Dina matematik, fungsi nyaéta hiji hubungan, saperti unggal unsur tina susunan mangrupa gabungan tina susunan unsur unik séjénna (nu mungkin sarua). Konsép fungsi jadi dasar pikeun sababaraha widang matematik sarta sakabéh élmu kuantitatif.

Watesan fungsi, mapping, map, transformation sarta operator mangrupa hal nu ilaharna meh sarua.

Intuitive introduction
Essentially, a function is a "rule" that assigns a unique output to éach given input. Here are some examples of functions:

 éach person has a favorite colour (red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, indigo, or violet). The colour is a function of the person. For example, John has favorite colour red, while Kim has favorite colour violet. Here, the input is the person, and the output is one of the 8 colours.
 Some children are selling lemonade in the summer. The number of lemonades they sell is a function of the temperature outside. For example, if it is 85 degrees outside, they sell 10 lemonades, but if it is 95 degrees outside, they sell 25 lemonades. Here, the input is the temperature, and the output is the number of lemonades they sell.
 A stone is dropped from different stories of a tall building. The dropped stone may take 2 seconds to fall from the second storey, and (only) 4 seconds to fall from the 10th storey. Here, the input is the storey, and the output is the number of seconds. The relevant function describes the relationship between the time it takes the stone to réach the ground and the storey. (See acceleration)

The "rule" defining a function can be specified by a formula, a relationship, or simply a table listing the outputs against inputs. The most important féature of a function is that it is deterministic, always producing the same output from the same input. In this way, a function may be thought of as a "machine" or a "black box", converting a valid input into a unique output. The input is often called the argument of the function, and the output the value of the function.

A very common type of function occurs when the argument and the function value are both numbers, the functional relationship is expressed by a formula, and the value of the function is obtained by direct substitution of the argument into the formula. Consider for example

which assigns to any number x its square.

A straightforward generalization is to allow functions depending on several arguments. For instance,

is a function which takes two numbers x and y and assigns to them their product, xy. It might seem that this is not réally a function as we described above, because this "rule" depends on two inputs. However, if we think of the two inputs together as a single pair (x, y), then we can interpret g as a function—the argument is the ordered pair (x, y), and the function value is xy.

In the sciences, we often encounter functions that are not given by (known) formulas. Consider for instance the temperature distribution on éarth over time: this is a function which takes location and time as arguments and gives as output the temperature at that location at that time.

We have seen that the intuitive notion of function is not limited to computations using single numbers and not even limited to computations; the mathematical notion of function is still more general and is not limited to situations involving numbers. Rather, a function links a "domain" (set of inputs) to a "codomain" (set of possible outputs) in such a way that every element of the domain is associated to precisely one element of the codomain. Functions are abstractly defined as certain relations, as will be seen below. Because of this generality, the function concept is fundamental to virtually every branch of mathematics.

Sajarah

As a mathematical term, "function" was coined by Leibniz in 1694, to describe a quantity related to a curve, such as a curve's slope or a specific point of a curve. The functions Leibniz considered are today called differentiable functions, and they are the type of function most frequently encountered by nonmathematicians. For this type of function, one can talk about limits and derivatives; both are méasurements of the change of output values associated to a change of input values, and these méasurements are the basis of calculus.

The word function was later used by Euler during the mid-18th century to describe an expression or formula involving various arguments, e.g. f(x) = sin(x) + x3.

During the 19th century, mathematicians started to formalize all the different branches of mathematics. Weierstrass advocated building calculus on arithmetic rather than on geometry, which favoured Euler's definition over Leibniz's (see arithmetization of analysis).

By broadening the definition of functions, mathematicians were then able to study "strange" mathematical objects such as continuous functions that are nowhere differentiable. These functions were first thought to be only théoretical curiosities, and they were collectively called "monsters" as late as the turn of the 20th century. However, powerful techniques from functional analysis has shown that these functions are actually more common than differentiable functions. Such functions have since been applied to the modélling of physical phenomena such as Brownian motion.

Towards the end of the 19th century, mathematicians started trying to formalize all of mathematics using set theory, and they sought to define every mathematical object as a set. Dirichlet and Lobachevcky independently and almost simultanéously gave the modérn "formal" definition of function (see formal definition below).

In this definition, a function is a special case of a relation. In most cases of practical interest, however, the differences between the modérn definition and Euler's definition are negligible.

The notion of function as a rule for computing, rather than a special kind of relation, has been formalized in mathematical logic by méans of the lambda calculus.

Dadaran formal

Formally, a function f from a set X of input values to a set Y of possible output values (written as f : X → Y) is a relation between X and Y which satisfies:
 f is total: for all x in X, there exists a y in Y such that x f y (x is f-related to y), i.e. for éach input value, there is at léast one output value in Y.
 f is many-to-one: if x f y and x f z, then y = z. i.e., many input values can be related to one output value, but one input value cannot be related to many output values.

For éach input value x in the domain, the corresponding unique output value y in the codomain is denoted by f(x).

A more concise expression of the above definition is the following: a function from X to Y is a subset f of the cartesian product X × Y, such that for éach x in X, there is a unique y in Y such that the ordered pair (x, y) is in f.

The set of all functions f : X → Y is denoted by YX. Note that |YX| = |Y||X| (refer to Cardinal numbers).

A relation between X and Y that satisfies condition (1) is a multivalued function. Every function is a multivalued function, but not every multivalued function is a function. A relation between X and Y that satisfies condition (2) is a partial function. Every function is a partial function, but not every partial function is a function. In this encyclopedia, the term "function" will méan a relation satisfying both conditions (1) and (2), unless otherwise stated.

Consider the following three examples:

Domains, codomains, and ranges

X, the set of input values, is called the domain of f, and Y, the set of possible output values, is called the codomain. The range of f is the set of all actual outputs {f(x) : x in the domain}. Beware that sometimes the codomain is incorrectly called the range because of a failure to distinguish between possible and actual values.
An endofunction is a function whose domain and range are identical.

In computer science, the datatypes of the arguments and return values specify the domain and codomain (respectively) of a subprogram. So the domain and codomain are constraints imposed initially on a function; on the other hand the range has to do with how things turn out in practice.

Injective, surjective and bijective functions

Several types of functions that are very useful have special names:
 Injective (one-to-one) functions send different arguments to different values; in other words, if x and y are members of the domain of f, then f(x) = f(y) only if x = y.
 Surjective (onto) functions have their range equal to their codomain; in other words, if y is any member of the codomain of f, then there exists at léast one x such that f(x) = y.
 Bijective functions are both injective and surjective; they are often used to show that the sets X and Y are the "same size" in some sense.

Images and preimages

The image of an element x∈X under f is the output f(x).

The image of a subset A⊂X under f is the subset of Y defined by
f(A) := {f(x) : x in A}.

Notice that the range of f is the image f(X) of its domain. In our function above, the image of {2,3} under f is f({2, 3}) = {c, d} and the range of f is {a, c, d}.

Note that with this definiton, the direct image f becomes a function whose domain is the set of all subsets of X (also known as the power set of X) and whose codomain is the power set of Y. Note that the same notation is used for the original function f and its direct image. This is a common convention; the intended usage must be inferred by context.

The preimage (or inverse image) of a set B ⊂ Y under f is the subset of X defined by
f −1(B) := {x in X : f(x)∈B}.
In our function above, the preimage of {a, b} is f −1({a, b}) = {1}.

Note that with this definiton, f −1 becomes a function whose domain is the power set of Y and whose codomain is the power set of X.

Some consequences that follow immediately from these definitions are:
 f(A1 ∪ A2) = f(A1) ∪ f(A2).
 f(A1 ∩ A2) ⊆ f(A1) ∩ f(A2).
 f −1(B1 ∪ B2) = f −1(B1) ∪ f −1(B2).
 f −1(B1 ∩ B2) = f −1(B1) ∩ f −1(B2).
 f(f −1(B)) ⊆ B.
 f −1(f(A)) ⊇ A.

These are valid for arbitrary subsets A, A1 and A2 of the domain and arbitrary subsets B, B1 and B2 of the codomain.
The results relating images and preimages to the algebra of intersection and union work for any collections of subsets, not just for pairs of subsets.

 Graph of a function

The graph of a function f is the set of all ordered pairs(x, f(x)), for all x in the domain X. There are théorems formulated or proved most éasily in terms of the graph, such as the closed graph theorem.

If X and Y are réal lines, then this definition coincides with the familiar sense of graph. Below is the graph of a cubic function:

This function is surjective but not injective.

Note that since a relation on the two sets X and Y is usually formalized as a subset of X×Y, the formal definition of function actually identifies the function f with its graph.

 Conto fungsi

(More can be found at List of functions.)

 The relation wght between persons in the United States and their weights at a particular time.
 The relation between nations and their capitals, if we exclude those nations that maintain multiple capitals .
 The relation sqr between natural numbers n and their squares n2.
 The relation ln between positive real numbers x and their natural logarithms ln(x). Note that the relation between réal numbers and their natural logarithms is not a function because not every réal number has a natural logarithm; that is, this relation is not total.
 The relation dist between points in the plane R2 and their distances from the origin (0,0).
 The relation grav between a point in the punctured plane R2 \ {(0,0)} and the vector describing the gravitational force that a certain mass at that point would experience from a certain other mass at the origin (0,0).

Most commonly used types of mathematical functions involving addition, division, exponents, logarithms, multiplication, polynomials, radicals, rationals, subtraction, and trigonometric expressions. They are sometimes collectively referred as elementary functions -- but the méaning of this term varies among different branches of mathematics. Example of non-elementary functions (or special functions) are Bessel functions sarta fungsi gamma.

 n-ary function: function of several variables

Functions in applications are often functions of several variables: the values they take depend on a number of different factors. From a mathematical point of view all the variables must be made explicit in order to have a functional relationship - no 'hidden' factors are allowed. Then again, from the mathematical point of view, there is no qualitative difference between functions of one and of several variables. A function of three réal variables is just a function that applies to triples of réal numbers. The following paragraph says this in more formal language.

If the domain of a function is a subset of the Cartesian product of n sets then the function is called an n-ary function.
For example, the relation dist has the domain R × R and is therefore a binary function.
In that case dist((x,y)) is simply written as dist(x,y).

Another name applied to some types of functions of several variables is operation. In abstract algebra, operators such as "*" are defined as binary functions; when we write a formula such as x*y in this context, we are implicitly invoking the function *(x,y), but writing it in a convenient infix notation.

An important théoretical paradigm, functional programming, takes the function concept as central. In that setting, the handling of functions of several variables becomes an operational matter, for which the lambda calculus provides the basic syntax. The composition of functions (see under composing functions immediately below) becomes a question of explicit forms of substitution, as used in the substitution rule of calculus. In particular, a formalism called currying can be used to reduce n-ary functions to functions of a single variable.

 Composing functions

The functions f: X → Y and g: Y → Z can be composed by first applying f to an argument x and then applying g to the result.
Thus one obtains a function g o f: X → Z defined by (g o f)(x) := g(f(x)) for all x in X.
As an example, suppose that an airplane's height at time t is given by the function h(t) and that the oxygen concentration at height x is given by the function c(x).
Then (c o h)(t) describes the oxygen concentration around the plane at time t.

In the mid-20th century, some mathematicians decided that writing "gof" to méan "first apply f, then apply g" was too confusing and decided to change notations. They wrote "xf" for "f(x)" and "xfg" for "g(f(x))". However, this movement never caught on, and nowadays this notation is found only in old books.

The functions g and f are commutative if g o f=f o g.
If
Y⊂X
then
f may compose with itself; this
is sometimes denoted f 2. (Do not confuse it with the notation
commonly seen in
trigonometry.)
The functional powersf of n
= f n o f
= f n+1
for
natural
n
follow immediately. This is a generalized version of the common f−1 for an inverse function. On their heels comes the idéa of functional root;
given f and n, find a g such that
gn=f.
(Richard Feynman
illustrated practical use of functional roots in one of his anecdotal books.
<which?>
Tasked with building an
analogue
arctan
computer and finding its parts overstressed, he instéad designed a machine for a functional root <fifth?> of arctan and chained enough copies to maké the arctan machine.)

 Inverse function
If a function f:X→Y is bijective then preimages of any element y in the codomain Y is a singleton. A function taking y∈Y to its preimage f−1(y) is a well-defined function called the inverse of f and is denoted by f−1.

An example of an inverse function, for f(x) = 2x, is f(x)−1 = x/2. The inverse function is the function that "undoes" its original. See also inverse image.

Inverses are sometimes difficult or impossible to find. Consider f(x) = x2. The function f(x) = √x is not an inverse when the domain of f is R. (As -22 is 4, but √4 is either 2 or -2).

 Restrictions and extensions
Suppose that  is a subset of  and that

is a function. Let

be the inclusion function

for x ∈ X.

The restriction of  to  is then the function . Intuitively, this is the same function as  except that we restrict the domain of  to .

An extension of a function  is a function  defined on a superset  of  such that . Provided the domain of  is not the universal set,  always has lots of extensions.

 Pointwise operations

If f: X → R and g: X → R are functions with common domain X and codomain is a ring R, then one can define the sum function f + g: X → R and the product function f × g: X → R as follows:
(f + g)(x) := f(x) + g(x);
(f × g)(x) := f(x) × g(x);
for all x in X.

This turns the set of all such functions into a ring. The binary operations in that ring have as domain ordered pairs of functions, and as codomain functions. This is an example of climbing up in abstraction, to functions of more complex types.

By taking some other algebraic structure A in the place of R''', we can turn the set of all functions from X to A into an algebraic structure of the same type in an analogous way.

 Computable and non-computable functions

The number of computable functions from integers to integers is countable, because the number of possible algorithms is. The number of all functions from integers to integers is higher: the same as the cardinality of the real numbers. This argument shows that there are functions from integers to integers that are not computable. For examples of noncomputable functions, see the articles on the halting problem and Rice's theorem.

 Functions from the categorical viewpoint

In the context of category theory, a function no longer represents a rule for taking an input to an output, but instéad represents a relationship between its domain and its codomain. Since these functions are no longer functions in the usual sense, they are usually referred to as morphisms. A morphism is then an ordered triple (X, Y, f), where f is a "function" with domain X and codomain Y. Since X and Y'' do not necessarily correspond to a set of objects, however, morphisms do not always behave like functions, and, for example, enlarging the codomain (which does nothing to a function) gives a different morphism which you cannot identify with the original one.

Ordinary functions are sometimes referred to as morphisms when they are morphisms in a concrete category.

References
 Visual Calculus by Lawrence S. Husch, University of Tennessee (2001)

External links
 http://functions.wolfram.com, a compendium of formulae for and visualizations of mathematical functions
 xFunctions is a versatile Java applet for exploring functions graphically. It can be used on line or downloaded for use off line.

Set theory

Fungsi (matematika)


A nose is a body part which allows animals to smell things. The nose also helps animals breathe. It has parts that make it work and send messages to the brain. The nose's parts include smell receptors and nerve connectors to receptors. In humans, the nose is on the front of the face. The power of the nose varies for animals. For example, dogs have a stronger sense of smell than humans do. It is part of the respiratory system which is the system in animals that help them to breathe. Your nose is very powerful and can remember up to 50,000 different scents.

The nose is important to health. It filters the air breathed in, removing dust, germs, and irritants. It warms and moistens the air to keep the lungs and tubes that lead to them from drying out. The nose also contains nerve cells that help the sense of smell. When there is a problem with the nose, the whole body can suffer. For example, the stuffy nose of the common cold can make it hard to breathe, sleep, or get comfortable.

Many problems besides the common cold can affect the nose. They include
 Deviated septum - a shifting of the wall that divides the nasal cavity into halves
 Nasal polyps - soft growths that develop on the lining of the nose or sinuses
 Nosebleeds
 Rhinitis - inflammation of the nose and sinuses sometimes caused by allergies. The main symptom is a runny nose.
 Nasal fractures, also known as a broken nose

Related pages
 Nose-picking

Basic English 850 words
Anatomy of the respiratory system

Nose


Coal mining is the process of getting coal out of the ground. It is part of the mining industry. Coal is used as a resource for making electricity.

Extraction
Surface mining is done when the coal is near the surface. Coal miners remove the soil above the coal.  The coal can then be removed without the coal miners having to go deep underground..

Underground mining is when the coal is farther underground, making it too expensive to remove soil. In this process, coal miners and all of the coal mining equipment are brought deep underground and coal is carried up out of the ground. This is especially dangerous because of fires, explosions, and poison gas in coal mines.

Processing

Before coal can be used, it must be processed in a coal processing plant. It is made smaller using a sizer and crusher. Parts that might be harmful to any equipment which will use the coal later on, such as the screening for metallic parts inside the mined coal.

Delivery
Coal is delivered to customers in several ways. Trucks, conveyors, trains and ships transport coal to be used in factories and power plants.

Coal mining


A demonym or gentilic is a word used for people or the inhabitants of a place. The name of a people's language is usually the same as this word, for example, the "English" (language or people). Some places may not have a word for the people that live there.

Suffix demonyms
The English language has many ways to create demonyms. The most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location's name. These may use Latin, Semitic or Germanic suffixes, such as:
 -an (America → American, Rome → Roman)
 -ian (Paris → Parisian, Russia → Russian, India → Indian, Canada → Canadian)
 -ine (Florence → Florentine, Argentina → Argentine)
 -ite (Vancouver → Vancouverite, Moscow → Muscovite) (mostly cities)
 -er (New Zealand → New Zealander, London → Londoner) (mostly cities)
 -eno (Los Angeles → Angeleno or Los Angeleno, uses the Spanish eño suffix for demonyms)
 -ish (Spain → Spanish, Denmark → Danish) (mostly countries)
 "-ish" is usually used as an adjective. Many common "-ish" forms have different demonyms. (Spain/Spanish/Spaniard; Denmark/Danish/Dane; Judea/Jewish/Jew or Judean; Poland/Polish/Pole)
 -ese (Taiwan → Taiwanese, Vienna → Viennese, Tyrol → Tyrolese, Vietnam → Vietnamese, Japan → Japanese)
 "-ese" is usually only proper as an adjective, or to refer to the entire group of people. For example, "The Chinese" means all people from China.
 -i (Iraq → Iraqi, Bengal → Bengali) (mostly Middle Eastern and South Asian places)
 -ic (Hispania → Hispanic)
 "-ic" is mostly used as an adjective to refer to an ethnic or linguistic group, for example Hispanic vs. Spanish
 -iote (Cyprus → Cypriote, Phanar → Phanariote), especially for Greek locations.

Irregular forms
In many cases, both the location's name and the demonym are created by using a suffix, for example England and English and Englishman. This is not always true, for example, France → French; Philippines → Filipino or Pilipino.

In a few cases, the name of the country is not at all related to the name of the people (Netherlands → Dutch). This is usually because the two words come from different languages. The demonyms in federal states or autonomous region can also differ in this way. For example, people in Khatumo State are often called reer darawiish. That's because the dominant tribe Dhulbahante used to be anti-colonial dervishes.Reer DarawiishDemonyms can be nouns or adjectives. In many cases the noun and adjective forms are the same (Canadian/Canadian); in other cases they are different (Spaniard/Spanish).

In the case of Canadian provinces and territories and U.S. states, demonyms are not usually used as adjectives.

 Cultural problems
Some peoples, mainly cultures that were taken over by European colonists, have no demonym. They may also have a demonym that is the same as the name of their nation. Examples include Iroquois, Aztec, Māori, and Czech. Often, the native languages of these people have forms that did not get used in English. In Czech, for example, the language is Čeština, the nation is Česko or Česká republika, and the people are Češi.

The demonym for people of the United States of America has a similar problem. "American" can mean either someone from the United States, or someone from any part of American region or the two American continents (North America and South America). United Statian is not frequently used in English, but it exists. It is commonly used in Spanish (estadounidense) and widely used in Latin American Spanish. French (étatsunien(ne)) exists but is rarely used, Portuguese (estado-unidense or estadunidense) but it is not as commonly used, Italian (statunitense) exists but is rarely used, and also in Interlingua (statounitese). In Esperanto the country is Usono and the demonym is Usonano, avoiding confusion with Amerikano. US American (for the noun) and US-American can be used but is not widely used in German (US-Amerikaner'').

References

Words

Demonym


Kyoto () is a city in Japan. This city was the capital of Japan from 794 until 1868.

Kyoto is a major city in the Kansai region of Japan. Its population is 1.5 million people. The city of Kyoto is the capital city of the prefecture of Kyoto. Kyoto is one of the cultural, educational, and technology centers of Japan. In it are many universities including Kyoto University, the second oldest national university of Japan.

History
After 794, the Japanese emperors lived in this city which was called Heian-kyō.

In 1868, the city was called Saikyō ("Western capital") in order to distinguish it from Edo (Tokyo) which was the "Eastern capital".

Geography
There are mountains around the city on the east, north, and west sides. Some people in Kyoto believe that these mountains make Kyoto's summer especially hot and humid, and Kyoto's winter very cold.

We can see many temples and shrines built in traditional Japanese architectural styles here. Some of those buildings are registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. On the other hand, since Kyoto was one of biggest and richest Japanese cities in the middle of the 19th century; the citizens were eager to import European style, and there are many European style buildings in the center of Kyoto for company offices and schools.

Kyoto is one of oldest cities in Japan. Many tourists from all over the world come to Kyoto. Japanese people often come to Kyoto in the spring to see the cherry blossoms, and in the autumn to see the leaves change color.

Traditional Kyoto food often uses vegetables. McDonald's signboards in Kyoto are brown to preserve the traditional surroundings.

The oldest novel in the world, Shikibu Murasaki's The Tale of Genji is set in Kyoto during the Heian Period.

Kyoto is famous for three festivals: Gion festival, Aoi festival in the summer, and Jidai festival in the autumn.

Related pages
 Kyoto Protocol
 Tokyo

References

Other websites

Former capitals of Japan

Kyoto


A staff (or stave) is the name given to the five horizontal lines on which we can write music. Musical notes can be placed either on a line (i.e. with a line going through the middle of the note head) or in a space.  There are four inside spaces as well as the two outer spaces at the top or bottom.

The higher the pitch of the note the higher it will be on the staff. Taking the white notes of a keyboard: each note (A, B, C, D etc.) is placed higher on the stave (line, space, line, space etc.).  A clef is needed to show which notes they are. There are different clefs to suit high, medium or low instruments.

This musical example shows the opening of Symphony no 5 by Beethoven.  The first three notes are on the second line (counting from the bottom).  They are Gs, because there is a treble clef at the beginning of the staff.  The fourth note is a little lower: on the bottom line, the E line (because of the flats in the key signature it is an E flat).  The next note is between the other two in pitch (an F). After the three Fs comes a D in the outside bottom space.

Sometimes composers have used staves with fewer or more than 5 lines, but the five-line staff started to become the usual one in Western music in the 13th century.

When notes are a little too high or low to put on the stave, extension lines are used.  These are called ledger lines.

If two or more staves are being played at the same time the staves are joined on the left by a bracket which is called a brace.  Piano music, for example, is written on two staves: one for the right hand and one for the left.

Instruments that only play a rhythm (such as the cymbals), do not need a stave.  The notes can be written just on one line. The beats are crosses. It's modern notation started from the Catholic Church.

References

Musical notation

fi:Nuottikirjoitus#Nuottiviivasto

Staff (music)


The National League (or NL) is one of the two leagues that make up Major League Baseball (MLB). As of 2016, the NL has 15 teams. At the end of each season, five of these teams go to the "post-season" where one will win the National League championship. The champions of the National League plays against the champions of the American League in the World Series. The team that wins the World Series is the champion of Major League Baseball.

Differences
The only big difference between the National League and the American League (AL) was that the AL used the "Designated Hitter" (or DH). The Designated Hitter is a player who does not play in the field, but is used to bat for the pitcher. The NL did not use the Designated Hitter, and all players on the team must bat and field for themselves. This was changed following the new CBA signed in 2022.

Related pages
American League

National League


A Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter (UART ) is a computer hardware device for asynchronous serial communication in which the data format and transmission speeds are configurable. It sends data bits one by one, from the least significant to the most significant, framed by start and stop bits so that precise timing is handled by the communication channel. The electric signaling levels are handled by a driver circuit external to the UART. Common signal levels are RS-232, RS-485, and raw TTL for short debugging links. Early teletypewriters used current loops.

It was one of the earliest computer communication devices, used to attach teletypewriters for an operator console. It was also an early hardware system for the Internet.

A UART is usually an individual (or part of an) integrated circuit (IC) used for serial communications over a computer or peripheral device serial port. One or more UART peripherals are commonly integrated in microcontroller chips. Specialised UARTs are used for automobiles, smart cards and SIMs.

A related device, the universal synchronous and asynchronous receiver-transmitter (USART) also supports synchronous operation.

Transmitting and receiving serial data

A UART contains those following components:

 a clock generator, usually a multiple of the bit rate to allow sampling in the middle of a bit period
 input and output shift registers, along with the transmit/receive or FIFO buffers
 transmit/receive control
 read/write control logic

The universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART) takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete bytes. Each UART contains a shift register, which is the fundamental method of conversion between serial and parallel forms. Serial transmission of digital information (bits) through a single wire or other medium is less costly than parallel transmission through multiple wires.

The UART usually does not directly generate or receive the external signals used between different items of equipment. Separate interface devices are used to convert the logic level signals of the UART to and from the external signaling levels, which may be standardized voltage levels, current levels, or other signals.

Communication may be 3 modes:
 simplex (in one direction only, with no provision for the receiving device to send information back to the transmitting device)
 full duplex (both devices send and receive at the same time)
 half duplex (devices take turns transmitting and receiving)

For UART to work the following settings need to be the same on both the transmitting and receiving side:

 Voltage level
 Baud Rate
 Parity bit
 Data bits size
 Stop bits size
 Flow Control

For the voltage level, 2 UART modules work well when they both have the same voltage level, e.g 3V-3V between the 2 UART modules. To use 2 UART modules at different voltage levels, a level switch circuit needs to be added externally.

Data framing

A UART frame consists of 5 elements:
 Idle (logic high (1))
 Start bit (logic low (0))
 Data bits
 Parity bit
 Stop (logic high (1))

In the most common settings of 8 data bits, no parity and 1 stop bit (aka 8N1), the protocol efficiency is 80%. For comparison, Ethernet's protocol efficiency when using maximum throughput frames with payload of 1500 bytes is up to 95% and up to 99% with 9000 byte jumbo frames. However due to Ethernet's protocol overhead and minimum payload size of 42 bytes, if small messages of one or a few bytes are to be sent, Ethernet's protocol efficiency drops much lower than the UART's 8N1 constant efficiency of 80%.

The idle, no data state is high-voltage, or powered. This is a historic legacy from telegraphy, in which the line is held high to show that the line and transmitter are not damaged.

Each character is framed as a logic low start bit, data bits, possibly a parity bit and one or more stop bits. In most applications the least significant data bit (the one on the left in this diagram) is transmitted first, but there are exceptions (such as the IBM 2741 printing terminal).

Start bit
The start bit signals to the receiver that a new character is coming.

Data bit
The next five to nine bits, depending on the code set employed, represent the character.

Parity bit
If a parity bit is used, it would be placed after all of the data bits.

The parity bit is a way for the receiving UART to tell if any data has changed during transmission.

Stop bit
The next one or two bits are always in the mark (logic high, i.e., '1') condition and called the stop bit(s). They signal to the receiver that the character is complete. Since the start bit is logic low (0) and the stop bit is logic high (1) there are always at least two guaranteed signal changes between characters.

If the line is held in the logic low condition for longer than a character time, this is a break condition that can be detected by the UART.

Receiver
All operations of the UART hardware are controlled by an internal clock signal which runs at a multiple of the data rate, typically 8 or 16 times the bit rate. The receiver tests the state of the incoming signal on each clock pulse, looking for the beginning of the start bit. If the apparent start bit lasts at least one-half of the bit time, it is valid and signals the start of a new character. If not, it is considered a spurious pulse and is ignored. After waiting a further bit time, the state of the line is again sampled and the resulting level clocked into a shift register. After the required number of bit periods for the character length (5 to 8 bits, typically) have elapsed, the contents of the shift register are made available (in parallel fashion) to the receiving system. The UART will set a flag indicating new data is available, and may also generate a processor interrupt to request that the host processor transfers the received data.

Communicating UARTs have no shared timing system apart from the communication signal. Typically, UARTs resynchronize their internal clocks on each change of the data line that is not considered a spurious pulse. Obtaining timing information in this manner, they reliably receive when the transmitter is sending at a slightly different speed than it should. Simplistic UARTs do not do this; instead they resynchronize on the falling edge of the start bit only, and then read the center of each expected data bit, and this system works if the broadcast data rate is accurate enough to allow the stop bits to be sampled reliably.

It is a standard feature for a UART to store the most recent character while receiving the next. This "double buffering" gives a receiving computer an entire character transmission time to fetch a received character. Many UARTs have a small first-in, first-out (FIFO) buffer memory between the receiver shift register and the host system interface. This allows the host processor even more time to handle an interrupt from the UART and prevents loss of received data at high rates.

Transmitter
Transmission operation is simpler as the timing does not have to be determined from the line state, nor is it bound to any fixed timing intervals. As soon as the sending system deposits a character in the shift register (after completion of the previous character), the UART generates a start bit, shifts the required number of data bits out to the line, generates and sends the parity bit (if used), and sends the stop bits. Since full-duplex operation requires characters to be sent and received at the same time, UARTs use two different shift registers for transmitted and received characters. High performance UARTs could contain a transmit FIFO (first in first out) buffer to allow a CPU or DMA controller to deposit multiple characters in a burst into the FIFO rather than have to deposit one character at a time into the shift register. Since transmission of a single or multiple characters may take a long time relative to CPU speeds, a UART maintains a flag showing busy status so that the host system knows if there is at least one character in the transmit buffer or shift register; "ready for next character(s)" may also be signaled with an interrupt.

Application
Transmitting and receiving UARTs must be set for the same bit speed, character length, parity, and stop bits for proper operation. The receiving UART may detect some mismatched settings and set a "framing error" flag bit for the host system; in exceptional cases, the receiving UART will produce an erratic stream of mutilated characters and transfer them to the host system.

Typical serial ports used with personal computers connected to modems use eight data bits, no parity, and one stop bit; for this configuration, the number of ASCII characters per second equals the bit rate divided by 10.

Some very low-cost home computers or embedded systems dispense with a UART and use the CPU to sample the state of an input port or directly manipulate an output port for data transmission. While very CPU-intensive (since the CPU timing is critical), the UART chip can thus be omitted, saving money and space. The technique is known as bit-banging.

History
Some early telegraph schemes used variable-length pulses (as in Morse code) and rotating clockwork mechanisms to transmit alphabetic characters. The first serial communication devices (with fixed-length pulses) were rotating mechanical switches (commutators). Various character codes using 5, 6, 7, or 8 data bits became common in teleprinters and later as computer peripherals. The teletypewriter made an excellent general-purpose I/O device for a small computer.

Gordon Bell of DEC designed the first UART, occupying an entire circuit board called a line unit, for the PDP series of computers beginning with the PDP-1.
According to Bell, the main innovation of the UART was its use of sampling to convert the signal into the digital domain, allowing more reliable timing than previous circuits that used analog timing devices with manually adjusted potentiometers. To reduce the cost of wiring, backplane and other components, these computers also pioneered flow control using XON and XOFF characters rather than hardware wires.

DEC condensed the line unit design into an early single-chip UART for their own use. Western Digital developed this into the first widely available single-chip UART, the WD1402A, around 1971. This was an early example of a medium-scale integrated circuit. Another popular chip was the SCN2651 from the Signetics 2650 family.

An example of an early 1980s UART was the National Semiconductor 8250 used in the original IBM PC's Asynchronous Communications Adapter card. In the 1990s, newer UARTs were developed with on-chip buffers. This allowed higher transmission speed without data loss and without requiring such frequent attention from the computer. For example, the popular National Semiconductor 16550 has a 16-byte FIFO, and spawned many variants, including the 16C550, 16C650, 16C750, and 16C850.

Depending on the manufacturer, different terms are used to identify devices that perform the UART functions. Intel called their 8251 device a "Programmable Communication Interface". MOS Technology 6551 was known under the name "Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter" (ACIA). The term "Serial Communications Interface" (SCI) was first used at Motorola around 1975 to refer to their start-stop asynchronous serial interface device, which others were calling a UART. Zilog manufactured a number of Serial Communication Controllers or SCCs.

Starting in the 2000s, most IBM PC compatible computers removed their external RS-232 COM ports and used USB ports that can send data faster. For users who still need RS-232 serial ports, external USB-to-UART bridges are now commonly used. They combine the hardware cables and a chip to do the USB and UART conversion. Cypress Semiconductor and FTDI are two of the significant commercial suppliers of these chips. Although RS-232 ports are no longer available to users on the outside of most computers, many internal processors and microprocessors have UARTs built into their chips to give hardware designers the ability to interface with other chips or devices that use RS-232 or RS-485 for communication.

Special transceiver conditions

Overrun error
An overrun error occurs when the receiver cannot process the character that just came in before the next one arrives. Various devices have different amounts of buffer space to hold received characters. The CPU or DMA controller must service the UART in order to remove characters from the input buffer. If the CPU or DMA controller does not service the UART quickly enough and the buffer becomes full, an overrun error will occur, and incoming characters will be lost.

Underrun error
An underrun error occurs when the UART transmitter has completed sending a character and the transmit buffer is empty. In asynchronous modes this is treated as an indication that no data remains to be transmitted, rather than an error, since additional stop bits can be appended. This error indication is commonly found in USARTs, since an underrun is more serious in synchronous systems.

Framing error
A UART will detect a framing error when it does not see a "stop" bit at the expected "stop" bit time. As the "start" bit is used to identify the beginning of an incoming character, its timing is a reference for the remaining bits. If the data line is not in the expected state (high) when the "stop" bit is expected (according to the number of data and parity bits for which the UART is set), the UART will signal a framing error. A "break" condition on the line is also signaled as a framing error.

Parity error
A parity error occurs when the parity of the number of one-bits disagrees with that specified by the parity bit. Parity checking is often used for the detection of transmission errors. Use of a parity bit is optional, so this error will only occur if parity-checking has been enabled.

Break condition
A break condition occurs when the receiver input is at the "space" (logic low, i.e., '0') level for longer than some duration of time, typically, for more than a character time. This is not necessarily an error, but appears to the receiver as a character of all zero-bits with a framing error.

The term "break" derives from current loop signaling, which was the traditional signaling used for teletypewriters. The "spacing" condition of a current loop line is indicated by no current flowing, and a very long period of no current flowing is often caused by a break or other fault in the line. Some equipment will deliberately transmit the "space" level for longer than a character as an attention signal. When signaling rates are mismatched, no meaningful characters can be sent, but a long "break" signal can be a useful way to get the attention of a mismatched receiver to do something (such as resetting itself). Computer systems can use the long "break" level as a request to change the signaling rate, to support dial-in access at multiple signaling rates. The DMX512 protocol uses the break condition to signal the start of a new packet.

UART models
A dual UART, or DUART, combines two UARTs into a single chip. Similarly, a quadruple UART or QUART, combines four UARTs into one package, such as the NXP 28L194. An octal UART or OCTART combines eight UARTs into one package, such as the Exar XR16L788 or the NXP SCC2698.

UART in modems
Modems for personal computers that plug into a motherboard slot must also include the UART function on the card. The original 8250 UART chip shipped with the IBM personal computer had a one character buffer for the receiver and the transmitter each, which meant that communications software performed poorly at speeds above 9600 bit/s, especially if operating under a multitasking system or if handling interrupts from disk controllers. High-speed modems used UARTs that were compatible with the original chip but which included additional FIFO buffers, giving software additional time to respond to incoming data.

A look at the performance requirements at high bit rates shows why the 16-, 32-, 64- or 128-byte FIFO is a necessity. The Microsoft specification for a DOS system requires that interrupts not be disabled for more than 1 millisecond at a time. Some hard disk drives and video controllers violate this specification. 9600 bit/s will deliver a character approximately every millisecond, so a 1-byte FIFO should be sufficient at this rate on a DOS system which meets the maximum interrupt disable timing. Rates above this may receive a new character before the old one has been fetched, and thus the old character will be lost. This is referred to as an overrun error and results in one or more lost characters.

A 16-byte FIFO allows up to 16 characters to be received before the computer has to service the interrupt. This increases the maximum bit rate the computer can process reliably from 9600 to 153,000 bit/s if it has a 1 millisecond interrupt dead time. A 32-byte FIFO increases the maximum rate to over 300,000 bit/s. A second benefit to having a FIFO is that the computer only has to service about 8 to 12% as many interrupts, allowing more CPU time for updating the screen, or doing other chores. Thus the computer's responses will improve as well.

Emulation

Since the UART's communication protocol is simple, it can be emulated by bit banging GPIO pins in software on modern microcontrollers (e.g. Arduino or Teensy), in a hardware description language on FPGAs (e.g. Verilog), or on programmable I/O state machines (e.g. Raspberry Pi Pico's PIO or NXP's FlexIO).

See also
 Automatic baud rate detection
 Baud
 Bit rate
 Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous signalling
 Crystal oscillator frequencies
 MIDI
 Synchronous serial communication

References

Further reading
 Serial Port Complete: COM Ports, USB Virtual COM Ports, and Ports for Embedded Systems; 2nd Edition; Jan Axelson; Lakeview Research; 380 pages; 2007; .
 Serial Port Complete: Programming and Circuits for RS-232 and RS-485 Links and Networks; 1st Edition; Jan Axelson; Lakeview Research; 306 pages; 1998; .
 Serial port and Microcontrollers: Principles, Circuits, and Source Codes; 1st Edition; Grzegorz Niemirowski; CreateSpace; 414 pages; 2013; .
 Serial Programming (Wikibook).

External links
 FreeBSD Serial and UART Tutorial, includes standard signal definitions, history of UART ICs, and pinout for commonly used DB25 connector.
 UART Tutorial for Robotics, contains many practical examples.

Data transmission

pt:USART

Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter


Rock and roll is a form of music that developed in the 1950s and 1960s. Rock and roll combines many kinds of music from the United States, such as country music, folk music, gospel music, work, blues and jazz.

Rock and roll developed in the early 1950s from a kind of music called rhythm and blues performed by black singers and musicians. At first, this music was popular only with African-Americans. In the later 1950s and in the 1960s, rock and roll became popular across the United States and in Europe.

History of rock and roll

1950s: Rockabilly

During the early 1950s, the popularity of rhythm and blues music spread. It became very popular among young white people. They listened to this music on radio stations that broadcast across the country late at night. Some teenagers began buying rhythm and blues records as a form of rebellion.

This music was very different from the music that was popular with most of their parents. The music was exciting, and it had a very strong rhythm and beat. Some of the songs had words which suggested sexual themes. In other cases, the singers made sexually suggestive gestures or movements while they were singing. Some adults strongly objected to rhythm and blues music. They did not think young people should listen to it.

Alan Freed had a radio show in Cleveland, Ohio in the early 1950s. He is said to be the first person to use the expression "rock and roll" to describe rhythm and blues music. Alan Freed was one of the first to play rock and roll music on his radio show, and he organized the first rock and roll concert in Cleveland in 1952.

Songs by black performers like Jimmy Hendrix and Little Richard soon became popular with teenagers. These singers recorded their records in the southern city of New Orleans, Louisiana.

Some early rock and roll music was created in the southern United States city of Memphis, Tennessee. In Memphis, a white record producer called Sam Phillips produced records by local black musicians. One day, an eighteen-year-old truck driver came to his studio to record a song for his mother. The young man was Elvis Presley. Phillips produced Presley's first real record in 1954, a song called "That's All Right."

Bill Haley and his Comets recorded "Rock Around the Clock" in 1954. It was not popular at first. Then it was used in a movie about rebellious teenagers, called "The Blackboard Jungle". The movie caused a lot of debate on the origin of rock and roll. It also made the song a huge hit. "Rock Around the Clock" became a song of teenage rebellion. The song was recorded in April, Elvis' "That's All Right" was recorded in July. However, Cecil's Grant's 'We're Gonna Rock' recorded in mid 1950 is a song that many people have forgotten that was an early influence on rock n roll. Its lyrics and music were like those that would be in later songs. The drums and bass guitar would be similar to rock and roll songs that would be made later.

Many other rock and roll singers became popular in the 1950s. They included Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley. Each performer created his own kind of rock and roll. Chuck Berry's music was a mixture of country and rhythm and blues. In 1955, his song "Maybellene" was one of the most popular songs in the country.

Ritchie Valens, Buddy Holly, and "Big Bopper" all died in a plane crash in Iowa on 3 February 1959, in an event that would become known as The Day the Music Died.

Before Bill Haley, grant goatbeurry recorded "Move It On Over" in 1947, however similar version of the song was recorded by blues artist Jim Jackson called "Kansas City Blues". The melody is similar to both "Move It On" and "Rock Around Clock", but latter has different tonal subtleties and chords.

1960s: From Motown to Folk Rock

Motown: African-American popular music
In the 1960s, black music and musicians became recognized as an important part of the music industry in America. This was because a company in Detroit, Michigan, called Motown Records that produced some of the most popular songs in American music. Berry Gordy started Motown Records. He presented "black" music in a way that both black people and white people would like. One of Motown's most successful groups was the Supremes, led by Diana Ross. One of their hits was "Come See About Me".

Surf music
A different kind of rock and roll music called surf music was being made in Southern California. Five young men from Los Angeles formed a group called the Beach Boys. Brian Wilson wrote, performed, and produced the group's records. The Beach Boys' songs had complex music and simple words. The words were about the local teenage culture. The group sang about riding surfboards on the ocean waves. One of their most popular songs was "Surfin' USA," which used the same musical track as Chuck Berry's "Sweet Little Sixteen."

Folk rock
In the 1960s, rock and roll music began to change. The words became as important as the music. Bob Dylan began writing folk rock songs that many young people considered to be poetry. Dylan was influenced by folk singers and songwriters like Woody Guthrie. Dylan's early songs were about serious social issues. He wrote about war and racial injustice. Some of his songs were used as protest songs for the anti-war and civil rights movements in America. Later, Dylan wrote more personal songs. One of his most popular songs was "Mister Tambourine Man," which many people thought was a song about drug use.

In 1964, a new rock and roll group from England called The Beatles visited the United States. The Beatles were very popular. They completely shaped the sixties pop era along with the Rolling Stones. They were icons, and still to this day are still considered icons.

1970s: From Psychedelic Rock to Punk and Disco

Rock and Psychedelic Rock
By the 1970s, rock and roll became "rock". In the 1970s, rock bands such as Led Zeppelin, Aerosmith and the Rolling Stones played huge, loud concerts in outdoor stadiums. Rock music from the 1970s was usually louder and harder than the rock and roll from the 1950s.

In the early 1970s, many rock bands played psychedelic rock, a type of rock music which had words that described the use of legal drugs. Psychedelic rock described the experiences of taking illegal drugs such as marijuana and LSD and often encouraged people to take illegal drugs. Psychedelic rock bands included Big Brother & the Holding Company, Jefferson Airplane, The Grateful Dead, Jimi Hendrix, The Byrds, Pink Floyd, and The Doors.

Progressive rock
Another type of rock music from the 1970s was progressive rock. Progressive rock bands such as Pink Floyd and The Moody Blues played music that was more complex. Some progressive rock bands used strange instruments, or created music that sounded weird.
Other progressive rock bands include: Electric Light Orchestra, Pavlov's Dog, King Crimson, Caravan, Jethro Tull, Genesis, Gentle Giant, The Nice, Yes, Gong, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Soft Machine, Steve Hillage, Barclay James Harvest, Magma, Camel, Can, Rush and Faust.

Heavy metal
In the 1970s, a harder form of rock music called "heavy metal" was invented. Bands such as Cream and Led Zeppelin played loud rock music based on blues music. Other bands such Deep Purple and Black Sabbath played even louder, harder heavy metal rock music.

Disco
In the late 1970s, groups such as Donna Summer, K.C. and the Sunshine Band, Barry White, Gloria Gaynor, and CHIC, developed a pop music style called disco. Disco was dance music with a strong beat. A popular disco band was The Bee Gees, who wrote the music for the movie Saturday Night Fever.

Punk rock
Another rock music style from the 1970s was punk rock. Punk rock was crude, loud, simple music. Many punk rock songs were rude or used bad words. Punk rock musicians often dressed in ripped or torn clothes, leather jackets, and black leather boots. Punk rock musicians sometimes had strange hairstyles, such as hair "spiked" with hair gel or shaved off. Well-known punk rock bands from Britain were the Sex Pistols and The Clash. Well-known punk musicians in the United States were the Ramones, Patti Smith, Blondie  and Black Flag.

New wave
In the late 1970s, another type of rock called new wave became popular. Bands such as INXS and Midnight Oil from Australia became popular. In the United States, New Wave bands such as Talking Heads and Devo played. In the 1980s, new wave bands such as Duran Duran, A Flock of Seagulls, Psychedelic Furs, and the Eurythmics were popular. These bands used the synthesizer keyboard a lot in their songs.

1980s

Glam metal
In the 1980s, a new type of rock music was invented, called glam metal. Glam metal rock bands mixed pop music with heavy metal music. Glam metal bands such as Mötley Crüe, W.A.S.P. and Ratt became popular. Glam metal rock bands had long hair and the men wore make up and leather pants and boots. Many glam metal songs were about sex, illegal drug use, and drinking alcohol. In the late 1980s, groups such as Guns N' Roses were very successful.

Alternative music
Another rock music trend from the 1980s was alternative music. Bands such as R.E.M., Sonic Youth, The Smiths, Pixies, Hüsker Dü, The Cure, and others were popular with teens and young adults. The most immediate type of alternative music was "grunge," a combination of punk, rock and metal. Proponents of grunge included Nirvana, Alice in Chains, Soundgarden and Pearl Jam with themes of sadness and loneliness.

Related pages
 Rockabilly, an early form of Rock and Roll from the 1950s
 New wave, a form of pop music from the late 1970s
 Disco, a popular dance music style of music from the 1970s
 Punk rock, a form of rebellious pop music from the late 1970s
 Heavy metal music, a loud, aggressive form of rock from the 1970s and 1980s. It continued in the 1990s and 2000s.
 Hardcore punk, a louder, more aggressive form of punk rock, from the 1980s
 Alternative rock, a pop-rock style from the 1980s
 Grunge, a hard rock style from the 1990s
 Pop-punk, a popular music from the 1990s which blends pop music with punk rock
 Hip-hop, a popular music from the 1990s and 2000s

Sources

Parts of the above article reused and rewrote public domain material provided by Voice of America Special English website.

Other websites

 Visitors to America can learn more at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum in Cleveland, Ohio. Or visit, on the Internet --- http://www.rockhall.com/

African-American history
Rock music

Rock and roll


Réunion () is an island of France. It is also a region of France and an overseas department of France, meaning France owns the island nation. It is in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar, about 200 km (125 miles) southwest of Mauritius. Its capital is Saint-Denis. The highest point in La Reunion is La piton des neiges. The island is also famous for its black beaches, even though people think that there are white beaches. The island is 63 kilometres (39 mi) long; 45 kilometres (28 mi) wide; and covers 2,512 square kilometres (970 sq mi). It is similar to the island Hawaii as both are above hotspots in the Earth's crust.

The Piton de la Fournaise, a shield volcano on the eastern end of Réunion Island, rises more than 2,631 metres (8,632 ft) above sea level and is sometimes called a sister to Hawaiian volcanoes because of the similarity of climate and volcanic nature. It has erupted more than 100 times since 1640 and is under constant monitoring. It most recently erupted on 2 January 2010. Before that, the most noticeable was during April 2007, when the lava flow was estimated at 3,000,000 cubic metres (3,900,000 cu yd) per day.  The Piton de la Fournaise is created by a hotspot volcano, which also created the Piton des Neiges and the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues.

The Piton des Neiges volcano, the highest point on the island at 3,070 metres (10,070 ft) above sea level, is northwest of the Piton de la Fournaise. Collapsed calderas and canyons are southwest of the mountain. Like Kohala on the Big Island of Hawaii, the Piton des Neiges is an extinct volcano. Despite its name, snow (French: neige) practically never falls on the summit.

Other websites
 Facts about Reunion
 Pictures of Reunion Island

Réunion


Felix von Weingartner (born 2 June 1863; died Winterthur, 7 May 1942) was an Austrian conductor, composer and pianist. He is remembered today mainly as a conductor, but he also composed many works.

Life
Weingartner was born in Zara, Dalmatia, which today is called Zadar in Croatia. His parents were Austrian. They were from a noble family. Felix had the title Edler von Münzberg. The family moved to Graz in 1868. His father died that same year. In 1881 he went to Leipzig to study philosophy, but soon spent all his time on music. He started his studies at the Conservatory in 1883. At the same time he studied with the great composer and pianist Franz Liszt in Weimar. Liszt helped him to get his first opera performed. In the same year, 1884, he became the director of the Königsberg Opera. He got conducting jobs in Danzig, then in Hamburg and in Mannheim. From 1891 he was Kapellmeister of the Royal Opera and conductor of symphony concerts in Berlin. Then he gave up that job and went to live in Munich.

In 1902, at the Festival of Mainz, Weingartner conducted all the symphonies of Beethoven. He was becoming famous in Europe as well as in the USA and in South America. From 1908 to 1911 he was the main conductor of the Vienna Hofoper, following on from Gustav Mahler. He kept the job of conductor of the Vienna Philharmonic until 1927. From 1912 he was again Kapellmeister in Hamburg, but in 1914 he went to Darmstadt. In 1919-20 he was conductor of the Vienna Volksoper. In 1920 he was Professor of the Franz Liszt Academy in Budapest. From 1927 to 1934 he was conductor of the Sinfonieorchester Basel. He gave his last concert in London in 1940 and died in Winterthur, Switzerland two years later.

Weingartner was married five times.

His reputation
Weingartner thought of himself as a composer just as much as a conductor. However, it is as a conductor that he is remembered today. His compositions are hardly ever played now. He composed in a late-Romantic style, and he was an influence on the composer Erich Korngold. He is best remembered today as one of the great conductors of classical music, who conducted in a precise way without exaggerated effects. He wrote books about music including one about conducting.

References
New Groves Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980.

1863 births
1942 deaths
20th-century composers
Austrian pianists
Austrian composers
Austrian conductors
Romantic composers
Austrian nobility

Felix Weingartner


Headquarters is a name given to the main building of an organization where most of its functions are done. All large companies have headquarters which control the business. A large non-governmental organization also has a headquarter from where its activities are controlled. The term is also used regarding military organizations.

Administrative buildings

Headquarters


Bogomilism (Bulgarian: ; Macedonian: ; ) was a Christian neo-Gnostic or dualist sect founded in the First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Peter I in the 10th century. It most probably arose in the region of Kutmichevitsa, today part of the region of Macedonia.

The Bogomils called for a return to what they considered to be early spiritual teaching, rejecting the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Their primary political tendencies were resistance to the state and church authorities. This helped the movement spread quickly in the Balkans, gradually expanding throughout the Byzantine Empire and later reaching Kievan Rus', Bosnia (Bosnian Church), Dalmatia, Serbia, Italy, and France (Cathars).

The Bogomils were dualists or Gnostics in that they believed in a world within the body and a world outside the body. They did not use the Christian cross, nor build churches, as they revered their gifted form and considered their body to be the temple. This gave rise to many forms of practice to cleanse oneself through purging, fasting, celebrating and dancing.

Etymology
The term Bogomil in free translation means "dear to God", and is a compound of the Slavic words for "god" (Common Slavic: *bogъ) and "dear" (Common Slavic: *milъ). It may be also a translation of the Greek name Theophilos, literally "dear to God; loved by the gods," from theos "god" + philos "loved, beloved". It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that movement, the priest Bogomil, or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the sect itself. The word is an Old Church Slavonic calque of Massaliani, the Syriac name of the sect corresponding to the Greek Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Messalians in Greek and Slavonic documents from the 12th-14th centuries.

The members are referred to as Babuni in Church Slavonic documents, which originally meant "superstition; superstitious person" (Common Slavic: *babonъ, *babunъ *babona). Toponyms which retain the name include the river Babuna, the mountain Babuna, the Bogomila Waterfall and village Bogomila, all in the region of Azot, today in central North Macedonia, suggesting that the movement was very active in the region.

Sources

Much of their literature has been lost or destroyed by the contemporary Christian Churches. The earliest description of the Bogomils is in a letter from Patriarch Theophylact of Bulgaria to Peter I of Bulgaria. The main source of doctrinal information is the work of Euthymius Zigabenus, who says that they believe that God created man's soul but matter was the invention of Satan, God's older son, who in seducing Eve lost his creative power. Concerning the Bogomils, something can be gathered from the polemic Against the Newly-Appeared Heresy of the Bogomils written in Slavonic by Cosmas the Priest, a 10th-century Bulgarian official. The old Slavonic lists of forbidden books of the 15th and 16th century also give us a clue to the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils employed to carry on their teachings. Much may also be learned from the doctrines of the numerous variations of Bogomilism which spread in Medieval Kievan Rus' after the 11th century.

History

Paulicians

One of the earliest Christian dualist sects, Marcionism, originated in Armenia (in the eastern part of present Turkey). The church Marcion himself established appeared to die out around the 5th century, although similarities between Marcionism and Paulicianism, a sect in the same geographical area, indicate that Marcionist elements may have survived. Paulicianism began in the mid-7th century, when Constantine of Mananalis, basing his message solely on his personal interpretation of the New Testament, began to teach that there were two gods: a good god who had made men's souls, and an evil god who had created the entire physical universe including the human body. His followers, who became known as Paulicians, were not marked by extreme deviance in lifestyle compared to contemporaries, despite their belief that the world was evil, and were renowned as good fighting men.

However, it is not certain that the Paulicians were Dualistic, as in the Key of Truth it is said that: "The Paulicians are not dualists in any other sense than the New Testament is itself dualistic. Satan is simply the adversary of man and God".

In 970 the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes transplanted 200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe and settled them in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis (today's Plovdiv, Bulgaria). Under Byzantine and then later Ottoman rule, the Armenian Paulicians lived in relative safety in their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and further northward. Linguistically, they were assimilated into the Bulgarians, by whom they were called pavlikiani (the Byzantine Greek word for Paulician). In 1650, the Roman Catholic Church gathered them into its fold. Fourteen villages near Nicopolis, in Moesia, embraced Catholicism, as well as the villages around Philippopolis. A colony of Paulicians in the Wallachian village of  near Bucharest also followed the example of their brethren across the Danube.

Origins
The Gnostic social-religious movement and doctrine originated in the time of Peter I of Bulgaria (927–969), alleged in the modern day to be a reaction against state and clerical oppression of the Byzantine church. In spite of all measures of repression, it remained strong and popular until the fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in the end of the 14th century. Bogomilism was an outcome of many factors that had arisen in the beginning of the 10th century, most probably in the region of Macedonia.  It was also strongly influenced by the Paulicians who had been driven out of Armenia.

Spread of Bogomilism in the Balkans

Slav peasantry in parts of Bulgaria were very likely the first to come into in closer contact with Bogomilism and the young Bulgarian church was aware of the danger. Pope Nicholas I warns Boris I of the danger of false teachings but he was not specific about heresy as such. Bogomilism was a native Slavic sect from the middle of the 10th century began to flourish while the Theophylact of Constantinople warned Peter I against this new heresy.
The Bogomils spread westwards and settled in Serbia, where they were to be known as Babuns (Babuni). At the end of the 12th century Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja and the Serbian council deemed Bogomilism a heresy, and expelled them from the country. Large numbers, the majority of whom were of Vlach origin, took refuge in Bosnia and Dalmatia where they were known under the name of Patarenes (Patareni).

In the time of Samuel, Bogomilism spread into Serbia and Bosnia. The most active area became west Bosnia, centred on the valley of the River Bosna.  In the province of Hum (modern Herzegovina) the Bogomils were also strong, in the cities of Split and Trogir Bogomils were numerous but later they took refuge in Bosnia.
Providing refuge to those labeled heretics, including Bogomils, was a recurrent pretext for Hungarian rulers to declare crusades against Bosnia and extend their influence in the region. A first Hungarian complaint to the Pope was averted by the public abjuration of the Bosnian ruler Ban Kulin, a close relative of Stefan Nemanja, in 1203. A second Hungarian crusade against Bosnia on the pretext of Bogomil heresy was launched in 1225, but failed. In 1254, rebelling against the Papal order to accept a Hungarian bishop, the Bosnian Church chose the schism. In the following centuries, the Bosnian Church and the heretic sect of the Bogomils came to be identified with each other, due to the scarcity of documents after the Ottoman conquest.

In 1203, Pope Innocent III, with the aid of the King of Hungary, forced an agreement of Kulin to acknowledge Papal authority and religion, but in practice this was ignored. On the death of Kulin in 1216 a mission was sent to convert Bosnia to Rome but failed. In 1234, the Catholic Bishop of Bosnia was removed by Pope Gregory IX for allowing heretical practices. In addition, Gregory called on the Hungarian king to crusade against the heretics. However, Bosnian nobles were able to expel the Hungarians.

In 1252, Pope Innocent IV decided to put Bosnia's bishop under the Hungarian Kalocsa jurisdiction. Such decision provoked the schism of the Bosnian Christians, who refused to submit to the Hungarians and broke off their relations with Rome. In that way, an autonomous Bosnian Church came into being, in which some later saw a Bogomil or Cathar Church, while in reality no trace of Bogomilism, Catharism or dualism can be found in the original documents of the Bosnian Christians.

It was not until Pope Nicholas' Bull "Prae cunctis" in 1291 that the Dominican-led inquisition was imposed on Bosnia. The Inquisition reported of the existence of a dualist sect in Bosnia in the late 15th century and called them "Bosnian heretics", but this sect was most likely not the same as the Bosnian Church.

Bogomilism was eradicated in Bulgaria, Rascia (a Serbian medieval state) and Byzantium in the 13th century, but some smaller elements survived in Rascia's principality of Hum (present day Herzegovina) and Bosnia by embracing eastern tradition of the Bosnian church until the Ottoman Empire gained control of the region in 1463. Some scholars, who sought certain ideological backgrounds and justifications for their political narratives, argue that both Catholics and Orthodox persecuted the Bogomils as heretics and according to them, the pressures drew Bosnia to Bogomilism. It has purportedly been said that, with the introduction of Ottoman rule, Bosnians were often more likely to convert to Islam since some of them were not adherents of either the Roman Catholic or Serb Orthodox churches. However, these claims have been rejected by some as an anachronism from the Austro-Hungarian era.

From Bosnia, their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The Hungarians undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but towards the close of the 15th century, the conquest of that country by the Turks put an end to their persecution. Few or no remnants of Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia. The Ritual in Slavonic written by the Bosnian Radoslav, and published in vol. xv. of the Starine of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, shows great resemblance to the Cathar ritual published by Cunitz, 1853.

There are still over ten thousand Banat Bulgarians in Banat today in the villages of Dudeştii Vechi, Vinga, Breştea and also in the city of Timișoara, with a few in Arad; however, they no longer practice Bogomilism, having converted to Roman Catholicism. There are also a few villages of Paulicians in the Serbian part of Banat, especially the villages of Ivanovo and Belo Blato, near Pančevo.

Social factors
The gradual Christianization of the Bulgarian population, the fact that the service was initially practiced in Greek, which only the elite knew, resulted in a low level of understanding of the religion among the peasantry. Due to the constant wars during the time of Tsar Simeon I, the lands near the Byzantine border (Thrace) were devastated, and the people living there were left without occupation. The constant change of authority over these lands, and the higher taxes during the time of Tsar Peter I, gave birth to a great social discontent at the beginning of the 10th century. Moreover, the corruption of the church as an institution led to grave disappointment among its recently converted flock.

Religious factors
The existence of older Christian heresies in the Bulgarian lands (Manichaeism and Paulicianism), which were considered very dualistic, influenced the Bogomil movement. Manichaeism's origin is related to Zoroastrianism; that is why Bogomilism is sometimes indirectly connected to Zoroastrianism in the sense of its duality.

Connections to the royal court
Most probably, as Samuil of Bulgaria revolted against the Byzantine Empire, he relied on the popular support of the movement. There are no sources of Bogomil persecution during his reign (976–1014).

Doctrine

From the imperfect and conflicting data that is available, one positive result can be gathered that the Bogomils were gnostics, adoptionists and dualists.

Their dualism was initially moderate (or "monarchian"): according to their teachings, God created and rules the spiritual part of the world, and Satan the material, but Satan is ultimately inferior to God and his side by virtue of being God's son. However, Bogomils were not quite free from the absolute dualism of Manichaeism and Paulicianism, and over time adopted an absolute position too, believing God and Satan as eternal opponents, similar to the one maintained by the posterior Cathars.

Their adoptionist teaching apparently came from Paul of Samosata (though at a later period the name of Paul was believed to be that of the Apostle). They rejected the Christianity of the Orthodox churches, though did not accept the docetic teaching of some of the other gnostic sects. They also opposed established forms of government and church, alike to later Christian anarchist beliefs.

In the Bogomil and Cathar text The Secret Supper Jesus calls God his father and it says that Mary received Jesus through the Holy Spirit.

Bogomils have been accused of believing that John the Baptist comes from Satan in the Book of Boril.

Supporters of the Baptist successionism theory argue that allegations of Bogomil doctrines are largely false, due to most sources being hostile.

Source texts
Possible source texts for Bogomil doctrine include:

 The Bulgarian priest Jeremiah's "The Story of the Cross-tree" and "The Prayer Against Fever"
 Book of the Secret Supper, which was wrongly described by inquisitors as similar to the Apocryphon of John
 Vision of Isaiah (according to Euthymius Zigabenus)

Bogomils accepted the four Gospels, fourteen Epistles of Paul, the three Epistles of John, James, Jude, and an Epistle to the Laodiceans, which they professed to have. They sowed the seeds of a rich, popular religious literature in the East as well as the West. The Historiated Bible, the Letter from Heaven, the Wanderings through Heaven and Hell, the numerous Adam and Cross legends, the religious poems of the "Kalēki perehozhie" and other similar productions owe their dissemination to a large extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their successors in other lands. The Bogomils also made use of many apocryphal writings, such as Apocalypse of Abraham, 2 Enoch, and the Vision of Isaiah.

Cosmology
In their original Monarchian dualist story, Bogomils taught that God had two sons, the elder Satanail and the younger Michael. Satanail rebelled against the father and became an evil spirit. He created the lower heavens and the Earth and tried in vain to create man, though in the end he had to appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation, Adam was allowed to till the ground on condition that he sold himself and his posterity to the owner of the Earth, Satanail.

In order to free Adam and his offspring, Michael was sent in the form of a man, becoming identified with Jesus Christ, and was "elected" by God after the baptism in the Jordan. When the Holy Ghost appeared in the shape of the dove, Jesus received power to break the covenant in the form of a clay tablet (hierographon) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now become the angel Michael in a human form, and as such he vanquished Satanail, and deprived him of the suffix il (meaning God), in which his power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into Satan. However, through Satan's machinations the crucifixion took place, and Satan was the originator of the whole Orthodox community with its churches, vestments, ceremonies, sacraments and fasts, with its monks and priests. This world being the work of Satan, the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its pleasure, though not so far as asceticism.

They held the "Lord's Prayer" in high respect as the most potent weapon against Satan, and had a number of conjurations against "evil spirits". Each community had its own twelve "apostles", and women could be raised to the rank of "elect". The Bogomils wore garments like those of mendicant friars and were known as enthusiastic missionaries, travelling far and wide to propagate their doctrines. Healing the sick and exorcising evil spirits, they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal literature along with some of the books of the Old Testament, deeply influencing the religious spirit of the nations and preparing them for the Reformation.

Christology and the Trinity
For Bogomils "the Logos was not the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, the Eternal Word incarnate, but merely the spoken word of God, shown in the oral teaching of Christ". Although Bogomils regarded themselves as "Trinitarian", anathemas against Bogomils (circa 1027) charge Bogomils with rejection of the Trinity. In the Bogomil and Cathar text "The Secret Supper" the book starts with: "In the name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, Amen."

Opposition to institutions and materialism
The Catholic Church considered Bogomilism a heresy due to the duality in the Bogomil cosmogony, wherein the earthly sinful corporeal life is a creation of Satan, an angel that was sent to Earth.

Karp Strigolnik, who in the 14th century preached the doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St. Paul had taught that simpleminded men should instruct one another; therefore they elected their "teachers" from among themselves to be their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. There is a tradition that the Bogomils taught that prayers were to be said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches. Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially appointed minister. The congregation were the "elect", and each member could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or "Chlist". Marriage was not a sacrament. Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays and Fridays, and they rejected monasticism. They declared Christ to be the Son of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and wine of the eucharist were not physically transformed into flesh and blood; that the last judgement would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the images and the cross were idols and the veneration of saints and relics idolatry.

These doctrines have survived in the great Russian sects, and can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the Bogomils. But in addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist origin, they held the Manichaean dualistic conception of the origin of the world. This has been partly preserved in some of their literary remains, and has taken deep root in the beliefs and traditions of Balkan nations with substantial Bogomil followings. The chief literature of all the heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of apocryphal Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books "which no orthodox dare read". Though these writings are mostly of the same origin as those from the older lists of apocryphal books, they underwent a modification at the hands of their Bogomil editors, so as to be useful for the propagation of their own specific doctrines.

In its most simple and attractive form—invested with the authority of the reputed holy author—their account of the creation of the world and of man, the origin of sin and redemption, the history of the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and wrong, heaven and hell, were embodied either in "Historiated Bibles" (Paleya) or in special dialogues held between Christ and his disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church who expounded these views in a simple manner adapted to the understanding of the people (Lucidaria).

Legacy

Link with later religious movements
The Bogomils were the connecting link between both Eastern and Western sects considered heretical. They were also the most active in disseminating "heretical" teachings in the Kievan Rus' and other European kingdoms. In the 12th and 13th century, the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Cathars" or as "Bulgari", i.e. Bulgarians (българи). In 1207 the Bulgarorum heresis is mentioned. In 1223 the, Albigenses are declared to be the local Bougres, and in the same period mention is made of the "Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of Bulgaria" (see also Nicetas, Bogomil bishop). Groups such as the Cathars, Patarenes, Waldenses, Anabaptists, and the Russian Strigolniki, and Spiritual Christians, have all, at different times, been either identified with the Bogomils or closely linked with them, despite several being unrelated and/or non-dualistic.

Considerable scholarly debate has arisen about the exact relationship between dualist groups that arose in different times and places across medieval Europe, questioning whether it was indeed a single movement or belief system which was spread from one region to the next, or if it was multiple movements which arose independently across Europe. Furthering this confusion is that many medieval sources themselves, such as the 13th century Papal Inquisition in France, would often simply assume that all dualistic groups were directly connected to previous movements, regardless of location.  Inquistors often described 13th century Cathars as a direct outgrowth of surviving Manichean dualists from previous centuries—though by the same logic, Inquisitors who encountered pagan religions on the edges of the Christian world (Such as those encountered in the Baltic Crusades or the missionary efforts in Ireland) would directly accuse non-Christians of worshiping "Apollo and Mercury", simply applying previous terms and rhetoric to new contexts in which they didn't accurately apply. Thus medieval scholarship is divided over whether the "Cathars" actually were an offshoot of the "Bogomils", or if the 13th century Inquisition itself simply mistook or conflated "Cathars" for "Bogomils", due to their known tendency for conflation and confusion.

In modern and popular culture
In Foucault's Pendulum, a novel by the Italian philosopher and writer Umberto Eco, the plot concerning a widespread secret and mystic conspiracy has its ground in the disappearance of the Bogomils after the fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire under the rule of the Ottoman Empire.

The Secret Book is a Macedonian feature film combining the detective, thriller and conspiracy fiction genres, based on a fictional story of the quest for the original Slavic language "Secret Book", written by the Bogomils in Macedonia and carried to Western Europe during the Middle Ages.

A French and consequently an English word emerged based on twisted perceptions of the Bogomils by the Catholic Church. The words "bouguer" and "buggery" emerged, by way of the word "bougre" in French, from the Latin Bulgarus (Bulgarian). "Buggery" first appears in English in 1330 with the sense "abominable heresy", though "bugger" in a sexual sense is not recorded until 1555. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology quotes a similar form—"bowgard" (and "bouguer"), but claims that the Bulgarians were heretics "as belonging to the Greek Church, sp. Albigensian". Webster's Third New International Dictionary gives the only meaning of the word "bugger" as sodomite, "from the adherence of the Bulgarians to the Eastern Church considered heretical".

Bogomil Cove on Rugged Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica, is named after Priest Bogomil.

The Bogomils make a significant part in the Thomas Pynchon novel Against the Day, when Cyprian Lakewood becomes a postulant and gives up his life of sodomitic servitude as a spy.

In Olga Tokarczuk's novel The Books of Jacob, the character Antoni Kossakowski (Moliwda) lives in a Bogomil aligned community.

See also
 Albigensian Crusade
 Constantine Chrysomalus
 Nada Miletić
 Novgorod Codex
 Restorationism
 Synod of Tarnovo (1211)

Citations

General and cited sources
 D. Angelov, Bogomilstvoto (Stara Zagora, 1995)
 L. P. Brockett, The Bogomils of Bulgaria and Bosnia: The Early Protestants of the East (s.l., 1879)
 J. Ivanov, Bogomilski knigi i legendi (Sofija, 1925). French translation by M. Ribeyrol, Livres et Légendes bogomiles (Paris, 1976).
 C. J. Jirecek, Geschichte d. Bulgaren (Prague, 1876), pp. 155, 174-175
 J. Meiers, Archbishop Ancient Order of Bogomil, of Americas'.
 D. Obolensky, The Bogomils: A Study in Balkan Neo-Manichaeism (Cambridge, 1948), reprint New York, 1978
 K. Papasov, Christen oder Ketzer – die Bogomilen (Stuttgart, 1983)
 S. Runciman, The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy (Cambridge, 1947)
 V. Sharenkoff, A Study of Manicheism in Bulgaria (New York, 1927).
 J. C. Wolf, Historia Bogomilorum (Wittenberg, 1712)
 Euthymius Zygabenus, Narratio de Bogomilis, ed. Gieseler (Göttingen, 1842)

Further reading

 H. G. Beck, Vom Umgang mit Ketzern (München 1993), esp. Chapter 8.
 Averil Cameron, "How to Read Heresiology". Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 33, no. 3 (2003), 471-92
J. Wolski, "Autoproscoptae, Bogomils and Messalians in the 14th Century Bulgaria". Studia Ceranea, no. 4 (2014), 233–241.
 O. Ciobanu, "The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils' Expansion in the Balkans.", Jurnal of Balkan and Black Sea Studies, Year 4, Issue 7, December 2021, pp. 11-32.

 Aurelio de Santos Otero, Bogomilen, Theologische Realenzyklopädie 7 (Berlin 1981)

 N. Garsoïan, Byzantine Heresy: A Reinterpretation, Dumbarton Oaks Papers (=DOP) 25 (1971),87-113
 J. Gouillard, L'hérésie dans l'empire byzantin des origines au XIIe siècle, Travaux et Mémoires 1
 B. Hamilton, "The State of Research: The legacy of Charles Schmidt to the study of Christian Dualism", Journal of Medieval History 24-2 (1998), 191-214
 J. Hamilton, Bernard Hamilton, and Yuri Stoyanov. Christian Dualist Heresies in the Byzantine World, C. 650-C. 1450: Selected Sources (New York 1998)
 E. Hösch, "Kritische Anmerkungen zum gegenwärtigen Stand der Bogomilen Forschung", Kurturelle Tradition in Bulgarien (Göttingen 1989)
 Isidor Ieşan, Secta patarenă în Balcani şi în Dacia Traiană (Romanian). Institutul de arte grafice C. Sfetea, București, 1912
 H. Ch. Puech et A. Vaillant, Le traité contre les bogomiles de Cosmas le prêtre, Paris 1945
 A. Schmaus, Der Neumanichäismus auf dem Balkan, Saeculum 3 (1951), 271-297
 M. Loos, Dualist Heresy in the Middle Ages, Praha 1972
 Y. Stoyanov, The Hidden Tradition in Europe: The Secret History of Medieval Christian heresy, Penguin Books 1994

External links

 Anna Comnena's The Bogomils
 Modern Day Bogomil Movement Worldwide
 Modern Day Bogomil Movement in Balkans
 Raoul Vaneigem, The Resistance to Christianity
 Djordje Capin: Myth about Bogomils
 Christian Dualist Heresies in the Byzantine World C.650–C.1450
 L. P. Brockett, The Bogomils of Bulgaria and Bosnia: The Early Protestants of the East
 Euthymius Zygadenus, Narratio de Bogomilis

10th century in Bulgaria
10th-century Christianity
First Bulgarian Empire
Gnosticism
Medieval Thrace

Bogomilism


Hermann Emil Fischer(1852 nienz 10 nyied 9 hauh -1919 nienz 7 nyied 15 hauh), Dwzgoz vaqhaggya. De habsingz le bwnzginj, youq gwn leixlwnh dawz gij caedgou dangzmakit yenzgiu yienh lo. Youq 1902 nienz ndaej Nobel vaqhag ciengj.

Cienh

Bigonq
Fischer was born in Euskirchen, near Cologne, the son of a businessman. After graduating he wished to study natural sciences, but his father compelled him to work in the family business until determining that his son was unsuitable. Fischer then attended the University of Bonn in 1872, but switched to the University of Strasbourg in 1872. He earned his doctorate in 1874 with his study of phthalein and was appointed to a position at the university.

Hagsoq
In 1875 von Baeyer was asked to succeed Liebig at the University of Munich and Fischer went there with him to become an assistant in organic chemistry.

In 1878 Fischer qualified as a Privatdozent at Munich, where he was appointed Associate Professor of Analytical Chemistry in 1879. In the same year he was offered, but refused, the Chair of Chemistry at Aachen.

In 1881 he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the University of Erlangen and in 1883 he was asked by the Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik to direct its scientific laboratory. Fischer, however, whose father had now made him financially independent, preferred academic work.

In 1885 he was asked to become Professor of Chemistry at the University of Würzburg and here he remained until 1892, when he was asked to succeed A. W. Hofmann in the Chair of Chemistry at the University of Berlin. Here he remained until his death in 1919.

Yenzgiu

Fischer's early discovery of phenylhydrazine and its influence on his later work have already been mentioned. While he was at Munich, Fischer continued to work on the hydrazines and, working there with his cousin Otto Fischer, who had followed him to Munich, he and Otto worked out a new theory of the constitution of the dyes derived from triphenylmethane, proving this by experimental work to be correct.

At Erlangen, Fischer studied the active principles of tea, coffee and cocoa, namely, caffeine and theobromine, and established the constitution of a series of compounds in this field, eventually synthesizing them.

The work, however, on which Fischer's fame chiefly rests, was his studies of the purines and the sugars. This work, carried out between 1882 and 1906 showed that various substances, little known at that time, such as adenine, xanthine, in vegetable substances, caffeine and, in animal excrement, uric acid and guanine, all belonged to one homogeneous family and could be derived from one another and that they corresponded to different hydroxyl and amino derivatives of the same fundamental system formed by a bicyclic nitrogenous structure into which the characteristic urea group entered. This parent substance, which at first he regarded as being hypothetical, he called purine in 1884, and he synthesized it in 1898. Numerous artificial derivatives, more or less analogous to the naturally-occurring substances, came from his laboratory between 1882 and 1896.

In 1884 Fischer began his great work on the sugars, which transformed the knowledge of these compounds and welded the new knowledge obtained into a coherent whole. Even before 1880 the aldehyde formula of glucose had been indicated, but Fischer established it by a series of transformations such as oxidation into aldonic acid and the action of phenylhydrazine which he had discovered and which made possible the formation of the phenylhydrazones and the osazones. By passage to a common osazone, he established the relation between glucose, fructose and mannose, which he discovered in 1888. In 1890, by epimerization between gluconic and mannonic acids, he established the stereochemical and isomeric nature of the sugars, and between 1891 and 1894 he established the stereochemical configuration of all the known sugars and exactly foretold the possible isomers, by an ingenious application of the theory of the asymmetrical carbon atom of Van't Hoff and Le Bel, published in 1874. Reciprocal syntheses between different hexoses by isomerization and then between pentoses, hexoses, and heptoses by reaction of degradation and synthesis proved the value of the systematics he had established. His greatest success was his synthesis of glucose, fructose and mannose in 1890, starting from glycerol.

This monumental work on the sugars, carried out between 1884 and 1894, was extended by other work, the most important being his studies of the glucosides.

Between 1899 and 1908 Fischer made his great contributions to knowledge of the proteins. He sought effective analytical methods of separating and identifying the individual amino acids, discovering a new type, the cyclic amino acids: proline and hydroxyproline. He also studied the synthesis of proteins by obtaining the various amino acids in an optically active form in order to unite them. He was able to establish the type of bond that would connect them together in chains, namely, the peptide bond, and by means of this he obtained the dipeptides and later the tripeptides and polypeptides. In 1901 he discovered, in collaboration with Ernest Fourneau, the synthesis of the dipeptide, glycylglycine, and in that year he also published his work on the hydrolysis of casein. Amino acids occurring in nature were prepared in the laboratory and new ones were discovered. His synthesis of the oligopeptides culminated in an octodecapeptide, which had many characteristics of natural proteins. This and his subsequent work led to a better understanding of the proteins and laid the foundations for later studies of them.

In addition to his work in the fields already mentioned, Fischer also studied the enzymes and the chemical substances in the lichens which he found during his frequent holidays in the Black Forest, and also substances used in tanning and, during the final years of his life, the fats. In 1890, he also proposed a "Lock and Key Model" to visualize the substrate and enzyme interaction. Though, later studies did not support this model in all enzymatic reactions.

Fischer is noted for his work on sugars among other work the organic synthesis of (+) glucose  and purines (including the first synthesis of caffeine).

Ndwenngoenz
At the age of 18, before he went to the University of Bonn, Fischer suffered from gastritis, which attacked him again towards the end of his tenure of the Chair at Erlangen and caused him to refuse a tempting offer to follow Victor Meyer at the Federal Technical University at Zurich and to take a year's leave of absence before he went, in 1888, to Würzburg.
Throughout his life he was well served by his excellent memory, which enabled him, although he was not a naturally good speaker, to memorize manuscripts of lectures that he had written.

He was particularly happy at Würzburg where he enjoyed walks among the hills and he also made frequent visits to the Black Forest. His administrative work, especially when he went to Berlin, revealed him as a tenacious campaigner for the establishment of scientific foundations, not only in chemistry, but in other fields of work as well. His keen understanding of scientific problems, his intuition and love of truth and his insistence on experimental proof of hypotheses, marked him as one of the truly great scientists of all time.

In 1888 Fischer married Agnes Gerlach, daughter of Joseph von Gerlach, Professor of Anatomy at Erlangen. His wife died seven years after their marriage. They had three sons, one of whom was killed in World War I; another committed suicide at the age of 25 as a result of compulsory military training. In 1919 in Berlin, Fischer, like his son, committed suicide. The oldest son, Hermann Otto Laurenz Fischer, was Professor of Biochemistry in the University of California at Berkeley from 1948 until his death in 1960.

Vaqhaggya

Emil Fischer