स्वकुं धाःगु स्वंगु कुं छ्यला कुनातःगु, द्विआयामिक ख्यः ख। थ्व छगु आधारभूत रेखागणितीय पोलिगन खः। थ्व पोलिगनय् स्वंगु भर्टेक्स स्वंगु साइड व स्वंगु कोण दै।

प्रकार
स्वकुंया ल्हा कथं थुकित ३गु भायय् बाय् छिं
 समबाहू
 समद्विबाहू
 विषमबाहू

कोणयागु कथं त्रिभूजयात स्वंगु भागय् बाय् छिं-
 राइट त्रिकोण
 अब्ट्युज त्रिकोण .
 एक्युट त्रिकोण .

साधारण ज्याखंतः
त्रिकोणयागु छुं खंतेत युक्लिडनं वेकयागु युक्लिडयागु एलेमेन्टतः सफूयु भाग १-४य् थ्यं-मथ्यं ३०० इ पूय् च्वयादिगु दु।

A triangle is a polygon and a 2-simplex (see polytope). All triangles are two-dimensional.

Two triangles are said to be similar if and only if the angles of one are equal to the corresponding angles of the other. In this case, the lengths of their corresponding sides are proportional. This occurs for example when two triangles share an angle and the sides opposite to that angle are parallel.

Using right triangles and the concept of similarity, the trigonometric functions sine and cosine can be defined. These are functions of an angle which are investigated in trigonometry.

In the remainder we will consider a triangle with vertices A, B and C, angles α, β and γ and sides a, b and c. The side a is opposite to the vertex A and angle α and analogously for the other sides.

In Euclidean geometry, the sum of the internal angles α + β + γ is equal to two right angles (180° or π radians). This allows determination of the third angle of any triangle as soon as two angles are known.

A central theorem is the Pythagorean theorem stating that in any right triangle, the area of the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides. If side C is the hypotenuse, we can write this as

This means that knowing the lengths of two sides of a right triangle is enough to calculate the length of the third—something unique to right triangles.
The Pythagorean theorem can be generalized to the law of cosines:

which is valid for all triangles, even if γ is not a right angle.
The law of cosines can be used to compute the side lengths and angles of a triangle as soon as all three sides or two sides and an enclosed angle are known.

साइनयु लः कथं :

where d is the diameter of the circumcircle (the circle which passes through all three points of the triangle). The law of sines can be used to compute the side lengths for a triangle as soon as two angles and one side are known. If two sides and an unenclosed angle is known, the law of sines may also be used; however, in this case there may be zero, one or two solutions.

There are two special right triangles that appear commonly in geometry. The so-called "45-45-90 triangle" has angles with those angle measures and the ratio of its sides is : . The "30-60-90 triangle" has sides in the ratio of .

Points, lines and circles associated with a triangle
There are hundreds of different constructions that find a special point inside a triangle, satisfying some unique property: see the references section for a catalogue of them. Often they are constructed by finding three lines associated in a symmetrical way with the three sides (or vertices) and then proving that the three lines meet in a single point: an important tool for proving the existence of these is Ceva's theorem, which gives a criterion for determining when three such lines are concurrent. Similarly, lines associated with a triangle are often constructed by proving that three symmetrically constructed points are collinear: here Menelaus' theorem gives a useful general criterion. In this section just a few of the most commonly-encountered constructions are explained.

A perpendicular bisector of a triangle is a straight line passing through the midpoint of a side and being perpendicular to it, i.e. forming a right angle with it. The three perpendicular bisectors meet in a single point, the triangle's circumcenter; this point is the center of the circumcircle, the circle passing through all three vertices. The diameter of this circle can be found from the law of sines stated above.

Thales' theorem states that if the circumcenter is located on one side of the triangle, then the opposite angle is a right one. More is true: if the circumcenter is located inside the triangle, then the triangle is acute; if the circumcenter is located outside the triangle, then the triangle is obtuse.

An altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and perpendicular to (i.e. forming a right angle with) the opposite side. This opposite side is called the base of the altitude, and the point where the altitude intersects the base (or its extension) is called the foot of the altitude. The length of the altitude is the distance between the base and the vertex. The three altitudes intersect in a single point, called the orthocenter of the triangle. The orthocenter lies inside the triangle if and only if the triangle is acute.
The three vertices together with the orthocenter are said to form an orthocentric system.

An angle bisector of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex which cuts the corresponding angle in half. The three angle bisectors intersect in a single point, the incenter, the center of the triangle's incircle. The incircle is the circle which lies inside the triangle and touches all three sides. There are three other important circles, the excircles; they lie outside the triangle and touch one side as well as the extensions of the other two. The centers of the in- and excircles form an orthocentric system.

A median of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite side, and divides the triangle into two equal areas. The three medians intersect in a single point, the triangle's centroid. This is also the triangle's center of gravity: if the triangle were made out of wood, say, you could balance it on its centroid, or on any line through the centroid. The centroid cuts every median in the ratio 2:1, i.e. the distance between a vertex and the centroid is twice as large as the distance between the centroid and the midpoint of the opposite side.

The midpoints of the three sides and the feet of the three altitudes all lie on a single circle, the triangle's nine-point circle. The remaining three points for which it is named are the midpoints of the portion of altitude between the vertices and the orthocenter. The radius of the nine-point circle is half that of the circumcircle. It touches the incircle (at the Feuerbach point) and the three excircles.

The centroid (yellow), orthocenter (blue), circumcenter (green) and center of the nine-point circle (red point) all lie on a single line, known as Euler's line (red line). The center of the nine-point circle lies at the midpoint between the orthocenter and the circumcenter, and the distance between the centroid and the circumcenter is half that between the centroid and the orthocenter.

The center of the incircle is not in general located on Euler's line.

If one reflects a median at the angle bisector that passes through the same vertex, one obtains a symmedian. The three symmedians intersect in a single point, the symmedian point of the triangle.

Computing the area of a triangle
Calculating the area of a triangle is an elementary problem encountered often in many different situations. Various approaches exist, depending on what is known about the triangle. What follows is a selection of frequently used formulae for the area of a triangle.

Using geometry
The area S of a triangle is S = ½bh, where b is the length of any side of the triangle (the base) and h (the altitude) is the perpendicular distance between the base and the vertex not on the base. This can be shown with the following geometric construction.

To find the area of a given triangle (green), first make an exact copy of the triangle (blue), rotate it 180°, and join it to the given triangle along one side to obtain a parallelogram. Cut off a part and join it at the other side of the parallelogram to form a rectangle. Because the area of the rectangle is bh, the area of the given triangle must be ½bh.

The product of the inradius and the semiperimeter of a triangle also gives its area.

Using vectors
The area of a parallelogram can also be calculated by the use of vectors. If AB and AC are vectors pointing from A to B and from A to C, respectively, the area of parallelogram ABDC is |AB × AC|, the magnitude of the cross product of vectors AB and AC. |AB × AC| is also equal to |h × AC|, where h represents the altitude h as a vector.

The area of triangle ABC is half of this, or S = ½|AB × AC|.

The area of triangle ABC can also be expressed in term of dot products as follows:

Using trigonometry
The altitude of a triangle can be found through an application of trigonometry. Using the labelling as in the image on the left, the altitude is h = a sin γ. Substituting this in the formula S = ½bh derived above, the area of the triangle can be expressed as S = ½ab sin γ.

It is of course no coincidence that the area of a parallelogram is ab sin γ.

If one uses

and

and also the formula shown above, then one arrives at the following formula for area

[Note that, this is a multiplied out form of Heron's formula]

Using coordinates
If vertex A is located at the origin (0, 0) of a Cartesian coordinate system and the coordinates of the other two vertices are given by B = (xB, yB) and C = (xC, yC), then the area S can be computed as ½ times the absolute value of the determinant

For three general vertices, the equation is:

In three dimensions, the area of a general triangle {A = (xA, yA, zA), B = (xB, yB, zB) and C = (xC, yC, zC)} is the 'Pythagorean' sum of the areas of the respective projections on the three principal planes (i.e. x=0, y=0 and z=0):

Using Heron's formula
Yet another way to compute S is Heron's Formula:

where s = ½ (a + b + c) is the semiperimeter, or half of the triangle's perimeter.

Multiplied out form of Heron's formula (see above for proof)

Non-planar triangles
A non-planar triangle is a triangle which is not contained in a (flat) plane. Examples of non-planar triangles in noneuclidean geometries are spherical triangles in spherical geometry and hyperbolic triangles in hyperbolic geometry.

While all regular, planar (two dimensional) triangles contain angles that add up to 180°, there are cases in which the angles of a triangle can be greater than or less than 180°. In curved figures, a triangle on a negatively curved figure ("saddle") will have its angles add up to less than 180° while a triangle on a positively curved figure ("sphere") will have its angles add up to more than 180°. Thus, if one were to draw a giant triangle on the surface of the Earth, one would find that the sum of its angles were greater than 180°.

स्रोत

पिनेयागु स्वापूतः
 Triangle Calculator - solves for remaining sides and angles when given three sides or angles, supports degrees and radians.
 Napoleon's theorem A triangle with three equilateral triangles. A purely geometric proof. It uses the Fermat point to prove Napoleon's theorem without transformations by Antonio Gutierrez from "Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas"
 William Kahan: Miscalculating Area and Angles of a Needle-like Triangle.
 Clark Kimberling: Encyclopedia of triangle centers. Lists some 1600 interesting points associated with any triangle.
 Christian Obrecht: Eukleides. Software package for creating illustrations of facts about triangles and other theorems in Euclidean geometry.
 Proof that the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees
 Triangle constructions, remarkable points and lines, and metric relations in a triangle at cut-the-knot
 Printable Worksheet on Types of Triangles
 Compendium Geometry Analytical Geometry of Triangles
 Area of a triangle - 7 different ways
 Triangle definition pages with interactive applets that are also useful in a classroom setting. Math Open Reference
 Constructing an equilateral triangle  , Isosceles triangle  and Copying a Triangle with only a compass and straightedge, interactive animation.

रेखागणित

स्वकुं


is a media franchise owned by The Pokémon Company. It is based on the concept of hatching, catching, playing with, staying with, befriending, defending, raising, trading, training and battling with hundreds of different monsters. The concept was made by Satoshi Tajiri, Pokémon's creator. It is represented in many types of media, most famously video games, a still-running anime series, manga, and a trading card game. There are eight regions in the Pokémon games. Although there are 1013 different Pokémon, most people will know of the mascot of the company, an electric Pokémon known as Pikachu.

The video games have sold more copies than every other series except Nintendo's Mario series.

Video games

A number of Pokémon games have been released, mostly on Nintendo systems, with the exception of Pokémon GO as The Pokémon Company is owned by Nintendo.

Most games are based on catching, training and battling Pokémon, and the player is a Pokémon trainer who does all these things. There are a number of aspects to the games.

In the games, Pokémon are monsters that trainers catch (using various types of capture devices known as Poké Balls), train, battle, collect, and trade with each other. As of the ninth generation, there are 1013 of them. One of the most popular Pokémon in competitive battling is Mega Kangaskhan, because of its ability to hit the target twice with each move.

Another Pokémon game is the famous Pokémon GO that can be played only on touch phones. It has a big difference from the other games but its basics are the same. This game uses Augmented Reality and the phone's GPS to give the player a very real sense of play. People literally walk around their neighbourhoods, explore new places and catch Pokémon which can be captured along with your surrounding environment by using the phone's camera. People can also go to special places or landmarks where there would be Poke Stops and Gyms which can be used to collect items, battle other Pokémon etc. This game has been a huge success when it was released and is widely considered as the beginning of the AR era.

Gameplay

The gameplay of the Pokémon series of role-playing video games involves the capture and training of many of fictional monsters called "Pokémon" and using them to battle other trainers. Each generation of games builds upon this idea by introducing new Pokémon, items, and gameplay concepts. Some of the general ideas were featured elsewhere before being introduced in the games; double battles appeared in the anime long before appearing in the games, and Pokémon abilities are similar to the Pokémon Powers first seen in the Pokémon Trading Card Game.

Anime

Not long after Pokémon Red and Blue (the first Pokémon video games) were released, a Pokémon anime was created. It was first shown in Japan in early 1997, and in the United States in late 1998. The anime started what has been called "Pokémania", which meant that after the anime came out, it became very popular among children, and many parents assumed it was a fad and no one would care about it in a couple years. However, it was never cancelled, and it is still running.

The interesting thing about the Pokémon Anime is that when a new Pokémon game is released that is not a remake, the whole Anime focuses on that with new Pokémon and the world that is in that Pokémon game.

The anime shows the adventures of Ash Ketchum, (with the exception of some special series) a ten-year-old Pokémon trainer who has many adventures, meeting many new people and Pokémon. His most famous Pokémon, and probably the most famous Pokémon, is Pikachu.

A number of Pokémon films have also been made that relate to the anime. The first one was Pokémon: The First Movie (released in 1998 in Japan and 1999 in United States). There are more movies still being made. There have now been seventeen films released.

2024 Live Action movie
 Grayson Eddey as Ash Ketchum
 Violet McGraw as Misty
 Ethan William Childress as Brock
 Mckenna Grace as Liza
 Kate Mara as Delia Ketchum
 Pierce Brosnan as Professor Oak
 Angelique Cabral as Office Jenny
 Alaina Huffman as Nurse Joy
 Sophia Lillis as Jessie of Team Rocket.
 Ty Simpkins as James of Team Rocket.
 Isabel May as Wendy of Team Rocket.
 Jeremy Palko as Giovanni the Boss of Team Rocket.
 Tom Budge as Team Rocket Flatcap man #1

Trading card game
A Pokémon trading card game also exists. Players use Pokémon cards to battle each other and collect them by opening packs. There are also live tournaments hosted by Nintendo. Pokémon's damage is counted by "damage counters" or objects which are placed on the cards to keep track of damage. After you add up all of the numbers on the damage counters, you subtract it from the card's HP (health points) to find out how much HP is left. Only 60 cards are used in a player's deck, and six of these are set aside in a pile called "prize cards." After one player knocks out an opponent's card, the defeater takes just one face-down prize card for non-EX Pokémon. Meanwhile, when someone makes an EX Pokémon faint, he or she gets two prize cards. There is one discard pile for each player, where fainted Pokémon go. Some ways to win are taking all of your prize cards, and/or making your opponent draw all of his or her cards.

There are cards designed as various Pokémon, which usually need "Energy" cards to use attacks. There are also "Trainer" cards, which are used for additional things other than direct Pokémon attacks, like giving Pokémon more HP. Most fans of the series agree that a good deck is made of about twenty "Pokémon" cards, twenty "Energy" cards, and twenty "Trainer" cards.

Players can evolve their Benched or Active Pokémon. The Bench is a spot that can hold Pokémon, and these Pokémon can be evolved with its evolution card. Active Pokémon can evolve too, but can also use attacks. To evolve a Pokémon, you can just put its evolution card on top of it.

All Pokémon cards have types. The type affects how effective an attack is. For example, a certain Lightning-type Pikachu card can use an attack that normally deals 80 damage. If the Pikachu uses it against a Pokémon with a Weakness of +20 to Lighting, you add 20 more damage to the normal damage to make it 100. Types can also make things less effective.

There is also a special kind of Pokémon in the trading card game called "EX" Pokémon. EX & GX Pokémon are stronger than regular ones, but when they are knocked out, the player's opponent draws two of their prize cards (with regular Pokémon it is just one.) Also, there is another special type of Pokémon in the trading card game called "Delta Species" Pokémon, which have types that are different than typical cards, like an Electric-type Charmander, who is usually Fire-type. In the "Diamond & Pearl" trading card game expansion, "LV.X" cards were introduced. These are a little like evolution cards, but they can only be used on Active Pokémon. In the "HeartGold & SoulSilver" expansion, The Pokémon Company released new cards, called LEGEND cards. LEGEND cards are two cards sold separately that when put together make one picture. They can be used only when the two cards they are made of are put together; they cannot work separately.

Criticism
The Pokémon media franchise, especially the anime, has been often criticized by organizations such as PETA.

Dennō Senshi Porygon
An episode of the anime called "Dennō Senshi Porygon" ("Electric Soldier Porygon" translated in English) was first shown in Japan on December 16, 1997. One part of the episode showed quick flashing red and blue lights. This caused 685 Japanese children to have epileptic seizures. Because of this, the anime went on a four-month break, and several laws were put in place regarding the flashing lights. Also, the previous episodes released had been toned down when Pokemon aired again.

Porygon, one of the main characters in the episode, has not appeared again in the anime ever since "Dennō Senshi Porygon". It has two evolved forms, Porygon2 and Porygon-Z, and neither of them have appeared in the anime at all, even though it was Ash Ketchum's Pikachu that made the explosion that caused the flashing lights.

An episode of The Simpsons called "Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo" made fun of "Dennō Senshi Porygon", as well as an episode of South Park called "Chinpokomon".

Jynx
Jynx, a species of Pokémon, was criticized because it looked like it was using blackface (an old film-making technique that makes white actors look African-American).  It was also criticized because it looked like a drag queen (a man who dresses as a woman). This was not an issue in Japan, but it caused a lot of argument in the United States because of the United States' history of racism. Ever since then, Jynx has purple skin instead of black skin, and anime episodes featuring it were banned due to argument.

Game censorship
In Pokémon Diamond and Pearl, the Pokémon Registeel had its sprite changed in some European versions, because its pose was too similar to a Nazi salute.

Another Nazi-related censorship was the trading card Koga's Ninja Trick. In this card, there are various symbols, one of them being the swastika. The swastika symbol is used in some cultures and religions. However, it is also used as a symbol of Nazism. Because of this, the symbol was changed in the English and International versions of the trading card.

References

5.  Team GO Rocket arrival to Pokemon Go generated record breaking $110 million revenue in August  -AndroidNature.com- August 2019

Anime

Pokémon


Epic poetry tells a dramatic story in a poem. There are characters in the story. It is usually long, and takes place in different settings. Epic poems started in prehistoric times as part of oral tradition. The Kyrgyz Epic of Manas is one of the longest written epics in history.

Beowulf is a typical example, written in Old English. Well-known people who wrote epics were Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Dante, Edmund Spenser and Milton. William Wordsworth's Prelude plays with epic ideas though the poem is autobiography.

Characteristics
Epics have seven main characteristics:
 The hero is outstanding. They might be important, and historically or legendarily significant.
 The setting is large. It covers many nations, or the known world.
 The action is made of deeds of great valor or requiring superhuman courage.
 Supernatural forces—gods, angels, demons—insert themselves in the action.
 It is written in a very special style (verse as opposed to prose).
 The poet tries to remain objective.
 Epic poems are believed to be supernatural and real by the hero and the villain

Conventions of epics:
 It starts with the theme or subject of the story.
 In epics inspired from Western civilization the writer invokes a Muse, one of the nine daughters of Zeus.  The poet prays to the Muses to provide divine inspiration to tell the great story.
 Narrative opens in medias res, or in the middle of things, usually with the hero at his lowest point. Usually flashbacks show earlier portions of the story.
 Catalogues and genealogies are given. These long lists of objects, places, and people place the finite action of the epic within a broader, universal context. Often, the poet is also paying homage to the ancestors of audience members.
 Main characters give extended formal speeches.

 Use of the epic simile.
 Heavy use of repetition or stock phrases.
 It presents the heroic ideals such as courage, honour, sacrifice, patriotism and kindness.
 An epic gives a clear window of the social and cultural patterns of the contemporary life. Beowulf thus shows the love of wine, wild celebration, war, adventure and sea-voyages.

Examples

Ancient
20th to 10th century BC:
Epic of Gilgamesh  (Mesopotamia)
8th century BC to 3rd century AD:
Mahābhārata  (Indian mythology)
8th to 6th century BC:
Iliad and Odyssey, ascribed to Homer  (Greek mythology)
1st century BC:
Aeneid, Vergil (Latin)

Medieval
Song of Roland
8th to 10th century AD
Beowulf (Old English)
12th to 13th century AD
Sirat Bani Hilal (Arabic)    *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taghribat_Bani_Hilal]*
10th to 12th century AD
Njál's saga (Old Norse)
14th century AD
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (dialect of middle English)

Contemporary
Omeros (1990), Derek Walcott

Empire of Dreams (1988), Giannina Braschi

Other page
Lyric poetry - contrary notion

References

Poetry forms

Epic poetry


Igor Stravinsky was born in Lomonosov (then Oranienbaum), 17 June 1882 and died in New York, 6 April 1971. He was one of the most important composers of the 20th century, and a leader in modernism in music. He was brought up in Russia. When the Russian Revolution started he moved to Switzerland and then to Paris, and finally, when World War II started in 1939, he moved to the United States.

Stravinsky wrote music in different styles. At first he wrote music similar to his teacher Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. He loved his native Russian music. He wrote music which had very complicated chords and rhythms. It is lively music, and some of his best known works of this kind were written for the Ballets Russes of Sergei Diaghilev: The Firebird, Petrushka, The Rite of Spring, Les noces, Pulcinella and Apollo musagète. They were written from 1910 to 1928.

Then he changed his style and wrote in what is called a "neo-classical" way. He based it on music from the Classical music period but changed it. His only full-length opera The Rake's Progress was written in this way. In his later years he wrote serial music.

Early years
Igor was the third of four children, all boys. As a child he spent the winter months in St Petersburg and the summers in the country where several of his relatives on his mother's side had large estates.

Igor was not particularly good at school, but he often went to see the operas in which his father Fyodor was performing. Fyodor was an opera singer with a fine bass voice. He sang at the opera house in Kiev and later at the Mariinsky Theatre in St Petersburg. Igor also went to ballets and even heard Tchaikovsky conduct in 1893, at the end of his life.

For a time Stravinsky studied law at the university of St Petersburg, but gave up in 1906. Then he married one of his cousins. They soon had a son and a daughter.

Meanwhile, since his school days, Igor played the piano, and had lessons in harmony and counterpoint. He enjoyed improvising and he started to be interested in composing. He wrote some short piano pieces and showed them to the composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, the father of a friend. Rimsky-Korsakov told him he ought to continue to have private music lessons instead of going to the conservatoire. Shortly after this, Stravinsky's father died. Igor went to stay with Rimsky-Korsakov. He met many musical people there, and Rimsky-Korsakov taught him how to write for the different instruments. In 1905, he began to take twice-weekly private lessons from Rimsky-Korsakov, whom he came to regard as a second father. These lessons continued until Rimsky-Korsakov's death in 1908.

Early career
In 1908 Rimsky-Korsakov died. Stravinsky met Sergei Diaghilev, the ballet impresario. Diaghilev wanted to put on performances of new operas and ballets. He needed a composer to write the music and saw that Stravinsky might be the ideal person. He asked him to write music for a ballet called The Firebird, which was a Russian fairytale. Stravinsky wrote it at Rimsky-Korsakov's country house and finished it in St Petersburg. The ballet was first performed at the Paris Opéra on 25 June 1910 by the Ballets Russes who were very famous in Europe. Mikhail Fokin was the choreographer. It has remained one of Stravinsky's most famous pieces of music. Some of the music is often performed in a concert hall without the dancing. This version is called a "suite" (literally "a collection of dances"). It shows his love of Russian folk melody.

The success of The Firebird made Stravinsky world famous. His music was especially well known in Europe, and in Paris where the Ballets Russes were based. The next work Stravinsky wrote for them was Petrouchka. It was the story of a puppet which comes to life. It was performed in Paris on 13 June 1911 and became just as famous as The Firebird. This music, too, is often performed as a concert piece. Stravinsky also made an arrangement of three of the dances for piano solo. It is very hard to play and needs a virtuoso pianist.

Stravinsky was becoming well known among musicians. His friends included Debussy and Ravel. He met Schoenberg in Berlin and was very impressed by his piece called Pierrot Lunaire. He spent a lot of his time with his family in Switzerland where he had peace and quiet to compose.

On 29 May 1913 a new ballet by Stravinsky called The Rite of Spring was performed at the Théâtre des Champs-Elysées in Paris. It was an absolute sensation. Some people loved it and others hated it. There was a big fight in the theatre and the police were called in. People were shouting so much that no one could hear the music. Stravinsky became ill afterwards and spent some weeks to recover. When the ballet was performed again people were quieter and listened to the music. There were lots of new ideas in the music: harsh chords and very complicated rhythms. The music of The Rite of Spring had an great influence on the development of music in the 20th century.

Stravinsky's next idea for a ballet was Les noces, French for 'The Wedding'. Stravinsky went back to Russia to collect some things that would help him to compose it. When he returned to Switzerland World War I started.

The war years
Stravinsky's family spent most of their time in Switzerland during the war. He was short of money because there was no more income from the Russian estates. The Ballets Russes could not perform any more in Paris. Stravinsky spent a lot of time working at Les Noces. He finished it in 1917 and played it to Diaghilev. It was another six years before it was performed. Stravinsky eventually chose to arrange it for four pianos, percussion, chorus and vocal soloists. It was performed at the Théâtre de la Gaîté Lyrique on 13 June 1923.

Because Switzerland was neutral in the war, Stravinsky was able to travel. He went to Italy where he met Gerald Tyrwhitt (who later became Lord Berners) and Prokofiev. He wrote Reynard and Rag-Time. He performed in America with Ballets Russes.

When the Russian Revolution broke out in February 1917 Stravinsky thought this would be good, but when the Bolshevik Revolution followed it became obvious that he would never be able to go back to Russia. He wrote L'histoire du soldat (The Soldier's Tale). It was performed in Lausanne with Ernest Ansermet conducting. There would have been more performances but many people had influenza. When the war ended Stravinsky decided to move to France. He wrote a ballet called Pulcinella which was based on music by the 18th century composer Pergolesi. It was performed at the Paris Opéra on 15 May 1920. For some years Igor became interested in the music of the late 18th century, and the style of his work after 1920 is often described as neoclassical.

France
In 1920 Stravinsky's family moved from Stravinsky to Brittany, then the following year they moved to Biarritz. Stravinsky composed a piece called Symphonies for Wind Instruments. It was soon performed in London at a concert which also included The Rite of Spring, conducted by Eugene Goossens in the Queen's Hall. He met a theatre designer called Serge Soudeikine and fell madly in love with Vera, who would later become his second wife.  Meanwhile, his first wife, Katerina, was in a sanitorium suffering from tuberculosis. Vera and Stravinsky saw one another as much as possible for the next 18 years. Meanwhile, Stravinsky's mother managed to get out of Russia and she joined Stravinsky's family in Biarritz. Stravinsky had to support a large family, and he decided he needed to work more as a conductor and pianist instead of composing large works. He composed smaller pieces, including the piano version of three dances from Petrouchka. Later, when his son was grown up, he composed a Concerto for two solo pianos for himself to play with his son. He did not compose any more for the Ballets Russes, but he did compose Oedipus rex as a special tribute to them. This work was a mixture of opera and oratorio. The words were in Latin and were written by Jean Cocteau. It was performed as a concert performance. Although he did not write for Diaghilev any more, he accepted an invitation from Ida Rubinstein to write a ballet called Le baiser de la fée (The fairy's kiss) which was based on music by Tchaikovsky. Diaghilev was annoyed, but then he died in 1929 and the Ballets Russes company no longer carried on.

In 1926 Stravinsky, who belonged to the Russian Orthodox Church, had a deep religious experience which effected his music. The best of these religious pieces is the Symphony of Psalms, written for the Boston Symphony Orchestra's 50th birthday celebrations.

Stravinsky met the violinist Dushkin and composed a Violin Concerto as well as the Duo concertante for violin and piano which the two musicians played together at many concerts. He became more and more in demand in the United States and wrote several works for American people. He was offered a job as professor at Harvard University. At this time a lot of his family were ill. Then his daughter died, his wife died and his mother died. He was ill himself. Then, by September 1939, just as World War II started, he was well enough to travel to North America.

American years
Stravinsky was immediately invited to conduct many concerts in America. Vera arrived in America four months later and she and Stravinsky were married in Bedford, Massachusetts. They applied for American citizenship and settled in Hollywood. He was quite short of money and he accepted any invitation to compose music. He even accepted a private pupil.

Stravinsky composed a mass. It was not commissioned, he just wanted to compose it. It was performed in La Scala, Milan, in 1948 conducted by Ansermet. He then decided to compose a full-length opera in English. This was The Rake's Progress. It was first performed in Venice in 1951. It is the best of his works in the neo-classical style. Another work from this period is his Symphony in C. It shows a different way of composing tonal music to the tonal works of classical composers.

He met a musician called Robert Craft who came to live with the family and helped Stravinsky sort out his compositions and papers. He was surprised to find that Stravinsky never visited Schoenberg, who only lived a few streets away. After Schoenberg died in 1951 Craft encouraged Stravinsky to listen to Schoenberg's serial music. Soon Stravinsky started to use serialism in his own compositions. Craft travelled with Stravinsky and helped him a great deal, for example, by conducting some of the concerts, or rehearsing the orchestras before Stravinsky came.

In 1962 he was invited to the White House by President Kennedy. In the same year he returned to Russia for a visit. He had not been there for nearly half a century. It was a great success, and people in the USSR became more interested in Stravinsky's music. It made Stravinsky very happy to know that Russians were interested in him again.

During his last years he became rather ill. Threni is one of his last compositions. It is a setting of the parts of the Lamentations of Jeremiah for voices and orchestra. He composed other religious works including Requiem Canticles. In 1969 he moved with his family to New York where he died two years later.

Stravinsky was buried in Venice, near Diaghilev's grave.

References
 The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980;
 Craft, Robert. 1992. Stravinsky: glimpses of a life. London: Lime Tree; New York: St Martins Press.  (Lime Tree);  (St.Martins).
 Craft, Robert. 1994. Stravinsky: chronicle of a friendship, revised and expanded edition. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. .
 Stravinsky, Igor. 1962. An Autobiography. New York: Norton. . Originally published in French as Chroniques de ma vie, 2 vols. Paris: Denoël et Steele, 1935; translated as Chronicle of my life. London: Gollancz, 1936. Reprinted as An Autobiography (1903–1934) London: Boyars, 1990  (cased);  (pbk). Also published as Igor Stravinsky: an autobiography New York: Steuer, 1958.

1882 births
1971 deaths
20th-century Russian composers
Grammy Award winners
Ballets Russes

Igor Stravinsky


Walpurgis Night (Valborgsmässoafton in Swedish, Vappu in Finnish, Volbriöö in Estonian, Valpurģu nakts or Valpurģi in Latvian, Walpurgisnacht in German), Čarodějnice in Czech is a holiday celebrated on April 30 or May 1, in Finland, Sweden, Bohemia (Czech Republic), Estonia, Latvia and Germany.

Origins
The festival is named after Saint Walburga (known in Scandinavia as "Valborg"; alternative forms are "Walpurgis", "Wealdburg", or "Valderburger"), born in Wessex in 710 a niece of Saint Boniface. According to legend, she was a daughter to the Saxon prince St. Richard. Together with her brothers she travelled to Württemberg, Germany where she became a nun and lived in the convent of Heidenheim, which was founded by her brother Wunibald. Walburga died on 25 February 779 and that day still carries her name in the Catholic calendar. However she was not made a saint until 1 May in the same year, and that day carries her name in the Swedish calendar.

Historically the Walpurgisnacht is derived from Pagan spring customs, where the arrival of spring was celebrated with bonfires at night. Viking fertility celebrations took place around April 30 and due to Walburga being declared a saint at that time of year, her name became associated with the celebrations. Walburga was worshipped in the same way that Vikings had celebrated spring and as they spread throughout Europe, the two dates became mixed together and created the Walpurgis Night celebration.

Germany
In Germany, Walpurgisnacht, the night from April 30 to May 1, is the night when allegedly the witches hold a large celebration on the Blocksberg and await the arrival of Spring. When the travel to that mountain is too far, they may also chose another hill in the region they live.
"Walpurgis Night (in German folklore) the night of April 30 (May Day's eve), when witches meet on the Brocken mountain and hold revels with their Gods..."

"Brocken the highest of the Harz Mountains of north central Germany. It is noted for the phenomenon of the Brocken spectre and for witches' revels which reputably took place there on Walpurgis night.
The Brocken Spectre is a magnified shadow of an observer, typically surrounded by rainbow-like bands, thrown onto a bank of cloud in high mountain areas when the sun is low. The phenomenon was first reported on the Brocken."

—Taken from Oxford Phrase & Fable.

Paganism

Walpurgis Night


Daith Metal is a kynd o hivy metal muisic that stairtit as an affshuit o thrash metal in 1980s.

Name
There's a nummer o common theories for hou the genre teuk its name. The first is that it cam frae the sang Death Metal bi Possessed that wis on their Seven Churches album in 1985 (an album aften hauden tae be the first album in the genre, predatin the wark o baith Morbid Angel an Death. The seicont is that is wis taen frae a sang o the same name later that year bi thrash metal baund Onslaught. Mair ootower in 1985, genre peeoneers Death pit oot a demo cried Death by Metal. Anither theory is that the genre teuk its name frae the name o the baund Death syne their Scream Bloody Gore made Death Metal mair recognised in the metal warld, an that they war sae associatit wi the genre that they gien it the name. The late Thomas "Quothorn" Forsberg o black metal baund Bathory threapit that he haed cleckit the term as lang syne as 1984, tho his baund wis niver Daith Metal ava.

It aiblins possible, tho no likely, that the 1984 compilation album Death Metal gien the genre its name.

History
Daith Metal stairtit out in Americae in the aichties as an affshuit o thrash metal. Thrie albums frae atween 1985 an 1987 wis responsible for the bringin oot o Daith Metal frae the ranks o thrash metal. Thir is Seven Churches bi Possessed (1985), Reign in Blood bi Slayer (mair o a thrash metal album, but aye gey influential on the Daith Metal scene) (1986) an the mair definitive Scream Bloody Gore bi Death (1987). As the scene skailt, it teuk on deeferent chairacteristics - in Swaden it becam mair technical, for exemplar. It is aften said that the scene stagnatit in the mid -late 90's (exceptin the sae cried Gothernburg Boom o the late 90's), but in the 2000s the re-kythin o mony aulder baunds as weel as the popularity o baunds sic as Children of Bodom an Nile haes seen tae it that Daith Metal isna gaun tae dee ony time suin, an seems tae be outlastin the thrash metal that it cam frae in terms o innovatin an (ironically) vivacity.

Muisical Chairacteristics
Daith Metal is for ordinar lood, fast an gey intense. Dountuined guitars, gey laich harsk vocals (whiles cried Cookie Monster Vocals bi baith fans an detractors) an fast drummin is staundart. The muisic is aften gey haird tae play, wi time chynges, key chynges an sang structurs bein mair complicatit nor in mony genres, as weel as the drummin an guitar wark takkin a wheen o skeel tae play. The muckle feck o deid metal drummers uises twa bass drums or a double kick pedal. The staundart line-up for Daith Metal baunds is vocals; lead guitar; rhythm guitar; bass guitar; drums - but keybuirds an e'en saxophones is uised forby.

Degrees o technical skeel varies frae baund tae baund an sub genre tae sub genre - the kynd kent as tech deid is clairly gey skeelie, while ither kynds is mair semple tae play.

Leerically, themes reenges frae meesticism tae Satanasim; deid tae meetholigy; nihilism tae politics. Whit wey the genre cam tae be associatit wi dait isna certain; but fechtin, gore an daith is staundart leerical themes aften tae be fund on maist Daith Metal albums.

References

Fremmit Airtins
 Deathmetal wabsteid
 Metal Crypt - wi a guid page anent genres
 Metal Archives - wi a leet o a wheen o deid metal baunds

Daith metal

Daith metal


The Old Catholic Church is a name for a group of Christian churches. Most of them are from German-speaking countries. Their beliefs are close to that of the Anglican Church.

Origins
They split from the Roman Catholic Church in the 1870s. This was because the First Vatican Council had said the pope was infallible. The Council was from 1869 to 1870. The word Old Catholic was first used in 1853 for the See of Utrecht (who was not under the authority of the pope). Usually, these churches are part of the Union of Utrecht.

Old Catholic Church


A clinic is a medical facility that gives health care for patients in an area. It is different from a hospital, because people do not stay in a clinic for a long time. Some clinics can become as large as hospitals, but still have the name Clinic. Small clinics are run by one or more general practitioners or practice managers. Physiotherapy clinics are run by physiotherapists, psychology clinics run by clinical psychologists, and so on for each type of health care. Some clinics are operated, or run, by employers. Other clinics are owned by people who do not have medical education, like in China.

Some clinics are a place for people with injuries or illness to come and be seen by triage nurse or other health worker.  In these clinics, the injury or illness may not be large or dangerous enough to warrant a visit to an emergency room, but the person can be moved to one if they need to be. These clinics sometimes can use equipment such as X-ray machines. Doctors at these clinics can send patients to specialists, a doctor who is very good at one kind of medicine.

Where the word came from
The word clinic comes from the Greek word klinein, which means to put something at an angle, or to lie down. Latin has the word clinicus, which is a lot like the word we use today. An early meaning of the word clinic was, 'one who gets baptism on a sick bed'.

Types of clinics
 In the United States, a free clinic provides free or low cost health care for people without insurance.
 A Retail Based Clinic is put in placed like shops, and may be staffed by nurse practitioners.
 A general out-patient clinic is a clinic offering treatment without an overnight stay.
 A polyclinic is a clinic, hospital, or school where many diseases are treated and studied.
 A fertility clinic helps women to become pregnant.
 An abortion clinic is a medical facility providing certain kinds of medical care, such as abortion to women.

Related pages
 Simple Clinic, a free retail clinic chain.
 Abortion clinic
 Free clinic
 Clinical Management System

References

Healthcare
Hospitals

Clinic


Land of the Rising Sun (pol. Kraj Wschodzącego Słońca) − hymn istniejącego w latach 1967−1970 afrykańskiego państwa Biafra. Melodię hymnu zapożyczono z pieśni Finlandia autorstwa Jeana Sibeliusa.

Tekst
Land of the rising sun, we love and cherish,
Beloved homeland of our brave heroes;
We must defend our lives or we shall perish,
We shall protect our hearts from all our foes;
But if the price is death for all we hold dear,
Then let us die without a shred of fear.

Hail to Biafra, consecrated nation,
Oh fatherland, this be our solemn pledge:
Defending thee shall be a dedication,
Spilling our blood we'll count a privilege;
The waving standard which emboldens the free
Shall always be our flag of liberty.

We shall emerge triumphant from this ordeal,
And through the crucible unscathed we'll pass;
When we are poised the wounds of battle to heal,
We shall remember those who died in mass;
Then shall our trumpets peal the glorious song
Of victory we scored o'er might and wrong.

Oh God, protect us from the hidden pitfall,
Guide all our movements lest we go astray;
Give us the strength to heed the humanist call:
"To give and not to count the cost" each day;
Bless those who rule to serve with resoluteness,
To make this clime a land of righteousness.

Biafra
Biafra

Hymn Biafry


The ossicles are the three smallest bones in the human body. They may be called ear bones or auditory ossicles. They are in the auditory system of all mammals.

They are contained within the middle ear space and serve to transmit sounds from the air to the fluid-filled labyrinth (cochlea). The absence of the auditory ossicles would cause moderate-to-severe deafness.

Anatomy
The ossicles are, in order from the eardrum to the inner ear (from superficial to deep), the malleus, incus, and stapes.  The terms mean hammer, anvil, and stirrup.

The malleus (hammer) connects with the incus and is attached to the tympanic membrane (eardrum), from which vibrational sound pressure motion is passed.
The incus (anvil) is connected to both the other bones.
The stapes (stirrup) connects with the incus and is attached to the membrane of the fenestra ovalis, the elliptical or oval window or opening between the middle ear and the inner ear.

Development
Studies have shown that ear bones in mammal embryos are attached to the dentary, which is part of the lower jaw. These are ossified (turned into bone) portions of cartilage -- called Meckel's cartilage -- that are attached to the jaw. As the embryo develops, the cartilage hardens to form bone.  Later in development, the bone structure breaks loose from the jaw and migrates to the inner ear area.  The structure is known as the middle ear, and is made up of the incus, stapes, malleus, and tympanic membrane.  These correspond to the quadrate, prearticular, articular, and angular structures in earlier land vertebrates.

References

Bones of the skull
Evolutionary biology

Ossicles


The following is a list of terms commonly used in Aviation.

Airports

 Air cargo - Cargo that is moved using airplanes. Many companies that move cargo, such as FedEx and the US Postal Service, have their own airplanes for moving air cargo. Most large airports have entire sections of the airport and warehouses for dealing with air cargo.
 Airport - a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and blimps take off and land.
 Arrival area (Arrivals) -  The area of the terminal used for airplanes coming to the airport.
 Baggage - luggage and other items brought on the airplane by passengers. One piece of small baggage can often be brought on the airplane by the passenger. Large baggage (or if the is many small pieces) are kept in a special part of the airplane.
 Baggage area - The area of the airport terminal used for dealing with Baggage. These often have one or more large moving belt(s). The passengers wait at the belt for their baggage to move to them.
 Concessions - Businesses often inside the airport terminal. These usually sell food, beverages or retail goods such as book, magazines or souvenirs to passengers.
 Concourse - An open space for people to move around in an airport terminal.
 Departure area (Departures) - The area of the terminal for airplanes leaving the airport.
 Destination - The place an aircraft is going to. An aircraft may have more than one destination. This is because it takes people to many places along its travel. For example, an aircraft leaving Atlanta, may stop at Memphis, Dallas, and Boulder before finally stopping in San Diego. San Diego is its final destination on this travel, but the other cities are also destinations.
 Flight - The noun form of Fly. This is the term for what a person takes when they fly. She took a flight to Atlanta. It can also be used in the name of the trip - She took Flight 213 to Atlanta. If an airport had 500 flights that day, it means airplanes came to and left the airport 500 times that day.
 Domestic flight - A flight that starts and ends in the same country. This is usually between two cities in the same country. For example, from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to Los Angeles, California.
 International flight - A flight that starts in one county and ends in an other country. For example, from Moscow, Russia to Sydney, Australia.
 Gates - The areas on the concourse where passengers get on to the airplane
Hangar - a large building which can store airplanes.
 Hub - The central location an airline uses for its operations. Most airlines keep their headquarters and maintenance facilities as at a single airport. Most flights from that airline go through this airport.
 Landing - The act of an airplane returning to the ground.
 Runway - The part of the airport where planes take off or land.
 Take-off - The act of an airplane leaving the ground.
 Terminal - The main building of an airport used by passengers and cargo.
 Tower - The tower in an airport is a building used for air traffic control.

Aircraft

 Aircraft - vehicle used for flying.
 Attack aircraft - A type of military aircraft used mainly to attack targets on the ground.
 Biplane - an aircraft with two sets of wings mounted one above the other.
 Fighter aircraft - A type of military airplane used mainly to fight with other airplanes.
 Fixed-wing aircraft - The type of aircraft commonly thought of by most people. It has wings that do not move. The wings on some fixed wing aircraft can move a small distance but are generally fixed in one position. For example, the wings on an F-14 can be rotated from a forward position (for better control at slow speed and for take off and landing) to a rear position (for better control at high speed). Most airplanes are fixed wing.
 Jet aircraft - Aircraft that use jet engines to make them move.
 Propeller powered aircraft - Aircraft that use propellers to make them move.
 Rotary wing aircraft - Aircraft such as Helicopters.
 Training aircraft - A type of military aircraft used mainly to train pilots.
 Triplane - An aircraft with three sets of wings. German World War I pilot Manfred von Richthofen (The Red Baron) is well known for flying a triplane.
 Water bomber - A type of aircraft used to fight the fire.

Other websites
Appendix:Glossary of aviation, aerospace, and aeronautics

Terms
Aviation

List of aviation terms


An urban area is an area where many people live and work close together. The population density is higher than in the surrounding area.  It is where buildings are close together. Urban is the opposite of rural, where farm lands and nature are. Urban areas are usually cities and towns.  Most of the work available in urban areas is factory and office work. Agricultural work is rare because buildings are close together and there is no space for farm lands.

There are different urban area definitions for each country. The definitions mostly depend on how populated the country is and if the definition shows a true percentage of how urbanized the country is. For example, in Poland an urban area is any place that has the status of a town, whereas in China it is any district, city, or town with a population density higher than 1500 people per square kilometer. The urban population definition for Canadian and Scandinavian countries depends on density.  If there is a house every 200 meters it is classified as urban.

A large urban area, with all connected areas (usually developed around some city) is called a Metropolitan area.

Related pages
List of largest cities (includes a list of urban areas)

Urban planning
Urban geography
Economic geography

Urban area


Aristophanes (born around 450/445 BC – died around 385 BC) was a Greek writer who wrote 40 plays. However, only 11 of his plays survive in their entirety. He is famous for writing comedies. They were biting satires aimed at famous men of his day, and the all-too-human weaknesses of ordinary people.

His most famous play, Lysistrata, is about a group of women who protest against a war by not having sexual intercourse with their husbands until the war is ended.

Ancient Greek theatre was first presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia, dedicated to the god Dionysus. The interesting thing is that Aristophanes did not always win first prize. The plays which won ahead of his have been lost, so we cannot make comparisons.

A licence for slander
George Grote said of Aristophanes:
"Never probably will the full power of unshackled comedy be so exhibited again...the unsparing licence of attack upon the gods, the institutions, the politicians, philosophers, poets, private citizens... and even upon the women of Athens".
"[Athenians] bore with good-humoured indulgence the full outpouring of ridicule... upon those democratic institutions to which they were sincerely attached... The democracy was strong enough to tolerate unfriendly tongues either in earnest or in jest.p450/452

Surviving plays
 The Acharnians (425 BC) Aristophanes shows he will not give in to political intimidation. The play is notable for absurd humour, and an imaginative appeal for an end to the Peloponnesian War
 The Knights (424 BC) The play is a satire on the social and political life of Athens and a scurrilous attack on the pro-war populist Cleon. Cleon had prosecuted Aristophanes for slandering the city in an earlier play, The Babylonians (426 BC: it has not survived). Aristophanes had promised revenge in The Acharnians, and it was in The Knights that his revenge was taken.
 The Clouds (original 423 BC, uncompleted revised version from 419 to 416 BC survives) It pokes fun at Socrates and intellectual fashions in classical Athens. The first known "comedy of ideas".
 The Wasps (422 BC) Aristophanes ridicules the law courts, which provided Cleon with his power-base. Also. has a young man vs old man theme which re-appears in several plays.
 Peace (first version, 421 BC) just a few days before the end of the ten year old Peloponnesian War. The play is notable for its celebration of a return to life in the countryside. But the ending is not happy for everyone. As in all Aristophanes' plays, the jokes are numerous, the action is wildly absurd and the satire is savage. Cleon, the pro-war populist leader of Athens, is once again a target, even though he had died in battle just a few months earlier.
 The Birds (414 BC) A fantasy about birds? No, it's a critique of the Athens of his day, disguised as a conversation between birds. It's one of the few works of the day which have been fully recovered. A critic remarks "A masterpiece, one of the greatest comedies ever written, and probably Aristophanes' finest".
 Lysistrata (411 BC) The best-known of his plays, often produced in modern versions. The play is notable for being an early exposé of sexual relations in a male-dominated society.
 Thesmophoriazusae (The Festival Women, first version, c. 410 BC) A parody of Athenian society, with a focus on the role of women in a male-dominated society, the vanity of poets such as Euripides and Agathon, and the shameless vulgarity of ordinary Athenians.
 The Frogs (405 BC) A play on the theme "old ways good, new ways bad". The Frogs tells the story of the god Dionysus, who travels to Hades with his slave Xanthias, who is smarter and braver than he is, to bring the playwright Euripides back from the dead.
 Ecclesiazousae (The Assemblywomen, c. 392 BC) is similar in theme to Lysistrata. Much of the comedy comes from women involving themselves in politics. The play is much more infused with gender issues than Lysistrata.
 Plutus (Wealth, second version, 388 BC) The play features an elderly Athenian citizen, Chremylos, and his slave. Chremylos presents himself and his family as virtuous but poor, and has gone to seek advice from an oracle. The advice he gets is to follow the first man he meets and take him home with him. That man turns out to be the god Plutus  who is, contrary to expectations, a blind beggar. After much argument, Plutus is convinced to enter Chremylus' house, where his sight is restored. The plot can be read as: wealth will now go only to those who deserve it in some way.

Related pages
 Theatre of Ancient Greece

References

Other websites
 The Frogs at the Internet Classics archive (English version)

450s BC births
380s BC deaths
Ancient Greek writers

Aristophanes


A creed is a statement or confession of belief — usually religious belief — or faith. The word comes from the Latin credo for I believe. It is  called symbol (Greek, συμβολον), that means a "token" by which persons of like beliefs might recognize each other.

Christian creeds

It is likely that the earliest creed of Christianity that deserves the title in full is the Apostles' Creed.  The Apostles' Creed seems to have been formulated to resist Gnosticism; it emphasizes the birth, physical death, and bodily Resurrection of Jesus Christ. It reads:

I believe in God, the Father almighty,
creator of heaven and earth.
I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord.
He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit
and born of the Virgin Mary.
He suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, died, and was buried.
He descended into hell.
On the third day he rose again.
He ascended into heaven
and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
He will come again to judge the living and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit,
the holy catholic Church,
the communion of saints,
the forgiveness of sins,
the resurrection of the body,
and the life everlasting.

The Nicene Creed is clearly derived from the Apostles' Creed, and represents an elaboration of its basic themes.  The most important additions to this creed are much more elaborate statements concerning Christology and the Trinity.
Christians today probably use the Nicene Creed most widely, followed by the Apostles' Creed.

Jewish Creed: the "Shmah"
The Jewish faith recognizes a single creed called the Shmah or Shema Yisrael, a statement of faith in strict unitarian monotheism, the belief in one God. This creed is embodied in a single prayer recited twice a day: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One", also translated as "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is unique [or alone]."

In Hebrew:  שמע ישראל אדני אלהינו אדני אחד

This is pronounced phonetically in Hebrew: Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad.

Islamic creeds
The most basic attempt to put the religion of Islam in a brief statement of doctrine is the shahada, the proclamation that there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His prophet.

More detailed credal declarations of Islamic dogma constitute aqidah.

The six Sunni articles of belief are:
Belief in God (Allah), the one and only one worthy of all worship (tawhid).
Belief in all the Prophets (nabi) and Messengers (rusul) sent by God.
Belief in the Books (kutub) sent by God (including the Qur'an).
Belief in the Angels (mala'ika).
Belief in the Day of Judgement (qiyama) and in the Resurrection (life after death).
Belief in Predestination (qadar).

Also from the Aqidah of the Salaf is the belief that the faith (i.e. Eemaan) consists of (both) speech and action and that it increases and decreases. This differs from the Murji'ah a sect who uphold the belief of "Irjaa'"-to hold that sins major and minor, do not affect the faith and that faith neither increases nor decreases.

And they uphold the belief that the Quran is the Speech of Allah, His Revelation and Light. It is not created, since the Quran is from Allah and that which is from Allah is not created. One of the attributes of Allah is his Speech. Since His attributes have been with Him eternally, His Speech cannot be created and therefore, the Quran is not created. According to the Salaf, debating about it is disbelief. It is not denied except by a Jahmee. A Jahmee is one who denies Allah's attributes.

Related pages
 Thirty-Nine Articles
Doctrine

Further reading
 Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition . Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss. Published by Yale University Press in 2003.

Other websites
 The Creeds of Christendom - A website linking to many formal Christian declarations of faith.
 www.iclnet.org

Christian genres

Creed


In statistics, the mode of a set of data is the one that occurs most.  Very often, samples of data are collected. These might be measurements of some kind. In this context, the mode is the value that occurs most often. Unlike the median and the mean, the mode is not necessarily unique. There might be several different values that occur the same number of times.

Statistics

Mode (statistics)


Orlande de Lassus (whose name is also spelt Orlandus Lassus, Orlando di Lasso, Roland de Lassus, or Roland Delattre) (born Mons, Hainaut, probably in 1532 ; died Munich, 14 June, 1594) was a Franco-Flemish composer who lived in the last part of the Renaissance. Lassus and Palestrina are the two most famous composers of that time who were writing church music in a polyphonic style.

Life

He was born in Mons in the province of Hainaut in the Low Countries which is mostly what is today the south part of the Netherlands and Belgium. We know very little about his childhood. There is a story that, when he was a choirboy, he was abducted three times by another church who wanted him to sing in their choir because he had a beautiful voice. There is no proof that this story is true. At the age of twelve he left his country and went to Mantua, Sicily, and later to Milan in Italy and then to Naples where he worked until the early 1550s. Next he moved to Rome, where he worked for the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who had a large household there. In 1553, he became maestro di cappella of the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome. This was an excellent job for a man who was only 21 years old. However, he only stayed there a year. Later, in 1555, Palestrina took that job. Lassus left Rome to go home to the Low Countries to see his parents who were ill, but by the time he got home they were both dead.

We are not sure what he did between then and 1554. He may have gone to France and England. In 1555 he returned to the Low Countries and had some of his first works published in Antwerp. In 1556 he joined the court of Duke Albert V of Bavaria who was very keen on music and was trying to make music in his country as good as the music in Italy. Lassus was one of several Netherlanders to work there, and by far the most famous. He seems to have been happy in Munich and he stayed there. In 1558 he married the daughter of a maid of honour of the Duchess; they had two sons who both became composers. By 1563 Lassus had been made maestro di cappella. He stayed there for the rest of his life, although several other kings and aristocrats offered him jobs in other places. He had many honours, including being knighted by the Pope.

In 1590 his health started to be bad. In 1594 his employer decided it was costing him too much to employ Lassus, so he wrote a letter to him to say that he was dismissed (that he no longer had a job). Lassus never saw the letter, because that very same day he died.

His music

Lassus composed a lot of church music. He had to compose masses for the morning and evening services. Many of these are parody masses, which means they were based on tunes from other compositions. Others were influenced by composers from Venice.

He wrote many motets which were probably sung at services as well. In some of these motets he shows a sense of humour. For example, one of his motets makes fun about bad singers: the music stops and starts and stutters. It was a kind of musical joke. Sometimes he had to write music for special occasions. He had visited Italy several times and learned the Italian way of writing polyphonic music.

Lassus also wrote many songs in French (chansons) as well as German (Lieder). He also wrote madrigals. He even wrote drinking songs.

He never wrote anything that was strictly instrumental music.

References

1530s births
1594 deaths
Renaissance composers
Franco-Flemish composers
Belgian composers

Orlande de Lassus


Jules Henri Poincaré (29 April 1854 – 17 July 1912) was a French mathematician and scientist. He was described as a "monster of mathematics " when still a child. Many people think he was the last person to understand all branches of mathematics before the subject became too big for anyone to do this.

Family
He came from a clever family, his father was a professor of medicine and his cousin, Raymond Poincaré became president of France. He was sick as a child and for many years he had to be taught at home by his mother.

Works
He used his mathematical skills to look at some of the biggest problems in science in his day. He was the first person to describe in mathematical terms how three planets in orbit affect each others paths as they pass near by one another. This was called the Three Body Problem. He also tried to understand why the speed of light seems to be the fastest speed at which anything can travel in the universe. In some ways he beat the famous scientist Albert Einstein to solving this question, but Einstein gave a more complete answer. He gained fame for the discovery of the theory of relativity instead of Poincaré.

He created the Poincaré Conjecture, one of the most famous problems in mathematics which was only solved 100 years later. He began the branches of mathematics which are known today as chaos theory and topology.

He also wrote about science in a simple way that ordinary people could understand.

1791 births
1867 deaths
French geometers
French theoretical physicists
Topologists
Deaths from embolism

Henri Poincaré


Agricultur is the growin o fuid an ither things for fowk an ainimals. No juist fuid craps is grawn but things like flouers, ornamental plaunts an nursery plaunts, manure or dung, ainimal hides, laither, industrial chemicals (starch, ethanol, an plastics), feebres (cotton, oo, hemp, an flax), fuels (methane, biodiesel, biomass), an drogs (biopharmaceuticals, marijuana, opium)

Agricultur micht hae stairtit mair nor 10,000 year syne, but naebody kens for shuir hou auld it is. Agricultur stairtit in the Fertile Crescent in East Asie. The airt cried the Fertile Crescent is nou in the kintras o Iraq, Sirie, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, an Egyp. Wheat an baurley is some o the first craps fowk grew. Fowk aiblins stairtit agricultur by plautin a puckle craps, but aye gaithert mony fuids frae the wild. Fowk micht hae stairtit fermin acause the wather an syle begoud tae chynge. Fermin can feed mony mair fowk nor gaitherin on the same bit grund.

Mony fowk leeves by tawin awa at whit is cried subseestence agricultur, on a wee ferm. Anerly the fermer's faimily leeves on the ferm. Subseestence agricultur is growin juist eneuch fuid for tae feed the fermer, his faimily, an his beasts. Extrae fuid or ainimals is selt for siller or ither things the fermer canna growe. The yield is the amoont o fuid grown on a gien bit laund, an the yield is aften law, acause subseestence fermers is less eddicate, an they hae less siller for tae coff graith. Whan yields is law, forests is whiles cuttit for tae fend new laund for tae growe fuid. This is guid in the short term, but can be ill for the kintra an the laund in the lang term.

In rich kintras, ferms is aften a hail sicht lairger an the yield on the ferms haes gotten bigger in the last hunder year, acause fermers growes better varieties o plaunts, uise mair fertilizer, uise mair watter, an haes less weeds an pests. Mair oot ower, mony ferms uises machines, sae they need fewer fermers. Sae, there are fewer fermers in rich kintras, but they growe mair fuid. This kind o intensive agricultur maks problems an aw. Fermers uises a lot o chemical fertilizers, pesticides (chemicals that kills insects), an herbicides (chemicals that kills weeds). They whiles pollute the syle or the watter. They whiles mair reseestant insects an weeds. The syle is whiles skaithed by erosion, saut accumulation, or loss o structur. Irrigation (taen watter frae rivers) can pollute watter an lawer the watter table. Haein fewer fermers chynges society an aw an can mak a kintra less able tae feed itsel in haurd times.

Agricultur

Agricultur


The word independence means "not dependent", or not having to depend on anyone or anything else. It also means being strong and able to survive alone. Anything can be dependent or independent. When people talk about independence, it may be about people or countries, where it is often being spoken about as a good thing. For places, it may mean sovereignty or autonomy. In science, as in independent variable the word does not mean it is good or bad.

In countries
A country gets its independence when it is no longer part of another country. Sometimes countries get their independence in a war, as when the United States left the British Empire in the American War of Independence. Countries can also get their independence peacefully, like Canada and Norway did. Help from another country may be needed to get independence, like in World War II, when the allies freed many countries that had been controlled by the Axis powers and, temporarily, vice versa. Attempts to gain independence may lead to civil war and may be unsuccessful.

Examples
Singapore gained independence from Malaysia in 1965. The newest country to get its independence was South Sudan.  Other countries that became independent not long ago are Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, Eritrea in 1993 and East Timor in 2002. However, some countries have political parties that discuss whether their country should become independent. Some examples of these are the Scottish National Party (SNP) or the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP).

Related pages
 Declaration of independence
 Autonomy
 Nationalism
 Self-determination

Politics
Nationalism

Independence


A diode is an electronic component with two electrodes (connectors) that allows electricity to go through it in one direction and not the other direction.

Diodes can be used to turn alternating current into direct current (Diode bridge).  They are used in power supplies and sometimes to decode amplitude modulation radio signals (like in a crystal radio). Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a type of diode that produce light.

Today, the most common diodes are made from semiconductor materials such as silicon or sometimes germanium.

History
The first types of diodes were called Fleming valves. They were vacuum tubes. They were inside a glass tube (much like a lightbulb). Inside the glass bulb there was a small metal wire and a large metal plate. The small metal wire would heat up and emit electricity, which was captured by the plate. The large metal plate was not heated, so electricity could go in one direction through the tube but not in the other direction. Fleming valves are not used much anymore because they have been replaced by semiconductor diodes, which are smaller than Fleming valves. Thomas Edison also discovered this property when working on his light bulbs.

Construction

Semiconductor diodes are made of two types of semiconductors connected to each other. One type has atoms with extra electrons (called the n-side). The other type has atoms that want electrons (called the p-side). Because of this, the electricity will flow easily from the side with too many electrons to the side with too few. However, electricity will not flow easily in the reverse direction. These different types are made by doping (semiconductor). Silicon with arsenic dissolved in it makes a good n-side semiconductor, while silicon with aluminum dissolved in it makes a good p-side semiconductor. Other chemicals can also work.

The connector to the n-side is called the cathode, the connector to the p-side is called the anode.

Function of a diode

Positive voltage at p-side

If you give positive voltage to the p-side and negative voltage to the n-side, the electrons in the n-side will want to go to the positive voltage at the p-side and the holes of the p-side will want to go to the negative voltage at the n-side. Because of this, current flow is able to exist, but it takes a certain amount of voltage to get this started (very small amount of voltage is not enough to get the electric current to flow). This is called the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage of a silicon diode is at about 0.7 V. A germanium diode needs a cut-in voltage at about 0.3 V.

Negative voltage at p-side

If you instead give negative voltage to the p-side and positive voltage to the n-side, the electrons of the n-side want to go to the positive voltage source instead of the other side of the diode. Same thing happens on the p-side. So, current will not flow between the two sides of the diode. Increasing the voltage will eventually force electric current to flow (this is the break-down voltage). Many diodes will be destroyed by a reverse flow but some are made that can survive it.

Influence of temperature

When the temperature increases, the cut-in voltage goes down.  This makes it easier for electricity to pass through the diode.

Types of diodes
There are many types of diodes.  Some have very specific uses and some have a variety of uses.

Symbols
Here are some common semiconductor diode symbols used in schematic diagrams:

Standard rectifier diode
This changes A/C (alternating current, like in a wall plug in a house) to D/C (direct current, used in electronics). The standard rectifier diode has specific requirements. It should handle high current, not be much affected by temperature, have a low cut-in voltage and support quick changes in the direction of current flow. Modern analog and digital electronics use such rectifiers.

Light-Emitting Diode
An LED produces light when electricity flows through it.  It is a longer lasting and more efficient way of creating light than incandescent light bulbs. Depending on how it was made, the LED can make different colors. LEDs were first used in the 1970's. The light-emitting diode may eventually replace the light bulb as developing technology makes it brighter and cheaper (it is already more efficient and lasts longer). In the 1970's the LEDs were used to show numbers in appliances such as calculators, and as a way to show the power was on for larger appliances.

Photodiode
A photodiode is a photo detector (the opposite of a light-emitting diode). It responds to light that comes in. Photodiodes have a window or optical fiber connection, which lets light in to the sensitive part of the diode. Diodes usually have strong resistance; the light reduces the resistance.

Zener Diode
A zener diode is like a normal diode, but instead of being destroyed by a big reverse voltage, it lets electricity through.  The voltage needed for this is called the breakdown voltage or Zener voltage.  Because it is built with a known breakdown voltage it can be used to supply a known voltage.

Varactor Diode
The varicap or varactor diode is used in many appliances. It uses the region between the p-side and n-side of the diode where electrons and holes balance each other.  This is called the depletion zone.  By changing the amount of reverse voltage, the size of the depletion zone changes.  There is some capacitance in this area, and it changes based on the size of the depletion zone.  This is called variable capacitance, or varicap for short.  It is used in PLLs (Phase-locked loops) which are used to control the high-speed frequency a chip runs at.

Step-Recovery-Diode
The symbol is the symbol of a diode with a kind of snag.  It is used in circuits with high frequencies up to GHz. It turns off very quickly when the forward voltage stops.  It uses the current that flows after the polarity was reversed to do this.

PIN Diode
The construction of this diode has an intrinsic (normal) layer between the n- and the p-sides. At slower frequencies, it acts much like a standard diode. But at high speeds it can not keep up with fast changes and starts to act like a resistor.  The intrinsic layer also lets it handle high power inputs, and can be used as a photodiode.

Schottky diode
The symbol of this is the diode symbol, with an 'S' at the peak.  Instead of both sides being a semiconductor (like silicon), one side is metal, like aluminum or nickel.  This reduces the cut-in voltage to about 0.3 volt. This is about half of the threshold voltage of a usual diode.
The function of this diode is that no minority carriers are injected - the n-side only has holes, not electrons, and the p-side only has electrons, not holes.  Because this is cleaner, it can react faster, without diffusion capacitance that can slow it down.  It also creates less heat and is more efficient.  But it does has some current leakage with reverse voltage.

When a diode switches from moving current to not moving current, this is known as switching. It takes dozens of nanoseconds in a typical diode; this creates some radio noise, which temporarily degrades radio signals. The Schottky diode switches in a small fraction of that time, less than a nanosecond.

Tunnel diode
In the symbol of the tunnel diode there is a kind of additional square bracket at the end of the usual symbol.

A tunnel diode consists of a highly doped pn-junction. Because of this high doping, there is only a very narrow gap where the electrons are able to pass through. This tunnel-effect appears in both directions.
After a certain quantity of electrons have passed, the current through the gap decreases, until the normal current through the diode at the threshold voltage begins.  This causes an area of a negative resistance.
These diodes are used to deal with really high frequencies (100 GHz).  It is also resistant to radiation, so they are used in spacecraft. They are also used in microwaves and refrigerators.

Backward diode
The symbol has at the end of the diode a sign that looks like a big I.  It is made similar to the tunnel diode, but the n- and the p-layer are not doped as high. It allows current to flow backwards with small negative voltages.  It can be used to rectify low voltages (less than 0.7 volts).

Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
Instead of two layers like a normal diode, this has four layers, it is basically two diodes put together, with a gate in the middle. When voltage goes between the gate and the cathode the lower transistor will turn on. This lets the current go through, which activates the upper transistor, and then the current will not need to be turned on by a gate voltage.

References

Other websites

 The Unusual Diode FAQ

Electronic components
Rectifiers

Diode


Community centres, community centers, or community halls are public locations where members of a community tend to gather for group activities, social support, public information, and other purposes. They may be open for the whole community or for a specialized subgroup within the greater community. Community centres can be religious in nature, such as Christian, Islamic, Jewish, Hindu or Buddhist community centres, or can be secular, such as youth clubs.

Uses

The community centres are usually used for:

 Celebrations,
 Public meetings of the citizens on various issues,
 Organising meetings(where politicians or other official leaders come to meet the citizens and ask for their opinions, support or votes ("election campaigning" in democracies, other kinds of requests in non-democracies),
 Volunteer activities,
 Organising parties, weddings,
 Organising local non-government activities,
 Passes on and retells local history,etc.

Organization and ownership

Around the world (and sometimes within single countries) there appear to be four common ways in which the operation of the kind of community centre are owned and organised. In the following description, "Government" may refer to the ordinary secular government or to a dominant religious organisation such as the Roman Catholic Church; and it may refer to the central, national, or international branch of a government/church or to the local subdivision of it.

 Community owned: The centre is directly owned and run by the local community through an organization separate from the official (local) governmental institutions of the area, but with the full knowledge and sometimes even funding from (local) government institutions.
 Government owned: The centre is a public (local) government facility, though it is mostly used for non-government community activities and may even have some kind of local leadership elected from its community.
Kominkan (in Japan)
 Sponsored: A rich citizen or commercial corporation owns the centre and donates its use to the community for reasons of charity or public relations.
 Commercial: The community centre is a purely commercial entity which aims to profit from renting its facilities to various community groups on terms suitable for such use.

Types of community centres

The community centres typically have their own origin and history. There are some examples:

 Built as such - Buildings have been erected specifically to function as community centers (as early as 1880, perhaps even earlier).
 A disused public building - When an official government building (such as a school or city hall) is no longer needed for its original purpose, it is sometimes offered to the community as gift, loan or sale.
 A disused commercial building - When a commercial building of some local importance is no longer used, it is sometimes sold or donated to the community.
 A building that served many of the purposes now given to the community centre in addition to a different primary use (such as school, church, inn, or town hall), which was later acquired so it could continue these functions after its primary use subsided.

Schools as community centers
Early forms of community centers in the United States were based in schools providing facilities to inner city communities out of school hours. An early celebrated example of this is to be found in Rochester, New York from 1907. Edward J. Ward, a Presbyterian minister, joined the Extension Department at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, organizing the Wisconsin Bureau of Civic and Social Development. By 1911 they organized a country-wide conference on schools as social centers. Despite concerns expressed by politicians and public officials that they might provide a focus for alternative political and social activity, the idea was successful. In 1916, with the foundation of the National Community Center Association, the term Community Center was generally used in the US. By 1918 there were community centers in 107 US cities, and in 240 cities by 1924. By 1930 there were nearly 500 centers with more than four million people regularly attending. The first of these was Public School 63, located in the Lower East Side. Clinton Child's, one of the organizers, described it as:
"A Community organized about some center for its own political and social welfare and expression; to peer into its own mind and life, to discover its own social needs and then to meet them, whether they concern the political field, the field of health, of recreation, of education, or of industry; such community organization is necessary if democratic society is to succeed and endure".

In the UK many villages and towns have their own Community Centre, although nearby schools may offer their assembly or dining hall after school for Community Centre activities.  For example, local schools near Ouston, County Durham may host dance or sporting activities provided by a local community centre.

Grassroots functions
Parks are also considered community centers. Another pioneer of community centers was Mary Parker Follett, who saw community centers as playing a major part in her concept of community development and democracy seen through individuals organizing themselves into neighborhood groups, and attending to people's needs, desires and aspirations. This can also include parks.

In the United Kingdom, the oldest community centre is possibly that which was established in 1901 in Thringstone, Leicestershire by the old age pensions pioneer, Charles Booth (1847-1916). Extended in 1911 and taken over by the Leicestershire County Council in 1950, this centre still thrives as an educational, social and recreational community resource and was the inspiration for numerous others of its kind.

There are also community centres for a specific purpose, but serving the whole community, such as an arts centre.

Online community centres are defined as a web-based interactive, user-submitted network for groups, organizations, or businesses.  Users create their own personal profiles, blogs, groups, photos, art, calendars, music, and videos to display on their own pages.  Administrators provide oversight to the content and approve membership of users.

Urban planning

In Singapore, community centres are distinct buildings that are officially designated by the government of Singapore. They are meant to play an urban planning role especially as part of Housing Development Board projects. Enrichment and grassroots organization are their functions like most other community centres, but relieving traffic congestion concerns by placing community centres nearby is also another reason.

See also
Cultural center
Village hall
YMCA
Kominkan (Japanese citizen's public hall)
People's House
Teen center
Community arts
Autonomous social center
Far-right social centres

References

External links

Selfmanaged Social Centers
Social Centers, Community Spaces, and Squats From "Italy's Cultural Underground" by Adam Bregman
International Federation of Settlements and Neighborhood Centers

Community centre


Arthur Seyss-Inquart/Arthur Seyß-Inquart (born Arthur Seyß-Inquart on 22 July 1892–16 October 1946) was a prominent lawyer and later Nazi official in pre-Anschluß Austria, the Third Reich and in wartime Germany, Poland, and the Netherlands. Seyß-Inquart was executed at the Nuremberg Trials for crimes against humanity.

Life before the Anschluss
Seyß-Inquart was born in 1892 in Stonařov (Stannern), Moravia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to school principal Emil Zajtich and his wife Auguste Hyrenbach. The family moved to Vienna in 1907, where they changed the Czech Slavic name of "Zajtich" to the German "Seyß-Inquart". Seyß-Inquart later studied law at the University of Vienna. At the beginning of World War I in August 1914, Seyß-Inquart enlisted in the Austrian Army and served in Russia, Romania and Italy.  He was decorated for bravery on a number of occasions, and while recovering from wounds in 1917 he completed his final examinations for his degree.

In 1911, Seyß-Inquart met Gertrud Maschka. The couple married in 1916 and had three children: Ingeborg Caroline Auguste Seyß-Inquart (born 18 September 1917), Richard Seyß-Inquart (born 1921) and Dorothea Seyß-Inquart (born 1928).

He went into law after the war, and in 1921 set up his own practice. During the early years of the first Austrian republic, he was close to the Vaterländische Front.

As a successful lawyer, he was asked to join the cabinet of Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in 1933.

He became a State Councillor in 1937 under Kurt Schuschnigg. He was not a member of the Austrian National Socialist party at first. But by 1938, Seyß-Inquart was the highest-ranking politician in the Austrian National Socialist Party.

In February 1938, Seyß-Inquart was appointed Minister of the Interior by Schuschnigg, after Hitler had threatened Schuschnigg. On 11 March 1938, Schuschnigg resigned as Austrian Chancellor and Seyß-Inquart was appointed to the position by Austrian President Wilhelm Miklas. Hitler's plan was to have Seyß-Inquart send a telegram asking for German help to stop riots, but President Miklas did not make Seyß-Inquart chancellor until after Hitler's invasion of Austria. On 13 March 1938, Seyß-Inquart joined the National Socialist party.

Head of Ostmark and Southern Poland
Hitler was going to leave Austria independent, but after the welcome the invading German troops got during the Anschluß he decided to make Austria a new part of the Third Reich, called Ostmark (or eastern boundary) . Seyß-Inquart wrote the statute which made Austria a province of Germany, and signed it into law on 13 March.

Seyß-Inquart became Reichsstatthalter or Governor of the so-called Ostmark. Ernst Kaltenbrunner was chief minister, and Burckel Commissioner for the Reunion of Austria (concerned with the "Jewish Question").

Seyß-Inquart was made an SS Gruppenführer, and in May 1939 Minister without portfolio in Hitler's government.

After the invasion of Poland Seyß-Inquart became governor of Southern Poland, but before he started work there the General Government was created, and Seyß-Inquart became a deputy to Governor General Hans Frank.

Reichskommissar in the Netherlands
After Germany invaded the Low Countries, Seyß-Inquart became Reichskommissar for occupied Netherlands in May 1940. His job was to organize civil administration, create close economic ties with Germany and defend the interests of the Reich.

He supported the Dutch National Socialist Party (NSB) and allowed it to create a paramilitary Landwacht, as an auxiliary police force. Other political parties were banned in late 1941, and many former government officials imprisoned at Sint-Michielsgestel. The administration of the country was largely controlled by Seyß-Inquart himself.

He introduced measures to combat 'terror', and when a widespread strike took place in Amsterdam, Arnhem and Hilversum in May 1943 special summary court-martials were held and a collective fine of 18 million guilders was imposed. Seyß-Inquart authorized the execution of around 800 people before liberation. Some people say it was not merely 800 but over 1,500, including executions under the so-called "Hostage Law" involving (among others) political prisoners who were close to being liberated, the Putten incident, and the reprisal execution of 117 Dutchmen for the attack on SS and Police Leader" Hanns Albin Rauter. From July 1944 on, most of Seyß-Inquart's powers were transferred to the military commander in the Netherlands and the Gestapo, but he was still an important and powerful political figure.

There were two small concentration camps in the Netherlands:
 KZ Herzogenbusch near Vught, and
 Kamp Amersfoort near Amersfoort.

There was also a "Jewish assembly camp" at Westerbork, in addition to a number of other camps controlled by the military, the police, the SS or Seyß-Inquart's administration. These included a "voluntary labor recruitment" camp at Ommen. A total of around 530,000 Dutch civilians worked for the Germans, of whom 250,000 were sent to factories in Germany.

Seyss-Inquart was an anti-Semite: within a few months of his arrival in the Netherlands, he sacked Jews from government, the press and leading positions in industry. Anti-Jewish measures escalated after 1941: approximately 140,000 Jews were registered, a ghetto was created in Amsterdam and a transit camp set up at Westerbork. In February 1941, 600 Jews were sent to the Buchenwald and Mauthausen concentration camps. Later, Dutch Jews were sent to Auschwitz. As Allied forces approached in September 1944 the remaining Jews at Westerbork were sent to Theresienstadt. Of 140,000 registered Dutch Jews, only 44,500 survived the war.

When Hitler committed suicide on 30 April 1945, Seyß-Inquart became the Foreign Minister in Admiral Karl Dönitz's new German government.

The Nazi regime had tried a 'scorched earth' policy, and also destroyed some docks and harbors. Seyß-Inquart agreed with Armaments Minister Albert Speer that destroying everything to keep valuable materials from Allied forces or a new government after the war was wrong. Seyß-Inquart also helped in the so-called 'hunger winter' of 1945 to distribute food, and allowed Allied airplanes to drop Swedish white bread for the hungry people of occupied northern Netherlands. He remained Reichskommissar until 8 May 1945, when, after a meeting with Karl Dönitz to confirm his blocking of the scorched-earth orders, he was captured in Hamburg.

Nuremberg Trials

At the Nuremberg Trials, Seyß-Inquart faced charges of conspiracy to commit crimes against peace; planning, starting and fighting wars of aggression; war crimes; and crimes against humanity.

His defence lawyer was Gustav Steinbauer. Seyß-Inquart was nonetheless found guilty of all charges except conspiracy. On hearing of his death sentence, Seyss-Inquart made it clear he accepted responsibility for excesses during the war, "Death by hanging...well, in view of the whole situation, I never expected anything different. It's all right". He was hanged on 16 October 1946, at the age of 54, together with nine other Nuremberg defendants. His last words were "I hope that this execution is the last act of the tragedy of the Second World War and that the lesson taken from this world war will be that peace and understanding should exist between peoples. I believe in Germany".

References

Other websites
 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Arthur Seyss-Inquart

1892 births
1946 deaths
Austrian people of World War II
Austrian war criminals
Chancellors of Austria
Executed Austrian people
Executed Nazis
Government ministers of Austria
Government ministers of Nazi Germany
Holocaust perpetrators
Austrian lawyers
Members of the Reichstag (Nazi Germany)
People executed by hanging
Politicians of the Nazi Party
SS officers
Austrian Roman Catholics

Arthur Seyß-Inquart