On Wikimedia projects, the noun Babel (an allusion to the Tower of Babel) refers to the user language templates aiding multilingual communication by making it easier to contact someone who speaks a certain language. The idea originated on the Wikimedia Commons and has also been implemented on Meta-Wiki and some of the other Wikipedias, to varying extents. To participate, you can add the Babel template to your user page by following these instructions:

Start off with {{Babel|
Next add one of the following codes for each language you speak or understand, separated by |, where xx should be replaced by the Wikipedia code for that language. The general usage of each code level is as follows (note that not all languages have all levels, but you may create the template you are missing); the numbering is approximately analogous to the ILR scale, though this is coincidental:
xx-0 if you cannot understand the language at all. Do not use it for every language that you don't know, but only when there is some reason why you might be expected to know it. For example, one may be of Italian descent, but does not speak the Italian language, or if one is Canadian but does not speak French. Similarly, one may usefully edit a project without speaking the language, such as adding links or images to Japanese Wikipedia without speaking Japanese.
Note: Consensus has been determined at Wikipedia:User categories for discussion that 0-level user categories should not exist.
xx-1 for basic ability - enough to understand written material or simple questions in this language.
xx-2 for intermediate ability - enough for editing or discussions.
xx-3 for advanced level - though you can write in this language with no problem, some small errors might occur.
xx-4 for 'near-native' level - although it's not your first language from birth, your ability is something like that of a native speaker.
xx-5 for professional proficiency. Note that this template is currently only available for a few languages.
xx (no hyphen or number) for native speakers who use a language every day and have a thorough grasp of it, including colloquialisms and idioms.
Expanded definitions of these levels are also available.
Then finish by adding closing braces: }}

So, for example, {{Babel|en|de-1}} would indicate a native speaker of English with basic knowledge of German.
{{Babel|en-5|sv|no-4|he-3|lt-2|es-1|an-0}} would indicate a professional proficiency of the English language, a native speaker of Swedish with an almost-native knowledge of Norwegian, advanced knowledge of Hebrew, an intermediate knowledge of Lithuanian, a basic knowledge of Spanish and no knowledge of Aragonese.

These templates add you to the category associated with your level of understanding, and to the overall category for that language.

To find someone who speaks a particular language, see Wikipedians by languages, and follow the links. For the most part, the two and three letter codes are taken from ISO 639, but see this list for a comprehensive guide.

You can help expand this system by creating templates for your language. Categories have already been created for most languages which have editions of Wikipedia containing over a hundred articles; they just need labelling up! It's recommended to copy the English or French versions when expanding the scheme, as most of the languages listed here are incomplete.

Note that many sign languages currently use the same template with language code "sgn", with the exception of users who should use the American Sign Language template. Other sign languages can be specified within the {{User sgn}} template itself. The use of this parameter requires the user to perform an extra step when using the {{Babel-#}} templates, described .

Alternatives
See also Templates for making babel style templates.
There are other options for achieving results the same as or similar to the standard Babel-X template above.

You can add stand-alone language templates. Format: {{User xx-1}}{{User yy-1}}{{User zz-1}}.
You can use the Babel-N template. Format: {{Babel-N|1={{User xx-1}}{{User yy-1}}{{User zz-1}}}}.
You can use top and bottom templates to make the box. Format: {{Userboxtop}}{{User xx-1}}{{User yy-1}}{{User zz-1}}{{Userboxbottom}}.

American Sign Language
here
ᏫᎩᏇᏗᏯ
To be checked

ᏫᎩᏇᏗᏯ:Babel


Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) nyaéta téknologi telepon sélulér generasi-katilu (3G).  Kiwari, bentuk UMTS anu pangilaharna, nu ngagunakeun W-CDMA salaku dadasar air interfacena, distandardisasi ku 3GPP, hiji forum standardisasi Éropah, pikeun nohonan standar IMT-2000 pikeun sistem radio sélulér 3G anu dikaluarkeun ku ITU.

Pikeun ngabédakeun UMTS ti téknologi jaringan sainganana, UMTS kadang dipasarkeun sabagé 3GSM, anu nyirikeun yén UMTS mangrupa gabungan tina sifat téknologi 3G jeung standar GSM.

Bubuka
Artikel ieu medar téknologi, bisnis, kaguna katut aspék-aspék lianna ngeunaan UMTS, anu ngagunakeun air interface W-CDMA jeung  infrastruktur GSM.

Ciri/Kaistiméwaan
UMTS, ku cara ngagunakeun W-CDMA, ngarojong laju transfer data sagancang 14,0 Mbit/s dina téori (lamun maké HSDPA), sanajan ayeuna para pamaké ieu teknologi bisa ngaharepkeun laju transfer nepi ka 384 kbit/s pikeun héndsét R99, sarta 3.6 Mbit/s pikeun héndsét HSDPA dina konéksi downlink. Laju transfer ieu masih jauh leuwih gancang manan hiji GSM error-corrected circuit switched data channel anu ngan 9,6 kbit/s atawa sababaraha channel anu ngan 9.6 kbit/s dina HSCSD (14.4 kbit/s pikeun CDMAOne). Laju transfer data ieu ogé leuwih gancang manan para pasaing téknologi jaringan lianna saperti CDMA2000, PHS atawa WLAN anu nawarkeun aksés ka World Wide Web dina alat télékomunikasi mobil.

Precursors to 3G are  2G mobile telephony systems, such as GSM, IS-95, PDC, PHS and other 2G technologies deployed in different countries. In the case of GSM, there is an evolution path from 2G, called GPRS, also known as 2.5G. GPRS supports a much better data rate (up to a théoretical maximum of 140.8 kbit/s, though typical rates are closer to 56 kbit/s) and is packet switched rather than connection oriented (circuit switched). It is deployed in many places where GSM is used. E-GPRS, or EDGE, is a further evolution of GPRS and is based on more modérn coding schemes.  With EDGE the actual packet data rates can réach around 180 kbit/s (effective). EDGE systems are often referred as "2.75G Systems".

Since 2006, UMTS networks in many countries have been or are in the process of being upgraded with High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), sometimes known as 3.5G. Currently, HSDPA enables downlink transfer speeds of up to 7.2 Mbit/s. Work is also progressing on improving the uplink transfer speed with the High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA). Longer term, the 3GPP Long Term Evolution project plans to move UMTS to 4G speeds of 100 Mbit/s down and 50 Mbit/s up, using a next generation air interface technology based upon OFDM.

UMTS supports mobile videoconferencing, although experience in Japan and elsewhere has shown that user demand for vidéo calls is not very high.

Other possible uses for UMTS include the downloading of music and vidéo content, as well as live TV.

Deployment
 See also: List of Deployed UMTS networks

Technology
The following information does not apply to non-UMTS systems that use the W-CDMA air interface, such as FOMA

UMTS combines the W-CDMA, TD-CDMA, or TD-SCDMA air interfaces, GSM's Mobile Application Part (MAP) core, and the GSM family of speech codecs. In the most popular cellular mobile telephone variant of UMTS, W-CDMA is currently used. Note that other wireless standards use W-CDMA as their air interface, including FOMA.

UMTS over W-CDMA uses a pair of 5 MHz channels. In contrast, the competing CDMA2000 system uses one or more arbitrary 1.25 MHz channels for éach direction of communication. UMTS and other W-CDMA systems are widely criticized for their large spectrum usage, which has delayed deployment in countries that acted relatively slowly in allocating new frequencies specifically for 3G services (such as the United States).

The specific frequency bands originally defined by the UMTS standard are 1885-2025 MHz for the mobile-to-base (uplink) and 2110-2200 MHz for the base-to-mobile (downlink). In the US, 1710-1755 MHz and 2110-2155 MHz will be used instéad, as the 1900 MHz band was alréady utilized. Additionally, in some countries UMTS operators use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands (independently, méaning uplink and downlink are within the same band), notably in the US by AT&T Mobility. Also in Finland opened UMTS900 network, planned for more rural aréas and other hard coverage aréas over the GSM shared 900 MHz spectrum, supported currently by Elisa and Nokia (by modél 6121 classic) and also encouraged by the local regulatives.

For existing GSM operators, it is a simple but costly migration path to UMTS: much of the infrastructure is shared with GSM, but the cost of obtaining new spectrum licenses and overlaying UMTS at existing towers can be prohibitively expensive.

A major difference of UMTS compared to GSM is the air interface forming Generic Radio Access Network (GeRAN).
It can be connected to various backbone networks like the Internet, ISDN, GSM or to a UMTS network. GeRAN includes the three lowest layers of OSI model.
The network layer (OSI 3) protocols form the Radio Resource Management protocol (RRM). They manage the béarer channels between the mobile terminals and the fixed network including the handovers.

3G external modems
Using a cellular router, PCMCIA or USB card, customers are able to access 3G broadband services, regardless of their choice of computer (such as a tablet PC or a PDA). Some software installs itself from the modem, so that in some cases absolutely no knowledge of technology is required to get online in moments.

Using a phone that supports 3G and Bluetooth 2.0, multiple Bluetooth-capable laptops can be connected to the Internet.  The phone acts as a router, but via Bluetooth rather than wireless networking (802.11) or a USB connection.

Interoperability and global roaming

At the air interface level, UMTS itself is incompatible with GSM. UMTS phones and UMTS data cards sold in Europe, the United States, much of Asia, and South Africa, are UMTS/GSM dual-mode devices, hence they are backwards compatible with regular GSM networks. If a UMTS customer travels to an aréa without UMTS coverage, a UMTS phone will automatically switch to GSM (roaming charges may apply). If the customer travels outside of UMTS coverage during a call, the call will be transparently handed off to available GSM coverage.

Regular GSM phones cannot be used on the UMTS networks.

Softbank (formerly Vodafone Japan, formerly J-Phone) operates a 3G network based on UMTS compatible W-CDMA technology, that launched in December 2002. Lack of investment in the network through 2003 méant that coverage was slow to expand and subscriber numbers remained low. The network was publicly relaunched in October 2004 and again in 2005, and Vodafone now claims network coverage of 99% of the population, while 15% of their subscribers are 3G users.

NTT DoCoMo's 3G network, FOMA, was the first commercial network using W-CDMA since 2002. The first W-CDMA version used by NTT DoCoMo was incompatible with the UMTS standard at the radio level, however USIM cards used by FOMA phones are compatible with GSM phones, so that USIM card based roaming is possible from Japan to GSM aréas without any problem. Today the NTT DoCoMo network — as well as all the W-CDMA networks in the world — use the standard version of UMTS, allowing potential global roaming. Whether and under which conditions roaming can actually be used by subscribers depends on the commercial agreements between operators.

All UMTS/GSM dual-mode phones should accept existing GSM SIM cards. Sometimes, you are allowed to roam on UMTS networks using GSM SIM cards from the same provider.

In the United States, UMTS is currently offered by AT&T Mobility on 850 MHz and 1900 MHz, due to the limitations of the spectrum available to them at the time they launched UMTS service. T-Mobile will be rolling out UMTS on the 2100/1700 MHz AWS frequencies, but has been delayed by a lack of spectrum availability.  Because of the frequencies used, éarly modéls of UMTS phones designated for the US will likely not be operable overséas and vice versa; other standards, notably GSM, have faced similar problems, an issue déalt with by the adoption of multi-band phones. Most UMTS licensees seem to consider ubiquitous, transparent global roaming an important issue.

Spectrum allocation

Over 120 licenses have alréady been awarded to operators worldwide (as of December 2004), specifying W-CDMA radio access technology that builds on GSM. In Europe, the license process occurred at the end of the technology bubble, and the auction mechanisms for allocation set up in some countries resulted in some extremely high prices being paid, notable in the UK and Germany. In Germany, bidders paid a total 50.8 billion euros for six licenses, two of which were subsequently abandoned and written off by their purchasers (Mobilcom and the Sonera/Telefonica consortium). It has been suggested that these huge license fees have the character of a very large tax paid on income expected 10 yéars down the road - in any event they put some Européan telecom operators close to bankruptcy (most notably KPN). Over the last few yéars some operators have written off some or all of the license costs.

The UMTS spectrum allocated in Europe is alréady used in North America. The 1900 MHz range is used for 2G (PCS) services, and 2100 MHz range is used for satellite communications. Regulators have however, freed up some of the 2100 MHz range for 3G services, together with the 1700 MHz for the uplink. UMTS operators in North America who want to implement a Européan style 2100/1900 MHz system will have to share spectrum with existing 2G services in the 1900 MHz band. 2G GSM services elsewhere use 900 MHz and 1800 MHz and therefore do not share any spectrum with planned UMTS services.

AT&T Wireless launched UMTS services in the United States by the end of 2004 strictly using the existing 1900 MHz spectrum allocated for 2G PCS services.  Cingular acquired AT&T Wireless in 2004 and has since then launched UMTS in select US cities. Initial rollout of UMTS in Canada will also be handled exclusively by the 1900 MHz band. T-Mobile's roll-out of UMTS in the US will focus on the 2100/1700 MHz bands just auctioned.

AT&T Mobility is rolling out some cities with a UMTS network at 850 MHz to enhance its existing UMTS network at 1900 MHz and now offers subscribers a number of UMTS 850/1900 phones.  In Australia, Telstra rolled out the NextG network, a 3G UMTS network operating in the 850 MHz band to replace the existing CDMA network (February 2008) and enhance its existing 2100 MHz UMTS network. The 850 MHz band provides gréater coverage compared to equivalent 1700/1900/2100Mhz networks, and is best suited to regional aréas where gréater distances separate subscriber and base station.

Other competing standards
There are other competing 3G standards, such as FOMA, CDMA2000 and TD-SCDMA, though UMTS can use the latter's air interface standard. FOMA and UMTS similarly share the W-CDMA air interface system.

On the Internet access side, competing systems include WiMAX and Flash-OFDM. Different variants of UMTS compete with different standards. While this article has largely discussed UMTS-FDD, a form oriented for use in conventional cellular-type spectrum, UMTS-TDD, a system based upon a TD-CDMA air interface, is used to provide UMTS service  where the uplink and downlink share the same spectrum, and is very efficient at providing asymmetric access. It provides more direct competition with WiMAX and similar Internet-access oriented systems than conventional UMTS.

Both the CDMA2000 and W-CDMA air interface systems are accepted by ITU as part of the IMT-2000 family of 3G standards, in addition to UMTS-TDD's TD-CDMA, Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) and China's own 3G standard, TD-SCDMA.

CDMA2000's narrower bandwidth requirements maké it éasier than UMTS to deploy in existing spectrum along with legacy standards. In some, but not all, cases, existing GSM operators only have enough spectrum to implement either UMTS or GSM, not both. For example, in the US D, E, and F PCS spectrum blocks , the amount of spectrum available is 5 MHz in éach direction. A standard UMTS system would saturate that spectrum.

In many markets however, the co-existence issue is of little relevance, as legislative hurdles exist to co-deploying two standards in the same licensed slice of spectrum.

Most GSM operators in North America as well as others around the world have accepted EDGE as a temporary 3G solution. AT&T Wireless launched EDGE nationwide in 2003, AT&T launched EDGE in most markets and T-Mobile USA has launched EDGE nationwide as of October 2005.  Rogers Wireless launched nation-wide EDGE service in late 2003 for the Canadian market. Bitė Lietuva (Lithuania) was one of the first operators in Europe to launch EDGE in December 2003. TIM (Italy) launched EDGE in 2004. The benefit of EDGE is that it leverages existing GSM spectrums and is compatible with existing GSM handsets.  It is also much éasier, quicker, and considerably chéaper for wireless carriers to "bolt-on" EDGE functionality by upgrading their existing GSM transmission hardware to support EDGE than having to install almost all brand-new equipment to deliver UMTS. EDGE provides a short-term upgrade path for GSM operators and directly competes with CDMA2000.

Problems and issues

Some countries, such as the United States and Japan, have allocated spectrum differently from the ITU Recommendations, so that the spectrum bands most commonly used for UMTS (UMTS-2100) have not been available.  In those countries, alternative bands are used, preventing the interoperability of existing UMTS-2100 equipment, and requiring the design and manufacture of different equipment for the use in these markets. As is the case with GSM today, this presumably will méan that standard UMTS equipment will not work in those markets, and some will work only in them, while some more-expensive equipment may be available that works in all markets. It also diminishes the economy of scale and benefit to users and network providers from the network effect that would have existed if these countries and the ITU had been able to agree on universally-applicable frequencies.

In the éarly days of UMTS there were issues with rollout:
 overweight handsets with poor battery life;
 problems with handover from UMTS to GSM, connections being dropped or handovers only possible in one direction (UMTS → GSM) with the handset only changing back to UMTS after hanging up, even if UMTS coverage returns—in most networks around the world this is no longer an issue;
 for fully fledged UMTS incorporating Video on Demand féatures, one base station needs to be set up every 1–1.5 km (0.62–0.93 mi). While this is economically féasible in urban aréas, it is inféasible in less populated suburban and rural aréas;
 in Ireland, Severe issues were encountered by users of 3G mobile broadband data modems on the rollout of their mobile broadband. It is not compatible with SMTP email programs and it is not possible to  "pop" your hotmail to Microsoft Outlook. It is also not possible to receive automatic Software Updates on Apple computers as the internet connection "times out".

Some of these issues may still be ongoing; for instance, Apple, Inc. cited UMTS power consumption as the réason that the iPhone only supports EDGE.

See also
 3G
 3GPP: the body that manages the UMTS standard.
 3GPP Long Term Evolution, the 3GPP project to evolve UMTS towards 4G capabilities.
 GAN/UMA: A standard for running GSM and UMTS over wireless LANs.
 Opportunity Driven Multiple Access, ODMA: a UMTS TDD mode communications relaying protocol
 HSDPA, HSUPA: updates to the W-CDMA air interface.
 PDCP
 Subscriber Identity Module
 UMTS-TDD: a variant of UMTS largely used to provide wireless Internet service.
 UMTS frequency bands
 W-CDMA: the primary air interface standard used by UMTS.
 W-CDMA 2100

Other, non-UMTS, 3G and 4G standards:
 CDMA2000: evolved from the cmdaOne (also known as IS-95, or "CDMA") standard, managed by the 3GPP2
 FOMA
 TD-SCDMA
 WiMAX: a newly emerging wide aréa wireless technology.

UMTS is an evolution of the GSM mobile phone standard.
 GSM
 GPRS
 EDGE
 ETSI

Other useful information
 Mobile modem
 Spectral efficiency comparison table
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 Common pilot channel or CPICH, a simple synchronisation channel in WCDMA.
 Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) is the major issue of multiple antenna research.
 Wi-Fi: a local aréa wireless technology that is complementary to UMTS.
 Mobile Internet access worldwide lists mobile (mainly UMTS/HSDPA) Internet access solutions worldwide.
 List of device bandwidths

Literature
 Martin Sauter: Communication Systems for the Mobile Information Society, John Wiley, September 2006, ISBN 0-470-02676-6

References

Tumbu luar
 GSM/UMTS market statistics from the 'Global mobile suppliers association'
 3GPP Specifications Numbering Scheme
 3GPP document listing all UMTS Technical Standards for Reléase 6 and éarlier
 Vocabulary for 3GPP Specifications, up to Release 8
 UMTS FAQ on UMTS World d
 Worldwide W-CDMA frequency allocations on UMTS World
 UMTS TDD Alliance The Global UMTS TDD Alliance
 3GToday.com
 3GSM World Congress

Telekomunikasi


Exeter is a city in South West England on the River Exe, from which it takes its name. It is the county town of Devon. Just over 100,000 live there. In the city are a ruined castle, much of the old Roman city wall, and Exeter Cathedral.

History
Exeter was built by the Romans, who called it Isca Dumnoniorum (Isca of the Dumnonii, the local British tribe). After the Romans left and the Anglo-Saxons moved into the area in the seventh century, the name changed to Exeter. In the 1060s, Exeter was a centre of resistance to the Norman conquest.

In 1050, the Bishop of Crediton moved to Exeter; from then until 1876 the bishops were the heads of the church in the whole of Devon and Cornwall. Now, only Devon is within the Exeter diocese.

Today
Today it is home to the Meteorological Office, which forecasts the country's weather.

Exeter


Curling is a sport played on ice. Players slide curling stones on the ice towards a target, called the house. There are two teams with four players on each team. Each team slides eight stones, this is called an end. After an end the team with the stone closest to the centre of the house (target) scores points. The game is over after eight or ten ends. The team with the most points is the winner.

The player sliding the stone can make it turn or curl slowly. Two other players on the team sweep the ice in front of the stone with brooms. This is to make the stone stop in the right place.

Curling is played at the Winter Olympics.

History

Curling was invented in Scotland in medieval times. It was played outside in the winter because there was lots of ice. Today curling is played all over Europe and in many other countries such as Canada, the United States, Japan and South Korea.

Curling was played at the Winter Olympics for the first time in 1998.

Equipment

The ice is called a curling sheet. It is a rectangular sheet of flat ice, between 146 and 150 feet (45-46 metres) long and 14.5 to 15.5 feet (4.4-5.0 metres) wide. The house, or target, is marked at the end of the sheet by coloured rings. The rings help players to aim for the centre of the house. They are also useful to decide which stone is closest to the centre when scoring. There is also a hack at the end of the sheet which players push against when sliding a stone.

Curling stones are made of granite. They are heavy, weighing 38-40 pounds (17-20kg). There is a handle on the top of each stone to help slide and turn the stone. The handles are different colours for each team. The stones are usually red for one team and yellow for the other team.

Curling brooms or brushes are used to sweep the ice in front of the stone when it is sliding.

Players wear special shoes for curling. One shoe has a smooth surface for sliding on the ice and the other rough.

Gameplay

The purpose of the game is to score points by getting stones close to the centre of the house. Players from each team take turns to slide a stone towards the house. This is called delivering or throwing a stone. An end is completed when all stones have been delivered. There are eight stones for each team. The winner is the team with the most points after all ends have been played. There are usually eight or ten ends.

Delivery and sweeping
The captain of the team is called the skip. The skip chooses how hard the stone should be delivered, the direction of delivery, and the amount of turn (curl) that the stone should be given. The skip can choose to aim the stone for the house, hit one of the other team's stones out of play, or make a stone stop before the house as a guard if their team has a stone in a good position.

The player delivering the stone starts at the hack. The skip stands at the other end of the curling sheet behind the house. The skip shows where to aim the stone. The other two players sweep the ice in front of the stone as it slides. The players take turns to deliver stones. When the skip is delivering a stone another player stands behind the house instead.

To deliver a stone the player puts one foot on the hack. The player lines up towards the skip. The stone is on the ice in front of the foot in the hack. The player then slides the stone back before sliding forwards on their other foot. The player lets go of the stone, gently turning the handle just before letting go to give the stone curl.

Then the other players can sweep the stone. Sweeping helps the stone to travel faster, and makes it curl less. The aim of sweeping is to help the stone stop in the right place.

Scoring

Points are scored at when an end has finished. The team with the stone closest to the centre of the house wins the end. The team scores one point for every stone that is closer to the centre than the other team's closest stone.

Only stones that are in the house count for scoring. If it is difficult to see which stone is closest to the centre of the house there are special measuring devices to help.

Sometimes neither team scores any points, this is called a blank end.

Related pages
 Winter Olympics

References

Other websites
 World Curling Federation website

Winter Olympic sports
Ice sports
Indoor sports

Curling


Bedřich Smetana (b. Litomyšl, Bohemia, March 2, 1824; d. Prague May 12, 1884) was a Czech composer. He was a Romantic composer. Smetana, Dvořák and Leoš Janáček are the three most famous composers who wrote Czech nationalist music. His music is typical of the Czech people. His eight operas are about Nationalist stories. He wrote six tone poems for orchestra called Ma Vlast which means "My Home Country".

Youth and early career

Bedřich was the 11th child in a German-speaking family, although he was only the first of the children not to die before they grew up. His father was a brewer and a keen amateur violinist. He learned the violin from his father and the piano from local teachers, but he soon played better than his teachers. Between the age of 12 and 20 he had no musical education. Then he went to Prague and heard Liszt playing. He wanted to leave school and study music but his father would not let him. He was sent to Plzeň where he finished his schooling. During this time he earned some money by playing the piano at the homes of rich people. He played for dancing, and he liked to dance himself. He often danced with a girl called Kateřina Kolářová and he also played piano duets with her. Later she married him.

He returned to Prague and arranged to have lessons in harmony, counterpoint and composition. He gave a piano recital, but nobody came to listen, so he decided to start a school of music, although he hardly had any money.

In 1848, revolutions were taking place in central Europe, including in Prague. A strong feeling of nationalism was growing. The Czechs (people who lived in Bohemia and Moravia) wanted to be able to express themselves in their own language instead of in German, which was still the official language in Bohemia. Smetana, who only spoke German, agreed with the nationalists' ideas, but he still did not realize how important it would be for him in the future to be able to speak Czech.

Smetana married Kateřina and they had four daughters, but three of them died. He still had very little money, so he went to Sweden where he was very successful as a piano teacher and conductor. He composed the first of his symphonic poems: Richard III. After three years in Sweden he decided to return to his homeland because of his Kateřina's health, but she died on the way. Smetana spent two more years in Sweden. He married again. After the Austrian defeat by Napoleon III in 1859, it became clear that there were going to be big changes in his native country. The Czechs were going to be allowed to have a national opera and put on plays in the Czech language instead of having to perform everything in German. Smetana realized that this was an exciting chance for him. After a big farewell concert in Stockholm to which the Swedish royal family came, Smetana returned to Prague.

The composer of National Czech music

Smetana now started to learn Czech, a language he did not speak. It was not easy for him in Prague because he was only known there as a pianist and teacher. He put on a concert of music by German composers but nobody came. He wanted to be director of the Provisional Theatre but the job was given to a man called Mayr who was not very good.

Gradually Smetana's reputation grew and he started to write operas in Czech which became very popular. The first one was called The Brandenburgers in Bohemia. Mayr made things very difficult for Smetana but the audience loved the opera and it was performed ten more times. His next opera is the one which has become his best-known opera internationally: The Bartered Bride. Smetana got the job of director of the Provisional Theatre instead of Mayr. Smetana made lots of improvements, introducing well-known German, French and Italian operas to the audiences as well as new operas by young Czech composers. The operas Dalibor was first performed on the day that the first stone was laid for the building of the National Theatre. It was a great occasion, although the music critics were unkind and said that his music sounded too much like Wagner. His opera Libuše was written for the coronation of Franz Joseph in Prague, but that coronation never happened, so the opera was not performed for another ten years when the National Theatre was opened (1881). He spent several years composing a cycle of six symphonic poems called Ma Vlast (My Country). These are very popular today, especially the second one, Vltava, which describes the river Vltava flowing from its source all the way to the sea.

Deafness

In his last years Smetana became totally deaf. He was suffering from syphilis. He heard horrible high squeaks in his ears a lot of the time. He showed this when composing his String Quartet no 2: the first violin plays a very long high note for a long time in the last movement, showing the audience what he had to suffer. He became very depressed and his wife did not help by quarrelling a lot with him. It became painfully difficult for him to compose. In the end he was writing four bars a day. His mental state got worse. He was guarded all day in case he harmed himself. He did not recognize his own family. He was put in an asylum where he died shortly afterwards.

His music

As soon as the Czech people were allowed to produce plays and operas in their own language Smetana thought it was his duty to write a series of nationalist operas. His operas were based on the nation's history and legends. His symphonic cycle Ma Vlast was programme music, full of heroism, often describing nature and the countryside. Smetana also wrote a lot for piano. He was the most important Czech composer there had been at that time. Smetana and Dvořák were the founders of modern Czech music.

Czech composers
Romantic composers
1824 births
1884 deaths

Bedřich Smetana


Burning is the process of combustion, a reaction between a substance (the fuel) and a gas (the oxidizer).

Burn, burning or burned can mean:
 Burn, injury to the skin caused by heat, electricity, chemicals, or radiation
 Burn (stream), in Scotland and north-eastern England, a type of stream which is smaller than a river
 Burn (computer game), a first-person shooter computer game released in 2007
 Burn, a village in North Yorkshire, England
 Burn and Burn Sugar Free, energy drinks by Coca-Cola
 Burn in, to exercise components (such as electronics) before putting them into service
 Burning, a self-sustaining thermonuclear (nuclear fusion) reaction
 Burning, the recording process for various technologies based on compact discs or DVDs
 Burning-in, a manipulation during photographic enlargement to darken selected areas of the final print
 Burned (image), an image with highlights or shadows considerably outside the medium's gamut
 Execution by burning, an execution by fire, usually by being burnt to death on a pyre
 Indian burn, common school prank also called a Chinese burn
 Burn notice, an official statement issued between intelligence agencies stating that an individual or a group is or has become unreliable.

In music
Bands:
 Burn (UK band), a heavy rock band from Loughborough, England
 Burn (U.S. band), a New York hardcore band

Albums:
 Burn (album), a 1974 album by Deep Purple
 Burn, a 1995 album by Sister Machine Gun
 Burn, a 2000 album by Jo Dee Messina
 Burnin, a 1970 album by The Wailers
 Burning, a 1999 EP by house DJ/producer Pépé Bradock
 Burned, a 1995 album by ElectrafixionSongs:'''
 "Burn" (Usher song), a song from Usher's 2004 album Confessions "Burn" (Nine Inch Nails song), a song by Nine Inch Nails found on the Natural Born Killers Soundtrack
 "Burn", a song by Rancid on the album Let's Go "Burn", a song The Cure featured on The Crow Soundtrack "Burn", a song by Shannon Noll on his 2004 album That's What I'm Talking About "Burn", a song by Mushroomhead on their 2006 album Savior Sorrow "Burn", a song by Alkaline Trio on their 2005 album Crimson "Burn", a song by Collective Soul found on their album Home
 "Burn", a song by Three Days Grace on their album Three Days Grace "Burn", a song by Year Of The Rabbit on their EP Hunted "Burn", a song by Against Me! which first appeared on their 2001 EP Crime As Forgiven By "Burn", a song by King Diamond on the 1990 album The Eye "Burn", a song by Michael Angelo Batio on his 2005 album Hands Without Shadows "Burn", a song by Deep Purple on their 1974 album Burn "Burnnn!", a song by Pantera on their 1988 album Power Metal "The Burn", a song by Matchbox Twenty on their 2000 album Mad SeasonIn media
 Burn!, a 1969 film
 Burn, a 1998 film directed by Scott Storm
 Burn, a 2005 novel by James Patrick Kelly
 Burned'', a 2005 novel by Ellen Hopkins
 Burn Notice (TV series), a 2007 television drama

Basic English 850 words

Burn (disambiguation)


A harmonica is small musical instrument that is played with the mouth by blowing into holes in its side. Harmonicas are cheap and easy to play. Harmonicas produce their musical sounds from the vibrations of reeds in the harmonica's metal case. Harmonicas are used in blues music, folk music, rock and roll music, and pop music. A special type of harmonica, the chromatic harmonica, is used in jazz and classical music. Harmonicas are made in several different keys: G, A♭, A, B♭, B, C, D♭, D, E♭, E, F, and F♯. Each key can play a different range of notes.

How they are played
Harmonicas are played by blowing or sucking air into one side. On this side, there are many holes. Each hole has a different note. Different notes are played when you blow or suck air.

Harmonica players
Bob Dylan is a famous harmonica player from the 1960s folk rock scene.
Willi Burger is a famous classical harmonica player.eez
Neil Young is a folk/grunge musician who plays the harmonica.
Steven Tyler, from Aerosmith, plays the harmonica.
Little Walter, one of the most well known blues harmonica players ever.
Yvonnick Prene is a groundbreaking jazz harmonica player.

Other Harmonica players
*Bluesharp players

Jazz
 Larry Adler
 Matthias Broede
 Jens Bunge
 Hermine Deurloo
 Maurício Einhorn
 Adam Glasser
 Howard Levy
 Hendrik Meurkens
 Richard Oesterreicher
 Toots Thielemans

Types of harmonicas
Another type of harmonica is the chromatic harmonica.  More songs can be played on it than a regular harmonica, because chromatic harmonicas can play more different notes. Chromatic harmonicas have a button which moves a sliding bar. By pressing the button, the player can play a larger range of notes.

Different names
The harmonica is called many different names, such as: mouth organ, mouth harp, Hobo Harp, French harp, Reckless Tram, harpoon, tin sandwich, blues harp, Mississippi saxophone, or simply harp.

Other websites
 todoarmonica.org
 Virtual harmonica lessons HarmoPoint
 Harmonica's blog
 Harmonica Riff

Woodwind instruments

Harmonica


Cultur (frae the Laitin cultura ruitit frae colere, meanin "tae cultivate") for ordinar refers tae paiterns o human acteevity an the seembolic structurs that gies sic acteevity signeeficant importance. Different defineetions o "cultur" reflects different theoretical bases for unnerstaundin, or criteria for evaluatin, human acteevity.

Cultur is manifestit in muisic, leeteratur, pentin an sculptur, theatre an film. Awtho some fowk identifees cultur in terms o consumption an consumer guids (as in hie cultur, law cultur, fowk cultur, or popular cultur), anthropologists unnerstaund "cultur" tae refer no juist tae consumption guids, but tae the general processes that produces sicna guids an gies thaim meanin, an tae the social relationships an practices that sicna objects an processes becomes embeddit in. For thaim, cultur sic includes technology, airt, science, as weel as moral seestems.

Anthropology
Coontercultur
Coontercultur o the 1960s
History o ideas
Sociology o cultur
Social agreement

Cultur


Capitalism is an economic system where means of production is privately owned and operated for profit.

Property owned by individuals, not by the government is often called private property. In theory, under competition, in capitalist free market economies, prices move up or down according to the availability of products and how many people want them. In most countries there is some regulation (trade laws) and some planning done by the government. They are sometimes called "mixed economies" to indicate this. Some people disagree on whether capitalism is a good idea, or how much of capitalism is a good idea.

The word comes from "capital", meaning something of value that is used to make things. This can be money ("financial capital") or any other goods that can be traded. The word "capital" originally comes from the Latin word "caput", meaning "head." It was used to mean how many "head" of cattle a rich person owned, in days long ago when cattle were used as money. In fact, the words "capital" and "cattle" both come from "caput".

The philosopher Adam Smith's book, The Wealth of Nations, was an important book that developed the ideas of capitalism and the free market. The word "capitalism" was not used until the 19th century. The greatest invention of capitalism is often said to be the joint stock company. A joint-stock company is a business where different stocks can be bought and owned by shareholders. Each shareholder owns company stock in proportion to the number of their shares.

Buying, selling, working, and hiring
In capitalism, people may sell or lend their property, and other people may buy or borrow it. If one person wants to buy, and another person wants to sell to them, they do not need to get permission from higher power. People can have a market (buying and selling with each other) without anyone else telling them to.  People who own capital are sometimes called capitalists (people who support capitalism are called capitalists, too). They can hire anyone who wants to work in their factories, shops or lands for them for the pay they offer.

The word capital can be used to mean things that produce more things or money. For example, lands, factories, shops, tools and machines are capital. If someone has money that can be invested, that money is capital too.

In capitalist systems, many people are workers (or proletarians). They are employed to earn money for living. People can choose to work for anyone who will hire them in a free market.

This is different from many older economic systems. In feudalism, most people were serfs and had to work for the people who owned the land they lived on. In mercantilism, the government makes it hard to buy things from other countries. In many countries with mixed economies (part capitalism and part socialism) there are laws about what you can buy or sell, or what prices you can charge, or whom you can hire or fire.

Investing

An investment is when people invest (put) their money in things. People can put their money together to buy or build things, even if they are too big for one person to make alone. The people who invest get to be the owners of what they buy or build together. The stock market lets people buy and sell investments.

Investing is important to capitalism. The word "capitalist" can mean two things: it can mean someone who likes capitalism; but it can also mean someone who invests. For example, a venture capitalist invests in new businesses.

People who start businesses, or invest in businesses, can make a lot of money. A business sells things that people want. The investors make extra money, which is called profit. Investors can take their profit and invest it in more businesses, or in making the business bigger. The investors can get more and more profit if the businesses are successful.

People who disagree

Socialists and communists are people who do not support capitalism. They say it hurts workers, because businesses make more money by selling things than they pay the workers who make the things. Business owners become rich while workers remain poor and exploited (taken advantage of). They also argue society would be more efficient if people thought less about competing against one another for their own interests and thought more of working together for the overall good of society. Another argument is that each person has a right to basic needs (such as food and shelter). Within capitalism, sometimes people might not get everything they need to live. Capitalism is also said to be the main culprit of economic inequality.

Karl Marx was a famous communist philosopher from Germany. He wrote a famous book called The Capital (or Das Kapital in German). He said that capitalism would go away after workers decided to take over the government in a revolution because of the exploitation. There were violent communist revolutions in many countries. Many people were killed because of this. But capitalism did not go away, and most of these communist systems have collapsed and do not exist today, or else they have become more capitalist. Some people think that communism in those countries did not work because Marx's ideas, though nice in thought, did not really work. Others think that communist countries collapsed because of the attacks (military, political and economic) from capitalist countries.

Anarchists (that are not anarcho-capitalists) do not support capitalism either. They do not think there should be any bosses because it is a hierarchy. They think that Marxist–Leninist governments were unsuccessful because they were dictatorships that said that they would rule in the name of workers, but ruled in the name of their leaders. They think that these governments were state capitalist and not socialist.

People who agree

There are different words for people who support capitalism. In many parts of the world, these people are called either conservatives or liberals. In the United States, the word liberal means someone who supports capitalism but wants some rules on what the market can do and cannot do. Libertarian is a word that in America and some other countries means someone who wants the government to have little or no power to tell people what to buy or sell.

The reasons for capitalism are not just economic. They are political. People who like capitalism believe that capitalism provides liberty by the citizen by allowing them to be independent. Friedrich Hayek agreed with this and connected the open society with respect for the individual, and tolerance for the differences between people.

Another argument for the endorsement of capitalism is that  it is arguably better than other economic models, like communism, for example. While most communist nations (such as the Soviet Union and Democratic Kampuchea) collapsed deep in poverty, hunger,  dictatorships and/or genocides, capitalist countries (such as the United States and the UK) prospered economically.

People who support capitalism also have disagreements. Most people agree that capitalism works better if the government keeps people from stealing other people's things. If people could steal anything, then nobody would want to buy anything. However, if people shared everything, then no one would need to buy anything.

In most countries, the government does more than that. It tries to make sure that people buy and sell fairly and that employment is fair. But most of the time, the government making sure that employment is fair is also on the benefitting side of capitalism. The government takes money in taxes and spends it according to what the governing body wants, often not what the citizens who elected the governing body want their taxes to be spent on. People in power spend money on guns and ships for the military. When the government is in charge of part of the economy, this is called a "social democracy." However, when the government spends money it causes arguments about what the money should be spent on, because often times we don't vote on policies, we vote on people we depend on making the policies.

A few people think that people can protect themselves without any government. Instead of having laws against stealing, people could protect their own things, or agree to pay other people such as arbitrators, insurers, and private defenders to protect them. This belief is called "anarcho-capitalism." These people think that the government is trying to take away their earnings, because it takes taxes away from people against their will and keeps them from making agreements between themselves.

Related pages
 Anti-capitalism
 Socialism
 Communism
 Monopoly
 Plutocracy

References

Economic systems
Capitalism

Capitalism


A capillary is a blood vessel. It does not have the muscular/elastic tissue of other blood vessels. It has a single celled wall to help substances be transported through organisms.
Capillaries are small, and smaller than any other blood vessels. They are about 5-10 μms big, connect arteries and venules, and enable the moving of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, as well as many other nutrients and waste chemicals  between blood and surrounding tissues.

Anatomy
Blood moves from the heart to arteries, which branch and narrow into smaller arteries, and then branch more into capillaries. After oxygen has been moved to the tissue, capillaries join and widen to become small veins and then widen more to become veins, which return blood to the heart.

The "capillary bed" is the network of capillaries supplying an organ. The more metabolically active the cells, the more capillaries it will require to supply nutrients and carry away waste products.

Special arteries connect between arterioles and venules and are important in bypassing the flow of blood through the capillaries. True capillaries come from mainly from metarterioles and provide movement between cells and the circulation. The width of 8 μm forces the red blood cells to partly fold into bullet-like shapes in order to bypass them in single file.

Precapillary muscles are rings of smooth muscles at the start of true capillaries that handle blood flow into true capillaries and control blood flow through a body part or area.

Physiology

The capillary wall is a one-layer tissue so thin that gas and other items such as oxygen, water, proteins and fats can pass through them driven by pressure differences. Waste items such as carbon dioxide and urea can move back into the blood to be carried away for removal from the body.

The capillary bed usually moves no more than 25% of the amount of blood it could contain, although this amount can be increased through auto regulation by making the smooth muscle relax in the arterioles that lead to the capillary bed as well as metarterioles making themselves smaller.

The capillaries do not have this smooth muscle in their own wall, and so any change in their width is passive.  Any signaling molecules they release (such as endothelin for constriction and nitric oxide for dilation) act on the smooth muscle cells in the walls of nearby, larger vessels, e.g. arterioles.

Capillary's ability to move items can be increased by the release of certain cytokines, such as in an the body defending itself from germs.

Related pages
Alveolar-capillary barrier
Blood brain barrier
Capillary action
Hagen-Poiseuille equation

References

Other websites

Blood vessels

Capillary


A playwright is a person who writes plays for the stage. Because the name of such a text is drama, another word for this person is dramatist. Sometimes, dramas are written to be read and not played. In that case, they are called closet dramas.

The word wright does not come from write. It is an ancient English term for a builder. For example, a wheelwright makes wheels. In a similar way, a playwright makes plays. When the term was first used, it was meant as an insult. Today it has lost this meaning.

History
The first playwrights in Western literature whose plays still exist were the Ancient Greeks. They were written around the 5th century BC. These playwrights are important as they wrote in a way that is still used by modern playwrights. Important among them are Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes.

The most famous playwright may be William Shakespeare. A lot of later work is based on his tragedies and comedies. For example, Kiss Me, Kate is based on Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew, and his Romeo and Juliet has been made again many times. Tom Stoppard created the play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead in 1966 which is a modern adaptation of Hamlet.

Modern playwrights
Modern playwrights are usually less famous than past playwrights. Since television and movies were invented, theater has become less popular. Because it is less popular, not as many tickets are sold now, and producers often do not have enough money to make plays, and many playwrights are not known.

References

Writing occupations

Playwright


An antibiotic (or antibacterial) is a chemical compound that kills bacteria or slows their growth. They are used as medicine to treat and cure diseases caused by bacteria. The first antibiotic discovered was Penicillin, a natural antibiotic produced by a fungus. Production of antibiotics first began in 1939, and in the modern day, they are made by chemical synthesis. Antibiotics can not be used to treat viruses.

Maclyn McCarty explained what it was like before antibiotics:

 "There are a number of infections from which no-one had [ever] recovered before the discovery of effective anti-bacterial agents".

Resistance

Today, people worry that bacteria will not be affected by antibiotics. Bacteria do evolve, and already many strains of bacteria resist regular antibiotics. When exposed to antibiotics, most bacteria die quickly, but some may have mutations which make them slightly less susceptible. These bacteria then multiply and make a large colony which is less affected by the antibiotic.

Part of this problem is caused by the over-use and misuse of antibiotics. If someone is sick with a virus, antibiotics will not affect the virus. Some doctors will still prescribe an antibiotic so the patient feels as though they are being treated for their illness.

The other problem is that many people do not use antibiotics correctly. People often stop taking the medicine when they start feeling better. But antibiotics don't kill all of the bad bacteria at once. Bacteria which are more resistant do not die right away. When someone stops taking the antibiotic too quickly, these resistant bacteria can reproduce and survive. Then the antibiotic does not work so well because the bacteria are less affected by it.

History
Antibiotics can be the most effective way of treating bacterial infections. A clue to this might been found in Pasteur's work. He had a culture of anthrax germs that were left exposed to air. They developed colonies of many fungi, but the anthrax bacilli disappeared. Medical science was not, at the time, ready to see the implication of this.

It was 1928 that the study of antibiotics started,a small chance beginning. Alexander Fleming, a London bacteriologist, was culturing staphylococcus. In one Petri dish a mould appeared and spread On the nutrient gelatin of the dish each patch of mould was surrounded by clear ring, free of bacteria. Moreover, the extracted substance was able to clear up infected wounds.

The term antibiotic was first used in 1942 by Selman Waksman and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution. This definition cut out substances which kill bacteria, but are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juices and hydrogen peroxide). It also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides.

With advances in medicinal chemistry, most of today's antibacterials chemically are modifications of various natural compounds.

Use
Certain bacteria are only affected by specific types of antibiotics. Antibiotics fight infection caused by bacteria. Patients might need different types or different amounts of antibiotics depending on what bacteria is causing their health problems. Because of this, antibiotics should always be used under the supervision of a medical doctor (or other certified medical practitioner). The doctor can also watch for side effects and change the patient's treatment when necessary. Antibiotics are very useful when your body is infected by a bacteria.
Antibiotics don't kill virus, so it is useless against a viral infection. A doctor must determine if a patient's infection is of viral or bacterial origin before taking antibiotics, this is another reason why a medical doctor should prescribe antibiotics instead of relying on self-medication.

Teixobactin
Teixobactin is the first new antibiotic discovered in forty years. It is active against gram-positive bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus. It appears to be one of a new class of antibiotics.

Related pages
 Antibiotic resistance
 Antiviral drug

References

Antibiotics

Antibiotics


A fermion is a category of elementary particles. They are very small and very light. Fermions can be thought of as the building blocks of matter because atoms are made up of fermions. Paul Dirac named them fermions in honor of the famous scientist Enrico Fermi.

An electron (a charged particle) is a fermion, but a photon (the particle of electromagnetic radiation) is not.  The spin numbers of fermions are 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc. Because their spin is not a whole number, they follow the Pauli exclusion principle: no two fermions can share a quantum state (which includes position in space), if they have the same quantum numbers, such as spin. In other words, fermions can collide with each other. This behavior is not in the other class of elementary particles called bosons: you can have many bosons, for example photons, in the same place at the same time. The motion of fermions follows the Fermi-Dirac statistics.

Most well known fermions have spin of 1/2. An example of a type of fermion with a spin of 1/2 is the electron. The electron belongs to a group of fermions called leptons.

Fundamental fermions (fermions that are not made up of anything else) are either quarks or leptons. There are 6 different types of quarks (called "flavours") and 6 different types of leptons. These are their names:
 Quarks — up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom
 Leptons — electron, muon, tau, electron neutrino, muon neutrino, tau neutrino

Each of these fermions also has an anti-particle associated with it, so there are a total of 24 different fundamental fermions. The anti-particle is similar to the original particle, but with opposite electrical charge. The "up", "charm", and "top" quarks have electrical charge of +2/3. Their anti-particles have charge -2/3 (anti-up, anti-charm, anti-top). The other three quarks (down, strange and bottom) have charge -1/3, and their anti-particles have charge +1/3. The electron, muon, and tau leptons all have charge of -1, and their anti-particles (anti-electron or "positron", anti-muon, anti-tau) have charge +1. All the neutrinos and anti-neutrinos have charge 0. The main difference between quarks or leptons with the same charge is their mass.

The supersymmetric counterpart of any fermion is called a "sfermion."

Elementary particles

Fermion


The word berry is used for many different kinds of small fruits that have many seeds and can be used as food. Some examples are raspberry, strawberry, sutberry, lingonberry and blueberry.

When botanists talk about berries, they mean a simple fruit produced from a single ovary. They sometimes call this true berry, to distinguish it from false berries. By that statement of how words are used, grapes or tomatoes are true berries.

The berry is the most common type of soft fruit in which the entire ovary wall gets to the right stage of development of the pericarp which can be taken as food. The flowers of these plants have an upper ovary with one or more carpels. The seeds are inside the soft body of the ovary.

Berries are small, sweet, bright colored fruits. Due to this, they are able to bring more animals towards them and spread their seeds.

Some fruits that are called berries in English are not true berries by the use of words above. These include raspberries, strawberry, sutberry, blackberries, cranberries, and boysenberries. Some true berries do not have berry in their name. These include tomatoes, bananas, eggplants, guavas, pomegranates and chillies. Pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, oranges and lemons are also berries that have slightly different structure and may be called by different names (pepo for pumpkins, cucumbers, and melons, or hesperidium for oranges and lemons).

References

Berry


National Film Development Corporation of India  is the central agency established to encourage the good cinema movement in the country. The primary goal of the NFDC is to plan, promote and organize an integrated and efficient development of the Indian film industry and foster excellence in cinema. Over the years NFDC has provided a wide range of services essential to the growth of Indian cinema. The NFDC (and its predecessor the Film Finance Corporation) has so far funded / produced over 300 films. These films, in various Indian languages, have been widely acclaimed and have won many national and international awards.

Other website
 Official website of National Film Development Corporation of India

Cinema of India


The Norwegian resistance (Norwegian: Motstandsbevegelsen) to the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany began after Operation Weserübung in 1940 and ended in 1945. It took several forms:

Asserting the legitimacy of the exiled government, and by implication the lack of legitimacy of Vidkun Quisling's pro-Nazi regime and Josef Terboven's military administration
The initial defence in Southern Norway, which was largely disorganised, but succeeded in allowing the government to escape capture
The more organised military defence and counter-attacks in parts of Western and Northern Norway, aimed at securing strategic positions and the evacuation of the government
Armed resistance, in the form of sabotage, commando raids, assassinations and other special operations during the occupation
Civil disobedience and unarmed resistance

Asserting legitimacy of exiled Norwegian government
The Norwegian government of Prime Minister Johan Nygaardsvold, with the exception of foreign minister Halvdan Koht and minister of defence Birger Ljungberg, was largely caught by surprise when it became apparent in the early hours of 9 April 1940 that Nazi Germany had launched an invasion of Norway. Although some of the country's gold reserve had already been removed from Oslo, there were few contingency plans for such an invasion.

The Norwegian government was unprepared and unwilling to capitulate to the ultimatum timed to coincide with the arrival of German troops and delivered by Curt Bräuer, the German representative in Oslo. The German demand that Norway accept the "protection of the Reich" was rebuffed by Koht and the Norwegian government before dawn had broken on the morning of invasion. "Vi gir oss ikke frivillig, kampen er allerede i gang", replied Koht. "We will not submit voluntarily; the struggle is already underway."

Anticipating German efforts to capture the government, the entire Norwegian parliament (the Storting), the royal family, and cabinet hastily evacuated Oslo by train and car to Hamar and then on to Elverum, where an extraordinary session of parliament was called.  In large part because of the presence of mind of the parliament's president C. J. Hambro, the Storting managed to pass an emergency measure (known as the Elverum Authorization) that gave full authority to the king and his cabinet until the Storting could convene again.

This gave King Haakon VII and the cabinet constitutional authority to reject the German emissary's ultimatum to accept the German invasion. Although there were several German attempts to capture or kill the King and the Norwegian government, they managed to evade these attempts and traveled through Norway's remote interior until leaving the country for London on the British heavy cruiser  on 7 June.

Reserving the constitutional legitimacy of the Norwegian government also undermined Vidkun Quisling's attempts at claiming the Norwegian government for himself. After Quisling had proclaimed his assumption of the government, several individuals on the Supreme Court took the initiative to establish an Administrative Council (Administrasjonsrådet) in an effort to stop him. This became a controversial initiative, in that the legitimate Norwegian government refused to give the council any legal backing, and the German authorities ended up disbanding it.

Initial defence
Although some politicians across the political spectrum had advocated strengthening the country's defence capabilities, a longstanding policy of disarmament following World War I had left the Norwegian military underfunded and undertrained by the late 1930s. As a result, forces in Southern Norway were largely unprepared for the German invasion, and the invading German army met little initial resistance.

There was also spirited defence seen at other locations, including Midtskogen, Hegra and Narvik but these were largely the result of improvised missions by isolated military units and irregular volunteers. The battles slowed the German advance by several days, allowing the Norwegian government to evade capture and conduct critical constitutional business.

The British and French began landing on Norwegian soil within a week of the German invasion.

Counter-attacks
Several Norwegian military units that had mobilised as a precautionary measure in Northern Norway during the Winter War, in cooperation with Polish, French and British forces, launched several counterattacks with moderate success. Allied forces had several successes in Northern Norway, but were redirected for the futile defense of France. While Northern Norway ultimately fell, efforts there allowed the Norwegian government, including the Norwegian royal family, to escape and maintain the legitimate government in exile, as part of the Allies.

While on station in London, the government contributed to Norwegian forces with the Allied effort and ordered the Norwegian Merchant Fleet to assist in troop transportation. To expedite this ships operated under the Nortraship organisation, which at that time was the world's largest shipping company.  It created apprehension among the Nazi leadership that Allied forces might try to recapture Norway with the intention of denying German naval units access to the North Atlantic, tying up several hundred thousand troops that otherwise might have been deployed to other fronts.

Armed resistance

Although Norway did not have any major battles beyond those of the Norwegian Campaign, a number of military operations served to subvert the Nazi authorities and contribute to the larger war effort. Milorg started out as a small sabotage unit and ended up building a full military force in time for the liberation. Company Linge was a special operations unit that specialised in coastal insertions and combat. There were repeated raids in Lofoten, Måløy, and other coastal areas.

Norwegian spotters aided in the destruction of numerous German warships, such as the battleships  and . The Norwegian resistance also smuggled people in and out of Norway during the war, through Sweden or by fishing boats to Shetland, nicknamed the "Shetland bus". A number of saboteurs, most notably Max Manus and Gunnar Sønsteby, destroyed ships and supplies. Perhaps its most famous achievements were a series of operations to destroy Norsk Hydro's heavy water plant and stockpile of heavy water at Vemork, crippling the German nuclear programme. The Germans attempted to stifle Resistance activities and executed several innocent Norwegian men, women, and children in retaliation after any Resistance act.  Probably the worst act of reprisal was the assault on the fishing village of Telavåg in the spring of 1942.

To assist with the sabotage campaign, the United States sent OSS forces, including future CIA director William Colby, into Norway to support resistance. In the mid-1980s, it was revealed that Sweden aided the Norwegian resistance movement with training and equipment in a series of camps along the Norwegian border. To avoid suspicion, they were camouflaged as police training camps. By 1944, some 7,000–8,000 men had been secretly trained in Sweden.

During the Liberation of Finnmark from 1944 to 1945, 1,442 police troops from Sweden would be flown in to assist the Soviets and Free Norwegian Forces. In addition to forces brought in from abroad, local troops were also recruited.

Intelligence gathering within occupied Norway was very much needed for the Allied forces, and several organizations were established for this, the largest and most efficient of which was called XU. Established by Arvid Storsveen, its members were students from the University of Oslo. One interesting fact was that two of its four leaders were young women, among them Anne-Sofie Østvedt.

One of the leading sabotage organisations in Norway during most of World War II was the communist Osvald Group led by Asbjørn Sunde.

During the war years, the resistance movement in occupied Norway had 1433 members killed, of whom 255 were women.

Civil disobedience

The first mass outbreak of civil disobedience occurred in the autumn of 1940, when students of Oslo University began to wear paper clips on their lapels to demonstrate their resistance to the German occupiers and their Norwegian collaborators. A seemingly innocuous item, the paper clip was a symbol of solidarity and unity ("we are bound together"), implying resistance. The wearing of paper clips, the popular H7 monogram and similar symbols (red garments, Bobble hats) was outlawed and could lead to arrest and punishment.

Of lesser military importance was the distribution of illegal newspapers (often with news items culled from Allied news broadcasts; possession of radios was illegal). The purpose of this was twofold: it counteracted Nazi propaganda, and it maintained nationalistic, anti-German feelings in the population at large. It has been suggested that combating the illegal press expended German resources out of proportion to the illegal media's actual effects.

Finally, there was the attempt at maintaining an "ice front" against the German soldiers. This involved, among other things, never speaking to a German if it could be avoided (many pretended to speak no German, though it was then almost as prevalent as English is now) and refusing to sit beside a German on public transport. The latter was so annoying to the occupying German authorities that it became illegal to stand on a bus if seats were available.

Nazi authorities (both German and Norwegian) attempted to pressure school teachers into supporting the regime and its propaganda. Wages were withheld, and on 20 March 1942, 1100 male teachers were arrested, of which 642 were sent to Arctic Norway doing forced labour.

Towards the end of the war, the resistance became more open, with rudimentary military organizations set up in the forests around the larger cities. A number of Nazi collaborators and officials were killed, and those collaborating with the German or Quisling authorities were ostracized, both during and after the war.

The Norwegian Resistance Museum, at Akershus Fortress, Oslo, gives a good account of the activities of the Norwegian resistance movement.

See also

Allied campaign in Norway
Flight of the Norwegian National Treasury
Free Norwegian Forces
H7 (monogram)
Milorg
No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando
Norway's Resistance Museum
Norwegian heavy water sabotage
Norwegian Independent Company 1
Operation Archery
Oslo Gang
Tarnschriften
They Raid by Night

References

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading
 Baard Herman Borge & Lars-Erik Vaale (2020) "Stretching the Rule of Law: How the Norwegian resistance movement influenced the provisional treason decrees of the exile government, 1944–1945." Scandinavian Journal of History.
 Lovell, Stanley P. (1963), Of Spies and Stratagems, New York:  Prentice Hall.

External links

Norway's Resistance Museum
Archival papers of Dr. Christian Bay and his involvement in the Norwegian resistance movement in WWII held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services

Norwegian resistance movement


Jan Ciągliński (; ; 20 February 1858 – 6 January 1913) was a Polish painter who lived in Russia. His works are considered to be the first examples of Russian Impressionism.

Biography
He was born into a noble family and studied at the University of Warsaw from 1876 to 1878, at the Faculty of Medicine and Natural Sciences. At the same time, he was taking drawing lessons with Wojciech Gerson. From 1879 to 1885, he attended the Imperial Academy of Arts. He went back to Poland, but was there only a short time before receiving a highly remunerative offer of work in Saint Petersburg. He returned there to execute the commission and decided to remain. In 1894, he studied briefly in Paris.

He became a lecturer at the "Society for the Encouragement of the Arts" and was one of the founding members of Mir iskusstva (World of Art). From 1902, he taught at the Imperial Academy. In 1906, he was named an Academician and, in 1911, became a full Professor. During this time, he also operated his own private art school. In 1912, he was honored with the title of Court Counselor. Many well-known painters were among his students, including Yury Annenkov, Ivan Bilibin, Eugene Lanceray, Pavel Filonov, Elena Guro and Piotr Buchkin.

He came to be known as "неистовым Яном" (fierce or frenetic Jan) because of his fast, passionate method of working. In addition to portraits, landscapes and decorative works, he also produced paintings on Orientalist subjects, based on sketches he made during extensive trips throughout North Africa and the Middle East. As an amateur pianist, many of his portraits were of musicians, including Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Anton Rubinstein and Josef Hofmann.

Although he was better known in Russia, his last will and testament bequeathed his works to Poland. By 1922, most of them had been transferred there. Due to border changes, some are now in Ukraine.

His brother, , was a prominent neurologist who wrote several pioneering works in medical statistics. His uncle was Roman Żuliński, a mathematician and leader in the January Uprising.

Selected paintings

References

Further reading
 Barbara Kokoska, Impresjonizm polski, Wydawnictwo Ryszard Kluszczyński. Kraków 2001.

External links

 Maria Gurenovich, "Петербуржский живописец с сердцем Шопена" (Petersburg Artist with Chopin's Heart) : Наше наследие (Our Heritage). 2008.  Biography and appreciation, focusing on his music related activities.

1858 births
1913 deaths
Polish Impressionist painters
Polish emigrants to Russia
Painters from Warsaw
19th-century Polish painters

Jan Ciągliński


Network topology is the layout of the connections (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network.

There are two main

The names used - such as ring or star -  are only rough descriptions. The computers on a home network can be arranged in a circle but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a ring network.

Basic topology types
There are seven basic topologies:
 Point-to-point topology
 Bus (point) topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Tree topology
 Full/partial Mesh topology
 Hybrid topology

Which of these is chosen depends on what devices need to be connected, how reliable it has to be, and the cost associated with cabling.

Physical topology
The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of the network. This refers to how the cables are laid out to connect many computers to one network. The physical topology you choose for your network depends on:
 Office Layout
 Troubleshooting Techniques
 Cost of Installation
 Type of cable used

Types of Physical topologies
The mapping of the nodes of the network and the physical connections between them – the layout of wiring, cables, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling or wiring system.

Point-to-point
The simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints (the line in the illustration above). Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony.  The value of a permanent point-to-point network is the value of guaranteed, or nearly so, communications between the two endpoints. The value of
an on-demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers, and has been expressed as Metcalfe's Law.

Permanent (dedicated)
Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-point communications channel that appears, to the user, to be permanently associated with the two endpoints. A children's "tin-can telephone" is one example, with a microphone to a single public address speaker is another. These are examples of physical dedicated channels.

Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio.

Switched:
Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point circuit can be set up dynamically, and dropped when no longer needed. This is the basic mode of conventional telephony.

Bus

In local area networks where bus topology is used, each machine is connected to a single cable. Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable through some kind of connector.  A terminator is required at each end of the bus cable to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus cable. A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the MAC address or IP address on the network that is the intended recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data does match the machine address, the data is accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is cheap to implement compared to other topologies. However, there is a higher cost of managing the network. Additionally, since only one cable is used, if the network cable breaks, the whole network will be shutdown.

Star

In local area networks with a star topology, each network host (for example a PC) is connected to a central hub with a point-to-point connection. All traffic on the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal booster or repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that it may need a lot more cables, and if the hub breaks everything will stop working. And if the information is to be passed only to a single computer then it can't be done in this topology i.e. all the computers interact with each other and the information will be shared to all the computers. information cannot be shared to a single computer in this topology.

Ring

A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels around the ring in one direction and each device on the right acts as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels. Each device incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the next device in the ring. The network is dependent on the ability of the signal to travel around the ring.

Mesh

Fully connected mesh topology
The number of connections in a full mesh network of n nodes is = n(n - 1) / 2. The fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical networks. It has been used on networks with only a small number of nodes.

Partially connected mesh topology
The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link – this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense required for a connection between every node in the network.

In most practical networks that are based upon the partially connected mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the shortest path between nodes. The network used a longer alternative path in the case of a failure or break in one of the links. This requires that the nodes of the network possess some type of logical 'routing' algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time.

Tree

Also known as a hierarchy network.

The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node.  Each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical.)

Each node in the network having a specific fixed number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.  This tree has individual peripheral nodes.

Logical topology
Logical topology describes the way in which a network transmits information from network/computer to another and not the way the network looks or how it is laid out. The logical layout also describes the different speeds of the cables being used from one network to another.

The logical topology, in contrast to the "physical", is the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For example, twisted pair Ethernet is a logical bus topology in a physical star topology layout. While IBM's Token Ring is a logical ring topology, it is physically set up in a star topology.

The logical classification of network topologies generally follows the same classifications as those in the physical classifications of network topologies but describes the path that the data takes between nodes being used as opposed to the actual physical connections between nodes.

Notes:
 Logical topologies are often closely associated with Media Access Control methods and protocols.
 The logical topologies are generally determined by network protocols as opposed to being determined by the physical layout of cables, wires, and network devices or by the flow of the electrical signals, although in many cases the paths that the electrical signals take between nodes may closely match the logical flow of data, hence the convention of using the terms logical topology and signal topology interchangeably.
 Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured by special types of equipment such as routers and switches.

Daisy chains
Except for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in series to the next.  If a message is intended for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the destination.  A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring.

Centralization
The star topology reduces the probability of a network failure by connecting all of the peripheral nodes (computers, etc.) to a central node.  When the physical star topology is applied to a logical bus network such as Ethernet, this central node (traditionally a hub) rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only.  The failure of a transmission line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the remaining peripheral nodes will be unaffected. However, the disadvantage is that the failure of the central node will cause the failure of all of the peripheral nodes also,

If the central node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way round trip transmission time  (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.

A tree topology (a.k.a. hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy.  This tree has individual peripheral nodes (e.g. leaves) which are required to transmit to and receive from one other node only and are not required to act as repeaters or regenerators.  Unlike the star network, the functionality of the central node may be distributed.

As in the conventional star network, individual nodes may thus still be isolated from the network by a single-point failure of a transmission path to the node.
If a link connecting a leaf fails, that leaf is isolated; if a connection to a non-leaf node fails, an entire section of the network becomes isolated from the rest.

In order to alleviate the amount of network traffic that comes from broadcasting all signals to all nodes, more advanced central nodes were developed that are able to keep track of the identities of the nodes that are connected to the network.  These network switches will "learn" the layout of the network by "listening" on each port during normal data transmission, examining the data packets and recording the address/identifier of each connected node and which port it's connected to in a lookup table held in memory. This lookup table then allows future transmissions to be forwarded to the intended destination only.

Decentralization
In a mesh topology (i.e., a partially connected mesh topology), there are at least two nodes with two or more paths between them to provide redundant paths to be used in case the link providing one of the paths fails.  This decentralization is often used to advantage to compensate for the single-point-failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a central node (e.g., in star and tree networks). A special kind of mesh, limiting the number of hops between two nodes, is a hypercube. The number of arbitrary forks in mesh networks makes them more difficult to design and implement, but their decentralized nature makes them very useful.  This is similar in some ways to a grid network, where a linear or ring topology is used to connect systems in multiple directions.  A multi-dimensional ring has a toroidal topology, for instance.

A fully connected network, complete topology or full mesh topology is a network topology in which there is a direct link between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are n(n-1)/2 direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very expensive to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due to the multiple paths for data that are provided by the large number of redundant links between nodes. This topology is mostly seen in military applications.  However, it can also be seen in the file sharing protocol BitTorrent in which users connect to other users in the "swarm" by allowing each user sharing the file to connect to other users also involved.  Often in actual usage of BitTorrent any given individual node is rarely connected to every single other node as in a true fully connected network but the protocol does allow for the possibility for any one node to connect to any other node when sharing files.

Hybrids
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.).  For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network, but two star networks connected together exhibit a hybrid network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network
 A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
 A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).

References

Tendaishe Sigauke, (2007: 46) Explaining networking terms

Other websites

 A Guide to Network Topology
 Research network topology
 Types of topology
 Logical Topology Example
 8 Common Network Topologies & How to Use

Tendaishe Sigauke, (2007: 46) Explaining networking terms

Computer networking

Network topology