Dina éléktronika, dioda nyaéta hiji komponén nu ngahalangan arah gerak pamawa muatan. Prinsip dasarna, dioda ngaliwatkeun arus listrik kana hiji arah, tapi ngahalangan éta arus lamun arahna sabalikna. Ku kituna, dioda bisa dianggep minangka vérsi éléktronikna tina kelép pangecékan. Sirkuit nu ngabutuhkeun aliran arus ngan saarah umumna pasti ngagunakeun hiji atawa leuwih dioda dina rancangan sirkuitna.

Dioda baheula maké kristal "cat's whisker" jeung parangkat solobong vakum (disebut thermionic valves dina basa Inggris). Kiwari lolobana dioda umumna dijieun tina bahan sémikonduktor saperti silikon atawa germanium.

Sajarah
Dioda térmionik jeung padetan (solid state) diwangun sacara paralél. Prinsip oprasi dioda térmionik kapanggih ku Frederick Guthrie taun 1873 . Prinsip oprasi dioda kristal kapanggih taun 1874 ku élmuwan Jérman, Karl Ferdinand Braun  .

Thermionic diode principles were rediscovered by Thomas Edison on February 13, 1880 and he took out a patent in 1883 (), but developed the idéa no further. Braun patented the crystal rectifier in 1899 . The first radio receiver using a crystal diode was built around 1900 by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard. The first thermionic diode was patented in Britain by John Ambrose Fleming (scientific adviser to the Marconi Company and former Edison employee ) on November 16, 1904 ( in November 1905). Pickard received a patent for a silicon crystal detector on November 20, 1906  ().

At the time of their invention such devices were known as rectifiers. In 1919 William Henry Eccles coined the term diode from Greek roots; di méans 'two', and ode (from odos) méans 'path'.

Diod térmionik atawa ngandung gas

Thermionic diodes are vacuum tube devices (also known as thermionic valves), which are arrangements of electrodes surrounded by a vacuum within a glass envelope, similar in appéarance to incandescent light bulbs.

In vacuum tube diodes, a current is passed through the cathode, a filament tréated with a mixture of barium and strontium oxides, which are oxides of alkaline earth metals. The current héats the filament, causing thermionic emission of electrons into the vacuum envelope. In forward operation, a surrounding metal electrode, called the anode, is positively charged, so that it electrostatically attracts the emitted electrons.
However, electrons are not éasily reléased from the unhéated anode surface when the voltage polarity is reversed and hence any reverse flow is a very tiny current.

For much of the 20th century vacuum tube diodes were used in analog signal applications, and as rectifiers in power supplies. Today, tube diodes are only used in niche applications, such as rectifiers in tube guitar and hi-fi amplifiers, and specialized high-voltage equipment.

Dioda sémikonduktor

Dioda nu pangmodérenna dumasar kana hubungan p-n sémikonduktor. Dina dioda p-n, arus konvénsional bisa ngalir ti sisi tipe p (anoda) ka tipe n (katoda) tapi henteu bisa ngalir dina arah nu sabalikna. Tipe dioda sémikonduktor lianna, dioda Schottky, diwangun tina hubungan antara logam jeung sémikonduktor, tinimbang hubungan p-n-na.

A semiconductor diode's current-voltage, or I-V, characteristic curve is ascribed to the behavior of the so-called depletion layer or depletion zone which exists at the p-n junction between the differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first créated, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, the hole vanishes and the electron is no longer mobile. Thus, two charge carriers have vanished. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.

However, the depletion width cannot grow without limit. For éach electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are créated, an incréasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a 'built-in' potential across the depletion zone.

If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator preventing a significant electric current. This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be 'turned on' as it has a forward bias.

A diode's I-V characteristic can be approximated by two regions of operation. Below a certain difference in potential between the two léads, the depletion layer has significant width, and the diode can be thought of as an open (non-conductive) circuit. As the potential difference is incréased, at some stage the diode will become conductive and allow charges to flow, at which point it can be thought of as a connection with zero (or at léast very low) resistance. More precisely, the transfer function is logarithmic, but so sharp that it looks like a corner on a zoomed-out graph (see also signal processing).

In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop across a conducting diode is approximately 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types - Schottky diodes can be as low as 0.2 V and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more (Blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V).

Referring to the I-V characteristics image, in the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the µA range) for all reverse voltages up to a point called the péak-inverse-voltage (PIV). Beyond this point a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes the device to be damaged along with a large incréase in current. For special purpose diodes like the avalanche or zener diodes, the concept of PIV is not applicable since they have a deliberate bréakdown beyond a known reverse current such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the zener voltage or breakdown voltage). These devices however have a maximum limit to the current and power in the zener or avalanche region.

Persamaan dioda Shockley

The Shockley ideal diode equation (named after William Bradford Shockley) is the I-V characteristic of an idéal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). It is derived with the assumption that the only processes giving rise to current in the diode are drift (due to electrical field), diffusion, and thermal recombination-generation. It also assumes that the recombination-generation (R-G) current in the depletion region is insignificant. This méans that the Shockley equation doesn't account for the processes involved in reverse bréakdown and photon-assisted R-G. Additionally, it doesn't describe the "leveling off" of the I-V curve at high forward bias due to internal resistance, nor does it explain the practical deviation from the idéal at very low forward bias due to R-G current in the depletion region.

,

di mana
I is the diode current,
IS is a scale factor called the saturation current,
VD is the voltage across the diode
VT is the thermal voltage
and n is the emission coefficient.

The emission coefficient n varies from about 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material and in many cases is assumed to be approximately equal to 1 (thus omitted). The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.2 mV at room temperature (approximately 25oC or 298K) and is a known constant. It is defined by:

,

di mana
e is the magnitude of charge on an electron (the elementary charge),
k is Boltzmann's constant,
T is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction.

Tipe-tipe dioda sémikonduktor

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| Diode
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| Tunnel Diode
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There are several types of semiconductor junction diodes:
 Normal (p-n) diodes
 which operate as described above. Usually made of doped silicon or, more rarely, germanium. Before the development of modern silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used; its low efficiency gave it a much higher forward voltage drop (typically 1.4 - 1.7 V per "cell," with multiple cells stacked to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would require.
 'Gold doped' diodes
 As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which help a fast recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop . A typical example is the 1N914.
 Zener diodes
 (pronounced ) Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see below). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark). They are named for Dr. Clarence Melvin Zener of Southern Illinois University, inventor of the device.
 Avalanche diodes
 Diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field across the p-n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the 'mean free path' of the electrons, so there are collisions between them on the way out. The only practical difference is that the two types have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities.
 Transient voltage suppression (TVS) diodes
 These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-voltage transients. Their p-n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage.
 Photodiodes
 Semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation and therefore most are packaged in light blocking material. If they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, their photosensitivity can be utilized. Photodiodes can be used as solar cells, and in photometry.
 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
 In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 to violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs are monochromatic; 'white' LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator.
 Laser diodes
 When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication.
 Schottky diodes
 Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than a standard PN junction diode. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers although their reverse leakage current is generally much higher than non Schottky rectifiers. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down most normal diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than PN diodes and this contributes towards their high switching speed and their suitability in high speed circuits and RF devices such as mixers and detectors.
 Snap-off or 'step recovery' diodes
 The term 'step recovery' relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can therefore provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.
 Esaki or tunnel diodes
 these have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. These diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation.
 Gunn diodes
 these are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built.
 Peltier diodes
 are used as sensors, heat engines for thermoelectric cooling. Charge carriers absorb and emit their band gap energies as heat.There are other types of diodes, which all share the basic function of allowing electrical current to flow in only one direction, but with different methods of construction.
 Point-contact diodes
 These work the same as the junction semiconductor diodes described above, but its construction is simpler. A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp-point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the contact. The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics.
 Cat's whisker or crystal diodes
 These are a type of point contact diode. The cat's whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a lump of coal. The wire forms the anode and the crystal forms the cathode. Cat's whisker diodes were also called crystal diodes and found application in crystal radio receivers.
 Varicap or varactor diodes
 These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These were important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock. A PLL is faster than a FLL, but prone to integer harmonic locking (if one attempts to lock to a broadband signal). They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator.
 PIN diodes
 A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type / intrinsic / n-type structure. They are used as radio frequency switches, similar to varactor diodes but with a more sudden change in capacitance. They are also used as large volume ionizing radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.
 Current-limiting field-effect diodes
 These are actually a JFET with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the Zener diode; they allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, or current-regulating diodes.  ,

Other uses for semiconductor diodes include sensing temperature, and computing analog logarithms (see Operational amplifier applications#Logarithmic).

Parangkat nu patali
 Thyristor atawa silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
 TRIAC
 Diac
 Transistor

Aplikasi

Démodulasi radio
The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is tréated in depth in the radio article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative péaks of voltage, whose amplitude or 'envelope' is proportional to the original audio signal, but whose average value is zero. The diode (originally a crystal diode) rectifies the AM signal, léaving a signal whose average amplitude is the desired audio signal. The average value is extracted using a simple filter and fed into an audio transducer, which generates sound.

Konvérsi power
Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC). Similarly, diodes are also used in Cockcroft-Walton voltage multipliers to convert AC into very high DC voltages.

Peotéksi voltase leuwih
Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances, and become forward-biased (conducting) when the voltage rises above its normal value. For example, diodes are used in stepper motor and relay circuits to de-énérgize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see Diode types above).

Lawang logika
Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic.

Detéktor radiasi ionisasi
In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionising radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors.
This effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volts of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a héavy particle, a fairly accurate méasurement of the particle's energy can be made, simply by méasuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrométer or etc.
These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low léakage current. They are often cooled by liquid nitrogen. For longer range (about a centimetre) particles they need a very large depletion depth and large aréa. For short range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at léast one surface to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are néar bréakdown (around a thousand volts per centimetre). Germanium and silicon are common materials. Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy.
They have a finite life, especially when detecting héavy particles, because of radiation damage. Silicon and germanium are quite different in their ability to convert gamma rays to electron showers.

Semiconductor detectors for high energy particles are used in large numbers. Because of energy loss fluctuations, accurate méasurement of the energy deposited is of less use.

                                    Engr.Louriel R. Manatom

Ngukur hawa
A diode can be used as a temperature méasuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature. This temperature dependence follows from the Shockley idéal diode equation given above and is typically around 2.2mV per degree C.

Parangkat dikopel muatan
Digital cameras and similar units use arrays of photo diodes, integrated with réadout circuitry.

Tambahan
Diodes may also be referred to as controlled rectifiers, abbreviated CR on printed wiring boards.

Fakta Menarik
Dioda dina kasus gelas transparan (kalebet versi SMD modéren) tiasa gaduh sensitipitas spésis pikeun lampu (nyéta, alat éléktronik tiasa béda dina hiji hal sareng tanpa kasus, dina lampu). Sirkuit radio amatir aya diod konvensional anu dianggo salaku fotodiod sareng bahkan ogé batré surya.

Tempo ogé
 Pamodélan dioda

Catetan

Tumbu luar

 The Unusual Diode FAQ

Dioda


Lucca is a city in the Italian region of Tuscany. The city is on the river Serchio in a very fertile plain near the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Lucca.

History
Lucca was founded by the Etruscans. It later became a Roman village in 180 BC. The Romans built an amphitheatre that is still seen in the Piazza dell'Anfiteatro. Lucca was an important city and fortress even in the 6th century, when Narses attacked it over and over again for several months in 553. During the 10th and 11th centuries, Lucca was the capital of the feudal territories of Tuscany, with more power about the Roman Emperor.

After the death of Matilda of Tuscany, the city began an independent commune. For almost 500 years, Lucca remained an independent republic. There were many minor communes in the region between southern Liguria and northern Tuscany (which was filled by the Malaspina). Tuscany in this time was part of feudal Europe. Dante's Divine Comedy was written to remember the days spent in his exile in Lucca.

In 1273 and again in 1277, Lucca was ruled by a Guelph (captain of the people) named Luchetto Gattilusio. In 1314, after internal problems Uguccione della Faggiuola of Pisa make himself lord of Lucca. The people of the city made him leave two years later and condottiere gain the leadership. In 1325, in the battle of Altopascio, Lucca soldiers defeated Florence's Guelphs with the help of Castracani, a leader of the city in time of war. After they won, Castracani was named "Duke of Lucca" by Louis IV the Bavarian. Until the French Revolution in 1789, Lucca was independent from Venice and Genoa. It was a city controlled by democracy or sometimes by oligarchy.

Republic of Lucca
Lucca was the second largest Italian city-state (after Venice) with a republican constitution ("comune"). In 1805 Lucca was taken over by Napoleon, who put his sister Elisa Bonaparte Baciocchi in the place reserved for the "Queen of Etruria". The city became a part of Tuscany in 1847 and later a part of Italy.

Important monuments

The walls around the old town are intact as the city grew and became more modern. This is unusual for cities in the region. A famous place is the house where Puccini was born. The house is open to the public.

There are many churches in Lucca:
 Piazza dell'Anfiteatro
 Piazza Napoleone
 Piazza San Michele
 Duomo di San Martino (St Martin's Cathedral)
 Church of San Michele in Foro
 Basilica di San Frediano
 Church of San Giorgio in the locality of Brancoli, built in the late 12th century

Other sights include:
 The ancient Roman amphitheatre
 The Ducal Palace (The original project was begun by Bartolomeo Ammannati in 1577-1582, and continued by Filippo Juvarra in the 18th century.)
 Torre delle ore ("The Clock Tower")
 Casa and Torre Guinigi
 Museo Nazionale Guinigi
 Museo e Pinacoteca Nazionale
 Orto Botanico Comunale di Lucca, a botanical garden dating from 1820
 Palazzo Pfanner

Culture
Every year in Lucca there are two important festivals. The Lucca Summer Festival is a rock music festival. "Lucca Comics and Games" is the largest meeting about comics and games of Italy.

Twin towns
  Abingdon
  Colmar
  Golgolin
  Schongau
  Sint-Niklaas
  Buenos Aires

Famous People born in Lucca
 Pompeo Batoni, painter
 Luigi Boccherini, musician and composer
 Elisa Bonaparte, ruler of Lucca
 Castruccio Castracani, ruler of Lucca (1316-1328)
 Alfredo Catalani, composer
 Mario Cipollini, athlete
 Matteo Civitali, sculptor
 Saint Frediano
 Gemma Galgani, Saint
 Francesco Geminiani, musician and composer
 Gioseffo Guami, composer
 Pope Lucius III
 Felice Matteucci, engineer
 Leo Nomenelli Pro Football Hall of Famer
 Marcello Pera, politician
 Giacomo Puccini, composer
 Eros Riccio, chess player
 Marco Rossi, athlete
 Renato Salvatori, actor
 Rolando Ugolini, Goalkeeper
 Giuseppe Ungaretti, poet
 Antonio Vallisneri, scientist and physician
 Saint Zita

Other websites

 Official site
 Tourist Site about Lucca

Capital cities in Italy

Lucca


The Tudor dynasty was a series of kings and queens of England.  This line of rulers started in 1485 and lasted until 1603.

The dynasty started when Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field.  This was the final stage of the Wars of the Roses and made him King Henry VII of England.  Arthur, Prince of Wales, was the oldest son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He married Catherine of Aragon. She was the daughter of Ferdinand II of Argon and Isabella I of Castle). Arthur died in 1502 and did not become King.

Henry VIII
When Henry VII died in 1509, Arthur's brother, Henry VIII married Catherine and became king.

During her marriage to Henry VIII, Catherine had six children.  Only one of these children, Mary, survived.  When Catherine became too old to have any more children, Henry divorced her.  He then married a new wife, Anne Boleyn.   Henry and Boleyn also had a daughter, Elizabeth.  Anne Boleyn was executed in 1536.

Shortly after, Henry VIII married Jane Seymour of England.  She had one son, Edward VI of England, who would later become king himself at the age of 9.  Jane died in 1537.  Her death was caused by medical problems caused by Edward's birth.

Henry married three other wives before his death in 1547. Edward, his only living son, became King after Henry died.

In 1553, Edward became ill. He created the "Device for Succession.". He said that his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, would be Queen after he died. Lady Jane was only queen for nine days.

Henry's daughter, Mary I of England, was the next ruler of the Tudor dynasty. Mary was a strong believer in Catholicism. As Queen, Mary did many things against hundreds of Protestants. Because of all the executions while she was Queen, she was given the nickname "Bloody Mary", which is a name for a modern cocktail today.

After Mary's death in 1558, her half-sister Elizabeth I of England became queen. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was a Protestant. Elizabeth never married or had children. Because she never married, Elizabeth is often called the "Virgin Queen".

The dynasty ended when Elizabeth died. She had not named a person to be ruler after her death. When she died, James I became King of England. He was the son of Elizabeth's cousin, Mary Stuart. This started the Stuart dynasty.

Religion in England
During the Tudor period, there were many changes in religion. Henry VIII was a Catholic. When the Pope said he could not divorce Catherine, Henry left Catholicism and named himself as head of the Church. The Church of England was now Protestant.  Edward VI was raised a Protestant. He closed all Catholic churches. Mary I was a strong Catholic and heavily influenced by her Spanish mother Catherine of Aragon. She closed the Protestant churches and burnt about 300 people for being Protestant. Those people were later called martyrs. Elizabeth was Protestant. When she became queen, the Anglican Church was started.

Rulers of the Tudor dynasty
This is a list of the rulers of the Tudor dynasty:
 Henry VII of England (1485-1509)
 Henry VIII of England (1509-1547)
 Edward VI of England (1547-1553)
 Lady Jane Grey (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)
 Mary I of England (1553-1558)
 Elizabeth I of England (1558-1603)

Tudor dynasty


Morphogenesis (meaning the "beginning of shape"), is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape.

It is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation.

The process controls the organized spatial distribution of cells during the embryonic development of an organism. Morphogenetic responses may be induced in organisms by hormones, by substances produced by other organisms, or by mechanical stresses induced by spatial patterning of the cells. Morphogenesis can take place in an embyro, a mature organism, in cell culture or inside tumor cell masses.

Developmental biology
Cell biology
Plant anatomy

Morphogenesis


The Franks or the Frankish peoples were one of several west Germanic federations of tribes. It was formed out of Germanic tribes: Salians, Sicambri, Chamavi, Tencteri, Chattuarii, Bructeri, Usipetes, Ampsivarii, Chatti. Most of them lived at the northern borders of the Rhine.

They entered the late Roman Empire from the north and east river bank of the Rhine into modern northern Belgium and southern Netherlands. Later invasions conquered and established a lasting kingdom in an area which eventually covered most of modern-day France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and the western regions of Germany. When the pagan Frankish king Clovis became Christian in the late 5th century that was an important event in the history of Europe.

Modern scholars of the period of the migrations are in agreement that the Frankish confederacy emerged  at the beginning of the third century. A region in the northeast of the modern-day Netherlands – north of the erstwhile Roman border – still bears the name Salland, and may have received that name from the Salians, who formed the core of the Frankish sea raiders.

Frankish Empire

From their heartland, the Franks gradually conquered most of Roman Gaul north of the Loire valley and east of Visigothic Aquitaine. At first they helped defend the border as allies; for example, when a major invasion of mostly East Germanic tribes crossed the Rhine in 406, the Franks fought against these invaders. In the region of Paris, Roman control persisted until 486, a decade after the fall of the emperors of Ravenna, in part due to alliances with the Franks.

Merovingians

In 451, Aëtius called upon his Germanic allies on Roman soil to help fight off an invasion by Attila the Hun. The Salian Franks answered the call; the Ripuarian Franks fought on both sides as some of them lived outside the Empire. The Merovingians had governors who lead the Franks to war and had many governing responsibilities.

Carolingians

The Carolingian kingship begins with the deposition of the last Merovingian king, and the accession in 751 of Pippin the Short, father of Charlemagne.

Pippin reigned as an elected king. While in later France the kingdom became hereditary, the kings of the later Holy Roman Empire proved unable to abolish the elective tradition and continued as elected rulers until the Empire's formal end in 1806.

In 768 Charlemagne (Charles the Great), a powerful, intelligent, and modestly literate figure who became a legend for the later history of both France and Germany. Charles restored an equal balance between emperor and pope.

From 772 onwards, Charles conquered and eventually defeated the Saxons to incorporate their realm into the Frankish kingdom.
Then (773–774), he conquered the Lombards and thus could include northern Italy in his sphere of influence. He renewed the Vatican donation and the promise to the papacy of continued Frankish protection.

Charles created a realm that reached from the Pyrenees in the southwest (actually, including an area in Northern Spain (Marca Hispanica) after 795) over almost all of today's France (except Brittany, which the Franks never conquered) eastwards to most of today's Germany, including northern Italy and today's Austria.
On Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charles as "Emperor of the Romans" in Rome. Though Charles preferred the title "Emperor, king of the Franks and Lombards", as he did not want to get in conflict with the Byzantine Empire, the Frankish Empire became the successor of the (Western) Roman Empire. Charles died on January 28, 814 in Aachen, where was buried.

Charles had several sons, but only one survived him. This son, Louis the Pious, followed his father as the ruler of a united Empire. When Louis died in 840, the Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Empire in three:

 Louis' eldest surviving son Lothair I became Emperor and ruler of the Central Franks. His three sons in turn divided this kingdom between them into Lotharingia, Burgundy and (Northern) Italy. These areas would later vanish as separate kingdoms.
 Louis' second son, Louis the German, became King of the East Franks. This area formed the kernel of the later Holy Roman Empire, the cradle of Germany.
 His third son Charles the Bald became King of the West Franks; this area became the foundation for the later France.

Related pages
 Holy Roman Empire

Notes

Sources
Geary, Patrick J. Before France and Germany: the Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .
James, Edward. The Franks. (Peoples of Europe series) Basil Blackwell, 1988. .

Franks

Franks


Karnak is the largest ancient religious site in the world. The complex of temples is near Luxor on the Nile in Egypt. Luxor is some 500 km south of Cairo. About thirty pharaohs contributed to the buildings. The site reached a size, complexity, and diversity not seen elsewhere.

The Karnak Temple Complex—usually called Karnak—is a vast group of ruined temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings. The largest and most important are the Great Temple of Amun, and a massive structure begun by Pharaoh Ramses II (ca. 1391–1351 BC).

An ancient sacred lake is part of the site as well. The area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian Ipet-isut ('The Most Selected of Places'). It was the main place of worship of the eighteenth dynasty, part of the monumental city of Thebes.

Precinct of Amun-Re

This is the largest precinct of the temple complex, dedicated to Amun-Re (a form of Amun), the chief deity. There are several colossal statues including the figure of Pinedjem I which is 10.5 meters tall. The sandstone for this temple, including all the columns, was transported from Gebel Silsila 100 miles south on the Nile river. It also has one of the largest obelisks weighing 328 tonnes and standing 29 meters tall.

The Great Hypostyle Hall
The Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak, within the Karnak temple complex, in the Precinct of Amun-Re, is one of the most visited monuments of Ancient Egypt.

The hall covers an area of 50,000 sq ft (5,000 m2). The roof, now fallen, was supported by 134 columns in 16 rows; the 2 middle rows are higher than the others (being 33 feet (10 m) in circumference and 80 feet (24 m) high).

The hall was not begun by Horemheb, or Amenhotep III as earlier scholars had thought. It was built entirely by Seti I who covered the northern wing of the hall with inscriptions. Decoration of the southern wing was completed by Ramesses II. Ramesses changed Seti's names to his own along the main east-west axis of the Hall and part of the north-south processional route.

The three closed sites
The precinct of Amun-Re is the only part of Karnak which is open to the public. There are also three smaller precincts, which are not open:
Precinct of Mut. This was dedicated to the mother goddess, Mut, who was worshipped as the wife of Amun-Re. It has several smaller temples  and its own sacred lake, in a crescent shape. This temple has been ravaged, many portions having been used in other structures. It is not open to the public. Six hundred black granite statues were found in the courtyard to her temple. It may be the oldest portion of the site.
Precinct of Montu. This portion of the site is dedicated to the son of Mut and Amun-Re, Montu, the war-god. It is to the north of the Amun-Re complex, and is much smaller in size. It is not open to the public.
Temple of  Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV).  This was destroyed after the death of its builder. Akhenaten attempted to overcome the powerful priesthood that had gained control over Egypt before his reign. The priesthood of that temple regained its power as soon as he died and destroyed many records of his life. The temple was so well demolished that its full extent and lay-out is unknown.

References

Buildings and structures in Ancient Egypt
Luxor Governorate

Karnak


Cosimo III de' Medici (14 August 1642 – 31 October 1723) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1670 until his death in 1723, the sixth and penultimate from the House of Medici. He reigned from 1670 to 1723, and was the elder son of Grand Duke Ferdinando II. Cosimo's 53-year-long reign, the longest in Tuscan history, was marked by a series of laws that regulated prostitution and May celebrations. His reign also witnessed Tuscany's deterioration to previously unknown economic lows. In 1723, when Cosimo III died, he was succeeded by the younger of his two surviving children, Gian Gastone.

He married Marguerite Louise d'Orléans, a cousin of Louis XIV. The marriage was solemnized by proxy in the King's Chapel at the Louvre, on Sunday, 17 April 1661. It was a marriage fraught with tribulation. Marguerite Louise eventually abandoned Tuscany for the Convent of Montmartre. Together, they had three children: Ferdinando in 1663, Anna Maria Luisa, Electress Palatine, in 1667, and Gian Gastone, the last Medicean ruler of Tuscany, in 1671.

In later life, he attempted to have Anna Maria Luisa recognised as the universal heiress of Tuscany, but Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, would not allow it because Tuscany was an imperial fief, and he felt he alone could alter the Tuscan laws of succession. All Cosimo's efforts to salvage the plan foundered, and in 1737, upon the death of his younger child, Gian Gastone, Tuscany passed to the House of Lorraine.

Early life

Heir to the throne

Cosimo de' Medici was born on 14 August 1642, the eldest surviving son of Vittoria della Rovere of Urbino, and Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Their previous two children had died shortly after birth. Grand Duke Ferdinando wished to give his son the finest scientific education available, but the pious Grand Duchess Vittoria opposed. The latter got her way. Volunnio Bandinelli, a Sienese theologian, was appointed Cosimo's tutor. His character was analogous to the Grand Duchess's.

As a youth, Cosimo revelled in sports. His uncle Gian Carlo once wrote to another family member with "news that should surprise you....The young prince [Cosimo] has killed a goose in mid-air." Cosimo, at the age of 11, killed five pigs with five shots. The Luchese Ambassador praised the young Cosimo to the skies. His successor, however, noticed a somewhat different person, whom he described as "melancholy". In his early youth, was in love with a certain Petrillo, a singer. Their romance was discovered when Ferdinando spontaneously hugged and kissed him in front of a tutor. Petrillo fled Florence, never to return. Ferdinando's father, Cosimo III knew of his homosexual nature and tried to force a marriage since he was the best possibility of heir. In 1687, he had a boyfriend in Venice, Cecchino, nicknamed de' Castris since he was castrated.

By 1659, Cosimo had ceased smiling in public. He frequently visited places of religious worship and surrounded himself with friars and priests, concerning Grand Duke Ferdinando. Cosimo's only sibling, Francesco Maria de' Medici, the fruit of his parents' brief reconciliation, was born the next year.

Marriage

Marguerite Louise d'Orléans, a granddaughter of Henry IV of France, was married to Cosimo by proxy on 17 April 1661 at the Palais du Louvre. She arrived in Tuscany on 12 June, disembarking at Livorno, and made her formal entry to Florence on 20 June to much pageantry. As a wedding gift, Grand Duke Ferdinando presented her with a pearl the "size of a small pigeon's egg."

The marriage was unhappy from the start. A few nights following the formal entry, Marguerite Louise demanded the Tuscan crown jewels for her own personal use; Cosimo refused. The jewels that she did manage to extract from Cosimo were almost smuggled out of Tuscany by her attendants but for the efforts of Ferdinando's agents.
Marguerite Louise's extravagances perturbed Ferdinando because the Tuscan exchequer was nearly bankrupt; it was so empty that when the Wars of Castro mercenaries were paid for, the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds. Accordingly, the interest rate was lowered by 0.75%. The economy, too, was so decrepit that barter trade became prevalent in rural marketplaces. In August 1663 Marguerite Louise delivered a boy: Ferdinando. Two more children followed: Anna Maria Luisa in 1667 and Gian Gastone in 1671.

Ferdinando beseeched Louis XIV to do something about his daughter-in-law's behaviour; he sent the Comte de Saint-Mesme. Marguerite Louise wanted to return to France, and Saint-Mesme sympathised with this, as did much of the French court, so he left without finding a solution to the heir's domestic disharmony, incensing both Ferdinando and Louis XIV. She humiliated Cosimo at every chance she got: she insisted on employing French cooks, as she feared the Medici would poison her. In September 1664 Marguerite Louise abandoned her apartments in the Pitti, the grand ducal palace. Cosimo moved her into Villa Lapeggi. Here, she was watched by forty soldiers, and six courtiers, appointed by Cosimo, had to follow her everywhere. The next year she reconciled with the grand ducal family, and gave birth to Anna Maria Luisa, future Electress Palatine, in August 1667. The delicate rapprochement that existed between Marguerite Louise and the rest of the family collapsed after Anna Maria Luisa's birth, when Marguerite Louise caught smallpox and decided to blame Cosimo for all her problems.

European travels

Grand Duke Ferdinando encouraged Cosimo to go on a European tour to distract him from Marguerite Louise's renewed hostility. On 28 October 1667 he arrived in Tyrol, where he was entertained by his aunt, Anna de' Medici, Archduchess of Further Austria. He took a barge down the Rhine to Amsterdam, where he was well received by the art community, meeting painter Rembrandt van Rijn. From Amsterdam, he travelled to Hamburg, where awaiting him was the Queen of Sweden. He reached Florence in May 1668. There he took in the paintor and architect Pier Maria Baldi as a chamberlain, who accompanied him through the rest of his travels through Europe. Another great personage that accompanied Cosimo was the italian philosopher and diplomat Lorenzo Magalotti, who proceded to document and describe their travels.

The excursion did Cosimo good. His health was better than ever, as was his self-esteem. His wife's unrelenting enmity towards him, however, undid the aforesaid progressions. Grand Duke Ferdinando, once again, feared for his health, so he sent him on a second tour in September 1668.

When he went to Spain, the disabled King Carlos II, received him in a private interview. By January 1669, he had arrived in Portugal, being welcomed by the Court and Peter II, where he stayed until March, visiting several vilages and cities such as Lisbon, Setúbal, Santarém, Coimbra and Viana. Of the various monuments, convents and churches visited, it was the Monastery of Saint Denis of Odivelas that most aroused the curiosity of the Florentines due to the libertine lifestyle of the nuns living there. In Lisbon, Cosimo also had the opportunity to talk several times with the Jesuit Priest Antònio Vieira and to attend his famous masses. After leaving Caminha by sea they arrived at La Coruña where they took another ship. At some point, the ship met an uncomfortable storm that made them land in Kinsale, Ireland. From there they went to England, where he met Charles II. Samuel Pepys described him as "a very jolly and good comely man." Cosimo was amiably welcomed by the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, for his father's perceived protection of Galileo from the Inquisition. He met with scientists such as Robert Hooke, Henry Oldenburg, Isaac Newton, and Robert Boyle; Cosimo bought a machine, built by Samuel Morland. In London, he stayed at St. Albans House as a guest of the Earl of St Albans.

On the return, he travelled again through the Dutch Republic; this time he bought a self-portrait which Rembrandt had finished in the meantime. He visited Jan Swammerdam and his collection of insects. Passing Aachen, Cosimo visited Louis XIV and his mother-in-law, Marguerite of Lorraine, in Paris. He arrived back in Florence on 1 November 1669. His travels were described in a detailed journal by his travelling companion Lorenzo, Conte Magalotti (1637-1712).

Reign

Departure of Marguerite Louise

Ferdinando II died on 23 May 1670 of apoplexy and dropsy and was interred in the Basilica of San Lorenzo, the Medicean necropolis. At the time of his death, the population of the grand duchy was 720,594 souls; the streets were lined with grass and the buildings on the verge of collapse in Pisa, while Siena was virtually abandoned.

Grand Duchess Marguerite Louise and Dowager Grand Duchess Vittoria vied with each other for power. The Dowager, after a protracted battle, triumphed: The Grand Duke assigned his mother the day-to-day administration of the state. Cosimo III commenced his reign with the utmost fervour, attempting to salvage the sinking exchequer and allowing his subjects to petition him for arbitration in disputes. The novelty soon wore off, however. Vittoria, Cosimo having lost his taste for administration, was further empowered by admission to the Grand Duke's Consulta (Privy Council). Marguerite Louise, deprived of any political influence, went about arranging Prince Ferdinando's education and arguing with Vittoria over precedence, which only further encamped Cosimo on his mother's side. In the midst of this, on the first anniversary of Ferdinando II's death, Gian Gastone was born to the grand ducal couple.

Marguerite Louise feigned illness at the start of 1672: Louis XIV send Alliot le Vieux, Anne of Austria's personal physician, to tend to her. Dr. Alliot, unlike Saint-Mesmeê, did not comply with Marguerite Louise's plot to be sent to France, ostensibly for the thermal waters to ameliorate her "illness." In December she went on a pilgrimage to Villa di Pratolino—she never returned. Marguerite Louise, instead of going back to Florence, chose to live in semi-retirement at Poggio a Caiano. The Grand Duke eventually consented, but feared she may abscond, so she was not allowed to go to leave without his permission and when she went riding she was to be escorted by four soldiers. All the doors and windows of the villa had to be secured, too. The saga between them continued until 26 December 1674, after all attempts at conciliation failed, a beleaguered Cosimo agreed to allow his wife to depart for the Convent of Montmartre, France. The contract signed that day renounced her rights as a Princess of the Blood and with them the dignity Royal Highness. Cosimo granted her a pension of 80,000 livres in compensation. She departed the next June, after stripping bare Poggio a Caiano of any valuables.

Persecution of Jews and the Lorrainer succession
Without Marguerite Louise to occupy his attention, Cosimo turned to persecuting the Jewish population of Tuscany. Sexual intercourse between Jews and Christians was proscribed, and by a law promulgated on 1 July 1677, Christians could not work in establishments owned by Jews. If they did regardless, a fine of 50 crowns was incurred; if the person in question had insufficient funds, he was liable to be tortured on the rack; and if he was deemed unfit for torture, a four-month prison sentence was substituted. The antisemitic roster was supplemented by further declarations on 16 June 1679 and 12 December 1680 banning Jews from visiting Christian prostitutes and co-habitation, respectively.

Meanwhile, in Lorraine, Charles V was without an heir and Marguerite-Louise, as the daughter of a Lorrainer princess, delegated the right to succeed to the duchy to her elder son, Ferdinando. Grand Duke Cosimo tried to get his son international recognition as heir-apparent, to no avail. Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, supported Cosimo's claim, not wanting to see Lorraine revert to France. The Treaties of Nijmegen, which concluded the Franco-Dutch War, did not rubber stamp Cosimo's ambitions, as he had wished. The Lorrainer question was concluded with the birth of a son to Charles V in 1679, ending Cosimo's dream of a Medici cadet branch, dreams which were to be revived in 1697 by Gian Gastone's marriage to an heiress.

1679–1685

Cosimo kept himself apprised of his wife's conduct in France through the Tuscan emissary, Gondi. Marguerite Louise frequently requested more money from the Grand Duke, while he was scandalised by her behaviour: she took up with a groom named Gentilly. In January 1680 the Abbess of Montemarte asked Cosimo to pay for the construction of a reservoir, following a scandal at the convent: The Grand Duchess had placed her pet dog's basket in close proximity to the fire, and the basket burst into flames, but instead of trying to extinguish it, she urged her fellow nuns to flee for their lives. On previous occasions, she had explicitly stated that she would burn down the convent if the Abbess disagreed with her, too, making the Abbess view the accident as intentional. Cosimo, unable to do much else for fear of upsetting Louis XIV, reproached her in a series of letters. Another scandal erupted that summer, the Grand Duchess bathed nude, as was the custom, in a local river. Cosimo exploded with anger upon hearing of this. Louis XIV, tiring of Florence's petitions, retorted: "Since Cosimo had consented to the retirement of his wife into France, he had virtually relinquished all right to interfere in her conduct." Following Louis XIV's rebuff, Cosimo fell grievously ill, only to be roused by Francesco Redi, his physician, who helped him reform his ways so illness would never strike him again. It was after this event that Cosimo finally stopped bothering with the Grand Duchess's life. In 1682 Cosimo III appointed his brother, Francesco Maria de' Medici, Governor of Siena.

The Holy Roman Emperor requested Cosimo's participation in the Great Turkish War. At first, he resisted, but then sent a consignment of munitions to Trieste, and offered to join the Holy League. They defeated the Turks at the Battle of Vienna in September 1683. To Cosimo's dismay, "many scandals and disorders continued to occur in the matter of carnal intercourse between Jews and Christian women, and especially putting their children out to be suckled by Christian nurses." The Grand Duke, wishing to supplement the "foe of heretics" persona he acquired after Vienna, outlawed the practice of Jews using Christian wet nurses and declared that if a Christian father wished to have his half-Jewish child suckled by a Christian nurse he must first apply to the government for a permit in writing. In addition, public executions increased to six per day. Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury and a famed memorialist, visited this Florence in November 1685, of which he wrote that "[Florence] is much sunk from what it was, for they do not reckon that there are fifty thousand souls in it; the other states, that were once great republic, such as Siena and Pisa, while they retained their liberty, are now shrunk almost into nothing..."

Marriage of the Grand Prince Ferdinando

Cosimo went about arranging a marriage for his elder son, Ferdinando, in 1686. He ushered him into the marriage as the other Tuscan princes, Francesco Maria de' Medici and Gian Gastone de' Medici, were sickly and unlikely to produce children. The main suitors were: Violante of Bavaria, a Bavarian princess, Isabel Luisa of Portugal (the heiress-apparent of Portugal), and the Elector Palatine's daughters.

Negotiations with the Portuguese were intense, but stalled over certain clauses: Ferdinando and Isabel Luisa would live in Lisbon, Ferdinando would renounce his right to the Tuscan throne unless the Infanta's father, King Peter II, remarried and had male issue, and if Isabel Luisa became Queen of Portugal, and Cosimo III, Gian Gastone and Francesco Maria died without any male heirs, Tuscany would be annexed by Portugal. Ferdinando rejected it outright with the fullest support of Louis XIV, his great-uncle. Cosimo's eyes now fell upon Violante of Bavaria. Choosing her would strengthen ties between France—where Violante's sister was the dauphine—and Bavaria. There was only one obstacle in the way, Ferdinando II, Cosimo's father, impartially advised Violante's father, Ferdinand Maria, to invest a huge sum into a bank. Soon after the Elector deposited the sum, the bank collapsed. Ferdinand Maria still had sore feelings; Cosimo consented to the reduction of her dowry accordingly to reimburse the Elector. Ferdinando was unimpressed with his wife. Violante, however, electrified the Grand Duke. He wrote, "I have never known, nor do I think the world can produce, a disposition so perfect..."

Royal Highness
Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy procured the style Royal Highness from Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in June 1689, infuriating Grand Duke Cosimo, who complained to Vienna that a duke was inferior status to a grand duke, and proclaimed it "unjustly exalted...since the House of Savoy had not increased to the point of vying with kings, nor had the House of Medici diminished in splendour and possessions, so there was no reason for promoting one and degrading the other." Cosimo also played upon all the times Tuscany provided financial and military assistance to the Empire. The Emperor, anxious to avoid friction, suggested that Anna Maria Luisa should marry the Elector Palatine to compensate for the affront. The Elector Palatine, two years later, several months before his marriage to Anna Maria Luisa, went about acquiring the aforesaid style for Cosimo and his family, despite the fact that they had no claim to any kingdom. Henceforth, Cosimo was His Royal Highness The Most Serene Grand Duke of Tuscany.

1691–1694

Louis XIV was angered by Anna Maria Luisa's marriage to his sworn foe. Cosimo, after much coaxing, persuaded him otherwise. On 9 October 1691, France, England, Spain, and the United Provinces guaranteed the neutrality of the Tuscan port of Livorno. The Empire, meanwhile, was attempting to extract feudal dues from Cosimo, and ordering him to ally with Austria. The Grand Duke replied that if he did so France would send a naval fleet from Toulon to occupy his state; the Emperor reluctantly accepted this excuse. Tuscany was not alone in its feudal ties to the Empire: The rest of Italy was also bound to pay the Emperor, but at a much higher magnitude than Cosimo, who merely paid on his few undisputed Imperial fiefs.

Cosimo, not having much else to do, instituted more moral laws. Young men were not allowed to "enter into houses to make love to girls, and let them dally at doors and windows, is a great incentive to rapes, abortions, and infanticides..." If a man did not comply, he was liable to receive enormous fines. This coincided with a new wave of taxes that stagnated Tuscany's already declining economy. Harold Acton recounts that a bale of wool "sent from Leghorn and Cortona had to pass through ten intermediate customs." The Grand Duke oversaw the establishment of the Office of Public Decency, whose goal was to regulate prostitution, also. Prostitutes were oft thrown into the Stinche, a jail for women of that profession, for years, with scant food, if they could not afford the fines levied on them by the Office of Public Decency. Evening permits and exemptions were available for those willing to pay six crowns per month.

Cosimo resurrected a law from the regency of his father which banned Students from attending college outside Tuscany, thus strengthening the Jesuits' hold on education. A contemporary wrote that not a single man in Florence could read or write Greek, a stark contrast to those of the old republic. In a letter dated 10 October 1691, Cosimo's personal secretary wrote, "By the Serene Master's express command I must inform Your Excellencies that His Highness will allow no professor in his university at Pisa to read or teach, in public or in private, by writing or voice, the philosophy of Democritus, or of atoms, or any save that of Aristotle."

Ferdinando and Violante, despite being married for over five years, had not produced any offspring as of 1694. The Grand Duke responded by declaring special days of devotion, and erecting a "fertility column" in the Cavour district of Florence, an act which attracted popular ridicule. Ferdinando would not attend to Violante, instead lavishing his attentions on his favourite, a castrated Venetian, Cecchino de Castris. The same year, Dowager Grand Duchess Vittoria, who had once exercised a great deal of influence over Cosimo, died. Her allodial possessions, the Duchies of Montefeltro and Rovere, inherited from her grandfather, the last Duke of Urbino, were bestowed upon her younger son, Francesco Maria de' Medici.

Marriage of Gian Gastone
Cosimo became perturbed by the question of the Tuscan Succession following the death of his mother. Ferdinando was lacking any children, as was Anna Maria Luisa. The latter, who was high in her father's estimation, put forward a German princess to marry Gian Gastone. The lady in question, Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg, nominal heiress of the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, was extremely wealthy. Cosimo once again dreamed of a Medici cadet branch in a foreign land. They were married on 2 July 1697. Gian Gastone and herself did not get along; he eventually abandoned her in 1708.

Dawn of the 18th century

The 17th century did not end well for the Grand Duke: he still had no grandchildren, France and Spain would not acknowledge his royal status and the Duke of Lorraine declared himself King of Jerusalem without any opposition. In May 1700 Cosimo embarked on a pilgrimage to Rome. Pope Innocent XII, after much persuasion, created Cosimo a Canon of Saint John in the Lateran, in order to allow him to view the Volto Santo, a cloth thought to have been used by Christ before his crucifixion. Delighted by his warm reception from the Roman people, Cosimo left Rome with a fragment of Saint Francis Xavier's bowels.

Carlos II of Spain died in November 1700. His death, without any ostensible heir, brought about the War of the Spanish Succession, which involved all of the European powers. Tuscany, however, remained neutral. Cosimo recognised Philip, duc d'Anjou, as Carlos's successor, whose administration refused to sanction the Trattamento Reale reserved for the royal family. The Grand Duke, soon after the royal altercation, accepted the investiture of the nominal Spanish fief of Siena from Philip, thereby confirming his status as a Spanish vassal.

Gian Gastone was consuming money at a rapid pace in Bohemia, wracking up titanic debts. The Grand Duke, alarmed, sent the Marquis Rinnuci to scrutinise the Prince's debts. Rinnuci was abhorred to discover that Jan Josef, Count of Breuner and Archbishop of Prague, was among his creditors. In an attempt to salvage Gian Gastone from shipwreck, Rinnuci tried to coerce Anna Maria Franziska to return to Florence, where Gian Gastone longed to be. She blankly refused. Her confessor, hoping to keep her in Bohemia, regaled her with tales of the "poisoned" Eleanor of Toledo and Isabella Orsini, other Medici consorts.

Tuscan succession and later years

Cosimo's piety had not faded in the slightest since his youth. He visited the Florentine Convent of Saint Mark on a daily basis. A contemporary recounted that "The Grand Duke knows all the monks of Saint Mark at least by sight..." This, however, did not occupy all his efforts: He was still trying to coax Anna Maria Franziska to Florence, where he believed her caprices would cease. Additionally, in 1719, he claimed that God asked him to pledge the Grand Duchy to "the governance and absolute dominion of the most glorious Saint Joseph".

Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, died in May 1705. His successor, Joseph I, took to government with a burst of ebullience. Following the Battle of Turin, a decisive Imperial victory, the Emperor sent an envoy to Florence to collect feudal dues, amounting to 300,000 doubloons, an exorbitant sum; and to force Cosimo to recognise the Archduke Charles as King of Spain. Fearing a Franco-Dutch invasion, Cosimo III refused to recognise Charles's title, but he did pay a fraction of the dues.

The Grand Prince Ferdinando was grievously ill with syphilis; he had become prematurely senile, not recognising anybody who came to see him. Cosimo despaired. He successfully requisitioned the assistance of Pope Clement XI with Anna Maria Franziska. He sent the Archbishop of Prague to reproach her. She cited the example of Marguerite-Louise, adding that the Pope did not bother himself to machinate a reconciliation. Cosimo wrote desperate missives to the Electress Palatine: "I can tell you now, in case you are not informed, that we have no money in Florence..." He added that "two or three-quarters of my pension are fallen into arrears".

Gian Gastone arrived in Tuscany, without his wife, in 1708. The Emperor, thinking it unlikely that any male heirs were to be born to the Medici, prepared to occupy Tuscany, under the pretext of Medici descent. He intimated that upon the Grand Prince's death the Tuscans would rebel against Cosimo's autocratic government. Cosimo, in an act of desperation, had Francesco Maria, the Medici family cardinal, renounce his religious vows and marry Eleanor of Gonzaga, the youngest child of the incumbent Duke of Guastalla. Two years later, Francesco Maria died, taking with him any hope of an heir.

Without any ostensible heir, Cosimo contemplated restoring the Republic of Florence. However, this presented many obstacles. Florence was nominally an Imperial fief, and Siena a Spanish one. The plan was about to be approved by the powers convened at Geertruidenberg when Cosimo abruptly added that if himself and his two sons predeceased the Electress Palatine she should succeed and the republic be re-instituted following her death. The proposal sank, and was ultimately put on hold following Emperor Joseph's death.

Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, agreed to an audience with the Electress Palatine in December 1711. He concluded that the Electress's succession brought no quandary, but added that he must succeed her. Cosimo and herself were abhorred by his reply. Realising how unforthcoming he had been, Charles wrote to Florence agreeing to the project, mentioning but one clause: the Tuscan state must not be bequeathed to the enemies of the House of Austria. At the culmination of the War of the Spanish Succession, at the Treaties of Utrecht and Rattstatt, Cosimo did not vie for international assurances for the Electress's succession. An inaction he would later grow to lament.

The Grand Prince finally succumbed to syphilis on 30 October 1713. Cosimo deposited a succession bill in the Senate, Tuscany's nominal legislature, on 26 November. The bill promulgated that if Gian Gastone predeceased the Electress Palatine, she should ascend to all the states of the Grand Duchy. It was greeted with a standing ovation by the senators. Charles VI was furious. He retorted that the Grand Duchy was an Imperial fief, and that he alone had the prerogative to choose who would succeed.  Elisabeth Farnese, heiress to the Duchy of Parma and the second wife of Philip V of Spain, as a great-granddaughter of Margherita de' Medici, exercised a claim to Tuscany.

In May 1716, the Emperor assured the Electress and the Grand Duke that there was no insurmountable obstacle preventing her accession, but that Austria and Tuscany must soon reach an agreement regarding which royal house which was to succeed the Medici. As an incentive to accelerate Cosimo's reply, the Emperor hinted that Tuscany would reap territorial advancements. In June 1717 Cosimo declared his wish that the House of Este should succeed. Charles VI's promises never materialised. In 1718 he repudiated Cosimo's decision, declaring a union between Tuscany and Modena (the Este lands) unacceptable. On 4 April 1718 England, France and the Dutch Republic (and later Austria) selected Don Carlos of Spain, the eldest child of Elisabeth Farnese and Philip V of Spain, as the Tuscan heir. By 1722 the Electress was not even acknowledged as heiress, and Cosimo was reduced to a spectator at the conferences for Tuscany's future.

Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine died in June 1717. Anna Maria Luisa returned home in October 1717, bringing with her vast treasures. Cosimo created his elder son's widow, Violante of Bavaria, Governess of Siena as to clearly define her precedence. That did not stop the two ladies from quarrelling, as was his intention. Cosimo discontinued hunting following an accident in January 1717. He accidentally shot, and killed, a man. He was so distraught, that he wished to be tried by the Knights of the Order of Saint Stephen. The state of the Grand Duchy reflected the decay of its ruler; in a 1718 military review, the army numbered less than 3000 men, some of whom were infirm, and aged 70. The navy composed of three galleys, and the crew 198. In September 1721, the Grand Duchess died; instead of willing her possessions to her children, as prescribed by the 1674 agreement; they went to the Princess of Epinoy.

Death and legacy

On 22 September 1723, the Grand Duke experienced a two-hour-long fit of trembling. His condition steadily deteriorated. Cosimo was attended by the Papal nuncio and the Archbishop of Pisa on his deathbed. The latter pronounced, "that this Prince required little assistance in order to die well, for he had studied and cared for nothing else throughout the long course of his life, but to prepare himself for death". On 25 October 1723, six days before his death, Grand Duke Cosimo disseminated a final proclamation commanding that Tuscany shall stay independent; Anna Maria Luisa shall succeed uninhibited to Tuscany after Gian Gastone; the Grand Duke reserves the right to choose his successor, but these stanzas were completely ignored. Six days later, on All Hallow's Eve, he died. He was interred in the Basilica of San Lorenzo, the Medici necropolis.

Cosimo III left Tuscany one of the poorest nations in Europe; the treasury empty and the people weary of religious bigotry, the state itself was reduced to a gaming chip in European affairs. Among his enduring edicts is the establishment of the Chianti wine region. Gian Gastone repealed Cosimo's Jewish persecution laws, and eased tariffs and customs. Cosimo's inability to uphold Tuscany's independence led to the succession of the House of Lorraine upon Gian Gastone's death in 1737.

Issue

Cosimo III had three children with Marguerite Louise d'Orléans, a granddaughter of Henry IV of France:

Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany (b.1663 d.1713) married Violante Beatrice of Bavaria, no issue;
Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Electress Palatine (b.1667 d.1743) married Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine, no issue;
Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b.1671 d.1737) married Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg, no issue.

Cosimo did not enjoy a harmonious relationship with his elder son, Ferdinando. They disagreed about Cosimo's bigoted ideology and his monthly allowance. Cosimo married him to a Bavarian princess, Violante Beatrice. This union was exceedingly discontent, and produced no offspring. Anna Maria Luisa was the Grand Duke's favourite child. She married Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine, and like her brother, had no issue. Gian Gastone, Cosimo's eventual successor, despised his father and his court. Anna Maria Luisa arranged for him to marry Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg, a union that produced no children.

Honours

Ancestors

Citations

Bibliography
Acton, Harold: The Last Medici, Macmillan, London, 1980,
Strathern, Paul: The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance, Vintage books, London, 2003,
Hale, J. R.: Florence and the Medici, Orion books, London, 1977,
van de Wetering, Ernst: Rembrandt: The Painter at Work, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, 1997
Setton, Kenneth M.: Western Hostility to Islam and Prophecies of Turkish Doom, Amer Philosophical Society, 1992,

External links

 Timeline of the events of Cosimo III's reign by Google

1642 births
1723 deaths
Cosimo 3
Cosimo 3
Nobility from Florence
Cosimo 3
17th-century Italian nobility
18th-century Italian nobility
Italian Roman Catholics
Burials at San Lorenzo, Florence

Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany


The Pacific Northwest, also referred to as Cascadia, is a region on the west coast of North America. It refers to the northwestern corner of the United States and the southwestern part of Canada. The U.S. states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho and western Montana are in the southern part of the Pacific Northwest. The Canadian province of British Columbia and the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Alaska is in the northern part. The entire region is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west.

Historically, the Pacific Northwest had been inhabited by Native Americans. Starting from about 15,000 years ago, Native Americans settled along the coastline and along the major rivers. From the 1500s to the 1700s, Europeans explored the region, beginning with the discovery of Oregon and Washington. In the early 1800s, the famous Lewis and Clark expedition arrived in Washington State. From the 19th century to present day, the region began to become settled. Today, the largest cities in the Northwest include Vancouver, Seattle and Portland.

The rugged mountains of the Northwest consist of the Coast Range, which is nearer the coast, and the Cascade Range. In northern Washington, the Cascade Range is called the North Cascades. In British Columbia, it is called the Canadian Cascades. The many rivers of the Northwest result from its wet climate - the mountains trap wet Pacific air, leaving little rain for inland states like Idaho. The rivers once supported large salmon runs, but large power dams have been built on many rivers.

The main language of the Pacific Northwest is English in the United States and Canada,  among the Native Americans Chinook Jargon is common. Among the many Asian immigrants, Chinese is being used more in the Northwest.

Geography

The Pacific Northwest basically extends from southeastern Alaska to Northern California. Along this entire length, is a large mountain range, the Cascade Range, that forms the geographic spine of the Pacific Northwest. The highest mountain in the Northwest is Mount Rainier. Rainier is  high. Other notable mountains include Mount Shasta, at , and Mount Baker, at . East of the Cascades, there is the Columbia Plateau, a high area of land that stretches east to the Rocky Mountains in Idaho and Montana. In the west, the Coast Range borders the coast more closely. The Olympic Mountains are on the Olympic Peninsula, an extension of Washington State. Puget Sound is a large system of bays and straits in northwestern Washington and southeastern British Columbia.

The main rivers of the Pacific Northwest are the Fraser River, the Columbia River, and the Snake River. The Fraser River is mainly in British Columbia; it flows west to the Pacific Ocean near Vancouver. The Fraser drains most of the southern Canadian Cascades. The Columbia River begins in the Canadian Cascades and flows south, then turns west where it meets the Snake River. From there, it flows on to the ocean near Portland. The Snake River is mainly in inland Idaho. After a journey west from the Rocky Mountains, it meets the Columbia at Kennewick, Washington.

Other rivers in the Northwest include the Finlay, the Skagit, the Umpqua, the Rogue, and the Klamath. The Finlay drains the northern Canadian Cascades and flows on to join the Mackenzie River, which flows through Canada to Hudson Bay. The Skagit also begins in the Canadian Cascades, and crosses into Washington; it turns west and flows into the sea north of Everett, Washington. The Umpqua River begins in the Southern Oregon Cascades, and flows west to the Pacific Ocean near Reedsport, Oregon. The Rogue parallels the Umpqua and dumps into the sea at Gold Beach, Oregon. The Klamath flows south from a valley in inland Oregon, then turns west through northern California, cutting through the Cascade Range to its mouth near Klamath, California.

Related pages
Cascade Volcanic Arc

References

Regions of Canada
Regions of the United States

Pacific Northwest


Linear algebra is a branch of mathematics. It came from mathematicians trying to solve systems of linear equations. Vectors and matrices are used to solve these systems. The main objects of study currently are vector spaces and linear mappings between vector spaces. Linear algebra is useful in other branches of mathematics (e.g. differential equations and analytic geometry). It can also be applied to the real world in areas such as engineering, physics and economics.

Linear algebra describes ways to solve and manipulate (rearrange) systems of linear equations.

For example, consider the following equations:

These two equations form a system of linear equations.
It is linear because none of the variables are raised to a power.
The graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line.
The solution to this system is:

This is because it makes all of the original equations valid, that is, the value on the left side of the equals sign is exactly the same as the value on the right side for both equations.

Linear algebra uses a system of notation for describing system behavior, called a matrix. For the previous example, the coefficients of the equations can be stored in a coefficient matrix.

Related pages

 Abstract algebra
 Matrix analysis
 Matrix function
 Numerical linear algebra
 System of linear equations

Further reading
 Israel Gelfand (1998), Lectures on linear algebra, Courier Dover Publications.

Linear algebra

Linear algebra


Phosphoric acid, also known as orthophosphoric acid, is a chemical compound. It is also an acid. Its chemical formula is H3PO4. It contains hydrogen and phosphate ions. Its official IUPAC name is trihydroxidooxidophosphorus.

Properties
Phosphoric acid is a white solid. It melts easily to make a viscous liquid. It tastes sour when diluted (mixed with a lot of water). It can be deprotonated three times. It is very strong, although not as much as the other acids like hydrochloric acid. It does not have any odor. It is corrosive when concentrated. Salts of phosphoric acid are called phosphates.

Preparation
Phosphoric acid can be made by dissolving phosphorus(V) oxide in water. This makes a very pure phosphoric acid that is good for food. A less pure form is made by reacting sulfuric acid with phosphate rock. This can be purified to make food-grade phosphoric acid if needed.

Uses
It is used to make sodas sour. It is also used when a nonreactive acid is needed. It can be used to make hydrogen halides, such as hydrogen chloride. Phosphoric acid is heated with a sodium halide to make the hydrogen halide and sodium phosphate. It is used to react with rust to make black iron(III) phosphate, which can be scraped off, leaving pure iron. It can be used to clean teeth.

There are many minor uses of phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid with a certain isotope of phosphorus is used for nuclear magnetic resonance. It is also used as an electrolyte in some fuel cells. It can be used as a flux. It can etch certain things in semiconductor making.

Safety
Phosphoric acid is one of the least toxic acids. When it is diluted, it just has a sour taste. When it is concentrated, it can corrode metals.

Related pages
Phosphorous acid
Hypophosphorous acid
Phosphorus compounds

Phosphorus compounds

Phosphoric acid


{{Infobox royalty
|name = His Excellency  Napoleon III  The President of France
|image = Napoleon III 1863.jpg
|image_size = 233px
|succession = Emperor of the French
|reign = 2 December 1852 –4 September 1870
|predecessor = Monarchy re-created  Louis Philippe I
|successor = Monarchy abolished  Louis Jules Trochu  {{small|as President of the Government of National Defense''}}
Adolphe Thiers
|reg-type = Cabinet Chiefs
|regent =
|succession1 = President of the French Republic
|reign-type1 = In office
|reign1 = 20 December 1848 –2 December 1852
|predecessor1 = Republic re-created  Louis-Eugène Cavaignac
|successor1 = Republic abolished
|reg-type1 =
|regent1 =
|spouse = Eugénie de Montijo
|issue = Louis Napoléon, Prince Imperial
|full name = Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte
|house = House of Bonaparte
|father = Louis I of Holland
|mother = Hortense de Beauharnais
|birth_date =
|birth_place = Paris, French Empire
|death_date =
|death_place = Chislehurst, England
|burial_place = St Michael's Abbey, England
| signature = 1855 signature of Napoléon III of France.jpg
|religion = Roman Catholicism
}}
Napoléon III (20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873), also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, was the first President of the French Republic and the last monarch of France. Made president by popular vote in 1848, Napoleon III ascended to the throne on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of his uncle, Napoleon I's, coronation. He ruled as Emperor of the French until September 1870, when he was captured in the Franco-Prussian War.

 Early life
Napoleon III, generally known as "Louis Napoléon" before he became emperor, was the son of Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoléon. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleon's wife Josephine de Beauharnais. Louis-Napoléon was a second son and a replacement child. His older brother, Napoléon Charles Bonaparte, died at age four. During Napoleon I's reign, Louis-Napoléon's parents had been made king and queen of a French puppet state, the Kingdom of Holland.

After Napoleon I's military defeats and deposition in 1815 and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France, all members of the Bonaparte dynasty were forced into exile. Louis Napoleon was quietly exiled to the United States of America, and spent four years in New York City. He also visited Central America. He secretly returned to France and attempted yet another coup in August 1840, sailing with some hired soldiers into Boulogne. In 1844, his uncle Joseph died, making him the direct heir apparent to the Bonaparte claim. Two years later, his father Louis died, making Louis-Napoléon the clear Bonapartist candidate to rule France.

Louis-Napoléon lived within the borders of the United Kingdom until the revolution of February 1848 in France deposed Louis-Philippe I and established a Republic. He was now free to return to France, which he immediately did.

 Ruler of France
In 1848, he was elected President of France in a land slide victory. He won the election because of his popular name and French people hoped that he would return his uncle's glory. He used his rank as stepping stone to greater power. Finally in 1852, he crowned himself as Emperor Napoleon III and the Second French Empire was born. In 1856, Eugenie gave birth to a legitimate son and heir, Louis Napoléon, the Prince Impérial.

On 28 April 1855 Napoleon survived an attempted assassination. On 14 January 1858 Napoleon and his wife escaped another assassination attempt, plotted by Felice Orsini.
Until about 1861, Napoleon's regime exhibited decidedly authoritarian characteristics, using press censorship to prevent the spread of opposition, manipulating elections, and depriving the Parliament of the right to free debate or any real power. His foreign policy included support for Maximilian I of Mexico.

A far more dangerous threat to Napoleon, however, was looming. France saw its dominance on the continent of Europe eroded by Prussia's crushing victory over Austria in the Austro-Prussian War in June–August 1866. To prevent Prussia under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck becoming even more powerful, Napoleon began the Franco-Prussian War. This war proved disastrous, and was instrumental in giving birth to the German Empire, which would take France's place as the major land power on the continent of Europe. In the 1870 Battle of Sedan Prussian forces captured the Emperor. The forces of the Third Republic deposed his government in Paris two days later.

 Death
Napoleon spent the last few years of his life in exile in England, with Eugenie and their only son. The family lived at Camden Place Chislehurst (then in Kent), where he died on 9 January 1873. He was haunted to the end by bitter regrets and by painful memories of the battle at which he lost everything.

Napoleon was originally buried at St. Mary's, the Catholic Church in Chislehurst. However, after his son died in 1879 fighting in the British Army against the Zulus in South Africa, the bereaved Eugenie decided to build a monastery. The building would house monks driven out of France by the anti-religious laws of the Third Republic, and would provide a suitable resting place for her husband and son.

 Legacy
An important legacy of Napoleon III's reign was the rebuilding of Paris under the supervision of Georges-Eugène Haussmann. One purpose was reduce the ability of future revolutionaries to challenge the government by blocking the small, medieval streets of Paris with barricades. However, the main reason for the complete transformation of Paris was Napoleon III's desire to modernize Paris based on what he had seen of the modernizations of London during his exile there in the 1840s.

Titles and styles
 20 April 1808 – 9 July 1810: His Imperial and Royal Highness Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, Prince of Holland
 20 April 1808 – 25 July 1846: His Imperial Highness Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, Prince Imperial of France
 20 December 1848 – 2 December 1852: His Excellency Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, President of the French Republic ("fr: Le Prince-President")
 2 December 1852 – 4 September 1870: His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the French
 4 September 1870 – 9 January 1873: His Imperial Majesty'' the former Emperor of the French

References

1808 births
1873 deaths
Emperors and empresses
House of Bonaparte
Politicians from Paris
Presidents of France
Former dictators
19th-century French people

Napoléon III


The Rite of Spring (Le Sacre du Printemps) is a ballet in two parts. It was written for the 1913 Paris season of Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes company.

The music was written by Igor Stravinsky. The dances, which Stravinsky hated, were choreographed by Vaslav Nijinsky. The style of the dance was not in traditional ballet form, but as what Nijinsky imagined to be a primitive ritual. Stravinsky complained that Nijinsky had no understanding of the rudiments of music. The set and costumes were designed by Nicholas Roerich.

The ballet was first performed by Diaghilev's Ballets Russes at the Theatre du Champs-Élysées in  Paris on 29 May 1913. The dress rehearsal met with approval from critics and invited guests, but the premiere was greeted with tumult and riot, only stilled by the performance of Marie Piltz as the sacrificial maiden. Subsequent performances were received with growing appreciation, but the ballet's great difficulties forced it to be presented only six times.

The ballet was revived in 1920 by the Ballets Russes, but the music had been performed in its entirety in concert before the revival. Nijinsky's dances had been forgotten so Leonide Massine (who had not seen the original performances) designed the dances anew. These met with Stravinsky's approval. In 1940, Walt Disney used the music to accompany a segment of the animated movie Fantasia. This segment depicted lumbering dinosaurs and smoldering volcanoes.

Stravinsky's music
The music lasts about 40 minutes, and is divided into two parts.  It has the subtitle "Pictures from Pagan Russia". Stravinsky had the idea of composing music which was about country people from old times in Russia who danced a fertility rite.  This means: a ceremony which is supposed to bring good luck to the next year's harvest. In this ancient Russian dance, one young girl is chosen to dance and dance until she dies. She is the sacrifice. She is sacrificed to the god of spring.

How Stravinsky wrote the score
The painter Nicholas Roerich talked with Stravinsky about the idea for this ballet in 1910. Stravinsky started writing down musical ideas while he was still working on his ballet The Firebird.  Then he worked on Petrushka. In 1912 he was able to concentrate on The Rite of Spring.  All these ballets were composed for Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes.

First performance
The Rite of Spring was first performed by the Ballets Russes on 29 May 1913 at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris. The conductor was Pierre Monteux. The audience were shocked at the primitive kind of dancing and the irregular rhythms and strange orchestral sounds and unusual chords.  Nijinsky's choreography was so different from classical ballet.  Nijinsky found it difficult to work with Stravinsky and difficult to work with the music.

Carl Van Vechten described the scene as follows:
"A certain part of the audience was thrilled by what it considered to be a blasphemous attempt to destroy  music as an art, and, swept away with wrath, began very soon after the rise of the curtain, to make cat-calls and to offer audible suggestions as to how the performance should proceed. The orchestra played unheard, except occasionally when a slight lull occurred. The young man seated behind me in the box stood up during the course of the ballet to enable himself to see more clearly. The intense excitement under which he was labouring betrayed itself presently when he began to beat rhythmically on top of my head with his fists. My emotion was so great that I did not feel the blows for some time".
Marie Rambert heard someone in the gallery call out: "Un docteur … un dentiste … deux docteurs…". The second performance (June 4) was fortunately less eventful and, according to Maurice Ravel, the entire work could actually be heard.

The complicated music and violent dance steps caused some to boo. They started to shout and whistle. They argued, and other people who liked it argued back. Then some people started to fight. In the end the police were called. Stravinksy was very upset and ran out of the theatre. The performance was a scandal, but this actually made people curious and soon the ballet became very famous. It was performed six times that season, and there were no more interruptions during the other performances.

Themes
The Rite of Spring is divided into two parts, and each part has several sections:

Part 1: The Adoration of the Earth
In the Introduction we hear the coming of spring.  A bassoon starts all by itself on a very high note.  Gradually other instruments join in until it sounds like the swarming of insects and other spring noises.

In The Auguries of Spring – Dances of the Young Girls we hear two chords played together, each chord is in a different key.  This chord which is in two keys at once is stamped out by the strings and eight horns.  A rocking tune is heard on the cor anglais.

This leads to The Game of Capture in which we hear a piccolo trumpet (a small kind of trumpet) play a quick, flutter-tongue melody.

 Round-dances of Spring is a country tune on high and low clarinets followed by a slow dance for strings and woodwinds.  The music is then repeated with immense loud intensity, soon followed by quiet flute trills.

 Games of the Rival Tribes uses timpani, low brass instruments and horns to describe the furious tribes.

 The Procession of the Sage is the entry of the wise man (the sage).  It builds into a big climax.

 Adoration of the Earth-The Sage is a short bit of very quiet music, leading to

 Dance of the Earth which leads Part One to a wild end.

Part 2: The Sacrifice

The  Introduction  describes the night.  Lots of chords in several keys at once leads to a tune in the strings.

 Mysterious Circles of the Young Girls.  This is where one girl is chosen to die.  Six solo violas play the tune, an alto flute is heard.  Trumpets and horns with mutes interrupt the circling.  Then eleven heavy thumps on the strings and drums lead to…

 Glorification of the Chosen One.  This is a big, exciting dance with noisy horns and timpani and bass drum.

 Evocation of the Ancestors.  The elders (the wise old men) arrive to majestic chords on wind and brass.

 Ritual Action of the Ancestors.  We hear quiet, ticking chords and a duet for cor anglais and alto flute.  Then trumpets and horns, and finally clarinets.

 Sacrificial Dance of the Chosen One.  The "Chosen One" dances herself to death.  The music is very energetic, with very irregular rhythms and time signatures which keep changing almost every bar.  The work ends in a huge climax.

Musical characteristics
Stravinsky's music has many complex harmonies with dissonant sounds.  There are passages with polyrhythms (several rhythms at once) as well as polytonality (music in several keys at once).  The time signatures keep changing, and he often uses ostinati (repeated patterns).

Stravinsky wanted his music to describe the releasing of lots of energy.  Most composers would have done this by using a lot of percussion instruments.  However, although two players are needed for the timpani, there are not many other percussion instruments.  Instead, the whole orchestra becomes a kind of percussion instrument.  Also, the music often sounds like Russian folkmusic.

Instrumentation
The Rite of Spring uses a very large orchestra with some unusual instruments. There are almost 100 people playing the piece.  Here is a list of the instruments used:

woodwinds: piccolo, 3 flutes (3rd doubling piccolo 2), alto flute, 4 oboes (4th doubling cor anglais 2), cor anglais, clarinet in E-flat and D, 3 clarinets in B-flat, A (3rd doubling bass clarinet 2), bass clarinet, 4 bassoons (4th doubling contrabassoon 2), contrabassoon
brass: 8 horns in F (7th and 8th doubling Wagner tubas in B-flat), trumpet in D, 4 trumpets in C (4th doubling bass trumpet in E-flat), 3 trombones, 2 tubas
percussion: timpani (2 players, with a minimum of 5 drums including a piccolo timpano), bass drum, cymbals, tam-tam, crotales (antique cymbals) in A-flat and B-flat, triangle, tambourine, guiro
strings: violins i, ii (16), (14), violas (12), violoncellos (10), double basses (8)

The dance

Nijinsky's choreography was thought almost as shocking as the music. The idea is: a tribe sacrifices a young virgin each year in the Spring to please their gods, and make sure crops grow well. The dancers adopt a pigeon-toed stance (position); their moves are heavy. They move together in groups; their movements are like a ritual. They look like a primitive tribe performing a ritual. The ritual moves towards the sacrifice of the girl. The Rite of Spring is a link between classical ballet and modern dance.p395

Reconstruction of the ballet
Nijinsky's choreography has not been kept very well, but there have been efforts in recent years to reconstruct his performance, using costumes and set designs that look like the original ones from 1912. The Royal Ballet in London has a compact disc which discusses Bronislava Nijinska's directions for the dance in a modern (post WWII) production of the ballet.

Fantasia
The Rite of Spring became even more popular when Walt Disney used some of the music in his animated movie Fantasia in 1940.  It is used in the film to describe early life on planet earth with dinosaurs roaming about.

References

 Robert, Grace. 1949. The Borzoi Book of Ballets. New York: Knopf. pp. 25963.
 Igor Stravinsky "The Rite of Spring" - Malcolm Hayes 2003, printed in programme for BBC Promenade Concert 16 August 2004

Other websites
Hewett, Ivan 2013. Did The Rite of Spring really spark a riot? BBC News Magazine.

Compositions by Igor Stravinsky
Ballets Russes productions
Ballets choreographed by Nijinsky

The Rite of Spring


Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67 is a symphony by Ludwig van Beethoven. It is the fifth of his nine symphonies. It was written between 1804 and 1808. This symphony is one of the most popular and well-known works of classical music.

There are four movements: an opening sonata allegro, a slower andante, and a fast scherzo which leads straight in to the finale.

The symphony was first performed in Vienna's Theater an der Wien in 1808. His Sixth Symphony was also performed for the first time at the same concert. The Fifth Symphony soon became recognized as one of the most important musical works.

The music
The symphony begins with a four-note "short-short-short-long" motif which is heard twice (slightly lower the second time):
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The opening of the symphony is so famous that it has often been quoted. Other composers have used it in their compositions, e.g. Sergei Rachmaninoff in his song Fate. It has often been used in popular culture, from disco to rock and roll, and in film and television. During World War II, the BBC used the four-note motif to introduce its radio news broadcasts because "short-short-short-long" spells the letter "V" in Morse code. The "V" meant "Victory". It was played very quietly on a drum. People in Nazi occupied countries who wanted to hear the news listened in secret to the BBC news because it was more likely to be true.

The third movement of the symphony uses this rhythm sometimes as an accompaniment.

When Beethoven wrote this symphony he was in his mid-thirties. He was becoming more and more deaf. He found this terribly hard to bear. He thought that he, of all people, should have perfect hearing. He felt very depressed, but he decided not to commit suicide, but to stay alive and write down all the music he had in his head. He wrote about this in a letter called the Heiligenstadt Testament.

The opening of the Fifth Symphony sounds very bold and heroic. The whole symphony sounds like a struggle which starts from those four notes. People have often said that those four notes represent fate knocking at the door. By the time we get to the last movement (the finale) the music has become major instead of minor. It sounds as if Beethoven has overcome his depression.

The fourth movement of this symphony is one of the first times a trombone or a piccolo is used in a symphony.

Symphony 05

Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)