String theory tries to model the four known fundamental interactions—gravitation, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force—together in one theory. This tries to resolve the alleged conflict between classical physics and quantum physics by elementary units—the one classical force: gravity, and a new quantum field theory of the other three fundamental forces.

Einstein had sought a unified field theory, a single model to explain the fundamental interactions or mechanics of the universe.  Today's search is for a unified field theory that is quantized and that explains matter's structure, too.  This is called the search for a theory of everything (TOE). The most prominent contender as a TOE is string theory converted into superstring theory with its six higher dimensions in addition to the four common dimensions (3D + time).

Some superstring theories seem to come together on a shared range of geometry that, according to string theorists, is apparently the geometry of space. The mathematical framework that unifies the multiple superstring theories upon that shared geometrical range is M-theory. Many string theorists are optimistic that M-theory explains our universe's very structure and perhaps explains how other universes, if they exist, are structured as part of a greater "multiverse". M theory/supergravity theory has 7 higher dimensions + 4D.

Background

Introductions to string theory that are designed for the general public must first explain physics.  Some of the controversies over string theory result from misunderstandings about physics. A common misunderstanding even for scientists is the presumption that a theory is proved true in its explanation of the natural world wherever its predictions are successful.  Another misunderstanding is that earlier physical scientists, including chemists, have already explained the world. This leads to the misunderstanding that string theorists began making strange hypotheses after they became unaccountably "set free from truth".

Classical realm

Newtonian physics

Newton's law of universal gravitation (UG), added to the three Galilean laws of motion and some other presumptions, was published in 1687.  Newton's theory successfully modeled interactions among objects of a size we can see, a range of phenomena now called the classical realm.  Coulomb's law modeled electric attraction. Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory unified electricity and magnetism, while optics emerged from this field.

Light's speed remained about the same when measured by an observer traveling in its field, however, although addition of velocities predicted the field to be slower or faster relative to the observer traveling with or against it.  So, versus the electromagnetic field, the observer kept losing speed.  Still, this did not violate Galileo's Principle of relativity that says the laws of mechanics work the same for all objects showing inertia.

By law of inertia, when no force is applied to an object, the object holds its velocity, which is speed and direction.  An object either in uniform motion, which is constant speed in an unchanging direction, or staying at rest, which is zero velocity, experiences inertia.  This exhibits Galilean invariance—its mechanical interactions proceeding without variation—also called Galilean relativity since one cannot perceive whether one is at rest or in uniform motion.

Relativity theory

Special relativity

In 1905, Einstein's special theory of relativity explained the accuracy of both Maxwell's electromagnetic field and Galilean relativity by stating that the field's speed is absolute—a universal constant—whereas both space and time are local phenomena relative to the object's energy.  Thus, an object in relative motion shortens along the direction of its momentum (Lorentz contraction), and its unfolding of events slows (time dilation). A passenger on the object cannot detect the change, as all measuring devices aboard that vehicle have experienced length contraction and time dilation. Only an external observer experiencing relative rest measures the object in relative motion to be shortened along its travel pathway and its events slowed. Special relativity left Newton's theory—which states space and time as absolute—unable to explain gravitation.

By the equivalence principle, Einstein inferred that being under either gravitation or constant acceleration are indistinguishable experiences that might share a physical mechanism. The suggested mechanism was progressive length contraction and time dilation—a consequence of the local energy density within 3D space—establishing a progressive tension within a rigid object, relieving its tension by moving toward the location of greatest energy density. Special relativity would be a limited case of a gravitational field. Special relativity would apply when the energy density across 3D space is uniform, and so the gravitational field is scaled uniformly from location to location, why an object experiences no acceleration and thus no gravitation.

General relativity

In 1915, Einstein's general theory of relativity newly explained gravitation with 4D spacetime modeled as a Lorentzian manifold. Time is one dimension merged with the three space dimensions, as every event in 3D space—2D horizontally and 1D vertically—entails a point along a 1D time axis. Even in everyday life, one states or implies both. One says or at least means, "Meet me at building 123 Main Street intersecting Franklin Street in apartment 3D on 10 October 2012 at 9:00PM". By omitting or missing the time coordinate, one arrives at the correct location in space when the sought event is absent—it is in the past or future at perhaps 6:00PM or 12:00AM.

By converging space and time and presuming both relative to the energy density in the vicinity, and by setting the only constant or absolute as not even mass but as light speed in a vacuum, general relativity revealed the natural world's previously unimagined balance and symmetry. Every object is always moving at light speed along a straight line—its equivalent, on a curved surface, called geodesic or worldline—the one pathway of least resistance like a free fall through 4D spacetime whose geometry "curves" in the vicinity of mass/energy.

An object at light speed in a vacuum is moving at maximal rate through 3D space but exhibits no evolution of events—it is frozen in time—whereas an object motionless in 3D space flows fully along 1D time, experiencing the maximal rate of events' unfolding. The displayed universe is relative to a given location, yet once the mass/energy in that vicinity is stated, Einstein's equations predict what is occurring—or did occur or will occur—anywhere in the universe. The popularized notion that relative in Einstein's theory suggests subjective or arbitrary was to some regret of Einstein, who later thought he ought have to named it general theory.

Cosmology

The electromagnetic field's messenger particles, photons, carry an image timelessly across the universe while observers within this field have enough flow through time to decode this image and react by moving within 3D space, yet can never outrun this timeless image. The universe's state under 400 000 years after the presumed big bang that began our universe is thought to be displayed as the cosmic microwave background (CMB).

In 1915, the universe was thought to be entirely what we now call the Milky Way galaxy and to be static. Einstein operated his recently published equations of the gravitational field, and discovered the consequence that the universe was expanding or shrinking. (The theory is operable in either direction—time invariance.) He revised the theory add a cosmological constant to arbitrarily balance the universe. Nearing 1930, Edwin Hubble's telescopic data, interpreted through general relativity, revealed the universe was expanding.

In 1916 while on a World War I battlefield, Karl Schwarzschild operated Einstein's equations, and the Schwarzschild solution predicted black holes. Decades later, astrophysicists identified a supermassive black hole in the center of perhaps every galaxy. Black holes seem to lead galaxy formation and maintenance by regulating star formation and destruction.

In the 1930s, it was noticed that according to general relativity, galaxies would fall apart unless surrounded by invisible matter holding a galaxy together, and by the 1970s dark matter began to be accepted. In 1998 it was inferred that the universe's expansion, not slowing, is accelerating, indicating a vast energy density—enough to accelerate both visible matter and dark matter—throughout the universe, a vast field of dark energy. Apparently, under 5% of the universe's composition is known, while the other 95% is mysterious—dark matter and dark energy.

Quantum realm

Strange mechanics

By the 1920s, to probe the operating of the electromagnetic field at minuscule scales of space and time, quantum mechanics (QM) was developed. Yet electrons—the matter particles that interact with the photons that are the electromagnetic field's force carriers—would appear to defy mechanical principles altogether. None could predict a quantum particle's location from moment to moment.

In the slit experiment, an electron would travel through one hole placed in front of it. Yet a single electron would travel simultaneously though multiple holes, however many were placed in front of it. The single electron would leave on the detection board an interference pattern as if the single particle were a wave that had passed through all the holes simultaneously. And yet this occurred only when unobserved. If light were shone on the expected event, the photon's interaction with the field would set the electron to a single position.

By the uncertainty principle, any quantum particle's exact location and momentum cannot be determined with certainty, however. The particle's interaction with the observation/measurement instrument deflects the particle such that greater determination of its position yields lower determination of its momentum, and vice versa.

Field theory quantized

By extending quantum mechanics across a field, a consistent pattern emerged. From location to adjacent location, the probability of the particle existing there would rise and fall like a wave of probability—a rising and falling probability density.  When unobserved, any quantum particle enters superposition, such that even a single particle fills the entire field, however large.  Yet the particle is not definitely anywhere in the field, but there at a definite probability in relation to whether it was had been at the adjacent location.  The waveform of Maxwell's electromagnetic field was generated by an accumulation of probabilistic events.  Not the particles, but the mathematical form, was constant.

Setting the field to special relativity permitted prediction of the complete electromagnetic field.  Thus arose relativistic quantum field theory (QFT).  Of the electromagnetic field, it is relativistic quantum electrodynamics (QED).  Of the weak and electromagnetic fields together, it is relativistic electroweak theory (EWT).  Of the strong field, it is relativistic quantum chromodynamics (QCD).  Altogether, this became the Standard Model of particle physics.

Division in physics

When the Standard Model is set to general relativity in order to include mass, probability densities of infinity appear.  This is presumed incorrect, as probability ordinarily ranges from 0 to 1—0% to 100% probability.  Some theoretical physicists suspect that the problem is in the Standard Model, which represents each particle by a zero-dimensional point that in principle can be infinitely small. Yet in quantum physics, the Planck's constant is the minimum energy unit that a field can be divided into, perhaps a clue to the smallest size a particle can be.  So there is a quest to quantize gravity—to develop a theory of quantum gravity.

Concept

Framework

String conjectures that on the microscopic scale, Einstein's 4D spacetime is a field of Calabi-Yau manifolds, each containing 6 space dimensions curled up, thus not extended into the 3 space dimensions presented to the classical realm.  In string theory, each quantum particle is replaced by a 1D string of vibrating energy whose length is the Planck length.  As the string moves, it traces width, and thus becomes 2D, a worldsheet.  As a string vibrates and moves within the 6D Calabi-Yau space, the string becomes a quantum particle.  With this approach, the hypothetical graviton—predicted to explain general relativity—emerges easily.

Theories

String theory began as bosonic string theory, whose 26 dimensions act as many fewer.  Yet this modeled only bosons, which are energy particles, while omitting fermions, which are matter particles.  So bosonic string theory could not explain matter.  Yet by adding supersymmetry to bosonic string theory, fermions were achieved, and string theory became superstring theory, explaining matter, too.

(In versions of quantum field theory that include supersymmetry (SUSY), each boson has a corresponding fermion, and vice versa.  That is, each energy particle has a corresponding matter particle, and each matter particle has a corresponding energy particle, yet the unobservable partner is more massive and thus super.  These superpartners might seem an extravagant prediction, yet many theorists and experimentalists favor supersymmetric versions of the Standard Model, whose equations must otherwise be tweaked extravagantly and sometimes arbitrarily to maintain predictive success or mathematical consistency, but with the superpartners align.)

Controversies

Untestable—unscientific?

String theory's claim that all molecules are strings of energy has drawn harsh criticism.  There are many versions of string theory, none quite successfully predicting the observational data explained by the Standard Model.  M theory is now known to have countless solutions, often predicting things strange and unknown to exist.  Some allege that string theorists select only the desired predictions.

The allegation that string theory makes no testable predictions is false, as it makes many.  No theory—a predictive and perhaps explanatory model of some domain of natural phenomena—is verifiable.  All conventional physical theories until the Standard Model have made claims about unobservable aspects of the natural world.  Even the Standard Model has various interpretations as to the natural world.  When the Standard Model is operated, it is often made a version with supersymmetry, doubling the number of particle species so far identified by particle physicists.

None can literally measure space, yet Newton postulated absolute space and time, and Newton's theory made explicit predictions, highly testable and predictively successful for 200 years, but the theory was still falsified as explanatory of nature.  Physicists accept that there exists no such attractive force directly attracting matter to matter, let alone that the force traverses the universe instantly.  Nevertheless, Newton's theory is still paradigmatic of science.

Hidden dimensions?

The idea of hidden dimensionality of space can seem occult.  Some theorists of loop quantum gravity—a contender for quantum gravity—regard string theory as fundamentally misguided by presuming that space even has a shape until particles shape it.  That is, they do not doubt that space takes various shapes, simply regard the particles as determining space's shape, not the other way around.  The spacetime vortex predicted by general relativity is apparently confirmed.

If interpreted as naturally true, the Standard Model, representing a quantum particle as a 0D point, already indicates that spacetime is a sea of roiling shapes, quantum foam.  String theorists tend to believe nature more elegant, a belief that loop theorist Lee Smolin dismisses as romantic while using biology's Modern Synthesis as a rhetorical device.  Experiments to detect added spatial dimensions have so far failed, yet there is still the possibility that signs of them can emerge.

So many solutions?

M theory has many trillions of solutions.  Leonard Susskind, a leader of string theory, interprets string theory's plasticity of solutions as paradoxical support resolving the mystery of why this universe exists, as M theory shows it but a variant of a general pattern that always approximately results.

General relativity has brought many discoveries that in 1915 were all but unimaginable except in fiction.  A solution of Einstein's equations that sought to explain quantum particles' dynamics, the Einstein-Rosen Bridge predicts a shortcut connecting two distant points in spacetime.  Commonly called a wormhole, the Einstein-Rosen Bridge is doubted but not disproved, showing either that not all consequences of a theory must be accurate or that reality is quite bizarre in ways unobservable.

Many worlds

Even the Standard Model of particle physics suggests bizarre possibilities that populist accounts of science either omit or mention as unexplained curiosities.  The theory conventionally receives the Copenhagen interpretation, whereby the field is only possibilities, none real until an observer or instrument interacts with the field, whose wavefunction then collapses and leaves only its particle function, only the particles being real.  Yet wavefunction collapse was merely assumed—neither experimentally confirmed nor even mathematically modeled—and no variance from either the wavefunction in the quantum realm or the particle function in the classical realm has been found.

In 1957 Hugh Everett described his "Relative state" interpretation.  Everett maintained that the wavefunction does not collapse, and since all matter and interactions are presumed to be built up from quantum waveparticles, all possible variations of the quantum field—indicated by the mathematical equations—are real and simultaneously occurring but different courses of history.  By this interpretation, whatever interacts with the field joins the field's state that is relative to the observer's state—itself a waveform in its own quantum field—while the two simply interact in a universal waveform never collapsing.  By now, many physicists' interpretation of the apparent transition from the quantum to the classical realms is not wavefunction collapse, but quantum decoherence.

In decoherence, an interaction with the field takes the observer into only one determinant constellation of the quantum field, and so all observations align with that new, combined quantum state.  Everett's thesis has inspired Many worlds interpretation, whereby within our universe are predicted to be virtually or potentially infinite parallel worlds that are real, yet each a minuscule distance from the other worlds.  As each world's waveform is universal—not collapsing—and its mathematical relations are invariant, parallel worlds simply fill the gaps and do not touch.

Many universes

Einstein doubted that black holes, as predicted by the Schwarzschild solution, are real.  Some now conjecture that black holes do not exist as such but are dark energy, or that our universe is both—a black hole and dark energy.  The Schwarzschild solution of Einstein's equations can be maximally extended to predict a black hole having a flip side—another universe emerging from a white hole.  Perhaps our universe's big bang was half of a big bounce, something's collapse down to a black hole, and our universe popping out its other side as a white hole.

Particles are strings?

Physicists widely doubt that quantum particles are truly 0D points as represented in Standard Model, which offers formalism—mathematical devices whose strokes predict phenomena of interest upon input of data—not interpretation of the mechanisms determining those phenomena.  Yet string theorists do tend to optimistically conjecture that the strings are both real and explanatory, not merely predictive devices.  It is far beyond the capacity of today's particle accelerators to propel any probing particles at energy levels high enough to overcome a quantum particle's own energy and determine whether it is a string.  Yet this limitation also exists on testing other theories of quantum gravity.  Developments suggest other strategies to "observe" the structure of quantum particles.

Paradoxically, even if testing confirmed that particles are strings of energy, that still would not conclusively prove even that particles are strings, since there could be other explanations, perhaps an unexpected warpage of space although the particle was a 0D point of true solidity.  Even when predictions succeed, there are many possible explanations—the problem of underdetermination—and philosophers of science as well as some scientists do not accept even flawless predictive success as verification of the successful theory's explanations if these are posed as offering scientific realism, true description of the natural world.

Matter is energy?

Talk of particle physicists testing theoretical physicists' predicted particles by colliding particles in accelerators suggests that quantum particles are tiny Newtonian particles that experimentalists crack open to reveal their structure.  Instead, when two particles, each of a certain mass—measured in terms of energy as electronvolts—are collided, they can combine into a particle of that combined mass/energy, and the generated particle is "observed" for correspondence with the prediction.

It is not controversial among physicists that all particles are energy.  Loop theorists, sometimes in rivalry with string theory, claim that spacetime itself converts into the particles.  Matter's being a special variant of energy was a consequence of Einstein's special theory of relativity, and thereupon Einstein formalized the mass-energy equivalence, E=mc2.  When sufficiently energetic photons collide, they can combine and generate matter—matter creation.  All particles have antiparticles, and atoms of matter have antiatoms of antimatter, whose union annihilates the particles and matter while leaving energy.

Developments

An inspiring development is discovery of mirror symmetry, whereby Calabi-Yau spaces tend to come in pairs such that solutions previously difficult within the extreme vibrational mode of one string can be solved by through the mirror Calabi-Yau space's geometry in its opposite range.

String theory is usually solved through conformal field theory, a quantum field theory on 2D space.  It is confirmed that molecules can collapse to 2D.  And the electron, long presumed an elementary particle, apparently splits into three entities separately carrying the electron's three degrees of freedom when the molecules that contain the electrons are channeled through a 1D pathway.

Related pages
M-theory

Notes

String theory


Richard Wellington Burkhardt (May 18, 1918 – March 4, 2014) was the 8th President of Ball State University, from 1978 to 1979. Richard Burkhardt received his undergraduate degree from Knox College in 1939 and his doctorate from Harvard University in 1945. After serving as director of the division of teacher preparation at Syracuse University, he became dean of the Teachers College while the Teachers College was the only college at Ball State.  In 1961, Richard Burkhardt also became the acting dean of the Division of Sciences and Humanities, and then went on to be named the vice president for instructional affairs (later renamed to provost) and dean of the faculties, a position he held for almost 20 years. In addition to this, during the 1978–1979 academic year, Richard Burkhardt served as acting president of the university.

Richard Burkhardt maintained his association with the history department during his years as Ball State's chief academic officer, occasionally teaching a course in modern European history. In 1980, he returned to the history department as a distinguished service professor, and he taught courses in his specialty until his retirement in 1985.

Even in retirement, Burkhardt maintained an active program of research. He collaborated with James K. Danglade on the research and writing of Sixty Years of Outreach and Public Service: A History of Continuing Education at Ball State University, published in 1985. In 1991, he published Eliza Julia Flower: Letters of an English Gentlewoman: Life on the Illinois-Indiana Frontier, 1817-1861, in collaboration with Janet Walker.

Science Hall, one of the oldest buildings on Ball State's campus, was named the Burkhardt Building in his honor.

He died in Muncie, Indiana on March 4, 2014.

References

Bibliography

2014 deaths
1918 births
Presidents of Ball State University
Harvard University alumni
Knox College (Illinois) alumni

Richard W. Burkhardt


A stroke is an illness in which part of the brain loses its blood supply. This can happen if an artery that feeds blood to the brain gets clogged, or if it tears and leaks.

A stroke is when there is a lack of blood flow to the brain. There are two types of strokes. One is when there is a blood clot blocking the artery. The other type of stroke is when a blood vessel bursts and there is blood moving around freely in the brain.

A stroke is the rapid loss of brain function(s) due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can happen because of ischemia (lack of blood flow) caused by blockage (thrombosis, arterial embolism), or a haemorrhage (leakage of blood).

As a result, the affected area of the brain cannot work properly. Symptoms might include: hemiplegia (an inability to move one or more limbs on one side of the body), aphasia (inability to understand or use language), or an inability to see one side of the visual field.

A stroke is a medical emergency. It can cause permanent damage. If it is not quickly treated, it may lead to death. It is the third most common cause of death and the most common cause of disability for adults in the United States and Europe.

Strokes happen on both the left and right side of the brain. When a stroke happens on the left side of someone's brain, it affects the right side of the body. It can also cause problems with the patient's speech and language. If a stroke affects the right side of the brain, it affects the left side of the body. It also changes patient's spatial (relating to space) perceptions. Getting a stroke on the right side of the brain can also cause people to not acknowledge their illness. Patients behave impulsively and neglect the side of their body.

Factors that increase the risk of a stroke include old age, high blood pressure, a previous stroke, diabetes, high cholesterol, smoking, atrial fibrillation, migraine with aura, and thrombophilia (a tendency to thrombosis). Of those factors, the most easy to fix are high blood pressure and smoking.

How are strokes identified?

Pre-hospital
The Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale was designed to help "pre-hospital" medical professionals (like EMTs) identify a possible stroke before the patient gets to the hospital. It tests three basic signs.  If any of these signs are not normal, the patient may be having a stroke and should be transported to a hospital as soon as possible.

Facial droop: Have the person smile or show his or her teeth.
 Normal: Both sides of face move equally
 Abnormal: One side of face does not move as well as the other (or at all); part of the face looks like it is drooping
Arm drift:  Have the person close his or her eyes and hold his or her arms straight out for about 10 seconds.
 Normal: Both arms move equally or not at all
 Abnormal: One arm does not move, or one arm drifts down compared with the other side
Speech:  Have the person say, "You can't teach an old dog new tricks," or some other simple, familiar saying.
 Normal: Patient uses correct words with no slurring
 Abnormal: Patient's speech is slurred, patient uses incorrect words, or is unable to speak

About 72% of patients who cannot do one of these three tasks normally are having an ischemic stroke.  More than 85% of patients who cannot do all three tasks are having an acute stroke.

"Spot a stroke"
The 'spot a stroke' campaign, created by the American Heart Association and the American Stroke Association, teaches everyday people how to recognize a stroke. It teaches the basic tests from the Cincinnati Stroke Scale, using the acronym FAST:
 F: Face - Facial Droop.  Is one side of the face drooping or numb?  Ask the person to smile.  Is the person's smile uneven?
 A: Arm - Arm Weakness.  Is one arm weak or numb?  Ask the person to raise both arms.  Does one arm drift downward?
 S: Speech - Speech Difficulty. Is speech slurred? Is the person unable to speak or hard to understand? Ask the person to repeat a simple sentence, like "The sky is blue." Is the sentence repeated correctly?
 T: Time - Time to Call 911.  If someone shows any of these symptoms, even if the symptoms go away, it is time to call 9-1-1.

In the hospital
Once the patient is in the hospital, doctors can find out for sure whether they are having a stroke by looking at their brain with special scanning machines, like an MRI or a CT scanner.

Prevention
Strokes can kill. To prevent a stroke, doctors advise people to:
Control blood pressure
Stop smoking
Exercise at least once a week
Stay at a healthy weight
Do not drink too much
Get regular checkups

Statistics
795,000 people in the United States get a stroke each year
One out of four people who have a stroke die (137,000 deaths from stroke per year)
Currently, 3 million people in the US have disabilities from strokes
In US, strokes cost $57.9 billion per year (damage and loss of work)
⅔ of stroke happen in people 65 and up
Strokes affect men more than women
Women more likely to die from stroke than men
Strokes are more common in African Americans
Strokes are more likely to be fatal in African Americans
Stroke rates in older adults are declining but rates in younger people are rising (scientists think that it's related to obesity)
Physical therapy can help patients
Some people are in a wheelchair after getting a stroke
10% of survivors suffer no long term disabilities
10% of survivors suffer from so many disabilities that they have to stay in 24 hour care

References

More reading

Other websites

 The basis for this article was the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke public domain resource at this page
 Canadian Stroke Network
 Registry of the Canadian Stroke Network
 StrokEngine  (McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada) Focuses on stroke rehabilitation and interventions
 Cerebrovascular disease and risk of stroke
  video
 American Stroke Association
 National Stroke Association
 Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada
 The Stroke Association UK
 Heart attack, stroke and cardiac arrest warning signs, from the American Heart Association
 StrokeMD.net
 National Stroke Association of Malaysia
 Outcome of childhood stroke UK

Stroke


In geometry the parallel postulate is one of the axioms of Euclidean geometry. Sometimes it is also called Euclid's fifth postulate, because it is the fifth postulate in Euclid's Elements.

The postulate says that:

If you cut a line segment with two lines, and the two interior angles the lines form add up to less than 180°, then the two lines will eventually meet if you extend them long enough.

The field of geometry which follows all of Euclid's axioms is called Euclidean geometry. Geometries which do not follow all of Euclid's axioms are called non-Euclidean geometry.

History

Some mathematicians thought that Euclid's fifth postulate was much longer and more complicated than the other four postulates.

Many of them thought that it could be proven from the other simpler axioms.  Those who tried to do it included Omar Khayyám, and later Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri, John Wallis, Lambert, and Legendre.  Some mathematicians announced that they had proven the proposition from the simpler propositions, but they all turned out to be mistaken.

Playfair's axiom
Another more recent proposition known as Playfair's axiom is similar to Euclid's fifth postulate. It says that:

Given a straight line and a point not on this line, you can only draw one straight line through this point that will not meet the other straight line.

In fact, mathematicians found out that this axiom is not only similar to Euclid's fifth postulate, but has exactly the same implications. Mathematically, the two propositions are called 'equivalent' propositions. Today Playfair's axiom is used more often by mathematicians than Euclid's original parallel postulate.

Non-Euclidean geometry

Eventually some mathematicians tried to build new geometries without using the axiom.  One kind of Non-Euclidean geometry is called elliptic geometry.  In elliptic geometry the parallel postulate is replaced by an axiom that states that:

Given a straight line and a point not on this line, you cannot draw a straight line through this point that will not eventually cross the other straight line.

Mathematicians found that when they replaced Euclid's fifth postulate with this axiom, they were still able to prove many of Euclid's other theorems. One way to imagine elliptic geometry is by thinking of the surface of a globe. On a globe, lines of longitude appear to be parallel at the equator, but they all meet at the poles. Late in the 19th century, elliptic geometry was shown to be consistent. This proved that Euclid's fifth postulate was not independent of the other postulates. After this, mathematicians mostly stopped trying to prove the fifth postulate from the other four postulates. Instead, many mathematicians began studying other geometries that do not follow Euclid's fifth postulate.

Another axiom mathematicians sometimes replace Euclid's fifth axiom with says that:

Given a straight line and a point not on this line, you can draw at least two straight lines through this point that will not eventually cross the other straight line.

This is called hyperbolic geometry.

Another geometry simply removes Euclid's fifth postulate and does not replace it with anything. This is called neutral geometry or absolute geometry.

Geometry

tr:Paralel#Paralel aksiyomu

Parallel postulate


Buffy the Vampire Slayer is an American television series. It is about a girl who fought vampires and other monsters.  It was written by Joss Whedon. He based it on the script that he wrote for a movie with the same title. The movie came out in 1992 and stars Kristy Swanson, Luke Perry, Donald Sutherland, and Paul Reubens. The television series has many fans. It was originally shown from March 10, 1997 until May 20, 2003.

The main idea of the series is the opposite of what is the normal Hollywood idea about horror. In traditional Hollywood horror stories, the young blonde girl is always the weakest character. She is always the one that needs to be saved. She is often the first one to die. In Buffy, Whedon changed that. He changed that girl into the person with all the power. He changed her into the hero. Many of the monsters and storylines on the series are symbols of real-life problems faced by teenagers. As Whedon has said, "Highschool is a horror movie."

Buffy the Vampire Slayer was first shown on March 10, 1997 on the WB network. It was a very important part of the Warner Bros. television network in its early years.
After five seasons, the series left the WB and went to the United Paramount Network (UPN) for its last two seasons.  In the United Kingdom, the entire series was shown on Sky One and BBC2. The BBC showed the series at two different times. A family-friendly version with violence and bad language cut out was shown early in the evening and an unedited version was shown later at night. Sky One did something similar. It showed an edited version in the afternoon and the uncut version in prime time. From the fourth season onwards, the BBC showed the series in anamorphic 16:9 widescreen format, but Whedon said that Buffy was never supposed to be watched this way.

The Slayer
The Slayer or Chosen One is a girl who kills vampires. She had superhuman strength and speed. She also heals very fast. It is her destiny to fight evil demons, mainly vampires. When the Slayer dies, a new girl is chosen. That girl gets all of the powers of the Slayer. Potentials (girls who might be chosen - "potential slayers") are trained from an early age by a "Watcher". In this series, Buffy Summers, Kendra Young, and Faith Lehane were the main slayers.

Plot

The main character was Buffy Summers. She was played by Sarah Michelle Gellar.  Buffy was an ordinary high school student in the fictional city of Sunnydale, California, except for being a "vampire slayer."  Buffy's Watcher was a British man named Giles.  With the help of Giles and her friends, Xander and Willow, Buffy fought a different monster every episode. (aside from the main villains of each season).

Buffy and her friends went to school at Sunnydale High School. They appear normal to their families while killing vampires and monsters at night.

Not all vampires were evil in the series.  One vampire was named Angel. He was given his soul back by a gypsy curse.  The curse would make him lose his soul and become evil again if he became really happy.  He and Buffy fell in love. The curse took his soul away when they had sexual intercourse for the first time. This caused Angel to become evil (losing his soul).  When Angel got back his soul, he knew that he and Buffy could not be together because he might lose it again.  Angel left Sunnydale and went to Los Angeles. The television series Angel tells the story of what happened to him after he left.

Notable episodes

"Earshot" (Season 3): This episode was not shown when it was first supposed to. The episode dealt with a school violence. It was first scheduled to be shown just after the shootings at Columbine happened. Because of this, they did not show it in the United States until the summer after the season had ended.
"Hush"(Season 4): Nearly all of the episode was done with no talking at all. For 29 minutes, the characters could not say anything. Joss Whedon created this episode after hearing that the most important part of the series was the dialogue. The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award.
"The Body" (Season 5): This episode had no musical soundtrack at all. The episode was about the death of Buffy's mother, Joyce Summers.
"Once More, With Feeling"(Season 6): The entire episode was done as a musical. Every scene included the characters singing. They usually were also dancing. The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award.

Characters

Major characters

Buffy Summers
Buffy Anne Summers (played by Sarah Michelle Gellar) is "the Slayer," one in a long line of young women chosen to fight evil. She is blonde and beautiful and she is a normal cheerleading girl at the start of the movie. Being the Slayer gave her increased strength, endurance, agility and healing. She also had greater intuition, and some ability of clairvoyance, usually in the form of dreams that tell the future. She was born January 19, 1981 and grew up in Los Angeles, California. Buffy died two times in the normal series. There have also been magical times that she died in, but these periods of time were stopped and do not affect normal times. The first time she died, she drowned and was brought back to life with CPR. The second time, magic was used to bring her back to life.

Rupert Giles
Rupert "Ripper" Giles (played by Anthony Stewart Head) is Buffy's Watcher. He was an Englishman. He was Buffy's second Watcher. Her first watcher was killed in the movie version of the story but this fact is not talked about in the series. Unlike most slayers, it was not known that Buffy was a potential slayer at an early age. When she was chosen, the Watcher's council sent a watcher to help her. When he died, the Council sent Giles to Sunnydale to become her watcher. In the past, Giles used magic and had a lot of knowledge about demons and vampires.

Willow Rosenberg
Willow Rosenberg (played by Alyson Hannigan) was Buffy's schoolmate and best friend. She was very smart and good with computers. During the series, she learned more and more about magic. She found out that she is very good at magic and became a powerful witch. While in highschool, she had a boyfriend named Oz, who was a guitarist in a local band called Dingoes Ate My Baby, and he was also a werewolf. After Oz left in college, Willow fell in love with another witch, Tara Maclay. When Tara was killed, Willow tried to destroy the world, but Xander stopped her. Later on, at the end of season seven, she developed a relationship with a potential slayer named Kennedy.

Xander Harris
Alexander Lavelle "Xander" Harris (played by Nicholas Brendon) was another good friend of Buffy. During season 4, Xander becomes romantically involved with an ex-vengeance demon, Anya (Anyanka), whom he later became engaged to, but left during the wedding in the episode "Hells Bells". It was said many times during the series that Xander was the person in the group who had no special powers at all, but still fought as much as everyone else, and, in season 7 ("Potential") Xander is named the "Seer" because he sees everything that is going on, because he's never actually in the spotlight, just next to it. Xander was often the character the writers used for comic moments. Xander was a major character in the series and saved the world (from Willow) at the end of Season 6, by telling her he loved her repeatedly, accessing the human love inside of her "evil" persona, created by Tara Maclay's death.

Dawn Summers
Dawn Summers (played by Michelle Trachtenberg) was a magical energy (The Key) that was turned into a person and Buffy's sister. At first, Dawn had the special ability to open the way to a hell dimension (with her blood). After Buffy's death closed that way, Dawn's only special abilities was being very good with languages and a very fast learner. She could have made a very good Watcher.

Anya Jenkins
Anya Christina Emmanuella Jenkins, or Anyanka, or Aud (played by Emma Caulfield) was an 1100 year old vengeance demon. She was born with the name Aud somewhere in Scandinavia during the 9th century. She became a vengeance demon after casting a magic spell on her lover, Olaf. The spell turned him into a troll. Anya spent the next 1100 years as Anyanka. As a vengeance demon, she would use magic to give a wish to a woman who had been treated wrong by a man. Anyaka lost her powers during a wish she cast for Cordelia Chase. When the wish was ended, Anyanka was trapped in the human body of 17 year old Anya. Anya and Xander got together after graduation and later were engaged. But Xander left her at the wedding, realising he was not ready to get married, but still loved her. She then got her vengeance powers back from D'Hoffryn (head of vengeance) but later lost them again after she realized how unfulfilling maiming human men was (her human side).

Angel
Angel (played by David Boreanaz) was an Irish vampire first named Liam. He was born in 1727, in Galway, Ireland. After being turned into a vampire in 1753, he spent the next 145 year creating terror as "Angelus" (face of an angel). In 1898, he killed the daughter of gypsies. As punishment, the Gypsies returned Angelus human soul to him. This caused him to have to feel all the pain he had caused. Angel went to the United States and lived on the streets. He stopped killing people to drink their blood because with a soul he knew it was wrong. He lived a very poor life drinking the blood of rats until a messenger from the Powers That Be took him to California to show him Buffy. He fell in love with her and changed his life so he could help her. Buffy fell in love with Angel but he turned evil after she gave him one true moment of happiness (after they had sex). Then he turned into Angelus and when he was finally changed back (after months, by Willow), Buffy stabbed him in order to once again save the world by closing acaphla (against her feelings of love for him).

Cordelia Chase
Cordelia "Cordy" Chase (played by Charisma Carpenter) went to Sunnydale High with Buffy. She was a cheerleader who only thought of herself. She would help Buffy every now and then, but most often was the one that needed help. During her senior year of high school, all the money Cordelia's parents had was taken away by the government because Cordy's dad had not fully paid his family's taxes. Cordy had to get a job at a dress store to pay for a dress for her senior prom.

Although Cordelia started off as a self-involved character, she grew throughout the first three seasons, learning to love others (spawning a relationship with Xander Harris, above). After Season 3 of Buffy, Cordelia moves away to L.A. to become an actress. After having little luck, she meets Angel and they work together in the detective business- Angel Investigations. Cordelia's character grows even further throughout Angel as well, and by Season 4/5 of Angel, she seems to be a completely different person.

Spike
Spike, or William the Bloody, (played by James Marsters) was an English vampire. He was born in London around 1853. He was turned into a vampire in 1880 by Drusilla, a pretty vampire created by Angelus. He spent the next 20 years with Angelus, Drusilla and Darla as they killed throughout Europe and Asia. After Angelus got his soul back and left, Spike and Drusilla continued for 100 years before going to Sunnydale to try and find him. Later, Spike fell in love with Buffy. He fought a demon (initially to get his chip removed) and got his soul back and helped save the world in the last episode ("Chosen"). He was sent, by the amulet he wore, to Angel. (Stars in the final season of Angel).

Faith Lehane
Faith Lehane (played by Eliza Dushku) was a vampire slayer. Buffy's first death caused Kendra Young to be chosen as the Slayer. When Kendra died, Faith was chosen. Faith is in many ways the opposite of Buffy. While Buffy had family and friends for support, Faith was alone. Faith tried to fight evil, but later chose to be evil instead. In the end, Faith learns from her mistakes and helps Buffy in her fight.

Oz
Daniel "Oz" Osborne (played by Seth Green) was a musician and werewolf. He was Willow's first boyfriend. For three nights each month, Oz would change shape. If he was not put into a cage or locked up, he would roam Sunnydale from the time the sun set until it came up again in the morning. Being a werewolf gave him increased strength, endurance and healing. As a werewolf, his mind was similar to an animal and not a human.

Riley Finn
Riley Finn was a member of a secret part of American military.
During the day, he was a helper to a professor at Sunnydale University. At night, he lead a military team that hunted and captured demons. He had increased strength and endurance, but he was not as strong as Buffy. He gave Buffy an ultimatum and at the last minute she decided on him. But when she got to his helicopter they had already taken off and he did not see her. When he comes back in a later episode Buffy finds out that he is married.

Tara Maclay

Tara was a member of the Wicca group Willow joined in her first year in college. Willow and Tara started as friends. Over time, they became lovers. When Tara is first introduced, she is very shy. Tara has a very obvious stutter in her first season. Through season five, Tara becomes more confident. Eventually, her family comes back to take Tara home, but she (with Buffy and the gang's help) stands up to them. She became more and more confident until Glory took her sanity. Willow got it back in the season five finale, and Tara was sane again.

In season 6, Willow used dark magic (magic that hurt other people) more and more. Eventually, she used it to make Tara forget a fight they had had. Tara broke up with Willow. Tara came back when Willow stopped using dark magic. A very short time later, Tara died after being hit by a bullet meant for Buffy.

Minor characters
Joyce Summers: Joyce was Buffy's mother. She died of a aneurysm shortly after having surgery to take a tumor out of her head.
Jonathan Levinson: Jonathan went to school with Buffy. He was often only used for comic moments. In season 6, he played a larger part as a member of the Trio. He was killed by Andrew Wells in season 7 in an attempt to open the Hellmouth.
Harmony Kendall: Harmony was one of Cordelia's friends. She was turned into a vampire at their high school graduation.
Principal Snyder: Snyder was the high school principal for a lot of Buffy's time at Sunnydale High. He made Buffy's daily life very hard. He is one of the few people other than the main cast that shows he knows about the weird things in town such as vampires and demons. After Mayor Wilkins turned into a giant demon snake at the graduation, he killed Principal Snyder.
Kennedy: Kennedy was one of the potential slayers. She had a lesbian relationship with Willow.
Principal Robin Wood: Wood was the son of a Slayer (Nikki Woods). His mother was killed by Spike. He became the principal of Sunnydale High after it was rebuilt. He tried and failed to get revenge on Spike for killing his mother. He later joined Buffy in her fight and got into a relationship with Faith.
Andrew Wells: Andrew was a obnoxious, possibly bi-sexual nerdy member of the Trio. He has a talent for languages and summoning demons.
Jenny Calendar: Jenny was the high school computer teacher. She was also a member of the same gypsy clan that cursed Angel. She was in Sunnydale to watch Angel. She had a romance with Giles. Angelus broke her neck, killing her.

Villains
The Master: The Master was one of the oldest living vampires. He was the first major villain that Buffy faced in Sunnydale. The Master was the leader of a vampire cult called the Order of Aurelius. The cult included Darla who The Master turned into a vampire. Buffy killed the Master in season 1.
Darla: Darla was a very old vampire. She was turned into a vampire in 1609. She was a prostitute who was dying of syphilis, when the Master turned her into a vampire. She was the vampire who sired Liam turning him into Angelus (Angel). Darla was killed by Angel in season 1 of Buffy. She was later brought back to life on the spin-off Angel.
Drusilla: Drusilla is a vampire created by Angelus around 1860. Angelus made her insane before turning her into a vampire. She has the ability to see the future and hypnotize people. Drusilla created Spike in 1880. It is not known if Drusilla has been killed or if she still lives.
Mayor Richard Wilkins III: Wilkins was the mayor of Sunnydale. He first came to the area in the 19th century to search for gold. He is the founder of Sunnydale. Wilkins made a deal with demons. He created the town so that demons would have a place to feed and the demons said they would turn him into a pure demon. It would take over 100 years to turn into a demon. Wilkins turned into a giant snake at Buffy's graduation. She killed him by blowing up the school with him inside it. Wilkins was the major villain in season 3.
Adam: Adam was a cyborg. He was made out of parts of humans, demons, and electronic machines. Adam was created in The Initiative's lab 314.  He was the major villain in season 4. Buffy killed Adam by taking his power source out of his chest.
Glorificus: Glorificus, or Glory, was an evil goddess from a different dimension. She was trapped in the body of a baby boy named Ben. Many years later, she began to take control of the body. After a while she could take full control and change the body into that of her own form for a short time. Glory was trying to find the key that would let her go back to her own dimension. Buffy stopped her. She beat her very badly and Glory was trapped inside Ben again. Knowing that she would become strong enough to come back one day, Giles killed Ben which also killed Glory. Glory was the main villain of season 5.
The First: The First, or The First Evil, is the creator of evil itself. The First has no body (incorporeal) and can not physically affect things. It can look like anyone who has ever died. This includes dead humans (Buffy's mother Joyce), vampires (Drusilla, Spike), and even Buffy herself. The First had an army of very very old vampires called Turok-Han and a cult of humans called The Bringers that did things for it because it could not do them itself. The First can not be killed. Its army and cult were destroyed in the final episode of the series and its plans were stopped. The First was the main villain in season 7.

Whedon's Trademarks
Joss Whedon uses several themes throughout his works. These are often found in the writing done for Buffy.

Strong female characters: As a supporter of feminism, Whedon likes to create teenage girls with superpowers. Many of the most powerful characters in the series are female. Buffy and Willow are examples.
Homosexuality: Whedon uses gay characters both for major parts (Willow and Tara) and for minor parts (Larry Blaisdall and Scott Hope).
Witty dialogue: The dialogue in Joss Whedon's series and movies is notable. It often has rapid-fire wit and pop culture references. Some are easy to notice others are more difficult.
Death: No one is safe in a story written by Whedon. Major characters can die at any time. Minor characters die more often. In a world with magic, not all deaths are forever though. Buffy herself died at least four times and was brought back to life twice. Tara Maclay, Jenny Calender, Joyce Summers, and Principal Snyder were all regular characters that died and did not return. Other characters such as Harmony Kendall died and came back as vampires.
Relationships: A good romantic relationship makes for a bad story. Whedon does not like relationships that have a happy ending. Every relationship in the series ended badly.
Angel and Buffy: Angel loses his soul and turns evil.
Spike and Buffy: Spike later tries to rape Buffy, but she stops him. At the end of the series, Spike dies to save the world.
Willow and Tara: Tara is shot and killed.
Xander and Anya: They almost got married, but Xander leaves Anya at the altar. They never get back together. Anya dies at the end of the series.

Family: In a Whedon story, family is not who you were born to. Family is who you chose to be with. In Buffy, Buffy, Giles, Willow and Xander, as well as the others with them, were more of a family than any of their biological families.
Fatherhood: Fathers in Whedon's stories are almost always shown badly. Buffy's father left her mother and her. He is rarely talked about or seen in the series. Xander's father is always shown as being abusive. Father figures replace the traditional father in the same way Whedon replaced the traditional family. Giles takes the place of the father in Buffy. At times, even he is shown badly in the role.

Related pages
Angel

References

Other websites

 20th Century Fox — Buffy section
 All Things Philosophical on Buffy the Vampire Slayer
 Buffyverse Dialogue Database
 Slayage.tv - Buffy academic essays
 Whedonesque.com
 Whedon.info
 Stakes and Salvation: a Buffyverse Encyclopedia
 WhedonWiki.com

1997 American television series debuts
2003 American television series endings
1990s American drama television series
2000s American drama television series
American fantasy television series
American horror television series
American teen drama television series
College television series
High school television series
Television series created by Joss Whedon
Television series set in California
UPN network shows
Whedonverse
WB network shows
English-language television programs
The WB original programming

Buffy the Vampire Slayer


Crosstrees are the two horizontal spars at the upper ends of the topmasts  of sailing ships that are used to anchor the shrouds from the topgallant mast. They may also be mounted at the upper end of the topgallant to anchor the shrouds from the royal mast (if fitted). Similar transverse spars remain on steamship and motor vessel masts to secure wire antennae or signal flag halyards.

Explanation
Any vertical structure like a mast is subject to dynamic swaying stress from wind, which levers immense force at the base of the mast. Such stress is countered through guy ropes which are diagonally supporting ropes from mast top to its base. These ropes share the load on the mast tops and communicate that force to the base structure.

The taller the mast, the wider a base is required for the guy-wires so as to form an appropriate angular support against the sway the mast is exposed to, yet ships are fixed in their beam (width) and hence only a limited angle is possible for the guy-ropes to support very high masts. Thereby, the taller the ship's mast, the more narrow and unfeasible would be the angle between its support wires and its top. This is where a simple innovation like the crosstree helps to overcome such limitation.

The crosstree serves as a fresh base to spread the next level of supporting guy ropes, thereby providing a stable height extension to the masts. Without the crosstree, the ship's mast would have been severely limited in height, in relation to the beam of the ship.

Each crosstree serves to spread another level of holding ropes on a fresh wider spar so as to provide support to the next mast top section. Effectively, the crosstree allows to extend the height, mount yet another layer of sail shrouds and option more wind power to the ships. The crosstree also serves to spread the shroud tops.

Sources

External links

Sailing rigs and rigging

Crosstrees


Johann Wild (Ferus) (1497 – 8 September 1554) was a German Franciscan scriptural commentator and preacher.

Life
Wild was born in Swabia.  At an early age he joined the Franciscan Order. He was educated at Cologne. At a chapter held in the Convent at Tübingen in 1528, he was appointed professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres, scriptor, and preacher. His sermons in the churches of Mainz soon gained a high reputation for learning and eloquence.

Subsequently, at a chapter celebrated in the Convent at Mainz in 1540, he was elected definitor of the province and appointed to the arduous post of Domprediger (preacher in the cathedral), which he continued to occupy till his death.

It was partly due to his preaching that Mainz remained Catholic. Not even his opponents disputed his title of being the most learned preacher in Germany in the sixteenth century. The Protestant historian, Henry Pantaleon, said of him:

"His days and nights were spent in the fulfillment of his sacred functions and in study, so that he became a most learned theologian. To profound learning and rich eloquence he united great sanctity of life".

When the troops of Albert of Brandenburg, burning and pillaging as they went, entered Mainz in 1552, priests, religious, and most of the inhabitants fled from the city. Father Wild remained. His courage was greatly admired by Albert, who solicited him to give up the religious habit. "For many years", he answered, "I have worn it, it has never done me any harm, why should I now abandon it?" He was ordered to preach in the presence of Albert and his followers on the text, "Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's", etc. At the end of his discourse he addressed his audience on the text, "Render an account of thy stewardship". The prince was so struck by his apostolic zeal and courage that he promised to grant him any request he would make. He asked that the cathedral and Franciscan buildings should be spared from all desecration and injury. His request was granted, and in recognition of this a statute representing Wild holding the cathedral in his hand was placed in the treasury.

Wild is mentioned as present at the chapter held at the Convent of Pforzheim on 15 April 1554. He died at Mainz, the same year, and was buried in the front of the high altar in the Franciscan Church at Mainz.

Works
His principal works are commentaries on the Pentateuch, Josue, Judges, Job, Ecclesiastes, Psalms 31 and 60, Esther, Esdras, Nehemias, Lamentations of Jeremias, Jonas, St. Matthew, St. John, Acts of the Apostles, Romans, I John; six vols. of sermons; examination of candidates for Sacred Orders. Also sermons, orations, and ascetical works. His method in explaining the Holy Scripture was to oppose to the quotations of the Lutherans a learned commentary drawn up from the Church Fathers.

Nearly all his works were published after his death, and had not been composed with a view to publication. With the exception of the Commentaries on Matthew, John, and I John, his other works were placed on the Index with the clause donec corrigantur. Dominicus a Soto, O.P., extracted from the Commentary of St. John seventy-seven passages which he considered susceptible to false interpretation. He was answered by Michael Medina, O.S.F., who had been theologian with Dominicus at the Council of Trent. Sixtus Senensis, Nicholas Serarius, Luke Wadding, and many others state that the works of Wild were deliberately altered by the Lutherans to deceive the Catholics. In the Roman edition of the Commentary on St. John, the passages criticized were left out.

References
Serario, Moguntiacarum Rerum libri quinque (Mainz, 1604)
Sixtus Senensis, Bibliotheca Sancta (Paris, 1610)
Wadding-Sbaralea, Script. Ord. Min. (Rome, 1806)
—, Annal. Ord. Min., XIX (Rome, 1745)
John A. S. Antonio, Bibliotheca Univ. Franciscana (Madrid, 1732)
Pantaleon, L'hommes illustres d'Allemagne
Niceron, Memoires pour servir a l'Historie des hommes illustres (Paris, 1729)
Marcellino da Civezza, Storia della Missioni Francescane, VII (Prato, 1883), I
Glassberger, Chronica (Quaracchi, 1887)
Paulus, Joh. Wild, ein Mainzer Domprediger des 16. Jahrhunderts (Cologne, 1893).

External links
 Source

1497 births
1554 deaths
16th-century German people
German Franciscans
German biblical scholars

Johann Wild


Debate or debating is a method of argument. Disputes and conflicts may be settled by debate. It is a larger form of argument than logical argument, because in a debate, the debaters try to influence the feelings of the audience, in order to persuade them on a topic.

The subject or issue of the debate is the question on which the participants debate. An issue or debate always has two sides or positions. Informal debates like discussion are very common, but the quality of a debate improves with knowledge and skill of its participants as debaters.

Deliberative bodies such as parliaments, legislative assemblies, and meetings of all sorts have debates. The winner of a debate may be decided by the audience's vote, by judges, or by both.

Formal debates between candidates for an elected office are common in places where leaders of countries are chosen by the people. The most well-known of these debates are between candidates for the President and Vice President of the United States, and leaders debates between leaders of parties in Parliament in countries like Great Britain and Canada.

Other websites

Public speaking

References

Debate


Leisure (or free time) is when a person can choose what to do. During a person's leisure time, they do not have an obligation to be at school or work at a job. During leisure time, people can do fun activities, family activities, or other non-work activities, such as hobbies.

Common forms of recreation or leisure are:

 Playing sports such as football or hockey
 Playing games such as chess or cards
 Exercising such as running or lifting weights
 Watching television and movies
 Listening to music
 Hobbies such as playing piano or guitar, knitting, or sewing
 Travelling
 Reading
 Drawing
 Painting

A vacation or holiday is the setting aside of time specifically for leisure. During their vacation, some people travel to a different region or country, and stay at a hotel so that they can do things they could not do near home. Other people prefer to spend their vacation time at home in their own community.

In rich industrialized countries such as the US and Canada, as well as in most European countries, workers are allowed to stay home on the weekend (usually Saturday and Sunday), and use it as leisure time. People in poorer developing countries usually have less leisure time, as they have to work longer hours and more days per year.

Leisure


Anton Bruckner (born Ansfelden, Austria, 4 September 1824; died Vienna, 11 October 1896) was an Austrian composer. He is especially famous for his nine symphonies. They are all very long and are written in a late Romantic style for a large orchestra. He was also an organist and teacher.

Life

Bruckner's father was an organist and schoolmaster in a small village in Austria. By the age of four Bruckner was showing musical talent. He played hymn tunes on a tiny violin and then found the chords to go with them on the family spinet. When he was ten he sometimes played the village organ for services. After his father's death in 1837 he became a choirboy at the monastery school of St Florian where, in 1848, he became the organist of the abbey church. He started composing at this time and wrote a Requiem in d minor. He liked the music of Schubert and Mendelssohn and they influenced the way he composed.

Although he was happy at St Florian his friends told him he ought to look for a better job. They made him apply for the job of organist at the cathedral of Linz which he got easily. Meanwhile, he was trying to learn more about harmony and took a course with a famous teacher Simon Sechter. He then took a course in orchestration with the teacher Otto Kitzler. He became very interested in the music of Romantic composers like Liszt, Berlioz and especially Wagner. In 1864 he wrote a Mass in d minor for chorus and orchestra which clearly showed Wagner's influence. In 1866 he finished the first of his nine symphonies. He also wrote some very beautiful motets which are among the best music of the 19th century written for the Roman Catholic church.

In 1866 he spent three months in a sanatorium after a nervous collapse. During his later years he often suffered from depression.

In 1868 he became professor at the Vienna Conservatoire where he taught harmony and counterpoint. This was an excellent job. The last 25 years of his life he spent his time teaching and composing his symphonies. He also travelled and gave organ recitals at Notre Dame in Paris and the Royal Albert Hall and Crystal Palace in London.

His music was very modern for its time and some people, including the famous music critic Eduard Hanslick, did not like it. Hanslick said that Bruckner composed like Wagner, but although Bruckner had learned from Wagner he did not simply copy him. Bruckner's music shows his own strong personality. Hanslick, who preferred the symphonies of Brahms, did Bruckner a lot of harm by writing bad reviews of his music. He was Dean of the Music Department at the university in Vienna and did not want Bruckner to be appointed lecturer at the university. However, Bruckner did get that job in 1875. He became more and more famous, especially after the great conductor Arthur Nikisch conducted the first performance of his Symphony no 7 in the Leipzig Gewandhaus in 1884. He was given many honours. At the time of his death he had not yet finished his Symphony no 9. He was buried in St Florian.

Personality

Bruckner always remained a simple person who dressed and behaved like someone from a small village. He never felt very self-confident and was always asking other people whether he was good enough for his job. He never married or had a proper relationship with anyone although he fell in love with several young women.

Music and achievement

Bruckner's symphonies show a wonderful ability to develop ideas slowly over a long period of time. Some of the slow movements last about 30 minutes. His music builds up in stages to big climaxes in a similar way to organ music. His scherzos (third movements) are tuneful dance movements which often sound like country dances. His music shows great harmonic and polyphonic skills. Bruckner often made revisions (changes) to his music. This often makes a problem for conductors today as they have to decide which version to use. Many musicians think that often Bruckner's first versions were the best. The revisions were often cuts to make a symphony shorter so that orchestras would be more likely to play it, but the cuts spoil the flow of the music. Nowadays we recognize Bruckner as one of the greatest writers of symphonies as well as a great composer of choral music.

1824 births
1896 deaths
Austrian composers
Austrian organists
People from Upper Austria
Romantic composers

Anton Bruckner


Canton Ticino or Ticino ([]; French and German: Tessin [] and []) is the southernmost canton of Switzerland. The written language is Italian in almost the entire canton (except the Walser municipality of Bosco Gurin, where it is German). It surrounds the Italian exclave of Campione d'Italia. Together with areas of the canton of Graubünden it makes up the so-called Svizzera Italiana (Italian Switzerland). Lombard dialects (Ticinese) are still spoken, especially in the valleys, but they have no official status. It is named after the Ticino river.

Geography

The canton of Ticino is located in the south of Switzerland. It is almost entirely surrounded by Italy which lies to its east, west and south. To the north lie the cantons of Valais and Uri, to the northeast the canton of Graubünden.

Its area is 2,812 km², of which about three quarters are considered productive. Forests cover about a third of the area, but also the lakes Maggiore and Lugano make up a considerable part of the total area. These lakes are known with the above listed names, but are officially named Lake Verbano and Lake Ceresio.

The canton is split geographically in two parts by the Monte Ceneri pass. The northern, more mountainous part, called Sopraceneri, is formed by the two major Swiss valleys around the lake Maggiore:  Ticino Valley and Maggia Valley. The southern part, called Sottoceneri, is the region around the Lake Lugano.

The River Ticino is the largest river in the canton. It drains most of the canton, flowing from the northwest through the Bedretto Valley and the Leventina valley to enter Lake Maggiore near Locarno. Its main tributaries are the Brenno in the Blenio Valley and the Moesa in the Mesolcina Valley in Graubünden. The lands of the canton are shaped by the river, which in its mid portion forms a wide valley, commonly known as the Riviera.

The western lands of the canton, however, are drained by the Maggia River. The Verzasca Valley is located between the Ticino river and the Maggia river. There is also a smaller area that drains directly into the Lake Lugano. Most of the land is considered within the Alps, but a small area is part of the plain of the River Po which drains the north of Italy.

History
In ancient times the area of what is today Ticino was settled by the Lepontii, a Celtic tribe. Later, probably around the rule of Augustus, it became part of the Roman Empire. After the fall of the Western Empire, was ruled by the Ostrogoths, the Lombards and the Franks. Around 1100 CE it was the centre of struggle between the free communes of Milan and Como: in the 14th century it was definitively acquired by the Visconti, Dukes of Milan. In the 15th century the Swiss Confederates conquered the valleys south of the Alps in three separate conquests.

The Canton of Uri conquered the Leventina Valley in 1440. Between 1403 and 1422 some of these lands were already annexed by forces from Uri, but subsequently lost. In a second conquest Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden gained the town of Bellinzona and the Riviera in 1500. Some of the land and the town Bellinzona itself were previously annexed by Uri in 1419 but lost again in 1422. The third conquest was fought by troops from the entire Confederation (at that time constituted by 12 cantons). In 1512 Locarno, the Maggia Valley, Lugano and Mendrisio were annexed. Subsequently, the upper valley of the Ticino River, from the St. Gotthard to the town of Biasca (Leventina Valley) was part of Canton Uri. The remaining territory (Baliaggi Ultramontani, Ennetbergische Vogteien, the Bailiwicks Beyond the Mountains) was administered by the Twelve Cantons.

The lands of the canton of Ticino are the last lands to be conquered by the Swiss Confederation. (After the battle of Marignano in 1515 the king of France Francis I defeated the Confederates, and they gave up any further conquests.) In February 1798 an attempt of annexation by the Cisalpine Republic was repelled by a volunteer militia in Lugano. Between 1798 and 1803, during the Helvetic Republic, the districts of Bellinzona and Lugano were separate cantons, but in 1803 the two were unified to form the canton of Ticino that joined the Swiss Confederation as a full member in the same year. During the Napoleonic Wars, many Ticinese (as was the case for other Swiss) served in Swiss military units allied with the French.

Until 1878 the three largest cities, Bellinzona, Lugano and Locarno, alternated as capital of the canton. In 1878, however, Bellinzona became the only and permanent capital.

The current constitution   dates from 1997. The previous constitution, heavily modified, dates from 1830, nearly 20 years before the constitution of actual Swiss Confederation.

Government
The cantonal parliament is the Grand Council (Italian: Gran Consiglio), with 90 members and the government (Consiglio di Stato) has 5 members (Consiglieri di Stato). In the both councils the members are elected with the proportional electoral system. The canton sends two deputies to the Swiss Council of States (upper house), and eight deputies to the National Council (lower house).  It's regional capitol is Bellinzona.

Agriculture
The main agricultural production is wine, mostly merlot, a type of red wine. It is followed by horticulture, milk and cheese production.

Economy
The hilly slopes of the canton are used extensively for the production of hydroelectricity. The electricity produced is used at home and sold for export. There is cattle breeding in the northern areas. The production of wine is important in the canton and exported to mainly other areas in Switzerland. The vineyards are mostly concentrated in the southern half of the canton where the climate is warmer. Other agricultural produce includes corn (maize), potatoes, tobacco and vegetables.

The weather in the canton is often inverse to that north of the Alps. This, and a warmer climate in general, attracts many tourists from other Swiss cantons. The lakes together with the sunshine are considered attractive. Tourism is the single most important economic factor in the canton.

There is also light industry, mostly concentrated around the three largest towns of Lugano, Locarno and Bellinzona.

The canton is well connected to the rest of Switzerland. There are tunnels underneath the Gotthard massive, both for rail and road. The canton of Grisons (Graubünden) is connected with a direct coach link, whereas the canton of Valais is connected by rail through a tunnel at the Simplon Pass. There are good rail links to Milan and Rome in Italy as well as Germany via Basel and Zürich.

Because of the tourist trade there are a number of small railways in scenic areas in the mountains. Winter sports is important, despite being less developed.

There are two major centres of education and research located in the canton of Ticino. The University of Italian speaking Switzerland (USI, Università della Svizzera Italiana) is the only Swiss university teaching in Italian. The University of Applied Sciences of Italian speaking Switzerland (SUPSI, Scuola Universitaria Professionale della Svizzera Italiana) on the other hand is a professional training college focused on a practical method of teaching in the areas of applied art, economy, social work, technology and production science.

Three daily newspapers are published in Ticino: Corriere del Ticino, La Regione, and Giornale del Popolo. These represent the only Italian daily publications in Switzerland.

Language
The official language, and the one used for most written communication, is Italian. In oral communication Western Lombard (Ticinese) varieties, although receding in favour of Italian (especially in the cities of Lugano, Ascona and Locarno and among the younger generations), are still well preserved.  These are further subdivided into local variations, with the northern valleys speaking a dialect more closely aligned with Romansch, Switzerland's fourth official language. There is a certain amount of popular literature (poems, comedies, etc.) in Ticinese, and the national radio and televisions trasmit regularly program in Ticinese (mainly comedies).

Religion
The population is mostly Roman Catholic (75%) or Protestant (7%). About 2% each are Orthodox or Muslim.

Districts
The Canton of Ticino is divided into 8 districts (distretti) and 38 circles (circoli):

 Distretto di Mendrisio
 Distretto di Lugano
 Distretto di Locarno
 Distretto di Vallemaggia
 Distretto di Bellinzona
 Distretto di Riviera
 Distretto di Blenio
 Distretto di Leventina

Municipalities
There are 195 municipalities in the canton (as of February 2006). These municipalities (comuni) are grouped in 38 circoli (circles or sub-districts) which are in turn grouped into districts (distretti). Since late 1990 there is an ongoing project of group some municipalities together (as they are small).

Other websites

 Cantone Ticino  official site
 Official Statistics
 Tourism office, official tourism office of Ticino.
 official website for wine of Ticino.
 Ethnologue report for Switzerland, Ethnologue language report.
 Virtual Tour of Canton Ticino, QuickTime VR virtual tour of Canton Ticino.
 Canton of Ticino maps

Ticino


The Bill of Rights is the name for the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, which limit the power of the federal government and guarantee citizens of the United States  certain rights. The amendments were written in 1789 by James Madison, and were based on important ideas about personal rights. The Bill of Rights went into effect in 1791, when 3/4 of the states agreed that they were fair. Originally, the Bill of Rights had 12 different amendments, but the first two were not passed by enough states. The second amendment that was not passed was eventually added to the Constitution in 1992, becoming the 27th amendment in the Constitution.

1st Amendment
"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof..."
This means that the government cannot make any religion an official religion. It also cannot stop people from practicing any religion.

"...or abridging the freedom of speech"

This means that the government cannot stop people from saying what they think. It applies to many forms of expression, like art.  However, people do not have freedom to say things that will limit other people's rights. For example, people do not have the freedom to threaten to kill other people.

"...or of the press"

This means that the government cannot prevent newspapers and other news sources from reporting the news.

"...or of the right of the people to peaceably assemble..."

This means that people can protest things by getting together and having rallies or marches, as long as they are not violent.

"...and to petition the government for redress of grievances."

This means that people can complain to the government about things they do not like.  They can ask the government to fix those things.
The conclusion of the BOR were that the constitution will work and America will be successful.
2nd Amendment
"A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed."

People have the right to own firearms.

3rd Amendment
"No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house he consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law."

This means that people cannot be forced to keep soldiers in their houses.

4th Amendment
"The right of the people to be secure in their, houses, writing papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated..."

The government does not have the right to search people or their property without a good reason, and it does not have the right to take people's property without a good reason.

"...and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the people or things to be seized."

A search warrant, which gives the police permission to search a person's property, can only be issued if there is a good reason to think that the person is hiding something that might show that a crime has been committed.

5th Amendment
"No person shall be held to answer for any capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger..."

If somebody is accused of committing a very serious crime, including crimes that can be punished with the death penalty, they have the right to have a grand jury decide if there is enough evidence to put the person on trial. However, this does not apply to somebody who is accused of committing a crime while serving in the military.

"...nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb..."

If somebody is accused of committing a crime and goes to a trial, and is found not guilty, the person cannot be forced to have a second trial. The idea of giving the same person a second trial after being found not guilty the first time is called double jeopardy.

"...nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself..."

Somebody cannot be forced to testify against themselves in court. This means that they cannot be forced to say things that hurt their case in a trial.

"nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation."

Somebody cannot be punished by being executed, going to jail or prison, or having money or property taken away from them without going through the legal system first. This could mean having a hearing, going before a judge, or having a jury trial.

6th Amendment

"In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district where in the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law..."

If somebody is accused of a crime, they have the right to a trial that does not take too long to start after the person is accused of the crime. The trial must be held in public and cannot be secret. The person has the right to have a jury who will decide the case fairly. Members of the jury cannot decide which side they will take before the trial starts. They also have the right to have their trial in the same area where the crime was committed.

"...and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor..."

Somebody who is going on trial for a crime has the right to know why they are being accused of a crime and to ask questions to any witnesses who testify (say in court) that the person committed the crime. A person that is going on trial has the right to have witnesses to the trial who say that the person did not commit the crime.

"...and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense."

A person going on trial for a crime has the right to be defended by a lawyer.

7th Amendment

"In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law."

If somebody sues somebody over something that is worth at least $20, this is called a civil trial. They have the right of a jury trial. The decision of the jury is final, although in some rare cases, the judge can throw out the jury's decision and bring in a new jury if the judge thinks that the jury's decision ignored the facts that they learned during the trial.

8th Amendment

"Excessive bail shall not be required..."

If somebody is arrested, they cannot be given too high of an amount for bail. Bail is something that people who are arrested have to pay if they want to be let out of jail before their trial starts. If they show up for their trial, they will get their money back.

"nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted."

If a jury in a trial decides that somebody is guilty of a crime, their punishment cannot be too harsh or cruel. They also cannot be forced to pay too high of an amount of money as punishment for their crime.

9th Amendment

"The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people."

People can have other rights, even if the Constitution does not specifically talk about them.

10th Amendment

"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

If the Constitution does not specifically say that the federal (United States) government has the power to do something, then the power to do it goes to the state government unless the Constitution specifically says that states can not do so.

References
The Bill of Rights, from the U.S. Archives.
Amendments 11-27, from the U.S. Archives.

United States Bill of Rights


Hollywood is a district in Los Angeles, California. It is very famous around the world as a place where movies and television series are made. It has many different attractions such as the Hollywood Walk of Fame and the famous Hollywood Sign. Many tourists come to Hollywood to see all of these things. Because of the importance of Hollywood in the movie industry of the United States, the whole industry is often called "Hollywood", even though not all movies are made in Hollywood. This use of the word "Hollywood" is called metonymy..

Many historic Hollywood theatres are used as venues and concert stages to premiere major theatrical releases and host the Academy Awards. It is a popular destination for nightlife and tourism and home to the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The Hollywood Walk of Fame was created in 1958 and the first star was placed in 1960. It is a sidewalk along the Hollywood Boulevard and the USA. There are more than 2000 five-points stars on the walk featuring the names of artists working in the entertainment industry.

The first movie to be made entirely in Hollywood was the 17-minute short In Old California. It was directed by D. W. Griffith. It was released in 1910.

On the mountain overlooking Hollywood, there is a sign that is made of very big letters, spelling out its name. It's called the "Hollywood sign". The huge Hollywood sign was built in 1923.

Related pages
 Bollywood

Other websites

 Hollywood Photos

Movie industry
Neighborhoods of Los Angeles

Hollywood


iTunes is a media player made by Apple. It came out on January 10, 2001, at the Macworld Expo in San Francisco. iTunes is used for playing and sorting music and video files. It also lets users see and change what is on their iPod or iPhone.
iTunes is a free download for Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows from Apple's website. The download is also included with QuickTime, a program used to play videos. It also comes with all Apple Macintosh computers, and some HP and Dell computers. However, on 3 Jun 2019, Apple announced that iTunes would not be available on macOS Catalina.

iTunes Store

The iTunes Store is an online store built into iTunes. iTunes can connect to the iTunes Store if there is an internet connection to buy and download music, music videos, television shows, iPod games, audiobooks, podcasts, and movies. The files from the iTunes Store used to use Digital Rights Management (DRM) to prevent piracy. However, iTunes now sells music and videos called iTunes Plus, which are higher quality and have no DRM.

Some singers and bands do not have most of their music on iTunes yet: The KLF, Garth Brooks, Bob Seger, Def Leppard, King Crimson and Tool.

For a long time, you could not get music by The Beatles on iTunes due to a legal conflict between Apple Inc. and Apple Records. Starting in November 2010, you can now get music by the Beatles. It is very popular nowadays. There is a lot of advertisement by Apple for Beatles music.

Beginning
Bill Kincaid had developed SoundJamMP which was released later in the year of 1999. It was later renamed iTunes which was then purchased by Apple in 2000.

As SoundJam was being worked on throughout the years, the interface of the site was changed to make it easier for people to understand how to use it.  And added the ability to burn CDs, and removed its recording feature and skin support.

On January 9, 2001, iTunes 1.0 was released at Macworld San Francisco. Macintosh users immediately began to dig through iTunes's resource fork where they discovered that there were so many other strings and other resources that indicated iTunes was a re-engineered SoundJam MP. Casady & Greene ceased distribution of SoundJam MP on June 1, 2001 at the request of the developers.

References

IPod
Apple software

ITunes


An award is something given to a person or group of people to recognize that they have done something very good. Usual awards are medal, trophy, ribbon, certificate, or plaque for example. Sometimes awards are called prizes, such as the Nobel Prize.

Awards can be given by any person or institution. Governments and militaries often give awards to their citizens for contributions they have made to the nation. This recognition can be given during the person's lifetime or even after they have died. In the United States if a military member receives a posthumous award it is generally presented to their family members or next of kin. This can include medals like the Medal of Honor; promotions to the next higher grade or naming a building or ship after them.

Some entertainment awards are:
Academy Awards
Emmy Awards
Grammy Awards
Harry Oppenheimer Fellowship Award
Juno Awards

References

Award