In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is an object or type of material that allows the flow of charge (electric current) in one or more directions. Materials made of metal are common electrical conductors. The flow of negatively charged electrons generates electric current, positively charged holes, and positive or negative ions in some cases.

In order for current to flow within a closed electrical circuit, one charged particle does not need to travel from the component producing the current (the current source) to those consuming it (the loads). Instead, the charged particle simply needs to nudge its neighbor a finite amount, who will nudge its neighbor, and on and on until a particle is nudged into the consumer, thus powering it. Essentially what is occurring is a long chain of momentum transfer between mobile charge carriers; the Drude model of conduction describes this process more rigorously. This momentum transfer model makes metal an ideal choice for a conductor; metals, characteristically, possess a delocalized sea of electrons which gives the electrons enough mobility to collide and thus affect a momentum transfer.

As discussed above, electrons are the primary mover in metals; however, other devices such as the cationic electrolyte(s) of a battery, or the mobile protons of the proton conductor of a fuel cell rely on positive charge carriers. Insulators are non-conducting materials with few mobile charges that support only insignificant electric currents.

Resistance and conductance

The resistance of a given conductor depends on the material it is made of, and on its dimensions. For a given material, the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. For example, a thick copper wire has lower resistance than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire. Also, for a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long copper wire has higher resistance than an otherwise-identical short copper wire. The resistance  and conductance  of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be computed as

where  is the length of the conductor, measured in metres [m], A is the cross-section area of the conductor measured in square metres [m2], σ (sigma) is the electrical conductivity measured in siemens per meter (S·m−1), and ρ (rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm-metres (Ω·m). The resistivity and conductivity are proportionality constants, and therefore depend only on the material the wire is made of, not the geometry of the wire. Resistivity and conductivity are reciprocals: . Resistivity is a measure of the material's ability to oppose electric current.

This formula is not exact: It assumes the current density is totally uniform in the conductor, which is not always true in practical situation. However, this formula still provides a good approximation for long thin conductors such as wires.

Another situation this formula is not exact for is with alternating current (AC), because the skin effect inhibits current flow near the center of the conductor. Then, the geometrical cross-section is different from the effective cross-section in which current actually flows, so the resistance is higher than expected. Similarly, if two conductors are near each other carrying AC current, their resistances increase due to the proximity effect. At commercial power frequency, these  effects are significant for large conductors carrying large currents, such as busbars in an electrical substation, or large power cables carrying more than a few hundred amperes.

Aside from the geometry of the wire, temperature also has a significant effect on the efficacy of conductors. Temperature affects conductors in two main ways, the first is that materials may expand under the application of heat. The amount that the material will expand is governed by the thermal expansion coefficient specific to the material. Such an expansion (or contraction) will change the geometry of the conductor and therefore its characteristic resistance. However, this effect is generally small, on the order of 10−6. An increase in temperature will also increase the number of phonons generated within the material. A phonon is essentially a lattice vibration, or rather a small, harmonic kinetic movement of the atoms of the material. Much like the shaking of a pinball machine, phonons serve to disrupt the path of electrons, causing them to scatter. This electron scattering will decrease the number of electron collisions and therefore will decrease the total amount of current transferred.

Conductor materials

Conduction materials include metals, electrolytes, superconductors, semiconductors, plasmas and some nonmetallic conductors such as graphite and conductive polymers.

Copper has a high conductivity. Annealed copper is the international standard to which all other electrical conductors are compared; the International Annealed Copper Standard conductivity is , although ultra-pure copper can slightly exceed 101% IACS.  The main grade of copper used for electrical applications, such as building wire, motor windings, cables and busbars, is electrolytic-tough pitch (ETP) copper (CW004A or ASTM designation C100140).  If high conductivity copper must be welded or brazed or used in a reducing atmosphere, then oxygen-free high conductivity copper (CW008A or ASTM designation C10100) may be used. Because of its ease of connection by soldering or clamping, copper is still the most common choice for most light-gauge wires.

Silver is 6% more conductive than copper, but due to cost it is not practical in most cases. However, it is used in specialized equipment, such as satellites, and as a thin plating to mitigate skin effect losses at high frequencies.  Famously,  of silver on loan from the United States Treasury were used in the making of the calutron magnets during World War II due to wartime shortages of copper.

Aluminum wire is the most common metal in electric power transmission and distribution.  Although only 61% of the conductivity of copper by cross-sectional area, its lower density makes it twice as conductive by mass.  As aluminum is roughly one-third the cost of copper by weight, the economic advantages are considerable when large conductors are required.

The disadvantages of aluminum wiring lie in its mechanical and chemical properties.  It readily forms an insulating oxide, making connections heat up.  Its larger coefficient of thermal expansion than the brass materials used for connectors causes connections to loosen.  Aluminum can also "creep", slowly deforming under load, which also loosens connections.  These effects can be mitigated with suitably designed connectors and extra care in installation, but they have made aluminum building wiring unpopular past the service drop.

Organic compounds such as octane, which has 8 carbon atoms and 18 hydrogen atoms, cannot conduct electricity. Oils are hydrocarbons, since  carbon has the property of tetracovalency and forms covalent bonds with other elements such as hydrogen, since it does not lose or gain electrons, thus does not form ions. Covalent bonds are simply the sharing of electrons. Hence, there is no separation of ions when electricity is passed through it. Liquids made of compounds with only covalent bonds cannot conduct electricity. Certain organic ionic liquids, by contrast, can conduct an electric current.

While pure water is not an electrical conductor, even a small portion of ionic impurities, such as salt, can rapidly transform it into a conductor.

Wire size
Wires are measured by their cross sectional area. In many countries, the size is expressed in square millimetres. In North America, conductors are measured by American wire gauge for smaller ones, and circular mils for larger ones.

Conductor ampacity
The ampacity of a conductor, that is, the amount of current it can carry, is related to its electrical resistance: a lower-resistance conductor can carry a larger value of current. The resistance, in turn, is determined by the material the conductor is made from (as described above) and the conductor's size. For a given material, conductors with a larger cross-sectional area have less resistance than conductors with a smaller cross-sectional area.

For bare conductors, the ultimate limit is the point at which power lost to resistance causes the conductor to melt. Aside from fuses, most conductors in the real world are operated far below this limit, however. For example, household wiring is usually insulated with PVC insulation that is only rated to operate to about 60 °C, therefore, the current in such wires must be limited so that it never heats the copper conductor above 60 °C, causing a risk of fire. Other, more expensive insulation such as Teflon or fiberglass may allow operation at much higher temperatures.

Isotropy
If an electric field is applied to a material, and the resulting induced electric current is in the same direction, the material is said to be an isotropic electrical conductor.  If the resulting electric current is in a different direction from the applied electric field, the material is said to be an anisotropic electrical conductor.

See also

Bundle conductor
Charge transfer complex
Electrical cable
Electrical resistivity and conductivity
 Fourth rail
 Overhead line
 Stephen Gray, first to identify electrical conductors and insulators
Superconductivity
 Third rail

References

Further reading

Pioneering and historical books
 William Henry Preece. On Electrical Conductors.  1883.
 Oliver Heaviside. Electrical Papers. Macmillan, 1894.

Reference books
 Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Electrical Conductors. American Society for Testing and Materials. (every year)
 IET Wiring Regulations. Institution for Engineering and Technology. wiringregulations.net

External links
 BBC: Key Stage 2 Bitesize: Electrical Conductors
 The discovery of conductors and insulators by Gray, Dufay and Franklin.

Electricity

Electrical conductor


A vaccination is a treatment which makes the body stronger against an infection.

The body fights infections using the immune system, which is made up of millions upon millions of cells including T cells and B cells. An important part of the adaptive immune system is that it is much stronger when fighting a disease that it has already fought against before. Vaccination involves showing the immune system something which looks very similar to a particular virus or bacteria, which helps the immune system be stronger when it is fighting against the real infection.

The  World Health Organisation estimates that vaccines save 4-5 million lives per year.

Vaccination versus immunization
Another word used for vaccines is immunization. These words mean things that are a little different. Vaccination is when a person is given something to make the immune system learn to fight an infectious disease.

Immunization is when a person's immune system learns to fight an infection. Immunization can happen from vaccination. But immunization can also happen from getting the infection. For example, a person can be immune to hepatitis B if he gets sick with hepatitis B. After a person gets hepatitis B and then gets well, he is immunized from getting it again. A person can also be immunized from hepatitis B by taking the hepatitis B vaccination.

So vaccination and immunization have meanings that are a little different. But when people say these words, they usually mean the same thing.

Herd immunity

Herd immunity is an important part of how vaccines work. A herd is a group of animals. Herd immunity happens when most of the animals in a group are immune to an infection. If most animals are immune they cannot get the disease. If they do not get the disease, they cannot give it to other animals. So even one animal who is not immune is safer. If none of the other animals in a herd get the infection, they cannot give the infection to the one who is non immune.

This is important in people too. If 95% of people in a place are immune to a disease, the other 5% are safer. They are not near infected people, so they won't get infected.

The people who are in the 5% are there for many reasons. Some got the vaccine but did not react to it. Their immune system did not learn how to fight it well. Some of them are too sick to get the vaccine. It can be children who are too sick with other diseases to get vaccines. It can be a pregnant woman who cannot get the vaccine because it could hurt her baby. It can be a person with cancer who does not have a strong immune system. It can be an older person who has a weak immune system.

So if everyone in a place gets vaccinated, it protects these people too. If they are not protected by herd immunity, they can get more sick from an infection. They get the infection more easily and they get sicker from it. So it is important that people who are healthy get their vaccinations. It protects the healthy people. But it also is important to protect other people who are old, weak, or sick.

Types of vaccines

There are different types of vaccines:
 Inactivated vaccines contain particles (usually viruses). These have been grown for the purpose. They have been killed, using formaldehyde or by other means. But the virus still looks intact; the immune system can develop antibodies against it.
 Attenuated vaccines contain live viruses, that have been weakened. They will reproduce, but very slowly, making it an "easy win" for the immune system. Such vaccines cannot be used on patients with a severely weakened immune system, such as those with AIDS, as they are unable to defeat even this very weak virus.
 Subunit vaccines show antigens to the immune system, without introducing virus material.

There are various other methods. All aim to develop the immune response without allowing the full viral infection to happen.

Delivery
In England the School Age Immunisation Services deliver vaccinations in schools  every Autumn for Human Papilloma Virus, Diphtheria, Tetanus and Polio, Meningococcal ACWY , Measles, Mumps and Rubella  and Flu.

Safety of vaccination
Today in modern countries almost all people are vaccinated, which has caused many serious diseases to become rare. However, some people argue against vaccination, as they are worried about possible side effects from the vaccination.

Vaccinations do have some side effects. These include swelling and redness around the injection site, a sore arm, or fever. These effects are because of the immune system fighting with the viruses or bacteria which have been injected. Very rarely, the immune system overreacts so much to the virus that the immune system damages other areas in the body.

As well as these real side effects of vaccinations, some people believe that vaccines cause other serious problems like autism, brain damage, or diabetes. There is no evidence for this. Almost all doctors and scientists believe that vaccination does not cause any of these things.

Overall, the vast majority of medical professionals and scientists believe that vaccinations are a good thing and that the benefits of avoiding diseases are far greater than the very small risk of side effects. All medical organizations around the world, including the World Health Organization(WHO), the American Medical Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and the United States Centers for Disease Control support vaccination.

Origin
The word "vaccine" was created by Edward Jenner. The word comes from the Latin word vacca, meaning cow. A virus that mainly affects cows (Cowpox) was used in the first scientific demonstration that giving a person one virus could protect against a related and more dangerous one.

History of vaccination

The first vaccination ever was for smallpox. The earliest hints of the practice of inoculation for smallpox in China come during the 10th century.

In 1796 an English doctor, Edward Jenner, noticed something. He saw that people who got cowpox did not get sick from smallpox. He gave a young boy the cowpox virus to protect him from smallpox. This was done by scratching liquid from cowpox sores into the boy's skin. This same method using the liquid from sores was also used to give people smallpox. People did this so they might get smallpox on one place on their bodies. Then they could pick which body part got scars from smallpox. But sometimes people who did this got very sick from smallpox. Some even died. This was a dangerous thing to do. But people did it because it was less dangerous than getting smallpox.

Edward Jenner gave the boy cowpox in the same way people tried to give smallpox. Six weeks later, he scratched smallpox into the boy's skin. The boy did not get sick from smallpox. This boy was the first person ever to get a vaccination.

It was not until almost 100 years after the smallpox vaccination that the next vaccine for cholera was found in 1879. After that, vaccines for many types of infectious diseases became available.

References

Other websites
 World Health Organization about vaccines
 Sabin Vaccine Institute
 Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research
 Walter Reed National Vaccine Healthcare Centers Network (US)
 American Academy of Pediatrics Vaccine Information
 Vaccination -Citizendium

Immunization

Vaccination


Sir Isaac Newton  (25 December 1643 – 20 March 1726/27) was an English physicist, mathematician and astronomer. He is well known for his work on the laws of motion, optics, gravity, and calculus. In 1687, Newton published a book called the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in which he presents his theory of universal gravitation and  three laws of motion.

Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope in 1668. He also developed a theory of light based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the colors of the rainbow. Newton also shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus.

Newton's ideas on light, motion, and gravity dominated physics for the next three centuries, until modified by Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.

After being knighted in 1705 because he was Master of the Royal Mint, he was "Sir" Isaac Newton.

Life

Early life
Isaac Newton was born (according to the Julian calendar, in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 (N.S. 4 January 1643) "an hour or two after midnight", at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire, England. His father, also named Isaac Newton, died three months before his birth. When Newton was three, his mother, Hannah Ayscough, remarried with Reverend Barnabas Smith. Young Newton remained with his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough.

From 1655 to 1659, Newton was educated at The King's School, Grantham. When he was seventeen, he was removed from school. His mother tried to make him a farmer, but he did not like that. Henry Stokes, master at The King's School, requested his mother to send him back to school.

In June 1661, he was sent to the University of Cambridge to study.

Discoveries
In 1666 Isaac Newton experimented with light, and found that different colors had different refractions. He began lecturing on this topic in 1670.

Newton explained the workings of the universe through mathematics. He described laws of motion and gravitation. These laws are math formulas that explain how objects move when a force acts on them. Newton published his most famous book, Principia, in 1687 while he was a mathematics professor at Trinity College, Cambridge. In the Principia, Newton explained three basic laws that govern the way objects move. He then described his idea, or theory, about gravity. Gravity is the force that causes things to fall down. If a pencil fell off a desk, it will land on the floor, not the ceiling. In his book Newton also used his laws to show that the planets revolve around the suns in orbits that are oval, not round. Newton also discovered diffraction. This led him to enter the field of physics, where he prospered.

Newton's Three Laws Of Motion

Following are the three laws of motion.
 The first law (Law of Inertia)
 Newton's first law of motion states is that an object that is not being pushed or pulled by some force will stay still, or will keep moving in a straight line at a steady speed. It is easy to understand that a rocket will not move unless something pushes or pulls it. It is harder to understand that an object will continue to move without help. Think of the rocket again. If someone is flying a rocket and jumps off before the rocket is stopped, what happens? The rocket continues on until it goes into space. The tendency of an object to remain still, or keep moving in a straight line at a steady speed is called inertia.
 The second law (Law of Acceleration)
 The second law explains how a force acts on an object. An object accelerates in the direction the force is moving it. If someone gets on a bicycle and pushes the pedals forward the bicycle will begin to move. If someone gives the bicycle a push from behind, the bicycle will speed up. If the rider pushes back on the pedals the bicycle will slow down. If the rider turns the handlebars, the bicycle will change direction. The formula showing this law is F=m*a, or the force acting on an object is equal to mass times acceleration.
 The third law (Law of Reciprocal Actions)
 The third law states that if an object is pushed or pulled, the object will push or pull equally in the opposite direction. If someone lifts a heavy box, they use force to push it up. The box is heavy because it is producing an equal force downward on the lifter's arms. The weight is transferred through the lifter's legs to the floor. The floor presses upward with an equal force. If the floor pushed back with less force, the person lifting the box would fall through the floor. If it pushed back with more force the lifter would fly into the air.

One proposed "zeroth law" is the fact that at any instant, a body reacts to the forces applied to it at that instant. Likewise, the idea that forces add like vectors (or in other words obey the superposition principle ), and the idea that forces change the energy of a body, have each been proposed as a "fourth law".

The discovery of the Law of Gravitation

When most people think of Isaac Newton, they think of him sitting under an apple tree watching an apple fall. Some people believe the apple fell onto his head. Newton understood that what makes things like apples fall to the ground is a specific kind of force — the force we call gravity. Newton thought that gravity was the force of attraction between two objects, such as an apple and the earth. He also thought that an object with more matter exerted the same force on smaller objects as they exerted on it. That meant that the large mass of the earth pulled objects toward it. That is why the apple fell down instead of up, and why people do not float in the air.

Isaac Newton went on thinking about gravity. Before Newton, people thought that only objects near to the earth would fall down. But Newton thought that gravity should not just be limited to the earth and the objects on it. What if gravity went to the moon and beyond?

Newton invented a formula for calculating the force of attraction between two bodies. He used it to calculate the force needed to keep the moon moving around the earth. Then he compared it with the force that made the apple fall downward. After allowing for the fact that the moon is much farther from the earth, and has a much greater mass, he discovered that the forces were the same. The moon is held in an orbit around the earth by the pull of earth's gravity.

The formula invented by Newton is called the Law of gravitation.

Impact
Sir Isaac Newton's calculations changed the way people understood the universe. No one had been able to explain why the planets stayed in their orbits. What held them up? Less than 50 years before Isaac Newton was born it was thought that the planets were held in place by an invisible shield. Isaac proved that they were held in place by the sun's gravity. He also showed that the force of gravity was affected by distance and by mass. He was not the first to understand that the orbit of a planet was not circular, but more elongated, like an oval. What he did was to explain how it worked.

Isaac Newton was the first to discover the laws of gravitation and the laws of motion. He also established a new field in mathematics known as calculus, though the German Gottfried Leibniz had developed the ideas at the same time. His work has greatly contributed in the areas of science and mathematics making him one of the most influential scientists in human history and one of the greatest mathematician of all times.

The great physicist, Albert Einstein, thought that Newton's idea of gravity was not completely accurate. He corrected many of the things that Newton did.

Death
Isaac Newton died a virgin on  in London, England.

He is buried in Westminster Abbey. He set the stage for many famous physicists to come. such as Albert Einstein, James Chadwick, and Stephen Hawking.

References

Other websites

 What did Isaac Newton invent?

1643 births
1727 deaths
English mathematicians
English physicists
English science writers
Fellows of the Royal Society
People buried in Westminster Abbey
Presidents of the Royal Society
British theoretical physicists
Writers from Lincolnshire

Isaac Newton


A shrub or bush is a category of plants. A tree usually has one stem, which at some height has branches. A shrub can have multiple stems from the bottom up. Usually, bushes do not grow as tall as trees, very often they are less than 1–2 m tall.

Very many  plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.

A shrubbery is a garden with shrubs as the main feature.

Shrubs as a botanical structural form
In botany and ecology a shrub is more specifically used to describe the particular physical structural or plant life-form of woody plants which are less than 8 meters high and usually have many stems arising at or near the base.

For example, a descriptive system widely used in Australia is based on structural characteristics based on life-form, plus the height and amount of foliage cover of the tallest layer or dominant species.

For shrubs 2–8 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
 dense foliage cover (70–100%) — closed-scrub
 mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — open-scrub
 sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — tall shrubland
 very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — tall open shrubland

For shrubs less than 2 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
 dense foliage cover (70–100%) — closed-heath
 mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — heath
 sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — low shrubland
 very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — low open shrubland

References

Other websites
Selecting Shrubs for Your Home (University of Illinois Extension)

Shrub


Content management (CM) is a set of processes and technologies that supports the collection, managing, and publishing of information in any form or medium. When stored and accessed via computers, this information may be more specifically referred to as digital content, or simply as content.
 Digital content may take the form of text (such as electronic documents), images, multimedia files (such as audio or video files), or any other file type that follows a content lifecycle requiring management.
 The process of content development and management and is complex enough that various commercial software vendors (large and small), such as Interwoven and Microsoft, offer content management software to control and automate significant aspects of the content lifecycle.

Process
Content management practices and goals vary by mission and by organizational governance structure.
News organizations, e-commerce websites, and educational institutions all use content management, but in different ways. This leads to differences in terminology and in the names and number of steps in the process.

For example, some digital content is created by one or more authors. Over time that content may be edited. One or more individuals may provide some editorial oversight, approving the content for publication.

Publishing may take many forms: it may be the act of "pushing" content out to others, or simply granting digital access rights to certain content to one or more individuals. Later that content may be superseded by another version of the content and thus retired or removed from use (as when this wiki page is modified).

Content management is an inherently collaborative process. It often consists of the following basic roles and responsibilities:

 Creator – responsible for creating and editing content.
 Editor – responsible for tuning the content message and the style of delivery, including translation and localization.
 Publisher – responsible for releasing the content for use.
 Administrator – responsible for managing access permissions to folders, collections and files, usually accomplished by assigning access rights to user groups or roles. Admins may also assist and support users in various ways.
 Consumer, viewer or guest – the person who reads or otherwise consumes the content after it is published or shared.

A critical aspect of content management is the ability to manage versions of content as it evolves (see also version control). Authors and editors often need to restore older versions of edited products due to a process failure or an undesirable series of edits. Time-sensitive content may also require updates as the subject matter evolves over time.

Another equally important aspect of content management involves the creation, maintenance, and application of review standards. Each member of the content creation and review process has a unique role and set of responsibilities in the development or publication of the content. Each review team member requires clear and concise review standards. These must be maintained on an ongoing basis to ensure the long-term consistency and health of the knowledge base.

A content management system is a set of automated processes that may support the following features:

 Import and creation of documents and multimedia material
 Identification of all key users and their roles
 The ability to assign roles and responsibilities to different instances of content categories or types
 Definition of workflow tasks often coupled with messaging so that content managers are alerted to changes in content
 The ability to track and manage multiple versions of a single instance of content
 The ability to publish the content to a repository to support access
 The ability to personalize content based on a set of rules

Increasingly, the repository is an inherent part of the system, and incorporates enterprise search and retrieval. Content management systems take the following forms:

 Web content management system—software for web site management (often what content management implicitly means)
 Output of a newspaper editorial staff organization
 Workflow for article publication
 Document management systems
 Knowledge management software
 Single source content management system—content stored in chunks within a relational database
 Variant management system—where personnel tag source content (usually text and graphics) to represent variants stored as single source "master" content modules, resolved to the desired variant at publication (for example: automobile owners manual content for 12 model years stored as single master content files and "called" by model year as needed)—often used in concert with database chunk storage (see above) for large content objects

Governance structures
Content management expert Marc Feldman defines three primary content management governance structures: localized, centralized, and federated—each having its unique strengths and weaknesses.

Localized governance
By putting control in the hands of those closest to the content, the context experts, localized governance models empower and unleash creativity.  These benefits come, however, at the cost of a partial-to-total loss of managerial control and oversight.

Centralized governance
When the levers of control are strongly centralized, content management systems are capable of delivering an exceptionally clear and unified brand message.  Moreover, centralized content management governance structures allow for a large number of cost-savings opportunities in large enterprises, realized, for example, (1) the avoidance of duplicated efforts in creating, editing, formatting, repurposing and archiving content, (2) through process management and the streamlining of all content related labor, and/or (3) through an orderly deployment or updating of the content management system.

Federated governance
Federated governance models potentially realize the benefits of both localized and centralized control while avoiding the weaknesses of both. While content management software systems are inherently structured to enable federated governance models, realizing these benefits can be difficult because it requires, for example, negotiating the boundaries of control with local managers and content creators.  In the case of larger enterprises, in particular, the failure to fully implement or realize a federated governance structure equates to a failure to realize the full return on investment and cost savings that content management systems enable.

Implementation
Content management implementations must be able to manage content distributions and digital rights in content life cycle. Content management systems are usually involved with digital rights management in order to control user access and digital rights. In this step, the read-only structures of digital rights management systems force some limitations on content management, as they do not allow authors to change protected content in their life cycle. Creating new content using managed (protected) content is also an issue that gets protected contents out of management controlling systems. A few content management implementations cover all these issues.

See also

 Content delivery
 Content engineering
 Content Management Interoperability Services
 Content management system (CMS)
 Digital asset management
 Enterprise content management
 Enterprise information management
 Information architecture
 List of content management systems
 Single source publishing
 Snippet management
 Web content lifecycle
 Web design
 Website governance
 Personalization management system

References

External links

 Teleperformance Content Moderation Service
 Multimedia Digital Content Management Platform

Technical communication
Data management
Content management systems

fr:Système de gestion de contenu

Content management


Authority is the ability of a person or an organization to conduct a certain lifestyle for another person or a group. Authority is known as one of the basis of society and stands against cooperation. Adopting lifestyle patterns as a result of authority is called obedience and authority as a concept includes most leadership cases.

Although authority is usually described as human there is also frequent mention of divine authority.

Authority is made by a certain social power. This power might be materialistic (such as a threat to harm someone) or fictitious (such as belief in a certain person's power). The power exists because of the possible use of sanction : An action who harms a person who's not obeying the authority or threatening it in order to conduct a social power.

Authority may exists in a direct way by virtue of an actual power (such as a threat of imprisonment), which is called "forcing", or by legitimization that the subject gives to the authority (such as recognition of aristocratic authority). In most cases both types exist.

Only a few authorities are based on physical power, most are based on an organizational authority system. In this way, the authoritys ability to act depends on her existence.

For example: the authority of a state leader takes part when there is some sort of a police that punishes individuals that do not obey him. The policeman are subordinated to the leader and his rules because they are also under the police threat. If all citizens of the state choose to deny the leader and his rules, the authority will be lost, but the very fact that the authority semi-exists allowes it to be full.

Obedience

Obedience, as said, is the sign that means authority is being enforced. While obedience is the law, disobedience, insubordination and crime are a violation and resistance to the authority.

Theoretically, violation of the authority drags with it a sanction or punishment that's given by the authority owner. The severity of the sanction and the threat it presents are based on the particular social situation, on the balance of power, on the local norms and so on.

Stanley Milgram was a psychologist who was interested in obedience. He designed an experiment to measured how willing people were to do what an authority figure told them to do. The experiment had three participants. The person running the experiment told one participant, the volunteer, to pretend to be a teacher. Another participant was an actor, but the volunteer didn't know this. The actor's role was to be the teacher's student. The actor and the volunteer were separated with a wall. The person running the experiment told the volunteer to test their "student"'s ability to remember pairs of words. When the teacher's "student" remembered a pair of words incorrectly, the experimenter told the teacher to give the student an electric shock from an electroshock generator. The electric shocks were not real, but the volunteer did not know this. Every time the student got a question wrong, the voltage of the shock went up by 15 volts. In Milgram's first set of experiments, 65% of the volunteers gave the highest shock. It was 450 volts. Milgram had two theories for why he got the results he did.
The first is the theory of conformism. Milgram based this theory on Solomon Asch's conformity experiments.
The second is the agentic state theory. According to agentic state theory, the participants who obeyed the experimenter's orders did this because they did not see themselves as responsible for their actions.

Criticism
Many people criticize people in authority, and some even criticize the existence of authority. Anarchism is a philosophy that opposes all forms of authority.

References

Related pages
Authoritarianism
Conformity
Hierarchy

Basic English 850 words
Hierarchy

Authority


A contract is an agreement or promise that the law can enforce. The law will enforce some agreements but not others. For example, in most places, if a parent promises to take a child to get ice cream, the law will not enforce that promise as a legal contract.

The legal rules about which promises are enforced by the law can be different in different places (or jurisdictions), but a contract is usually enforced only if it is made by people or groups who want it to be enforced and who know what they are doing.

Sometimes, a contract is written down and signed by the people agreeing to it, but it does not always need to be. People usually sign a contract when something important or costly is being done. For example, when people take a job, they will sometimes sign a contract with their employers. The contract will show what the person must do as part of his job, how much they will be paid, and so on. The person and the employer will sign the contract, and it will become a legal promise.

If someone breaks a contract, another person might sue him or her. In a lawsuit about a contract, the court will look at the contract, listen to what the people who made the contract say about it, and then make a decision about what the contract means.

Related pages
 Law
 Oath
Documents

Business law

Contract


Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher FRS (17 February 1890 – 29 July 1962) was an English statistician, evolutionary biologist, and geneticist. He was described as "a genius who almost single-handedly created the foundations for modern statistical science". Richard Dawkins described him as "the greatest of Darwin's successors".

Professional years

In 1915, he invented the infinitesimal model. This is also known as the polygenic model. It is named this because it says traits are influenced by many genes. He defined the term "variance" for the first time in his paper, published in 1918.

In 1919 Fisher started work at Rothamsted Experimental Station at Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England.  Here he started a major study of the extensive collections of data recorded over many years.  This resulted in a series of reports under the general title Studies in crop variation.

This began a period of great productivity.  Over the next seven years, he pioneered the principles of the design of experiments and elaborated his studies of the analysis of variance. He studied the statistics of small samples. Perhaps even more important, he began his systematic approach of the analysis of real data as the springboard for the development of new statistical methods.

He began to pay particular attention to the labour involved in the necessary computations, and developed practical methods. In 1925, his first book was published: Statistical methods for research workers. This went into many editions and translations in later years, and became a standard reference work for scientists in many disciplines. In 1935, this was followed by The design of experiments, which also became a standard.

His work on the theory of population genetics made him one of the three great figures of that field, together with Sewall Wright and J.B.S. Haldane. He was one of the founders of the neo-Darwinian modern evolutionary synthesis. In addition to founding modern quantitative genetics with his 1918 paper, he was the first to use diffusion equations to attempt to calculate the distribution of gene frequencies among populations.

He pioneered the estimation of genetic linkage and gene frequencies by maximum likelihood methods. His 1950 paper on gene frequency clines is notable as the first application of a computer to biology.

Fisher had a long and successful collaboration with E.B. Ford in the field of ecological genetics. The outcome of this work was the recognition that the force of natural selection was often much stronger than had been appreciated. Many ecogenetic situations (such as polymorphism) were not selectively neutral, on the contrary, they were maintained by the force of selection.

Fisher was the original author of the idea of heterozygote advantage, which was later found to play a frequent role in genetic polymorphism. The discovery of indisputable cases of natural selection in nature was one of the main strands in the modern evolutionary synthesis.

Fisher's genetical theory and eugenics

Fisher was an ardent promoter of eugenics, and he held the Chair in Eugenics at University College London from 1933 until he moved to Cambridge University as Professor of Genetics in 1943.

Between 1929 and 1934 the Eugenics Society also campaigned hard for a law permitting sterilisation on eugenic grounds. They believed that it should be entirely voluntary, and a right, not a punishment. They published a draft of a proposed bill, and it was submitted to Parliament. Although it was defeated by a 2:1 ratio, this was viewed as progress, and the campaign continued. Fisher played a major role in this movement, and served in several official committees to promote it.

In 1934, Fisher moved to increase the power of scientists within the Eugenics Society, but was ultimately thwarted by members with an environmentalist point of view, and he, along with many other scientists, resigned.

Fisher's books
Fisher wrote three books of great significance.

The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
His book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection was started in 1928 and published in 1930, with a second edition in 1950. He developed ideas on sexual selection, mimicry and the evolution of dominance. He showed that the probability of a mutation increasing the fitness of an organism decreases proportionately with the magnitude of the mutation. He also proved that larger populations carry more variation and have a larger chance of survival. He set forth the foundations of what was to become known as population genetics.

About a third of the book concerned the applications of these ideas to humans, and presented the data available at that time. He presented a theory that attributed the decline and fall of civilizations to the fertility of the upper classes being low. Using the census data of 1911 for Britain, he showed that there was an inverse relationship between fertility and social class. This was partly due, he believed, to the rise in social status of families who were not capable of producing many children but who rose because of the financial advantage of having a small number of children.

Therefore he proposed the abolishment of the economic advantage of small families by instituting subsidies (he called them allowances) to families with larger numbers of children, with the allowances proportional to the earnings of the father. He himself had two sons and six daughters. According to Yates and Mather, "His large family, reared in conditions of great financial stringency, was a personal expression of his genetic and evolutionary convictions".

The book was reviewed, among others, by physicist Charles Galton Darwin, a grandson of Charles Darwin's. After his review, C.G. Darwin sent Fisher his copy of the book, with notes in the margin. The marginal notes became the food for a correspondence running at least three years. Fisher's book also had a major influence on W.D. Hamilton and the development of his theories on the genetic basis for kin selection.

Statistical Methods for Research Workers
Statistical Methods for Research Workers () is a classic 1925 book on statistics by Fisher. It is one of the 20th century's most influential books on statistical methods. According to Conniffe,
Ronald A. Fisher was "interested in application and in the popularization
of statistical methods... his early book Statistical Methods for Research Workers, published in 1925, went through many editions and influenced the practical use of statistics in many fields of
study.

Design of Experiments
Fisher's Design of Experiments (1935) was "also fundamental, [and promoted] statistical technique and application... The mathematical justification of the methods was not stressed and proofs were often barely sketched or omitted altogether .... [This] led H.B. Mann to fill the gaps with a rigorous mathematical treatment in his treatise".

References

1890 births
1962 deaths
English biologists
English mathematicians
English evolutionary biologists
Eugenics
Fellows of the Royal Society
English geneticists
Scientists from London
British statisticians

Ronald Fisher


Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet,  (14 November 1797 – 22 February 1875) was a British geologist. He was the foremost geologist of his day, and an influence on the young Charles Darwin. His work was rewarded with a knighthood, and later he was created a hereditary baronet.

The house of his birth is in the Scottish Lowlands. it is in the valley of the Highland Boundary Fault, one of the great features of Scottish geology. Round the house is farmland, but within a short distance to the north-west are the Grampian Mountains in the Scottish Highlands.

Charles would have seen this view from his house as a child. He was also fortunate that his family's second home was in a completely different area: at Bartley Lodge in the New Forest, England. Both these places lit his interest in the natural world.

Lyell was a rich man, and earned more money as an author. He came from a prosperous family, and worked briefly as a lawyer in the 1820s. He held was a Professor of Geology at King's College London in the 1830s. From 1830 onward his books gave him both income and fame.

Lyell's Principles of Geology was his most famous and most important book. It was first published in three volumes, in 1830–33. The book was about the ideas of James Hutton, but with many additions, improvements and examples. The book made Lyell to be known as an important geological theorist. It was a work of synthesis, backed by his own personal observations on his travels.

The central argument in Principles was that the present is the key to the past. This was called by William Whewell 'uniformitarianism'. Geological remains from the distant past are explained by processes we can see operating now. Lyell's interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a big influence on his young friend, Charles Darwin.

Other websites
 Charles Lyell -Citizendium

1797 births
1875 deaths

British naturalists
British geologists
Scottish scientists
Knights Bachelor
Baronets
English science writers

Charles Lyell


A Union Council or Village Council in Pakistan is an elected local government body that has 21 councillors. They are elected by the people. Each Union Council is headed by a Nazim, which is similar to a mayor, and a Naib Nazim (similar to a deputy mayor).

Administration
Union Councils are the fifth level (the lowest level) of government in Pakistan. Union Councils are often known as Village Councils in rural areas, esp. in KP during the PTI Government provincial reforms.
The area represented by a Village Council usually comprises a large village and surrounding areas, often including nearby smaller villages. The term "Union Council" may be used for areas that are part of cities.

Each Union Council is governed by a Union Nazim (similar to a mayor), each union council has 13 elected members known as councillors. As well as four male and two female members elected directly, there are two male and two female representatives of the labour, a minority member, a Nazim and his deputy known as Naib Nazim.

Also as well as the elected members, there are several government employees and functionaries in every union council, who report to the Secretary of the Union Council. The last one is a civil servant appointed by the state.

The territory of a Union Council or Village Council is usually part of a tehsil, (a tehsil is a district subdivision). Less commonly, a Union Council may be part of a City District.

Structure of local Government
Shown below is a simplified structure of the political hierarchy.
 the federal government governs the provinces (allocation of resources and policy decisions.
 the provinces govern the districts etc.
 the union councils are involved directly in local government administration.

References

Other websites

Local government of Pakistan

Union councils of Pakistan


The Metaphysics of Quality (MOQ) is a theory of reality introduced in Robert M. Pirsig's philosophical novel, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance (1974) and expanded in Lila: An Inquiry into Morals (1991). The MOQ incorporates facets of Sophistry, East Asian philosophy, pragmatism, the work of F. S. C. Northrop, and Indigenous American philosophy. Pirsig argues that the MOQ is a better lens through which to view reality than the subjective/objective mindset that Pirsig attributes to Aristotle. Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance references the Sanskrit doctrine of Tat Tvam Asi ("Thou art that"), which asserts an existential monism as opposed to the subject–object dualism.

Development
The Metaphysics of Quality originated with Pirsig's college studies as a biochemistry student at the University of Minnesota.  He describes in Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance that as he studied, he found the number of rational hypotheses for any given phenomenon appeared to be unlimited. It seemed to him this would seriously undermine the validity of the scientific method. His studies began to suffer as he pondered the question and eventually he was expelled from the university.

After spending some time in Korea as a soldier, Pirsig concluded that Oriental philosophy was a better place to search for ultimate answers. On his return home from Korea, Pirsig read F. S. C. Northrop's book The Meeting of East and West which related Western culture to the culture of East Asia in a systematic way.  In 1950, Pirsig continued his philosophical studies at Banaras Hindu University, where he came across the Sanskrit doctrine of Tat Tvam Asi —in his words, "Thou art that, which asserts that everything you think you are (Subjective), and everything you think you perceive (Objective), are undivided. To fully realize this lack of division is to become enlightened." The nature of mystical experience plays an underlying role throughout his work.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Pirsig taught rhetoric at Montana State College – Bozeman and, with the encouragement of an older colleague, Sarah Vinke, decided to explore what exactly was meant by the term quality. He assigned his students the task of defining the word. This, coupled with a Native American Church peyote ceremony he attended with an anthropologist friend, James Verne Dusenberry, led Pirsig into what he called "a mushroom cloud of thought." Pirsig began developing his ideas about quality in his first book, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, and expanded and codified his ideas into the MOQ in Lila.

Quality

"Quality," or "value," as described by Pirsig, cannot be defined because it empirically precedes any intellectual construction of it, namely due to the fact that quality (as Pirsig explicitly defines it) exists always as a perceptual experience before it is ever thought of descriptively or academically. Quality is the "knife-edge" of experience, found only in the present, known or at least potentially accessible to all of "us" (cf. Plato's Phaedrus, 258d). Equating it with the Tao, Pirsig postulates that Quality is the fundamental force in the universe stimulating everything from atoms to animals to evolve and incorporate ever greater levels of Quality. According to the MOQ, everything (including ideas, and matter) is a product and a result of Quality.

Static quality patterns and dynamic quality
The MOQ maintains that Quality itself is undefinable (Tao), but to better understand it, Pirsig breaks quality down into two ("knife-edge") forms: static quality patterns (patterned) and dynamic quality (unpatterned). The four patterns of static quality as well as dynamic quality account exhaustively for all of ("knife-edged") reality. As the initial (cutting edge) dynamic quality becomes habituated, it turns into static patterns (viz. data, expectations). Pirsig is not proposing a duality: quality is one, "every last bit of it", yet manifests itself differently. Rather than dualism, this manifestation of quality in terms of dynamic and static aspects represents a dialectical monism.

Dynamic quality
According to Pirsig, East Asian philosophers and American Indian mystics, dynamic quality/the Tao/God/the One cannot be defined.  It can only be understood intellectually through the use of analogy.  Pirsig calls dynamic quality "the pre-intellectual cutting edge of reality" because it is recognized before it can be conceptualized. This is why the dynamic beauty of a piece of music can be recognized before a static analysis explaining why the music is beautiful can be constructed.

Static quality patterns
Dynamic quality can be poetically described as the force of change in the universe; however, when an aspect of Quality becomes repeated, it becomes static. Pirsig defines 'static quality' patterns as everything which can be defined. Everything found in a dictionary, for instance, is a static quality pattern. Pirsig then divides static quality into inorganic, biological, social, and intellectual patterns, in ascending order of morality (based on evolutionary order). These static forms, if they have enough 'high' or 'low' quality, are given names and are interchanged with other "sentient beings", building the base of knowledge for a culture.

Inorganic patterns: non-living things
Biological patterns: living things
Social patterns: behaviors, habits, rituals, institutions.
Intellectual patterns: ideas

Pirsig describes evolution as the moral progression of these patterns of value. For example, a biological pattern overcoming an inorganic pattern (e.g. bird flight which overcomes gravity) is a moral thing because a biological pattern is a higher form of evolution. Likewise, an intellectual pattern of value overcoming a social one (e.g. civil rights) is a moral development because intellect is a higher form of evolution than society. Therefore, decisions about one's conduct during any given day can be made using the Metaphysics of Quality. Pirsig is not proposing criticism or responsibility, but acceptance, and pure absorption: "When he wrote it he felt momentary fright and was about to strike out the words "All of it. Every last bit of it." Madness there. I think he saw it. But he couldn't see any logical reason to strike these words out and it was too late now for faintheartedness. He ignored his warning and let the words stand."-ZMM, Ch.20

"Good is a noun. That was it. That was what Phaedrus had been looking for. That was the homer, over the fence, that ended the ball game. Good as a noun rather than as an adjective is all the Metaphysics of Quality is about. Of course, the ultimate Quality isn't a noun or an adjective or anything else definable, but if you had to reduce the whole Metaphysics of Quality to a single sentence, that would be it."-Lila, The End

"The language we've inherited confuses this. We say "my" body and "your" body and "his" body and "her" body, but it isn't that way. … This Cartesian "Me," this autonomous little homunculus who sits behind our eyeballs looking out through them in order to pass judgment on the affairs of the world, is just completely ridiculous. This self-appointed little editor of reality is just an impossible fiction that collapses the moment one examines it."-ZMM, Ch.15

"Another immoral way of killing the static patterns is to pass the patterns to someone else, in what Phaedrus called a 'karma dump.' ... If you take all this karmic garbage and make yourself feel better by passing it on to others that's normal. That's the way the world works. But if you manage to absorb it and not pass it on, that's the highest moral conduct of all."-Lila, Ch.32

See also
 Charles Sanders Peirce
 Platonism, Plato
 Pragmatism
 Taoism, Tao
 William James
 Energy quality
 Flow (psychology)
 C. S. Lewis (esp. The Abolition of Man)
 John Dewey
 Alfred North Whitehead and process philosophy
 William Kingdon Clifford's mindstuff and tribal self

References

Sources
 Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values (1974)
 Lila: An Inquiry into Morals (1991)
 Guidebook to Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by R. DiSanto and T. J. Steele (1990)
 "Lila's Child: An Inquiry into Quality (2002)
 Granger, David A.: John Dewey, Robert Pirsig, and the Art of Living: Revisioning Aesthetic Education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
 "The Truth About Art: Reclaiming Quality" by Patrick Doorly (2013)

External links
 moq.org – Essays, interviews and reviews pertaining to Pirsig's Metaphysics of Quality

Axiological theories
Robert M. Pirsig
Ontology
Metaphysical theories
Quality

Pirsig's Metaphysics of Quality


Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (15 April 1772 – 19 June 1844) was a French naturalist who established the principle of "unity of composition".  He was a colleague of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and believed in the underlying unity of organismal design, and the possibility of the change of species in time. He collected evidence for his claims  in comparative anatomy, paleontology, and embryology.

Geoffroy's theory
Geoffroy was a deist, which is to say that he believed in a God, but also in a law-like universe, with no supernatural interference in the details of existence. This kind of opinion was common in the Enlightenment, and goes with a rejection of revelation and miracles, and does not interpret the Bible as the literal word of God.

Geoffroy's theory was not a theory of common descent, but a working-out of existing potential in a given type. For him, the environment causes a direct induction of organic change. This opinion Ernst Mayr labels as 'Geoffroyism'. It is definitely not what Lamarck believed (for Lamarck, a change in habits is what changes the animal). The direct effect of environment is not believed today by any main-stream evolutionist; even Sir William Lawrence knew by 1816 that climate does not directly cause the differences between human races.

References

1772 births
1844 deaths
French deists
Evolutionary biologists
French naturalists

Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire


Suatu perlawanan pertunjukan (juga dikenali sebagai  pertunjukan, demonstrasi, demo atau persahabatan) adalah acara sukan yang mana ia tidak mempunyai nilai pertandingan kepada sesiapa yang bertanding (seperti kejohanan atau kedudukan semusim atau hadiah wang) tidak kira apa yang keluar dari tamat perlawanan itu. Perlawanan ini boleh diadakan di antara pasukan yang dipisahkan atau sebahagian daripada pasukan yang sama. Kualiti permainan akan dinilai di akhir permainan. Istilah yang seerti dengannya adalah perlawanan persediaan.

Throughout the world, many team and one-on-one sports and games feature exhibition matches.  For example, two professional snooker or chess players, or two ice hockey teams, may play an exhibition to settle a challenge, to provide professional entertainment, or often to raise money for charities.

In some sports, especially in North America, exhibition games also take the form of a handful of pre-season games that are intended to familiarize teammates with each other and prepare for upcoming matches. In professional sports, pre-season games also help teams decide which players to keep for the regular season.

Bola sepak

In the early days of association football, friendly matches (or "friendlies") were the most common type of match. However since the development of The Football League in England in 1888, league tournaments became established, in addition to lengthy cup tournaments. By the turn of the millennium, national leagues were established in almost every country, as well as regional leagues for lower level teams, thus the significance of friendlies has seriously declined since the 19th century.

Today most club sides play a number of friendlies before the start of each season (called pre-season friendlies). Friendly football matches are considered to be non-competitive and are only used to 'warm up' players for a new season/competitive match. There is generally nothing competitive at stake and some rules may be changed or experimented with (such as unlimited substitutions and no cards). Although most friendlies are simply one-off matches arranged by the clubs themselves, in which a certain amount is paid by the challenger club to the incumbent club, some teams do compete in short tournaments, such as the Emirates Cup, Teresa Herrera Trophy and the Amsterdam Tournament.  Although these events may involve sponsorship deals and the awarding of a trophy and may even be broadcast on television, there is little prestige attached to them.

International teams also play friendlies, generally in preparation for the qualifying or final stages of major tournaments. This is essential, since national squads generally have much less time together in which to prepare. The biggest difference between friendlies at the club and international levels is that international friendlies mostly take place during club league seasons, not between them. This has on occasion led to disagreement between national associations and clubs as to the availability of players, who could become injured or fatigued in a friendly.

International friendlies give team managers the opportunity to experiment with team selection and tactics before the tournament proper, and also allow them to assess the abilities of players they may potentially select for the tournament squad.  Players can be booked in international friendlies, and can be suspended from future international matches based on red cards or accumulated yellows in a specified period. Caps and goals scored also count towards a player's career records. In 2004, FIFA ruled that substitutions by a team be limited to six per match in international friendlies, in response to criticism that such matches were becoming increasingly farcical with managers making as many as 11 substitutions per match.

In the UK and Ireland, "exhibition match" and "friendly match" refer to different types of matches. The types described above as friendlies are not termed exhibition matches, while annual all-star matches such as those held in the US MLS or Japan's J. League are called exhibition matches rather than friendly matches. A one-off match for charitable fundraising, usually involving one or two all-star teams, or a match held in honour of a player for service to his/her club, may be described as exhibition matches but they are normally referred to as Charity football matches and testimonial matches respectively.

Rujukan

Pautan luar
Article about NBA vs. ABA exhibitions
 Free iptv article
Article about the 2003 NCAA ruling

Istilah sukan
Istilah bola sepak

Perlawanan pertunjukan


Oviparous animals are animals that reproduce by laying eggs. This is how most fish, amphibians, reptiles, insects, and arachnids reproduce. All birds and monotremes also reproduce like this.

The eggs that of most animals that live on land are protected by hard shells. They fertilize their eggs internally. Water-dwelling animals like fish and amphibians lay eggs that have not been fertilized yet. Then the males lay sperm on top of the eggs, which is called external fertilization.

Related pages
Viviparity
Ovoviviparity

Zoology

Oviparous animals


A lawyer (also called an "advocate", "attorney", "barrister", "counsel", "counsellor", or "solicitor") is someone who practices law. A lawyer has earned a degree in law, and has a license to practice law in a particular area.

If people have any problem regarding the law, they can contact a lawyer for advice.  A legal problem is referred to as a case.  A person can hire a lawyer to start a case against someone else, or to help with a case that has been started against them.  If the case goes to court, the lawyer will represent their client in court.  The lawyer will use their knowledge of the law to convince the court that the client is on the right side of the argument.  Lawyers also help people "settle out of court," which means that both sides of the argument agree to resolve the dispute ahead of time so that they will not have to go to trial.

When a person is accused of a crime, the person has a defense lawyer to try to show they have not committed a crime.  The lawyer arguing that they did do the crime is called the prosecutor.

Lawyers also prepare legal documents for their clients. Examples: buying or selling property or making a will (testament). Certain lawyers (called "commissioners of oaths" in England) can take legally binding witness statements which can be presented to the court.

Lawyers work in different settings.  Some work by themselves, while some work in law firms.  Some lawyers work for hospitals and private companies. Lawyers who work for private companies are usually called in-house counsel.

Lawyers generally charge a fee for the work that they do, but sometimes advice is offered freely, which is called "pro bono," meaning "for the public good."  In many countries, if a person is accused of a crime and unable to pay for a lawyer, the government will pay a lawyer to represent them using tax money.

Law occupations

Lawyer


A county is a small subdivision of a country. It is a form of local government. A county is usually a group of towns or villages. It has a different meaning in different languages. Originally the word was for the land under a count (in Great Britain an earl). Today a "county" is often something between a larger state and a smaller town or district.

County governments keep records and organize elections and laws. They are a kind of local government.

Canada

Six of Canada's ten provinces are divided into counties. The provinces with counties are Alberta, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia.

China
The word "county" is the English name for the Chinese word xiàn (县 or 縣).  On Mainland China under the People's Republic of China, counties are the third level of local government.  On Taiwan, the county is the highest governmental level below the Republic of China central government.

There are about 2,000 counties in China; this number is about the same as in  the Han dynasty, 2,000 years ago. The county is one of the oldest levels of government in China.

In the past, "prefecture" and "district" were names for xiàn, before the Republic of China. People started using the English name "county" after the start of the Republic of China.

The head of a county is the magistrate.

Croatia
Counties started to be units of regional self-government in Croatia in 1990. There are twenty counties and the city of Zagreb which has the same status. They are called županije and their leader is a župan.

France
There was a change in the historical counties of France in 1790 after the Revolution. The new government unit was the département. But French people use the word county (comté) in the name of the Free County region, the old Free County of Burgundy.

Hungary
The government unit of Hungary is megye, or in Latin: comitatus. This is the same as the word county. Today Hungary has 19 counties, 20 city counties and 1 capital, Budapest. The comitatus was also the unit in the Kingdom of Hungary.

Ireland
Ireland originally had 32 counties in the nineteenth century. 26 of these later formed the Republic of Ireland and 6 formed Northern Ireland. The counties were in 4 provinces - Leinster (12 counties), Munster (6) Connacht (5) and Ulster (9).

In the 1970s in Northern Ireland and in the 1990s in the Republic of Ireland, there was a change in the county numbers and borders (where they started and finished). In the Republic, for example, the change broke Dublin County into four parts: Dublin City, Dún Laoghaire - Rathdown, Fingal, and South Dublin. 'County Tipperary' is really two counties, Tipperary North Riding and Tipperary South Riding. The towns Cork, Galway, Limerick, and Waterford are now separated from the countryside areas of their counties. So the Republic of Ireland now has thirty-four "county-level" units. But for sports, culture etc. people normally talk about the original 32 counties and 4 provinces.

Each county has a flag/colours and often a nickname too.

Japan
"County" is one name for gun (郡), which is a part of a prefecture. Other names for gun are "rural district", "rural area" or "district". People do not like to use "district" because the usual translation of "district" is choume (丁目).

Today, "counties" have no political power or organisation use. Postal services use it.

New Zealand
After New Zealand ended its provinces in 1876, they began using a county system as in other countries. They used it until 1989.

During the second half of the 20th century, many people went to the country counties from nearby cities. Because of this, sometimes they put the two together, making a "district" (e.g. Rotorua). Or sometimes they changed the name to "district" (e.g. Waimairi) or "city" (e.g. Manukau).

In 1974 they had a big change; they made the organisation the same all over New Zealand. Today the country has cities and districts, but no counties.

Norway
Norway has 19 Counties (singular fylke, plural fylker, literally "folk"). Until 1972, Bergen was a county, but today it is a municipality in the county of Hordaland. All counties have municipalities (singular kommune, plural kommuner).

Each county has an assembly (fylkesting). Norwegians choose the people in the assembly every 4 years. The counties work with high schools and roads, etc. Some people, and political parties, such as the Conservatives, Høyre, want the end of the counties. Others want to make some of them into larger regions.

Poland
In English we normally call the Polish second-level organisation unit powiat a "county" or "district".

Romania
The smaller units of Romania are called  judeţ (plural: judeţe). This name comes from jude, a judge of a city. Today Romania has 40 counties and the capital, Bucharest has a separate status.

Serbia
We sometimes call the units of Serbia (okrug) counties, but more often we call them districts.

Sweden
In 1634 the old provinces in Sweden had a new name: counties. Today there are 21 Counties, and in each County there are Municipalities.
The Swedish name is Län.

United Kingdom
See also List of counties of the United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom there are 92 traditional counties (also known as shires), 86 in Great Britain and 6 in Northern Ireland. The British counties are different ages.

In England, in Anglo-Saxon times, Shires were units for getting taxes. They usually had a town at their centre. People called these towns the shire town. The shires had the same name as their shire town (for example Bedfordshire). Later people called these towns the county town. The name "county" came from the Normans, from a Norman word for an area under a Count (lord).

In 1539 Wales got thirteen counties. The counties in Scotland are this age or older.

The county boundaries (borders) of England are different today. In medieval times, some important cities got the status of counties, for example London, Bristol and Coventry. Some small places, e.g. Islandshire, were also counties. In 1844, a lot of these small places returned to their old counties.

United States

The name "county" is also used in 48 of the 50 states of the United States, for the next government unit smaller than the state. Louisiana uses the name parishes and Alaska uses boroughs. The U.S. Census Bureau lists 3,141 counties or organisation units of this sort. The power of the county government is very different in every state.

In New England, counties are mostly for law. In Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, they have no governmental use; they are only geographic names. Most power is in the New England town.

In other places than New England, counties are for the police, water, gas and electricity, libraries, statistics and birth certificates. County sheriffs are the head of the police in some states, for areas outside of cities and towns. Other places have "County Police" and county sheriffs are for law. Each county has a county seat, usually the biggest town, where the county offices are.

County


Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (January 27, 1756 – December 5, 1791; pronounced MOHT-sart) was a composer (music writer), instrumentalist, and music teacher. His full baptised name was Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophillus Mozart. He was born in Salzburg (then a free archbishopric city within the Bavarian Imperial Circle / German Empire, now Austria), the youngest child of Leopold and Anna Maria Mozart. From a very early age, the young Mozart showed great musical talent. He toured Europe with his parents and older sister "Nannerl" for several years performing for royalty and the aristocratic elite.

As a young man, Mozart tried but failed to establish himself as a composer in Paris. He returned to Salzburg where he was briefly employed in the court of the Archbishop of Salzburg. He was restless, aware of his genius, and thought Salzburg too small for his talent. He relocated to Vienna where he met with some success. He married Constanze Weber and fathered two sons. He died in Vienna after a brief but unknown illness.

Mozart wrote more than 600 musical works, all of the very highest quality. His works include the operas The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, Così fan tutte and The Magic Flute; the symphonies in E-flat major, G minor, and C major ("Jupiter"); concertos for piano, violin, and various wind instruments; and numerous chamber pieces, works for the church, minuets and other dances, songs, and the Requiem.  Along with Bach and Beethoven, Mozart is regarded as one of the greatest composers who has ever lived.

Life

Family and early years
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ("Wolfi" or Wolferl") was born in Salzburg to Leopold and Anna Maria Mozart. Leopold was a violinist in the orchestra of the archbishop of Salzburg and the author of a best-selling introduction to playing the violin.

Young Mozart showed evidence of great musical talent at a very early age. He was playing the harpsichord and the violin at the age of five, and writing little pieces of music.

Mozart's sister Maria Anna ("Nannerl") was a talented girl. The two children received their musical and academic education from their father. The family toured Europe for a few years, performing for royals and aristocrats.

Mozart performed in Munich, Prague, Paris, The Hague and London. In London, he performed for King George III. He met the composer Johann Christian Bach, one of the sons of Johann Sebastian Bach. He sat on the knee of Johann Christian Bach (1735–1782) and improvised a fugue. And here, at the age of eight, he heard his first two symphonies performed.

Eventually, the Mozarts made their way back to Salzburg. But in 1768, they were off again to Vienna, where the now twelve-year-old Wolfgang staged a production of his first opera, Bastien und Bastienne. And he was infected with smallpox at that time. He recovered but his face was pock-marked for life. He went to Italy where he heard music by many famous Italian composers, including Gregorio Allegri who had written a piece called Miserere. This piece had been written for the Pope for the choir of the Vatican to sing. No one was allowed to see the written music so that no other choir would be able to sing it. Mozart heard the piece once and then wrote it all down from memory. He met the Pope and was given a knighthood (Order of the Golden Spur).

In 1777, he went on a journey with his mother. In Mannheim, he fell in love with Aloysia Weber. She was 16 years old and studying singing. Mozart wanted to take her to Italy to make her famous, but his father put a stop to these plans. By 1778, Mozart and his mother were in Paris. His mother died there.

Mozart wrote some small operas when he was young, but his first really important opera was Idomeneo. It was first performed in Munich in 1780. The next year he went to Vienna. By this time he was working, like his father, for the Archbishop of Salzburg. When he went back to Salzburg he argued with the Archbishop who actually kicked him out. Mozart went off to Vienna where he would spend the rest of his life.

In 1782 he married Constanze Weber, one of the three younger sisters of Aloysia (who by now was married to someone else). They were to have seven children, but five of them died in childhood. Mozart's father did not approve of the marriage. Constanze was a loving wife, but, like Mozart, she was not good at looking after money, so they were often very poor.

In that same year, 1782, Mozart wrote another very successful opera: Die Entführung aus dem Serail ("The Abduction from the Seraglio"). One famous story tells that, after the emperor had heard the opera, he told Mozart that there were "too many notes". Mozart answered: "Just as many as are necessary, Your Majesty."

Mozart started a series of concerts in which he played his own piano concertos, conducting from the keyboard. He met the composer Joseph Haydn and the two men became great friends, often playing together in a string quartet. Haydn said to Leopold Mozart one day: "Before God and as an honest man I tell you that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by name. He has taste, and what is more, the most profound knowledge of composition." Mozart was in the same Masonic Lodge as Haydn, and he dedicated some of his string quartets to him.

The audiences in Vienna did not give Mozart much support after a few years, so he often went to Prague where the audiences loved him. His opera The Marriage of Figaro was very popular, and in 1787 he gave the first performance there of his opera Don Giovanni.

Illness and death
There are several stories about Mozart's last illness and death, and it is not easy to be sure what happened. He was working on an opera The Magic Flute which is one of his best works and a very popular opera today. It is written in German, not Italian, like most of his other operas. In some ways it is like an English pantomime. At the same time that he was working on this he was asked by a stranger to compose a requiem. He was told to write this in secret. Then he was asked to write an Italian opera La Clemenza di Tito, which was performed in Prague during September 1791. At the end of September The Magic Flute  was given its first performance. Mozart then worked very hard at the Requiem. He must have realized that he was already very ill, and that in a way the requiem (a mass for the dead) was for himself. He died in Vienna before he could finish it. Constanze asked another composer, a man called Franz Xaver Süssmayr, to finish the work. Mozart was buried in the St. Marx Cemetery.

Mozart's music
Mozart's music, like that of Haydn, is the very best of what is known as the Classical style. At the time he started to compose, the Baroque period was just coming to an end. Tastes were changing in music. Form, balance and elegance were thought of as more important than counterpoint. Mozart was the first great composer to write music for the piano, an instrument which had only just become popular. He wrote almost every kind of music: symphonies, operas, solo concertos, chamber music, especially string quartets and string quintets, and the piano sonata. He also wrote a lot of religious music, including masses, as well as popular music like dances, divertimenti and serenades.

When Mozart was young a symphony was usually a short, simple piece for entertainment. Mozart made the symphony into a carefully worked-out piece lasting up to half an hour. His last three symphonies are especially fine masterpieces. His concertos, especially his piano concertos, are far more advanced than anything that had been written before. Although Mozart behaved in truly childish ways at times, he was good at understanding human character. This is clear in his operas, where he introduced many subtle effects to describe the characters in the story.

Mozart's operas are among his greatest works.  He understood people's characters very well and was able to write music which tells us everything about the personalities in the operas.  The three operas in which he set words by Lorenzo Da Ponte: Don Giovanni, Le Nozze di Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro) and Cosi fan tutte each include some very clever ensembles in which several characters are singing at once, each one showing his or her view of the situation.

As well as many great masterpieces, Mozart wrote many pieces in a more popular style, including some tunes that everybody knows today. His serenade Eine kleine Nachtmusik K525 is known everywhere, as is the Turkish Rondo from his Piano Sonata in A K331, the opening of the Symphony No. 40 in G minor K550, and the birdcatcher's song from The Magic Flute K620.

Regarding the instruments that Mozart was using for composing and performing, there was a number of them. In his early years he got to know pianos made by Franz Jakob Späth from Regensburg. Later in Augsburg Mozart got impressed by pianos from Stein. After moving to Vienna the composer purchased an instrument by Walter.

Catalogue of works
Some time after Mozart's death a man called Köchel studied all Mozart's music, tried to put them in chronological order, and gave them a number. The number helps us to know exactly which work is meant, for example Symphony in G minor K183 is not the same piece as Symphony in G minor K550 (K stands for Köchel. Sometimes it is written "KV550" standing for "Köchel Verzeichnis" i.e. "Köchel Catalogue"). The highest Köchel number is 626, his requiem mass.

Related pages
 Amadeus (movie)

References

Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie; 1980;
Listening To Western Music, written by Craig Wright; ISBN 978-0-495-11627-1

Other websites

 The Mozart Project
 Mozart livecams Live pictures of Mozart Birth house, Mozart Monument, Mozart lives on View and so on.

1756 births
1791 deaths
Austrian composers
Child prodigies
Classical era composers
People from Salzburg
Smallpox survivors
Austrian Roman Catholics
Wolfgang Amadeus

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart


The inch is a unit of length in the Imperial system and the United States customary system. The abbreviation for inches is in or ". There are 12 inches in a foot. One inch is equal to 2.54 centimetres.

The word "inch" came from Middle English unche, which came from Old English ynce, from Latin uncia meaning "a twelfth part".

History

The inch was originally defined as 3 barleycorns. The inch was finally standardised in the International Yard and Pound Treaty in 1959 between the United States, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. The international yard was made equal to 0.9144 metres. From this, subdivisions and multiples of the yard were specifically defined.

Usage

In Britain and the United States, people use inches more than they use millimetres or centimetres. In the rest of the world, international units are almost always used. The inch is not used by scientists.

In the United Kingdom, road signs that show how high a vehicle can be in order to pass through a tunnel are required to be in feet and inches. Theme parks and drive thru signs usually show it in metres. People regularly measure their height in feet and inches. Official medical records, however, are required to record people's height in metric measurements only.

In Canada, a mix of centimetres and inches are used in height. Older generations, especially, use Imperial units. A lot of exposure to Americanized phrases leads to younger generations often having a good understanding of both the Imperial and metric systems.

In the United States, height is always in feet and inches. Science is the only field to use metric measurements.

Other Commonwealth countries, including Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Jamaica use inches to varying degrees. From every day use to exclusively the older community.

Length

Units of length
Imperial units

Inch


Hobbits are a fictional race in the Middle-earth world invented by J. R. R. Tolkien, also often called halflings.

They appeared in the books The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Several important main characters in those books are hobbits, such as Bilbo Baggins and Frodo Baggins.

Hobbits (or similar beings) have become very popular and are now often used in fantasy fiction and (video) games.

Appearance
Hobbits are like small humans between two and four foot tall (between 60 and 120 centimeters). They have hair/fur on the top side of their feet, leathery foot-soles, and slightly pointed ears. They tend to be stout and often have brown and curly hair. Male hobbits do not have beards. Hobbits live longer compared to humans, and many hobbits reach the age of 100.

Culture
Hobbits are a peaceful people and live a simple, pre-industrial life in the land which they call The Shire, and also in Bree-land.

A typical hobbit-house has a long hallway with rooms on both sides, and round doors and windows. Originally these were underground in hills, then the house was called a smial; but this architecture(style of building) is also used for 'normal' houses above ground.

Related pages
 The Hobbit
 The Lord of the Rings
 Middle-earth

Middle-earth
Fictional races

Hobbit


La bohème (pronounced, "La bo-EM") is an Italian opera in four acts. The music was written by Giacomo Puccini. The libretto was written by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa.

The opera tells the story of a love affair between a poor poet and an equally poor seamstress in 19th century Paris. The opera is based on a book by Henri Murger called Scenes from Bohemian Life ().

Arturo Toscanini conducted the first performance of La bohème on February 1, 1896 at the Teatro Regio in Turin, Italy. The opera was adapted to a movie in 1965 and the 1996 Broadway musical, Rent.

Henri Murger

Henri Murger was born in 1822 to an immigrant German tailor in Paris.  He worked as a secretary until 1841 when he became a journalist and joined the poor artists and writers who called themselves Bohemians.

From 1845 to 1848, Murger's stories about Bohemian life in Paris were serialized (published in parts) in a French magazine. The book brought Murger little income. Playwright Théodore Barrière suggested making a play of the book, and Murger accepted. The play appeared in 1849. It was a success.

Almost every chapter of Murger's book mentions an incident or event which found its way into Puccini's opera. However, the love affair between the poet and the seamstress appears only as a little tale in the book about a sculptor named Jacques and a seamstress named Francine.

After the publication of the play, adaptations appeared. In 1877, an operetta was staged in Paris. In 1897, an opera by Ruggero Leoncavallo was staged in Venice. Another play based on the book was performed in New York in 1896. The first movie was released in 1916, and other movies were released in the following years.

Development

Puccini wrote most of La bohème at Torre del Lago, a village in Tuscany he had just made his home. Most decisions about the opera were made through letters sent back and forth between Ricordi (Puccini's publisher), the two librettists, and the composer. This arrangement was not the best for getting the work done in a timely manner.

Puccini began toying with the idea of writing another work called La lupa (The She-Wolf). The librettists were furious. Puccini was dividing his time between two projects while taking them to task for their slowness on the present one. Giacosa complained that he used more paper and time on La bohéme that he had on any of his other dramas.

Whole scenes were rewritten, revised, and even discarded before going through the cycle again. Despite the turmoil, Puccini was considering the David Belasco play Tosca as yet another project. He briefly interrupted work on La bohème to travel to Florence to see Sarah Bernhardt perform the play.

Puccini and Ruggero Leoncavallo (composer of the 1892 opera I pagliacci) both chose to set Mürger's book to music. Each claimed he was the first to make this decision. Leoncavallo's La Bohème was first performed in 1897, the year after Puccini's opera. Leoncavallo's opera never attained the fame that Puccini's did  probably because Puccini's opera was gaining a popularity in 1897 that left Leoncavallo's opera in the dust.

Performances

La bohème was first performed in Turin, Italy on February 1, 1896 at the Teatro Regio. It was conducted by Arturo Toscanini. In 1946, Toscanini conducted a radio performance that was released to LP records and later compact discs. It is the only recording of a Puccini opera by its original conductor.

Within a few years, the opera was performed in theatres throughout Italy including La Scala and La Fenice. The first performance outside of Italy was in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1896. Other performances followed in the next ten years around the world.

The first performance in United Kingdom took place in Manchester, on 22 April 1897. It was performed by the Carl Rosa Opera Company in English and was supervised by Puccini. On 2 October 1897 the same company gave the opera's first staging at the Royal Opera House in London.

The opera was first performed in the United States by the Carl Rosa Opera Company on October 14, 1897 in Los Angeles, California. It was performed in New York City at Palmo's Opera House on May 16, 1898. The Metropolitan Opera House staged the opera for the first time on December 26, 1900.

Roles

Story of the opera

Act 1

In the four bohemians' attic room

Act 1 takes place in Paris around 1830. A group of bohemians live in a room in an attic. Marcello is painting while Rodolfo gazes out of the window. They are so poor and so cold that they burn a drama that Rodolfo has written. Colline, the philosopher, comes in shivering and cross because he had not been able to pawn some books. Schaunard, the musician of the group, arrives with food, firewood, wine, cigars, and money. He tells his friends that he has got these things because he has a job with an English gentleman. The others hardly listen as they are so hungry that they try to eat the food. Schaunard interrupts them, taking the meal away, and saying that they will all celebrate his luck by having dinner at Cafe Momus instead.

While they drink the wine, Benoit, the landlord, arrives to collect the rent. The group gives him lots of wine so that he becomes drunk and starts to tell the people his adventures about love. Eventually, the group throws him out. The money that should have been used to pay the rent is divided among them so they can have a good time.

The other Bohemians go out, but Rodolfo stays alone for a moment in order to finish a newspaper article, promising to join his friends soon. There is a knock at the door, and Mimi, a seamstress who lives in a flat below, enters. Her candle has blown out, and she has no matches; she asks Rodolfo to light it. She thanks him, but returns a few seconds later, saying she has lost her key. Both candles go out. It is dark, and the couple try to feel their way about. Rodolfo wants to spend time with Mimi. He finds the key, but puts it in his pocket and does not tell her. In two famous arias (Rodolfo's "Che gelida manina" — "What a cold little hand," and Mimi's "Sì, mi chiamano Mimì" — "Yes, they call me Mimi"), they tell each other about their backgrounds. Rodolfo's friends call for him to come out and join them. He would prefer to stay there with Mimi but she decides they should go together. They go out, singing about their love for one another.

Act 2
Latin Quarter on Christmas Eve

The streets are crowded with happy people. Rodolfo buys Mimi a bonnet. The friends go into a café. Musetta, who used to be Marcello's sweetheart, comes into the cafe with Alcindoro, a rich old man. She is tired of him. She sings a naughty song, hoping Marcello will notice her.

Marcello becomes mad with jealousy. To be rid of Alcindoro for a bit, Musetta pretends to have a tight shoe and sends him with it to the shoemaker. Musetta and Marcello fall into each other's arms.

The sound of a military parade is heard. Marcello and Colline carry Musetta out on their shoulders while everyone claps. Alcindoro returns with the repaired shoe. The waiter hands him the bill. He is surprised by how much he has to pay, and sinks into a chair.

Act 3

At a toll gate a month or two later

Mimì passes through the toll gate. She is coughing. She finds Marcello, who lives in a little tavern near the gate. She tells him of her hard life with Rodolfo, who has left her that night.

Rodolfo comes out of the tavern looking for Marcello. Mimì hides. She hears Rodolfo telling Marcello why he left her. At first he says Mimì does not love him, but then he says he left her because she is dying of an illness.

Rodolfo is poor and can do little to help Mimì. He hopes that a rich man may fall in love with her and pay for her to have medical treatment. Out of kindness towards Mimì, Marcello tries to stop Rodolfo, but she has already heard everything.

She coughs, and Rodolfo discovers her. They sing of their lost love, and agree that although they should separate, they love one another and agree to stay together until the spring. Marcello and Musetta are heard quarrelling in the background.

Act 4

The attic room

Marcello and Rodolfo are both sad at losing their loved ones. Schaunard and Colline arrive with a tiny bit of food. They pretend they are having a big feast, and they all dance. Musetta arrives with news: Mimi, who had found a rich gentleman, has now left him and is wandering in the streets feeling very ill and weak.

Musetta has brought Mimi back with her to the attic room. Mimi is helped into a chair. Musetta and Marcello leave to sell Musetta's earrings in order to buy medicine, and Colline leaves to pawn his overcoat. Schaunard leaves quietly to give Mimi and Rodolfo time together. Left alone, the two remember their past happiness.

They remember their first meeting. Rodolfo gives Mimi the pink bonnet he bought her, which he has kept as a souvenir of their love. The others return, with a gift of a muff to warm Mimi's hands and some medicine, and tell Rodolfo that a doctor has been called, but it is too late. As Musetta prays, Mimi dies. Rodolfo collapses in tears.

Orchestra
La bohème is scored for the standard orchestra of the period:
strings: violins I, II, viola, cello, double bass
woodwind: 2 flutes, piccolo, 2 oboes, cor anglais, 2 clarinets in A and B flat, bass clarinet in A and B flat, 2 bassoons
brass: 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in F, 3 trombones, bass trombone
percussion: harp, timpani, snare drum, triangle, cymbals, bass drum, xylophone, glockenspiel, chimes

Movies
In 1965, a West German movie version of the opera was released. It was filmed on location in Milan and Munich. The movie was produced by conductor Herbert von Karajan and designed by Franco Ziffirelli. It starred Mirella Freni as Mimi, Adriana Martino as Musetta, Gianni Raimondi as Rudolpho, and Rolando Panerai as Marcello. The movie won the 1966 National Board of Review for Top Foreign Film.

Notes

References

Other websites

Vocal Score from the Indiana University School of Music.
Upcoming performances  from Operabase.com
Recording of "Mi chimano Mimì" in German by Lotte Lehmann in MP3 format
San Diego OperaTalk! with Nick Reveles: La bohème
Libretto (in Italian) from OperaGlass
  La bohème

Compositions by Giacomo Puccini
1890s operas

La bohème