E-mail, atawa email, disundakeun jadi surélék, mangrupa landihan pikeun "surat éléktronik" (as opposed to conventional mail, in this context also called snail mail) nu dimaksudkeun kana nyusun/nulis, ngirim, jeung narima pesen/surat ngaliwatan sistem komunikasi éléktronik. Sistem surélék ayeuna lolobana maké Internet, malah surélék nu mangrupa pungsi Internét nu paling ilahar/popular.

Asal-usul surélék

Béda jeung asumsi umum, surélék sabenerna geus aya méméh Internét; malah, ayana sistem surélék mangrupa alat nu penting pisan dina nyiptakeun Internét.

E-mail started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate; although the exact history is murky, among the first systems to have such a facility were SDC's Q32 and MIT's CTSS.

E-mail was quickly extended to become network e-mail, allowing users to pass messages between different computers. The éarly history of network e-mail is also murky; the AUTODIN system may have been the first allowing electronic text messages to be transferred between users on different computers, in 1966, but it is possible the SAGE system had something similar some time before.

The ARPANET computer network made a major contribution to the evolution of e-mail. There is one report  which indicates experimental inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly after its création, in 1969. Ray Tomlinson initiated the use of the @ sign to separate the names of the user and their machine in 1972. The common report that he "invented" e-mail is an exaggeration, although his éarly e-mail programs SNDMSG and READMAIL were very important. The ARPANet significantly incréased the popularity of e-mail, and it became the "killer app" of the ARPANET.

Growing popularity

As the utility and advantages of e-mail on the ARPANET became more widely known, the popularity of e-mail incréased, léading to demand from péople who were not allowed access to the ARPANET. A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as UUCP and IBM's VNET e-mail system.

Since not all computers or networks were directly inter-networked, e-mail addresses had to include the "route" of the message, that is, a path between the computer of the sender and the computer of the receivers. E-mail could be passed this way between a number of networks, including the ARPANET, BITNET and NSFNET, as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP.

The route was specified using so-call "bang path" addresses, specifying hops to get from some assumed-réachable location to the addressee, so called because éach hop is signified by a "bang sign", i.e. "!". Thus, for example, the path ...!bigsite!foovax!barbox!me directs péople to route their mail to machine bigsite (presumably a well-known location accessible to everybody) and from there through the machine foovax to the account of user me on barbox.

Before auto-routing mailers became commonplace, péople often published compound bang addresses using the { } convention (see glob) to give paths from several big machines, in the hopes that one's correspondent might be able to get mail to one of them reliably (example: ...!{seismo, ut-sally, ihnp4}!rice!beta!gamma!me). Bang paths of 8 to 10 hops were not uncommon in 1981. Late-night dial-up UUCP links would cause week-long transmission times. Bang paths were often selected by both transmission time and reliability, as messages would often get lost. See the network and sitename.

Surélék Internét Modern
Almost all e-mail is delivered directly to an Internet-connected host accepting mail for the recipient, using Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. Very few modérn servers will perform routing for messages sent by third parties due to the potential for abuse by péople sending unsolicited bulk e-mail. Those that do allow it are called open relays.

A modérn Internet e-mail address is a string of the form firstname.lastname@example.com. It should be réad as "jsmith at domain dot example". The part before the @ sign is the local part of the address, often the username of the recipient, and the part after the @ sign is a domain name which can be looked up in the Domain Name System to find the mail exchange servers accepting e-mail for that address.

The format of Internet e-mail messages is defined in RFC 2822. Prior to the introduction of RFC 2822 the format was described by RFC 822.

Internet e-mail messages consist of two major components:
 Héaders - Message summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail
 Body - The message itself, usually containing a signature block at the end

The héaders usually have at léast four fields:

 From - The e-mail address of the sender of the message
 To - The e-mail address of the receiver of the message
 Subject - A brief summary of the contents of the message
 Date - The local time and date when the message was originally sent

Note however that the "To" field does not necessarily have the e-mail address of the recipient. The information supplied in the héaders on the recipients computer is similar to that found on top of a conventional letter. The actual information such as who the message was addressed to is removed by the mail server after it assigns it to the correct user's mailbox.
Also note that the from field does not have to be the réal sender of the e-mail. It is very éasy to fake the from line and let an e-mail seem to be from any mail address. It is possible to digitally sign an e-mail. This is a lot harder to fake.

Other common héader fields include:

 Cc - Carbon copy (because typewriters used carbon film to copy what was written on them)
 Bcc - Blind carbon copy (the recipient of this copy will know who was in the To: field, but the recipients cannot see who is on the Bcc: list)
 Received - Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a message
 Content-Type - Information about how the message has to be displayed, usually a MIME type

Messages and mailboxes

Messages are exchanged between hosts using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol with software like Sendmail. Users download their messages from servers usually with either the POP or IMAP protocols, yet in a large corporate environment users are likely to use some proprietary protocol such as Lotus Notes or Microsoft Exchange Server's.

Mails can be stored either on the client or on the server side. Standard formats for mailboxes include Maildir and mbox. Several prominent e-mail clients use their own, proprietary format, and require conversion software to transfer e-mail between them.

E-mail content encoding

E-mail is only defined to carry 7-bit ASCII messages. Although many e-mail transports are in fact "8-bit clean", this cannot be guaranteed. For this réason, e-mail has been extended by the MIME standard to allow the encoding of binary attachments including images, sounds and HTML attachments.

Spamming and e-mail worms

The usefulness of e-mail is being thréatened by two phenomena, spamming and e-mail worms.

Spamming is unsolicited commercial e-mail. Because of the very low cost of sending e-mail, spammers can send hundreds of millions of e-mail messages éach day over an inexpensive Internet connection. Hundreds of active spammers sending this volume of mail results in many computer users receiving tens or even hundreds of junk e-mails éach day.

E-mail worms use e-mail as a way of replicating themselves into vulnerable computers. Although the first e-mail worm (the Morris worm) affected éarly UNIX computers, this problem is today almost entirely confined to the Microsoft Windows operating system.

The combination of spam and worm programs results in users receiving a constant drizzle of junk e-mail, which reduces the usefulness of E-mail as a practical tool.

A number of technology-based initiatives mitigate the impact of spam. Congress has also passed a law, the Can Spam Act of 2003, to regulate such e-mail.

Further reading
 Katie Hafner, Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet (Simon and Schuster, 1996) also covers the éarly history of e-mail

See also
 E-mail art
 E-mail social issues:
 netiquette
 Internet humor
 Internet slang
 spam
 stopping e-mail abuse
 virus.
 Clients and servers:
 e-mail client
 mail transfer agent
 webmail / HTMLmail
 branded e-mail
 Mailing list:
 electronic mailing list
 mailing list archive
 e-mail address
 Internet mail standards
 Free e-mail services/webmail:
 Hotmail
 Yahoo! Mail
 Gmail

Further Reading

Abdullah, M. H. (1998). "Electronic discourse: Evolving conventions in online academic environments". Bloomington, IN: ERIC Cléaringhouse on réading, English, and Communication. [ED 422 593]

Abras, C. (2002) The principle of relevance and metamessages in online discourse: Electronic exchanges in a graduate course. Language, "Literacy and Culture Review" 1(2), 39-53.

Biesenbach-Lucas, S. & Wiesenforth, D. (2001). E-mail and word processing in the ESL classroom: How the medium affects the message. "Language Learning and Technology", 5 (1), 135-165. [EJ 621 506]

Danet, B. (2001). Cyberplay: Communicating online. Oxford: Berg Publishing.

External links
 The History of Electronic Mail is a personal memoir by the implementer of one of the first e-mail systems
 Michael A. Padlipsky, And They Argued All Night... is an alternative personal recollection of the origins of network e-mail
 The First E-Mail Message  is an article about the history of network e-mail; contains some errors
 E-Mail Counseling: Skills for Maximum Impact
 The Impact of Electronic Communication on Writing
 History of Email

This article, or an earlier version, contains content derived from FOLDOC, used by permission.

ᮞᮥᮛᮦᮜᮦᮊ᮪

Surélék


Kalénder Yahudi nyaéta kalénder nu dipaké dina ageman Yahudi.

Kalender ieu nangtukeun tanggal poé peré Yahudi, nangtukeun tanggal umum keur maca bagéan Taurot, Yahrzeit (tanggal mieling pupusna baraya), jeung Psalms poéan husus.

Two major forms of the calendar have been used: an observational form used before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, and based on witnesses observing the phase of the moon, and a rule-based form first fully described by Maimonides in 1178 CE, which was adopted over a transition period between 70 and 1178.

The "modern" form is a fixed arithmetic lunisolar calendar.  Because of the roughly 11 day difference between twelve lunar months and one solar year, the calendar repéats in a 19-yéar cycle of 235 lunar months, with an extra lunar month added once every two or three yéars, for a total of 7 times per 19 yéars.  As the Hebrew calendar was developed in the region éast of the Mediterranean Sea, references to séasons reflect the times and climate of the Northern Hemisphere.

Jews have been using a lunisolar calendar since Biblical times. The first commandment the Jewish Péople received as a nation was the commandment to determine the New Moon. The beginning of Exodus Chapter 12 says "This month (Nissan) is for you the first of months.". The months were originally referred to in the Bible by number rather than name. Only four pre-exilic month names appéar in the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible): Aviv (first; literally "Spring", but originally probably méant the ripening of barley), Ziv (second; literally "Light"), Ethanim (seventh; literally "Strong" in plural, perhaps referring to strong rains), and Bul (eighth), and all are Canaanite names.

Rujukan
 The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three, Treatise Eight: Sanctification of the New Moon. Translated by Solomon Gandz. Yale Judaica Series Volume XI, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1956.
 Bonnie Blackburn and Léofranc Holford-Strevens. The Oxford Companion to the Year: An Exploration of Calendar Customs and Time-reckoning. Oxford University Press; USA, 2000. pp 723–730.

Loka ramat lianna
 Ancient Jewish Text calculates Lunar Month
 Perpetual  Hebrew / Civil Calendar
 Jewish Calendar Details various Jewish points-of-view about the history of the Jewish calendar/Hebrew calendar. Includes several charts.
 Hebrew Calendar Science and Myth gives complete rules of the Hebrew calendar and a lot more.
 The Jewish Controversy about Calendar Postponements
 Jewish Calendar with Zmanim - Halachic times and date converter chabad.org
 Jewish calendar  scientific explanation at the NASA web site
 Jewish Encyclopedia: Calendar
 Calendar Hebrew for Christians website
 Karaite Holidays Karaite website
 Hebrew Calendar  Dates and Holydays (Diaspora or Israel)
 The Lengths of the Seasons (numerical integration analysis)
 The Hebrew Calendar (astronomical analyses)
 The Molad of the Hebrew Calendar (astronomical analysis)
 The Rectified Hebrew Calendar (calendar reform proposal, includes full arithmetic algorithms for both the Traditional and the Rectified calendars)

Konverter tanggal
 Jewish Calendar for Outlook - A solution for incorporating Jewish dates and holidays into Microsoft Office Outlook.
 Molad  - Free Jewish Calendar with Zmanim and holidays for Mobiles.
 Kaluach - Hebrew/civil calendars
 Hebcal Hebrew Date Converter
 Jewish/Gregorian/Julian Perpetual Calendar Converter - Also contains a full yéar view for the Hebrew Calendar.
 Sample VB.Net and Javascript code to convert the Hebrew Date to the Gregorian Date
 Use this powerful tool to convert any regular calendar date to its corresponding Jewish-calendar date, or vice versa.
 Gregorian-Mayan-Julian-Islamic-Persian-Hebrew Calendar Converter
 The Kalendis Calendar Calculator (freeware)
 any Gregorian to Hebrew with weekly Parshat HaShavua noted. Prints nice monthly plates  (freeware)

Kalénder
Yahudi

Kalénder Yahudi


A fractal is any pattern, that when seen as an image, produces a picture, which when zoomed into will still make the same picture. It can be cut into parts which look like a smaller version of the picture that was started with. The word fractal was made by Benoît Mandelbrot in 1975 from the Latin word fractus, which means "broken" or "fractured". A simple example is a tree that branches into smaller branches, and those branches into smaller branches and so on. Fractals have many practical applications.

Examples
There are many types of fractals, made in a large variety of ways. One example is the Sierpinski triangle, where there are an infinite number of small triangles inside the large one. Another example is the Mandelbrot set, named for Benoît Mandelbrot. The Sierpinksi triangle is constructed using patterns, but the Mandelbrot set is based on an equation.

There are also many natural examples of fractals in nature including trees, snowflakes, some vegetables and coastlines.

The Koch Curve

The Koch Curve is a simple example of a fractal. First, start with part of a straight line - called a straight line segment. Cut the line into 3 same-sized pieces. Get rid of the middle of those pieces, and put in the top part of a triangle with sides which are the same length as the bit to cut out. We now have 4 line segments which are touching at the ends. We can now do what we just did to the first segment to each of the 4 bits. We can now do the same thing again and again to all the bits we end up with. We now do this forever and look at what we end up with.

The length of the Koch Curve is infinity, and the area of the Koch Curve is zero. This is quite strange. A line segment (with dimension 1) could have a length of 1, but it has an area of 0. A square of length 1 and width 1 (with dimension 2) will have area 1 and length of infinity.

Similarity dimension
So, the Koch Curve seems to be bigger than something of dimension 1, and smaller than something of dimension 2. The idea of the similarity dimension is to give a dimension which gives a better idea of length or area for fractals. So, for a Koch Curve, we want a dimension between 1 and 2.

The Koch Curve can be cut into four pieces, each of which are  of the size of the original. We call the number of pieces that a fractal can be cut into , and we call the size difference . We put those into the equation:

Where  is the logarithm of a number. This number is the Hausdorff Dimension of the fractal. In the Koch Curve, this is  as we wanted.

The Koch Curve is one of the simplest fractal shapes, and so its dimension is easy to work out. Its similarity dimension and Hausdorff dimension are both the same. This is not true for more complex fractals.

Koch snowflake

The Koch snowflake (or Koch star) is the same as the Koch curve, except it starts with an equilateral triangle instead of a line segment.

Uses
Fractals have many applications e.g. in biology (lung, kidneys, heart rate variability, etc...), in earthquakes, in finance where it is related to the so called heavy tail distributions and in physics. This indicates that fractals should be studied to understand why fractals are so frequent in nature.

Some fractals exist only for artistic reasons, but others are very useful. Fractals are very efficient shapes for radio antennas and are used in computer chips to efficiently connect all the components. Also, coastlines can be thought of as fractals.

Related pages
Iteration

References

Other websites

Fractals

Fractal


Autumn is the season after summer and before winter. In the United States and Canada, this season is also called fall. In the Northern Hemisphere, it is often said to begin with the autumnal equinox in September and end with the winter solstice in December. In the Southern Hemisphere, it runs from the autumnal equinox in March to the winter solstice in June.

In many places in the temperate zone, autumn is a time for harvesting most crops. Deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves every year) lose their leaves, usually after turning yellow, red, or brown. In many countries, autumn is the time a new school year starts. The period of school between the start of September and the end of December is often referred to as the "Fall Semester", "Fall Quarter", or "Fall Term".

When it is autumn in the Northern Hemisphere, it is spring in the Southern Hemisphere. When it is autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere. On the Equator, autumn is very much like spring, with little difference in temperature or in weather. Autumn is a time when most animals are looking for food so they can store up for winter, because they soon will be going into hibernation. The weather gets colder and more windy.  In Autumn the hours of daylight and the hours of night are the same. In autumn the weather changes all the time. The weather turns cooler and often windy and rainy.

Environment
Meteorology
Seasons

Autumn


Children's literature refers to books written for children and young people. Many famous authors wrote for children including Hans Christian Andersen, Beatrix Potter, Dr. Seuss, A.A. Milne, J. M. Barrie, Edith Nesbit, Enid Blyton, Lewis Carroll, Astrid Lindgren, JRR Tolkien and C. S. Lewis. The Newbery Medal is an award given to writers for children.

Classification
Children's literature can be divided into several categories, but it is most easily categorised by genre or the intended age of the reader. An example of a classification based on age is young-adult fiction, which is written for children between the ages of 12 and 18.

A literary genre is the style of the book. It also refers to the technique, tone, content, or length.
 Picture books, including books that teach the alphabet or counting for example. They either have very few words or none at all.
 Traditional literature, including folktales, which convey the legends, customs, superstitions, and beliefs of people in previous civilizations. This genre can be further broken into subgenres: myths, fables, legends, and fairy tales
 Fiction, including fantasy, realistic fiction, and historical fiction
 Non-fiction
 Biography and autobiography
 Poetry

Many children's books are meant to teach children the consequences of engaging in "bad" behaviour, such as running away, stealing and lying. Tom Sawyer and Toby Tyler are two notable examples of the genre.

Fiction

Britsh Awards

There are a few children's literature awards in Britain. These include, Waterstones Award and the Caldecott Award.

Children's literature


A hot dog (or hotdog) is an American fast food. It was first created in America. In the United States, hot dogs are very popular in areas with large numbers of European immigrants, such as Chicago, Brooklyn and Detroit. The word "hot dog" refers to the belief that many people thought hot dogs had actual dog meat. In a few places, hot dogs are also called red-hots.

A hot dog is made of the remains of the pig after other parts are cut off and sold as bacon, sausage patties, and ham. However many people across the world eat hot dogs and enjoy them very much. Hot dogs can be boiled, grilled, or fried. The word frankfurter comes from Frankfurt, Germany. This sausage is usually served in a bun or another type of bread. The most common type of hot dogs are made from beef, sometimes mixed with pork.  Chicken and vegetarian hot dogs are popular as well. Hot dogs and other sausage products were first developed as a way to sell these parts that people would not normally eat. Nearly 20% of the weight of a hot dog is usually non-meat ingredients including water, sugar, and spices.  Some legal categories of hot dogs, such as "frankfurters" can contain up to 3.5% of non-meat fillers as well, such as corn meal.

To add to the taste, various toppings and sauces are often added. The most common sauces in the United States are ketchup, mustard and pickle relish.  Onions, chopped pickles, peppers, hot sauce and cheese are also sometimes added to the food.  Onions cooked in tomato sauce and Sauerkraut are popular toppings, as is chili.

In the United States, there are many different types of hot dogs, with different combinations of chili, cheese, onions, mustard, and other products.  One of the most popular types of hot dogs is a chili dog.  There are many different types of chili dogs.  One of the most well-known is a Coney Island dog, a dog topped with a blend of chili, cheese, mustard and onions that is originally from Michigan.
  Other types of chili dogs include Michigan dogs, which are from upstate New York, and Texas dogs, which are from Pennsylvania.   Both Michigan and Texas dogs are spicy; the Texas dog has spicy sauce and the Michigan dog has a spicy weiner.  Chili dogs are also popular in the Southwestern United States. Another type of hot dog is a Chicago dog, which is a Vienna beef weiner topped with mustard, onion, neon green pickle relish, peppers, tomatoes and a pickle.

A type of hot dog called a "kosher hot dog" is very common in parts of the United States and overseas.  It is similar to most hot dogs except that it is always made of Kosher beef, has more spice added to it. Kosher hotdogs contain less of the less desirable sounding ingredients (such as rectum) as these parts are not considered to be Kosher beef. Halal hot dogs are also made.

Though hot dogs are most popular in the United States, they are served in many places around the world.  People in Japan eat a lot of hot dogs, and the world's largest hot dog ever was made there.  In some countries, "hot dog" is the name of a completely different sausage dish; for example, in New Zealand it is used to mean corn dog, and hot dogs are called "American hot dogs" instead.

References

Sausage
German food
American food

Hot dog


The Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act (OCILLA) is United States federal law that creates a conditional 'safe harbor' for online service providers (OSP), a group which includes Internet service providers (ISP) and other Internet intermediaries, by shielding them for their own acts of direct copyright infringement (when they make unauthorized copies) as well as shielding them from potential secondary liability for the infringing acts of others. OCILLA was passed as a part of the 1998 Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) and is sometimes referred to as the "Safe Harbor" provision or as "DMCA 512" because it added Section 512 to Title 17 of the United States Code. By exempting Internet intermediaries from copyright infringement liability provided they follow certain rules, OCILLA attempts to strike a balance between the competing interests of copyright owners and digital users.

Overview

The 1998 DMCA was the U.S. implementation of the 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) directive to "maintain a balance between the rights of authors and the larger public interest, particularly education, research and access to information" when updating copyright norms for the digital age. In the context of Internet intermediaries, OCILLA attempts to strike this balance by immunizing OSP's for copyright liability stemming from their own acts of direct copyright infringement (as primary infringers of copyright), as well as from the acts of their users (as secondary infringers of copyright), provided that OSP's comply with two general requirements protecting the rights of authors.

First, the OSP must "adopt and reasonably implement a policy" of addressing and terminating accounts of users who are found to be "repeat infringers." Second, the OSP must accommodate and not interfere with "standard technical measures." "Standard technical measures" are defined as measures that copyright owners use to identify or protect copyrighted works, that have been developed pursuant to a broad consensus of copyright owners and service providers in an open, fair and voluntary multi-industry process, are available to anyone on reasonable nondiscriminatory terms, and do not impose substantial costs or burdens on service providers.

OSPs may qualify for one or more of the Section 512 safe harbors under § 512(a)-(d), for immunity from copyright liability stemming from: transmitting, caching, storing, or linking to infringing material. An OSP who complies with the requirements for a given safe harbor is not liable for money damages, but may still be ordered by a court to perform specific actions such as disabling access to infringing material.

In addition to the two general requirements listed above, all four safe harbors impose additional requirements for immunity. The safe harbor for storage of infringing material under § 512(c) is the most commonly encountered because it immunizes OSPs such as YouTube that might inadvertently host infringing material uploaded by users.

Taken as a whole, OCILLA's passage represented a victory for telecom and Internet related industry groups over powerful copyright interests who had wanted service providers to be held strictly liable for the acts of their users. However, copyright owners also obtained concessions. In addition to the general and specific preconditions on the created immunity, OCILLA requires OSP's seeking an immunity to designate an agent to whom notices of copyright infringement can be sent, and to disclose information about those users who are allegedly infringers.

Safe harbor provision for online storage - § 512(c)

Section 512(c) applies to OSPs that store infringing material. In addition to the two general requirements that OSPs comply with standard technical measures and remove repeat infringers, § 512(c) also requires that the OSP: 1) not receive a financial benefit directly attributable to the infringing activity, 2) not be aware of the presence of infringing material or know any facts or circumstances that would make infringing material apparent, and 3) upon receiving notice from copyright owners or their agents, act expeditiously to remove or disable access to the purported infringing material.

Direct financial benefit

An OSP must "not receive a financial benefit directly attributable to the infringing activity" to qualify for § 512(c) protection. However, it is not always easy to determine what qualifies as a direct financial benefit under the statute.

One example of an OSP that did receive a direct financial benefit from infringing activity was Napster. In A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., the court held that copyrighted material on Napster's system created a "draw" for customers which resulted in a direct financial benefit because Napster's future revenue was directly dependent on increases in user-base. Conversely, in Ellison v. Robertson, the court held that AOL did not receive a direct financial benefit when a user stored infringing material on its server because the copyrighted work did not "draw" new customers.  AOL neither "attracted [nor] retained…[nor] lost…subscriptions" as a result of the infringing material.

Knowledge of infringing material

To qualify for the § 512(c) safe harbor, the OSP must not have actual knowledge that it is hosting infringing material or be aware of facts or circumstances from which infringing activity is apparent. It is clear from the statute and legislative history that an OSP has no duty to monitor its service or affirmatively seek infringing material on its system. However, the statute describes two ways in which an OSP can be put on notice of infringing material on its system: 1) notice from the copyright owner, known as notice and take down, and 2) the existence of "red flags."

This is advantageous for OSPs because OCILLA's clear process allows them to avoid making decisions about whether or not material is actually infringing. Such decisions can be complex both because it is difficult to determine whether the copyright has expired on a material without access to complete information such as publication date, and because even copyrighted material can be used in some cases under the doctrine of fair use, the applicability of which is difficult to evaluate.

Instead of making a complex legal determination, OCILLA allows OSPs to avoid liability provided they comply with the terms of the statute, regardless of the validity of any claim of infringement.

Notice from copyright owner

The first way an OSP can be put on notice is through the copyright holder's written notification of claimed infringement to the OSP's designated agent. This must include the following:

(i) A physical or electronic signature of a person authorized to act on behalf of the owner of an exclusive right that is allegedly infringed.

(ii) Identification of the copyrighted work claimed to have been infringed, or, if multiple copyrighted works at a single online site are covered by a single notification, a representative list of such works at that site.

(iii) Identification of the material that is claimed to be infringing or to be the subject of infringing activity and that is to be removed or access to which is to be disabled, and information reasonably sufficient to permit the service provider to locate the material.

(iv) Information reasonably sufficient to permit the service provider to contact the complaining party, such as an address, telephone number, and, if available, an electronic mail address at which the complaining party may be contacted.

(v) A statement that the complaining party has a good faith belief that use of the material in the manner complained of is not authorized by the copyright owner, its agent, or the law.

(vi) A statement that the information in the notification is accurate, and under penalty of perjury, that the complaining party is authorized to act on behalf of the owner of an exclusive right that is allegedly infringed.

See 512(a) and (h) below if the information is not stored on the system of the OSP but is instead on a system connected to the Internet through it, like a home or business computer connected to the Internet. Legal liability may result if access to material is disabled or identity disclosed in this case.

If a notice which substantially complies with these requirements is received the OSP must expeditiously remove or disable access to the allegedly infringing material. So long as the notice substantially complies with clauses (ii), (iii), and (iv) the OSP must seek clarification of any unclear aspects.

In Perfect 10, Inc. v. CCBill LLC, the Ninth Circuit held that the properly constructed notice must exist in one communication. A copyright owner cannot "cobble together adequate notice from separately defective notices" because that would unduly burden the OSP.

While not required for safe harbor protection, the OSP can implement a counter notification process to avoid legal liability to its own customer as a result of taking down the material: After the notice has been complied with the OSP must take reasonable steps to promptly notify the alleged infringer of the action. Note that the OSP is not prohibited from doing so in advance, only required to do so afterward. If there is a counter notification from the alleged infringer, the OSP must respond appropriately to it. Restoring the removed allegedly infringing material in compliance with this process does not cause liability of the OSP for copyright infringement of the material.

There is a common practice of providing a link to legal notices at the bottom of the main web page of a site. It may be prudent, though it is not required by the provisions of section 512 of the copyright law, to include the designated agent information on the page the legal link goes to, in addition to any other places where it is available. As long as the site gives reasonable notice that there is a method of compliance, that should be sufficient. Once again, the courts have not ruled on the technicalities of posting of these notices.

Red flags

The second way that an OSP can be put on notice that its system contains infringing material, for purposes of section 512(d), is referred to the "red flag" test. The "red flag" test stems from the language in the statute that requires that an OSP not be "aware of facts or circumstances from which infringing activity is apparent."

The "red flag" test contains both a subjective and an objective element. Subjectively, the OSP must have knowledge that the material resides on its system.  Objectively, the "infringing activity would have been apparent to a reasonable person operating under the same or similar circumstances."

Take down and put back provisions

Takedown example
Here's an example of how the takedown procedures would work:

 Alice puts a video with a copy of Bob's song on her YouTube.
 Bob, searching the Internet, finds Alice's copy.
 Charlie, Bob's lawyer, sends a letter to YouTube's designated agent (registered with the Copyright Office) including:
 Contact information
 The name of the song that was copied
 The URL of the copied song
 A statement that he has a good faith belief that use of the material in the manner complained of is not authorized by the copyright owner, its agent, or the law.
 A statement that the information in the notification is accurate
 A statement that, under penalty of perjury, Charlie is authorized to act for the copyright holder
 A written signature
 YouTube takes the video down.
 YouTube tells Alice that they have taken the video down and that her channel has a copyright strike.
 Alice now has the option of sending a counter-notice to YouTube, if she feels the video was taken down unfairly. The notice includes
 Contact information
 Identification of the removed video
 A statement under penalty of perjury that Alice has a good faith belief the material was mistakenly taken down
 A statement consenting to the jurisdiction of Alice's local US Federal District Court, or, if outside the US, to a US Federal District Court in any jurisdiction in which YouTube is found.
 her signature
 If Alice does file a valid counter-notice, YouTube notifies Bob, then waits 10-14 business days for a lawsuit to be filed by Bob.
 If Bob does not file a lawsuit, then YouTube may put the material back up.

Interpretation

Preemption of state law
Even if a copyright holder does not intend to cause anything other than the removal of allegedly infringing material, compliance with the DMCA's procedures nonetheless may result in disruption of a contractual relationship: by sending a letter, the copyright holder can effectuate the disruption of ISP service to clients. If adherence to the DMCA's provisions simultaneously subjects the copyright holder to state tort law liability, state and federal law may conflict. Depending on the facts of the case, federal law may preempt state law i.e. there will be no liability for state law claims resulting from compliance with federal law.

Effect of delay in response
The other issue to keep in mind is that the delay in responding may not amount to a significant amount of damages and someone who has had their material removed by the § 512 procedure late may be more than satisfied with the result; it is much less expensive than filing a copyright infringement suit in federal court that might revolve around a minor technicality of the law. Indeed, one of the purposes of this section was to remove a large number of potential infringement suits from the courts when the facts revolving around infringement were basically undisputed and the damages could be minimized within a short period without the intervention of a US federal district court judge. A copyright holder may be more than happy to know that the material has been taken down for the minor fee of having a lawyer draft a compliant "take down" notice rather than the costs of drafting, filing, serving and prosecuting a federal copyright infringement action.

Other defenses for OSPs
Another law, the federal Communications Decency Act (CDA) still protects the ISP from liability for content provided by third parties (see below). Even if a removal is found not to be "expeditious" within the meaning of the law and the so-called "safe harbor" under the DMCA is lost, in certain circumstances, the OSP may still be protected. Through these two laws there are ways to balance the ISP's intent to assist with the protection of third-party copyright and the desire to preserve good customer relations. There is also a question of the infringement that is placed by a third party being an issue of negligence or another tort on the part of the OSP. If the OSP takes steps considered reasonable or is found not to have a duty of care to police potential infringers on the site, then the infringement may be considered "innocent" from the point of view of the ISP and the infringer may still be held to be the liable party which posts the infringing work or works.

Common misunderstandings
It is sometimes stated that the ISP needs to give the alleged infringer ten days' notice before acting. This is incorrect. The ISP must act expeditiously. The ten-day period refers to the counter notification procedure described in Section 512(g) after the infringing material has been removed, offering them an opportunity to counter the allegations presented to the ISP not during the stage of the so-called "take down" procedure.

It is sometimes suggested that content must be taken down before notifying the person who provided it. That is also not required, so long as the removal is expeditious. A large connectivity provider with many ISP customers would not be acting reasonably by disconnecting a whole ISP if it received a takedown notice for a web site hosted by that ISP on behalf of one of its customers. The law appears to allow the necessary flexibility to deal reasonably with relaying takedown requests to handle such situations.

Other safe harbor provisions

§ 512(a) Transitory Network Communications Safe Harbor

Section 512(a) protects service providers who are passive conduits from liability for copyright infringement, even if infringing traffic passes through their networks. In other words, provided the infringing material is being transmitted at the request of a third party to a designated recipient, is handled by an automated process without human intervention, is not modified in any way, and is only temporarily stored on the system, the service provider is not liable for the transmission.

The key difference in scope between this section, transitory network communications under 512(a), and caches, websites and search engine indexes under 512(b), 512(c) and 512(d) respectively, relates to the location of the infringing material. The other subsections create a conditional safe harbor for infringing material that resides on a system controlled by the OSP. For material that was temporarily stored in the course of network communications, this subsection's safe harbor additionally applies even for networks not under the OSP's control.

§ 512(b) System Caching Safe Harbor

Section 512(b) protects OSPs who engage in caching (i.e., creating copies of material for faster access) if the caching is conducted in standard ways, and does not interfere with reasonable copy protection systems. This Section applies to the proxy and caching servers used by ISPs and many other providers.

If the cached material is made available to end users, the system provider must follow the Section 512(c) takedown and put back provisions. Note that this provision only applies to cached material originated by a third party, not by the provider itself. Also, the content of the material must not be modified as a result of the caching process.

§ 512(d) Information Location Tools Safe Harbor

Section 512(d) eliminates copyright liability for an OSP who links users, through a tool such as a web search engine, to an online location that contains infringing material, provided that the OSP does not know the material is infringing.

There are several other conditions for this immunity to apply. Once the OSP becomes aware that the material is infringing, it must promptly disable access to it. Also, the OSP must follow Section 512(c)'s takedown and put-back provisions. Finally, where the OSP can control the infringing activity, the OSP must not derive any financial benefit through providing the link.

Other provisions

§ 512(e) Limitation on Liability of Nonprofit Educational Institutions

Section 512(e) protects nonprofit educational institutions from liability for the actions of faculty and graduate student employees who place infringing material online. For the immunity to apply the materials must not be course materials for a course taught by the faculty or graduate student employee, and the institution must not have received more than two infringement notifications about the same individual, during the preceding 3 years. Also, the institution must distribute informational materials about US copyright laws to all the users of its network.

Universities across the country have been forced to adapt to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) regulations. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), who are the major representatives of the music and movie industries, are the main organizations who have been enforcing the copyright laws the strongest. This started in 2003 as they began to track down the heaviest peer-to-peer users and seek lawsuit against them. Most Universities today have set in rules to follow the strict guidelines of the DMCA. Offenders are issued subpoenas and disciplinary actions are taken to identify and disable the issue. Fortunately for the colleges, the liability of Internet service providers is limited under section 512 of the Copyright Act.

§ 512(f) Misrepresentations

Section 512(f) deters false claims of infringement by imposing liability on anyone who makes such claims, for the damages suffered by other parties as a result of the OSP's reliance on the false claim, and for associated legal fees.

This provision has been used in cases such as Online Policy Group v. Diebold, Inc., where an electronic voting technology firm was sanctioned for knowingly issuing meritless notices of infringement to ISPs, and more recently Lenz v. Universal, 801 F.3d 1126 (2015).

§ 512(h) Identify infringers

Section 512(h) contains provisions that allow a copyright owner to force an OSP to reveal identifying information about the user who allegedly infringed the owner's copyright, through the use of a subpoena issued by a federal court at the owner's request.

Part (h)(2)(A) requires that the owner's request include "a copy of a notification described in subsection (c)(3)(A)" (a takedown notice, see above). Note that 512(c)(3)(A)(iii) states that the notice must identify the allegedly infringing material that is to be removed and must provide reasonably sufficient information for the service provider to locate the material residing on its system. The owner must also swear that any information obtained through the subpoena will only be used for the purpose of protecting its rights under Section 512.

If the OSP is served with such a subpoena after or at the same time as a valid takedown notice, under Part (h)(2)(A) it must expeditiously provide the information required by the subpoena.

In 2003, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) appeared to be seeking subpoenas and serving takedown notices which did not comply with these requirements, notably using the subpoena provisions for 512(a) situations, which do not provide for them.

On 20 December 2003, the DSL ISP Verizon prevailed on appeal in its case seeking to prevent the use of this section for transitory network communications, the decision reversing a court order to supply customer details. The appeal decision accepted the argument that the key distinction was the location of the files, with this section applying only when the material is stored on equipment controlled by the OSP. However, in response, RIAA member labels turned to a different method to acquire their desired information. They began suing multiple "Doe" defendants at a time and issuing third-party discovery subpoenas to ISPs for the customer details.

On 6 October 2003 Charter Communications became the first cable Internet provider to challenge the RIAA use of this provision, when it filed for a motion to quash the subpoenas to obtain the identities of 150 of its customers. Although Charter Communications initially lost this motion and was forced to turn over the identities of the requested customers, a later appeal ruled that the motion to quash should have been upheld.

§ 512(i) Conditions for Eligibility

Section 512(i) outlines the general requirements for a grant of immunity. Online service providers must reasonably implement a policy "that provides for the termination in appropriate circumstances" of "repeat infringers", must inform their users of this policy, and must accommodate standard copy protection systems.

This passage has historically been open to interpretation, as it does not specify any minimum standards that a repeat infringer policy must adhere to, and only specifies that users must be informed of its existence. In 2018, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that a repeat infringer policy did not necessarily need to be documented and publicized (as long as users are informed of its presence), and that a website owner's efforts to moderate and manually ban repeat infringers on a case-by-case basis was sufficiently reasonable.

§ 512(j) Injunctions

Section 512(j) describes the forms of injunctive (i.e., court order) relief available to copyright holders. Even though OSPs have immunity from monetary damages under Section 512, they may be compelled by copyright holders, in appropriate situations, to stop providing access to infringing material or to terminate the account of a particular infringer.

§ 512(k) Definitions

Section 512(k) defines "service provider" and "monetary relief."

§ 512(l) Other Defenses Available

Section 512(l) notes that a service provider's ineligibility for a safe harbor from monetary damages under this section does not affect the validity of any other legal defenses that may be applicable (notably the CDA, although it isn't specifically identified).

§ 512(m) Protection of Privacy

Section 512(m) notes that OSPs retain the protections of parts (a) through (d) even if they don't monitor their service looking for infringing activity, as long as they comply Section 512(i)'s general requirements relating to the institution of account termination policies for infringers and accommodation of copy protection systems. Furthermore, OSP's are not required to remove or disable access to material if doing so would break another law.

§ 512(n) Independent Construction of Safe Harbors

Section 512(n) states that the limitations on liability in parts (a), (b), (c) and (d) apply independently. Hence, the fact that an OSP qualifies for a limitation on liability under one subsection has no impact on whether the OSP qualifies for a limitation under a different subsection. This is because subsections (a), (b), (c), and (d) describe separate and distinct functions.

Criticism

By 2008, experience with the safe harbor provisions showed them to be reasonably effective. Copyright holders have the incentive to monitor Internet sites for offending material, and to send ISPs notifications where appropriate, of material that should be taken down. ISPs have incentive to cooperate with copyright holders and terminate the accounts of repeat infringers on pain of forfeiting the safe harbor created by OCILLA. At the same time, copyright holders are deterred from improperly sending out notices by provisions that make them liable for resulting damages, and also by bad publicity.

That is not to say that OCILLA functions perfectly in practice. There are three main areas of criticism that pertain to the OCILLA provision of the DMCA: improper removal of content, ineffective counter-notice procedure, and the rise of Web2.0 and new technologies that call into question the equity and effectiveness of the safe harbor provision. In 2020 the United States Copyright Office published a study examining the impact of Section 512 of the DMCA. The study found that the safe harbor provision is unbalanced and not in line with what the original lawmakers intended with the passing of the DMCA in 1998.

Improper removal of content

There is evidence that ISPs tend to quickly take down allegedly infringing content on request by copyright holders, in situations where the content is actually non-infringing and should be preserved, sometimes known as aggressive copyright claims. This may be because ISPs have much more to lose by forfeiting their safe harbor than by angering a user whose content is improperly removed.

Notices can be flawed in several ways. Many fail to follow the requirements of the statute.  Others ask for material to be taken down for reasons such as trademark infringement and defamation that are unrelated to copyright infringement. While the courts appear willing to punish copyright holders who file wrongful claims, some experts say it's troubling how easy it is for the DMCA to be invoked for false claims.

Ineffective counter-notice procedure

There is evidence of problems with the counter-notice procedure, arising from its complexity and also because ISPs are not required to inform users of its existence. Filing a counter-notice can be a lengthy, expensive process that doesn't guarantee the content will not be flagged again as infringing content.

This may result from the inherent imbalance in prerequisites for the original complaint and the counter-notice. To get content removed, a copyright holder need only claim a good-faith belief that neither he nor the law has authorized the use. Copyright holders are not subject to penalties for perjury. In contrast, to get access to content re-enabled, the uploader of the allegedly infringed content must claim a good-faith belief under penalty of perjury that the material was mistakenly taken down. This allows for copyright holders to send out take-down notices without incurring much liability; to get the content back up, the recipients need to expend considerably more resources. Section 512(f) makes the sender of an invalid claim liable for the damages resulting from the content's improper removal, including legal fees, but that remedy is not always practical.

Furthermore, ISPs tend to remove allegedly offending material immediately, while there is a 10- to 14-day delay before the ISP re-enables access in response to a counter-notice.  For example, if a website advertised an upcoming labor protest outside BlameCo, BlameCo could send a DMCA notice to the site's ISP alleging copyright infringement of their name or logo a week before the protest. The site would then be disabled; even if the site's owners immediately filed a counter-notice, access would not be re-enabled until after the protest, too late to be useful.

ISP's may also disregard counter-notices. Section 512(g) of the DMCA shields an ISP from liability to its customer for a DMCA takedown, if the ISP restores removed content following a counter-notice. In practice, however, an ISP may disregard the counter-notice, and instead rely on its own terms of service to shield itself from liability to its customer. For example, since April 2013, YouTube refuses to restore some counter-noticed content, citing an agreement YouTube made with third-party music content owners.

Additionally, there is no public record of takedown requests and counter-notices. This prevents the public from seeing how the process is used. (Chilling Effects has tried to make up for this shortcoming, but, so far, few OSPs besides Google submit their takedown notices.)

Web 2.0 and new technologies

There have been recent claims that the DMCA-embedded concepts of direct financial benefit, interference with standard technical measures, and the legislative red flag test for identifying infringing material are significantly challenged by the explosion of user-generated content unleashed by Web 2.0 technologies.

Web 2.0 has enhanced the ease of access to copyrighted works by introducing new and alternative electronic platforms in which information can be shared publicly. Recognizing the challenge that Web 2.0 presents, many OSPs have implemented programs that automatically scan every upload for potential infringing activity. At the same time, there is evidence that such programs are not enough. Web 2.0's platforms are significantly altered by the amount of content generated by millions users, which creates extreme difficulty for the OSPs to monitor their own platforms for infringing content.

Related laws

The European Union's Electronic Commerce directive, Article 14, contains limited liability provisions for online hosts which provide the legal basis for notice and takedown in the EU. France's Digital Economy Law ("Loi relative à l'économie numérique") is an example of an implementation of this directive, as is Finland's "Laki tietoyhteiskunnan palvelujen tarjoamisesta."

In Korea, the analogous law is Section 102 (Limitation of OSP Liabilities) and Section 103 (Takedown) of Copyright Law of Korea.

In Taiwan, Republic of China, the analogous law is Chapter VI-1 of the Copyright Act.

See also

Related US laws
 The "No Electronic Theft" (NET) Act
 Copyright Term Extension Act (1998)
 DMCA (1998)
 In re Aimster Copyright Litigation
 Amaretto Ranch Breedables, LLC v. Ozimals, Inc.

Other
YouTube copyright issues

References

External links

General
 , Text of OCILLA
U.S. Copyright Office Summary of the DMCA
Chilling Effect's FAQs, about DMCA Safe Harbor Provisions
U.S. Copyright Office List, of Designated Agents for Infringement Notification

Using OCILLA
DMCA Guide, with sample copyright infringement notices and counter-notices
Using DMCA to Protect Your Content, Lunar Legal (June 2008)
How to File a DMCA Copyright Infringement Notice, Marketingdock.com
 Responding to Notices of Alleged Infringement, University of Texas

Case law
Diehl v. Crook, Electronic Frontier Foundation's successful 2006 suit against an illegal takedown notice
Sony Corp. of Am. v. Universal City Studios Inc., 464 U.S. 417 (1984).
Religious Tech. Ctr. v. Netcom On-Line Commc'n Servs., Inc., 907 F. Supp. 1361 (N.D. Cal. 1995).
Costar Group, Inc. v. Loopnet, Inc., 373 F.3d 544 (4th Cir. 2004).
Online Policy Group et al. v. Diebold, Inc., 337 F.Supp.2d 1195 (N.D. Cal. 2004).
A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., 239 F.3d 1004 (9th Cir. 2001).
 Perfect 10, Inc. v. CCBill, LLC, 488 F.3d 1102 (9th Cir. 2007).

United States federal computing legislation
United States federal copyright legislation
Acts of the 105th United States Congress
Digital Millennium Copyright Act


A vampire is a ghost in legends and stories. The first vampire stories were told in Eastern Europe, but much of how modern people see vampires was created by Bram Stoker in the famous novel, Dracula. Few people believe that vampires are real, but they are still very popular in movies, television, and books.

Vampires were once people but have a supernatural curse. Some vampires must drink blood to survive. They do this by biting people or animals on the neck with their two long fangs. People who are killed by having their blood drunk by vampires may also become vampires. Others can live off the life energy of people. In many stories, vampires can change into other animals, usually bats, though also wolves, cats or rats.

Depending on the story, vampires may have some or all of these characteristics:
 They cannot go out in sunlight, so they sleep during the day.
 They can only be killed in certain ways:
 being beheaded
 having a stake driven through their heart
or being sprayed or washed with vervain
 being set on fire
 They can be weakened by crosses or other religious symbols, garlic, holy water, and silver.
 They cannot cross the ocean unless they are in a coffin surrounded by soil from their homeland.
If vampires click their fingers they can disappear in the blink of an eye.
 If a bag of rice, grain, seeds or other similar substance is spilled on the ground, a vampire will have to count every grain.
 They have no reflection in glass, mirrors, or other things.
 Vampires have photographic memory.
 Vampires are cold blooded, if once they touch the wound will go.

Vampires in fiction

Dracula is the most famous vampire in fiction, and many movies have been made about him, often with Christopher Lee as Dracula himself. Bela Lugosi is another actor known for the role. Nosferatu is also a famous vampire movie.

There is a popular series of books by Anne Rice about vampires. Stephen King also wrote about vampires in the 1970s in Salem's Lot. The television show Buffy the Vampire Slayer featured a young girl who fought vampires, but also befriended good ones. The series Twilight by Stephenie Meyer is also about vampires. The movie The Lost Boys was about a band of vampires in California. Among many other stories about vampires are The Southern Vampire Mysteries, which led to the television show True Blood.

Protection
In stories, garlic is often used for keeping vampires away, but it does not actually affect them. Vervain is used to hurt vampires, and in Europe, Though this is not traditional, mirrors have been used to make vampires stay away (in some cultures, vampires do not have a reflection and sometimes do not have a shadow, perhaps as a way of showing that they do not have souls). Not all vampires in stories have this quality (the Greek vrykolakas/tympanios had both reflections and shadows), was used by Bram Stoker in Dracula. In addition to this, in Bram Stoker's Dracula, it is mentioned that  wolf's-bane (or  Aconitum) can be used to repel dracula. The reason for this in the novel it is explained dracula is the Wolfman, and can transform into one just as easily as a bat.

Other
Some neurologists believe that rabies might lie at the base of the myth.
 Rabid people have trouble walking.
 They are sexually very active and can be aggressive. They may bite, while they are in this frenzy.
 Very often they have cramps, or seizures. They often bite their tongue during such cramps. This may lead to them bleeding from their mouth.
 Rabies can be spread by biting
 Many diseases of the brain make people sensitive to light.
 Many diseases of the brain make people have difficulty swallowing. This is the fear of water.
The problem with this is that rabid people, especially in advanced stages of the disease, will live for about ten days, at best. This does not account for them getting out of ditches and graves over weeks or months.

Another explanation was given by other people. The disease might be porphyria, rather than rabies. Porphyria is a genetic condition that leads to differences when the body makes blood. Some parts of the blood can not be made in sufficient quantities. Writers for the Toronto Garlic Festival say people with porphyria do not like to eat foods that have sulfur in them, and garlic has sulfur in it.

Psychological disorders can contribute to vampiric behavior. As well as the fact that drinking blood has always been believed to give you the strength of the one you drink from. That belief stems all the way back to ancient civilizations.

There are people in the real world who like to dress and behave like a vampire. Some of them may also drink blood.

Finally, there is the vampire bat.

References

Legendary creatures

Vampire


An album is a collection of sound recordings. It is usually made by a musician, and is sold in stores. Albums were originally a collection of gramophone records, each having one or two songs. Today an album is usually in the form of a compact disc, although many artists also release their albums on vinyl records.

LP or Album in digital format in the 21st century it is increasingly normal to release music.

Types of albums
There are two main types of albums, studio albums and live albums. Studio albums are recorded at a recording studio. Live albums are normally recorded while the musicians are performing for an audience. Live albums are usually recorded at concerts.

Other types of albums include:
 Compilation album: Compilation albums are usually made of songs that first came from many different albums. These songs can all be from the same musicians (often called "Greatest Hits" albums) or they can each be from different musicians.
 Debut album: the first album from a musician or musical group.
 Solo album - A solo album is an album by a single musician. This often happens when a singer or musician who is a part of a band creates an album without the rest of the band. It may also happen when the person leaves the band and starts performing alone. For example, most of Beyoncé's albums after she stopped performing with Destiny's Child are solo albums.
 Tribute album: Tribute albums or "cover albums" are albums where a second group or musician plays songs which were first played by another, often more famous, group or musician.  The second group is usually called a "Tribute band" when most or all of the music they play is from another band.  For example, a Slipknot tribute band would mostly play songs that were written and played by the band Slipknot.
Live album: Live albums are made from songs that are performed live, such as during tour.

Tracks
Albums are normally separated into Tracks. Each track is a part of the album which has one song in it. The term is often used to mean a specific song on the album by number. For example, the "fourth track" or "track four" from an album is the fourth song on the album when it is played from the beginning.

Related pages
 Extended play
 Single (music)

Album


Dina matematik, fungsi distribusi kumulatip (disingkat cdf) ngajelaskeun probability distribution ti sakabéh nilai-real variabel acak, X. Keur satiap réal number x, cdf dirumuskeun ku

nu mana sisi beulah katuhu ngagambarkeun probabilitas nu mana variabel acak X dicokot tina nilai nu kurang tina atawa sarua jeung x. Probabilitas X aya dina interval (a, b] nyaéta F(b) − F(a) lamun a < b.  Geus ilahar ngagunakeun huruf F gedé keur fungsi sebaran kumulatif, nu jelas béda jeung huruf f leutik nu dipaké keur fungsi dénsitas probabilitas jeung probability mass function.

Fungsi sebaran kumulatif X bisa dihartikeun dina watesan fungsi dénsitas probabilitas f saperti kieu:

Note that in the definition above, the "less or equal" sign, '≤' is a convention, but it is
an important and universally used one. The proper use of tables of the Binomial and Poisson
distributions depend upon this convention. Moréover, important formulas like Levy's inversion formula for the characteristic function also rely on the "less or equal" formulation.

Properties

Every cumulative distribution function F is (not necessarily strictly) monotone increasing and right-continuous. Furthermore, we have

Every function with these four properties is a cdf. The properties imply that all CDFs are càdlàg functions.

If X is a discrete random variable, then it attains values x1, x2, ... with probability pi = P(xi), and the cdf of X will be discontinuous at the points xi and constant in between:

If the CDF F of X is continuous, then X is a continuous random variable; if furthermore F is absolutely continuous, then there exists a Lebesgue-integrable function f(x) such that

for all réal numbers a and b.  (The first of the two equalities displayed above would not be correct in general if we had not said that the distribution is continuous.  Continuity of the distribution implies that P(X = a) = P(X = b) = 0, so the difference between "<" and "≤" céases to be important in this context.)  The function f is equal to the derivative of F almost everywhere, and it is called the probability density function of the distribution of X.

Point probability
The "point probability" that X is exactly b can be found as

Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Kuiper's tests
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is based on cumulative distribution functions and can be used to test to see whether two empirical distributions are different or whether an empirical distribution is different from an idéal distribution. The closely related Kuiper's test (pronounced ) is useful if the domain of the distribution is cyclic as in day of the week. For instance we might use Kuiper's test to see if the number of tornadoes varies during the yéar or if sales of a product vary by day of the week or day of the month.

Complementary cumulative distribution function
Sometimes, it is useful to study the opposite question and ask how often the random variable is above a particular level. This is called the complementary cumulative distribution function (ccdf), defined as

.

In survival analysis,  is called the survival function and denoted .

Contohna
As an example, suppose X is uniformly distributed on the unit interval [0, 1].
Then the CDF of X is given by

Take another example, suppose X takes only the discrete values 0 and 1, with equal probability.
Then the CDF of X is given by

Inverse
If the cdf F is strictly incréasing and continuous then  is the unique réal number  such that .

Unfortunately, the distribution does not, in general, have an inverse.  One may define, for ,
.

Example 1: The median is .

Example 2: Put .  Then we call  the 95th percentile.

The inverse of the cdf is called the quantile function.

Tempo oge
 Descriptive statistics
 Probability distribution
 Empirical distribution function
 Cumulative frequency distributions
 Q-Q plot
 Ogive
 Quantile function

Rujukan

Tumbu kaluar
An introduction to probability distributions

Probability theory
Statistika

Fungsi sebaran kumulatif


"Yankee Doodle" é uma música americana com origem na Guerra dos Sete Anos. É por vezes cantada patrioticamente nos Estados Unidos da América nos dias de hoje. É a música oficial do estado de Connecticut.

Versão original
Yankee Doodle went to town
A-riding on a pony,
Stuck a feather in his cap
And called it macaroni'.

Chorus:
Yankee Doodle keep it up,
Yankee Doodle dandy,
Mind the music and the step,
And with the girls be handy.

Fath'r and I went down to camp,
Along with Captain Gooding,
And there we saw the men and boys
As thick as hasty puddin'.

Chorus

And there we saw a thousand men
As rich as Squire David,
And what they wasted every day,
I wish it could be saved.

Chorus

The 'lasses they eat it every day,
Would keep a house a winter;
They have so much, that I'll be bound,
They eat it when they've mind ter.

Chorus

And there I see a swamping gun
Large as a log of maple,
Upon a deuced little cart,
A load for father's cattle.

Chorus

And every time they shoot it off,
It takes a horn of powder,
and makes a noise like father's gun,
Only a nation louder.

Chorus

I went as nigh to one myself
As 'Siah's inderpinning;
And father went as nigh again,
I thought the deuce was in him.

Chorus

Cousin Simon grew so bold,
I thought he would have cocked it;
It scared me so I shrinked it off
And hung by father's pocket.

Chorus

And Cap'n Davis had a gun,
He kind of clapt his hand on't
And stuck a crooked stabbing iron
Upon the little end on't

Chorus

And there I see a pumpkin shell
As big as mother's bason,
And every time they touched it off
They scampered like the nation.

Chorus

I see a little barrel too,
The heads were made of leather;
They knocked on it with little clubs
And called the folks together.

Chorus

And there was Cap'n Washington,
And gentle folks about him;
They say he's grown so 'tarnal proud
He will not ride without em'.

Chorus

He got him on his meeting clothes,
Upon a slapping stallion;
He sat the world along in rows,
In hundreds and in millions.

Chorus

The flaming ribbons in his hat,
They looked so tearing fine, ah,
I wanted dreadfully to get
To give to my Jemima.

Chorus

I see another snarl of men
A digging graves they told me,
So 'tarnal long, so 'tarnal deep,
They 'tended they should hold me.

Chorus

It scared me so, I hooked it off,
Nor stopped, as I remember,
Nor turned about till I got home,
Locked up in mother's chamber.

Chorus

Gen. George P. Morris

Canções patrióticas dos Estados Unidos
Marchas militares
Cultura de Connecticut

Yankee Doodle


Tennis is a sport played with a felt-covered rubber ball, a tennis racket, and a court. Since 1998, every September 23 has been called "Tennis Day".  Tennis's official name is "lawn tennis".

First, early in the 11th century, players in France played a sport like this with their hands. It was called "Jeu de Paume".  In the 15th century the players played with rackets. Now it is called "tennis". It became popular in England and France. King Henry III of France was a big fan of the game. This kind of sport is still played but is known as real tennis ("real" here meaning "royal"). The sport of "lawn tennis" played on grass courts was invented in mid 19th-century England and later spread into many other countries.  The name of the sport is usually shortened to "tennis".

Tennis matches
There are many different kinds of courts, like grass, clay or hard court. The goal of tennis is to hit the ball over the net into the other player's court. When the other player cannot return the ball, a point is won.  The game is played with two or four people.  When it is played with two people, it is called "singles", and when it is played with four people, it is called "doubles". The court has "alleys" on each side, which are "fair" territory when playing doubles.

A tennis game has a number of sets. Each set has a number of games, and each game has points. The points are counted love (0, after the French l'oeuf), fifteen (15), thirty (30), and forty (40). If both players get to forty, the score is deuce from which 2 more points are needed to win the game. When one player reaches six games, it is one set. If it is a three-set match, the player who wins two sets first is the winner. If the game count reaches 5–5, the set must be won with two more games than the other player, like 7–5 or 8–6.  If the game count gets to 6–6, a "tiebreaker" is played. In a tiebreak, players have to get at least seven points while getting two more points than the other player to win the set. In tiebreak points are called "one," "two," etc.

Soft tennis
There is also soft tennis. Soft tennis is different from regulation tennis. For example, the racket, ball and rules are much different. Soft tennis is popular in Japan. Thousands of people play soft tennis. Tennis is quite a popular sport which lots of people enjoy watching.

Shots
There are many different "shots" and "strokes", ways to hit the ball, in tennis. A stroke is the way the body is moved to hit the ball. A shot is how the ball is hit. These include:
Strokes
 The backhand is a type of stroke hit by swinging the racquet away from the body. The stroke begins with the arm holding the racquet held across the body. It is then moved in front of the body to hit the ball. For a right-handed player, a backhand begins on the left side of his body, continues across his body as the ball is hit, and ends on the right side of his body.  It can be either a one-handed or a two-handed stroke.
 The forehand is the opposite of the backhand. It starts with the arm outside of the body and moves across the body. For a right handed player, the arm starts on the right side of the body and moves across the body to the left side. The forehand is hit with one hand (most commonly the hand the player uses to write).

Shots
A serve (sometimes called a service) is a shot to start a point. The serve is usually started by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it across the net. The serve may be done underhand or overhead. The overhead serve the most common form. The serve is done from behind the baseline (the line at the back of the court).  The serve must land on the inside of the service line and center service line on the other side of the net to call it good.  The serve that is set has to be in the box diagonal to where the server serves.
 A volley is a shot that is hit before the ball bounces on the ground. Usually, a player hits a volley while standing near the net. It is sometimes done farther back, in the middle of the court or even near the back.
A drop shot is tapping . A good drop shot travels just far enough that the opponent cannot run fast enough to get to it.
A lob is a shot that can use backhand or forehand swings.  For a lob the person has to swing through, but make the tennis ball go up.  When the ball goes up the goal is for the ball to land in between the baseline (the line at the back of the court) and the service line.

Four Grand Slams
Tennis is now a sport that is played at the Olympics. They also have big tournaments like the U.S. Open, Australian Open, French Open and Wimbledon. These four are known as Grand Slam events.

Australian Open (January)
French Open ( May-June)
Wimbledon (June - July)
US Open (August-September)

Winning all four Grand Slams in the same year is called a Calendar Slam.
They are the most important tennis tournaments of each season (year). This is because of the world ranking points, tradition, prize-money, and public attention.

Notes

Other websites

 ATP The official site for men's professional tennis
 WTA The official site for women's professional tennis
 Tennis Ball Hopper

Tennis


A taxon (plural taxa) is a taxonomic group or taxonomic unit. It is a group of organisms which a taxonomist decides belong together.

Taxa can be big or small. A fairly small taxon is the giraffes, and a very big one is the beetles.

A taxonomist can assign a scientific name and rank to a taxon; this places it at a particular level in a hierarchy. It is not strictly necessary to assign either a name or a rank to a taxon, but doing so makes it much easier to refer to the taxon. However, many taxa have to wait for years before getting a name.

Ranks
There is no limit to the number of ranks that may exist, but the most important ranks are, in hierarchical order:
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum or Division
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Subspecies

Note: "Phylum" applies formally to any biologial domain but traditionally it was always used of animals whereas "Division" was traditionally often used of plants, fungi etc.

A simple phrase to remember the order is
"Dignified Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Silk" (there are many other such phrases).

Taxonomy

A distinction is made between taxonomy and systematics. Systematics deals with how groups relate to each other. Taxonomy deals with making groups (taxa), deciding what belongs together. Taxonomy is also known as classification.

A special part of taxonomy is nomenclature. This consists of rules on what names to use. So a taxonomist first decides what does and does not belong in a group, and then uses nomenclature to decide what name this group should have. If a group is made larger or bigger it may get a different name. On the other hand, the same name may refer to a bigger taxon (according to one particular taxonomist) or a smaller taxon (according to some other taxonomist). This means that scientific names are not guaranteed to be stable. Most names are stable, but for some taxa there is no agreement on its name, because taxonomists do not agree what does belong together and what does not belong together.

A taxonomist can decide for himself what scientific reasons he adopts for making a group (a taxon). If he is not convincing in his choice, other taxonomists will not agree with him, and they will then make other arrangements. These days biological classification is mostly supposed be done according to evolutionary (phylogenetic) relationships, so far as these are known.

Taxonomy

Taxon


English Gothic is the name of the architectural style that was very popular in England from about 1180 until about 1520. As with the gothic architecture of other parts of Europe, English Gothic is defined by its pointed arches, vaulted rooves, buttresses, large windows, and spires.

Features of the Gothic style

 Pointed arches
 Very high towers, spires and rooves
 Clustered columns: tall columns that looked like a group of thin columns bundled together
 Ribbed vaults: arched ceilings made of stone. In the Gothic style they were held up by stone ribs.
 A skeleton of stonework with big glass windows in between.
 Tracery: carved stone lace in the windows and on the walls
 Stained glass: richly coloured glass in the windows, often with pictures telling stories
 Buttresses: narrow stone walls jutting out from the building to help hold it up
 Flying buttresses: buttresses that help to hold the vault up. They are made with an arch that jumps over a lower part of the building to reach the outside wall.
 Statues: of saints, prophets and kings around the doors
 Many sculptures, sometimes of animals and legendary creatures. Gargoyles spout water from the roof.

Stages

The various styles are seen at their best in the cathedrals, abbey churches and college buildings. It is a distinctive characteristic of the cathedrals of England that all but one of them show great stylistic diversity and have building dates that range over 400 years. The exception, Salisbury Cathedral, was built in 38 years.

 Early English (roughly 1170-1240)
 Decorated (roughly 1250−1350)
Geometric (1250–90)
Curvilinear (1290–1350)
 Perpendicular (roughly 1350−1520)

Early English
Examples: Salisbury Cathedral, Whitby Abbey, the nave and transept of Wells Cathedral (1225—1240).

Characteristics
The clearest sign of the Early English period was the pointed arch known as the lancet. Pointed arches were used for nave arcade, the doorways and lancet windows. The windows are narrow by comparison to their height and are without tracery. Lancet arches  are a sign of the style.

The Lancet openings of windows and arcades are often grouped in twos or threes. This is seen throughout Salisbury Cathedral where there are groups of two lancet windows lining the nave and groups of three lining the clerestory. At York Minster there are, in the north transept, a cluster of five lancet windows known as the Five Sisters, each fifty feet high and still have their ancient glass.

Romanesque (Norman architecture) builders generally used round arches. Compared with the rounded Romanesque style, the pointed arch of the Early English Gothic looks more elegant and, more importantly, is better at distributing the weight of the stonework above it. This makes it possible to span higher and wider gaps using narrower columns.

Instead of being massive, solid pillars, the columns were often composed of clusters of slender, detached shafts surrounding a central pillar.

By using the pointed arch, walls could become less massive and window openings could be larger and grouped more closely together. This gave a more open, airy and graceful building. The high walls and vaulted stone roofs were often supported by flying buttresses: half arches which transmit the outward thrust of the superstructure to supports or buttresses, usually on the outside of the building.

At its purest the style was simple and austere, emphasizing the height of the building, as if aspiring heavenward.

Decorated gothic
Examples:  the east ends of Lincoln Cathedral and Carlisle Cathedral, and the west fronts of York Minster and Lichfield Cathedral. Much of Exeter Cathedral is built in this style.

Characteristics
Decorated architecture has window tracery. Elaborate windows are subdivided by closely-spaced parallel mullions (vertical bars of stone). The mullions then branch out and cross, intersecting to fill the top part of the window with a mesh of elaborate patterns called tracery. The style was geometrical (more straight lines) at first and flowing (curves) in the later period. This evolution of decorated tracery is often used to subdivide the period into an earlier "geometric" and later "curvilinear" period.

Perpendicular gothic

Some of the earliest examples of the "perpendicular period", from 1360, are found at Gloucester Cathedral. The masons of the cathedral seem to be far in advance of those in other towns; the fan-vaulting in the cloisters is particularly fine. Also noteworthy are the Quire and tower of York Minster (1389–1407); the nave and western transepts of Canterbury Cathedral (1378–1411). Bath Abbey, Eton College Chapel and King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1515) are also examples.

Characteristics
It is called perpendicular because of its emphasis on vertical lines. This is particularly obvious in the design of windows, which became very large, sometimes of immense size, with slimmer stone mullions than in earlier periods. This allowed more scope for stained glass craftsmen. Buttresses and wall surfaces are likewise divided up into vertical panels. Another major development of this period was fan vaulting.

Some of the finest features of this period are the magnificent timber rooves. Hammerbeam rooves, like those of Westminster Hall (1395), and Christ Church Hall, Oxford, appeared for the first time. In areas of southern England elaborate decoration in flint was used, especially in the wool churches of East Anglia.

References

Gothic architecture

English Gothic architecture


A hot air balloon is a type of aircraft. It is lifted by heating the air inside the balloon, usually with fire.

Hot air weighs less than the same volume of cold air (it is less dense), which means that hot air will rise up or float when there is cold air around it, just like a bubble of air in a pot of water. The greater the difference between the hot and the cold, the greater the difference in density, and the stronger the balloon will pull up. This means that balloons can carry more weight on a cold day, or if the air inside the balloon is very hot. At higher temperature, the air molecules move faster. This causes the molecules to spread out and therefore hot air is less dense than cooler air.

History

The hot air balloon is the oldest form of flying technology that can successfully carry people. The earliest use of hot air to make objects fly was made in Ancient China. Paper lanterns were sent into the air for signalling.

The first hot air balloon to carry a person was made by the Montgolfier brothers. On 19 September 1783, they demonstrated their invention for King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette at the French court in Paris. The passengers were a sheep, a duck and a rooster. They flew for 480 metres.  The first flight carrying a person was on 15 October 1783. It carried Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier. The balloon was attached to the ground by a rope. The first free flight, without being attached to the ground, was a few weeks later, on 21 November 1783. It carried Marquis François d'Arlandes and Pilatre de Rozier.

How it works
The air is made up of molecules. When the air is cold, these molecules are closer together. When the air is hot, they move away from each other. So, in the same space, there are fewer molecules in hot air. Hot air is therefore lighter than cold air. This makes it rise and carry up the balloon when the air inside it is heated. The air is heated in the balloon with a burner, which uses bursts of fire to keep the air hot. The fire is fuelled by propane.

The heated air is kept inside the balloon by its fabric. This is called the "envelope". It is usually made of nylon.

The passengers and the pilot stand in the basket, which is attached to the balloon by ropes. The basket is usually made of wicker. Baskets can come in many sizes. It can have enough places for up to 36 people. It depends the size of the balloon to carry that much weight.

Festivals

A hot air balloon festival is a type of air show. It is where ballooners display and fly their balloons together. During these events, they fly in the morning and in the evening if the conditions allow it. People can enjoy a balloon flight if they pay. There are many activities. Sometimes, the balloons are lit up against the night sky.

At these festivals, people can see different shapes of balloons. Usually, they are kind of round but they may have forms.

References

Other websites
 Hot air ballooning
 Hot air balloonat Library Think Quest

Aircraft

Hot air balloon


ISO 639-2:1998, Codes for the representation of names of languages — Part 2: Alpha-3 code, is the second part of the ISO 639 standard, which lists codes for the representation of the names of languages. The three-letter codes given for each language in this part of the standard are referred to as "Alpha-3" codes. There are 487 entries in the list of ISO 639-2 codes.

The US Library of Congress is the registration authority for ISO 639-2 (referred to as ISO 639-2/RA). As registration authority, the LOC receives and reviews proposed changes; they also have representation on the ISO 639-RA Joint Advisory Committee responsible for maintaining the ISO 639 code tables.

History and relationship to other ISO 639 standards
Work was begun on the ISO 639-2 standard in 1989, because the ISO 639-1 standard, which uses only two-letter codes for languages, is not able to accommodate a sufficient number of languages. The ISO 639-2 standard was first released in 1998.

In practice, ISO 639-2 has largely been superseded by ISO 639-3 (2007), which includes codes for all the individual languages in ISO 639-2 plus many more. It also includes the special and reserved codes, and is designed not to conflict with ISO 639-2. ISO 639-3, however, does not include any of the collective languages in ISO 639-2; most of these are included in ISO 639-5.

B and T codes
While most languages are given one code by the standard, twenty of the languages described have two three-letter codes, a "bibliographic" code (ISO 639-2/B), which is derived from the English name for the language and was a necessary legacy feature, and a "terminological" code (ISO 639-2/T), which is derived from the native name for the language and resembles the language's two-letter code in ISO 639-1. There were originally 22 B codes;  and  are now deprecated.

In general the T codes are favored; ISO 639-3 uses ISO 639-2/T.

Scopes and types
The codes in ISO 639-2 have a variety of "scopes of denotation", or types of meaning and use, some of which are described in more detail below.
 Individual languages
 Macrolanguages (see ISO 639 macrolanguage)
 Collections of languages
 Dialects
 Reserved for local use
 Special situations

For a definition of macrolanguages and collective languages, see ISO 639-3/RA: Scope of denotation for language identifiers.

Individual languages are further classified as to type:
 Living languages
 Extinct languages
 Ancient languages
 Historic languages
 Constructed languages

Collections of languages
Some ISO 639-2 codes that are commonly used for languages do not precisely represent a particular language or some related languages (as the above macrolanguages). They are regarded as collective language codes and are excluded from ISO 639-3.

The collective language codes in ISO 639-2 are listed below.  Some language groups are noted to be remainder groups, that is excluding languages with their own codes, while other are not.  Remainder groups are afa, alg, art, ath, bat, ber, bnt, cai, cau, cel, crp, cus, dra, fiu, gem, inc, ine, ira, khi, kro, map, mis, mkh, mun, nai, nic, paa, roa, sai, sem, sio, sit, sla, ssa, tai and tut, while inclusive groups are apa, arn, arw, aus, bad, bai, bih, cad, car, chb, cmc, cpe, cpf, cpp, dua, hmn, iro, mno, mul, myn, nub, oto, phi, sgn, wak, wen, ypk and znd.

The following code is identified as a collective code in ISO 639-2 but is (at present) missing from ISO 639-5:
  Himachali

Codes registered for 639-2 that are listed as collective codes in ISO 639-5 (and collective codes by name in ISO 639-2):

Reserved for local use
The interval from  to  is "reserved for local use" and is not used in ISO 639-2 nor in ISO 639-3. These codes are typically used privately for languages not (yet) in either standard. Microsoft Windows uses the  language code for pseudo-locales generated automatically from English strings, designed for testing software localization.

Special situations
There are four generic codes for special situations:
 is listed as "uncoded languages" (originally an abbreviation for "miscellaneous")
 (for "multiple languages") is applied when several languages are used and it is not practical to specify all the appropriate language codes
 (for "undetermined") is used in situations in which a language or languages must be indicated but the language cannot be identified.
 is listed in the code list as "no linguistic content", e.g. animal sounds (code added on 11 January 2006)
These four codes are also used in ISO 639-3.

See also
List of ISO 639-2 codes
Language code

References

External links

ISO 639-2/RA Change Notice at the Library of Congress
ISO 639-2:1998: Codes for the representation of names of languages—Part 2: Alpha-3 code at the International Organization for Standardization

ISO 639
1989 introductions
Language identifiers

ISO 639-2