Telepon nyaéta alat telekomunikasi anu digunakeun pikeun ngirimkeun jeung narima sora; paling ilahar sora manusa. Telepon kiwari mangrupa kalengkepan rumah tangga nu paling ilahar di dunya. Lolobana, sinyal sora tina telepon diliwatkeun kana jaringan telepon umum.

Prinsip dasar

Telepon ngirimkeun dua rupa informasi: sinyal jeung sora siliganti dina waktu nu béda dina sapasang kawat. Terminal telepon ogé dilengkepan ku papan nomer pikeun ngasupkeun nomer telepon (lambang alamat tujuan) waktu rék nelepon ka pamaké telepon lianna.

Waktu panelepon ngangkat gagang telepon, hal ieu mgusikkeun switch dina jero terminal anu ngakibatkeun telepon asup kana kaayaan aktif atawa off hook di mana hiji résistor nyambungsingket kadua kawat anu sapasang kasebut, anu ngabalukarkeun arus listrik DC ngamalir nuju ka sentral telepon. Saenggeus séntral narima arus DC, saterusna séntral ngirimkeun sinyal nada call setup sangkan panelepon muter nomer tujuan.

Terminal telepon ogé dilengkepan ku alat isarat (signaling) nu ngandung hiji kohkol (bél) pikeun ngingetkeun pamaké ngeunaan kadatangan ajakan nelepon ti pamaké lianna.

Waktu panelepon neken tombol-tombol nomer, hal ieu ngabalukarkeun panghasil (generator) nada dina jero papan nomer ngahasilekun nada DTMF anu ngalambangkeun alamat pamaké telepon lianna. Séntral nyambungkeun sapasang kawat milik panelepon kana sapasang kawat milik pamaké telepon anu dituju sarta méré béja pamaké kasebut ku cara ngirimkeun sinyal nada kirining (dering) anu ngakibatkeun bél dina terminal tujuan disada.

Mangsa telepon henteu aktif (on hook), bel, panghasil sora, alat isarat panghasil sinar atawa alat isarat lianna, disambungkeun kana kawat ngaliwatan hiji kapasitor. Telepon anu henteu aktif henteu nyambungsingket kawat, antukna séntral telepon nyaho yén telepon kasebut dina kaayaan on hook; ngan bél anu disambungkeun sacara listrik. Mangsa urang nelepon hiji nomer, séntral telepon ngabangkitkeun sinyal pulsa tegangan tinggi, anu ngabalukarkeun alat isarat disada atawa méré nyaho pihak anu ditelepon. Mangsa pihak anu ditelepon ngangkat gagang telepon, switchhook megantkeun sambungan kana alat isarat, terus nyambung kana alat pangirim / panarima sora, sarta hiji résistor ngahubungsinket kawat, negeskeun yén telepon geus dijawab jeung dina kaayaan aktif. Lamun kadua pasang kawat off hook, pangiriman jeung panarimaan isarat eureun. Kadua beulah pihak nyambung sarta bisa ngobrol ngagunakeun alat pangirim / panarima sora anu aya dina telepon.

Alat pangirim / panarima sora telepon ayana dina gagang telepon nu aya dina terminal, sarta ngandung hiji transmitter (anu mindeng disebut mikropon) jeung hiji panarima atawa receiver. Transmitter, anu dibéré énergi tina kawat, ngahasilkeun arus listrik anu robah-robah gumantung gelombang tekenan akustik anu dihasilkeun ku sora. Parobahan arus listrik anu dihasilkeun dirambatkeun sapanjang kawat telepon ka terminal tujuan, di mana arus listrik dimaksud dieupankeun kana gulungan kawat dina receiver, anu mangrupa loudspeaker miniatur. Arus listrik anu robah-robah dina gulungan kawat ngabalukarkeun inyana maju-mundur, ngahasilkeun gelombang tekenan akustik tina transmitter.

When a party "hangs up" (puts the handset on the cradle), DC current céases to flow in that line, thus signaling to the exchange switch to disconnect the telephone call.

History

Credit for inventing the electric telephone remains in dispute. Antonio Meucci, Johann Philipp Reis, Alexander Graham Bell, and Elisha Gray, among others, have all been credited with the invention.

The éarly history of the telephone is a confusing morass of claim and counterclaim, which was not clarified by the huge mass of lawsuits which hoped to resolve the patent claims of individuals. The Bell and Edison patents, however, were forensically victorious and commercially decisive.

Early development
The following is a brief summary of the development of the telephone:

 28 December 1871—Antonio Meucci files a patent caveat (n.3335) in the U.S. Patent Office titled "Sound Telegraph", describing communication of voice between two péople by wire.
 1874—Meucci, after having renewed the cavéat for two yéars, fails to find the money to renew it. The cavéat lapses.
 6 April 1875—Bell's U.S. Patent 161,739 "Transmitters and Receivers for Electric Telegraphs" is granted. This uses multiple vibrating steel reeds in make-bréak circuits.
 11 February 1876—Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone but does not build one.
 14 February 1876—Elisha Gray files a patent caveat for transmitting the human voice through a telegraphic circuit.
 14 February 1876—Alexander Bell applies for the patent "Improvements in Telegraphy", for electromagnetic telephones using undulating currents.
 19 February 1876—Gray is notified by the U.S. Patent Office of an interference between his cavéat and Bell's patent application. Gray decides to abandon his cavéat.
 7 March 1876—Bell's U.S. patent 174,465 "Improvement in Telegraphy" is granted, covering "the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically … by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound."
 10 March 1876—The first successful telephone transmission of cléar speech when Bell spoke into his device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you." and Watson héard éach word distinctly.
 30 January 1877—Bell's U.S. patent 186,787 is granted for an electromagnetic telephone using permanent magnets, iron diaphragms, and a call bell.
 27 April 1877—Edison files for a patent on a carbon (graphite) transmitter. The patent 474,230 was granted 3 May 1892, after a 15 yéar delay because of litigation. Edison was granted patent 222,390 for a carbon granules transmitter in 1879.

Early commercial instruments
éarly telephones were technically diverse. Some used a liquid transmitter, some had a metal diaphragm that induced current in an electromagnet wound around a permanent magnet, and some were "dynamic" - their diaphragm vibrated a coil of wire in the field of a permanent magnet or the coil vibrated the diaphragm. This dynamic kind survived in small numbers through the 20th century in military and maritime applications where its ability to créate its own electrical power was crucial. Most, however, used the Edison/Berliner carbon transmitter, which was much louder than the other kinds, even though it required an induction coil, actually acting as an impedance matching transformer to maké it compatible to the impedance of the line. The Edison patents kept the Bell monopoly viable into the 20th century, by which time the network was more important than the instrument.

éarly telephones were locally powered, using a dynamic transmitter or else powering the transmitter with a local battery. One of the jobs of outside plant personnel was to visit éach telephone periodically to inspect the battery. During the 20th century, "common battery" operation came to dominate, powered by "talk battery" from the telephone exchange over the same wires that carried the voice signals. Late in the century, wireless handsets brought a revival of local battery power.

éarly telephones had one wire for both transmitting and receiving of audio, with ground return as used in telegraphs. The éarliest dynamic telephones also had only one opening for sound, and the user alternately listened and spoke (rather, shouted) into the same hole. Sometimes the instruments were operated in pairs at éach end, making conversation more convenient but were more expensive.

At first, the benefits of an exchange were not exploited. Telephones instéad were léased in pairs to the subscriber, who had to arrange telegraph contractors to construct a line between them, for example between his home and his shop. Users who wanted the ability to spéak to several different locations would need to obtain and set up three or four pairs of telephones. Western Union, alréady using telegraph exchanges, quickly extended the principle to its telephones in New York City and San Francisco, and Bell was not slow in appreciating the potential.

Signalling began in an appropriately primitive manner. The user alerted the other end, or the exchange operator, by whistling into the transmitter. Exchange operation soon resulted in telephones being equipped with a bell, first operated over a second wire and later with the same wire using a condenser. Telephones connected to the éarliest Strowger automatic exchanges had seven wires, one for the knife switch, one for éach telegraph key, one for the bell, one for the push button and two for spéaking.

Rural and other telephones that were not on a common battery exchange had a "magneto" or hand cranked generator to produce a high voltage alternating signal to ring the bells of other telephones on the line and to alert the operator.

In the 1890s a new smaller style of telephone was introduced, packaged in three parts. The transmitter stood on a stand, known as a "candlestick" for its shape. When not in use, the receiver hung on a hook with a switch in it, known as a "switchhook." Previous telephones required the user to operate a separate switch to connect either the voice or the bell. With the new kind, the user was less likely to léave the phone "off the hook". In phones connected to magneto exchanges, the bell, induction coil, battery and magneto were in a separate "bell box." In phones connected to common battery exchanges, the bell box was installed under a desk, or other out of the way place, since it did not need a battery or magneto.

Cradle designs were also used at this time, having a handle with the receiver and transmitter attached, separate from the cradle base that housed the magneto crank and other parts. They were larger than the "candlestick" and more popular.

Disadvantages of single wire operation such as crosstalk and hum from néarby AC power wires had alréady led to the use of twisted pairs and, for long distance telephones, four-wire circuits. Users at the beginning of the 20th century did not place long distance calls from their own telephones but made an appointment to use a special sound proofed long distance telephone booth furnished with the latest technology.

What turned out to be the most popular and longest lasting physical style of telephone was introduced in the éarly 20th century, including Bell's Model 102. A carbon granule transmitter and electromagnetic receiver were united in a single molded plastic handle, which when not in use sat in a cradle in the base unit. The circuit diagram  of the modél 102 shows the direct connection of the receiver to the line, while the transmitter was induction coupled, with energy supplied by a local battery. The coupling transformer, battery, and ringer were in a separate enclosure. The dial switch in the base interrupted the line current by repéatedly but very briefly disconnecting the line 1-10 times for éach digit, and the hook switch (in the center of the circuit diagram) permanently disconnected the line and the transmitter battery while the handset was on the cradle.

After the 1930s, the base also enclosed the bell and induction coil, obviating the old separate bell box. Power was supplied to éach subscriber line by central office batteries instéad of a local battery, which required periodic service. For the next half century, the network behind the telephone became progressively larger and much more efficient, but after the dial was added the instrument itself changed little until touch tone replaced the dial in the 1960s.

Digital telephony

The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) has gradually evolved towards digital telephony which has improved the capacity and quality of the network. End-to-end analog telephone networks were first modified in the éarly 1960s by upgrading transmission networks with T1 carrier systems. Later technologies such as SONET and fiber optic transmission methods further advanced digital transmission. Although analog carrier systems existed, digital transmission made it possible to significantly incréase the number of channels multiplexed on a single transmission medium. While today the end instrument remains analog, the analog signals réaching the aggregation point (Serving Area Interface (SAI) or the central office (CO) ) are typically converted to digital signals. Digital loop carriers (DLC) are often used, placing the digital network ever closer to the customer premises, relegating the analog local loop to legacy status.

IP telephony

Internet Protocol (IP) telephony (also known as Internet telephony) is a service based on Voice over IP (VoIP), a disruptive technology that is rapidly gaining ground against traditional telephone network technologies. In Japan and South Korea up to 10% of subscribers, as of January 2005, have switched to this digital telephone service. A January 2005 Newsweek article suggested that Internet telephony may be "the next big thing."

As of 2006 many VoIP companies offer service to consumers and businesses.

IP telephony uses a broadband Internet connection to transmit conversations as data packets. In addition to replacing POTS(plain old telephone service), IP telephony is also competing with mobile phone networks by offering free or lower cost connections via WiFi hotspots. VoIP is also used on private wireless networks which may or may not have a connection to the outside telephone network.

Usage
By the end of 2006, there were a total of néarly 4 billion mobile and fixed line subscribers and over 1 billion Internet users worldwide. This included 1.27 billion fixed line subscribers and 2.68 billion mobile subscribers.

Telephone operating companies
Kontol Gede Dasar Tholol Anjing Bangsat Stupid PBB Idiot Donald Trumpangan

Patents
 US 174,465  -- Telegraphy (Bell's first telephone patent) -- Alexander Graham Bell
 US 186,787  -- Electric Telegraphy (permanent magnet receiver) -- Alexander Graham Bell
 US 474,230  -- Speaking Telegraph (graphite transmitter) -- Thomas Edison
 US 203,016  -- Speaking Telephone (carbon button transmitter) -- Thomas Edison
 US 222,390  -- Carbon Telephone (carbon granules transmitter) -- Thomas Edison

 US 485,311 -- Telephone (solid back carbon transmitter) -- Anthony C. White (Bell engineer) This design was used until 1925 and installed phones were used until the 1940s.
 US 3,449,750  -- Duplex Radio Communication and Signalling Appartus—G. H. Sweigert
 US 3,663,762  -- Cellular Mobile Communication System—Amos Edward Joel (Bell Labs)
 US 3,906,166  -- Radio Telephone System (DynaTAC cell phone) -- Martin Cooper et al. (Motorola)

Nyertakeun telepon
Telepon sélulér dina waktos éta henteu bénten sabab kasabaran ageung. Hiji ragrag gagal dina aspal, beton, atanapi ubin cukup pikeun ngaruksak awak paranti anu mahal. Aya kabutuhan sababaraha asesoris pikeun asup ka pasar, anu ngamungkinkeun pikeun ngajagaan alatna nalika dianggo sapopoé.

See also

 Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell telephone controversy
 Answering machine
 Bell labs
 Bell System
 Carterfone
 Dial tone
 Emergency phone
 Telephone newspaper
 Area code
 Telecommunications
 Telephone switchboard
 Telephony
 Fax
 Mobile phone
 History of mobile phones
 Federal telephone excise tax

References

 Coe, Lewis (1995), The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History, McFarland, North Carolina, 1995. ISBN 0-7864-0138-9
 Evenson, A. Edward (2000), The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray - Alexander Bell Controversy, McFarland, North Carolina, 2000. ISBN 0-7864-0883-9
 Baker, Burton H. (2000), The Gray Matter: The Forgotten Story of the Telephone, Telepress, St. Joseph, MI, 2000. ISBN 0-615-11329-X
 Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003), The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, IEEE Press and J. Wiley & Sons, 2003. ISBN 0-471-20505-2
 Josephson, Matthew (1992), Edison: A Biography, Wiley, 1992. ISBN 0-471-54806-5
 Bruce, Robert V. (1990), Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1990.

Further reading
 Robert Sobel, The Entrepreneurs: Explorations Within the American Business Tradition (Weybright & Talley 1974), ISBN 0-679-40064-8.
 Kenneth P. Todd, A Capsule History of the Bell System

Tumbu luar

 1911 Britannica "Telephone" article

 Vintage Telephones
 Mobile Phones - Specifications in a number of languages

Telepon
Alat kantor
Alat telekomunikasi
Timuan urang Skotlandia
Telekomunikasi

Telepon


A dam is a large wall or barrier that blocks or stops the flow of water, forming a reservoir or a lake. Most dams have a section called a spillway or weir over which, or through which, water flows, either sometimes or always.
Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water. The tallest dam in the world is the 300 meter high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

History
Some of the first dams were built in Mesopotamia up to 7,000 years ago. Modern dams are built with arched walls of steel rod-reinforced concrete. The arched wall is a very strong shape which helps the wall to withstand the huge weight of the water.

Reasons for building dams
There are a number of reasons that people build dams. Some countries build dams to control the flow of water in the downstream river systems, and prevent flooding. Other countries build dams to generate electricity using hydroelectric turbine generators. Other countries use dams to store water for use in irrigation (for farming) or drinking by people.

Notes

Civil engineering

Flood control

Dam


The Irish Republican Army or IRA originated from the Irish Republican Brotherhood, and fought against the British Army to get freedom for Ireland in the Irish War of Independence.  After some time when the IRA had fought the island of Ireland was split up and the Republic of Ireland became independent, the IRA split up and some parts of it were involved in the fighting in Northern Ireland called "The Troubles". The original IRA are now named as ná Óglaigh na hÉireann. While the other IRA have used guerilla tacticts to achieve a united Ireland free from British rule.

The original IRA
The Irish Republican Army (Irish: Óglaigh na hÉireann) was formed from the joining of a part of the Irish Brotherhood with the union's Irish Citizens Army militia after the Easter Rising of 1916.

After the unilateral declaration of independence by the Irish Parliament in 1919, the IRA continued the war against British occupation in what was called the Irish War of Independence. This ended in 1921 with the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which divided the island into the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The signing of the treaty led to a split in the IRA between those who were against the treaty and those who were for it. This led to a very bitter civil war, which saw former friends and even family members on different sides. The IRA lost the civil war but the group did not go away and they continued to fight Great Britain.

The Troubles
In the 1930s, the leftist group achieved some success in overcoming the division between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland . The refusal of IRA-Leadership, to cooperate with this course, led to a further division. Frank Ryan led a part of the Congress-group after Spain, where they are in the Spanish Civil War against General Francisco Franco.

The brutal police action against the Northern Ireland civil rights movement and the raids by loyalist paramilitaries in 1967 brought the IRA back on the map. At that time and until the end of the 80s were Northern Irish Catholics were in a legal vacuum, and were de facto vulnerable to the whims of the official from Britain supported nordir-Protestant police forces and paramilitary groups. Open violence to murders, torture, open prosecution, defamation and exclusion of qualified training and public offices were years of normalcy for the Northern Irish Catholics. The IRA obtained the support of large parts of the Catholic population, and almost had the status of a "protecting power". Some Irish-Americans also supported the violence.

In the 60s, there were differences between the military and the Provisionals oriented rather Marxist-theory oriented Officials. This resulted 1969 to re-divide into Provisional Irish Republican Army PIRA and the "official" group OIRA, which is strong in the civil rights movement-oriented. The "official" wing of the IRA never formally dissolved, but is de facto since about 1980 is no longer relevant.
In the 80 years changed the leadership of the Provisional IRA, instead of the veterans from the south over younger activists from Northern Ireland to key positions. At the top of the Sinn Féin joined Gerry Adams, the party clearly to the left. In 1993 he initiated jointly with the Social Democrats John Hume to the peace process, in August 1994, the IRA a unilateral ceasefire, a prerequisite for the Good Friday Agreement created. Despite the ceasefire, the IRA remained active even though not fighting.

Only two small splinter groups held up at the last state of war: The Real IRA and the Continuity IRA. When a car bomb attack the splinter group, which is called "Real IRA", in August 1998, in Northern Ireland Omagh were a total of 29 people killed.
On 28 In July 2005, the end of the IRA's armed warfare. "All IRA-Soldiers have been instructed to lay down their arms," reads a statement from the IRA days, and continued: "We believe that there is now an alternative way, (…) the British rule in our country to an end."On 26 September 2005, the complete disarmament of the IRA by the head of thedisarmament commission, Canadian General John de Chastelain, announced. Two pastors, one Catholic, one Protestant were present at the destruction of weapons, no photographs or video was allowed to be taken as proof.
On 29 In October 2005 Gerry Adams said that the IRA campaign had "clearly come to an end".

References

Irish War of Independence

Rebel militia groups

Irish Republican Army


Pieter Cramer (21 May 1721 (baptized) – 28 September 1776) was a wealthy Dutch merchant in linen and Spanish wool, remembered as an entomologist. Cramer was the director of the Zealand Society, a scientific society located in Flushing, and a member of Concordia et Libertate, based in Amsterdam. This literary and patriotic society, where Cramer gave lectures on minerals, commissioned and/or financed the publishing of his book De uitlandsche Kapellen, on foreign (exotic) butterflies, occurring in three parts of the world Asia, Africa and America.

Cramer assembled an extensive natural history collection that included seashells, petrifications, fossils and insects of all orders. Many were colourful butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), collected in countries where the Dutch had colonial or trading links, such as Surinam, Ceylon, Sierra Leone and the Dutch East Indies.

Cramer decided to get a permanent record of his collection and so engaged the painter Gerrit Wartenaar to draw his specimens. He also arranged for Wartenaar to draw butterflies and moths belonging to other keen Lepidoptera collectors in the Netherlands. One of them was stadtholder-prince William V of Orange. Hans Willem Baron Rengers and Joan Raye, the son of the former governor in Surinam, were among the others.  Such was the quality of the illustrations that Caspar Stoll encouraged him to publish the set of drawings.

Cramer, a bachelor, was born in Amsterdam, and lived on Oudezijds Voorburgwal at no. 131, close to the Oude Kerk. In 1760 he had bought the house, then known as "the Three Kings". On 5 September 1774 he made his will with a stipulation that the drawings should be available to the publisher.  So all the drawings went to his nephew Anthony van Rensselaer, under the condition that these drawings be printed by the bookseller Johannes Baalde.  As a result, De Uitlandsche Kapellen was published 1775–1782. It consisted of 33 parts, each one issued at intervals of three months to the subscribers, in four volumes. All of the drawings were accompanied by descriptions of the insects.

Cramer died "of high fevers" in 1776 after eight issues (Vol. I) had been published, leaving responsibility for finishing the project to Van Rensselaar and Stoll. Stoll is supposed to be the author of the text from page 29 of the fourth volume onwards.

De Uitlandsche Kapellen is a key work in the history of entomology. Beautifully illustrated with fine life-size  hand-coloured engravings of Lepidoptera from Asia, Africa and America, it was the first book on exotic Lepidoptera to use the then new system developed by Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) for naming and classifying animals. Over 1658 butterfly species were described and illustrated on 396 (or 400) plates, Cramer and Stoll naming and illustrating many new species for the first time.

Cramer's collections were broken up after his death and sold, auctioned and donated to institutions and individuals. The Dutch Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum came to own a substantial number of his specimens and bought part of Cramer's collection from Joan Raye, heer van Breukelerwaert.

Works
De uitlandsche Kapellen voorkomende in de drie Waereld-Deelen Asia, Africa en America – Papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde l'Asie, l'Afrique et l'Amerique (1775–1782).

References

External links

NHM
EOL Encyclopedia of Life Taxa described by Cramer.Images.Type Cramer into the search box
 Digital version of De uitlandische kapellen

1721 births
1776 deaths
Scientists from Amsterdam
Dutch lepidopterists

Pieter Cramer


A polymer is a molecule, made from joining many small molecules called monomers. The word "polymer" can be broken down into "poly" (meaning "many" in Greek) and "mer" (meaning "unit"). This shows how the chemical composition of a polymer consists of many smaller units (monomers) bonded together into a larger molecule. A chemical reaction bonding monomers together to make a polymer is called polymerization.

Some polymers are natural and made by organisms. Proteins have polypeptide molecules, which are natural polymers made from various amino acid monomer units. Nucleic acids are huge natural polymers made up of millions of nucleotide units. Cellulose and starch (two types of carbohydrate) are also natural polymers made up of glucopyranose monomer bonded together in different ways. Rubber is a mixture of polymers. Plastics are man-made polymers. Many fibers are made of polymers.

If the "units" called monomers in a polymer are all the same, then the polymer is called a "homopolymer". Homopolymers are named by adding the prefix poly- before the monomer name from which the polymer is made. For example, a polymer made by bonding styrene monomer molecules together is called polystyrene.

If the monomers are not all the same, the polymer is called a "copolymer" or a "heteropolymer".

Many polymer molecules are like chains where the monomer units are the links. Polymer molecules can be straight-chain, have branching from the main chain, or cross-linking between chains. As an example of cross-linking, sulfhydryl (-S-H) groups in two cysteine amino acid units in polypeptide chains can bond together to make a disulfide bridge (-S-S-) joining the chains together.

In the same way how large hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil can be broken down in smaller molecules e.g. ethylene by applying heat (a process called cracking), the monomer ethylene can then be turned into the polymer polyethylene by applying pressure and adding catalysts. Polyethelene is the basis of many plastic objects.

Related pages
 Macromolecule
 Synthetic fabric

Polymer chemistry

Polymer


Schooling and shoaling is a kind of collective animal behaviour by fish.

Any group of fish that stays together for social reasons is said to be shoaling, and if the shoal is swimming in the same direction together, it is schooling.p365 About one quarter of fish shoal all their lives, and about one half of fish shoal for part of their lives.

Fish get many benefits from shoaling. These include defence against predators: if fish swim in schools, it is less likely any one of them will be eaten. Also, it may help a fish find food, and a mate. The school may even swim faster than a lone fish. Fish generally prefer larger shoals, shoalmates of their own species, shoalmates similar in size and appearance to themselves, healthy fish, and kin (when recognized).

Any shoal member which stands out in appearance may be targeted by predators. This is called the oddity effect. This may explain why fish prefer to shoal with individuals which look like themselves.

Schooling

Some fish spend most of their time schooling. Tuna, herring and anchovy, spend all of their time shoaling or schooling, and become agitated if separated from the group. Others, such as Atlantic cod, school only some of the time. Cod and tuna are, in nature, large fish which can look after themselves. Still, they do shoal.

Shoaling fish can shift into a disciplined and coordinated school, then shift back to an amorphous shoal within seconds. Such shifts are triggered by changes of activity from feeding, resting, travelling or avoiding predators.

When schooling fish stop to feed, they break ranks and become shoals. Shoals are more vulnerable to predator attack. The shape a shoal or school takes depends on the type of fish and what the fish are doing. Schools that are travelling can form long thin lines, or squares or ovals or amoeboid shapes. Fast moving schools usually form a wedge shape, while shoals that are feeding tend to become circular.

Small fish are preyed on by larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals (Cetacea). Small fish form schools, and may swim with their mouths open to filter feed on plankton. These schools can become huge, moving along coastlines and migrating across open oceans. The shoals are concentrated fuel resources for the great marine predators.

These immense gatherings fuel the ocean food web. Most forage fish are pelagic fish, which means they form their schools in open water, and not on or near the bottom (demersal fish). The predators are keenly focused on the shoals, acutely aware of their numbers and whereabouts, and make migrations themselves, often in schools of their own, that can span thousands of miles to connect with, or stay connected with them.

Herring are among the more spectacular schooling fish. They aggregate together in huge numbers. The largest schools are often formed during migrations by merging with smaller schools. "Chains" of mullet schools one hundred kilometres long have been seen migrating in the Caspian Sea. Radakov estimated herring schools in the North Atlantic can occupy up to 4.8 cubic kilometres with fish densities between 0.5 and 1.0 fish/cubic metre. That is about three billion fish in one school. These schools move along coastlines and cross the open oceans. Herring schools have very precise arrangements which allow the school to maintain relatively constant cruising speeds. Herrings have excellent hearing, and their schools react very fast to a predator. The herrings keep a certain distance from a moving scuba diver or cruising predator like a killer whale, forming a space which looks like a doughnut from a spotter plane.

Many species of large predatory fish also school, including many highly migratory fish, such as tuna and some ocean going sharks. Cetaceans such as dolphins, porpoises and whales, operate in organised social groups called pods.

Schooling behaviour is generally described as a trade-off between the anti-predator benefits and the costs of increased competition for food.

Schooling is a classic example of 'emergence', where there are properties that are possessed by the school but not by the individual fish. Emergent properties give an evolutionary advantage to members of the school which non-members do not receive.

Predator avoidance

Fish are in danger of being eaten if they are separated from the school. Several anti-predator functions of fish schools have been proposed.
 Confusion effect – One potential method by which fish schools may thwart predators is the 'predator confusion effect' proposed and demonstrated by Milinksi and Heller (1978). It becomes difficult for predators to pick out individual prey from groups: the moving targets create an overload of the predator's brain. "Shoaling fish are the same size and silvery, so it is difficult for a visually oriented predator to pick an individual out of a mass of twisting, flashing fish and then have enough time to grab its prey before it disappears into the shoal".
 Many eyes effect – A second potential anti-predator effect of animal aggregations is the 'many eyes' hypothesis. This theory states that as the size of the group increases, the task of scanning the environment for predators can be spread out over many individuals. Not only does this effect provide the group with good warning, it may allow more time for individual feeding.
 Dilution effect – A third hypothesis for an anti-predatory effect of fish schools is the 'encounter dilution' effect. The dilution effect is an elaboration of safety in numbers, and interacts with the confusion effect. A given predator attack will eat a smaller proportion of a large shoal than a small shoal. Hamilton proposed that animals aggregate because of a "selfish" avoidance of a predator and was thus a form of cover-seeking. Another formulation of the theory was given by Turner and Pitcher and was viewed as a combination of detection and attack probabilities.

Schooling forage fish are subject to constant attacks by predators. An example is the attacks that take place during the African sardine run. The African sardine run is a spectacular migration by millions of silvery sardines along the southern coastline of Africa. In terms of biomass, the sardine run could rival East Africa's great wildebeest migration.

Sardines have a short life-cycle, living only two or three years. Adult sardines, about two years old, mass on the Agulhas Bank where they spawn during spring and summer, releasing tens of thousands of eggs into the water. The adult sardines then make their way in hundreds of shoals towards the sub-tropical waters of the Indian Ocean. A larger shoal might be 7 kilometres (4 mi) long, 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) wide and 30 meters (100 ft) deep. Huge numbers of sharks, dolphins, tuna, sailfish, Cape fur seals and even killer whales congregate and follow the shoals, creating a feeding frenzy along the coastline.

When threatened, sardines instinctively group together and create massive bait balls. Bait balls can be up to 20 meters (70 ft) in diameter. They are short lived, seldom lasting longer than 20 minutes.

The fish eggs, left behind at the Agulhas Banks, drift north west with the current into waters off the west coast, where the larvae develop into juvenile fish. When they are old enough, they aggregate into dense shoals and migrate southwards, returning to the Agulhas banks in order to restart the cycle.

References

Fish
Ethology

Shoaling and schooling


Tuff (from Italian tufo) is a type of rock produced by the eruption of volcanoes.

It consists of consolidated  volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption. Rock with more than 50% tuff is called tuffaceous. The chemical and mineral composition of tuff varies according to what was in the molten magma.

Volcanic ash
In a volcanic eruption, Magma is blown apart by volcanic gases and steam.  The products are volcanic gases, lava, steam, and tephra (fragments).  The solid material produced and thrown into the air is called tephra, regardless of composition or fragment size.  If the pieces of ejecta are small, the material is called volcanic ash, defined as such particles less than 2 mm in diameter, sand-sized or smaller.  These particles are small, slaggy pieces of magma and rock that have been tossed into the air by outbursts of steam and other gases.

Structure

Breccias

Among the loose beds of ash that cover the slopes of many volcanoes, three classes of materials are represented.
 True ashes of the kind described above.
 Lumps of the old lavas and tuffs forming the walls of the crater, which have been torn away by the violent outbursts of steam.
 Pieces of sedimentary rocks from the deeper parts of the volcano that were dislodged by the rising lava and are often baked and recrystallized by the heat.

In some great volcanic explosions nothing but materials of the second kind were emitted, as at Mount Bandai in Japan in 1888. There have also been many eruptions in which the quantity of broken sedimentary rocks that mingled with the ash is very great.

These materials, in contrast to true ashes, tend to occur in angular fragments. When they form a large part of the mass the rock is more properly a 'volcanic breccia' than a tuff. A breccia is a rock with sharp-edged fragments in it.

Agglomerate
The ashes vary in size from large blocks twenty feet or more in diameter to the minutest impalpable dust. The large masses are called 'volcanic bombs'; they have mostly a rounded, elliptical or pear-shaped form owing to rotation in the air before they solidified. Many of them have ribbed or nodular surfaces, and sometimes they have a crust intersected by many cracks like the surface of a loaf of bread. Any ash in which they are very abundant is called an agglomerate.

Consolidation
A tuff of recent origin is generally loose, but the older tuffs have usually been cemented together by pressure and the action of infiltrating water. This makes rocks which, while not very hard, are strong enough to be used for building purposes (e.g. in the neighborhood of Rome).

Under water
Many volcanoes stand near the sea, and the ashes cast out by them are mingled with the sediments that are gathering at the bottom of the waters. In this way ashy muds or sands or even in some cases ashy limestones are formed. As a matter of fact most of the tuffs found in the older rock formations contain mixtures of clay, sand, and sometimes fossil shells, which prove that they were beds spread out under water.

Repeated eruptions
During some volcanic eruptions a layer of ashes several feet in thickness is deposited over a considerable district, but such beds thin out rapidly as the distance from the crater increases, and ash deposits covering many square miles are usually very thin.

The showers of ashes often follow one another after longer or shorter intervals, and hence thick masses of tuff, whether of subaerial or of marine origin, have mostly a stratified character. In the fine beds it is often developed in great perfection.

Welded tuff

Welded tuff is a pyroclastic flow of lava which was hot enough to weld together. During welding, the glass shards and pumice fragments adhere together (necking at point contacts), deform, and compact together.

A hot lava flow welded by heat can be highly voluminous, such as the Lava Creek Tuff erupted from Yellowstone Caldera in Wyoming 640,000 years ago. Lava Creek Tuff was at least 1000 times as large as the deposits of the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. It had a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 8—greater than any eruption known in the last 10,000 years.

Basaltic tuffs

Basaltic tuffs are occur widely. They are found in Skye, Mull, Antrim and other places, where there are tertiary volcanic rocks; in Scotland, Derbyshire and Ireland among the carboniferous strata; and among the still older rocks of the Lake District, southern uplands of Scotland and Wales.

Basaltic tuffs are black, dark green or red in colour. They vary greatly in coarseness. Often submarine, they may contain shale, sandstone, grit and other sedimentary material, and are occasionally fossiliferous. Recent basaltic tuffs are found in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Jan Mayen, Sicily, Sandwich Islands, Samoa, etc.

Notes

Igneous rocks

Tuff


Ancient history is all the events we know about between the invention of writing and the start of the Middle Ages.

Writing is one of the greatest inventions of the human species. It was invented after the Neolithic revolution in which people settled in small towns and started agriculture. Writing dates from about 3,300 BC, which is over 5000 years ago, in the Middle East. The first people to use writing were the Sumerians and the Ancient Egyptians.

Before writing, the only things we have are the tools and monuments made by earlier people. This is studied by archaeology rather than history. The period of ancient history ends with the early Middle Ages.

Study of ancient history
Finding facts about ancient history is difficult because people wrote less in those times: only scribes could write. Most of what they did write has been lost. There were very few copies made because there was no printing. What people wrote they wrote by hand. More people could read and write in Ancient Rome than in other places but much of what they wrote is now lost.

Archaeology
Archaeology is looking at things that were made or used in the past to learn about that time. Things like clay pots, solid tools, and metal weapons often exist at the same time. Things like paper, wood, and cloth can be easily broken, burnt or damaged.

Some ancient things found using archaeology are:
 The Egyptian pyramids - Big tombs made by the Ancient Egyptians for their king and queens.
 The city of Pompeii - A city from Ancient Rome. When a volcano (a mountain that makes fire and hot rocks) killed the people living there, the city was buried and the things inside it were covered with rock and ash. This meant that they did not change for a long time.
 The Terracotta Army - the tomb of the First Qin Emperor in Ancient China.

Primary sources
Primary sources are written by people who lived in ancient times. They tell us most of what we know about ancient history. But people in ancient history may have believed different things from each other. They may also be wrong.

Some famous people who wrote ancient history are:
Herodotus, Josephus, Livy, Polybius, Suetonius, Tacitus, Thucydides and Sima Qian.

Chronology

Prehistory
 The human race evolved in Africa. Our species, Homo sapiens evolved about 200 to 250,000 years ago.
 ~90,000 years ago – people go to the Middle East.
 ~60,000 years ago – people from Africa go to Asia.
 ~40,000 years ago – people go to Australia.
 ~40,000 years ago – people go to Europe.
 ~14th to 10th millennium BC – people go to America.
 ~10th millennium BC – people start farming.
 4th millennium BC – cuneiform writing in the cities of Uruk and Susa; and hieroglyphs (picture writing) in Egypt.
 1000 years BC – earliest writing about history.
 450 BC - Herodotus writes what may be the first book based on non-fictional events. It is still available today.

Older Ancient history
 c. 3300 BC – Bronze Age start in the Near East and South Asia Bronze Age goes to the rest of Europe and The Middle East
 c. 3100 BC – Sagol Kangjei, the proto-polo was invented in Ancient Manipur (Antique Kangleipak).
 c. 3000 BC – Egyptians make papyrus (paper made of Reeds)
 c. 2800 BC – Kot Diji time of the Indus Valley Civilization starts
 c. 2700 BC – Elam grows.
 2580 BC – Egyptians make the Great Pyramid of Giza
 2000 BC – People use horses
 1700 BC – Indus Valley Civilization ends but the Cemetery H culture keeps going; The start of Poverty Point Civilization in North America
 1600 BC – The start of Shang Dynasty in China, Chinese make writing.
 1600 BC – Hittite people start ruling The Middle East.
 1500 BC – People make the Rigveda.
 1445 BC – Monarchy started in Ancient Manipur (Antique Kangleipak).
 1398 BC – The Wakoklon was written down.
 1200 BC - The Bronze Age collapse.
 1200 BC – The Hebrews come to Israel and start living there.
 c. 1200 BC – The Trojan War
 c. 1100 BC – King Saul makes the 12 tribes of Israel into Israel
 c. 1180 BC – End of the Hittite Empire
 1122 BC – The Zhou people stop the last king of Shang Dynasty from being king; Zhou Dynasty starts in China
 1004 BC – King David captures Jebus.  He calls it Jerusalem and makes it the capital of Israel.

1000 BC to 100 BC
 928 BC - Israel breaks and becomes The Kingdom of Judah and the Kingdom of Israel
 800 BC - City states in Ancient Greece
 776 BC - People write about the Olympic Games. They were started before this time but people did not write about them.
 c. 753 BC - Rome starts
 751 BC - LeChe grows
 745 BC - Tiglath-Pileser III becomes the new king of Assyria. He will become powerful and make Assyria into an empire
 728 BC - the Median Empire grows
 722 BC - Zhou Dynasty becomes weaker; the time of the Hundred Schools of Thought begins.
 653 BC - The first Persian state grows.
 600 BC - Sixteen Maha Janapadas ("Great Realms" or "Great Kingdoms") start.
 c. 600 BC - Pandyan kingdom in South India
 c. 563 BC - Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), is born as a prince of the Shakya tribe. The Shakya tribe ruled parts of Magadha.
 549 BC - Mahavira is born
 546 BC - Cyrus the Great makes The Persian Empire.
 546 BC - Cyrus the Great defeats the Lydian kingdom
 544 BC - Bimbisara makes Magadha powerful.
 539 BC - the Babylonian Empire ends and Cyrus the Great frees the Jews.
 525 BC - Cambyses II of Persia takes Egypt
 c. 512 BC - Darius I (Darius the Great) of Persia takes Easter Thrace, Macedonia, and Libya. The Persian Empire is the most powerful.
 509 BC - The last King of Rome stops being king, The Roman Republic starts.
 500 BC - Pingala uses zero and binary numbers.
 490 BC - Greek city-states defeat the Persian attack at Battle of Marathon
 424 BC - Nanda dynasty becomes powerful.
 404 BC - End of Peloponnesian War.
 403 BC - Warring States Period starts in China.
 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela
 326 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Indian king Porus (Purushottama) in the Battle of the Hydaspes River.
 321 BC - Chandragupta Maurya defeats the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha
 323 BC - Alexander the Great dies.
 273 BC - Ashoka the Great becomes the emperor of the Mauryan Empire
 250 BC - Parthia (Ashkâniân) becomes powerful.
 232 BC - Emperor Ashoka the Great dies; the Mauryan Empire becomes weak.
 230 BC - Satavahanas are in South India
 221 BC - Qin Shi Huang is in China, end of Warring States Period; start of Emperors in China (this will end in 1912 AD)
 202 BC - Han Dynasty starts in China,Qin Shi Huang dies; the Silk Road is made
 202 BC - Scipio Africanus defeats Hannibal at Battle of Zama
 c. 200 BC - Chera dynasty in South India
 185 BC - Sunga Empire starts
 149 BC-146 BC - Third and last Punic War; Rome defeats Cathage.
 146 BC - Rome takes Greece.
 110 BC - First time the Chinese rule Vietnam: the Nanyue Kingdom.
 c 100 BC - Chola Dynasty grows.

100 BC to end of Roman Empire, 476 AD
 49 BC - Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great make the Roman Civil War
 44 BC - Marcus Brutus and others kill Julius Ceaser; The Roman Republic ends; The Roman Empire starts.
 6 BC - Jesus of Nazareth is born
 c. 1 BC - The Numit Kappa was written down.
 9 - Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.
 14 - Emperor Augustus (Octavian) dies, Tiberius becomes emperor.
 33 - Emperor Nongda Lairen Pakhangba of Ningthouja dynasty ascended the throne of the Kangla.
 117 - Trajan is The emperor of Rome. The Roman Empire is the most powerful.
 200s - The Hindu Srivijaya Empire starts in the Malay Archipelago.
 220 - The Han Dynasty ends in China.
 226 - the Parthian Empire ends and the Sassanian Empire becomes powerful
 238 - Shapur I of Persia defeats of Gordian III (238–244), Philip the Arab (244–249), and Valerian (253–260).
 285 - Emperor Diocletian breaks the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western Empires
 313 - Edict of Milan says that the Roman Empire would not make people worship a god.
 335 - Samudragupta becomes the emperor of the Gupta empire
 378 - Battle of Adrianople, the Germanic tribes defeat Roman army.
 395 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I makes people be Christian
 410 - Alaric defeats Rome. No one has deafeated Rome after 390 BC
 c. 455 - Skandagupta stops Indo-Hephthalite people attacking India.
 476 - Romulus Augustus deposed as emperor of Rome,

Some groups of people in ancient history

Europe
 Ancient Greece
 Ancient Rome
 Celts
 Etruscans
 Germanic tribes
 Illyrians
 Scythians

Middle East
 Ancient Persia
 Achaemenid Empire
 Parthian Empire
 Sassanid Empire
 Seleucid Empire
 Akkad
 Assyria
 Babylonia
 Elam
 Hebrews
 Hittites
 Kassites
 Medes
 Mitanni
 Palestine
 Phoenicians
 Sumer
 Urartu

Saharan and Sub-Saharan Africa
Ancient Egypt
 Kingdom of Aksum
 Carthage
 Kush

South and East Asia
 Ancient China
 Ancient India
 Ancient Japan
 Ancient Korea
 Ancient Manipur
 Ancient Moirang
 Huns
 Indus Valley civilization
 Khuman kingdom
 Mongols
 Ancient Turks
 Siam

America
 Adena culture
 Aztecs
 Inca
 Mayans
 Mississippian culture
 Native American
 Olmecs
 Poverty Point culture

References

Ancient history


Translation is the second part of protein biosynthesis (the making of proteins). It is part of the process of gene expression.

Before translation comes:
transcription, which produces a chain of introns and exons.
RNA splicing by spliceosomes which remove introns, and
formulation of the messenger RNA from exons.

In eukaryotes, translation happens on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm and in the endoplasmic reticulum. In bacteria, translation happens in the cell cytoplasm: they have no nucleus.

Ribosomes are made of a small part and a large part which surround the mRNA (messenger RNA). In translation, mRNA has the base sequence to make a specific polypeptide. This sequence is originally specified by the DNA, and copied by the mRNA. The polypeptide can be a whole protein. Or, it can be just a part, waiting to be combined with other polypeptides so it can make a whole protein. The polypeptide also has to be folded before it works as a protein.

Amino acids are carried by specific tRNAs with anticodons to connect with mRNA's matching codons. Each tRNA has its own anticodon and carries an amino acid. An anticodon is always together with the same amino acid.

When the tRNA matches with the mRNA, the amino acid that is connected to the tRNA is unconnected from the tRNA and gets connected to the amino acid brought by the previous tRNA.

So, a ribosome works a lot like a stock ticker and ticker tape. Many ribosomes, together with mRNA, will attach themselves to the outer membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Any proteins that those ribosomes make go into the inside of the endoplasmic reticulum, where it will probably go into a vesicle later. The vesicles will then bring the proteins to other organelles or even the outside of the cell.

Four stages

Translation happens in four stages: activation (make ready), initiation (start), elongation (make longer) and termination (stop). These terms describe the growth of the amino acid chain (polypeptide).
Amino acids are brought to ribosomes and assembled into proteins. In the activation stage, the correct amino acid is covalently bonded to the correct transfer RNA (tRNA). When the tRNA is connected to an amino acid, it is "charged".
Initiation is when the small part of the ribosome connects to 5' end of the mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF).
Elongation is when the amino acids brought by the "charged" tRNAs are connected to each other to form a polypeptide.

Some antibiotics work by keeping translation from happening. Prokaryotic ribosomes are different from eukaryotic ribosomes. So antibiotics can kill bacteria without hurting the eukaryotic host. For example, antibiotics taken by a human might kill the bacteria that is making the human sick but wouldn't hurt the human.

References
 Champe, Pamela C. Harvey, Richard A. and Ferrier, Denise R. 2005. Lippincott's illustrated reviews: Biochemistry 3rd ed, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. .
  Nelson, David L. Cox, Michael M. and Lehninger, Albert L. 2005. Lehninger principles of biochemistry 4th ed, Freeman. .

Molecular biology
Cell biology

Translation (genetics)


Shunryu Suzuki (鈴木 俊隆 Suzuki Shunryū, dharma name Shōgaku Shunryū 祥岳俊隆, often called Suzuki Roshi; May 18, 1904 – December 4, 1971) was a Sōtō Zen monk and teacher who helped popularize Zen Buddhism in the United States, and is renowned for founding the first Zen Buddhist monastery outside Asia (Tassajara Zen Mountain Center). Suzuki founded San Francisco Zen Center which, along with its affiliate temples, comprises one of the most influential Zen organizations in the United States. A book of his teachings, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind, is one of the most popular books on Zen and Buddhism in the West.

Biography

Childhood
Shunryu Suzuki was born May 18, 1904, in Kanagawa Prefecture southwest of Tokyo, Japan. His father, Butsumon Sogaku Suzuki, was the abbot of the village Soto Zen temple. His mother, Yone, was the daughter of a priest and had been divorced from her first husband for being too independent. Shunryu grew up with an older half-brother from his mother's first marriage and two younger sisters. As an adult he was about  tall.

His father's temple, Shōgan-ji, was located near Hiratsuka, a city on Sagami Bay about fifty miles southwest of Tokyo. The temple income was small and the family had to be very thrifty.

Suzuki became aware of his family's financial plight when he began school. Suzuki was kind and sensitive, but prone to quick outbursts of anger. He was ridiculed by the other boys because of his shaved head and because he was the son of a priest. He preferred to spend his time in the classroom rather than on the schoolyard and was always at the top of his class. The teacher told him he would become a great man if he left Kanagawa Prefecture and studied hard.

Apprenticeship

In 1916, 12-year-old Suzuki decided to train with a disciple of his father, Gyokujun So-on Suzuki. So-on was Sogaku's adopted son and abbot of Sogaku's former temple Zoun-in. His parents initially thought he was too young to live far from home but eventually allowed it.

Zoun-in is in a small village called Mori, Shizuoka in Japan. Suzuki arrived during a 100-day practice period at the temple and was the youngest student there. Zoun-in was a larger temple than Shōgan-ji.

At 4:00 each morning he arose for zazen. Next he would chant sutras and begin cleaning the temple with the others. They would work throughout the day and then, in the evenings, they all would resume zazen. Suzuki idolized his teacher, who was a strong disciplinarian. So-on often was rough on Suzuki but gave him some latitude for being so young.

When Suzuki turned 13, on May 18, 1917, So-on ordained him as a novice monk (unsui). He was given the Buddhist name Shogaku Shunryu, yet So-on nicknamed him Crooked Cucumber for his forgetful and unpredictable nature.

Shunryu began again attending upper-elementary school in Mori, but So-on did not supply proper clothes for him. He was the subject of ridicule. In spite of his misfortune he didn't complain. Instead he doubled his efforts back at the temple.

When Shunryu had first come to Zoun-in, eight other boys were studying there. By 1918, he was the only one who stayed. This made his life a bit tougher with So-on, who had more time to scrutinize him. During this period Suzuki wanted to leave Zoun-in but equally didn't want to give up.

In 1918 So-on was made head of a second temple, on the rim of Yaizu, called Rinso-in. Shunryu followed him there and helped whip the place back in order. Soon, families began sending their sons there and the temple began to come to life. Suzuki had failed an admissions test at the nearby school, so So-on began teaching the boys how to read and write Chinese.

So-on soon sent his students to train with a Rinzai master for a while. Here Shunryu studied a very different kind of Zen, one that promoted the attainment of satori through the concentration on koans through zazen. Suzuki had problems sitting with his koan. Meanwhile, all the other boys passed theirs, and he felt isolated. Just before the ceremony marking their departure Suzuki went to the Rinzai teacher and blurted out his answer. The master passed Suzuki; later Shunryu believed he had done it simply to be kind.

In 1919, at age 15, Suzuki was brought back home by his parents, who suspected mistreatment by So-on. Shunryu helped out with the temple while there and entered middle school. Yet, when summer vacation came, he was back at Rinso-in and Zoun-in with So-on to train and help out. He didn't want to stop training.

In school Suzuki took English and did quite well. A local doctor, Dr. Yoshikawa, hired him to tutor his two sons in English. Yoshikawa treated Suzuki well, giving him a wage and occasional advice.

Higher education

In 1924 Shunryu enrolled in a Soto preparatory school in Tokyo not far from Shogan-ji, where he lived on the school grounds in the dorm. From 1925 to 1926 Suzuki did Zen training with Dojun Kato in Shizuoka at Kenko-in. He continued his schooling during this period. Here Shunryu became head monk for a 100-day retreat, after which he was no longer merely considered a novice. He had completed his training as a head monk.

In 1925 Shunryu graduated from preparatory school and entered Komazawa University, the Soto Zen university in Tokyo. During this period he continued his connections with So-on in Zoun-in, going back and forth whenever possible.

Some of his teachers here were discussing how Soto Zen might reach a bigger audience with students and, while Shunryu couldn't comprehend how Western cultures could ever understand Zen, he was intrigued.

On August 26, 1926, So-on gave Dharma transmission to Suzuki. He was 22. Shunryu's father also retired as abbot at Shogan-ji this same year, and moved the family onto the grounds of Zoun-in where he served as inkyo (retired abbot).

Later that year Suzuki spent a short time in the hospital with tuberculosis, but soon recovered. In 1927 an important chapter in Suzuki's life was turned. He went to visit a teacher of English he had at Komazawa named Miss Nona Ransom, a woman who had taught English to such people as the last emperor of China, Pu-yi, and more so his wife, the last empress of China, Jigoro Kano (the Founder of Judo), the children of Chinese president Li Yuanhong, and some members of the Japanese royal family. She hired him that day to be a translator and to help with errands. Through this period he realized she was very ignorant of Japanese culture and the religion of Buddhism. She respected it very little and saw it as idol worship. But one day, when there were no chores to be done, the two had a conversation on Buddhism that changed her mind. She even let Suzuki teach her zazen meditation. This experience is significant in that Suzuki realized that Western ignorance of Buddhism could be transformed.

On January 22, 1929, So-on retired as abbot of Zoun-in and installed Shunryu as its 28th abbot. Sogaku would run the temple for Shunryu. In January 1930 a ten'e ceremony was held at Zoun-in for Shunryu. This ceremony acknowledged So-on's Dharma transmission to Shunryu, and served as a formal way for the Soto heads to grant Shunryu permission to teach as a priest. On April 10, 1930, at age 25, Suzuki graduated from Komazawa Daigakurin with a major in Zen and Buddhist philosophy, and a minor in English.

Suzuki mentioned to So-on during this period that he might be interested in going to America to teach Zen Buddhism. So-on was adamantly opposed to the idea. Suzuki realized that his teacher felt very close to him and that he would take such a departure as an insult. He did not mention it to him again.

Eihei-ji and Sōji-ji

Upon graduation from Komazawa, So-on wanted Shunryu to continue his training at the well known Soto Zen temple Eihei-ji in Fukui Prefecture. In September 1930 Suzuki entered the training temple and underwent the Zen initiation known as tangaryo. His mother and father stayed on at Zoun-in to care for his temple in his absence.

Eihei-ji is one of the largest Zen training facilities in Japan, and the abbot at this time was Gempo Kitano-roshi. Prior to coming to Japan, Kitano was head of Soto Zen in Korea. He also was one of the founders of Zenshuji, a Soto Zen temple located in Los Angeles, California. Suzuki's father and Kitano had a tense history between them. Sogaku had trained with Kitano in his early Zen training and felt that he was such a high priest due to familial status and connections. Shunryu did not see this in Kitano, however. He saw a humble man who gave clear instruction, and Shunryu realized that his father was very wrong in his assessment.

Often monks were assigned duties at the monastery to serve certain masters. Shunryu was assigned to Ian Kishizawa-roshi, a well known teacher at the time who had previously studied under two great Japanese teachers: Sōtan Oka and Bokusan Nishiari. He was a renowned scholar on Dōgen's Shōbōgenzō, and was also an acquaintance of his father from childhood.

Kishizawa was strict but not abusive, treating Suzuki well. Suzuki learned much from him, and Kishizawa saw a lot of potential in him. Through him Suzuki came to appreciate the importance of bowing in Zen practice through example. In December Suzuki sat his first true sesshin for 7 days, an ordeal that was challenging initially but proved rewarding toward the end. This concluded his first practice period at Eihei-ji.

In September 1931, after one more practice period and sesshin at Eihei-ji, So-on arranged for Suzuki to train in Yokohama at Sōji-ji. Sōji-ji was the other main Soto temple of Japan, and again Suzuki underwent the harsh tangaryo initiation. Sojiji was founded by the great Zen master Keizan and had a more relaxed atmosphere than Eihei-ji. At Sōji-ji Suzuki travelled back to Zoun-in frequently to attend to his temple.

In 1932 So-on came to Sōji-ji to visit with Shunryu and, after hearing of Suzuki's contentment at the temple, advised him to leave it. In April of that year Suzuki left Sōji-ji with some regret and moved back into Zoun-in, living with his family there. In May he visited with Ian Kishizawa from Eiheiji and, with So-on's blessing, asked to continue studies under him. He went to Gyokuden-in for his instruction, where Kishizawa trained him hard in zazen and conducted personal interviews with him.

Sometime during this period Suzuki married a woman who contracted tuberculosis. The date and name of the woman is unknown, but the marriage was soon annulled. She went back to live with her family while he focused on his duties at Zoun-in.

Suzuki reportedly was involved with some anti-war activities during World War II, but according to David Chadwick, the record is confusing and, at most, his actions were low-key. However, considering the wholesale enthusiastic support for the war expressed by the entire religious establishment in Japan at the time, this fact is significant in showing something of the character of the man.

San Francisco Zen Center

On May 23, 1959, Shunryu Suzuki arrived in San Francisco to attend to Soko-ji, at that time the sole Soto Zen temple in San Francisco. He was 55. Suzuki took over for the interim priest, Wako Kazumitsu Kato. Suzuki was taken aback by the Americanized and watered-down Buddhism practiced at the temple, mostly by older immigrant Japanese. He found American culture interesting and not too difficult to adjust to, even commenting once that "if I knew it would be like this, I would have come here sooner!" He was surprised to see that Sokoji was previously a Jewish synagogue (at 1881 Bush Street, now a historic landmark). His sleeping quarters were located upstairs, a windowless room with an adjoining office.

At the time of Suzuki's arrival, Zen had become a hot topic amongst some groups in the United States, especially beatniks. Particularly influential were several books on Zen and Buddhism by Alan Watts. Word began to spread about Suzuki among the beatniks through places like the San Francisco Art Institute and the American Academy of Asian Studies, where Alan Watts was once director. Kato had done some presentations at the academy and asked Suzuki to come join a class he was giving there on Buddhism. This sparked Suzuki's long-held desire to teach Zen to Westerners.

The class was filled with people wanting to learn more about Buddhism, and the presence of a Zen master was inspiring for them. Suzuki had the class do zazen for 20 minutes, sitting on the floor without a zafu and staring forward at the white wall. In closing, Suzuki invited everyone to stop in at Sokoji for morning zazen. Little by little, more people showed up each week to sit zazen for 40 minutes with Suzuki on mornings. The students were improvising, using cushions borrowed from wherever they could find them.

The group that sat with Suzuki eventually formed the San Francisco Zen Center with Suzuki. The Zen Center flourished so that in 1966, at the behest and guidance of Suzuki, Zentatsu Richard Baker helped seal the purchase of Tassajara Hot Springs in Los Padres National Forest, which they called Tassajara Zen Mountain Center. In the fall of 1969, they bought a building at 300 Page Street near San Francisco's Lower Haight neighborhood and turned it into a Zen temple. Suzuki left his post at Sokoji to become the first abbot of one of the first Buddhist training monasteries outside Asia. Suzuki's departure from Sokoji was thought to be inspired by his dissatisfaction with the superficial Buddhist practice of the Japanese immigrant community and his preference for the American students who were more seriously interested in Zen meditation, but it was more at the insistence of the Sokoji board, which asked him to choose one or the other (he had tried to keep both roles). Although Suzuki thought there was much to learn from the study of Zen in Japan, he said that it had grown moss on its branches, and he saw his American students as a means to reform Zen and return it to its pure zazen- (meditation) and practice-centered roots.

Suzuki died on December 4, 1971, presumably from cancer.

Publications
A collection of his teishos (Zen talks) was published in 1970 in the book Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind during Suzuki's lifetime. His lectures on the Sandokai are collected in Branching Streams Flow in the Darkness, edited by Mel Weitsman and Michael Wenger and published in 1999. Edward Espe Brown edited Not Always So: Practicing the True Spirit of Zen which was published in 2002.

A biography of Suzuki, titled Crooked Cucumber, was written by David Chadwick in 1999.

Lineage

Quotations
 "In the beginner's mind there are many possibilities, in the expert's mind there are few."

Books
 Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind. Ed. Trudy Dixon. Weatherhill, 1970.
 Branching Streams Flow in the Darkness: Zen Talks on the Sandokai 1st ed. Eds. Mel Weitsman and Michael Wenger. University of California Press, 1999.
 Not Always So: Practicing the True Spirit of Zen. Ed. Edward Espe Brown. HarperCollins, 2002.
 Zen is Right Here. Shambhala, 2007.
 Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind. Shambhala, 2011.
 "To Shine One Corner of the World: moments with Shunryu Suzuki / the students of Shunryu Suzuki". Ed. David Chadwick. Broadway Books, 2001.  (Out of print - same as Zen is Right Here)
Zen Is Right Now: More Teaching Stories and Anecdotes of Shunryu Suzuki. Ed. David Chadwick. Shambhala, 2021.
Crooked Cucumber: the Life and Zen Teaching of Shunryu Suzuki. by David Chadwick. Harmony, 2000. ISBN 978-0767901055

See also

 Timeline of Zen Buddhism in the United States
 Shoshin

References

External links

 shunryusuzuki.com - the most complete archive transcript, audio, video, photo
 David Chadwick's cuke.com, the oral written history of the Suzuki era, those who were there, and more
 - ZMBM.net - a site for the book, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind
 - Facebook Cuke Archives - daily lecture excerpts, Zen related posts from cuke.com What's New
 - Youtube Cuke Video - all the film to video whole and in parts
 San Francisco Zen Center
 Shunryu Suzuki lineage - Sweeping Zen

1904 births
1971 deaths
People from Kanagawa Prefecture
Japanese emigrants to the United States
Buddhism in the United States
Zen Buddhism writers
Zen Buddhist monks
San Francisco Zen Center
Soto Zen Buddhists
Komazawa University alumni
Japanese Buddhist clergy
Japanese Zen Buddhists
American Zen Buddhists
American Buddhist monks
Japanese Buddhist missionaries
Japanese writers
Japanese non-fiction writers
English-language writers from Japan
Religious leaders from the San Francisco Bay Area
20th-century Buddhist monks

Shunryū Suzuki


Dorset is a county in south England which is by the sea. The biggest towns in it are Bournemouth and Poole. There are other smaller towns, some by the sea, like Weymouth, Swanage, West Bay, the Isle of Portland, Dorchester, Wareham, Lyme Regis, Blandford and Wool.

Location
Dorset is next to Devon, Somerset, Wiltshire and Hampshire.
There is a lot of countryside in Dorset, so there are quite a few farmers. Other people work in offices, shops or the holiday business. There are not many factories or industry in Dorset.
People come on holiday to Dorset because the countryside and sea is peaceful and pretty, and there are not many big towns and no cities at all. Bournemouth, Poole, Weymouth, Swanage and Lyme Regis are quite famous seaside towns, where most holidaymakers go when they come to Dorset.

Dorset coast
The Dorset coast is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Jurassic Coast. This includes famous fossil sites where Mary Anning collected, and famous landforms such as Chesil Beach.

Gallery

Ceremonial counties of England

Dorset


The Puritans were a group of English-speaking Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries. Puritans thought that the English Reformation had not gone far enough. They also did not agree with some of the things the Church of England did.

King Henry VIII separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1534 and established the Protestant Church of England.  This Church remained until 1553. Queen Mary returned the Church to Roman Catholicism until 1558 when Elizabeth I of England became Queen.  Since she was a Protestant many people were happy, but thought that the Church had not changed enough and was still too much like Catholicism.

A Puritan was any person who tried to become purer through worship and doctrine. The Puritans' way of life and set of beliefs were called Puritanism.  The most important parts of Puritanism were piety (obeying religious rules), dressing simply, and living a modest life.

The Puritans believed some of the same things as Calvinists and Scottish Presbyterians. All of these groups were devoted to the Bible and to being morally pure.

One of the Puritans' most important beliefs was that every person needed to understand the Bible in his own way. (This belief is shared among most Protestants.) Puritans tried to live by the Bible's teachings in every way. They tried to be morally pure in even the smallest ways. They also tried to be spiritually pure in every way. They thought that man existed for the glory of God. They believed that man's most important job in life was to do God's will (what God wanted). By doing God's will, man would be rewarded with happiness in the future.

Because they did not agree with the way the Church of England did things, the Puritans made reforms, or changes, in their own churches and societies. Some of the Reformed churches in Europe made similar changes. The Puritans made preaching very important. They used as little ritual and decoration as possible. Very often, sermons talked about Hell. One famous sermon is "Sinners in the hands of an angry god", by Jonathan Edwards, an important Puritan preacher. The sermon talks about God being angry with people for sinful behavior, and throwing them into the fires of Hell as a punishment.

Many Puritan groups emigrated to New England so that they could start their own societies there and practice Puritanism the way they wanted. Puritan beliefs and writings became very important in New England. One important work was Puritan John Bunyan's "The Pilgrim's Progress".

Separatists
Those who left the Church of England altogether were known as Separatists. Many of the Plymouth Colony Pilgrims who established the first successful colony in New England were separatists.
 Some of these churches were later called Congregationalists.

References

Other websites
 John Bunyan: The Pilgrim's Progress
  A Puritan's Mind , some writings of the Puritans and their admirers
 Puritan sermons
 Extensive Large collection of Puritan resources

Puritanism


Franz Peter Schubert (31 January 1797, Vienna  19 November 1828, Vienna) was an Austrian composer. Although he died at the age of 31, he composed over one thousand pieces of music. There were other great composers who lived and worked in Vienna: Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but Schubert is the only one who was born in Vienna. He was the last great composer of the Classical music period, and one of the first of the Romantic period.

Early years

Schubert's father was a schoolteacher. Twelve children were born into the family, but only four of them lived to become adults. Schubert's father tried to persuade his sons to help at the school when they grew up. As a boy, the young Franz learned the violin, piano, organ, singing and harmony. He soon became very good at them all. His teachers were all amazed at how quickly he learned. He was also very good at other subjects in school.

In the holidays he played string quartets with his two brothers and his father. He wrote his first string quartets for them to play. By the age of 16 he had composed a lot of music, including his first symphony. His mother died. His father soon remarried. His stepmother was very kind to him and often lent him money. He had one strange thumb on his right hand.

Rising fame

At the age of 17, Schubert was teaching at his father's school. He had been rejected by the army because he was too short (shorter than five feet) and his sight was very poor. He still took composition lessons from Antonio Salieri. He often went to the opera where he heard some of the finest music of the time. He liked reading. One of his favourite books was Goethe's Faust. He wrote a song called "Gretchen am Spinnrade" which is about the young girl in the book sitting at a spinning wheel dreaming of her lover. The piano has a gentle accompaniment which sounds like the throbbing of the spinning wheel. The music stops for a moment when the girl imagines her lover is kissing her, then the piano gradually starts again. It is a very famous song. Another song which soon made him famous in all Europe was "Erlkönig". When it was first published another composer whose name was also Franz Schubert, thought that somebody had published a song in his name because the music publishers sent it to him for a correction. He sent a very angry letter back saying he had not composed that rubbish.

Adulthood

It was difficult to find enough time to compose because he was a teacher. A man called Schober persuaded Schubert to give up teaching so that he could spend all his time composing. Soon he had become well known in all the drawing-rooms in Vienna where he met famous people, many of them musicians. These meetings were called "Schubertiads" because they played and sang his music. He wrote so many wonderful pieces that it seems strange that the music publishers did not want to publish them. They were only interested in publishing works written by performers, but were not very interested in people like Schubert who just composed. For a time he became music teacher for the two princesses of Count Johann Esterházy, but then he returned to Vienna to live with the Schober family. During the last few years of his life Schubert was ill. He had to leave the Schober's house and find his own rooms. He was often desperately poor and composed in bed to keep warm.

Although Beethoven and Schubert lived in the same town they only met once, although they knew one another's music. Schubert visited Beethoven on 19 March 1827. Beethoven was dying. Schubert was one of the torch-bearers at his funeral. A year and a half later Schubert, too, had died. He asked to be buried near Beethoven. Their graves were just three places apart.

His music

Schubert's pieces are among the greatest ever written. They are all settings of German poems. German art songs are called Lieder (pronounced "leader"), and Schubert made his Lieder very special by making the piano accompaniments describe the action of the songs in many different ways. If you try to sing them in a translation it is difficult to make it sound good. It is best to hear them in German and to have a translation so that you understand what is being sung. Some of the last songs he wrote make up a cycle called "Die Winterreise" ("The Winter Journey"). The poems are about a man who is unhappy because his lover does not want him. He goes out into the cold winter woods and all nature seems to reflect the way he feels inside. The songs are usually sung by a male singer (tenor, baritone or bass).

Schubert wrote a great deal of chamber music. Among his most famous pieces are several string quartets, a string quintet (for 2 violins, viola and 2 cellos) and the "Trout" quintet (for piano, violin, viola, cello and double bass). There are sonatas and sonatinas for violin and piano, and a sonata for an instrument called the "arpeggione" which was used for about ten years after it was invented and then it was forgotten. The sonata is normally played on a cello or a viola nowadays. There is lots of piano music including sonatas, impromptus and also piano duet music. Schubert wrote eight famous impromptus.

Schubert wrote nine symphonies. The last one is known as the "Great" symphony in C major. The eighth is called the "Unfinished". There are only two movements instead of the usual four. A lot of people still argue about why he left it unfinished. Some people even think that he completed it and that the last two movements are either lost, or are now known as movements from a piano duet. We shall probably never know for certain.

Most of his life he was supported by his friends who gave him manuscript paper when he could not afford it. Many of his greatest works only became widely known in the 1860s, long after his death. The house in Vienna where Schubert was born is now a museum which people can visit. There visitors can also see the Benignus Seidner piano that Schubert was using for composing. Other instruments that composer was playing on were a piano by Anton Walter & Sohn (now in the Kunsthistorisches museum in Vienna) and a piano from Viennese piano builder Conrad Graf.

References

Austrian composers
Classical era composers
Writers from Vienna
Romantic composers
1797 births
1828 deaths

Franz Schubert


Hirup mangrupa konsép multiharti tanpa dadaran nu basajan, sabab mindeng dilarapkeun kana rupa-rupa hal. WordNet méré opat welas harti pikeun kecap "life", sedengkeun Kamus Wéb Longman méré 35 harti.

Artikel ieu ngadadarkeun harti utama dina élmu hirup; tumbu ka harti séjén bisa ditempo di bagian artikel nu patali di handap.

Ngahartikeun konsép hirup

Hirup mibanda sababaraha harti dina jihat biologi —

 "hirup" nu nujul ka prosés nu keur lumangsung nu nu patali jeung mahluk hirup;
 "hirup" nu nujul ka mangsa antara wedal jeung paéhna hiji organisme;
 "hirup" nu nujul ka kaayaan/wujud nalika geus dilahirkeun saméméh paéh.

Sésa bagian ieu museur ka harti nu ahir — naon nu jadi dasar pikeun nyebutkeun yén hiji éntitas téh hirup (mahluk hirup)?

It would be relatively straightforward to offer a practical set of guidelines if one's only concern were life on Earth as we know it (see biosphere), but as soon as one considers questions about life's origins on éarth, or the possibility of extraterrestrial life, or the concept of artificial life, it becomes cléar that the question is fundamentally difficult and comparable in many respects to the problem of defining intelligence.

Harti konvénsional

Dina biologi, hiji éntitas dianggap hirup mun némbongkeun sakabéh peta di handap ieu:
 Kamekaran
 Métabolisme, 'barang hakan', ngarobah, sarta neundeun énérgi/massa; tumuwuh ku jalan nyerep jeung nata massa; miceun
 Ojah, boh dirina atawa di jero ragana
 Baranahan, boga kabisa nyiptakeun éntitas nu sarupa jeung dirina
 Némbal rangsangan - kabisa ngukur pasipatan lingkungan sabundeureunana, sarta ojah atawa meta nalika nyanghareupan hiji kaayaan.

Other definitions
Other definitions include:
 Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana's definition of life (also widely used by Lynn Margulis) as an autopoietic (self-producing), water based, lipid-protein bound, carbon metabolic, nucleic acid replicated, protein réadout system
 "a system of inferior negative feedbacks subordinated to a superior positive feedback" (J. theor Biol. 2001 )
 Tom Kinch's definition of life as a highly organized auto-cannibalizing system naturally emerging from conditions common on planetary bodies, and consisting of a population of replicators capable of mutation, around éach set of which a homéostatic metabolizing organism, which actively helps reproduce and/or protect the replicator(s), has evolved
 Stuart Kauffman's definition of life as an autonomous agent or autonomous agents capable of reproducing itself or themselves, and of completing at léast one thermodynamic work cycle

Descent with modification: a "useful" characteristic

A useful characteristic upon which to base a definition of life is that of descent with modification: the ability of a life form to produce offspring that are like its parent or parents, but with the possibility of some variation due to chance. Descent with modification is sufficient by itself to allow evolution, assuming that the variations in the offspring allow for differential survival. The study of this form of heritability is called genetics. In all known life forms (assuming prions are not counted as such), the genetic material is primarily DNA or the related molecule, RNA. Another exception might be the software code of certain forms of viruses and programs créated through genetic programming, but whether computer programs can be alive even by this definition is still a matter of some contention.

Exceptions to the common definition

Note that many individual organisms are incapable of reproduction and yet are still generally considered to be "alive"; see mules and ants for examples. However, these exceptions can be accounted for by applying the definition of life on the level of entire species or of individual genes. (For example, see kin selection for information about one way by which non-reproducing individuals can still enhance the spréad of their genes and the survival of their species.)

Viruses reproduce, flames grow, some software programs mutate and evolve, future software programs will probably evince (even high-order) behavior, machines move, and proto-life, consisting of metabolizing cells without reproduction apparatus, can have existed. Still, some would not call these entities alive. Generally, all five characteristics are required for a population to be considered alive.

Asal-usul hirup
Artikel utama: Asal-usul hirup

euweuh modél "baku" pikeun asal-usul hirup, tapi nu kiwari ditampa sacara umum diwangun dumasar papanggihan di handap ieu:

 Kaayaan nu ngarojong prabiotik ngahasilkeun kaciptana molekul leutik dasar kahirupan. Ieu dipetakeun dina percobaan Urey-Miller.
 Fosfolipid sacara spontan ngawangun lapis ganda lipid, struktur dasar mémbran sél.
 Procedures for producing random RNA molecules can produce "ribozymes", which are able to produce more of themselves under very specific conditions.

There are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple organic molecules to protocells and metabolism. Many of the possibilities have tended to fall into either "genes-first" or "metabolism-first", a recent trend is the emergence of hybrid modéls that combine aspects of both.

The possibility of extraterrestrial life

As of 2004, Earth is the only planet in the universe known by humans to support life. The question of whether life exists elsewhere in the universe remains open, but analyses such as the Drake equation have been used to estimate the probability of such life existing. There have been a number of false alarms of life elsewhere in the universe, but none of these apparent discoveries have so far survived scientific scrutiny.

Currently, the closest that scientists have come to finding extraterrestrial life is fossil evidence of possible bacterial life on Mars (via the ALH84001 metéorite). Séarches for extraterrestrial life are presently focusing on planets and moons believed to possess liquid water, presently or in the past. Recent evidence from the NASA rovers Spirit and Opportunity supports the théory that Mars once had surface water. See Life on Mars for further discussion.

Jupiter's moons are also considered good candidates for extraterrestrial life, especially Europa, which seems to possess océans of liquid water.

Artikel patali
 Hirup sanggeus maot
 Biologi daur hirup
 Harepan hirup
 Asuransi jiwa
 Materialisme
 Asal-usul Hirup
 Kahirupan pribadi
 Réinkarnasi
 Tangkal kahirupan

Rujukan
 Stuart Kauffman. The Adjacent Possible: a talk with Stuart Kauffman. Disalin 30 Nov. 2003 ti culture/kauffman03/kauffman index.html
 Term life insurance

Hirup-hurip
Manusa
Alam

Hirup


Software versioning is a way to name different versions of computer software. A computer software has different states in its life-cycle process from Development through deployment into Production and Sustainment. Each state in the process is given a unique version and version number. Versions are most often a sequence of one to four numbers (for example, 12.2.3) to represent Major.Minor.Maintenance actions, but can also use names, dates, or other sequencing mechanisms.  In some practices, the numbers are used with variations like the 3rd digit being replaced by a letter (for example, 4.1a).  The changes are all revisions in that something is being changed and the version number tells people how complex the change is to the software.

Many times, after a program has been made, things called patches can be downloaded from the program's website. The patches usually make small updates or fixes to the main program, such as fixing bugs or updating information or program functions. When a patch is used, the program is advanced to the next version, advancing the version number by the appropriate level.

Versioning

Software versioning