Moulin Rouge! is a 2001 Academy Award-winning Australian-American romantic drama musical movie directed by Baz Luhrmann. It stars Nicole Kidman and Ewan McGregor. The movie is set in Paris, France in 1900. It tells the story of a young British writer called Christian, who falls in love with an actress called Satine, the leading lady of the famous nightclub, the Moulin Rouge.

Moulin Rouge! was mostly filmed at Fox Studios in Sydney, Australia. It was nominated for eight Oscars. It won two; for art direction and costume design. In 2006 it was ranked #25 on the American Film Institute's list of best musicals.

Background

The "Moulin Rouge"
The "Moulin Rouge" is a famous nightclub with a cabaret (or dance show). The name "Moulin Rouge" means "Red Windmill". In the late 1800s there was a real windmill where the nightclub stands near Montmartre in Paris. Now there is a large model of a windmill on the roof of the building. Since 1889 this nightclub has been famous for its dancing, in particular for the "can-can", a very lively dance in which the dancers, wearing long frilly skirts, kick their legs very high and show their underwear. (In the 1890s, women wore long dresses, to their ankles.) Even though this entertainment was not thought of as very polite, it was very popular and the "can-can" became a symbol of Paris. The "Moulin Rouge" is still very popular.

Bohemians
The word Bohemian was first used in Paris to mean a gypsy because many people thought that gypsies came from Bohemia. The word was then used for poor artists and writers, who often travelled to Paris from other towns and tried to earn money by their painting or writing. Paris was a famous city for both painters and writers to gather, to learn from each other and to enjoy the life of the city. Many of them lived at Montmartre, not far from the "Moulin Rouge". One of the most famous painters to live in Montmartre was Henri Toulouse-Lautrec. He loved to paint the can-can dancers and prostitutes. He did many posters to advertise the nightclubs. The posters are now famous works of art.

"La boheme"
La bohème means "the Bohemian". It is the name of a famous opera written by Giacomo Puccini. It is about a young man who lives in a group of poor artists and writers, and who meets and falls in love with a beautiful girl. The opera is very well known and Baz Luhrmann deliberately used parts of the story in his movie. The plot of the movie is very much like another opera called La traviata written by Giuseppe Verdi. It is also thought that Luhrmann may have got the idea to make Moulin Rouge! after watching Dil Se. This movie was made in 1998 and directed by Mani Ratnam. It is a love story set in India.

Other movies
There have been four previous movies called Moulin Rouge. The earliest was a silent movie made in 1928. The latest was made in 1956 and was about the life of the painter, Toulouse-Lautrec. Baz Luhrmann used Toulouse-Lautrec as an important character in his movie.

The movie

Idea
Baz Luhrmann had directed another movie in which a love story is set against a background of dance, costumes and colourful scenes. This is Strictly Ballroom made in 1992. In Moulin Rouge!, he chose the colourful life of Paris in a time often called "the Naughty Nineties" as a background. But Lurhmann's plan was not to make a movie about history. He wanted to make a movie that the people of today would enjoy, just as much as the people of Paris had enjoyed the can-can in the 1890s. So Luhrmann did not use the music, dance-styles and lighting of the 1890s. He used popular modern music that young people already knew, and he used modern lighting, special effects and costume ideas to create a movie that young people would think was very entertaining.

Production

Kate Winslet, Charlize Theron, Renee Zellweger, and Catherine Zeta-Jones were all thought of for the part of Satine. Courtney Love was almost cast in the role, but lost out to Kidman at the last minute because Luhrmann felt that Love would not fit into the movie well. Heath Ledger, Hugh Jackman, and Russell Crowe were all considered for the part of Christian.

Production on the movie began in November 1999 and was finished in May 2000, with a budget of just over $50 million. Nicole Kidman reportedly wasn't interested in doing the musical until she heard Baz Luhrmann would be directing it. Filming generally went smoothly, with the only major problem being when Nicole Kidman injured her knee while filming one of the more complicated dance sequences. The production also overran in its shooting schedule and had to be out of the Fox Studios in Sydney to make way for Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones (in which Ewan McGregor also starred). This meant some parts had to be filmed in Madrid, Spain.

Cast
 Nicole Kidman as Satine
 Ewan McGregor as Christian
 John Leguizamo as Toulouse-Lautrec
 Jim Broadbent as Harold Zidler
 Richard Roxburgh as The Duke
 Kylie Minogue as The Green Fairy

Plot summary
The movie is set in the year 1900. Christian (played by Ewan McGregor) is a British writer who came to the village of Montmartre in Paris in 1899, when the Bohemian movement was at its most popular. He sits in a flat looking down on the closed-down theatre called the Moulin Rouge while writing on a typewriter.  The story he is writing is about the woman he loved, Satine (played by Nicole Kidman).

In 1899, Christian arrives in Paris, and makes friends with a group of Bohemians who visit the Moulin Rouge regularly. They are trying to produce a musical called "Spectacular Spectacular", which the owner of the Moulin Rouge, Harold Zidler (played by Jim Broadbent), plans to show at the cabaret.  The Bohemians' leader, Toulouse-Lautrec (played by John Leguizamo), is pleased with Christian's talent at writing and insists that he write their musical, "Spectacular Spectacular". Once they find out that Christian is an amazing writer, they come up with an complicated plan of presenting Christian to Satine, who is a beautiful courtesan, in the hopes that she will be impressed with him and persuade Zidler to hire Christian as the writer of the musical.

Satine understands what her work involves, although she hopes of leaving the Moulin Rouge to become a "real" actress.  Through a series of misunderstandings, she mistakes Christian for the rich and powerful Duke who will invest in the musical, "Spectacular Spectacular". She is enchanted by his poetry. She declares that she has fallen in love with him, but is shocked to realize he's actually a poor Bohemian poet.

After a bit, the real Duke (played by Richard Roburgh) finds Christian and Satine together. They manage to trick him into believing that they were working on the musical, "Spectacular Spectacular".  The main cast arrive and improvise the plot of the show on the spot: a beautiful Indian courtesan has her kingdom invaded by an "evil maharaja". She sets out to seduce him to save her kingdom, but accidentally seduces and then falls in love with a penniless sitar player.  The two must hide their love and avoid the maharaja, though it is implied that one of them may die at the end of the story. (It is soon realized that the theme of their play foreshadows what happens in the movie's plot.)  The Duke agrees to support the show. But, he quickly shows that he is a violently jealous man who will shut down the Moulin Rouge if he does not get Satine to himself.  Nevertheless, he accepts that Satine will be busy with rehearsals and in close contact with Christian, the writer of the musical.

Christian and Satine fall in love, while Zidler struggles to keep the Duke interested in the musical "Spectacular Spectacular" even though Satine has not yet slept with him. Harold Zidler also discovers that Satine is dying of a disease called tuberculosis, but does not tell anyone because of his motto, "The show must go on". Meanwhile, Christian continues to work on the play, in which the courtesan and the penniless sitar player end up together. The Duke, however, does not appreciate the ending and tells the cast that the courtesan must end up with the maharaja. To convince the Duke to change his mind, Satine finally agrees to spend the night with him. Christian is overcome with jealousy while Satine has dinner with the Duke, who offers her everything she has dreamt of. However, when Satine spots Christian on the street below, she refuses the Duke's offer, and he tries to rape her. After she escapes, Satine and Christian plan to run away.

By now, the Duke has realized Satine's tricks, and tells Zidler that, if the "maharaja" does not get his "courtesan", he will have the "penniless sitar player" killed. Nonetheless, Zidler must inform Satine of her final condition before she agrees to give up on the escape plan. She goes to Christian and lies to him, convincing him that her love was an act in the hopes that this will make him want to leave Paris and therefore save his life.

As the show opens, Satine performs tiredly, knowing that her life is almost up. Christian, refusing to give up on Satine, confronts her backstage. When she tries to force him off again, he takes the place of the show's hero, throwing money at her feet to "pay his whore", and storming off the stage. Satine confesses her love for him in the form of his secret song, and Christian and Satine get back together in full view of the audience and the Duke. The Duke attempts to shoot Christian, but Zidler forces him off. The audience applauds what they think is a good drama, but backstage, Satine is overcome by her illness and dies in Christian's arms. As her final wish, she asks Christian to tell their story.

A year later, still in his flat overlooking the empty red windmill, Christian finally types the last page of his work, ending it with the couplet, "The greatest thing you will ever learn, is just to love, and be loved in return."

Soundtrack

The following is a list of some of the songs featured in the movie along with the artist that popularized them.
 "The Sound of Music" - Mary Martin (and later by Julie Andrews) (from the Rodgers & Hammerstein musical of the same name)
 "The Lonely Goatherd" - also from The Sound of Music (but heard as instrumental)
 "Lady Marmalade" - Labelle (and later by All Saints, covered for the movie, by Christina Aguilera, Lil' Kim, Mýa and Pink)
 "Because We Can" - Fatboy Slim
 "Nature Boy" - Eden Ahbez (and later by Nat King Cole)
 "Complainte De La Butte" - Georges Van Parys, Jean Renoir
 "Rhythm of the Night" - DeBarge
 "Material Girl" - Madonna
 "Smells Like Teen Spirit" - Nirvana
 "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" - Carol Channing (later, and notably by Marilyn Monroe)
 "Diamond Dogs (song)|Diamond Dogs" - David Bowie (and later by Beck)
 "Galop Infernal (Can-can)" - Jacques Offenbach (tune for Spectacular, Spectacular)
 "One Day I'll Fly Away" - The Crusaders, later Randy Crawford among others
 "Children of the Revolution" - T. Rex (Covered by Bono, Gavin Friday and Maurice Seezer)
 "Gorecki" - Lamb
 "Come What May" - Ewan McGregor & Nicole Kidman (written by David Baerwald)
 "Roxanne" - The Police (Title in movie: "El Tango de Roxanne")
 "Tanguera" - Mariano Mores
 "The Show Must Go On" - Queen
 "Like a Virgin" - Madonna
 "Your Song" - Elton John

Elephant Love Medley
 "Love Is Like Oxygen" - Sweet
 "Love Is A Many-Splendored Thing" - The Four Aces
 "Up Where We Belong" - Joe Cocker and Jennifer Warnes
 "All You Need Is Love" - The Beatles
 "Lover's Game" - Chris Isaak
 "I Was Made For Lovin' You" - Kiss
 "One More Night" - Phil Collins
 "Pride (In The Name Of Love)" - U2
 "Don't Leave Me This Way" - Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes (later Thelma Houston, The Communards, among others)
 "Silly Love Songs" - Paul McCartney and Wings
 (Repeated) "Up Where We Belong"
 "Heroes"  - David Bowie (and later by The Wallflowers)
 "I Will Always Love You" - Dolly Parton (and later by Whitney Houston)
 "Your Song" - Elton John

Two soundtrack albums were released, with the second coming after the huge success of the first one. The first volume featured the smash hit single "Lady Marmalade", performed by Christina Aguilera, Lil' Kim, Mýa and Pink. The first soundtrack, Moulin Rouge! Music From Baz Luhrmann's Film, was released in May 2001, with the second Moulin Rouge! Music From Baz Luhrmann's Film, Vol. 2 following in 2002.

Awards
Award wins:
 Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy
 Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Nicole Kidman)
 Academy Award for Art Direction-Set Decoration (Catherine Martin & Brigitte Broch)
 Academy Award for Costume Design (Catherine Martin & Angus Strathie)
 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score - Motion Picture (Craig Armstrong)
 Producers Guild of America's Award for Best Picture
 National Board of Review's Award for Best Picture

Award nominations:
 Academy Award for Best Picture
 Academy Award for Best Actress (Nicole Kidman)
 Academy Award for Best Cinematography (Donald McAlpine)
 Academy Award for Film Editing (Jill Bilcock)
 Academy Award for Makeup (Maurizio Silvi & Aldo Signoretti)
 Academy Award for Sound (Andy Nelson, Anna Behlmer, Roger Savage, Guntis Sics)
 Golden Globe Award for Best Director - Motion Picture (Baz Luhrmann)
 Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Ewan McGregor)
 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song - Motion Picture (David Baerwald - song "Come What May")
 Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media

Trivia
 The large red "L'amour" sign seen on the side Christian's building was part of the set of Baz Luhrmann's production of "La bohème" for the Australian Opera. It also appeared in Romeo + Juliet (1996).
 The movie is dedicated to Baz Luhrmann's father, Leonard Luhrmann, who died just as filming was about to begin.
 Jake Gyllenhaal auditioned several times for the part of Christian, but was ultimately deemed too young to play opposite Nicole Kidman.
 The word "love" and its variations (loved, loves, loving, lover and lovers) appears in this movie 143 times.
 During Satine's trapeze entrance, blue light was used due to Nicole Kidman's pale skin tone, the director found that the blue light made her almost "glow" and therefore stood out during the scene.
 The Paris landscape was digitally produced and the two longest visual effects shots to date appear in this movie.

Related pages
 Bohemianism
 Moulin Rouge
 Montmartre
 Henri Toulouse-Lautrec

References

Other websites

Official site

2000s musical movies
2001 romantic drama movies
20th Century Fox movies
Academy Award winning movies
Alternate history movies
American musical movies
American romantic drama movies
Australian drama movies
Australian romance movies
2000s English-language movies
Golden Globe Award winning movies
Movies about prostitution
Movies set in Paris
Movies set in the 1890s
Movies set in the 1900s
Former good articles
Movies directed by Baz Luhrmann

Moulin Rouge!


Charles-François Gounod (born in Paris, 17 June 1818; died in Saint-Cloud, 17 October 1893) was a French composer. Gounod (pronounce: "Goo – no") wrote many different kinds of pieces, but he is best known today for his operas Faust and Roméo et Juliette and, especially, for the very popular "Ave Maria" which is a melody that goes with a prelude by Johann Sebastian Bach.

Early life
Gounod was born in Paris. His father was a painter and engraver. His mother was his first piano teacher. When his father died in 1823 his mother started a school to teach the piano. Gounod soon showed musical talent and went to study at the Paris Conservatoire. He studied with three teachers, all of whom died soon after Gounod became their pupil. The first time he competed for the Prix de Rome he did not get it, but the third time, in 1839, he was successful. This meant that he could go to Rome to learn more about music.

In Rome he liked the religious music of the 16th century by composers such as Palestrina. He did not much like the modern opera composers such as Donizetti and Bellini. Gounod also spent some of the year in Austria and Germany. He passed through Leipzig where he met Mendelssohn, whose music made a big impression on him.

Gounod returned to Paris where he got a job as director of music at a church. He thought of becoming a priest, but then he changed his mind. He left his job in the church. Some time later he became friends with the singer Pauline Viardot and her husband Louis. He spent some time at their house composing the opera Sapho.

He composed the Messe Sollennelle, also known as the Saint Cecilia Mass. Two fragments of this work were first performed in London during 1851 and it helped him to become famous. By this time he was married. He had a job in charge of several choirs. He started to write a lot of choral music.

He wrote two symphonies in 1855, the 1st Symphony in D major, and the 2nd Symphony in E flat, although they are not often played today.

Middle period
In 1856 he started to write the opera by which he is now best remembered: Faust (1859), based on the first part of the play Faust by Goethe. The opera was produced in 1859 and soon was performed in many countries, especially in Germany. The composer Richard Wagner was the most important opera composer in Germany and his operas were quite different, so he said that Gounod's operas were silly.

When the Franco-Prussian war broke out in 1870 Gounod went to live in England. He stayed there for five years becoming the first conductor of what is now the Royal Choral Society. Gounod wrote a lot of music for choirs at this time, including a motet composed especially for the grand opening of the Royal Albert Hall in 1871. He worked very hard, although he was often depressed about the war situation in France. His house in Saint-Cloud had been destroyed. He returned to France in 1874 and was glad to be back with his family.

He wrote much chamber music, including five string quartets, but these are hardly ever played today.

Last years
Later in his life, Gounod became very interested in religion again. He wrote a lot of religious music, including his famous musical setting of Ave Maria based on the first prelude from Book I of The Well-Tempered Clavier by J.S. Bach and Hymnus Pontificius the anthem of Vatican. He also wrote two oratorios, including Mors et vita which Queen Victoria liked so much that she asked for it to be played in the Royal Albert Hall in 1886.

He was just finishing a requiem called Le Grand Requiem when he died. He was given a state funeral on October 27, 1893. He asked for all the music at his funeral to be chant only.

References

 Sadie, S. (ed.) (1980) The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians
 Condé, G. (ed.) (2009) Charles Gounod

19th-century French composers
Romantic composers
1818 births
1893 deaths

Charles Gounod


The Pacific Ocean is the body of water between Asia and Australia in the west, the Americas in the east, the Southern Ocean to the south, and the Arctic Ocean to the north. It is the largest named ocean and it covers one-third of the surface of the entire world. It joins the Atlantic Ocean at a line drawn  south from Cape Horn, Chile/Argentina to Antarctica, and joins the Indian Ocean at a line drawn  south from Tasmania, Australia to Antarctica.

As the Atlantic slowly gets wider, the Pacific is slowly shrinking. It does this by folding the sea floor in towards the centre of the Earth - this is called subduction.  This bumping and grinding is hard so there are many earthquakes and volcanoes when the pressure builds up and is quickly released as large explosions of hot rocks and dust. When an earthquake happens under the sea, the quick jerk causes a tsunami. This is why tsunamis are more common around the edge of the Pacific than anywhere else. Many of the Earth's volcanoes are either islands in the Pacific, or are on continents within a few hundred kilometers of the ocean's edge. Plate tectonics are another reason which makes Pacific Ocean smaller.

Other websites

 EPIC Pacific Ocean Data Collection Viewable on-line collection of observational data
 NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer  plot and download ocean observations
 NOAA PMEL Argo profiling floats Realtime Pacific Ocean data
 NOAA TAO El Niño data Realtime Pacific Ocean El Niño buoy data
 NOAA Ocean Surface Current Analyses – Realtime (OSCAR) Near-realtime Pacific Ocean Surface Currents derived from satellite altimeter and scatterometer data

Pacific Ocean


Crack cocaine (or just crack) is an illegal drug which is made from cocaine. Cocaine is mostly an illegal drug that comes from the leaves of a plant called coca. When people smoke crack, they have a feeling called "being high." The name "crack" comes from the cracking sound the drug makes as it is smoked. The cracking sound is caused by evaporating water escaping. In most parts of the world, production (making crack), possession (having crack), and distribution (selling or giving away crack) are illegal.

Dangers
Crack is a very addictive drug. People can get both physically and psychologically addicted to crack (meaning that the body and the mind can both become addicted to, or "hooked on," the drug.) Using crack is dangerous for many reasons. The drug can cause physical problems (like heart and lung problems or rotted teeth) and psychological (or mental) problems, like depression and psychosis (not understanding what is real and what is not real). An overdose of crack - taking too much of the drug - can cause death. Also, because crack is illegal, people have to break the law in order to get it, and they can get sent to jail if they are caught. People may also do other illegal things in order to get crack or to get money to buy crack, because the urge to get the drug is so strong in people who are addicted.

Crack is called a "gateway drug" because people who use crack are more likely to use other drugs, like methamphetamine and heroin. Using crack along with other illegal drugs, or alcohol, is even more dangerous than using crack by itself.

Crack is such a strong and addictive drug that a person can become addicted the first time they use crack. When a person tries to quit using crack, they go through a process called withdrawal that is very hard to go through. Withdrawal happens when as person's body or mind is used to having a drug in its system all the time, and suddenly the drug is not there any more. Because crack can cause both physical addiction (when the body is hooked on the drug) and psychological addiction (when the mind is hooked on the drug), quitting crack can cause both physical withdrawal (which causes physical symptoms in the body) and psychological withdrawal (which causes symptoms in the mind). Symptoms of (or problems caused by) physical withdrawal can include nausea (feeling like throwing up), vomiting (throwing up), and pain in the muscles. Psychological withdrawal can make a person feel very depressed, anxious (worried and not able to relax), agitated (restless and "keyed up"), or tired. When a person is withdrawing from crack, the urge to use crack will be very, very strong, and it is very hard for the person to fight off these urges and keep away from using the drug again.

Smoking
Crack cocaine is inhaled from a small glass pipe. This is often called a stem. It has a funnel-shaped 'bowlpiece' where the drug is put to be smoked. There is a 2 to 3 inch long stem attached that the smoke travels through on the way to the consumer. These stems may be used in waterpipes, such as 'bongs' or 'bubblers', in which case about a 1/2 inch of the stem is submerged in the water and the smoke is sucked out through the water to the consumer. These stems are also used to inhale methamphetamine. When used for crack cocaine or methamphetamine, the stem is generally used as a standalone unit, without any water or attachment of any sort. After prolonged use, the glass from the stem may deteriorate from exposure to heat as well as acidity, and may become brittle and break or crack easily.

Other websites

 Why is crack cocaine so hard to stop using?
 The rising peril of crack cocaine

Illegal drugs

Crack cocaine


Sir Edward William Elgar, 1st Baronet OM GCVO  (2 June 1857 – 23 February 1934) was the most famous English composer of his time. He composed in the late romantic era.

Birth
Elgar was born in Broadheath, Worcestershire. His father owned a music shop. Apart from having violin lessons Elgar taught himself about music, he studied the printed music in his father's shop and often travelled with him when he went on his rounds to tune pianos. He heard a lot of cathedral music and often practised the organ. He took over his father's job as church organist and soon became conductor of local orchestras and bands.

Worcester was a small town but the music there was good. The Three Choirs Festival took place there every third year. In 1884 he was playing the violin in the orchestra when the great Czech composer Dvořák was conducting.

Marriage
In 1889 Elgar married. His wife Caroline Alice Roberts came from a family who had more money than the Elgars, and she was 8 years older than he was. Many people did not approve of the marriage, but she was a good wife to him and encouraged him in his efforts to be a successful composer.

Works
In 1899 Elgar wrote an orchestral piece called the Enigma Variations. There is a main tune, and then a series of variations on the tune. Each variation describes one of his friends, but he did not say which friends they were: he only put their initials or nickname at the top of each variation. This is why the piece is an enigma (a "puzzle" or "secret"). People have managed to work out who each friend was, but the meaning of the main tune is still a puzzle. This music made Elgar very famous.

The next work that he wrote is probably his greatest work: The Dream of Gerontius (1900). It is an oratorio. Gerontius is an old man who is dying and thinking about whether God will punish him for his sins or save him and take him to heaven. Elgar wrote two other oratorios: The Apostles and The Kingdom. He wrote two symphonies, a violin concerto, a cello concerto, Introduction and Allegro for Strings, Sea Pictures (five songs for mezzo soprano and orchestra) and chamber music including a violin sonata, a string quartet and a piano quintet.

Throughout his life his wife helped him by ruling neat manuscript lines on plain paper so that he could write his music. After she died in 1920 Elgar was so sad that he stopped composing. He died of colorectal cancer in Worcester.

Elgar's most popular piece is the first of his Pomp and Circumstance Marches. It has the tune which is sung to the words "Land of Hope and Glory" and the audience always join in singing it at the Last Night of the Proms.

1857 births
1934 deaths
20th-century English composers
Baronets
Cancer deaths in England
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Order of Merit
Musicians from Worcestershire
Romantic composers

Edward Elgar


In the human body, the tarsus (: tarsi) is a cluster of seven articulating bones in each foot situated between the lower end of the tibia and the fibula of the lower leg and the metatarsus. It is made up of the midfoot (cuboid, medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform, and navicular) and hindfoot (talus and calcaneus).

The tarsus articulates with the bones of the metatarsus, which in turn articulate with the proximal phalanges of the toes. The joint between the tibia and fibula above and the tarsus below is referred to as the ankle joint proper.

In humans the largest bone in the tarsus is the calcaneus, which is the weight-bearing bone within the heel of the foot.

Human anatomy

Bones
The talus bone or ankle bone is connected superiorly to the two bones of the lower leg, the tibia and fibula, to form the ankle joint or talocrural joint; inferiorly, at the subtalar joint, to the calcaneus or heel bone.  Together, the talus and calcaneus form the hindfoot.

The five irregular bones of the midfoot—the cuboid, navicular, and three cuneiform bones—form the arches of the foot which serves as a shock absorber. The midfoot is connected to the hind- and forefoot by muscles and the plantar fascia.

Movements
The complex motion of the subtalar joint occurs in three planes and produces subtalar inversion and eversion.  Along with the transverse tarsal joint (i.e. talonavicular and calcaneocuboid joint), the subtalar joint transforms tibial rotation into forefoot supination and pronation.
The axis of rotation in the joint is directed upward 42 degrees from the horizontal plane and 16 degrees medially from the midline of the foot.
However, together, the subtalar facets form a screw or Archimedean spiral, right-handed in the right foot, about which subtalar motion occurs. So, during subtalar inversion, the calcaneus also rotates clockwise and translates forward along the axis of the screw.
Average subtalar motion is 20-30 degrees inversion and 5-10 degrees eversion. Functional motion during the gait cycle is 10-15 degrees (the heel strikes the ground in slight inversion followed by quick eversion).

The talonavicular and calcaneocuboid joints (i.e. between the talus and navicular bones, and the calcaneus and cuboid bones) form the so-called transverse tarsal joint or Chopart's joint.  It has two axes of motion.
Inversion and eversion occur about a longitudinal axis oriented 15 degrees upward from the horizontal plane and 9 degrees medially from the longitudinal axis of the foot.
Flexion and extension occur primarily about an oblique axis oriented 52 degrees upward from the horizontal plane and 57 degrees anteromedially (forward-inward).
In vitro talonavicular motion is 7 degrees flexion-extension and 17 degrees pronation-supination; while calcaneocuboid motion is 2 degrees flexion-extension and 7 degrees pronation-supination.

The motions of the subtalar and transverse talar joints interact to make the foot either flexible or rigid.  With the subtalar joint in eversion, the two joints of the transverse joint are parallel, which make movements in this joint possible.  With the subtalar joint in inversion, the axes of the transverse joint are convergent, movements in this joint are thus locked and the midfoot rigid.

Other animals
In primitive tetrapods, such as Trematops, the tarsus consists of three rows of bones. There are three proximal tarsals, the tibiale, intermedium, and fibulare, named for their points of articulation with the bones of the lower limb. These are followed by a second row of four bones, referred to as the centralia (singular: centrale), and then a row of five distal tarsals, each articulating with a single metatarsal. In the great majority of tetrapods, including all of those alive today, this simple pattern is modified by the loss and fusion of some of the bones.

In reptiles and mammals, there are normally just two proximal tarsals, the calcaneus (equivalent to the amphibian fibulare) and the talus (probably derived from a fusion of multiple bones). In mammals, including humans, the talus forms a hinge joint with the tibia, a feature especially well developed in the artiodactyls. The calcaneus is also modified, forming a heel for the attachment of the Achilles tendon. Neither of these adaptations is found in reptiles, which have a relatively simple structure to both bones.

The fifth distal tarsal disappears relatively early in evolution, with the remainder becoming the cuneiform and cuboid bones. Reptiles usually retain two centralia, while mammals typically have only one (the navicular).

In birds, the tarsus has disappeared, with the proximal tarsals having fused with the tibia, the centralia having disappeared, and the distal bones having fused with the metatarsals to form a single tarsometatarsus bone, effectively giving the leg a third segment.

Additional images

See also
 Arches of the foot
 Carpus
 Cuboid syndrome
 Tarsal tunnel
 Tarsal tunnel syndrome

Notes

References

External links

 Diagram, identifying bones
  ()

Short bones
Foot
Bones of the foot
Tarsal bones

Tarsus (skeleton)


Counterpoint is the art of composing music by combining different parts (voices) in a way that sounds nice.  Music composed like this is called contrapuntal.

If the tune of Twinkle, twinkle little star is played on the piano and then some chords are added, this is harmony, not counterpoint. Instead, if the tune of Twinkle, twinkle little star was played while another melody was played, this would be considered counterpoint.

A different way of playing it would be to start the tune with the right hand.  Then, in the second bar (measure), as the fifth note is played, the left hand starts to play the tune an octave lower.  This works well for a time, but in the fifth bar (on the word "Up" in the right hand part) it starts to get dissonant (sounding unpleasant), so changes need to made to the left hand to make it sound nicer.  This way of writing with a particular number of parts (in this case: two) is called "contrapuntal music".

In that example the left hand imitated the right hand at first.  This is called imitation.

If the second part had continued to imitate all the way through the piece it would have been a canon.  But "Twinkle, twinkle" does not work well as a canon.  One famous canon is by Thomas Tallis.  A canon that can be repeated is called a  round.  This is all contrapuntal music.

Counterpoint does not have to have imitation, although it often does.  The important thing is that each part (i.e. each voice) is equally important.  It is not one part singing the tune and the rest just accompanying.

Counterpoint does not have to be one note against one note.  There can be two or more notes in one part against one in the other e.g. crotchets (quarter notes) in one part and quavers (eighth notes) in another.  There is a whole system for this called "species".

Counterpoint can be varied by inverting it, i.e. putting the top part at the bottom.  When music is written so that the parts can be swapped round it is called "invertible counterpoint".

The word "counterpoint" comes from the Latin "punctus contra punctum" meaning "point against point".  The word "point" meant "note".  Several hundred years ago composers found how to write contrapuntal music.  They often took a main tune (called a "Cantus Firmus") and then added one or two or more parts to it.  The more parts there were the harder it was to compose because it all had to fit so that it sounded good.  Music for several voices written in this way is called polyphonic music.  Polyphony was used in all church music in the Renaissance.  The greatest composer of polyphony was Giovanni da Palestrina (1525-1594).  Students learning the art of composition today still learn counterpoint by taking Palestrina's music as their model.

References

Related pages
Fugue
canon (music)

Music genres
Music theory

Counterpoint


Metamorphosis in biology means the process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages. Good examples are insects and amphibians. Life for most insects begins as a larva or nymph then progresses to the pupa stage and ends as an adult.

Animals that metamorphose include tadpoles into frogs, caterpillars into butterflys, and generally insect larva into adult insects.

Insects

There are two main types of metamorphosis in insects:
simple metamorphosis or hemimetabolism, and complete metamorphosis or holometabolism.

Simple metamorphosis or hemimetabolism
Insects who go through simple (or incomplete) metamorphosis have three life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are usually very small. When the egg hatches, a larva or nymph comes out. Nymphs are just baby insects. Most of the time, the nymph looks similar to the adult, but it is smaller, may have different colouration, and does not have wings. The nymph grows through stages called instars, shedding its 'skin' (epicuticle) at each stage (ecdysis). Finally, it changes into a mature adult with wings.

Some insect nymphs are aquatic, which means they live in water. These nymphs usually have gills and look very different from the adults they will turn into. Nymphs that live in water are called naiads.

Some insects that have a life cycle of egg-nymph-adult are:
 cockroaches
 dragonflies
 grasshoppers
 true bugs

Complete metamorphosis or holometabolism
Insects that have complete metamorphosis have four life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are very small. The egg hatches and a larva comes out. The larva looks like a worm and eats and eats so that it can grow much bigger. When the larva has grown it changes into a pupa. The pupa usually can not move or eat. The pupa is a special time when the insect is changing into an adult that will look very different from the larva or the pupa. Moth pupae (plural of pupa) are inside cocoons. When the pupa opens, the adult insect comes out.

Many insects have a life cycle of egg-larva-pupa-adult. Some of these insects are:
 Coleoptera: beetles
 Hymenoptera: bees, wasps, ants, sawflies
 Lepidoptera: butterflies, moths
 Diptera: the flies

The monarch butterfly
The monarch butterfly goes through four stages of development. Life for a monarch butterfly begins as an egg hatched from an adult. This egg then develops into a worm-like larva caterpillar. In the pupa or chrysalis stage, the caterpillar spins a silk pad on a twig or leaves and hangs from this pad by its last pair of prolegs. It hangs upside down in the shape of a "J" and then molts leaving it encased in a green exoskeleton. The mature butterfly emerges after about two weeks and feeds on a variety of flowers including milkweed flowers, red clover and goldenrod.

Amphibian metamorphosis

In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads, and newts all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Afterwards, newt larvae start a predatory lifestyle, while tadpoles mostly scrape food off surfaces with their horny tooth ridges.

Marine organisms
Many marine species have evolved a system where they release their eggs and sperm into the water at the same time, and fertilisation takes place in the sea over one or two days. This increases their chance of reproductive success.

Then, larvae join the other plankton, eating and growing before metamorphosing into adults. Most marine invertebrates and many fish have a life cycle with pelagic larvae or even pelagic eggs. These have the capacity to be transported long distances, and so spread the species around to other places.

Need for metamorphosis
The need for metamorphosis is clear when the relative size of eggs and adults is understood. A mature Atlantic cod can reach two metres long, and weigh over 200 pounds (96 kg). The female will produce over 100,000 eggs in a single spawning, and the resulting larvae are quite tiny. There is no way they could live like the adults, which are more or less top predators. The larvae cannot even swim against the current. Therefore, they must live a different kind of life before they can live as the adults do.

Their development is packaged into stages, and each stage has adaptations to life at its stage. The sharp distinction between stages (best seen in insects) is presumably because a longer transition would leave the juvenile less fit, either at its younger or older ways of life.

References

 Davies, R.G. Outlines of Entomology. Chapman and Hall: chapter 3

Other websites
 Description of metamorphosis and its different forms
 Info on butterflies and butterfly metamorphosis
 Info on insect hormones

Developmental biology
Animal anatomy

Metamorphosis


A claw is a sharp object. It is found at the end of a toe or finger in many mammals, birds, and some reptiles. The word "claw" is also used in reference to an invertebrate. For example, the chelae of crabs and lobsters are often called claws or pincers.

A claw is made of hard protein called keratin. They are used by some meat eating mammals such as cats to catch and hold prey, but they may also be used for other things such as digging, climbing trees, and so on, in those and other species.

Similar appendages that are flat and do not come to a sharp point are called nails instead.

Arthropods
The correct name for an arthropod's 'claw' is chela (plural chelae). Legs that have a chela are called chelipeds. Chelae are also called pincers.

Tetrapods
In tetrapods, claws are made of keratin and have two layers.  The unguis is the outside hard layer, which has keratin fibers arranged perpendicular to the direction of growth and in layers at an angle. The subunguis is the soft, flaky layer, and the grain is parallel to the direction of growth. The claw grows outward from the nail matrix at the base of the unguis and the subunguis grows thicker while traveling across the nail bed. The unguis grows outward faster than the subunguis to make a curve and the thinner sides of the claw wear away faster than their thicker middle, making a more or less sharp point. Tetrapods use their claws in many ways, such as grasping or killing prey, digging, climbing, and hanging.

Birds
A talon is the claw of a bird of prey, which it uses to hunt. The talons are very important. If they did not have them, those birds might not be able to catch their food. In any event, birds often need to carry their prey back to the nest. Nests are safe places where prey can be shared with chicks or with their partner. In its nest a bird can tear prey apart and feed pieces to its ever-hungry chicks.

Mammals
A nail is similar to a claw but it is flatter and has a curved edge instead of a point. A nail that is big enough to hold weight is called a 'hoof'.

Every so often, the growth of claws stops and restarts, just like the growth of hair. In hair, this causes the hair to fall out and it is replaced by a new one. In claws, this results in an old layer, and it breaks off. This takes several months for human thumbnails. Cats are often seen working old layers off on wood or on boards made for the purpose. Ungulates' hooves trim themselves when they walk on the ground. Domesticated equids (horses, donkeys and mules) usually need regular trimming by a farrier. In the wild, horses regularly travel much further than do domestic horses.

Many predatory mammals have claws that can hide inside the animal's paw, especially animals such as the cat.

Primates
A primate's nail only has the unguis; the subunguis has disappeared. Similar to the tail, the claw in apes is not needed. However, in some primates, the subunguis has redeveloped to make a claw-like structure. These certain animals do not have actual claws; instead the unguis appears normal along with a thick growth of subunguis.  Some lemurs have a toilet-claw which they use for scratching and grooming.

Other websites

The Horse's Hoof Anatomy
Rat's Claws, also explains much about mammalian claws in general.

Animal anatomy

Claw


Robert Earl Wise (September 10, 1914 – September 14, 2005) was an American film director, producer, and editor. He won the Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture for his musical films West Side Story (1961) and The Sound of Music (1965). He was also nominated for Best Film Editing for Citizen Kane (1941) and directed and produced The Sand Pebbles (1966), which was nominated for Best Picture.

Among his other films are The Body Snatcher (1945), Born to Kill (1947), The Set-Up (1949), The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951), Destination Gobi (1953), This Could Be The Night (1957), Run Silent, Run Deep (1958), I Want to Live! (1958), The Haunting (1963), The Andromeda Strain (1971), The Hindenburg (1975) and Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979).

He was the president of the Directors Guild of America from 1971 to 1975 and the president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences from 1985 through 1988.

Wise achieved critical success as a director in a striking variety of film genres: horror-noir, western, war, science fiction, musical and drama, with many repeat successes within each genre. Wise's meticulous preparation may have been largely motivated by studio budget constraints, but advanced the moviemaking art. He received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1998.

Early years
Wise was born in Winchester, Indiana, the youngest son of Olive R. (née Longenecker) and Earl W. Wise, a meat packer. He had an elder brother, David. The family moved to Connersville, Fayette County, Indiana, where Wise attended public schools. As a youth Wise's favorite pastime was going to the movies. As a student at Connersville High School, Wise wrote humor and sports columns for the school's newspaper and was a member of the yearbook staff and poetry club. Wise initially sought a career in journalism and following graduation from high school attended Franklin College, a small liberal arts college south of Indianapolis, Indiana, on a scholarship. In 1933, due to the family's poor financial situation during the Great Depression, Wise was unable to return to college for his second year and moved to Hollywood to begin a lifelong career in the film industry. Wise's older brother, David, who had gone to Hollywood several years earlier and worked at RKO Pictures, found his younger brother a job in the shipping department at RKO. Wise worked odd jobs at the studio before moving into editing.

Early career
Wise began his film career at RKO as a sound and music editor. In the 1930s, RKO was a budget-minded studio with "a strong work ethic" and "willingness to take artistic risks", which was fortunate for a newcomer to Hollywood such as Wise. At RKO, Wise became an assistant to T.K. Wood, the studio's head sound-effects editor. Wise's first screen credit was a ten-minute short subject called A Trip through Fijiland (1935), which was made from RKO footage salvaged from an abandoned feature film.

As Wise gained experience, he became more interested in editing film content, rather than sound, and went to work for RKO film editor William "Billy" Hamilton. Wise's first film as Hamilton's assistant was Alfred Santell's Winterset (1936). Wise continued to work with Hamilton on other films, including Stage Door (1937), Having Wonderful Time (1938) and The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle (1939). In The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939) and 5th Ave Girl (1939), Hamilton and Wise, as assistant film editor, shared screen credit; it was Wise's first credit on a feature film. Wise's first solo film editing work was on Bachelor Mother (1939) and My Favorite Wife (1939).

At RKO, Wise worked with Orson Welles on Citizen Kane (1941) and was nominated for the Academy Award for Film Editing. Wise was the film's last living crew member.

Though Wise worked as an editor on Citizen Kane, it is likely that while working on the film he became familiar with the optical printer techniques employed by Linwood Dunn, inventor of the practical optical printer, to produce effects for Citizen Kane such as the image projected in the broken snowglobe which falls from Kane's hand as he dies.

In Citizen Kane, Welles used a deep-focus technique, in which heavy lighting is employed to achieve sharp focus for both foreground and background in the frame. Wise later used the technique in films that he directed. Welles' Citizen Kane also influenced Wise's innovations in the use of sound in films such as The Set-Up (1949), where Wise limited music to in-film sources, and in Executive Suite (1954), which used no music. In addition, biographical films or biographical profiles of fictionalized characters such as Charles Foster Kane were often the subjects of Wise's later work, including Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956), I Want to Live! (1958), The Sound of Music (1965), So Big (1953), Run Silent, Run Deep (1958) and The Sand Pebbles (1966), among others. Wise also worked as editor on Welles' next film for RKO, The Magnificent Ambersons (1942). While working as a film editor, Wise was called on to shoot additional scenes for the film. After Welles was dismissed from the studio, Wise continued editing films such as Seven Days Leave (1942), Bombardier (1943) and The Fallen Sparrow (1943), before he received his first directing assignment.

Director and producer
For Wise, connecting to the viewer was the "most important part of making a film." Wise also had a reputation for a strong work ethic and budget-minded frugality. In addition, he was known for his attention to detail and well-researched preparation for a film. For example, before directing Until They Sail (1957), set in New Zealand during World War II, Wise traveled to New Zealand to interview women whose lives were similar to those portrayed in the film. Wise's attention to detail also extended to foreign locales. While in New Zealand doing research for the film, Wise also scouted background shots for the film's second-unit crew, even though the main film was shot on MGM's back lot in California. He also shot films on location, such as Mystery in Mexico (1948), a minor B-movie thriller filmed in Mexico City.

Wise's films often included lessons on racial tolerance. For example, Native Americans, Muslims,  Hispanics and African Americans were featured in such films as Two Flags West (1950), This Could Be the Night (1957), The Set-Up (1949) and Odds Against Tomorrow (1959), and West Side Story  (1961). The Sand Pebbles (1966) featured the story of a biracial couple, and Jewish characters were included in Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956), The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951), and The House on Telegraph Hill (1951).

At RKO, Wise got his first credited directing job in 1944 while working for Hollywood horror film producer Val Lewton. Wise replaced the original director on the horror film The Curse of the Cat People (1944), when it fell behind schedule. The film, a well received "dark fantasy about a solitary child and her imaginary friend", was a departure from the horror films of the day. In many of Wise's films, but especially in Curse of the Cat People, the melodrama used a vulnerable child or childlike character to challenge a dark, adult world. Lewton promoted Wise to his superiors at RKO, beginning a collaboration that produced the notable horror film The Body Snatcher (1945), starring Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi. Wise identified the film as a personal favorite and its rave reviews also helped establish his career as a director.

Between Curse and Snatcher, Wise directed Mademoiselle Fifi (1944), an adaptation of two Guy de Maupassant short stories that explored man's darker side with a political subtext. Fifis feminist perspective and a memorable chase sequence helped make it a "template picture for Wise". Wise also directed film noir, among them the Lawrence Tierney noir classic Born to Kill (1947), and Blood on the Moon (1948), a noir Western starring Robert Mitchum as a cowboy drifter that included memorable night sequences.

His last film for RKO The Set-Up (1949) was a realistic boxing movie in which Wise portrayed the sport as cruel and exploitative. The film also included choreographed fight scenes and "set the bar" for other fight films. The film earned the Critic's Prize at the Cannes Film Festival. Wise's use and mention of time in this film would echo in later noir films such as Stanley Kubrick's The Killing (1956) and Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction (1994).

In the 1950s, he proved adept in several genres, including science fiction in The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951); melodrama in So Big (1953); Western in Tribute to a Bad Man (1956), starring James Cagney; fictionalized biography in the boardroom drama Executive Suite (1954); and the epic Helen of Troy (1955) based on Homer's Iliad. Three Secrets (1950), a soap opera/family melodrama, gave Wise a chance to work with actress Patricia Neal "in a landmark performance about gender double standards". Neal starred in two more Wise films: The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Something for the Birds (1952). The Day the Earth Stood Still, a science fiction thriller that warned about the dangers of atomic warfare, included a realistic setting and an emphasis on the story instead of special effects. The film received "overwhelmingly positive" reviews and has become "one of the most enduring and influential science fiction films ever made, and among the first produced by a major studio."

The biography of convicted killer Barbara Graham in I Want to Live! (1958), featured Susan Hayward's Oscar-winning performance as Graham and earned Wise his first nomination for Best Director. The film became one of the top-grossing pictures of 1959 and was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Screenplay from another medium and Best (black and white) Cinematography. In addition, Executive Suite earned Wise a Best Director nomination from the Motion Picture Academy, the Venice Film Festival, and the Directors Guild of America. The film was awarded Special Jury Prize at the Venice Film Festival and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts nominated it for Best Film. Other Wise-directed films from the 1950s include Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956), a portrait of boxer Rocky Graziano, starring Paul Newman; Wise's first overt comedy, Something for the Birds (1952); the action comedy Destination Gobi (1953); and The Desert Rats (1953), a more traditional war film.

In the 1960s, Wise directed three films adapted from the Broadway stage: West Side Story (1961), Two for the Seesaw (1962) and The Sound of Music (1965). In 1961, teamed with Jerome Robbins, Wise won the Academy Award for Best Director for West Side Story, which Wise also produced. Wise and Robbins were the first duo to share an Academy Award for directing. Wise won a second Oscar, for Best Picture, as the film's producer, West Side Story won ten out of its 11 Academy Award nominations: Best Picture, Director, Supporting Actor (George Chakiris), Supporting Actress (Rita Moreno), Cinematography (color), Art/Set Decoration (color), Sound, Scoring of a Musical Picture, Editing, and Costume Design (color). It lost for Best Screenplay based on material from another medium to Judgment at Nuremberg (1961). West Side Story was a box-office hit, and critics have declared it "a cinema masterpiece".

Prior to directing The Sound of Music (1965), Wise directed the psychological horror film The Haunting (1963), starring Julie Harris, in an adaptation of Shirley Jackson's novel The Haunting of Hill House. Wise's big-budget adaptation of Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein's family-oriented musical The Sound of Music, with Julie Andrews as Maria and Christopher Plummer as Captain von Trapp, became one of film history's highest-grossing movies. Wise won Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture for The Sound of Music for 1965. Wise struggled to keep The Sound of Music from being an overly sweet, sentimental story by cutting lesser-known songs and adding new dialogue to improve transitions. In addition to garnering Wise two Oscars, the film won three more for editing, sound and scoring of music for an adaptation.

The Sound of Music was an interim film for Wise, produced to mollify the studio while he developed the difficult film The Sand Pebbles (1966), starring Steve McQueen, Richard Attenborough, and Candice Bergen. The Sand Pebbles, Wise's critically acclaimed film epic, was a parable of the Vietnam War, with an antiwar director and message. McQueen received his only Oscar nomination for his performance in the film. Set in the late 1920s in China, this was an early entry in a series of Vietnam war era films followed by Catch-22 and M*A*S*H. Excellent reviews for The Sand Pebbles marked Wise's last "creative peak" in his long career. Star! (1968), with Julie Andrews in the lead as Gertrude Lawrence, failed at the box office, although it was consistent with Wise's other successful films that portrayed a strong woman "whose life choices invite melodramatic relationships." Andrews was cast against type, but Wise, as the film's director, took responsibility for the film's shortcomings.

In the 1970s, Wise directed such films as The Andromeda Strain (1971), The Hindenburg (1975), the horror film Audrey Rose (1977) and Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979), the first Star Trek feature film.

Wise's adaptation of Michael Crichton's science-fiction thriller, The Andromeda Strain (1971), an anti-biological warfare film, was a "modest critical hit." His next film, Two People (1973), starring Peter Fonda and Lindsay Wagner, got "poor reviews" and is "one of Wise's least-seen movies." The Hindenburg (1975), which profiles the 1937 crash of the eponymous airship, was panned by critics, although it won Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects and Best Sound Effects. Wise's Audrey Rose (1977), a reincarnation thriller, received mixed reviews and was "sometimes criticized for being an Exorcist (1973) knockoff."

Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979), the first of the feature films based on the popular television series, was a difficult shoot for Wise. Popular film critic Leonard Maltin called it "Slow, talky, and derivative, somewhat redeemed by terrific special effects". The film was a box office hit but a critical failure.

Wise was Ilya and Alexander Salkind's first choice to direct the Superman spin-off Supergirl after Richard Lester departed the franchise, but he declined. Wise also was considered to direct the 1985 holiday film Santa Claus: The Movie and the 1988 horror film Child's Play introducing the slasher villain Chucky. In 1989, Wise directed Rooftops, his last theatrical feature film. The low-budget musical "opened and closed with no fanfare." At age 86, Wise directed A Storm in Summer (2000) for Showtime (cable television). Starring Peter Falk, it was his only made-for-television movie, airing in 2001, and won a Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Children's Special.

Later years
Wise, a lifelong liberal, contributed to charitable organizations, including the American Civil Liberties Union, and established the Robert E. Wise Foundation to provide financial assistance to causes in the Los Angeles area. Wise's private papers are housed at the University of Southern California.

As Wise's directing career slowed, he took a more active role in supporting the film industry. He became a governor of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 1966 and served for 19 years until becoming president from 1985 through 1988. He had previously been president of the Directors Guild of America from 1971 to 1975. He also sat on the Board of Trustees of the American Film Institute and chaired its Center for Advanced Film Studies. Wise was named chairman of the Directors Guild of America's special projects committee in 1980, organizing its fiftieth anniversary celebration in New York in 1986. In addition, Wise was a leading member of the National Council of the Arts and Sciences, the Department of Film at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, and the Motion Picture Country House and Hospital.

During the 1980s and 1990s Wise served on the advisory board of the National Student Film Institute.

Wise also encouraged young filmmakers and responded to inquiries from fans and film students. Wise supervised Emilio Estevez's debut as a director in Wisdom (1986) and was its executive producer. Wise also made a cameo performance in John Landis' The Stupids (1996).

In his later years, Wise continued to be active in productions of DVD versions of his films, including making public appearances promoting those films. His last contributions were to the DVD commentaries of The Sound of Music, The Haunting and The Set-Up. He also oversaw the DVD commentaries of The Sand Pebbles and Executive Suite. He also oversaw and provided DVD commentary for his Director's Edition of Star Trek: The Motion Picture, which included re-edited scenes, new optical effects and a new sound mix. This was the director's final project before his death.

Personal life
On May 25, 1942, Wise married actress Patricia Doyle. Throughout their long life together, Wise and his wife enjoyed entertaining and traveling, before she died of cancer on September 22, 1975. The couple had one son, Robert, who became an assistant cameraman. On January 29, 1977, Wise married Millicent Franklin. Millicent died on August 31, 2010, at Cedars-Sinai Hospital, Los Angeles.

Wise had an expansive bungalow on the Universal Studios lot and owned a modern California beach house. He continued to screen films for personal enjoyment and had "final cut" decisions on his films.

Wise suffered a heart attack and was rushed to UCLA Medical Center, where he died of heart failure on September 14, 2005, four days after his 91st birthday.

Filmography

Editor

Executive producer
 Star! (1968) (Uncredited)
 The Baby Maker (1970)
 Wisdom (1986)

Other roles

Accolades
Wise was a four-time Oscar-winner (Best Director and Best Picture, 1961 and 1965) and also received the Academy's Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (1966); the D.W. Griffith Award (1988) from the Directors Guild of America for outstanding lifetime achievement; the National Medal of Arts (1992); AFI's Lifetime Achievement Award (1998); and the Society of Motion Picture and Television Art Directors career award for "outstanding contribution to cinematic imagery" (1998). Wise also has a star (#6340) on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild published a list of the 75 best-edited films of all time based on a survey of its membership. Citizen Kane, which Wise had edited early in his career, was listed second.

In Indiana, Governor Roger D. Branigin proclaimed March 1, 1967, Robert Wise Day in honor of the 1967 premiere of The Sand Pebbles in Indianapolis. Wise was also named a Sagamore of the Wabash. In 1968, Wise was awarded an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts from Franklin College and in 1981 co-chaired a $10 million fundraising campaign for the college. Connersville, Indiana, proclaimed June 4, 1968, as Robert Wise Day, while his birthplace, Winchester, Indiana, made a similar proclamation the following day.

On November 3, 1990, Wise attended the dedication of the Robert E. Wise Center for Performing Arts at the new Connersville High School. In 1992, Wise was named the first recipient of the Indianapolis-based Heartland Film Festival's Crystal Heart Career Achievement Award. In 2002, the Indiana Historical Society named Wise a Living Legend. Wise is also depicted in a mural of famous Randolph County, Indiana, natives in the county's courthouse. This mural was painted by local artist Roy L. Barnes.

References

Bibliography

External links

1914 births
2005 deaths
American Cinema Editors
American film editors
Best Directing Academy Award winners
Golden Globe Award-winning producers
Producers who won the Best Picture Academy Award
Presidents of the Directors Guild of America
Presidents of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
Film directors from Indiana
Franklin College (Indiana) alumni
United States National Medal of Arts recipients
People from Winchester, Indiana
20th Century Studios people
Science fiction film directors
American sound editors
Directors Guild of America Award winners
People from Connersville, Indiana
English-language film directors
AFI Life Achievement Award recipients
Film producers from Indiana

Robert Wise


In Abrahamic religions, Mary (Judeo-Aramaic מרים Maryām;  (Maryam); Septuagint Greek Μαριαμ, Mariam, Μαρια, Maria; ) was the mother of Jesus. Her story is told in the New Testament of the Bible.

Mary in the Bible

Christian beliefs about Mary are based on the Bible. The Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke say that Mary was a young woman who was engaged to be married to a man called Joseph. The Gospel of Luke says that the angel Gabriel came to Mary to tell her that she would give birth to a son. The angel told Mary that she should call her son Jesus. The angel also said that Jesus would save people from their sins.

Mary asked the angel how she could be pregnant, since she was a virgin. The angel told her that God had made her pregnant through a miracle.

In the sixth month, the angel Gabriel was sent from God to a town of Galilee called Nazareth, to a virgin betrothed to a man named Joseph, of the house of David, and the virgin's name was Mary. And coming to her, he said, "Hail, favored one! The Lord is with you." But she was greatly troubled at what was said and pondered what sort of greeting this might be. Then the angel said to her, "Do not be afraid, Mary, for you have found favor with God. Behold, you will conceive in your womb and bear a son, and you shall name him Jesus. He will be great and will be called Son of the Most High, and the Lord God will give him the throne of David his father, and he will rule over the house of Jacob forever, and of his kingdom there will be no end." But Mary said to the angel, "How can this be, since I have no relations with a man?" And the angel said to her in reply, "The holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you. Therefore the child to be born will be called holy, the Son of God. And behold, Elizabeth, your relative, has also conceived a son in her old age, and this is the sixth month for her who was called barren; for nothing will be impossible for God." Mary said, "Behold, I am the handmaid of the Lord. May it be done to me according to your word." Then the angel departed from her.According to the law that Israelites follow, Joseph had the right to divorce Mary publicly, but he did not. In a dream Joseph was told that Mary was conceived by the Holy Spirit.

At this time, the Roman Emperor, Caesar Augustus, made a law that everyone in the Roman Empire had to pay a tax. Everyone had to go back to the town that their family came from, to have their name put on the tax lists. Joseph came from Bethlehem, which was called The City of David. So Joseph took Mary to Bethlehem. There, she gave birth to the baby, Jesus. She gave birth in an animal shed, because Mary and Joseph could not find a room to stay in.

Thirty-three years later, Jesus was killed by crucifixion. Many of Jesus' apostles were scared of the Roman soldiers and ran away. However, Mary stood by the cross and was with Jesus when he died. As he was dying, he told the young disciple John to care for Mary as if she was his own mother, and the words were "Woman, this is your son. This is your mother". On the third day after Jesus' death, Mary went to Jesus' tomb with other women.  They saw that the stone was rolled away from the tomb, and his body was gone.  An angel told the women that Jesus had risen and was alive.

Mary continued to meet with the early church after the Ascension of Jesus. (Acts 1:14)

Mary in Islam

The Qur'an says that she was a virgin when she gave birth to Jesus and so Muslims honor Jesus as a great prophet.

Giving honor to Mary

Mary is given honor in the Christian faith. She is especially honored as "the Mother of God" in the Roman Catholic Church. She is also honored as "Theotokos" (roughly translated as "the one who gave birth to God") in the Eastern Orthodox Church. In Christianity, Jesus is thought to be both fully God and fully man.

Christians do not worship Mary, because they believe that only God should be worshipped. However, some Christians, mainly Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, venerate her. That means that they pray to her and respect her acceptance of God's will by willingly giving birth to Jesus.

Mary is often called "the Blessed Virgin Mary" by Roman Catholics. There are many feast days that honor the Virgin Mary. For example, the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin, on 8 September, honors her birth.  Catholics also celebrate the Immaculate Conception, and Mary as Queen of Heaven on August 22. There is some confusion about the Immaculate Conception.  Many think this is the same as the virgin birth of Jesus, but the Catholic teaching of Immaculate Conception is that Mary herself was born without sin.

Christian art often shows the Virgin Mary. Many paintings show Mary with the baby Jesus. These paintings are known as Madonna and Child pictures.

Many people who pray through Mary use a prayer called the Hail Mary. The first part of the prayer honors Mary: "Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee. Blessed art thou amongst women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus." The second part of the prayer asks for Mary's help: "Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and in the hour of our deaths. Amen."

Protestants believe that Roman Catholics and Orthodox give Mary too much honor. Since the title "Mother of God", the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of Mary are all teachings that are not found in the Bible, Protestants don't accept them. The Assumption of Mary is the teaching that Mary was taken up to heaven without dying.  Protestants believe that we can pray directly to God through Jesus, and do not need Mary or other saints to intercede for us.

Related pages
 Madonna and Child
 Icon
 Roman Catholic Church
 Licheń Stary
 Our Lady of Guadalupe
 Our Lady of Lourdes

References

1st-century BC births
1st-century deaths

Early Christian saints
People from Nazareth

Mary, mother of Jesus


Universal history, world history or global history examines history from a global perspective.

It looks for common patterns that one can find across all cultures. Universal historians use a thematic approach. That means they look at history from two viewpoints: On the one hand they look at processes of world history that have drawn people of the world together, on the other hand they want to find out how patterns of world history reveal the diversity of the human experience.

The study of universal or global history is in some ways a product of the current period of accelerated globalization. This period has two tendencies: it integrates various cultures and it shows their differences when people of different cultures and civilizations have to live with each other.

To discuss "the history of the world" in a unified framework is not that new. For example, it was a genre popular in the 19th century, and with Christian historians going back to at least the 4th century.

Related pages
Natural history

Notes

Other websites
 World History Network
Bridging World History
China and Europe
Journal of World History
The Changing Shape of World History, William H. McNeill, Paper originally presented at the History and Theory World History Conference, March 25-26, 1994
World History Connected
World History For Us All  - World History Model Curriculum
World History Matters
WWW-VL World History Index
World History Blog - World History blog.
World History Today  - World History blog.
Five Epochs of Civilization Ends regional bias by focusing on communication technologies shared throughout the earth

+

Universal history


Charlotte Brontë (21 April 1816 – 31 March 1855) was an English novelist and poet.

She first published her works, including Jane Eyre, under the pseudonym (false name) of Currer Bell. In 1846, Charlotte encouraged her sisters to print Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. They did not sell well. Her first novel, The Professor, was rejected by many publishers. It was not printed until 1857. She is famous for her novel Jane Eyre (1847), which was very popular when it was printed.

Jane Eyre was a strong story of a plain, brave, clever woman struggling with her passions, reasons, and social condition. She later wrote the books Shirley (1849) and Villette (1853). She lived longer than her sisters, but she was only 38 when she died in pregnancy.

Life

Charlotte Brontë was the third child of Patrick Brontë (formerly "Patrick Brunty"), an Irish Anglican clergyman, and his wife, Maria née Branwell. In April 1821, the family moved a few miles to Haworth. Patrick had been appointed Perpetual Curate there. Maria Branwell Brontë died of cancer on 15 September 1821. She left her five daughters and a son to be looked after by her sister Elizabeth Branwell.

In August 1824, Charlotte was sent with three of her sisters to the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire. She described it as Lowood School in her novel Jane Eyre. The sisters were Emily, Maria and Elizabeth. The poor conditions of the school permanently affected Charlotte's health according to her. She thought it led to the early deaths of her two elder sisters, Maria (born 1814) and Elizabeth (born 1815). They died of tuberculosis in June 1825 soon after their father took them from the school on 1 June.

At home in Haworth Parsonage, Charlotte and the other living children (Branwell, Emily and Anne) began writing about the lives and struggles of the dwellers of their imaginary kingdoms. Charlotte and Branwell wrote Byronic stories about their country — Angria — Emily and Anne wrote articles and poems about theirs Gondal.

Charlotte went to school at Roe Head, Mirfield, from 1831 to 1832. There she met her lifelong friends, Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor. In 1833 she wrote her novella The Green Dwarf under the name of Wellesley. Charlotte returned as a teacher from 1835 to 1838. In 1839 she became a governess to various families in Yorkshire, a career she had until 1841.

In 1842 she and Emily travelled to Brussels to enroll in a pensionnat (boarding school) run by Constantin Heger (1809 – 1896) and his wife Claire Zoé Parent Heger (1814 – 1891). In return for this, Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Their time at the pensionnat was cut short when Elizabeth Branwell, their aunt, died in October 1842. Charlotte returned alone to Brussels in January 1843 to be a teacher at the pensionnat. This stay was not happy. She became lonely, homesick and deeply attached to Constantin Heger. She finally returned to Haworth in January 1844 and later used her time at the pensionnat as the inspiration for some of The Professor and Villette.

Books
 Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell (1846)
 Jane Eyre, published in 1847
 Shirley, published in 1849
 Villette, published in 1853
 The Professor,published posthumously in 1857
 Emma, unfinished; Charlotte Brontë wrote only 20 pages of the manuscript. The book was then finished by author Clare Boylan and released in 2003. It was named Emma Brown.

Other websites

 Brontë Parsonage Museum in Haworth
 The Brontë Society's Blog, contains the latest news of events, lectures, publications etc. concerning the Brontë family of writers.
 Online editions of Charlotte Brontë's works

 Charlotte Brontë - Drawing by George Richmond (National Portrait Gallery)

1816 births
1885 deaths
Disease-related deaths in Yorkshire
English novelists
English poets
Writers from Yorkshire

Charlotte Brontë


A jubilee is a special year of remission of sins, debts and universal pardon. In Leviticus, a jubilee year ( yūḇāl) is mentioned to occur every 50th year; during which slaves and prisoners would be freed, debts would be forgiven and the mercies of God would be particularly manifest.

In Western Christianity, the tradition dates to 1300, when Pope Boniface VIII convoked a holy year, following which ordinary jubilees have generally been celebrated every 25 or 50 years, with extraordinary jubilees in addition depending on need. Catholic jubilees, particularly in the Latin Church, generally involve pilgrimage to a sacred site, normally the city of Rome. The Catholic Church declared the Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy for 2015–2016.

Background

In Jewish tradition, the jubilee year was a time of joy, the year of remission or universal pardon. Leviticus 25:10 reads, "Thou shalt sanctify the fiftieth year, and shalt proclaim remission to all the inhabitants of thy land: for it is the year of jubilee."

The same concept forms the fundamental idea of the Christian jubilee. The number 50 was specially associated in the early 13th century with the idea of remission. The translation of the body of Thomas Becket took place in the year 1220, 50 years after his martyrdom. The sermon on that occasion was preached by Cardinal Stephen Langton who told his hearers that this coincidence was meant by Providence to recall "the mystical virtue of the number fifty, which, as every reader of the sacred page is aware, is the number of remission."

In the Chronicle of Alberic of Three Fountains, under the year 1208 (not, be it noted, 1200), is this brief entry: "It is said that this year was celebrated as the fiftieth year, or the year of jubilee and remission, in the Roman Court."

Definition
In Roman Catholic tradition, a jubilee or Holy Year is a year of forgiveness of sins and also the punishment due to sin. It is a year of reconciliation between adversaries, of conversion and receiving the Sacrament of Reconciliation, "...and consequently of solidarity, hope, justice, commitment to serve God with joy and in peace with our brothers and sisters." A jubilee can be ordinary if it falls after the set period of years or extraordinary if it is proclaimed for some outstanding event.

History

First Christian jubilee
In the face of great suffering, caused by wars and diseases such as the plague thousands of pilgrims came to Rome at Christmas in 1299. Cardinal Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi, the contemporary and counsellor of Pope Boniface VIII, and author of a treatise on the first Christian jubilee, noted that the proclamation of the jubilee owed its origin to the statements of certain aged pilgrims who persuaded Boniface that great indulgences had been granted to all pilgrims in Rome about a hundred years before.

On February 22, 1300, Boniface published the bull "Antiquorum habet fida relatio", in which, appealing vaguely to the precedent of past ages, he declared "...the most full, pardon of all their sins", to those who fulfill certain conditions. These are, first, that being truly penitent they confess their sins, and secondly, that they visit the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul in Rome, at least once a day for a specified time—in the case of the inhabitants of the city for 30 days, in the case of strangers for 15 days.

The word "jubilee" does not occur in the bull. The pope speaks rather of a celebration which is to occur every 100 years, but writers both Roman and foreign described this year as annus jubileus, and the name "jubilee" (though others, such as the "holy year" or "the golden year", have been used, as well) has been applied to such celebrations ever since. Among those who are recorded as among the pilgrims of that first jubilee are Cimabue, Giotto, Charles, Count of Valois, the chronicler Giovanni Villani, and Dante Alighieri, who mentions it in the Divine Comedy in Canto XXXI of "Paradiso".

Jubilee of 1350
Boniface VIII had intended that the jubilee should be celebrated only once in 100 years. Before the middle of the 14th century, Bridget of Sweden and the poet Petrarch (among others) urged Pope Clement VI, then residing at Avignon, to change this. In 1343, Clement VI assented and issued the bull "Unigenitus", and set the time frame for every 50 years. In 1350, a jubilee was held, and although the pope did not return to Rome, Cardinal Gaetani Ceccano was dispatched to represent him. On this occasion, daily visits to the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran were enjoined, besides those to the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul outside the Walls.

Jubilees of 1390 and 1423
In virtue of an ordinance of Pope Urban VI, it was proposed to hold a jubilee every 33 years as representing the period of the sojourn of Christ upon earth and also the average span of human life. The next jubilee was held in 1390, and the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore was added to the list. The visits to these four churches has remained as one of the conditions for gaining the Roman jubilee indulgence.

In 1400 so many people came to Rome that Pope Boniface IX granted the indulgence again, though he had not decreed a jubilee year previously. One of the most severe occurrences of plague during the Second plague pandemic was exacerbated by the many pilgrims making their way to and from Rome; in the city itself 600–800 of the faithful died daily.

Another jubilee was proclaimed by Pope Martin V in 1423 (33 years after the last proclaimed jubilee in 1390), but Pope Nicholas V, in 1450, reverted to the quinquagesimal period, while in 1470 Pope Paul II decreed that the jubilee should be celebrated every 25 years, and this has been the normal rule ever since. Paul also permitted foreigners to visit some specified church in their own country, and contribute towards the expense of the Holy Wars, as a substitute for the pilgrimage to Rome.

Subsequent jubilees

The jubilees of 1450 and 1475 were attended by vast crowds of pilgrims, and that of 1450 was unfortunately made famous by a terrible accident in which nearly 200 people were trampled to death in a panic which occurred on the bridge of Sant' Angelo. Following this disaster, great pains were taken to widen the thoroughfares and to provide for the entertainment and comfort of the pilgrims by numerous charitable organizations, of which the Archconfraternity of the Holy Trinity, founded by Sankt Philip Neri, was the most famous. In 1450, Rome was a largely rural area surrounded by the Aurelian Walls and inhabited by no more than 30,000 people engaged mainly in stock-rearing, in contrast with the economic centres of Florence, Venice, and Milan. Wolves frequented the Vatican Gardens, the population was centred on the Tiber near the Campus Martius, while round the churches of San Giovanni in Laterano and Santa Maria Maggiore were separate villages. Pope Nicholas V used the wealth brought in by pilgrims in the jubilee year of 1450 to convert the medieval city into a Renaissance capital, to found the Vatican Library, and to permanently move the papal seat to the west bank of the Tiber away from the Roman masses who had evicted his predecessor: the Vatican Palace and St Peter's Basilica thus replaced St John Lateran as the main papal headquarters. The nearby Castel Sant'Angelo was rebuilt, along with new fortifications encircling what is now the Vatican City, which Pope Nicholas made his home. According to Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, 40,000 pilgrims arrived in Rome every day for the jubilee in 1450. With them came plague, and some members of the Curia died of the infection while the Pope himself fled Rome for Fabriano in the Apennine Mountains.

In 1500, Pope Alexander VI announced that the doors in the four major basilicas would be opened simultaneously, and that he himself would open the Holy Door of Saint Peter's. The celebrations around this were "founded on ancient rites and full of symbolic meaning" and the total number attending the initial jubilee events was, according to Johann Burchard, an estimated 200,000 people. This act definitively ushered in several customs.

The ninth jubilee was solemnly opened on December 24, 1524, by Pope Clement VII, at a time when symptoms of the great crises which would soon tear the Church apart were already present, with the Protestant Reformation. The 1550 Jubilee was proclaimed by Pope Paul III, but Pope Julius III actually opened it.

In 1575, in the time of Pope Gregory XIII, as many as 300,000 people came to Rome from all over Europe. The following Holy Year was proclaimed by Pope Clement VIII in 1600.

In 1625, Pope Urban VIII opened the ceremonial doors for the jubilee year. However, the number of pilgrims was lower than expected due to the wars in northern Italy, so the Pope suspended the declaration of indulgences outside Rome in an attempt to lure the faithful to the city. He then went on to declare a universal or extraordinary jubilee in 1628 to pray for peace. This was repeated the next year in 1629, and brought undoubted material benefits to the city. Finally, Innocent X oversaw the last of his jubilees in 1650.

Pope Clement X presided over that of 1675. Pope Clement XI, who opened the Jubilee of 1700, is remembered especially for establishing one of Rome's most renowned charitable institutions, the hospice of San Michele a Ripa. Gradually, other similar institutions were opened to offer shelter and assistance to pilgrims, as in 1725, the Holy Year called by Pope Benedict XIII. A famous preacher during the Jubilee of 1750, proclaimed by Pope Benedict XIV, was Leonard of Port Maurice, who set up 14 Stations of the Cross inside the ruins of the Colosseum.

Pope Clement XIV announced the Jubilee of 1775, but died three months before Christmas and the Holy Door was opened by the new pope, Pius VI. The difficult situation in which the Church found herself during the hegemonic rule of Napoleon prevented Pope Pius VII from proclaiming the Jubilee of 1800.

More than a half a million pilgrims made the journey to Rome for the Jubilee of 1825. Twenty-five years later, the Holy Year could not be held because of the unsettled situation in the Roman Republic and temporary exile of Pope Pius IX. However, he was able to announce a jubilee for 1875, but it was celebrated without any external solemnity, with only the clergy present for the inauguration. The holy doors were not opened, and the pilgrims who came were generally in Rome to do homage to the pope, who had not accepted the Italian annexation of Rome by the troops of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, rather than to obtain an indulgence.

The Jubilee of 1900, though shorn of much of its splendor by the self-confinement of the pope within the limits of the Vatican, was, nevertheless, carried out by Pope Leo XIII with all the solemnity that was possible.

20th-century jubilees
In the 20th century, jubilees were held in 1925, 1933 (in commemoration of the 1900th anniversary of the traditional year of Jesus's death and resurrection), 1950, 1966 (post-Council jubilee), 1975, 1983 (for the Holy Year of the Redemption: the 1950th anniversary of Jesus's death and resurrection), and 2000.

Pope Pius XII used the occasion of the 1950 Jubilee to declare a new pontifical anthem for the Vatican City. With the encyclical Fulgens corona, he declared the first Marian year or "Little Holy Year" for 1954. Pope John Paul II proclaimed a Marian year in 1987, again four years after the 1983 Jubilee.

"Great Jubilee" of 2000

Pope John Paul II announced a Great Jubilee for the year 2000 with his apostolic letter Tertio Millennio Adveniente (As the Third Millennium Approaches) of November 10, 1994. In this writing, he called for a three-year preparation period leading up to the opening of the Great Jubilee in December 1999. The first year, 1997, was to be dedicated to meditation on Jesus, the second to the Holy Spirit, and the third to God the Father. This Jubilee was especially marked by a simplification of the rites and the requirements for achieving the indulgence, as well as a huge effort to involve other Christians in the celebration.

Protestants and the Eastern Orthodox Church were invited to celebrate the jubilee together with Catholics as a sign of ecumenism. Furthermore, special jubilees were invoked for various groups within the Church, such as children, athletes, politicians, and actors. World Youth Day, celebrated in Rome in August, brought over two million young people together.

The jubilee was closed by the pope on January 6, 2001, by the closing of the holy door of St. Peter's Basilica and the promulgation of the apostolic letter Novo Millennio Ineunte (Upon Entering the New Millennium), which outlined the pope's vision for the future of the church.

Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy, 2016

On March 13, 2015, Pope Francis announced a special jubilee on the theme of mercy to be held from  December 8, 2015, until November 20, 2016, and formally convoked the holy year through the papal bull of indiction, Misericordiae Vultus  (The Face of Mercy), on April 11, 2015.

Ceremonial of the jubilee
The most distinctive feature in the ceremonial of the jubilee is the unwalling and the final walling up of the "holy door" in each of the four great basilicas which the pilgrims are required to visit. The doors are opened by the pope at the beginning of the jubilee and then sealed up again afterwards. Previously, the rite included the use of a silver hammer (for removing the concrete at the opening) and a silver trowel (for sealing it again after the jubilee). The pope would pound on the wall, which would then be set to collapse.  This ritual caused injury of bystanders, so for the Great Jubilee of 2000, Pope John Paul II simplified the rite considerably, opening and closing the doors with his hands.

Traditionally, the pope himself opens and closes the doors of St. Peter's Basilica personally, and designates a cardinal to open those of St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major, and St. Paul Outside the Walls. In the Great Jubilee, the pope chose to open all the doors personally, while designating cardinals to close all the doors except that of St. Peter's.

Catholic parishes all over the world share a similar rite dedicating a door for the purposes of the jubilee year to accommodate its parishioners who do not intend to visit Rome for the occasion. Local parishes' doors include the same indulgence given to the basilica doors.

Miscellaneous jubilee events
In August 2020, Pope Francis approved the extension of the Jubilee Year of Loreto to 2021. The jubilee year marks the 100th anniversary of the official proclamation of Our Lady of Loreto as the patroness of pilots and air passengers. It began December 8, 2019 and was due to end December 10, 2020, the feast of Our Lady of Loreto, but was extended to December 10, 2021 because of disruptions due to the coronavirus.

Pope John Paul II named some of his voyages jubilee pilgrimages: to Mount Sinai and the Holy Land in 2000 and a Jubilee Pilgrimage in the Footsteps of Saint Paul in 2001 to Malta, Syria, and Greece.

Jubilee indulgence

This is a plenary indulgence which, as stated by Pope Boniface VIII in consistory, it is the intention of the Holy See to grant in the most ample manner possible. When first conceded, such an indulgence, and also the privilege annexed of choosing a confessor who had power to absolve from reserved cases, was a much rarer spiritual boon than it has since become. So preeminent was the favor then regarded that the custom arose of suspending all other indulgences during the jubilee year, a practice which, with certain modifications, still exists to the present day. The precise conditions for gaining each jubilee indulgence are determined by the Roman pontiff, and they are usually announced in a special Bull, distinct from that which it is customary to issue on the preceding feast of the Ascension giving notice of the forthcoming celebration. The main conditions, however, which do not usually vary, are five: confession, Communion, prayer for the Pope, complete renunciation of all attachment to sin, and visits to the four basilicas during a certain specified period. (The first four are common to all plenary indulgences.) The statement made by some, that the jubilee indulgence, being a culpa et a paena, did not of old presuppose either confession or repentance, is absolutely without foundation, and is contradicted by every extant official document of the Roman Catholic Church. Besides the ordinary jubilee indulgence, to be gained only by pilgrims who pay a visit to Rome, or through special concession by certain cloistered religious confined within their monasteries, it has long been customary to extend this indulgence the following year to the faithful throughout the world, though in 2000, the indulgence was extended to the whole world during the jubilee year itself. For this, fresh conditions are appointed, usually including a certain number of visits to local churches and sometimes fasting or other works of charity. Further, the popes have constantly exercised their prerogative of conceding to all the faithful indulgences ad instar jubilaei (after the model of a jubilee) which are commonly known as "extraordinary jubilees". On these occasions, as at the jubilee itself, special facilities are usually accorded for absolution from reserved cases, though on the other hand, the great indulgence is only to be gained by the performance of conditions much more onerous than those required for an ordinary plenary indulgence. Such extraordinary jubilees are commonly granted by a newly elected pontiff at his accession or on occasions of some unexpected celebration, as was done, for example, at the convening of the First Vatican Council, or again at times of great calamity.

Pope John Paul II convoked jubilees in 1983 (Holy Year of the Redemption) and in 2000 (the Great Jubilee). In 2000, he greatly liberalized the conditions for gaining the jubilee indulgence. A visit to only one of the four patriarchal basilicas in Rome was necessary (entering through the holy door). To the four basilicas were added the Sanctuary of Divine Love in Rome, and each diocese was permitted to name a location within the diocese where the indulgence could be gained. For instance, the Diocese of Rome added the chapel in the airport at Fiumicino as a possible pilgrimage site. Most dioceses simply named the local cathedral as the pilgrimage site. Multiple visits were not required. On the last full day of the jubilee, pilgrims were permitted to enter the holy door at St. Peter's until late into the night, so no one would be denied the opportunity to gain the indulgence. The requirements of confession, communion, prayer for the pope, and freedom from all attachment to sin remained in place, as for all plenary indulgences.

List of Roman Catholic jubilee years

 1300: Pope Boniface VIII
 1350: Pope Clement VI
 1390: decreed by Pope Urban VI, presided by Pope Boniface IX
 1400: Pope Boniface IX
 1423: Pope Martin V
 1450: Pope Nicholas V
 1475: decreed by Pope Paul II, presided by Pope Sixtus IV
 1500: Pope Alexander VI
 1525: Pope Clement VII
 1550: decreed by Pope Paul III, presided by Julius III
 1575: Pope Gregory XIII
 1600: Pope Clement VIII
 1625: Pope Urban VIII
 1650: Pope Innocent X
 1675: Pope Clement X
 1700: decreed by Pope Innocent XII, presided by Pope Clement XI
 1725: Pope Benedict XIII
 1750: Pope Benedict XIV
 1775: decreed by Pope Clement XIV, presided by Pope Pius VI
 1825: Pope Leo XII
 1875: Pope Pius IX (without great solemnity)
 1900: Pope Leo XIII
 1925: Pope Pius XI
 1933: Pope Pius XI
 1950: Pope Pius XII
 1966: Pope Paul VI
 1975: Pope Paul VI
 1983: Pope John Paul II
 2000: Pope John Paul II
 2016: Pope Francis
 2025: Pope Francis

See also
Marian year
Jubilee (disambiguation page)
Christian views on the Old Covenant

Notes

References

External links
Vatican.Va: What is a holy year?
Vatican.Va: Jubilee in the Bible
Vatican.Va: Jubilee year in the Gospel of Luke

Christian terminology

Jubilee in the Catholic Church