kick, providing he claims it by making a mark with his heel at once; and in order to take such a kick he may go back as far as he pleases, and no player on the opposite side shall advance beyond his mark until he has kicked.

9. No player shall run with the ball.

10. Neither tripping nor hacking shall be allowed, and no player shall use his hands to hold or push his adversary.

11. A player shall not be allowed to throw the ball or pass it to another with his hands.

12. No player shall be allowed to take the ball from the ground with his hands under any pretext whatever while it is in play.

13. No player shall be allowed to wear projecting nails, iron plates, or gutta percha on the soles or heels of his boots.

bal-balan kuwe permainan sing tujuane nggo ngelebokaken bal ming gawang lawan

Taktik
Taktik sing umum diterapaken klub - klub sepakbola ialah:
 4-4-2
 4-3-2-1
 4-5-1
 3-4-3
 3-5-2

Pemain-pemain sepak bola terkenal
 Pele
 David Beckham
 Michael Owen
 Ronaldo
 Diego Maradona
 Zinedine Zidane
 Franz Beckenbauer
 Paolo Maldini
 Alessandro del Piero

Organisasi
 Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
 UEFA
 G-14
 CONMEBOL
 CONCACAF
 AFC
 Konfederasi Sepak bola Afrika
 Federasi Sepak bola Oseania

Jenis
 Sepak bola wadon
 Sepak bola Paralimpik (kanggo wong cacat)
 Sepak bola ruangan (indoor): five a side football, futsal karo indoor soccer
 Sepak bola jalanan
 Sepak bola tarkam

Olahraga

Bal-balan


Samuel Johnson (born Lichfield, Staffordshire, England 18 September 1709; died London 13 December 1784) was a famous writer. After publishing a famous dictionary, he was given a doctorate. This is why he is often called Dr Johnson. He wrote some of his own stories, but more often he wrote criticisms about what other people had written. He said a lot of witty, amusing things, which are still remembered today. People know about some of the funny things he said because his friend James Boswell wrote a book about him.

Life
Samuel Johnson was born in Lichfield, Staffordshire. His father had a bookshop, but he was very poor. Samuel went to school in Lichfield. When he was nineteen he went to the University of Oxford, but he was so poor that he had to leave without taking a degree. A few years later he married a woman 21 years older than he was. They went to live in London, where he tried to make a living by writing but for many years he was very poor.

It was not until 1762 that he became famous and the government gave him a pension of three hundred pounds a year.  He started a club (called "The Club") which included a lot of famous people like the painter Joshua Reynolds and the writer Oliver Goldsmith (see picture).  Johnson  was now so famous that he was given an honorary doctorate (the title of "Doctor")  from Trinity College, Dublin in 1765, and an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford in 1775.

Boswell and Johnson spent some time in Edinburgh and they travelled a lot to the Scottish islands.  Johnson died in 1784 and is buried in Westminster Abbey.

Letter to Lord Chesterfield
Johnson spent several years writing his Dictionary of the English language.  It was a big job.  While he was writing it he could not be earning money, so he needed a patron (someone who would sponsor him by giving him money, and in return the dictionary would be dedicated to him).  An important man called Lord Chesterfield said to Johnson that he would be his patron.  But he never gave him any money, and Johnson never heard anything more from him, until the dictionary was ready.  Then Lord Chesterfield wrote to Johnson saying that he hoped he would dedicate the dictionary to him.  The letter that Johnson wrote back to Lord Chesterfield is very famous.  It is very sarcastic (funny in an unkind way). Johnson said to him that it would have been nice to have had help when he was needing it.  He said, sarcastically, that a patron was someone who stands on the river bank watching a man drowning and then, when then the drowning man is saved, asks him whether he can help.  The letter made Lord Chesterfield look very silly.

Johnson's "Dictionary of the English Language"
There were very few dictionaries in Johnson's day, so it was a lot of work for him.  Nowadays, a dictionary is made by a team of people.  Dictionaries, like encyclopedias, should just give facts.  But Johnson sometimes explained words in his dictionary in a way that showed his opinions (what he thought about things).

Examples:
 In most dictionaries, "oats" is said to mean something like: "a kind of cereal used as food".  Johnson (who hated the Scots) wrote: "a food given in England to horses and in Scotland to men".
 In most dictionaries, "opera" is said to mean something like: "a play which is sung to music".  Johnson (who did not like opera) wrote: "an exotic and irrational entertainment" (meaning something like: "entertainment from a foreign country that does not make sense").

Although it shows his personal likes and dislikes, the dictionary still deserves to be famous.  Johnson defined 43,000 words.  It was the first time a dictionary had been published that gave examples of how the words had been used by well-known writers.

References

1709 births
1784 deaths
18th-century English writers
English Anglicans
People buried in Westminster Abbey
People from Staffordshire

Samuel Johnson


A polarized 3D system uses polarization glasses to create the illusion of three-dimensional images by restricting the light that reaches each eye (an example of stereoscopy).

To present stereoscopic images and films, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen or display through different polarizing filters. The viewer wears low-cost eyeglasses with a polarizing filter for each eye. The left and right filters have different polarizations, so each eye receives only the image with the matching polarization. This is used to produce a three-dimensional effect by projecting the same scene into both eyes, but depicted from slightly different perspectives with different polarizations. Multiple people can view the stereoscopic images at the same time.

Polarized 3D systems, and stereoscopy systems in general, commonly exhibit the Vergence-Accommodation Conflict.

Types of polarised  glasses

Linearly polarised glasses
To present a stereoscopic motion picture, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through orthogonal polarizing filters (Usually at 45 and 135 degrees). The viewer wears linearly polarized eyeglasses which also contain a pair of orthogonal polarizing filters oriented the same as the projector. As each filter only passes light which is similarly polarised and blocks the orthogonally polarized light, each eye only sees one of the projected images, and the 3D effect is achieved.  Linearly polarised glasses require the viewer to keep his or her head level, as tilting of the viewing filters will cause the images of the left and right channels to bleed over to the opposite channel. This can make prolonged viewing uncomfortable as head movement is limited to maintain the 3D effect.

Circularly polarized glasses
To present a stereoscopic motion picture, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through circular polarizing filters of opposite handedness. The viewer wears eyeglasses which contain a pair of analyzing filters (circular polarizers mounted in reverse) of opposite handedness.   Light that is left-circularly polarized is blocked by the right-handed analyzer, while right-circularly polarized light is blocked by the left-handed analyzer.  The result is similar to that of stereoscopic viewing using linearly polarized glasses, except the viewer can tilt his or her head and still maintain left/right separation (although stereoscopic image fusion will be lost due to the mismatch between the eye plane and the original camera plane).

As shown in the figure, the analyzing filters are constructed of a quarter-wave plate (QWP) and a linearly polarized filter (LPF). The QWP always transforms circularly polarized light into linearly polarized light. However, the angle of polarization of the linearly polarized light produced by a QWP depends on the handedness of the circularly polarized light entering the QWP. In the illustration, the left-handed circularly polarized light entering the analyzing filter is transformed by the QWP into linearly polarized light which has its direction of polarization along the transmission axis of the LPF. Therefore, in this case the light passes through the LPF. In contrast, right-handed circularly polarized light would have been transformed into linearly polarized light that had its direction of polarization along the absorbing axis of the LPF, which is at right angles to the transmission axis, and it would have therefore been blocked.

By rotating either the QWP or the LPF by 90 degrees about an axis perpendicular to its surface (i.e. parallel to the direction of propagation of the light wave), one may build an analyzing filter which blocks left-handed, rather than right-handed circularly polarized light. Rotating both the QWP and the LPF by the same angle does not change the behaviour of the analyzing filter.

System construction and examples

Polarized light reflected from an ordinary motion picture screen typically loses most of its polarization, but the loss is negligible if a silver screen or aluminized screen is used. This means that a pair of aligned DLP projectors, some polarizing filters, a silver screen, and a computer with a dual-head graphics card can be used to form a relatively high-cost (over US$10,000 in 2010) system for displaying stereoscopic 3D data simultaneously to a group of people wearing polarized glasses.

In the case of RealD 3D a circularly polarizing liquid crystal filter which can switch polarity 144 times per second is placed in front of the projector lens. Only one projector is needed, as the left and right eye images are displayed alternately. Sony features a new system called RealD XLS, which shows both circularly polarized images simultaneously: A single 4K projector displays two 2K images one above the other, a special lens attachment polarizes and projects the images on top of each other.

Optical attachments can be added to traditional 35 mm projectors to adapt them for projecting film in the "over-and-under" format, in which each pair of images is stacked within one frame of film. The two images are projected through different polarizers and superimposed on the screen. This is a very cost-effective way to convert a theater for 3-D as all that is needed are the attachments and a non-depolarizing screen surface, rather than a conversion to digital 3-D projection. Thomson Technicolor currently produces an adapter of this type.

When stereo images are to be presented to a single user, it is practical to construct an image combiner, using partially silvered mirrors and two image screens at right angles to one another. One image is seen directly through the angled mirror whilst the other is seen as a reflection. Polarized filters are attached to the image screens and appropriately angled filters are worn as glasses. A similar technique uses a single screen with an inverted upper image, viewed in a horizontal partial reflector, with an upright image presented below the reflector, again with appropriate polarizers.

On TV and computer screens

Polarizing techniques are easier to apply with cathode ray tube (CRT) technology than with Liquid crystal display (LCD).  Ordinary LCD screens already contain polarizers for control of pixel presentation — this can interfere with these techniques.

In 2003 Keigo Iizuka discovered an inexpensive implementation of this principle on laptop computer displays using cellophane sheets.

One can construct a low cost polarized projection system by using a computer with two projectors and an aluminium foil screen. The dull side of aluminium foil is brighter than most silver screens. This was demonstrated at PhraJomGlao University, Nônthaburi, Thailand, September 2009.

Health care
In optometry and ophthalmology, polarized glasses are used for various tests of binocular depth perception (i.e. stereopsis).

History

Polarized 3-D projection was demonstrated experimentally in the 1890s. The projectors used Nicol Prisms for polarization. Packs of thin glass sheets, angled so as to reflect away light of the unwanted polarity, served as the viewing filters. Polarized 3-D glasses only became practical after the invention of Polaroid plastic sheet polarizers by Edwin Land, who was privately demonstrating their use for projecting and viewing 3-D images in 1934. They were first used to show a 3-D movie to the general public at "Polaroid on Parade", a New York Museum of Science and Industry exhibit that opened in December 1936. 16 mm Kodachrome color film was used. Details about the glasses are not available. At the 1939 New York World's Fair, a short polarized 3-D film was shown at the Chrysler Motors pavilion and seen by thousands of visitors daily. The hand-held cardboard viewers, a free souvenir, were die-cut in the shape of a 1939 Plymouth seen head-on. Their Polaroid filters, stapled over rectangular openings where the headlights ought to be, were very small.

Cardboard glasses with earpieces and larger filters were used to watch Bwana Devil, the feature-length color 3-D film that premiered on 26 November 1952 and ignited the brief but intense 3-D fad of the 1950s. The well-known Life magazine photo of an audience wearing 3-D glasses was one of a series taken at the premiere. The film's title, imprinted on the earpieces, is plainly visible in high-resolution copies of those images. Imaginatively colorized versions have helped to spread the myth that the 3-D movies of the 1950s were projected by the anaglyph color filter method. In fact, during the 1950s anaglyph projection was used only for a few short films. Beginning in the 1970s, some 1950s 3-D feature films were re-released in anaglyph form so that they could be shown without special projection equipment. There was no commercial advantage in advertising the fact that it was not the original release format.

Polaroid filters in disposable cardboard frames were typical during the 1950s, but more comfortable plastic frames with somewhat larger filters, considerably more expensive for the theater owner, were also in use. Patrons were normally instructed to turn them in when leaving so that they could be sanitized and reissued, and it was not uncommon for ushers to be stationed at the exits to attempt to collect them from forgetful or souvenir-loving patrons.

Cardboard and plastic frames continued to co-exist during the following decades, with one or the other favored by a particular film distributor or theater or for a particular release. Specially imprinted or otherwise custom-made glasses were sometimes used. Some showings of Andy Warhol's Frankenstein during its 1974 U.S. first run featured unusual glasses consisting of two stiff plastic polarizers held together by two thin silver plastic tubes slit lengthwise, one attached across the tops and bent at the temples to form earpieces, the other a short length bent in the middle and serving as the bridge piece. The design managed to be both stylish in an appropriately Warholesque way and self-evidently simple to manufacture from the raw sheet and tube stock.

Linear polarization was standard into the 1980s and beyond.

In the 2000s, computer animation, digital projection, and the use of sophisticated IMAX 70 mm film projectors, have created an opportunity for a new wave of polarized 3D films.

In the 2000s, RealD Cinema and MasterImage 3D were introduced, both using circular polarization.

At IBC 2011 in Amsterdam RAI several companies, including Sony, Panasonic, JVC & others highlighted their upcoming 3D stereoscopic product portfolios for both the professional and consumer markets to use the same polarization technique as RealD 3D Cinema uses for stereoscopy. These highlighted products cover everything from recording, projecting, viewing and digital display technologies to live, recorded and pre- and post production facilities and soft- and hardware based product to facilitate 3D content creation. Their systems are interoperable and compatible with existing, passive RealD 3D glasses.

Advantages and disadvantages

Compared to anaglyph images, the use of polarized 3D glasses produces a full-color image that is considerably more comfortable to watch and is not subject to binocular rivalry. However, it requires a significant increase in expense: even the low cost polarized glasses typically cost 50% more than comparable red-cyan filters, and while anaglyph 3-D films can be printed on one line of film, a polarized film was often done with a special set up that uses two projectors. The use of multiple projectors also raises issues with synchronization, and a poorly synchronized film would negate any increased comfort from the use of polarization. This problem was solved by a number of single strip polarized systems which were standard in the 1980s.

Particularly with the linear polarization schemes popular since the 1950s, the use of linear polarization meant that a level head was required for any sort of comfortable viewing; any effort to tilt the head sideways would result in the polarization failing, ghosting, and both eyes seeing both images. Circular polarization has alleviated this problem, allowing viewers to tilt their heads slightly (although any offset between the eye plane and the original camera plane will still interfere with the perception of depth).

Because neutral-gray linear-polarizing filters are easily manufactured, correct color rendition is possible. Circular-polarizing filters often have a slight brownish tint, which may be compensated for during projection.

Until 2011, home 3D television and home 3D computer primarily used active shutter glasses with LCD or plasma displays. TV manufacturers (LG, Vizio) have introduced displays with horizontal polarizing stripes overlaying the screen. The stripes alternate polarization with each line. This permits using relatively inexpensive passive viewing glasses, similar to those for movies. The principal disadvantage is that each polarization can display only half as many scanning lines.

Advantages
 Generally inexpensive.
 Do not require power.
 Do not require a transmitter to synchronize them with the display.
 Do not suffer from flicker.
 Lightweight.
 Comfortable.

Disadvantages
 The images for polarized glasses have to share the screen simultaneously in which full, native resolution is downgraded, compromising picture quality of both sides of the image delivered to each eye simultaneously. A full 1080p picture results from image fusion. This disadvantage does not occur on projections where each pixel can contain information for both eyes.
 Associated with the headaches many people attribute to 3D viewing.
 Narrow vertical viewing angles compared to Active shutter 3D

See also
 Vectograph

References

External links
 "Experiments With Polarized Light" by Donald E. Simanek.
 3D STEREO PORTAL Videos & Photos Collection

3D imaging
Eyewear
Stereoscopy

Polarized 3D system


Sequence analysis in molecular biology involves identifying the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid, or amino acids in a peptide or protein. Once a sample has been obtained, DNA sequences may be produced automatically by machine and the result displayed on computer. Interpreting those results is still a task for humans.

Information from sequence analysis is used in many fields of biology. It gives information on the relationship between individual organisms, or between groups of organisms. It shows how closely related they are.

DNA base-pair sequence
A DNA sequence is the sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is written as a succession of letters representing the primary structure of a DNA molecule or strand. If functional, such a sequence carries information for the sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule. The possible letters are A, C, G, and T, representing the four nucleotide bases of a DNA strand — adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine. The sequences are printed next to one another, without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC.

The study of RNA and proteins is more complex. The overall structure of DNA is simple and predictable (double helix). The study of RNA and proteins must include a study of their 3-dimensional structure, which is varied, and influences how they work. To some extent this can be assisted by computer, but has to be verified in each case.

Information on sequences is kept in databases. Since the development of fast production of gene and protein sequences during the 1990s, the rate of addition of new sequences to the databases increases all the time.

Score
Complete genome analysis has been done on over 800 species and strains. The work is done by a machine, the DNA sequencer, which analyses light signals from fluorochromes attached to the nucleotides. This type of work is gradually becoming less expensive.
"There are currently [2009] more than 90 vertebrate species with whole genome sequences finished, in process, or in the advanced planning stages.

Rough totals
As of December 2012, whole genome analysis has been completed on about 800 to 900 living species and strains of species. Numbers are approximate, and changing.
Animals: 111 species
Plants: 53 species
Fungi: 81 species
Protists: 50 species
Archaea: 139 species and strains
Bacteria: ~4/500 species and strains

Human DNA sequence
The human genome is stored on 23 chromosome pairs in the cell nucleus and in the small mitochondrial DNA. A great deal is now known about the sequences of DNA which are on our chromosomes. What the DNA actually does is now partly known. Applying this knowledge in practice has only just begun.

The Human Genome Project (HGP) produced a reference sequence which is used worldwide in biology and medicine. Nature published the publicly funded project's report, and Science  published Celera's paper. These papers described how the draft sequence was produced, and gave an analysis of the sequence. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and 2005, filling in to ≈92% of the sequence.

The latest project ENCODE studies the way the genes are controlled.

Forensic work

It is not necessary to have whole genome sequences for forensic work, such as identifying a criminal from traces of DNA left at a crime scene, or for paternity cases. At present whole genome sequencing is still very expensive, but fortunately, simpler and cheaper methods are available.

The basic idea is to look at certain loci (places) in the genome which are highly variable between people. About 10 to 15 of these loci are needed for a match, and the legal details differ between countries. A match between a sample and a suspect individual makes it extremely likely that the individual was the source of the sample. This evidence would then be the basis of the prosecution case for a crime. A similar analysis would show that a man was very likely the father of a child. This is really a modern way to do what was done with blood groups before DNA details could be analysed. The methods have been developed mainly by the work of Alec Jeffreys.

Each person's DNA contains two alleles of a particular gene or 'marker': one  from the father and one from the mother. 'Markers' are genes chosen for having a number of different alleles occurring frequently in the population. The following table is from a commercial DNA paternity testing experiment.  It shows how relatedness between parents and child is demonstrated with five markers:

The results show that the child and the alleged father's DNA match for these five markers. The complete test results showed this correlation on 16 markers between the child and the tested man. If a case is tested in court, a forensic scientist would give evidence on the likelihood of getting that result by chance.

DNA testing in the US
There are state laws on DNA profiling in all 50 states of the United States. Detailed information on database laws in each state can be found at the National Conference of State Legislatures website.

Ancient DNA
Ancient DNA has been recovered from some sources. The record for survival of DNA suitable for sequence analysis is 700,000 years. A horse skeleton buried in permafrost has provided bones with some DNA surviving. The sequence was only 70% complete, but it was enough for researchers to say "It would not look like a horse as we know it… but we would expect it to be a one-toed horse". For comparison, researchers had access to DNA sequences of modern horses, donkeys and Przewalski's horse.

Related pages
George Church
Walter Gilbert
John Sulston
Fred Sanger
ENCODE: the complete analysis of the human genome
Human genome
Complete Genomics
Bioinformatics

References

Other websites
Human Ageing Genomic Resources website

DNA
Molecular biology
Evolutionary biology

Sequence analysis


Theism is the religious belief that at least one god exists while rejecting the existence or importance of polytheistic gods or goddesses. In a broader definition it can also be the belief in God or gods in general, including all types of god-belief. Polytheism is the belief in several gods, while monotheism is the belief in just one god. For example, a theistic religion is Christianity. The opposite to a theist is an atheist. An atheist is a person who denies or disbelieves the existence of a supreme being or beings.

Different theisms
All of these are rough definitions of the theisms; they are almost always different. We can split them all into different groups:
 atheism — the opposite of theism; not believing in any gods or deities
 deism — believing that god(s) exist, but that they do not take part in our lives.
 agnosticism — believing we cannot know whether god(s) exist
 gnosticism — believing that we can know for certain whether a god(s) exist.
Gnosticism and agnosticism can be combined with other forms of theism. For example, it is possible to be an agnostic atheist, or a gnostic theist. In common usage, some people group atheism and agnosticism together under the group of nontheism — absence of clear belief in any deity.

The main types of theism are:
 polytheism — believing that many gods or goddesses exist (sometimes known as paganism)
 monotheism — belief that only one god exists (Christians, Muslims and Jews believe in monotheism.)
 ditheism — belief that two gods exist and they are both equal.

This is another way to group different theisms, based on the nature of the gods.
 pantheism — god and the universe are the same
 panentheism — the universe is part of god
 dystheism or maltheism — that god or the gods are evil.
 Irreligious theism— is the belief that there is a higher being, pray and believe in one God(or sometimes many gods), but doesn't follow organized religion

There are also these types:
 Animism: believing that everything is alive and spirits are in all things, and that all things have souls.
 Monolatry: there is (or may be) more than one god, but they are all expressions of the supreme god.
 Henotheism: there is (or may be) more than one god, but only one is the supreme.
 Kathenotheism: there is more than one god, but only one at a time should be worshipped. Each is supreme in turn.

Related pages
Theodicy

References

Theology

Theism


Brackish water (less commonly brack water) is salt water and fresh water mixed together. It is saltier than fresh water, but not as salty as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers.

Some human activities can produce brackish water, mostly certain civil engineering projects such as dikes and the flooding of coastal marshland to produce brackish pools for freshwater prawns.

Technically, brackish water contains between 0.5 and 30 grams of salt per litre—more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand (ppt or ‰). Thus, brackish covers a range of salinity regimes and is not considered a precisely defined condition. It is characteristic of many brackish surface waters that their salinity can vary considerably over space and/or time.

Etymology
The term brackish water comes from the Low German word Brack, which is a small lake made when a storm tide breaks a dike and floods land behind the dike.

Brackish water habitats

Estuaries

The most important brackish water habitats are estuaries, where a river meets the sea, mixing salt and fresh water.  The River Thames flowing through London is one of the most familiar of river estuaries.

Mangroves
Another important brackish water habitat is the mangrove swamp or mangal.

Brackish seas and lakes
Some seas and lakes are brackish. The Baltic Sea is a brackish sea adjoining the North Sea.

The Caspian Sea is the world's largest lake and contains brackish water with a salinity about one-third that of normal seawater. The Caspian is famous for its peculiar animal fauna, including one of the few non-marine seals (the Caspian seal) and the great sturgeons, the source of caviar.

Important brackish bodies of water
Brackish seas
 Baltic Sea (the world's largest pool of brackish water)
 Black Sea
 Caspian Sea (world's largest lake)

Brackish water lakes
 Lake Charles in Lake Charles, Louisiana, USA
 Chilika Lake, Odisha, India
 Pangong Tso (Lake) in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, India
 Lake Van, Turkey

Coastal lagoons, marshes, and deltas
 The Burgas Lakes near the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast
 Kaliveli Lake, near Pondichery, India
 Kerala Backwaters, Series of lagoons and lakes in Kerala
 Lagos Lagoon in Lagos, Nigeria
 Lake Pontchartrain, north of New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
 Pulicat Lake, north of Chennai, India
 The Rann of Kutch, on the border of India and Pakistan
 Parts of the Rhône Delta, France: An area known as the Camargue

Estuaries
 Amazon River, empties so much freshwater into the Atlantic Ocean that it reduces the salinity of the sea for hundreds of miles
 Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland, USA
 The Fleet lagoon, Dorset, England
 Hampton Roads, Virginia, USA
 Lower Hudson River, in New York and New Jersey, USA
 Lingding Yang, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China
 Port Royal Sound part of Beaufort County, South Carolina, USA
 Saint Lawrence and Saguenay Rivers, the part downstream from Québec and Saguenay respectively
 The Thames Estuary in South East England

Related pages
 Salinity
 Desalination

Water

Brackish water


The ZIP code is the system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service (USPS). The letters ZIP is an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan. The letters are written properly in capital letters. The word ZIP was chosen to suggest that the mail travels more efficiently, and more quickly, when senders use it. The basic ZIP code is made up of five numbers. An extended ZIP + 4 code includes the five digits of the ZIP code, a hyphen and then four more digits. This lets a piece of mail to be sent to a more exact location than by the ZIP code alone. ZIP Code was a trademark of the U.S. Postal Service but its registration has since ended.

Background
The postal service started the use of postal zones for large cities in 1943. By the early 1960s a more general system was needed. On July 1, 1963, ZIP codes were created for the whole country but they were not mandatory. In 1967, these were made mandatory for many types of mail. The system was soon used for all mail.

ZIP + 4
In 1983, the U.S. Postal Service began using an expanded ZIP code system called "ZIP + 4", often called "plus-four codes" or "add-on codes."

Wikimedia Foundation Inc.
200 2nd Ave. South #358
St. Petersburg, FL 33701-4313

 33701 is the basic ZIP code, 4313 is the "+ 4"

A ZIP + 4 code uses the basic five-digit code plus an additional four digits to identify a geographic area inside the five-digit delivery area, such as a group of apartments, or a location which gets a large amount of mail.

Structure and allocation

ZIP codes are numbered with the first number representing a certain group of U.S. states. The second and third numbers represent a region in that group of states or, in some cases, a large city. The fourth and fifth numbers representing a group of delivery addresses within that region. The main town in a region (if applicable) often gets the first ZIP codes for that region. Other towns are often given ZIP codes in numerical order alphabetically.

The first digit of the ZIP code is used as follows:

 0 = Connecticut (CT), Massachusetts (MA), Maine (ME), New Hampshire (NH), New Jersey (NJ), Puerto Rico (PR), Rhode Island (RI), Vermont (VT), Virgin Islands (VI), APO Europe (AE), FPO Europe (AE)
 1 = Delaware (DE), New York (NY), Pennsylvania (PA)
 2 = District of Columbia (DC), Maryland (MD), North Carolina (NC), South Carolina (SC), Virginia (VA), West Virginia (WV)
 3 = Alabama (AL), Florida (FL), Georgia (GA), Mississippi (MS), Tennessee (TN), APO Americas (AA), FPO Americas (AA)
 4 = Indiana (IN), Kentucky (KY), Michigan (MI), Ohio (OH)
 5 = Iowa (IA), Minnesota (MN), Montana (MT), North Dakota (ND), South Dakota (SD), Wisconsin (WI)
 6 = Illinois (IL), Kansas (KS), Missouri (MO), Nebraska (NE)
 7 = Arkansas (AR), Louisiana (LA), Oklahoma (OK), Texas (TX)
 8 = Arizona (AZ), Colorado (CO), Idaho (ID), New Mexico (NM), Nevada (NV), Utah (UT), Wyoming (WY)
 9 = Alaska (AK), American Samoa (AS), California (CA), Guam (GU), Hawaii (HI), Marshall Islands (MH), Federated States of Micronesia (FM), Northern Mariana Islands (MP), Oregon (OR), Palau (PW), Washington (WA), APO Pacific (AP), FPO Pacific (AP)

Related pages
 Postal code

References

Other websites
 ZIP Code lookup webpage from the United States Postal Service.

Postal codes
United States Postal Service

ZIP code


Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronest (15t August 1771 - 21st September 1832) wis a kenspeckle Scots historical novellist an makar that wis gey popular oothrou Europe in his time. In some weys, Scott wis the first Inglis language writer tae hae a truly internaitional career in his lifetime, wi mony contemporar readers aw ower Europe, Australie an North Americae. His novelles an musardry is still read the day, an mony o his warks bides clessics o baith Inglis-leid leeteratur an Scots leeteratur. Weel kent warks o his includes Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Marmion, Waverley an The Heart of Midlothian.

Early life

Born in Colledge Wynd in the Auld Toun o Edinburgh in 1771, the son o a soleeciter, the young Walter Scott won throu a bairnheid bout o polio in 1773 that left him a lamiter aw his days. Tae hulp wi his lameness, he wis sent thon year tae bide in the landwart Mairches at his grandpaurents' ferm at Saundyknowe, no faur frae the rauchle o Smailholm Touer, the umwhile faimily hame. Here he wis leared tae read by his aunt Jenny, an learned frae the dialect on mony o the dytes an legends that chairacterized mony o his best kent warks. In Januar 1775 he retoured tae Edinburgh, an thon simmer gaed wi his aunt Jenny tae tak spa treatment at Bath in Ingland. In the winter o 1776 he gaed back tae Saundyknow, wi crack at a watter cure bein made at Prestonpans the follaein simmer.

In 1778 Scott retoured tae Edinburgh for private eddication tae mak him ready for the schuil, an in October 1779 he stairtit at the Ryal Hie Schuil o Edinburgh. He wis weel able tae walk the nou, an splore the ceety as weel as the landwart pairts aboot it. His readin includit chivalric romances, musradry, history an vaigin beuks. He wis gien private tuition by James Mitchell in arithmatic an writin, an learned frae him the history o the Kirk wi emphasis on the Covenanters. Efter feenishin schuil he wis sent tae bide for sax month wi his aunt Jenny in Kelsae, gaein tae the local ott begoud studyin clessics at the Varsity o Edinburgh in November 1783, whan he wis juist twal year auld, sae he wis a year or twa younger nor maist o the ithir scholars. In Mairch 1786 he begoud a prenticeship at his faither's office, for tae become Writer tae the Signet. While at the varsity Scott becam a freend o Aidam Ferguson, the son o Professor Aidam Ferguson, that hostit leeterar salons. Scott met wi the blind makar Thomas Blacklock that lent him beuks as weel as introducin him tae James Macpherson's Ossian cycle o poems. Durin the winter o 1786-87 the fifteen year auld Scott saw Robert Burns in ane o thir salons, for whit wis tae be their ae meetin. Whan Burns noticed a prent illustratin the poem The Justice of the Peace an speired wha haed written the poem, anely Scott coud tell him it wis by John Langhorne, an wis thankit by Burns. Whan it wis decidit that he wad become a lawer he retoured tae the varsity tae study law, first takkin clesses in Moral Philosophy an Universal History in 1789-90.

Efter feenishin his studies in law, he becam a lawer in Edinburgh. As a lawer's clerk he made his first veesit tae the Hielands, directin an eveection. He wis admeetit tae the Faculty o Advocates in 1792.

Leeterar career lenched

At the eild o twinty-five he begoud tryin his haund at scrievin, pittin warks ower frae German, his first publication bein rhymed versions o ballants by Bürger in 1796. Syne he set furth a three-vollum set o Scots ballants that he'd ingaithert, The Minstrelsy of the the Scottish Border. This wis the first shaw o his intrest in Scots history frae a leeterar staundpynt.

Scott syne becam a gleg volunteer in the yeomanry an on ane o his "raids" he met wi Margater Charlotte Charpentier (or Charpenter), dochter o Jean Charpentier o Lyon in Fraunce, that he wis mairiet on in 1797. They haed five bairns thegithir. In 1799 he wis appyntit Shirra-Depute o the Coonty o Selkirk, based in the Ryal Burgh o Selkirk.

In his earlier mairiet days, Scott haed a dacent leevin frae the siller he teuk at law, his salary as Shirra-Depute, his guidwife's income, a wee bit siller frae his scrievin an his skare o his faither's wee estate. Efter Scott haed foondit a prentin press, his musardry, stairtin wi The Lay of the Last Mistrel in 1805 brocht him fame. He set furth a nummer o ithir poems ower the neist ten year, includin the popular The Lady of the Lake, prentit in 1810 an setten in the Trossachs. Walins o the German trsnslates o this wark wis syne pitten tae muisic by Franz Schubert. Ane o thir sangs, Ellens dritter Gesang is aften kent as "Schubert's Ave Maria."

Anither wark frae this period, Marmion, produced some o his maist quotit (an maist aften mis-attreebute) lines. Canto VI, Stanza 17 reads:

Yet Clare's sharp questions must I shun,
Must separate Constance from the nun
Oh! what a tangled web we weave
When first we practice to deceive!
A Palmer too! No wonder why
I felt rebuked beneath his eye;

In 1809 his seempathies led tae tae become co-foonder o the Quarterly Review, a review jurnal that he made twa-three anonymous contreebutions tae.

Novelles
Whan the press becam fankelt wi siller fykes, Scott set oot, in 1814, tae scrieve a cash-cou. The affcome wis Waverley, a novel that didna lat on wha haed written it. It wis a dyte o the Fowerty-Five wi its Inglis heid chairacter Edward Waverley (seempatheric tae Jacobitism efter his Tory upbringin) getting fankelt in happenins but in the hintend walin Hanoverian respectibeelity. The novelle wis a muckle success. Efter thon there follaed a rin o novelles ower the neist five year, ilkane wi a Scots historical settin. Keepin in mynd his namlyheid as a poet, he haudit tae the anonymous habit he haed stairtit wi Waverley, aye settin the novelles furth unner the name Author of Waverley or attributit as "Tales of...£ wi nae author. E'en whan it becam clear that there wad be nae skaith in comin oot intae the open he keepit up the façade, appearinly oot o a sense o fun, awmaist as a pliskie. Durin this time the byname The Wizard of the North wis applee'd by fowk tae the meesterious best-sellin writer. The identity o the author o the novelles wis a faur reengin souch, an in 1815 Scott wis gien the honour o takkin meat wi George, Prince Regent, that wis wantin tae meet wi "the author of Waverley."

Thir novelles wis mainly in Inglis, but whiles Scots wis uised as pairt o dialogue atween chairacters - specially anes that's frae landwart pairts or o laich social staundin.

In 1819 he brak awa frae scrievin anent Scotland wi Ivanhoe, a historical romance setten in 12t-century Ingland. Thon, as weel, wis a rinawa success an, as he did wi his first novelle, he wrate twa-three beuks alang the same lines. Amang ither things, the beuk is kenspeckle for haein a gey seempathetic Jewish heid chairacter, Rebecca, thocht o by mony creetics tae be the beuks reale heroine - relevant tae the fact the beuk cam oot at a time whan the strauchle for the Unthirldom o the Jews in Ingland wis gaitherin momentum.

As he becam mair weel kent durin this pairt o his career, he wis grantit the teetle o baronet, becomin Sir Walter Scott. At this time he redd the veest o King George IV tae Scotland, an whan the King veesitit Edinburgh in 1822 the muckle shaw he pit on wis intrumental in makkin sicna things as tairtans an kilts fashionable, an turnin thaim intae seembols o Scots identity.

Siller waes an daith

Stairtin in 1825 he fawed intae richt haird siller fykes again, as his company awmaist fauldit. That he wis the author o his novels becam ordinar knawledge at this time as weel. Raither nor declare bankruptcy, he pit his hame, Abbotsford Hoose, an income intae a trust belangin his creeditors, an gaed on tae scrieve his gate oot o det. He cairiet on his feel quick ootpit o feection (as weel as settin furth a biography o Napoleon Bonaparte) till 1831. By than his heal wis dwinin, an he dee'd at Abbotsfuird in 1832. Tho no in the clear by than, his novelles aye selt weel, an he made guid his dets frae ayont the graff. He wis yirdit in Dryburgh Abbey whaur no faur aff, fittinly, a muckle statue can be fund o William Wallace - ane o Scotland's maist romanticised historical feegurs.

In 1844 the Scott Moniment wis finished. It staunds in Princes Street Gairdens, Edinburgh, an at 200.5 fit lang is the mucklest moniment tae a scriever in Europe. Forby thon, he is mindit wi a slab in Makars Court, Edinburgh, juist ootby the Scotts Writers Museum in Leddy Stairs Close, whaur is ane o the three scrievers the museum focuses on (alang wi Robert Burns an Robert Louis Stevenson).

Warks

Novelles

The Waverley Novelles
 Waverley (1814)
 Guy Mannering (1815)
 The Antiquary (1816)
 Rob Roy (1818)
 Ivanhoe (1819)
 Kenilworth (1821)
 The Pirate (1822)
 The Fortunes of Nigel (1822)
 Peveril of the Peak (1822)
 Quentin Durward (1823)
 St. Ronan's Well (1824)
 Redgauntlet (1824)
 Tales of the Crusaders (1825)
 Woodstock (1826)
 Chronicles of the Canongate, 2nd series, The Fair Maid of Perth (1828)
 Anne of Geierstein (1829)

Tales of My Landlord
 1st series The Black Dwarf an Old Mortality (1816)
 2nd series, The Heart of Midlothian (1818)
 3rd series, The Bride of Lammermoor and A Legend of Montrose (1819)
 4th series, Count Robert of Paris and Castle Dangerous (1832)

Tales from Benedictine Sources
 The Abbot (1820)
 The Monastery (1820)

Cutty stories
 Chronicles of the Canongate, 1st series (1827). Collection o thrie cutty stories:
The Highland Widow, The Two Drovers and The Surgeon's Daughter.
 The Keepsake Stories (1828). Collection o thrie cutty stories:
My Aunt Margaret's Mirror, The Tapestried Chamber and Death Of The Laird's Jock.

Poems
 William and Helen, Two Ballads from the German (owersetter) (1796)
 The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802-1803)
 The Lay of the Last Minstrel (1805)
 Ballads and Lyrical Pieces (1806)
 Marmion (1808)
 The Lady of the Lake (1810)
 The Vision of Don Roderick (1811)
 The Bridal of Triermain (1813)
 Rokeby (1813)
 The Field of Waterloo (1815)
 The Lord of the Isles (1815)
 Harold the Dauntless (1817)
 Young Lochinvar
 Bonnie Dundee (1830)

Ither
 Introductory Essay to The Border Antiquities of England and Scotland (1814-1817)
 The Chase (owersetter) (1796)
 Goetz of Berlichingen (owersetter) [1799)
 Paul's Letters to his Kinsfolk (1816)
 Provincial Antiquities of Scotland (1819-1826)
 Lives of the Novelists (1821-1824)
 Essays on Chivalry, Romance, and Drama Supplement to the 1815–24 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica
 Halidon Hill (1822)
 The Letters of Malachi Malagrowther (1826)
 The Life of Napoleon Buonaparte (1827)
 Religious Discourses (1828)
 Tales of a Grandfather, 1st series (1828)
 History of Scotland, 2 vols. (1829-1830)
 Tales of a Grandfather, 2nd series (1829)
 The Doom of Devorgoil (1830)
 Essays on Ballad Poetry (1830)
 Tales of a Grandfather, 3rd series (1830)
 Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft (1831)
 The Bishop of Tyre

Fremmit airtins

 Walter Scott Digital Archive at the Varsity o Edinburgh leebrar: haes muckle primary material
 The Edinburgh Sir Walter Scott Club
 Sir Walter Scott, biography by Richard H. Hutton, 1878, frae Project Gutenberg
 Varsity of Pennsylvania e-texts o sum o Walter Scott's warks
 The Keepsake Stories  at Arthur's Classic Novels website.
 My Native Land audio - Bullwinkle voice impression

1771 births
1832 daiths
18t-century Scots poets
19t-century antiquarians
19t-century biografers
19t-century Breetish juidges
19t-century Scots lawers
19t-century Scots novelists
19t-century Scots poets
Alumni o the Varsity o Edinburgh
Baronets in the Baronetage o the Unitit Kinrick
Breetish leeterar eeditors
Breetish medievalists
Clan Scott
Elders o the Kirk o Scotland
Fellaes o the Ryal Society o Edinburgh
Historians o Scotland
Members o The Club
Members o the Faculty o Advocates
Members o the Ryal Company o Airchers
Fowk eddicatit at Kelso High School, Scotland
Fowk eddicatit at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
Writers frae Edinburgh
Fowk o the Scots Enlichtment
Preses o the Ryal Society o Edinburgh
Principal Clarks o Session an Juisteeciar
Romantic poets
Scott faimily o Abbotsford
Scots biografers
Scots diarists
Scots fowklairists
Scots Freemasons
Scots historical novelists
Scots leeterary creetics
Scots shirras
Scots fowk wi disabeelities
Scots publishers (fowk)
Scots sang collectors
Scots translators
Writers o Arthurian leeteratur
Writers o historical feection set in the Middle Ages
Writers o historical novelles set in Early Modren period
19t-century Breetish ceevil servants
19t-century Scots historians
Scots fowk-sang collectors

Walter Scott


A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service.

Origin
The word project comes from the Latin word projectum from projicere, "to throw something forwards" which in turn comes from pro-, which denotes something that precedes the action of the next part of the word in time (paralleling the Greek πρό) and jacere, "to throw". The word "project" thus actually originally meant "something that comes before anything else is done". When the word was initially adopted, it referred to a plan of something, not to the act of actually carrying this plan out. Something performed in accordance with a project was called an object. This use of "project" changed in the 1950s when several techniques for project management were introduced. With this advent the word slightly changed meaning to cover both projects and objects. However, in certain projects there may still exist so called objects and object leaders, reflecting the older use of the words.

Characteristics
 Temporary means that any project will have a start date and end date (but it has nothing to do with short duration).
 Project produces unique results: meaning the product or service at the end of the project should be some way different than the existing (can be an invention or an innovation.)
 Projects are characterized by progressive elaboration: due to uniqueness and greater uncertainty projects cannot be understood entirely at or before project start, and therefore planning and execution of projects is happening many times in separate steps or phases. As project progresses, project team understands next steps, deliverables and way of execution much better. Based on this knowledge team members elaborate initial draft plans, and execute next phase of the project based on these detailed plans.

Projects differ from operations, because operations are continuous and repeating (projects are temporary), and operations deliver the same or almost the same results (project results are in contrast unique).

A project usually needs resources to deliver its results. Most of the time project execution is based on detailed plan, which considers also external factors and constraints. Planning, execution and controlling of project is the primary field of project management. For major projects it is necessary sometimes to set up a special temporary organization, consisting of a project team and one or more work teams.

Major projects can be divided into subprojects, and program denotes collection of related projects.

Project types
Projects can be categorised based on different aspects.

Based on project content
 Construction projects
 IT projects
 Product development projects
 RD projects
 Organisation development projects
 Logistics projects
 Marketing projects
 Community projects
 Cultural projects

Based on initiating or participating organisation
 Internal projects
 Departmental projects
 Cross unit projects
 External projects (customer facing projects)

Based on complexity
 Simple projects
 Complex projects
 Programs
 Megaprojects

Notable projects
 Manhattan Project: Developed the first nuclear weapon
 Project Apollo: Landing a man on the moon

Management

Project


The USS Arizona (BB-39) was an American battleship from the Pennsylvania Class. The building of the ship was started in 1913 and it was commissioned in 1916. It fought in World War I. The USS Arizona is best known for its sinking during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The attack was the event that caused the United States to join the fighting in World War II. The wreck is still at the floor of the harbor. It is the site of a memorial to those who died that day.

Other ships
USS Arizona (BB-39) was one of three ships in the history of the United States Navy to be named USS Arizona. It was the only one of the three to be named that after Arizona became a U.S. state.

The first Arizona was built in 1858. It was made of iron. It served in the American Civil War. The ship was destroyed when it caught on fire in 1865.
The second USS Arizona was a 3850 ton frigate. It was built in 1865 and originally named the USS Neshamny. The ship was renamed twice. It used the name USS Arizona for less than three months during 1869 before becoming USS Nevada. The Navy stopped using the ship in 1874.

Arizona (BB-39)

USS Arizona (BB-39)