रसायनशास्त्र व भौतिकशास्त्रय् अणु तत्त्वया रसायनिक गुण दुगु दक्ले चिधंगु वस्तु ख।

छगू अणूय् पोजितिभ चार्ज दुगु प्रोतोन व चार्ज मदुगु न्युत्रोन जाना ताकुगु आणविक न्युक्लियस देकातै, थ्व न्युक्लियसया पिने न्युक्लियस स्वया तधंगु तर देन्सिती म्हो जुगु इलेक्त्रोन क्लाउद दै गुकिलि नेगेतिभ चार्ज दुगु इलेक्त्रोन दै। छगू अणुइ प्रोतोन व इलेक्त्रोनया संख्या उलि हे दःसा अणु इलेक्त्रिकल्ली न्युत्रल जुइ। छगू अणुइ प्रोतोनया ल्याखँ नं व अणुया तत्त्व सीकेफै धाःसा न्युत्रोनया ल्याखँ नं आइसोतोप सीकेफै।

इतिहास

The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and can not be divided into any arbitrarily tiny or small quantities has been around for thousands of years.
The earliest references to the concept of atoms date back to ancient India in the 6th century BCE.  The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools developed elaborate theories of how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pairs, then trios of pairs).
The references to atoms in West, emerge a century later by Leucippus whose student, Democritus, systemized his views. In around 450 BCE,  Democritus coined the term atomos, which meant "uncuttable". Though both the Indian and Greek concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained the name coined by Democritus.

In 1803, John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always reacted in simple proportions, and why certain gases dissolved better in water than others.  He proposed that each element consists of atoms of a single, unique type, and that these atoms could join to each other, to form compound chemical.

In 1827 a British botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water. He called their erratic motion "Brownian motion". Albert Einstein would later demonstrate that this motion was due to the water molecules bombarding the grains.

In 1897, JJ Thomson, through his work on cathode rays, discovered the electron and its subatomic nature, which destroyed the concept of atoms as being indivisible units.  Later, Thomson also discovered the existence of isotopes through his work on ionized gases.

Thomson believed that the electrons were distributed evenly throughout the atom, balanced by the presence of a uniform sea of positive charge.  However, in 1909, the gold foil experiment was interpreted by Ernest Rutherford as suggesting that the positive charge of an atom and most of its mass was concentrated in a nucleus at the center of the atom (Rutherford model), with the electrons orbiting it like planets around a sun. In 1913, Niels Bohr added quantum mechanics into this model, which now stated that the electrons were locked or confined into clearly defined orbits, and could jump between these, but could not freely spiral inward or outward in intermediate states.

In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger, using Louis DeBroglie's 1924 proposal that all particles behave to an extent like waves, developed a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms, rather than point particles. A consequence of using waveforms to describe electrons, pointed out by Werner Heisenberg a year later, is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at any point in time; this became known as the uncertainty principle. In this concept, for any given value of position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa.  Although this model was difficult to visually conceptualize, it was able to explain many observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms bigger than hydrogen. Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to exist.

उप-आणविक वस्तुत

न्हापा न्हापा अणु धागु खँग्वः सैद्धान्तिक तवं तक्ले चिधंगु वस्तुयात जनाउ यायेत छ्य्‌ला तसां आःवया आधुनिक वैज्ञानिक परिक्षणं अणुया दुने नं उप-आणविक पार्तिकल लुइकाहगु दु। उप-आणविक पार्तिकलत थ्व कथं दु:

 इलेक्त्रोन, which have a negative charge, a size which is so small as to be currently unmeasurable, and which are the least heavy (i.e., massive) of the three types of basic particles, with an mass of 9.11x10-31kg.
 प्रोतोन, which have a positive charge, with a free mass about 1836 times more than electrons (mass of 1.67x10-27kg though binding energy changes can reduce this).
 न्युत्रोन, which have no charge, have a free mass about 1839 times the mass of electrons, and about the same physical size as protons (which is on the order of 2.5x10-15 m in diameter, although the "surface" of a proton or neutron is not very sharply defined).

Protons and neutrons make up a dense, massive atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The electrons form the much larger electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. Both protons and neutrons are themselves now thought to be composed of even more elementary particles, quarks.

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons (called the atomic number). Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The number of electrons associated with an atom is most easily changed, due to the lower energy of binding of electrons. The number of protons (and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus may also change, via nuclear fusion, nuclear fission, bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons, or certain (but not all) types of radioactive decay. In such processes which change the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom becomes an atom of a different chemical element.

Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms which have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are furthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.

अणु व मोलेक्युल

For gases and certain molecular liquids and solids (such as water and sugar), molecules are the smallest division of matter which retains chemical properties; however, there are also many solids and liquids which are made of atoms, but do not contain discrete molecules (such as salts, rocks, and liquid and solid metals). Thus, while molecules are common on Earth (making up all of the atmosphere and most of the oceans), most of the mass of the Earth (much of the crust, and all of the mantle and core) is not made of identifiable molecules, but rather represents atomic matter in other networked arrangements, all of which lack the particular type of small-scale interrupted order (i.e., small, strongly-bound collections of atoms held to other collections of atoms by much weaker forces) that is associated with molecular matter.

Most molecules are made up of multiple atoms; for example, a molecule of water is a combination of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The term "molecule" in gases has been used as a synonym for the fundamental particles of the gas, whatever their structure. This definition results in a few types of gases (for example inert elements that do not form compounds, such as neon), which has "molecules" consisting of only a single atom.

अणुया उत्त्पत्ति

The first nuclei, including most of the helium and all of the deuterium in the universe, were theoretically created during big bang nucleosynthesis, about 3 minutes after the big bang.  The first atoms were theoretically created 380,000 years after the big bang, an epoch called recombination, when the universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei.  Since then, atoms have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to generate atoms up to Iron.  Some atoms such as 6Li are generated in space through Cosmic ray spallation.  Elements heavier than Iron were generated in supernovae through the r-process and in AGB stars through the s-process.  Some elements, such as lead, formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.

Most of the atoms that currently make up the earth and all its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that formed the solar system.  The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the earth through radiometric dating.  Most of the helium on earth is a product of alpha-decay.

There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning, nor are results of radioactive decay.  Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere.  Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or explosions, including all the plutonium and technetium on the earth.

Size comparisons
Various analogies have been used to demonstrate the minuteness of the atom:
 A human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms wide.
 A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion atoms of oxygen (2 followed by 21 zeros, 2×1021) and twice as many hydrogen atoms.
 A HIV virion is the width of 800 carbon atoms and contains about 100 million atoms total. An E. coli bacterium contains perhaps 100 billion atoms, and a typical human cell roughly 100 trillion atoms.
 A speck of dust might contain 3x10 (3 trillion) atoms.
 If an apple is magnified to the size of the earth, then the atoms in the apple are approximately the size of the original apple.

स्वयादिसँ

 अणुवाद
 आधारभूत क्वान्तम मेक्यानिक्स
 रसायनिक स्वापू
 एक्जोतिक अणु
 अल्याख विभाजनता
 आयोनाइजेसन
 पार्तिकलतेगु धलः

 न्युक्लियर मोदेल
 पिरियोडिक टेबल
 रेदियोएक्तिभ आइसोतोप
 सुपरअणु
 सुपर-हेभी अणु
 त्रान्सयुर्‍यानियम तत्त्व

लिधँसा

 Kenneth S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics (1987)
 Atomic and cosmic model of ferman (1975.

पिनेया स्वापू

 आणविक sizes
 How Atoms Work
 Wikibooks FHSST Physics Atom:The Atom
 विकिसफू आणविक संरचना
 Science aid - atomic structure A guide to the atom for teens.

भौतिक शास्त्र
रसायण शास्त्र

अणु


The Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, (NUTS) for the French nomenclature d'unités territoriales statistiques, is a geocode standard that shows the administrative divisions of countries for statistical purposes. It was made by the European Union, so it only covers the member states of that union in detail.

A NUTS code begins with a two-letter code referencing the country, and is identical to the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code (the only difference is UK instead of GB for the United Kingdom). The subdivision of the country is then displayed by one number. A second or third subdivision level is referred to with another number each. Each numbering starts with 1, as 0 is used for the upper level. In case the subdivision has more than 9 entities, capital letters are used to continue the numbering.

In addition to the full three levels for the European Union countries, all countries have a NUTS code with a two-letter code for a continent and two numbers for the country, and for the USA, Canada and Australia the states, provinces, and territories are numbered separately.

Some are not easily classified: for example, Gibraltar is listed as being outside the EU with the code EO21; while French Guiana is listed twice, once in France as FR930 and once in South America as AS13.

NUTS, in some ways are similar to the ISO 3166-2 standard, as well as the FIPS standard of the United States.

Levels

There are three levels of NUTS. Some with two levels of local administrative units (LAUs) below. These were called NUTS levels 4 and 5 until July 2003, but were changed due to official regulations  although they are sometimes still described as such. Note that not all countries have every level of division, depending on their size. One of the most extreme cases is Luxembourg, which has only LAUs; the three NUTS divisions each correspond to the entire country itself.

Geocodes
European Union


Telecommunication (from two words, tele meaning 'from far distances' and communication meaning to share information) is the assisted transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of communication. In earlier times, this may have involved the use of smoke signals, drums, semaphore, flags, or a mirror to flash sunlight. Starting with the telegraph, telecommunication typically involves the use of electronic transmitters such as the telephone, television, radio, optical fiber and computer.

Telecommunication


The magnetic field is the area around a magnet in which there is magnetic force. Moving electric charges can make magnetic fields. Magnetic fields can be illustrated by magnetic flux lines. At all times the direction of the magnetic field is shown by the direction of the magnetic flux lines. The strength of a magnet has to do with the spaces between the magnetic flux lines. The closer the flux lines are to each other, the stronger the magnet is. The farther away they are, the weaker. The flux lines can be seen by placing iron filings over a magnet. The iron filings move and arrange into the lines. Magnetic fields give power to other particles that are touching the magnetic field.

In physics, the magnetic field is a field that passes through space and which makes a magnetic force move electric charges and magnetic dipoles. Magnetic fields are around electric currents, magnetic dipoles, and changing electric fields.

When placed in a magnetic field, magnetic dipoles are in one line with their axes to be parallel with the field lines, as can be seen when iron filings are in the presence of a magnet. Magnetic fields also have their own energy and momentum, with an energy density proportional to the square of the field intensity. The magnetic field is measured in the units of teslas (SI units) or gauss (cgs units).

There are some notable kinds of magnetic field. For the physics of magnetic materials, see magnetism and magnet, and more specifically diamagnetism. For magnetic fields made by changing electric fields, see electromagnetism.

The electric field and the magnetic field are components of the electromagnetic field.

The law of electromagnetism was founded by Michael Faraday.

H-field

Physicists can say that the force and torques between two magnets are caused by magnetic poles repelling or attracting each other. This is like the Coulomb force repelling the same electric charges or attracting opposite electric charges. In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by magnetic charges that are 'smeared' around each pole. So, the H-field is like the electric field E which starts at a positive electric charge and ends at a negative electric charge. Near the north pole, all H-field lines point away from the north pole (whether inside the magnet or out) while near the south pole (whether inside the magnet or out) all H-field lines point toward the south pole. A north pole, then, feels a force in the direction of the H-field while the force on the south pole is opposite to the H-field.

In the magnetic pole model, the elementary magnetic dipole m is formed by two opposite magnetic poles of pole strength qm separated by a very small distance d, such that m = qm d.

Unfortunately, magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other. All magnets have north–south pairs which cannot be separated without creating two magnets each having a north–south pair. Also, magnetic poles do not account for magnetism that is produced by electric currents nor the force that a magnetic field applies to moving electric charges.

H-field and magnetic materials
The -field is defined as:

(definition of  in SI units)

With this definition, Ampere's law becomes:

where  represents the 'free current' enclosed by the loop so that the line integral of  does not depend at all on the bound currents. For the differential equivalent of this equation see Maxwell's equations. Ampere's law leads to the boundary condition:

where  is the surface free current density.

Similarly, a surface integral of  over any closed surface is independent of the free currents and picks out the 'magnetic charges' within that closed surface:

which does not depend on the free currents.

The -field, therefore, can be separated into two independent parts:

where  is the applied magnetic field due only to the free currents and  is the demagnetizing field due only to the bound currents.

The magnetic -field, therefore, re-factors the bound current in terms of 'magnetic charges'. The  field lines loop only around 'free current' and, unlike the magnetic  field, begins and ends at near magnetic poles as well.

Related pages
 Ferromagnetism
 Magnetic flux
 Magnetic moment

References

Magnetism

Magnetic field


Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fishing can be done in the sea, or in a lake or river, and by boat or from the shore.

Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping.

The term fishing may be used for catching other aquatic animals such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. The term is not normally used for catching farmed fish. With aquatic mammals, such as whales, the term whaling is better.

According to FAO statistics, the total number of commercial fishermen and fish farmers is estimated to be 38 million. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries. In 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with 7.4 kilograms more got from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational sport.

Fishing for money
Fishing for money is a very dangerous job, because people can die or be badly hurt. Fishing gives a lot of food to many countries around the world, but those who take it as a job must often go far into the ocean under bad conditions. Commercial fishermen get many kinds of sea animals. This includes fish such as tuna, cod, and salmon, as well as invertebrates such as shrimp, lobster, clams, and squid. Alaskan king crab fishing is a famous example. Ways to fish for money have become very simple, using large nets and machines to catch the animals. Many countries have made rules limiting how much fish people can catch, because some kinds have become scarce.

Raising fish in the forms of aquaculture and mariculture add to the free-range catch of fish.

Fishing for fun
Sport fishing is normally done with a fishing rod and line with any number of hooks to get the fish. This method is called angling. There may be rules that say how many lines and hooks one fisherman can use and how many fish he can catch. Anglers in fresh water catch many Black Bass (Black Bass includes the entire range of Bass fish), Pike, Muskellunge, Perch, Carp, Trout, Salmon, and Sunfish. Fish people get in saltwater include Swordfish, Marlin, Tuna, and others.

Rules generally do not allow the use of nets and catching fish with hooks not in the mouth. However some kinds of fish can be taken with nets for bait and a few for food. Non-sport fish that are not said to be worth as much can sometimes be taken by many ways like snagging, bow and arrow, or even gun, because they are seen as competing with more valuable fish.

Recreational fishing laws also include other life that lives in water, such as frogs and turtles.

Sport fishing can be a contest where fishermen try to get more fish than other fishermen. This sport came from local fishing contests into a large contest in the U.S.A. where skilled fishermen can compete and be helped out by companies giving prize money, and other large contests around the world.

Catch and release
Catch-and-release fishing is increasingly practiced especially by fly fishermen, as well as spin and bait casting fishermen, to increase conservation and to protect rare fish such as marlin. The practice is however disputed as it by some is considered unethical to perform painful actions to the fish for fun and not for the reason of food production. Because of this, catch-and-release practice is illegal in Norway.

Collection of live fish
Fish can also be collected in ways that do not injure them (such as in a seine net), for observation and study or for keeping in Aquarium. There is a substantial industry devoted to the collection, transport, export and farming of wild and domesticated live fish, usually freshwater or marine tropical fish.

Fishing with traps
Fish can also be collected in ways that do not injure them (such as in a seine net), for observation and study or for keeping in Aquarium. There is a substantial industry devoted to the collection, transport, export and farming of wild and domesticated live fish, usually freshwater or marine tropical fish.

Too much fishing

In the past, fishing has been so good for getting money that people began overfishing (fishing too much) - a serious problem that does lots of damage (bad). Overfishing does not always mean extinction, but simply that a fish type has been harvested so that there cannot be as many of that kind of fish as before. As more boats are sent out to catch the fish, many population levels of a type of fish can drop. Then, there are not enough of that kind of fish left to have new kinds of fish.

Many times, fishing boats catch fish they do not mean to catch, called bycatch. All kinds of fish can become bycatch, and they are usually thrown back into the sea after they have died. Drift net fishing sometimes catches creatures like seals, dolphins, whales, and sea turtles. This kind of fishing made people complain. In the 1980s, it was guessed that 18 miles (30 km) of nets were lost every night, tangling up boats and animals.

There is now a floating pile of plastic in the Pacific Ocean hundreds of miles wide.  Most of it is lost fishing nets, called ghost nets, and other fishing tools from large boats.

References

More reading

Related pages

Fishing net
Fishing lure
Fishing hook
Fishing rod
Overfishing

Survival skills

Fishing


Joy Division were an English Post punk band. It was made up of Ian Curtis as the lead singer, Peter Hook on bass, Stephen Morris as the Drummer and Bernard Albrecht (Sumner) on Guitar and occasional Keyboards They came out of the punk music scene in 1976, and in three years time became a band that inspired musicians from bands such as U2, Nine Inch Nails, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and The Cure. In 1980, they disbanded after the death of Ian Curtis and reformed as New Order.

During the Anarchy in the UK tour, the Sex Pistols played in Manchester on June 4. In the audience that night were three young men living around Manchester: school mates Peter Hook and Bernard Albrecht, and Ian Curtis. A few days later, Hook and Albrecht decided to start up a band, with Hook on bass and Albrecht on guitar. They got Terry Mason as a drummer, but still needed a singer. They placed an ad in the Virgin record shop in Manchester. Curtis answered it and became the singer of the band, called at the time the Stiff Kittens. He would also write the lyrics.

They practiced a lot during a few months, and wrote their first songs. In May of 1977, the band's name was changed to Warsaw and Mason was replaced on drums by Tony Tabac. Just a month later, Tabac left and Steve Brotherdale was hired as new drummer. It was at the same time that Paul Morley of the NME and DJ Rob Gretton found out about the band and saw its potential. Warsaw made a demo tape with five songs in the Pennine Sound Studios in July, but Brotherdale quit the group a few days later.

Finally, Stephen Morris joined the band. In October, they played at the Electric Circus, which was due to close down, along with The Fall and The Buzzcocks.

In December, they recorded four songs, which were to appear later as "An Ideal For Living". In January of 1978 the band changed its name to Joy Division to avoid any confusion with another group. They practised a lot and wrote new songs. On April 14 1978, they played along with 16 bands in a contest. Tony Wilson, who worked for Granada TV, and Rob Gretton liked their performance very much.

In 1979 Joy Division released their first album Unknown Pleasures which was well received by critics. During 1979 and early 1980 their popularity increased. Also in this period lead singer Ian Curtis suffered worsening bouts of illness caused by epilepsy.

The band returned to the studio in 1980 to record their second album Closer and a single "Love Will Tear Us Apart". Before these recordings were released Curtis had committed suicide at just 23. The unreleased album and single were subsequently released to critical acclaim. The remaining members of Joy Division reformed in 1980 as New Order and enjoyed considerable worldwide success during the 1980s and 1990s.

Many musicians and bands have acknowledged their appreciation of the work of Joy Division including U2 frontman Bono, Moby, Red Hot Chili Peppers and The Killers and the song Love Will Tear Us Apart  has been covered by many artists from different musical backgrounds and genres.

Other websites
 Joy Division - The Eternal - Biography, pictures, lyrics, books, videos, press articles, etc.
 Joy Division Central – Independent Joy Division site covering every aspect of the band in great detail
 Incubation  – Joy Division's most detailed discography and press articles
 Joy Division Myspace Page Unofficial Joy Division Myspace Page
 Joy Division Messageboard – A moderated board with over 1400 members covering a wide range of Joy Division related topics

1976 establishments in the United Kingdom
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
1980s disestablishments in the United Kingdom
English punk bands
Musical groups disestablished in 1980
Musical groups established in 1976
Musical groups from Greater Manchester
1980 disestablishments in the United Kingdom

Joy Division


A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature. When the gas is air, the machine is called an air compressor.

Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to transport liquids.

Types of compressors
There are many different types of gas compressors. The two primary categories are:
 Positive displacement compressors with two sub-categories:
 Reciprocating
 Rotary
 Dynamic compressors also with two sub-categories:
 Centrifugal
 Axial

The more important types in each of the four sub-categories are discussed below.

Centrifugal compressors

Centrifugal compressors use a vaned rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Their application can be from 100 hp (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).

Many large snow-making operations (like a ski resort) use this type of compressor. They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of medium-sized gas turbines.

Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors
Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to the axial direction. The diagonal compressor has a lower diameter diffuser than the equivalent centrifugal compressor.

Axial-flow compressors

Axial-flow compressors use a series of fan-like rotating rotor blades to progressively compress the gasflow. Stationary stator vanes, located downstream of each rotor, redirect the flow onto the next set of rotor blades. The area of the gas passage diminishes through the compressor to maintain a roughly constant axial Mach number. Axial-flow compressors are normally used in high flow applications, such as medium to large gas turbine engines. They are almost always multi-staged. Beyond about 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable geometry is often used to improve operation.

Reciprocating compressors
Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors up to 1000 hp are still commonly found in large industrial applications, but their numbers are declining as they are replaced by various other types of compressors. Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>5000 psi or 35 MPa). In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, noisier, and more costly than comparable rotary units.

Rotary screw compressors
Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space. These are usually used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their application can be from 3 hp (2.24 kW) to over 500 hp (375 kW) and from low pressure to very high pressure (>1200 psi or 8.3 MPa). They are commonly seen with roadside repair crews powering air-tools. This type is also used for many automobile engine superchargers because it is easily matched to the induction capacity of a piston engine. It's a type of positive displacement gas compression.

Scroll compressors

A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be involute, archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of compressors.

Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid between the scrolls.

Diaphragm compressors
A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the compressor box come in touch with the gas being compressed.

Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG) as well as in a number of other applications.

Miscellany
Air compressors sold to and used by the general public are often attached on top of a tank for holding the pressurized air. Oil-lubricated and oil-free compressors are available. Oil-free compressors are desirable because without a properly designed separator, oil can make its way into the air stream. For some purposes, for example as a diving air compressor, even a little oil in the air stream may be unacceptable.

Temperature
Charles's law says "when a gas is compressed, temperature is raised". There are three possible relationships between temperature and pressure in a volume of gas undergoing compression:
 Isothermal - gas remains at constant temperature throughout the process. In this cycle, internal energy is removed from the system as heat at the same rate that it is added by the mechanical work of compression. Isothermal compression or expansion is favored by a large heat exchanging surface, a small gas volume, or a long time scale (i.e., a small power level). With practical devices, isothermal compression is usually not attainable. For example, even a bicycle tire-pump gets hot during use.
 Adiabatic - In this process there is no heat transfer to or from the system, and all supplied work is added to the internal energy of the gas, resulting in increases of temperature and pressure. Theoretical temperature rise is T2 = T1·Rc((k-1)/k)), with T1 and T2 in degrees Rankine or kelvins, and k = ratio of specific heats (approximately 1.4 for air). The rise in air and temperature ratio means compression does not follow a simple pressure to volume ratio. This is less efficient, but quick. Adiabatic compression or expansion is favored by good insulation, a large gas volume, or a short time scale (i.e., a high power level). In practice there will always be a certain amount of heat flow, as to make a perfect adiabatic system would require perfect heat insulation of all parts of a machine.
 Polytropic - This assumes that heat may enter or leave the system, and that input shaft work can appear as both increased pressure (usually useful work) and increased temperature above adiabatic (usually losses due to cycle efficiency). Cycle efficiency is then the ratio of temperature rise at theoretical 100 percent (adiabatic) vs. actual (polytropic).

Staged compression
Since compression generates heat, the compressed gas is to be cooled between stages making the compression less adiabatic and more isothermal. The inter-stage coolers cause condensation meaning water separators with drain valves are present. The compressor flywheel may drive a cooling fan.

For instance in a typical diving compressor, the air is compressed in three stages. If each stage has a compression ratio of 7 to 1, the compressor can output 343 times atmospheric pressure (7 x 7 x 7 = 343 Atmospheres).

Applications
Gas compressors are used in various applications where either higher pressures or lower volumes of gas are needed:
 in pipeline transport of purified natural gas to move the gas from the production site to the consumer.
 in petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical and chemical plants, and similar large industrial plants for compressing intermediate and end product gases.
 in refrigeration and air conditioner equipment to move heat from one place to another in refrigerant cycles: see Vapor-compression refrigeration.
 in gas turbine systems to compress the intake combustion air
 in storing purified or manufactured gases in a small volume, high pressure cylinders for medical, welding and other uses.
 in many various industrial, manufacturing and building processes to power all types of pneumatic tools.
 as a medium for transferring energy, such as to power pneumatic equipment.
 in pressurised aircraft to provide a breathable atmosphere of higher than ambient pressure.
 in some types of jet engines (such as turbojets and turbofans) to provide the air required for combustion of the engine fuel. The power to drive the combustion air compressor comes from the jet's own turbines.
 in SCUBA diving, hyperbaric oxygen therapy and other life support devices to store breathing gas in a small volume such as in diving cylinders .
 in submarines to store air for later use as buoyancy.
 in turbochargers and superchargers to increase the performance of internal combustion engines by concentrating oxygen.
 in rail and heavy road transport to provide compressed air for operation of brakes and various other systems (doors, windscreen wipers, engine/gearbox control, etc.).
 in miscellaneous uses such as providing compressed air for filling pneumatic tires.

References

Related pages
 Pneumatics
 Pump
 Air pump

Engineering
HVAC

Gas compressor


Louis-Hector Berlioz (11 December 1803 – 8 March 1869) was a French composer and music critic. He was one of the greatest composers of the 19th century. His music is typical of the Romantic period: full of passion and often based on ideas outside music. He was not particularly good at playing any instrument, but he was brilliant at writing for the orchestra. Some of his most famous works include several orchestral overtures, the Symphonie Fantastique, the opera Les Troyens (The Trojans), the requiem Grande messe des morts and the song cycle Les nuits d'été (Summer Nights). He was very original as a composer, and his music was not fully appreciated until many years after his death.

Life

Childhood and student days

Berlioz was the eldest of six children. One brother and one sister lived to be adults, and Berlioz was always very fond of them both. His father was a doctor. The family lived in the country, north west of Grenoble.

Berlioz only went to school for a short time, when he was ten years old. The rest of his education he had from his father. He liked French and Latin literature and travel books about faraway countries. He learned to play the flute, the flageolet and the guitar. He read a book by Rameau about harmony. He never had a piano. He just imagined the sounds of chords in his head. He was only 12 when he fell in love with a girl called Estelle who was 18. He was teased about it a lot. He started to compose some music.

When he was 17 his father said that he wanted him to be a doctor. Berlioz wanted to study music, but his father made him go to Paris to study medicine. Berlioz was to stay in Paris for the rest of his life. He studied medicine for two years, but he hated it. One day, in an anatomy lesson, he had had enough and jumped out of the window. He started to study music. His father was furious and stopped sending him money. Berlioz was very poor and started writing musical criticism for newspapers. This is how he earned most of his money for the rest of his life. He was also borrowing money from friends.

Berlioz started going to the Opéra. He particularly liked the music of Gluck and went to the library to study Gluck's scores. At the end of 1822 he found a good teacher. His name was Le Sueur. He made Berlioz stop publishing his music until he had learned to compose properly. In 1826 he was officially a student at the Conservatoire. He continued to study with Le Sueur and with Reicha. He tried four times to win the important music prize called Prix de Rome. The first time he wrote a piece called La Mort d'Orphée (The Death of Orpheus). The judges said it was unplayable, but Berlioz got an orchestra to play it. The second time he wrote a piece called Herminie which had a tune he used later as the main tune for his Symphonie fantastique. The third time he wrote a cantata La mort de Cléopâtre which is a wonderful work but he still did not win the prize. The fourth time he wrote a cantata La mort de Sardanapale, and he won the prize. Nearly all the music for this work is now lost.

Berlioz did not understand any English, but he went to a performance of Shakespeare's Hamlet given by an English theatre company. The actress taking the part of Ophelia was called Harriet Smithson. Berlioz fell passionately in love with her, although he did not know her, and started following her about everywhere. In the end he married her. The marriage was not a success. Berlioz was really in love with Ophelia, the character from Shakespeare's play. He found it hard to love Harriet in real life.

Shakespeare's plays, however, were to be a great inspiration for Berlioz. He wrote many works which are inspired by Shakespeare, including Roméo et Juliette, Béatrice et Bénédict, Roi Lear and several others. He was also inspired at this time by Goethe's Faust as well as by many other writers including E.T.A. Hoffmann, Scott and Byron. He also discovered the music of Beethoven which helped him to learn how to give shape to large compositions.

Berlioz started to be very busy putting on concerts of his music in Paris. He was quickly becoming known as a very original young composer. Winning the Prix de Rome gave him a steady income for a time, but he was supposed to go to Rome. Berlioz did not want to go to Rome. He said that he had plenty of work in Paris. The real reason why did not want to go was probably because he was in love with a 19- year-old girl called Camille Moke.
.

The 1830s
Berlioz spent 15 months in Rome. On his way there he visited his parents who seemed to have forgiven him for not studying medicine. They could now be proud because their son was so successful. In Italy Berlioz did not write much music. He did not like Italian music or Italian art, but he was inspired by the countryside, the sun, the sea, the people he met: sailors, peasants, sculptors, travellers. He did not like the city of Rome, although he did like Florence. He hated the Villa Medici, the house where he had to stay. When he travelled about he wrote some music. When he heard the news that Camille now loved another man he became so furious that he left Rome in order to return to Paris to kill them both. However, when he got as far as Nice he calmed down and changed his mind. He returned to Rome.

At the end of his time in Italy he returned to Paris, visiting his parents on the way. He started organizing concerts of his music. This is when he got to know Harriet Smithson. They had a strange courtship and he married her in 1833. The next year they had a son. The marriage was never easy. Their personalities were different, they were poor, and they did not speak one another's language. In 1842 they separated and Harriet died in great poverty in 1854.

Although a few people thought that Berlioz was an original composer, many others thought his music was very strange. He hardly earned any money from composing. Most of the money he earned came from musical journalism, which is something he hated. When his works were performed, he usually conducted them himself. He wrote a work for viola and orchestra called Harold en Italie. Paganini had asked him to write it for him to play, but when Paganini saw the music he did not like it because it was not "showy" enough for the viola. Some years later Paganini heard the work and decided he liked it, so he paid Berlioz 20.000 Francs. This was a lot of money, and it made it possible for Berlioz to spend time writing a big new work: Roméo et Juliette. When this was first performed some critics thought that Berlioz did not understand Shakespeare probably. However, Richard Wagner, who was in the audience at the first performance, was very impressed. Berlioz tried to be successful as an opera composer, but people did not understand his original music. He wrote a Grand symphonie funèbre et triomphale, originally written for a military band. Les nuits d'été is a very moving song-cycle.

Later life

During the 1840s and 1850s Berlioz spent much of his time travelling abroad. He went to Germany, Austria, Russia and England. He was becoming more famous abroad than at home in France, although he still continued to go back to Paris. The Germans loved his music and were impressed by his conducting. He rarely conducted anything except his own music. In 1846 he composed one of his finest works: La Damnation de Faust which was performed in the Opéra-Comique. The opera house was half empty. It was a great disappointment to him. Berlioz continued to tour to other countries where people appreciated him. He had great success in St Petersburg, in Berlin where he performed to the King of Prussia, and in London, where he never got paid for the concerts that Jullien conducted because Jullien had no money left. However, he had other successes in London and the English liked him very much.

In 1854 Harriet Smithson died and seven months later Berlioz married Marie Recio, a singer he had known for 12 years. Her Spanish mother came to live with them, and she looked after Berlioz very kindly in his last years when he was ill. Berlioz' son Louis had become a captain in the navy and travelled all over the world. This was something Berlioz had always dreamt of doing since his childhood when he used to read travel books. Berlioz was terribly sad in 1867 when he heard that Louis had died in Havana of yellow fever.

Berlioz had always had a passion for the Latin poet Virgil. In 1856 he spent a long time writing a long opera in five acts called Les Troyens (The Trojans). He knew it would be almost impossible to find anyone who would put on a performance. It only became possible in 1863 after he had divided the work into two parts. After that it was 30 years before the opera was performed again. It contains some of his best music. The storm scene is especially famous and often performed separately as an orchestral piece.

As he got older he became obsessed with death. He had lost two wives, and his two sisters had also died. He started to walk in cemeteries. He wrote his Memoires (autobiography). It has been translated into many languages including English.

In 1863 he wrote to Estelle, the girl he had loved when he was a child. She was now a widow of 67 and he was 60. He visited her in Lyons and loved her again. He wrote regularly to her for the rest of his life, and stayed with her three times in Grenoble where she lived with her son. She gradually understood him better, and she gave him much happiness during his last years.

A final journey to St Petersburg was too much for Berlioz. He became ill. He went to Nice on the way home, where he twice collapsed while walking by the sea. He went back to Paris where he was cared for by his mother-in-law. He died on 11 March 1869 and was buried in the Cimitière Montmartre.

Berlioz's reputation
Berlioz is a clear example of a "prophet who is without honour in his own country": not many people in France realized he was a great composer, but in other countries he was welcomed as one of the great composers and conductors of his day. Many of his works are difficult to describe. His Symphonie fantastique is not quite a symphony, his Harold en Italie is not quite a concerto. His Requiem is not a normal, religious requiem, Roméo et Juliette is a mixture of all sorts of things. He wrote five operas, which are all very different in style. His songs are tender and lovely, influenced by the French romance. His overtures are very popular at orchestral concerts. His music is very original and, although he wrote a book on orchestration, the sounds he composed were so personal that no one could imitate him. He was not good at playing any instrument, but could imagine all the sounds in his head. Many of his melodies stretch themselves over an unusual number of bars. A lot of his orchestral music is programme music: it is often inspired by books or wild stories in his imagination.

References
 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980.
 Berlioz Mémoires; edition Garnier-Flammarion, Paris 1969

1803 births
1869 deaths
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris
French autobiographers
19th-century French composers
French music critics
People with foods named after them
Romantic composers

Hector Berlioz


A gemme is a structurt or semi-structurt acteevity, for ordinar unnertaen for enjoyment an whiles uised as an eddicational tuil. (The term "gemme" is uised for tae descrieve simulation o sindry acteevities e.g., for the purposes o trainin, analysis or predeection, etc. Gemmes is for ordinar distinct frae wark that's for ordinar cairiet oot for remuneration, an frae airt that's mair adae wi the expression o thochts. Housomeiver, the disteenction isna clear-cut, an mony gemmes micht be conseedered wark an/or airt an aw. Key components o gemmes is dales, rules, chailenge, an interacteevity. Gemmes for ordinar involves mental or pheesical stimulation, an aften baith. Mony gemmes helps upbig practical skeels, sers as a form o exercise, or itherwice performs an eddicational, simulational or psychological role.

References

Gemme


Abraham Bedersi (Hebrew: אברהם בדרשי) was a Provençal Jewish poet; he was born at Béziers (whence his surname Bedersi, or native of Béziers). The dates of his birth and death have not been ascertained.

An elegy which he composed during his youth, upon the Confiscation of the Books of the Law, is supposed by some scholars to refer to the burning of the Talmud in Paris about the year 1242; by others, to the confiscation of the Talmud in Aragon in 1264, as the direct result of the Barcelona controversy. If the latter view is correct, Bedersi may well have flourished about the year 1240 (Leopold Zunz, Z.G., p. 413).

As appears from the letter sent by Bedersi to Don Vidal Solomon (Ḥotam Toknit, p. 4), he went early (perhaps in 1273) to Perpignan, where he attended the lectures of Joseph Ezubi. He returned often to Perpignan and took an active part in its communal affairs. A number of his letters, contained in MS. cviii (72) of the Vienna Hofbibliothek, are written to prominent Jews in Barcelona, asking them to aid their less fortunate coreligionists.

At one time he lived at Arles, and in 1285, during the war of France with Roussillon, he took refuge in Narbonne. He seems at one time to have been rich, for in a poem he declares that he is independent and writes for his own pleasure. The compiler of his diwan relates that Bedersi sent money to the wandering poet Gorni (Luzzatto, Intro. to Ḥotam Toknit, p. 4).

Bedersi was a prolific writer. Several collections of his poems are still extant in manuscript in various libraries. The most complete manuscript is that in the British Library, Add MS 27168. This contains an elegy on the death of his relative, David of Cabestan; several poems and letters addressed to Todros Abulafia and his companion, Abu al-Ḥasan Saul; poems dedicated to the physician of the king of Castile, Abu al-Ḥasan Meïr ibn al-Ḥarit; and the elegy mentioned above.

Two of Bedersi's works were published, with an interesting introduction by Luzzatto, by G. Polak, Amsterdam, 1862:

Ḥereb ha-Mithapeket (A Revolving Sword), a poem of 210 strophes, according to the numerical value of the word  = 8 + 200 + 2. The author in this poem gives a brief account of Jewish poetry, the decadence of which he deplores. He praises the makamat (poems) of Al-Hariri of Basra, which he probably knew through the translation of several by Al-Ḥarizi
Ḥotem Toknit (Who Seals the Sum; compare Ezek. xxviii.12), a treatise on Hebrew synonyms.

Another poetical work, entitled Bakashat ha-Lamedin, published at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1812, was attributed to Abraham Bedersi; but it is probable that this poem was written by his son Jedaiah Bedersi.

Bedersi's works show the decadence of Jewish poetry at that time. His style is stiff and unintelligible, though he possessed a thorough knowledge of Hebrew.

References

Leopold Zunz, Z.G., p. 462;
Salomon Munk, in Archives Israéites, 1847, p. 67;
Kerem Ḥemed, iv.57;
Heinrich Grätz, Gesch. der Juden, 3rd ed., vii.97;
Ernest Renan-Adolf Neubauer, Les Rabbins Français, pp. 710 et seq.;
Henri Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 100;
Bergmann, Aus den Briefen Abraham Bedersi's, in Monatsschrift, xlii.507 et seq.
One of Bedersi's letters was published in 1765 by Solomon da Piera as an appendix to his collection of Hebrew synonyms, entitled Maskiyyot Kesef

External links
Source

Hebrew-language poets
13th-century French Jews

Abraham Bedersi


Fremantle is a port city in Western Australia.  It is the main city on the ocean and is near Perth.  The city has a population of 26,000 people.  It is at the place where the Swan River runs into the Indian Ocean.

It was established by English people who arrived there in 1829 and established the Swan River Colony.  The city is named after Charles Fremantle who was the captain of the first ship to arrive there.

Fremantle


A filter is a device used to remove unwanted parts from something.  For example, removing solid particles from a liquid.  Filter can also mean the act of filtering: it can be used as a verb.  The different branches of science and technology often mean a particular kind of device when filter is mentioned.

In chemistry

The simplest filter is the kind called filter paper.  Liquids can pass through the paper.  Solid particles are stopped.

More advanced filters are possible.  Two that are often used to make water more pure are activated carbon and zeolites.

Filters are used to remove unwanted items and/or impurities in the substance you are filtering.

In electrical science

The most usual thing meant by filter in electrical science is a wave filter. One common kind lets through some frequencies and stops all others. This is a band pass filter. For instance, in a radio it can select the radio station the listener wants to hear.  The frequency of that station is passed, but all others are rejected.

There are many other uses, including use in telephones and audio, see: audio crossover.

There are digital filters which can be used to filter things besides frequencies.  A common use is to improve the quality of pictures.  For instance, there are filters which can make the edges of objects look more clear.

In optics and photography
Optical filters act on light. They change it certain ways. This can be used for photographic filters.

In mechanics
Filters can be made from mechanical components.  They will do very similar things to electric filters.  Most especially, mechanical filters can be wave filters.  That is, they can block some frequencies and pass others.  Because of this, electric filters are sometimes made by first making a mechanical filter.  The electric wave is turned into a mechanical movement, then passed through the filter, then turned back in to an electric wave.  This kind of filter is often made from quartz crystals.

A device which changes electrical signals into mechanical signals is called a transducer.  A device which changes mechanical signals into electrical signals is also a transducer, but one of a different kind.

In information technology

An internet filter removes certain kinds of information.  For example, certain words can be blocked.

Computer science
Analytical chemistry

Filter


The Great Library of Alexandria was a large and significant library of the ancient world. It was founded in Alexandria, Egypt. The Library flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a major center of scholarship. It was built in the third century BC.

In ancient Latin, the library was known as the "ALEXANDRINA BYBLIOTHECE" (see image at right). The Greek term bibliotheke (βιβλιοθήκη), used by many historians of the era, refers to the collection of books, not to any building. This complicates the history and chronology.

The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II.

Its destruction
Plutarch (AD 46–120) wrote that during his visit to Alexandria in 48 BC, Julius Caesar might have accidentally burned the library when he set fire to his own ships to frustrate Achillas' attempt to limit his ability to communicate by sea. According to Plutarch's account, this fire spread to the docks and then to the library.

However, this version of events is not confirmed in contemporary accounts of Caesar's visit. In fact, it has been reasonably established that segments of its collection were partially destroyed on several occasions before and after the first century BC. A modern view attributes the destruction to Coptic Christian Archbishop Theophilus of Alexandria in 391, who called for the destruction of the Serapeum -- the Daughter library and a temple to the god Serapis.

The Library as a research institution

According to the earliest source of information, the library was initially organized by Demetrius of Phaleron, a student of Aristotle, under the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (ca.367 BC—ca.283 BC).

The library comprised a peripatos (walk), gardens, a room for shared dining, a reading room, lecture halls and meeting rooms.  However, the exact layout is not known. This model's influence may still be seen today in the layout of university campuses. The library itself is known to have had an acquisitions department (possibly built near the stacks, or for utility closer to the harbour), and a cataloguing department. The hall contained shelves for the collections of scrolls (as the books were at this time on papyrus scrolls), known as bibliothekai (βιβλιοθῆκαι). It was rumored that carved into the wall above the shelves, a famous inscription read: The place of the cure of the soul.

It was the first known library to gather a serious collection of books from beyond its country's borders. The Library was charged with collecting all the world's knowledge. It did so through an aggressive and well-funded royal mandate involving trips to the book fairs of Rhodes and Athens and a policy of pulling the books off every ship that came into port. They kept the original texts and made copies to send back to their owners. Alexandria, because of its man-made bidirectional port between the mainland and the Pharos island, welcomed trade from the East and West, and soon found itself the international hub for trade, as well as the leading producer of papyrus and, soon enough, books.

The library was also home to a host of international scholars. The library filled its stacks with new works in mathematics, astronomy, physics, natural history and other subjects. It was at the Library of Alexandria that the scientific method was first conceived and put into practice, and its empirical standards applied in serious textual criticism. As the same text often existed in several different versions, comparative textual criticism was crucial for ensuring their accuracy. Once ascertained, copies would then be made for scholars, royalty and wealthy bibliophiles the world over, this commerce bringing income to the library. The editors at the Library of Alexandria are especially well known for their work on Homeric texts. The more famous editors generally also held the title of head librarian. These included, among others,
 Zenodotus (early third century BC)
 Callimachus, (early third century BC), the first bibliographer and developer of the Pinakes - the first library catalog.
 Apollonius of Rhodes (mid-third century BC)
 Eratosthenes (late third century BC)
 Aristophanes of Byzantium (early second century BC)
 Aristarchus of Samothrace (late second century BC).
 Euclid.

Already famous in the ancient world, the library's collection became even more storied in later years. Papyrus scrolls comprised the collection, and although parchment codices were used predominantly as a more advanced writing material after 300 BC.

A single piece of writing might occupy several scrolls. King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309–246 BC) is said to have set 500,000 scrolls as an objective for the library. Mark Antony supposedly gave Cleopatra over 200,000 scrolls (taken from the great Library of Pergamum) for the library as a wedding gift. Carl Sagan, in his series Cosmos, states that the library contained nearly one million scrolls, though other experts have estimated a smaller number. No index of the library survives, and it is not possible to know with certainty how large and how diverse the collection may have been.

A perhaps exaggerated story concerns how the library's collection grew so large. By decree of Ptolemy III of Egypt, all visitors to the city were required to surrender all books and scrolls. Official scribes then swiftly copied these writings, some copies proving so precise that the originals were put into the library, and the copies delivered to the unsuspecting owners. This process also helped to create a reservoir of books in the relatively new city.

According to Galen, Ptolemy III requested permission from the Athenians to borrow the original scripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, for which the Athenians demanded the enormous amount of fifteen talents as guarantee. Ptolemy happily paid the fee but kept the original scripts for the library.

The Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated in 2002 near the site of the old library.

Related pages
 Bibliotheca Alexandrina

References

Libraries
Ptolemaic Alexandria
Buildings and structures in Ancient Egypt
3rd-century BC buildings and structures

Library of Alexandria


The 22nd century BC is a century which was from the year 2200 BC to 2101 BC.

Events

4.2 kiloyear event – the land became very dry, an event that probably lasted the entire 22nd century BC and caused the end of several Old World civilizations.
2217 BC – 2193 BC: Nomadic invasions of Akkad.
2200 BC: Sixth dynasty of Egypt ended.
c. 2190 BC: Caused by a severe drought, Old Kingdom finished in Ancient Egypt. Start of First Intermediate Period. 7th–10th Dynasties.
c. 2184 BC: Pharaoh Pepi II Neferkare dies (other date is 2289 BC?).
c. 2181 BC: Old Kingdom ends in Ancient Egypt (other date is 2190 BC).
c. 2181 BC: First Intermediate Period starts in Ancient Egypt (other date is 2190 BC).
2181 BC: Egypt: Pharaoh Nitocris died. End of Sixth Dynasty, start of Seventh Dynasty. Pharaoh Neferkara I started to reign.
2180 BC: Old Kingdom ends in Ancient Egypt. First Intermediate Period of Egypt starts.
c. 2180 BC: Akkadian Empire fell under attack by the Guti (Mesopotamia), a mountain people from the northeast.
2173 BC: Egypt: End of Seventh Dynasty, start of Eighth Dynasty.
2160 BC: Egypt: Pharaoh Neferirkara died. End of Eighth Dynasty, start of Ninth Dynasty. Pharaoh Neferkare started to reign.
c. 2160 BC: Beginning of Middle Minoan period in Crete.
c. 2150–2030 BC: Gilgamesh epic was written.
c. 2150 BC: Lagash.
c. 2144 BC: Gudea, the ruler (ensi) of the city of Lagash, started to reign.
2138 BC: Babylon: A solar eclipse on 9 May and a lunar eclipse on 24 May occurred and are believed to be the double eclipse that took place 23 years after the ascension of king Shulgi of Babylon by those holding to the long chronology.
2130 BC: Egypt: End of Ninth Dynasty, start of Tenth Dynasty. Ninth Dynasty wars in Egypt started.
c. 2125 BC – 2055 BC: "Model of a house and garden, from Thebes". Eleventh dynasty of Egypt. It is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.
2124 BC: Gudea, the ruler (ensi) of the city of Lagash, died.
c. 2120 BC: Votive statue of Gudea from Lagash (Iraq) was made. It is now in the Musée du Louvre.
2119 BC – 2113 BC: (middle chronology), Utu-hengal, first king of the third dynasty of Ur.
2116 BC – 2110 BC: Uruk–Gutian war.
2112 BC – 2095 BC: Sumerian campaigns of Ur-Nammu.
2104 BC – 2103 BC: Date of the Biblical flood according to the Hebrew Calendar.

Significant persons
 Gudea
 Ur-Nammu

22nd century BC


Grammar is the study of words, how they are used in sentences, and how they change in different situations. The Ancient Greeks used to call it grammatikē tékhnē, the craft of letters. It can have any of these meanings:
 The study of a language: how it works, and everything about it. This is background research on language.
 The study of sentence structure.  Rules and examples show how the language should be used.  This is a correct usage grammar, as in a textbook or manual/guide.
 The system which people learn as they grow up. This is the native-speaker's grammar.

When we speak, we use the native person's grammar, or as near as we can. When we write, we try to write with correct grammar. So, speaking and writing a language each have their own style.

Different languages
All languages have their own grammar. Most European languages are rather similar.

English makes few changes to its word endings ('suffixes'). In the Italic or 'Romance' languages (such as French, Italian, and Spanish), word endings carry a lot of meaning. In English we have just a few: plurals and possessives (John's) are the most common. In our verbs we have dropped most endings except one: I love, you love, but she loves. That final 's' comes from the Anglo-Saxon, which had more suffixes. Verbs do have endings which show changes in tense: walked, walking.

Word order is the other big difference. Romance languages normally put adjectives after the nouns to which they refer. For example, in English, a person may say I like fast cars, but in Spanish, it is Me gustan los coches rápidos. The order of the words has changed: if just the words, without the grammar, are translated into English, it would mean 'to me they please the cars fast'. This is because Spanish and English have different rules about word order. In German, verbs often come near the end of sentences (as: Die Katze hat die Nahrung gegessen), whereas in English we usually put them between subject and object, as: the cat has eaten the food.

Changing language
Written grammar changes slowly but spoken grammar is more fluid. Sentences which English speakers find normal today, might have seemed strange 100 years ago. And they might not, because many of our favourite sayings come from the Authorized King James Version of the Bible, and from Shakespeare.

Different people speak with grammar that differs from that of other people.  For example, people who use the dialects called General American English and BBC English might say, I didn't do anything, while someone who speaks what is called African American Vernacular English or AAVE might say, I didn't do nothing. London working class version: I ain't done nuffink!  These are called double negatives, and are found almost entirely in spoken English, and seldom written.

These differences are called dialects. The dialect a person uses is usually decided by where they live. Even though the dialects of English use different words or word order, they still have grammar rules. However, when writing in American English, grammar uses the rules of General American English. When people talk about using 'proper English', they usually mean using the grammar of general British English, as described in standard reference works. The models for spoken English in Britain are often called Received Pronunciation or BBC English.

Parts of speech
Grammar studies nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, sentences, phrases, clauses, interjections.

Nouns
Nouns are 'thing' words like 'table and 'chair'.  They are objects, things you see in everyday life.  Proper nouns are names of specific places, people, or other things like days of the week.  The name 'James' is a proper noun, as is 'Wednesday' and 'London'. Nouns can also be abstract things, such as 'suffering' or 'happiness'.

Verbs
Verbs are words that describe actions: "Ryan threw the ball". State: "I am worried". The basic verb form is called the infinitive.  The infinitive for existence is "to be".  A famous example is the speech of Hamlet: To be or not to be, that is the question.

Variations of the infinitive create verb tenses.

 Past tense = was

Present tense = is

Future tense = will/shall

Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns. For example, the pretty in "pretty bicycle" says that the bicycle is pretty. In other words, the "pretty" is describing the bicycle. This can also happen with a place. For example, the tall in "that's a tall building" is describing the building.

Syntax
Grammar studies syntax which is how the "parts of speech" fit together according to rules and create sentences.  Sentences fit together and create paragraphs.

References

Grammar


Prehistory (or pre-history) is the time before people began to write. The word comes from the Ancient Greek words προ (pre = "before") and ιστορία (historia = "history"). Paul Tournal first used the French word Préhistorique. He found things made by humans more than ten thousand years ago in some caves in France. The word was first used in France around 1830 to talk about the time before writing. Daniel Wilson used it in English in 1851.

The term is mostly used for the period from 4.5 billion BC  3000 BC, roughly speaking, the Neolithic. Sometimes the term "prehistoric" is used for much older periods, but scientists have more accurate terms for those more ancient times.

Less is known about prehistoric people because there are no written records (history) for us to study.  Finding out about pre-history is done by archaeology.  This means studying things like tools, bones, buildings and cave drawings. Pre-history ends at different times in different places when people began to write.

In the more ancient stone age pre-history, people lived in tribes and lived in caves or tents made from animal skin.  They had simple tools made from wood and bones, and cutting tools from stone such as flint, which they used to hunt and to make simple things.  They made fire and used it for cooking and to stay warm.  They made clothing out of animal skins, and later by weaving. Society started when people began doing specialized jobs. This is called the division of labour. The division of labor made people depend on one another and led to more complex civilizations.

Some important sciences that are used to find out more about pre-history are palaeontology, astronomy, biology, geology, anthropology, and archaeology. Archaeologists study things left over from prehistory to try to understand what was happening. Anthropologists study the traces of human behavior to learn what people were doing and why.

After people started to record events, first by drawing symbols (called pictographs) and then by writing, it became much easier to tell what happened, and history started. These records can tell us the names of leaders (such as Kings and Queens), important events like floods and wars, and the things people did in their daily lives. The time when prehistory ended and history started is different in different places, depending on when people began to write and if their records were kept safe or lost so they could be found later on. In places like Mesopotamia, China, and Ancient Egypt, things were recorded from very early times (around 3200 BC in Ancient Egypt) and these records can be looked at and studied. In New Guinea, the end of prehistory came much later, around 1900.

Timeline of Earth

 4.5 billion years ago – Earth formed out of smaller rocks flying around the sun
 3,500 million years ago – first very simple and tiny forms of life in the seas
 600 million years ago - first animals, also in the seas
 500 million years ago - first plants and animals on land
 230 million years ago – first dinosaurs appear
 65 million years ago – dinosaurs disappear; mammals take their place as dominant animals
 30 million years ago - first apes
 2.5 million years ago - first humans

Timeline of people
 2.5 million years ago – Start of Lower Palaeolithic age, during which a type of early pre-human called Australopithecus lived. These people made tools out of bones and stones and made shelters out of branches.
 1 million years ago – A type of early human called Homo erectus lived. People made hand axes and wooden spears.
 250,000 years ago – First Homo sapiens (modern people). People make fire. People use bolas. People hunt elephants.
 100,000 years ago – Middle Palaeolithic age. Neanderthal people lived. People live in caves and make cave drawings. People begin to bury dead people.
 40,000 years ago – Upper Palaeolithic age. Cro-Magnon people lived. People make spears from antlers. People make houses from hides (animal skins). People paint cave drawings and make things out of clay. People make needles out of antlers. People make jewellery.
 10,000 years ago – The last Ice age ends.
 10,000 BC – 4000 BC – Mesolithic age. In North-west Europe people make bows and arrows. People use dogs to hunt and to carry things.
 9,000 BC – Neolithic age. People in the Near East start to change from hunting and gathering food to growing crops and using farm animals.
 7,000 BC – People in South-west Europe begin using copper to make tools.
 6,000 BC – British Isles move away from Europe.
 2,580 BC – The Egyptians build the Great Pyramids in Giza. People in the Middle East use iron and make plows.
 2,400 BC – People make Stonehenge in England.
 3,300 BC – 1,200 BC – Bronze Age (in Britain). People make tools out of bronze.
 1,200 BC – 400 AD – Iron Age (in Britain). People make tools out of iron. Roman Empire rises and falls.

Periods and ages in history

Prehistory


Kapellmeister, (pronounce: Ka-PEL-my-ster), is a German word which means a musician who is in charge of music-making.  The word comes from the Latin word for "chapel".  In German "Kapelle" got the meaning: "choir" (because they sang in a chapel).  "Meister" means "master".

The French word is maître de la chapelle.  In Italian he is Maestro di Capella.  In English he might be called Chapel Master or, more generally, Director of Music.

The Kapellmeister's job

The word Kapellmeister is used to describe musicians in Germany who worked for a king, prince or rich nobleman.  Until about 200 years ago, these people often had their own private orchestras.  The Kapellmeister was like a Director of Music.  He would be responsible for choosing any new musicians, rehearsing and conducting the orchestra, and composing any music that was needed.

Many famous composers had jobs as Kapellmeister.  Johann Sebastian Bach worked from 1717 to 1723 as Kapellmeister for Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Cöthen. George Frideric Handel was Kapellmeister for George, Elector of Hanover, who later became George I of Great Britain. Joseph Haydn worked for many years as Kapellmeister for the Eszterházy family, a very important noble family of the Austrian Empire.

A Kapellmeister could also be the Director of Music for a church.  Sometimes, this would be called "Kantor" in Germany.  Johann Sebastian Bach was called "Kantor" when he was Director of Music at the church of St Thomas in Leipzig from 1723-1750.

By the 19th century, society in Europe had changed.  The nobility were not as rich as they had been before, and many composers started to make a living as a freelance composer.  Beethoven, for example, never became a Kapellmeister.

Sometimes, the word "Kapellmeister" is used in German today to mean the Director or conductor of an orchestra or choir. The title shows that they have to organize the orchestra or choir as well as conduct it.

Musicians
Entertainment occupations

Kapellmeister


Provence (Provençal) wine comes from the French wine-producing region of Provence in southeast France. The Romans called the area provincia nostra ("our province"), giving the region its name. Just south of the Alps, it was the first Roman province outside Italy.

Wine has been made in this region for at least 2,600 years, ever since the ancient Greeks founded the city of Marseille in 600 BC. Throughout the region's history, viticulture and winemaking have been influenced by the cultures that have been present in Provence, which include the Ancient Greeks, Romans, Gauls, Catalans and Savoyards.  These diverse groups introduced a large variety of grapes to the region, including grape varieties of Greek and Roman origin as well as Spanish, Italian and traditional French wine grapes.

Today the region is known predominantly for its rosé wine, though wine critics such as Tom Stevenson believe that region's best wines are the spicy, full-flavoured red wines. Rosé wine currently accounts for more than half of the production of Provençal wine, with red wine accounting for about a third of the region's production. White wine is also produced in small quantities throughout the region with the Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) region of Cassis specializing in white wine production. The Côtes de Provence is the largest AOC followed by the Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence. The Bandol region near Toulon is one of the more internationally recognized Provençal wine regions.

History

Archaeological evidence, in the form of amphora fragments, indicate that the Greeks were producing wine in the region soon after they settled. By the time the Romans reached the area in 125 BC, the wine produced there had a reputation across the Mediterranean for high quality. Over time, the viticulture and winemaking styles of the Provence have been influenced by a wide range of people, rulers, and cultures, including the Carolingians, the Holy Roman Empire, the Counts of Toulouse, the Catalans, René I of Naples, the House of Savoy, and the Kingdom of Sardinia.

At the end of the 19th century, the phylloxera epidemic reached Provence and devastated the region's viticulture. Many vineyards were slow to replant and some turned to the high yielding but lower quality Carignan grape. The arrival of the railroad system in the 19th century opened up new markets such as Paris in the north, and in the 20th century, as tourism developed along the French Riviera, production of rosé increased as a complement to the regional cuisine that features dishes such  as bouillabaisse and aioli.

Climate and geography

Provence has a classic Mediterranean climate, with the  sea forming its southern border. Mild winters are followed by very warm summers with little rainfall. Sunshine is found in abundance in this region with the grapevines receiving more than 3,000 hours per year, twice the amount needed to ripen grapes fully. This abundance does have the adverse effect of potentially over ripening grapes if vineyard owners are not cautious. The strong mistral wind from the north provides positive and negative influences on the viticulture. While it can cool the grapes from the heat and dry the grapes after rain, providing some protection against rot and grape diseases, it can also damage vines that are not securely trained and protected by hillside landforms. In areas where the wind is particularly strong, the ideal vineyard locations are on hillsides facing south towards the sea, with the hill providing some shelter from the mistral's strength. In those areas, the type of grape varieties planted will also play a role since south-facing slopes receive the most sunshine and in the warm climate can easily over expose delicate and early ripening varieties which would be better suited on north-facing slopes.

The soil across Provence is varied, lacking uniformity and generalization. In isolated areas, such as the Cassis AOC and near the Mediterranean coastline, are deposits of limestone and shale. These area tend to be planted with white wine grapes that perform better in those soil types.

Some coastal areas in the region have soils with more schist and quartz in their composition while inland there is more clay and sandstone.

Wine regions

Provence has nine wine appellations with AOC status. The Côtes de Provence is the largest followed by Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence and Coteaux Varois en Provence. The other 6 AOC are Les Baux-de-Provence, Pierrevert, Bandol, Cassis, Bellet and Palette. The Côtes de Provence AOC includes 4 geographic designations that can place their names on the label: Fréjus and Sainte-Victoire since 2005, La Londe since 2008, and Pierrefeu since 2013. The Côtes du Luberon AOC in the nearby Vaucluse département is occasionally cited by some sources with Provence due to some similarities in wine style; the appellation is however officially part of the Rhône wine region and its typicity more closely approaches that of its neighbour on its northern border, Côtes du Ventoux AOC, also  a Rhône wine. The region has several vin de pays designations, with Bouches-du-Rhône, near Aix-en-Provence, being one of the most common designations seen abroad.

The Bellet AOC is in southeastern Provence, near Nice has a significant Italian influence with its major white wine being made from the Italian wine grape Vermentino, known in France as Rolle. Other grape varieties include Chardonnay, Clairette, Mayorquin, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, Pignerol, Braquet and Roussanne. Though the white wines receive more international attention, production in Bellet is about equal in white, red and rosé wine with most being consumed by tourists to the French Riviera.

The Palette AOC is the smallest major wine area in Provence with most of the vineyards being owned by Château Simone.  The region is situated on predominantly calcareous limestone soil and produces wines that are similar in style to the southern Rhône region. The main grapes of the region include Cinsaut, Grenache, Mourvèdre and Ugni blanc.

The Coteaux de Pierrevert AOC is a minor wine area located around the village of Pierrevert in the northeastern section of Provence. Its red, white and rosé wines are mainly made from  Grenache, Syrah, Cinsaut, Clairette and Rolle. The climate here is cooler than in other areas of Provence and the wines are thus lighter in body than those of other areas of the region.

Côtes de Provence AOC

The Côtes de Provence AOC is a large noncontiguous wine region that covers over 85 communes in the eastern region of Provence. The boundaries of the region extend from the alpine hills near Draguignan to the coast of Saint-Tropez. The noncontiguous parts of the region include land southeast of the Palette AOC and on the outskirts of the Bandol and Cassis wine area. The mountainous terrain near Villars-sur-Var in the northeast part of the area includes vineyards that can label their wine as Côtes de Provence. The region accounts for nearly 75% of all the wine production in Provence with rosé accounting for around 80% of the production. While the number is rising, about 15% of wine production is red wine with the remaining 5% white. The main grape varieties are Carignan, Cinsaut, Grenache, Mourvèdre and Tibouren with an increase in the use of Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah. To improve quality, producers limit the amount of Carignan used in their rosé and red wine production, using the maximum of 40% permitted in the wine and mandating that at least 60% of the blend be composed of Grenache, Cinsaut, Mourvèdre and Tibouren. There is also an AOC requirement that at least 20% of the rosé must be blended from wine produced by the saignee method of maceration.

There has been more experimentation in the methods used by a new generation of winemakers beginning to incorporate non-traditional methods of rosé production including the use of oak barrels for aging and fermentation. More winemakers are tending to use temperature controlled tanks that allow a cooler fermentation process that is better suited to white wine production. There are still remnants of traditional winemaking in the Côtes de Provence and some producers still use the  traditional regional wine bottle which has a distinctive form that is between an amphora vessel and a bowling pin.

Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence and Les Baux-de-Provence
The Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence AOC is the second largest Provençal wine appellation, covering over 50 communes in the west and northwestern regions of Provence. The area comprises the city of Aix-en-Provence and surrounding communes. Nearly 60% of the production  is red wine, followed by 35% rosé and 5% white wine. The major grape varieties include Grenache, Cinsaut and Mourvèdre, and Cabernet Sauvignon was introduced to the region in the 1960s. The cuttings came from the Bordeaux estate of Château La Lagune. The main white wine grapes of the Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence include Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache blanc, Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc and Semillon. Some producers  produce white nouveau wine (young wine) that is released in December following the harvest and only two weeks after the release of Beaujolais nouveau. Unlike the red Beaujolais wine, these Provençal white wines are not required to have the words nouveau or primeur on the label.

Within the Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence is the smaller Les Baux-de-Provence AOC which was granted AOC status in 1995. The climate of the region is very hot with the surrounding valley known as the Val d'Enfer (Valley of Hell). Vineyards are centered around the hilltop village of the Les Baux-de-Provence and red grape varieties account for around 80%. with some white wine and a dry rosé. The leading grape varieties are Grenache, Mourvèdre and Syrah. The AOC rule requires that no two varieties can compose more than 90% of the blend with Carignan, Cinsaut and Counoise permitted but at a maximize usage of 30%. The use of Cabernet Sauvignon is growing in prevalence but is limited to composing no more than 20% of the blend. The rosés of Les Baux-de-Provence are composed of a minimum 60% of Cinsaut, Grenache and Syrah with similar requirements to the AOC red wine that no two grapes varieties compose more than 90% of the blend. Baux-de-Provence was the first AOC to require all vineyards to be farmed biodynamically. The rule was adopted as producers had already converted to organic viticulture, eliminating the use of chemicals that could easily dispersed from the vines by the strong Mistral wind.

Bandol

Bandol AOC, located near the coast east of Marseille and Cassis, is one of the most internationally recognized wines of the Provence regions. Based around the fishing village of Bandol, west of Toulon, the  AOC is produced by 8 communes with silicon & limestone soils. Those soils and the warm, coastal climate are ideally suited for the late ripening Mourvèdre grape, which is the major variety. For both the red and rosé wines, Mourvèdre must account for at least 50% of the blend, though most producers will use significantly more, with Grenache and Cinsaut usually completing the composition. Syrah and Carignan are restricted in Bandol to a maximum of 15% of the blend or 10% individually. Nearly 70% of the  production is red wine with rosé and a small amount of white wine making up the remainder. Red Bandol wine is characterized by its dark color with rich flavors of black fruit, vanilla, cinnamon and leather and usually requires at least 10 years of aging before it fully develops, although some is produced to be drinkable in three years. Prior to release, the wine is required to age at least 18 months in oak. The white wines of Bandol are composed primarily of Clairette blanche, Bourboulenc and Ugni blanc. Previously Sauvignon blanc was used and is not prohibited by the AOC rules. The rosés of Bandol are characterized by spicy and earthy flavors that can resemble the Rhône rosés from Tavel AOC, with some having strawberry notes.

Bandol is the only French wine  that is dominated by the Mourvèdre grape, which expresses differently depending on the particular terroir of the region. The soils in the northwest region, from the communes of Évenos to Saint-Cyr-sur-Mer, are composed of small pebbles and produce lighter, more delicate wines. On the red clay that is scattered throughout the region, the wine produced is very tannic and must be tempered with increased blending of Cinsaut and Grenache. The Grenache grape itself is typically planted on cooler north facing slopes to prevent the grape from over ripening and making the wine highly alcoholic. The relative infertility of the soil throughout the region helps to keep yields low with the Bandol region having some of the lowest yields in France. The use of mechanical harvesting  is impractical due to the style of terracing used on the hillsides and is prohibited by the rules of the AOC.

Cassis
The Cassis AOC, located along the coast between Marseilles and Bandol, is unique in the Provençal wine region, due to white wine comprising over 75% of its production. The soil of the Cassis AOC is primarily limestone, which is particularly suited to the cultivation of Clairette, Marsanne, Ugni blanc and Sauvignon blanc, the major varieties of the area. The dry white wines  are characterized by their full bodies, low acidity and herbal aromas that pair well with the local seafood cuisine such  as bouillabaisse. Local consumption has outpaced supply and has limited the amount of Cassis wine that can be exported. Local laws are being developed in the region to protect vineyards from being overrun with commercial and residential development from the city of Marseilles.

Coteaux Varois en Provence

The Coteaux Varois en Provence AOC covers the central region of Provence, in the Var département from where the region's name is derived, between the Côtes de Provence AOC and the Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence AOC. The region is sheltered by the surrounding Sainte-Baume mountains which have a tempering effect on the Mediterranean influences that are common throughout Provence. This is most evident in the vineyards around Brignoles where the cooler climate causes harvesting  to  be carried out in November, several weeks after most Provençal wine areas have harvested in early September. This unique terroir has encouraged interest from Burgundy wine producers such as Maison Louis Latour to experiment with planting Pinot noir. The region started out as a vin de pays and was upgraded to Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS) status in 1985, followed by AOC status in 1993. Over 60% of the region's production is rosé with around 33% red wine and small amount of white wine. The main grape varieties of the region are Grenache, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cinsaut, Mourvèdre, Syrah and Carignan.

Classified estates
Provence is the only French wine region outside of Bordeaux that has developed a classified ranking for wine estates. (Burgundy, Champagne and Alsace classify their vineyard areas, not wine estates).

On July 20, 1955, 22 years before Cotes de Provence wines got their Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée, 23 Provençal wine estates managed to officially designate themselves Crus Classés based on an evaluation of the estates' history, winemaking and cellar reputation and overall vineyard quality; however 5 estates no longer make wine so only 18 estates are classified today:

 Clos Cibonne in Le Pradet
Clos Mireille in La Londe-les-Maures
Domaine du Jas d'Esclans in La Motte
Domaine de Rimauresq in Pignans
Domaine de la Croix in La Croix-Valmer
Domaine du Noyer
Château de L'Aumérade
Château de Brégançon in Bormes-les-Mimosas
 Château du Galoupet in La Londe-les-Maures
 Château de Mauvanne in Hyères
 Château Minuty in Gassin
 Château de Roubine in Lorgues
 Château Ste. Marguerite in La Londe-les-Maures
Château de St. Martin
 Château St. Maur in Cogolin
 Château Ste. Roseline in Les Arcs
 Château de Selle in Taradeau
Château de la Clapière

This classification has never been revisited or modified.  Estates cannot include grapes from new vineyard land in Cru Classé wine. A "Club des Crus Classés de Cotes de Provence"  was created in 2000 and in 2005 they signed a charter of excellence; 14 of the 18 classified estates are currently members.

Some producers make a (lesser) second or third wine that they also mark cru classé de Provence.  In addition, the list cannot be changed, no new wineries can be added and a winery cannot lose the cru classé status. The 18 lucky owners just benefit from the classification, no matter how good the wine is.

Grape varieties

The main grape variety throughout Provence is Mourvèdre, which is the primary component in many red wines and rosés. Provence makes over 1,000 kinds of wines. It is often blended with Grenache and Cinsault, with the latter being used as a significant component in most rosé. Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah are rising in prominence, though some traditional Provençal winemakers view those grapes with suspicion and a sign of globalization and appeal to international tastes. For the last century, Carignan has been a major grape but as more producer aim for improved quality the use of this high yielding grape has decreased. Other significant grape varieties, used primarily in blending, include Braquet, Calitor, Folle and Tibouren. The major white wine grapes of Provence include the Rhône varieties of Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache blanc, Marsanne and Viognier as well as Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Semillon, Rolle and Ugni blanc.

Over its history, many grape varieties have grown in Provence that are now nearly extinct including Pascal blanc.

Wine styles and food pairings
Wine expert Karen MacNeil notes that most well made examples of Provençal wine have flavors and aromas that reflect the garrigue landscape of the region which includes wild lavender, rosemary and thyme. The rosés of the region are normally dry with zestiness derived from their acidity. The red and whites are characterized by their full bodies and intense aromatics. The nature and impression of the wines change significantly depending on whether they are consumed as an apéritif or paired with food, particularly the traditional flavors of Provençal cuisine. The rosé wine in particular is noted for its ability to pair well with garlic based dishes, such as aioli.

See also
Cuisine of Provence and the Côte d'Azur
List of Vins de Primeur

References

External links
Official site Wines of Provence
Wine region map
Bandol wine profile
Bandol and Côtes de Provence Wine
Provence wine tours

Provence
Provence wine
Wine regions of France

Provence wine


The horn is a brass instrument.  It developed from the horns that some animals have on their heads.  Modern horns are often called French horns.

The hunting horn
Horns were often used during hunting.  These early brass instruments were round so that the hunter could put his arm through it and carry it on his shoulder and blow it while riding a horse.  The riders could send messages to one another by blowing particular notes.

The horn in the orchestra
In the 17th century the modern orchestra was developing.  Orchestras played for operas.  Opera stories in those days were usually about gods and goddesses or kings and queens. There was often a hunting scene in the story.  Hunters were asked to come and play their horns in the orchestra for these scenes.  This is how the horn became an orchestral instrument.

A brass instrument gives one basic note.  Changing the pressure with the lips produces a few other notes.  Gradually horn players discovered that if they put their right hand in the bell they could change the basic note.  This made it possible to play lots of different notes.  When Mozart wrote his horn concertos he was writing for a hand horn.  When a note is played using the hand in the bell it makes the note sound different: more muffled (a bit like speaking while covering your mouth with your hand).  A Mozart horn concerto sounds very different when played on a modern horn.

Another way to change the notes on a horn was to use crooks.  These are like extensions to the horn.  The longer the tube the lower the note, so adding a crook (an extra circle) would give a lower basic note.

The modern horn

By the 1830s the modern horn with three valves had been invented.  These valves change the length of the tube, so that the horn had now become chromatic i.e. it could play all the notes including sharps and flats.  Composers like Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss wrote complicated music for the horn which would never have been possible on the natural, valveless instruments.  However, some composers preferred the sound of the natural horn.  Brahms wrote for the natural horn when he wrote his Horn Trio for piano, violin and horn.  Benjamin Britten, in his Serenade for tenor, horn and strings, asks for the horn to played naturally (without valves) for the fanfare at the beginning to make it sound like a hunting horn.

The horn has a conical bore.  This means that the tubing gradually becomes wider (a trumpet and trombone have a cylindrical bore): the tubing is the same thickness all the way along.  The modern horn has 6.4 metres of tubing.   It makes a beautiful, warm sound, but it is quite hard to play because the mouthpiece is small and the harmonics (the notes that can be played by changing the lip pressure) are very close together.  The horn is a transposing instrument, usually in F (a written C sounds like the F below).

At the end of the 19th century the so-called "double horn" was invented, which was like a combination of a horn in F and a horn in B flat.

In the 18th century there were generally two horns in an orchestra.  This became three or four in the 19th century, and some large orchestras now may have up to eight horns.

Some famous horn players

Hermann Baumann (Soloist)
Stefan Dohr (Berlin Philharmonic)
Dennis Brain (1921-1957) (Royal Philharmonic and Philharmonia Orchestras)
Barry Tuckwell (b.1931) (London Symphony Orchestra)
David Pyatt (London Symphony Orchestra)

References

Brass instruments

Horn (musical instrument)


Criticism is a word used in two senses. Originally, it meant "a scholarly analysis and balanced judgement". Later (mid-20th century) it came to mean "a hostile attack" pointing out the bad features of the topic.

Constructive criticism: criticism to evaluate and improve. This is when somebody points out aspects of something else that could be improved or made better. This is an important activity, especially when dealing with young people. Parents and teachers often use this kind of criticism. In adult life it is widely used in literature, the arts and science.
Negative or destructive criticism: criticism as an attack on a person or idea. Negative criticism is often interpreted as an attack against a person (ad hominem), and appears often in debates between political opponents.

History of the word
In ancient Greek kritos meant judge, and kritikos meant the critic. Related Greek terms are krinein (separating out, deciding), krei- (to sieve, discriminate, or distinguish). The word moved from Greek to Latin (Criticus, a judge) to French (critique) to English. The words "critic" and "critical" existed in the English language from the mid-16th century, and the word "criticism" first made its appearance in English in the early 17th century.

Related pages
Art critic
Critic
Critical thinking
Textual criticism

References

Criticism