A composer is someone who writes (composes) music. Some composers work by writing music down on paper; this is called 'written notation'. Classical music writers work this way. Writers for TV and movie music also usually write this way, so that an orchestra or other players can read the music and play it.

Some musicians are very good at improvisation. This means that they think up (invent) the music as they play it. Some church organists are good at improvising. During a service they may need to play some organ music to fill in the gaps while people are collecting money or taking communion. Jazz musicians are usually excellent at improvising. Improvisation is not written down, so each time it is different.

Popular and rock or soul music writers are often not able to read and write music down. Many pop and rock composers compose their songs on a guitar or piano. Cole Porter and Irving Berlin usually composed at the piano.

Many songs are written by two or more people. It is common for two people to work together to write songs. Sometimes, one person writes the music and one writes the words (the lyrics). Some songs such as folk songs were composed many years ago and no one knows who wrote them.

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The sex organs, which scientists call the genitalia or genitals, are the parts of the body that allow sexual reproduction (the making of young) to take place. They are also for urination (peeing), to remove waste products from the body. While all animals have sex organs, this article is about the sex organs of human beings.

The genitals are the main parts of the human body that make men and women different. Some parts of the genitals are outside the body, while other parts are inside. In a man, his external genitals are the penis and the scrotum (a bag that contains the testicles). Inside his body the testicles produce sperm and a substance called testosterone which makes a person grow into a man and feel like a man. Other glands produce a fluid called semen. The part of a woman's genitals that is outside her body is called the vulva. Inside her body is the vagina, which holds the penis during sexual intercourse; the uterus (womb), in which a baby grows when the woman is pregnant; the ovaries, which produce ova (egg cells) and a substance called estrogen which makes a person grow into a woman and to feel like a woman; and the Fallopian tubes, which connect the ovaries to the uterus.

Many human societies believe that genitals should be hidden. For this reason, people call them private parts. This attitude has resulted in public indecency laws which make it a crime for genitals to be left uncovered in public except in special places called nudist colonies.

Summary
If a man and a woman want to reproduce sexually, they have to engage in sexual intercourse. This involves placing the man's erect penis into the woman's vagina. The vagina rubs and puts pressure on the penis, which makes the man have an orgasm. During his orgasm, the man ejaculates, and his semen flows into the woman. If a sperm in the semen reaches the woman's Fallopian tubes and fuses with an ovum, this causes the woman to become pregnant. A man and woman can also have sexual intercourse for pleasure, without wishing to have a baby. Men and women, and gay couples (two women or two men) can also use their sex organs in other ways for pleasure.

Description

The sex organs are the parts of the body that allow sexual reproduction (the making of young) to take place. They are also for urination (peeing), to remove waste products from the body. All animals have some kind of sex organs. This article is about the sex organs of human beings. In humans, the sex organs are in the lower abdomen, at the part of the body where the legs join the torso.

The scientific name for the sex organs is genitalia or genitals. They are also commonly called the reproductive organs. The genitals include both organs that can be seen on the outside of the body (the primary genitalia or external genitalia), as well as internal organs (the secondary genitalia or internal genitalia). Sometimes, however, the words genitalia or genitals are used to refer only to the external sex organs. The sex organs are informally referred to as the private parts or privates.

Males and females have different sex organs. In fact, the genitals are the main parts of the human body that make men and women different.

Men

A man's genitals are made up of many parts. The parts that can be seen on the outside of a man's body are his penis, which is shaped like a banana or a sausage; and his scrotum, which is a bag that hangs beneath the penis and contains the two testicles. A man's penis may be circumcised. A common slang, and slightly mean, word for the parts that can be seen outside the male body is "junk". For example, if a boy is naked, his sister might say, "Can't you wear a towel? Nobody wants to see your junk."

Inside a man's body, the testicles make tiny cells called sperm, which are needed for sexual reproduction. The testicles also make a hormone called testosterone. This is a chemical that makes a person grow into a man and feel like a man. The testicles are glands, which are special parts of the body that make chemicals. Other glands that make up the genitals are the prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands (also called the Cowper's glands). Together, these glands make a white, sticky fluid called semen that sperm float in. Finally, a man's body contains ducts (tubes) such as the two vasa deferentia or ducta deferentia, which carry sperm out of the testicles; and the urethra, which carries semen through the penis and out of the body. The urethra also carries urine away from the bladder.
In reproduction the job of the penis is to carry sperm from the testicles into a woman's body so that a sperm cell can join together with the woman's ovum (egg cell) to form a new cell that will grow into a baby. The process of fusion of a sperm and an ovum is called fertilization.

A man's penis is usually soft, quite short, and hangs down. When a man becomes aroused (sexually excited), the inside of his penis fills with blood. This causes the penis to become bigger, thicker, and harder and to stand upright and is called having an erection. When a man has an erection, he is able to have sexual intercourse by putting his penis into a woman's vagina. During an erection, a valve stops urine from entering the urethra so that only semen flows along it. This is why it is very difficult for a man to urinate when he is having an erection.

Young boys can have erections, but their bodies do not start producing sperm until they have reached puberty. This usually happens when they are in their teens.

Women

The part of a woman's genitals that is on the outside of her body is called the vulva. The main parts of the vulva are two sets of fleshy "lips" called the labia. The outer labia can be seen at the front of the woman's body. On adult women, they are generally covered with some hair. Between the outer labia are the inner labia which do not have hair and are very sensitive. At the front of the inner labia is the outside part of the clitoris which is covered by the clitoral hood. During sexual intercourse, the clitoris gives feelings of pleasure to the woman.

Most of a woman's genitals are tucked inside her body. Behind the labia is a tube called the vagina, which cannot be seen on the outside of the body. (People often incorrectly use the word vagina to refer to the vulva.) When a man and a woman have sexual intercourse, the man's penis is placed into the woman's vagina. When a woman menstruates (has her menstrual period), blood and other fluid from the uterus pass out from her body through the vagina. If a woman uses a tampon (a specially-made wad of material) to absorb this fluid, she puts it into her vagina. The vagina is also called the birth canal because when a pregnant woman has a baby, it passes through the vagina.

Like a man, a woman has a tube called the urethra connecting the bladder to the vulva through which urine is removed from the body. The opening of the urethra is between the clitoris and the opening to the vagina.

In many women, the opening of the vagina is partly or completely blocked by a thin tissue called the hymen. Some women are born without a hymen. The hymen usually breaks when a woman has sexual intercourse for the first time, which may cause or not some bleeding depending particularly on each woman. In some cultures, a broken hymen is taken as a sign that a girl has had sex. However, a broken hymen is not a clear sign of sexual intercourse because other activities such as exercise can also cause the hymen to break. In some women, the hymen may remain unbroken even after sex.

At the top of the vagina is the cervix which is a ring of muscle separating the vagina from the uterus or womb. The cervix allows menstrual fluid to flow from the uterus into the vagina, and during sexual intercourse it allows semen from a man's penis to flow from the vagina into the uterus. The uterus is a very muscular and stretchy organ in which babies grow during pregnancy. When a woman is not pregnant, each month the lining of the uterus grows thicker, and then breaks down, causing her to menstruate. Connected to the top of the uterus are two Fallopian tubes, on the left and right. These tubes join the uterus to the two ovaries. The ovaries produce ova, or egg cells, that are needed for reproduction. Each month, an ovum travels from one of the ovaries into a Fallopian tube. If, after the woman has had sexual intercourse with a man, the ovum fuses with a sperm cell and implants in the wall of the uterus, the woman will become pregnant. The ovaries also produce the female hormone oestrogen which causes a person to grow into a woman and to feel like a woman.

Young girls do not start producing ova and menstruating until they have reached puberty. Like boys, this usually happens in their teens. Once a woman starts menstruating, she is capable of becoming pregnant. Males begin producing sperm a good deal before women begin releasing eggs.

Reproduction, sexual intercourse, and masturbation

The sex organs or genitals are used for sexual reproduction and for sexual intercourse. For sexual reproduction to happen, a man and a woman need to have sexual intercourse with each other. A man's penis becomes erect when he is aroused, for example when he sees a naked woman or is touched by her. When a woman is aroused, her clitoris and vulva also swell, and the inside of her vagina produces mucus, a substance that makes it slippery. To reproduce, the man places his penis inside the woman's vagina and moves it in and out (a movement called thrusting), while the woman moves her hips back and forth or in a circular motion. The friction caused by this movement, together with the warmth and pressure of the vagina, causes the man to have pleasurable feelings in the penis. As intercourse continues, these feelings grow stronger and stronger until the man reaches a sexual climax called an orgasm. At this point, the man's penis spasms and then contracts strongly again and again to push semen through the urethra. The semen then ejaculates or shoots out from the end of the penis into the woman's vagina. The woman may also have an orgasm, which causes the vagina to tense up and relax repeatedly. Scientists are not sure why women have orgasms. Some believe that the orgasm helps the sperm in the man's semen to swim up the vagina into the cervix so that it is more likely that a sperm cell will fuse with an egg cell. Others think that the female orgasm causes the vagina to grip the penis more tightly, which makes sex more exciting for the man and causes him to ejaculate more quickly or to produce more semen; or that it encourages a woman to have sex more often as it feels good. Both of these events would make pregnancy more likely to happen. After the man has ejaculated, the blood flows out of his penis and it becomes smaller and soft again.

Sometimes, a man and a woman may have sexual intercourse because it gives them pleasure, without wishing for the woman to become pregnant. They may try to stop fertilization from happening by using methods of contraception or birth control. Common methods of birth control include the man wearing a condom on his penis, and the woman taking birth control pills that stop her ovaries from releasing egg cells.

Apart from the man putting his penis into the woman's vagina, the sex organs can be used in other ways in sexual intercourse. The man and woman can rub each other's sex organs with their hands. They can use sex toys such as dildos or vibrators. They can also engage in oral sex. When a person uses his or her mouth, lips, and tongue to touch a woman's clitoris and vulva, this is called cunnilingus. When a person uses his or her mouth, lips, and/or tongue to touch a man's penis, this is called fellatio. A man or a woman (using a strap-on dildo or harness) can also put the sexual organ into a person's anus, this is called anal sex.

People who are gay or homosexual also use their genitals to have sexual intercourse with each other. Two women can rub each other's sex organs, put sex toys into them, or perform oral sex on each other. Two men can also rub each other's sex organs, or perform oral or anal sex on each other.

When a man strokes his own penis or a woman rubs her clitoris and vulva in order to feel good or to reach orgasm, this is called masturbation.

Urination

The sex organs are also used for urination, which is one of the ways in which the body removes waste products. Both men and women have a bladder, which is an organ that stores urine. In a man, a thin tube called the urethra passes from his bladder right through his penis. In a woman, the urethra opens into the vulva. When a person urinates, urine flows from the bladder through the urethra and out of the body.

Additional images

References

Further reading

Reproductive system

Sex organ


This article is about the fictional from J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth universe. It includes major regions of the world, geographical features such as rivers, mountains  and mountain ranges. The article also included selection of various notable places which were created by Tolkien and used as setting in his many books.

Regions of Middle-earth
Beleriand: Beleriand was a large region in northwestern Middle-earth until the end of the First Age. It is between the sea in the west and south and the Blue Mountains in the east. At the end of the First Age, Beleriand was destroyed and covered by the sea.
Eriador: Eriador is a large region in Middle-earth. It is between the Blue Mountains in the west, the Misty Mountains in the east and the Ice-bay of Forochel in the north. The rivers Glanduin and Greyflood form the southern edge of Erindor. In the earlier part of the Third Age much of Eriador was part of the kingdom of Arnor. Apart from Arnor, other settlements in Eriador of the Third Age were Rivendell, Bree-land and the Shire.
Rhovanion: Rhovanion is a large region in Middle-earth. It is also called Wilderland. The region is east of the Misty Mountains and south of the Grey Mountains and the Iron Hills. The river Anduin flows through it from the Grey Mountains to the Emyn Muil. A big part of Rhovanion is covered by the forest of Mirkwood.
Rhûn: Rhûn is a large region in Middle-earth. It is east of Rhovanion. The regions is near Sea of Rhûn.
Harad: Harad or Haradwaith is the lands south of Gondor and Mordor. The coasts of Harad were settled by the Black Númenóreans. These people live in Harad. The were often influenced by Sauron and fought with the western realms. In the Fourth Age, the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor made peace with Harad. The elephant-like mûmakil (or oliphaunts) also live in Harad.

Middle-earth mountains
Amon Hen: Amon Hen (Sindarin: Hill of the Eye) is a hill on the west side of the river Anduin. It is at the southern end of the long lake Nen Hithoel near the Falls of Rauros. On the eastern side of the lake is the hill Amon Lhaw. On Amon Hen, the Fellowship of the Ring was seperated and they went in different directions.
Ered Luin: Ered Luin (Sindarin: Blue Mountains), also known as Ered Lindon are a mountain range in the far west of Eriador. Until the end of the First Age, the Ered Luin separated Beleriand and Eriador. In the middle of the mountain range is a gap. It formed the Gulf of Lhûn/Lune. The Grey Havens are located there.
Ered Mithrin: The Ered Mithrin (Sindarin: Grey Mountains) is a range of mountains to the north of Rhovanion. At the western end of the Grey Mountains is Mount Gundabad. It is a part of the Misty Mountains. The Iron Hills are east of this area.
Ered Nimrais: The Ered Nimrais (Sindarin: Whitehorn Mountains) or White Mountains are a mountain range between Gondor in the south and Rohan in the north. The western part the White Mountains are separated from the Misty Mountains by the Gap of Rohan. The gap is near the valley of Helm's Deep. The Path of the Dead run through the range. The mountain Mindolluin  is at the eastern edge of the range. The city of Minas Tirith is in this mountain.
 Misty Mountain: The Misty Mountains (or Sindarin Hithaeglir) are a great mountain range, between Eriador in the west and Rhovanion in the east. At the southern end of the Misty Mountains is Isengard, at the northern end is Mount Gundabad. Under the Misty Mountains is the old dwarven city Khazad-dûm.
 Mount Doom: Mount Doom (Sindarin: Amon Amarth) is a volcano in northeastern Mordor. It is also known as Orodruin (Sindarin: fiery mountain)  Inside the volcano are the Sammath Naur (or Cracks of Doom). This is where Sauron made the One Ring. It is also the only place where the Ring can be destroyed.
Weathertop: Weathertop (Sindarin Amon Sûl, Hill of Wind) is a hill in Eriador. It is the most southern peak of the Weather Hills. It is also the highest peak of the Weather Hills.  The Weather Hills are next to the Great East Road. They are about halfway between the Shire and Rivendell.  The Tower of Amon Sûl was on Weathertop. It was a watch-tower built by the kingdom of Arnor. THe tower was destroying in year 1409 of the Third Age.  There are only ruins left of the tower.  In T.A. 3018, Aragorn and the hobbits camped on Weathertop. While they were camped there, they were attacked by the Ringwraiths. Frodo Baggins was wounded by a Morgul-blade.

Middle-earth rivers
Anduin: The Anduin is the largest river in Middle-earth. It begins in the Grey Mountains and flows through Rhovanion and the Emyn Muil. From there, it goes through the rapids of Sarn Gebir and into the lake Nen Hithoel. After it leaves the lake, it falls down the Falls of Rauros. Once it is past the falls, the river flows between the White Mountains and the Mountains of Shadow. It then flows into the sea in a broad river delta. This delta is called the Mouths of Anduin or the Ethir Anduin.
Bruinen: Bruinen or Loudwater was a river in Eriador. It began in the Misty Mountains. It flowed south from the mountains through the valley of Rivendell. From there it flowed into the river Mitheithel.
Baranduin: The Baranduin or Brandywine River is a river in Eriador. It begins at  Lake Evendim in northern Eriador and flows south. The river flows through the Shire and into the sea.

Other Middle-earth locations

Arnor
Arnor was a human realm in Eriador. It was founded by Elendil and his people, who survived the Fall of Númenor near the end of the Second Age. The peoples living in Arnor were the descendants of the Númenorean survivors, and the indigenous human peoples who had lived there before. The capital of Arnor was the city Annúminas. It was on the shores of Lake Evendim in northern Eriador. Elendil was the first King of Arnor. After his death, his older son Isildur became king.

After the death of Eärendur, the tenth king, in T.A. 861, his three sons split Arnor into three new lands. Each land a country ruled by one of the sons. These countries were: Arthedain in the west, Cardolan in the south, and Rhudaur in the north. Over time, all three of countries were destroyed in wars against the northern land Angmar. After the War of the Ring, the land again became part of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor. It as ruled by King Elessar Telcontar and his descendants.

Bree-land
Bree-land is a small region in Eriador, It  surrounded the Breehill. The region  has four villages. They are : Bree , Archet, Combe and Staddle. The peoples living in the villages of Bree-land are humans  and hobbits; This  is the only place where these two people live together. The only other place where hobbits live  is the Shire. Bree is at the meeting point of two large roads, the Great East Road and the North-South Road. It is an important center of trade and travel.

Erebor
The Lonely Mountain (Sindarin: Erebor) is a mountain in the northeast of Rhovanion. When the dwarves had to leave their ancient home Khazad-dûm, it became the new home of Durin's folk. They were led by Thráin I, who became King under the Mountain. Later Erebor was attacked by the dragon Smaug, and the dwarves had to flee again. In the story told in The Hobbit, the dragon Smaug is killed and the dwarves again return to the Lonely Mountain. Dáin II Ironfoot becomes new King under the Mountain.

Esgaroth
Esgaroth is a town in the northeast of Rhovanion. It is also known as Lake-town  It is built at the Long Lake. the town is south of the Lonely Mountain and east of Mirkwood. It was destroyed by the dragon Smaug during the events of The Hobbit but was rebuilt.

Fangorn
Fangorn or Fangorn Forest is a large forest on the eastern side of the southern end of the Misty Mountains. Fangorn is the home of the Ents. They are  a people of giant tree-like beings. The Sindarin word "Fangorn" translates to "Beardtree", Fangoen is also the Sindarin name of the Ent Treebeard.

Gondor
Gondor is a human realm in southeastern Middle-earth. It was founded by the brothers Isildur and Anárion and their people, who had survived the Fall of Númenor near the end of the Second Age. During the Third Age, Gondor included the lands beween the sea in the south, the Mountains of Shadow in the east, and the White Mountains  in the north. In earlier times, The lands of Gondor reached farther north. The city Osgiliath was the capital of Gondor. It was built over the river Anduin.  Isildur also founded the city Minas Ithil. His brother Anárion founded the city Minas Anor west of the Anduin on the mountain Mindolluin.

Gondor has several regions. Ithilien is in the east, It is between the river Anduin in the west and the Mountains of Shadow in the east. Anórien was a small land north of the White Mountains. It is between the river Anduin in the east and Rohan in the west. Calenardhon is the land north of the White Mountains. It became Rohan in the 26th century T.A. Enedwaith was northwest of the White Mountains. This region was mostly abandoned in the later part of the Third Age. Between the coast and the White Mountains were several smaller regions. Near the seashore in the south were the regions Anfalas, Belfalas, Dor-en-Ernil, Lebennin, and Lossarnach. Along the Mountains in the north were the Morthond Vale,  Lamedon, and the Ringló Vale. Southeast of the Anduin was the region South Gondor.

After the War of the Last Alliance of Elves and Men against Sauron, Isildur left to rule the northern kingdom Arnor. The son of Anárion stayed to rule Gondor. During a civil war In the 15th century,  the city Osgiliath was destroyed. Minas Anor became the new capital. The Ringwraiths captured Minas Ithil during the rule of King Eärnur.  They changed the name of the city to Minas Morgul. Minas Anor was renamed Minas Tirith ("Tower of Guard"). Both cities were always at war. Much of the fighting took place near the old capital of Osgiliath. During the War of the Ring, Sauron won control of Western Osgiliath. This made it possible for his forces to attack Minas Tirith. The Orcs attacked the city but were stopped by the Rohirrim. This let the defenders to charge the enemy. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields was won by the Men of Gondor and Rohan.

The last King, Eärnur, disappeared in 2050 T.A. After this, Gondor was ruled by the Stewards of Gondor instead of a king until the end of the Third Age. After the War of the Ring, the land became part of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor. It was ruled by King Elessar Telcontar and his descendants.

Great East Road
The Great East Road is an ancient road which was made by the dwarves. The road ran from western area of the region Beleriand, over the Ered Luin mountain range, through the Shire, to the Misty Mountains, and to the dwarven lands in the east.

Helm's Deep
Helm's Deep is a deep valley on the north side of the western part of the White Mountains. It is south to the Gap of Rohan. The valley was blocked by a series of hills called Helm's Dike. Helm's Deep is the location of the  fortress, Hornburg. The entrance to the Glittering Caves is at the end of the valley.

Isengard
Isengard is a fortress at the southern end of the Misty Mountains. It is in a small valley inside a ring-shaped wall. The wall is called, the Ring of Isengard. In the fortress is a tall black tower, Orthanc. Isengard belonged to Gondor but in the 28th century it was given to Saruman. The fortress has a palantír. A palantir is ball made of indestructible crystal that is used for communicating with other places.  In the War of the Ring, ring-wall was destroyed by the Ents. After the War, the tower Orthanc was given back to King Elessar and the Reunited Kingdom.

Khazad-dûm
Khazad-dûm was the ancient home of the Dwarves under the Misty Mountains. It was a large underground city. It also has a system of mines under it. The city was the only place in Middle-earth where the precious metal mithril could be found. This made the dwarves very rich. Khazad-dûm was founded by Durin the Deathless early in the First Age.

In the Third Age, the dwarves woke a Balrog deep in the mines of Khazad-dûm. The Balrog killed King Durin VI and many Dwarves. The dwarves that were not killed were forced to leave Khazad-dûm and find other places to life. Khazad-dûm got a new name, Moria. In Sindarin. Moria means "dark pit".

Lothlórien
Lothlórien was an elven realm. It was between the Misty Mountains and the Anduin. The realm was on the land between the rivers Anduin and Silverlode. It was close to the dwarven realm Khazad-dûm. Lothlórien was founded in the Second Age. Amdír was the first King of Lothlórien. The elves of Lothlórien fought in the War of the Last Alliance of Elves and Men against Sauron. In the war, Amdír was killed. His son Amroth became king after him. Amroth later left Lothlórien. After he left, the realm was ruled by Lord Celeborn and Lady Galadriel until the end of the Third Age. Caras Galadhon was the main city of Lothlórien. Other names of Lothlórien are the shortened name Lórien, and the names Laurelindórenan, Dwimordene (Rohirric), or The Golden Wood.

Mordor
Mordor (Sindarin: Black Land and Quenya: Land of Shadow) is a land in the southeastern part of Middle-earth. It is east of the Anduin. Mordor was the land of Sauron in the Second and Third Ages. Mordor is surrounded by mountain ranges. The Ered Lithui (Sindarin: "Mountains of Ash") is a range of mountains to the north of Mordor. The Ephel Dúath (Sindarin: Mountains of Shadow) is west of it, Another mountain range in the south. In the northwest is the plateau named Gorgoroth. Sauron's main fortress, Barad-dûr, is at the base of the Ered Lithui mountains. The volcano Mount Doom is south west of  Barad-dûr. Many parts of Mordor are a wasteland. The southern part of Mordor, around the Sea of Núrnen was more fertile. It was used as farmland to feed the armies of Sauron.

Mirkwood
Mirkwood is a large forest in Rhovanion. The forest was originally known as Greenwood the Great (Sindarin: Eryn Galen).

In the Second Age, an Elven people settled in the Greenwood. They created the Woodland Realm. The capital of the realm was on the hill Amon Lanc. After the Second Age, the Elves went  to live farther north. In the 11th century T.A., Sauron chose to live in the hill-fortress of Dol Guldur on Amon Lanc. It was in the south of the forest. His evil influence darkened the woods. It had less of an effect towards the north of the forest. After this, the Greenwood became known as Mirkwood. After the War of the Ring,  evil effects of Sauron's influence were removed from the forest. It known as Eryn Lasgalen (Sindarin: "Wood of Greenleaves").

North-South Road
The North-South Road is a long road running from the realm of Arnor in the north to Gondor in the south. The road begins in the city Fornost Erain, the capital of Arthedain. It crossesthe Great East Road at Bree, and runs to the southern end of the Misty Mountains. There, the road turned east, towards the cities of Minas Tirith and Osgiliath in Gondor. The road ended at Minas Ithil. A part of the road south of Bree is also known as the Greenway.

Rivendell
Rivendell (Sindarin: Imladris, Westron: Karningul) was an elven city in eastern Eriador. It was founded in the Second Age by Elrond. He ruled it until the end of the Third Age.

Rohan
Rohan or the Riddermark (or The Mark) was a human realm in southeastern Middle-earth. It was north of Gondor. Rohan was north of the White Mountains, southeast of Isengard and southwest of the Emyn Muil. It began as a part of Gondor named Calenardhon. The capital of Rohan is Edoras. The king's hall, Meduseld, is at Edoras.

A plague in 1636 T.A. and the later wars,  caused Calenardhon to be mostly empty. Very few people lived there. In 2509 T.A. the Rohirrim came south from the north, to help Gondor fight against an invasion of Men from the north-east and Orcs from Mordor. The Rohirrim helped Gondor win the Battle of the Field of Celebrant and the war. Steward Cirion of Gondor gave the land Calenardhon to the Rohirrim. The King of the Rohirrim, Eorl the Young, swore the Oath of Eorl. He said  that Rohan would come and help Gondor if it needed help in war. Afterwards, the people of the Rohirrim moved into their new land. They changed the name to the Riddermark or just The Mark. Gondor called the land Rohan (Sindarin: "Land of the Horse-lords").

The Shire

The Shire is a land in Eriador. It is settled by hobbits. Its name in Westron was Sûza "Shire" or Sûzat "The Shire". Its name in Sindarin was i Drann. The Shire was settled by the hobbits in the 24th century T.A. It is divided into four Farthings: the North-, West-, South- and Eastfarthing. The leaders of the Shire were the Mayor of Michel Delving, the Thain from Tuckborough and the Master of Buckland.

Númenor
Númenor was a huge star-shaped island west of Middle-earth in the Second Age. At the beginning of the Age it was given to the human peoples who had helped the elves in the wars against Morgoth. In the middle of the island was the mountain Meneltarma. It was a holy place for the Númenoreans. Númenor was divided into six regions. Each region was in one of each  of the five "star-arm" and one in the middle. The outer regions were Forostar ("Northlands"), Andustar ("Westlands"), Hyarnustar ("Southwestlands"), Hyarrostar ("Southeastlands") and Orrostar ("Eastlands") The central region was  Mittalmar ("Inlands"). In the eastern part of the central region was Arandor ("Kingsland"). the capital city Armenelos and the haven Rómenna.

Their first king of Númenor was Elros Tar-Minyatur. He was the brother of Elrond. Númenor became the most powerful nation of Men. As time passed, many Númenoreans, including their kings, became power-hungry. They became enemies of the elves. Towards the end of the Second Age, Númenor was ruled by King Ar-Pharazôn the Golden. During that time, the island was destroyed and sank in the sea. Only a group of Númenoreans led by Elendil, the Elendili ("Elf-friends") or the Faithful, were not destroyed with the island. They came to Middle-earth and founded the realms Arnor and Gondor. The Akallabêth is the story of Númenor's history and downfall.

Some of the many names of Númenor were Westernesse, Númenórë (Quenya, the long form of Númenor) and Anadûnê (Adûnaic), both meaning "West-land"; Andor (Quenya) and Yôzâyan (Adûnaic), which both mean "the Land of the Gift". Later it was also called Atalantë (Quenya) and Akallabêth (Adûnaic), both meaning "the Downfallen".

Related pages
 Middle-earth
 Middle-earth characters
 The Lord of the Rings (book series)
 The Lord of the Rings (movie series)
 The Hobbit (book)
 The Hobbit (movie series)
 The Silmarillion

References

Locations

Middle-earth locations


Solomon ben Elijah Sharbit Ha-Zahab was a Jewish astronomer, poet, and grammarian; he lived at Salonica and later at Ephesus, in the second half of the fourteenth century.

Moritz Steinschneider supposes that the name "Sharbiṭ ha-Zahab" is the Hebrew equivalent of the Greek name "Chrysakokka," borne by the translator of the Persian "Astronomical Tables," which Solomon rendered into Hebrew, perhaps under the title "Mahalak ha-Kokabim" (Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, MS. No. 1042; Vatican MS. No.393). Another of Solomon's translations from the Greek, still extant in manuscript in various libraries, is the treatise of Ptolemy on the astrolabe.

In addition to these translations, Solomon wrote "Ḥesheḳ Shelomoh," a grammatical treatise (Bibliothèque Nationale MS. No. 1042); a commentary written at the request of some prominent Jews of Ephesus on the "Sefer ha-Shem" of ibn Ezra; and a great number of liturgical poems, some of which are found in the Roman Maḥzor. Several of Solomon's poems (among which one on the alphabet, entitled "Otiyyot ha-Ḳodesh Meribot Zu 'im Zu," is a masterpiece of elegance) have been published by David Kohen ("Aḥiasaf,"1893).

Solomon wrote also a commentary on the Pentateuch, in which he vehemently attacked Karaite Biblical interpretations. Against these attacks was directed the "Iggeret ha-Ẓom" of Elijah Bashyaẓi.

References
 Luzzatto, in Kerem Ḥemed, iv. 39;
 Leopold Zunz, S. P. p. 372;
 Heinrich Grätz, Gesch. viii. 290;
 Julius Fürst, Gesch. des Karäert. ii. 306;
 Moritz Steinschneider, in Hebr. Bibl. xix. 58;
 idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 536

External links
 Source

Medieval Jewish astronomers
Medieval Hebraists
Jewish poets
14th-century births
Year of death unknown

Solomon ben Elijah Sharbit


International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) is a method for uniquely identifying the public identities of contributors to media content such as books, TV programmes, and newspaper articles. Such an identifier consistgits divided into four blocks.

It was developed under the auspices of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as Draft International Standard 27729; the valid standard was published on 15 मार्च 2012. The ISO technical committee 46, subcommittee 9 (TC 46/SC 9) is responsible for the development of the standard.

ISNI can be used fo

Uses of an ISNI
The ISNI allows a single identity (such as an author's pseudonym or the imprint used by a publisher) to be identified using a unique number. This unique number can then be linked to any of the numerous other identifiers that are used across the media industries to identify names and other forms of identity.

An example of the use of such a number is the identification of a musical performer who is also a writer both of music and of poems. Where he or she might currently be identified in many different databases using numerous private and public identification systems, under the ISNI system, he or she would have a single linking ISNI record. The many different databases could then exchange data about that particular identity without resorting to messy methods such as comparing text strings. An often quoted example in the English language world is the difficulty faced when identifying 'John Smith' in a database. While there may be many records for 'John Smith', it is not always clear which record refers to the specific 'John Smith' that is required.

If an author has published under several different names or pseudonyms, each such name will receive its own ISNI.

ISNI can be used by libraries and archives when sharing catalogue information; for more precise searching for information online and in databases, and it can aid the management of rights across national borders and in the digital environment.

ORCID
ORCID (Open Researcher and Contributor ID) identifiers are reserved block of ISNI identifiers, for scholarly researchers. administered by a separate organisation. Individual researchers can create and claim their own ORCID identifier. The two organisations coordinate their efforts.

ISNI governance
ISNI is governed by an 'International Agency', commonly known as the ISNI-IA. This UK registered, not-for-profit company has been founded by a consortium of organisations consisting of the Confédération Internationale des Sociétés d´Auteurs et Compositeurs (CISAC), the Conference of European National Librarians (CENL), the International Federation of Reproduction Rights Organisations (IFRRO), the International Performers Database Association (IPDA), the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) and ProQuest. It is managed by directors nominated from these organisations and, in the case of CENL, by representatives of the Bibliothèque nationale de France and the British Library.

ISNI assignment
ISNI-IA uses an assignment system comprising a user interface, data-schema, disambiguation algorithms, and database that meets the requirements of the ISO standard, while also using existing technology where possible. The system is based primarily on the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) service, which has been developed by OCLC for use in the aggregation of library catalogues.

Access to the assignment system and database, and to the numbers that are generated as the output of the process, are controlled by independent bodies known as 'registration agencies'. These registration agencies deal directly with customers, ensuring that data is provided in appropriate formats and recompensing the ISNI-IA for the cost of maintaining the assignment system. Registration agencies are appointed by ISNI-IA but will be managed and funded independently.

See also
 Authority control
 Digital Author Identification (DAI)
 International Standard Text Code (ISTC)
 ResearcherID

References

External links

ISO standards
Universal identifiers
Library cataloging and classification

इंटरनेशनल स्टैण्डर्ड नाम पहचानकर्ता


New Year's Eve is the holiday before New Year's Day, on December 31, the last day of the current year.

Today, Western countries usually celebrate this day with a party which ends with a group countdown to midnight. Party hats, noisemakers, fire crackers and drinking champagne are fairly common during this holiday.

Many towns also have firework shows or other noisy ways to start the new year. Places like Berlin, Chicago, Edinburgh, Los Angeles, London, New York, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Sydney, Toronto,  and Tokyo are well known for their New Year's Eve celebrations.

New Year's Eve is also a work holiday in some countries, such as Australia, Argentina, Brazil, France, Mexico, the Philippines, and Venezuela.

Related pages

 Chinese New Year
 Omisoka (Japan)
 Áramótaskaupið (Iceland)

New Year

New Year's Eve


In the physical sciences, mass and weight are different. The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in the object. Weight is a measure of the force on the object caused by a gravitational field. In other words, weight is how hard gravity pulls on an object. This means the mass of an object will remain at wherever it is on the earth's surface, but if it is moved from the equator to the North Pole, its weight will grow by 0.5% because of the increase in the earth's gravitational field.

Mass is measured in kilograms or pounds. A one-liter volume of water has a mass of one kilogram. Weight is measured in newtons, the standard unit for force. A one-kilogram mass placed on  a bench presses down on the bench with almost ten newtons of force.

Overview
The weight of something is the value measured at the Earth's surface. Unfortunately the common terms used to describe the weight of an object are units of mass such as kilograms or pounds. For almost all of human history weight has been measured on the surface of the Earth. Here, the weight is proportional to the mass. Objects which have the same mass have the same weight. An object with the twice the mass of another will also have twice the weight. As a consequence it is common practice to use the two words, mass and weight, as if they mean the same thing, and to use kilograms or pounds as the units for both mass and weight. Using the same terms to describe and measure the two different properties has led to confusion between these two properties, mass and weight. Mass and weight are not the same thing.

Generally, mass refers to how "heavy" something is. However, mass is really an inertial property; that is, the tendency of an object to remain at constant velocity unless acted upon by an outside force. According to Newton's second law of motion, as expressed in the formula an object with a mass, m, of one kilogram will accelerate, a, at one meter per second per second (about one-tenth the acceleration due to Earth's gravity) when acted upon by a force, F, of one newton.

Feeling the difference
It is possible to feel the difference between weight and mass by suspending an object with a mass of over ten kilograms on a rope with a length of two or more meters. If a person pushes upwards against the underneath of the object with one finger they will feel the weight of the object. If they push momentarily against the side of the suspended object with one finger they will feel the mass of the object. (It is important that they do not push the object sideways far enough to begin to raise it.)

Matter
Physics

Mass versus weight


The St John Passion (), BWV 245, is a musical composition by Johann Sebastian Bach. The words tell the story of Jesus's death on the cross as told in the Gospel of John in the Bible. The work is for a choir, solo voices and orchestra.

The St. John Passion was first performed in 1724 in the St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig. The words are from three sources: the Bible (telling the story), by two poets from  Hamburg, mostly by Barthold Heinrich Brockes, and from chorales which were well-known to German church goers at the time. There were other composers who also wrote works called St John Passion, the most famous being Heinrich Schütz. However, Bach's St John Passion is thought by many musicians to be one of the greatest choral works ever written. Two other great choral works by Bach are his St Matthew Passion and Mass in B minor .

Passions and oratorios by Johann Sebastian Bach
Choral compositions

St John Passion


High-definition television (HDTV) is a television broadcasting system which uses a higher resolution than a normal television. With HDTV, people can see sharper pictures than with old television, giving a more vivid and clear screen.

Most HDTV systems use digital signals with a 16:9 aspect ratio (width to height). This is different to SDTV (standard-definition television) which uses analog signals and a 4:3 aspect ratio.

HDTV picture resolution is at least twice that of SDTV, so it can present a more vivid screen than analog television or DVD. HDTV can control resolution efficiently.

Some videos on the website YouTube, a free video sharing website that lets people upload and view videos, are in HD.

There are different standards. Common ones are:
2560×1440, progressive scan, requiring about 3,68 Megapixels per frame. This is known as 1440p or WQHD. It is a new standard, which is slowly replacing many 1080p-computer-monitors in the household (everyday use).
1920×1080, progressive scan, requiring about 2,07 MPixels per frame. This is known as 1080p or FullHD. It has been used very frequently for different types of screens in the past few years.
1920×1080, interlaced, 1.04 MPixel per field. This is known as 1080i.
1280×720, progressive, 0.92 MPixel per frame. This is known as 720p.

As a comparison, PAL plus is at 1024x576 pixels, and NTSC at 853x480 pixels.

Other websites
 US Government HDTV and DTV official site
 Canadian Digital Television official website
 ATSC

Television technology

High-definition television


The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant denominations that are historically related by a doctrine that is identical or similar to Calvinism. It developed in the Swiss Reformation led by Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, but soon afterwards appeared in nations throughout Western Europe. Each nation in which the Reformed movement was originally established had its own church government. Several of these local churches have expanded to worldwide denominations and most have experienced schisms into multiple denominations.

History
The first Reformed Churches were established in Europe in the 1500s, in the wake of the Protestant Reformation.

Form of doctrine
Reformed doctrine is expressed in various texts]. Some of them are used by many denominations. Different denominations use different confessions, usually based on historical reasons. Some of the confessions still commonly in use are (with year of writing):
 French Confession (1559),
 Scots Confession (1560),
 Three Forms of Unity
 Heidelberg Catechism (1563),
 Belgic Confession (1566),
 Canons of Dordrecht (1619),
 Second Helvetic Confession (1566)
 Westminster Standards
 Westminster Confession of Faith (1646)
 Westminster Shorter Catechism (1649)
 Westminster Larger Catechism (1649)
 Baptist
 London Baptist Confession of Faith (1689)

Form of governance
Reformed churches have two main forms of ecclesiastical polity:
 Presbyterian polity or Synodal government - rule by assemblies of ordained officers.
 Congregationalist polity, e.g. Congregational churches

Other websites
 World Communion of Reformed Churches
 * World list of Reformed Churches
 Alliance of Confessing Evangelicals
 Leben, a journal of Reformed Life
 Reformed Online - Comprehensive resource

Calvinism

Reformed churches


Eric X of Sweden (Erik Knutsson, c. 1180 - April 10, 1216) was the King of Sweden between 1208 and 1216.

Erik was the son of King Knut Eriksson of Sweden, but his mother is now unknown. In 1205 he escaped from the Battle of Älgarås, where his three brothers were killed. He stayed for three years with family in Norway. He returned to Sweden in 1208 and defeated Sverker II of Sweden in the battle of Lena. He was married in 1210 to Rikissa of Denmark, the daughter of Valdemar I of Denmark and Sophia of Novgorod.

Eric was elected king, but the coronation took place only in November 1210, after the Battle of Gestilren where he again defeated and killed Sverker II. Sverker had attempted to regain the throne. King Erik's coronation is the earliest known coronation in Sweden. It was carried out by the bishop Valerius, a former supporter of King Sverker II.

In 1216, Pope Innocent III agreed that King Erik was King of Sweden, and also any other pagan lands he captured, probably Finland. Previously, Innocent III had supported Sverker II. Very little is known about King Erik's reign, but it is said that the crops were good while he was king.

Erik had several children:
 Sofia (died before 24 April 1241), married to Prince Burwin Henry III of Mecklenburg (d. 1277/1278)
 Marianne, Pomeranian princess, also called Mariana or Marina
 Ingeborg Eriksdotter of Sweden, married Birger Jarl.
 Erik Eriksson, calledErik the Lisp and the Lame. He was born in 1216 after his father's death. The Karl Chronicle says that "Erik Lisp and Lame" also had a sister, Martha Farmer. This would have been Erik Knutsson's daughter. Historian Dick Harrison says that this is only political propaganda for Martha's cousin, Karl Knutsson (Bonde). This untrue connection would have made him a relative of the House of Eric.

Erik died of a fever in 1216 at Nas Castle in Visingsö. He is buried in the Varnhems Church.

References

Kings and Queens of Sweden
1180 births
1216 deaths

Eric X of Sweden


A fuel tax (also known as a petrol, gasoline or gas tax,  or as a fuel duty) is an excise tax imposed on the sale of fuel. In most countries the fuel tax is imposed on fuels which are intended for transportation. Fuel tax receipts are often dedicated or hypothecated to transportation projects, in which case the fuel tax can be considered a user fee. In other countries, the fuel tax is a source of general revenue. Sometimes, a fuel tax is used as an ecotax, to promote ecological sustainability. Fuel taxes are often considered by government agencies such as the Internal Revenue Service as regressive taxes.

Fuels used to power agricultural vehicles, as well as home heating oil which is similar to diesel, are taxed at a different, usually lower rate. These fuels may be dyed to prevent their use for transportation.

Aviation fuel is typically charged at a different rate to fuel for ground-based vehicles. Jet fuel and avgas can attract different rates. In many jurisdictions such as the United States and the European Union, commercial aviation fuel is tax free.

Other fuels such as gases, or solid fuels such as coal, may also be taxed.

In countries with a sales tax or a value added tax, these taxes may also be levied on top of fuel taxes. The rate can vary depending on the fuel.

Role in energy policy

Taxes on transportation fuels have been advocated as a way to reduce pollution and the possibility of global warming and conserve energy.  Placing higher taxes on fossil fuels makes petrol just as expensive as other fuels such as natural gas, biodiesel or electric batteries, at a cost to the consumer in the form of inflation as transportation costs rise to transport goods all over the country.

Proponents advocate that automobiles should pay for the roads they use and argue that the user tax should not be applied to mass transit projects.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the International Energy Agency, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank have called on governments to increase gasoline tax rates in order to combat the social and environmental costs of gasoline consumption.

Tax rates
International pump prices for diesel and gasoline are tracked by several websites, including Bloomberg L.P. Price differences mostly reflect differences in tax policy.

A Nature study has shown that while gasoline taxes have increased in more countries than they have decreased in during the period 2003–2015, the global mean gasoline tax has decreased due to greater consumption in the low-tax countries.

Asia

China
Chinese gasoline taxes have increased the most among the top twenty -emitting countries over the period 2003–2015.

In China, fuel tax has been a very contentious issue. Efforts by the State Council to institute a fuel tax in order to finance the National Trunk Highway System have run into strong opposition from the National People's Congress, largely out of concern for its impact on farmers.  This has been one of the uncommon instances in which the legislature has asserted its authority.

Hong Kong
The following is a list of fuel tax rates for different fuels in Hong Kong:
Aviation fuel: HK$6.51
Light diesel oil: HK$2.89
Leaded petrol: HK$6.82
Unleaded petrol: HK$6.06
Ultra low sulphur diesel: HK$2.89
Euro V diesel: HK$0

Singapore
The following is a list of fuel tax rates for different fuels in Singapore:
98 Octane and above petrol: S$0.79 per litre
92 to 95 Octane petrol: S$0.66 per litre

India
In India, the pricing of fuel varies by state, though central taxes still are part of the pump price of fuel. The Central and state government's taxes make up nearly half of petrol's pump price. The Central govt has different taxes, which amount to about 10–20% of the final cost. The states taxes vary, but on average end up making about 17–20% of the final cost. As a result, approximately 50% - 60% of the pump cost goes to the government in the form of different taxes.

For example, in Delhi, as of February 18, 2021, price of petrol is  per litre. Out of this  go to Central Govt of India in the form of excise and customs tax.  is collected by state government in the form of sales tax and entry tax. Thus, a total of  is collected due to various taxes (which accounts for around 58% of the total price).

Israel
In Israel, tax on fuel is 1.35 USD per liter which includes direct fuel tax and VAT. This totals to 78% of total pump price.

Europe

Jet fuel tax is banned on commercial flights within the European Union, according to the 2003 Energy Taxation Directive. It can be levied on domestic flights or by agreement between Member States, however no such agreements exist.

France
As of 2017, the excise tax on gasoline was €0.651 per liter (regional prices varied from €0.407 to €0.6682). With a VAT rate of 20%, the percent of the total price of gasoline that came from taxes was 63.9% The excise tax on diesel fuel was €0.531 per liter (€0.5307 to €0.5631). With the 20% VAT, 59.3% of the total cost of diesel fuel was taxes.

Petroleum products destined for utilisation by aircraft engaged in commercial flights outside of the customs territory of continental France are exempt from all customs duties and domestic taxes. Recently, a rise of 23% in the diesel fuel tax has caused serious protests in major cities of France, leaving disruption and damage behind them. Before the protests, the French government expected to increase both the petrol and diesel taxes until they both reached €0.78 per liter in 2022.

Germany
Fuel taxes in Germany are €0.4704 per litre for ultra-low sulphur Diesel and €0.6545 per litre for conventional unleaded petrol, plus Value Added Tax (19%) on the fuel itself and the Fuel Tax. That adds up to prices of  for ultra-low sulphur Diesel and  for unleaded petrol (December 2019).

Netherlands
The sale of fuels in the Netherlands is levied with an excise tax. As of 2015, petrol excise tax is EUR0.766 per litre and diesel excise tax is EUR0.482 per litre, while LPG excise tax is EUR0.185 per litre. The 2007 fuel tax was . On top of that is 21% VAT over the entire fuel price, making the Dutch taxes one of the highest in the world. In total, taxes account for 68.84% of the total price of petrol and 56.55% of the total price of diesel. A 1995 excise was raised by Dutch gulden 25 cents (€0.11), the Kok Quarter (€0.08 raise per litre gasoline and €0.03 raise per litre diesel), by then Prime-Minister Wim Kok is now specifically set aside by the second Balkenende cabinet for use in road creation and road and public transport maintenance.

Norway
Motor fuel is taxed with both a road use tax and a CO2-tax. The road use tax on petrol is NOK 4.62 per litre and the CO2-tax on petrol is NOK 0.88 per litre. The road use tax on auto diesel is NOK 3.62 per litre mineral oil and NOK 1.81 per litre bio diesel. The CO2-tax on mineral oil is NOK 0.59 per litre.

Poland
In Poland half of the end-user price charged at a petrol station goes towards 3 distinct taxes:
 akcyza (meaning excise)
 opłata paliwowa (meaning fuel tax)
 Value-added tax "VAT" at 23% (from summary of akcyza and opłata paliwowa, and the price of petrol)
Excise and fuel tax are prescribed by European Commission law, and therefore cannot be lower in any EU nation. However it is even higher than this EU minimum in Poland, a policy pursued by the former Minister of finance.

Russia
Tax on mineral resource extraction (2008–2009):
Oil: varies 1000 RUR/t – 13800 RUR/t; middle MRET 3000 RUR/t (0.058 €/l = 0.284 $/gal).
Natural gas: 147 RUR/1000m³ (4 €/1000m³).
Petroleum gas: no

Excise tax on motor fuel 2008–2009:
RON >80: 3629 RUR/t. (0.071 €/l = 0.343 $/US gal)
RON <=80: 2657 RUR/t. (0.052 €/l = 0.251 $/US

Other fuel (like avia gasoline, jet fuel, heavy oils, natural gas and autogas) prices has no excise tax.

Value Added Tax — 18% on fuel and taxes.

Full tax rate is near 55% of motor fuel prices (ministry of industry and energy facts 2006).

Sweden
The fuel tax in Sweden comprises a carbon tax and an energy tax. The total tax (including value added tax) is, from July 1, 2018,  per liter petrol and  per liter diesel.

United Kingdom

From 23 March 2011 the UK duty rate for the road fuels unleaded petrol, diesel, biodiesel and bioethanol is .

Value Added Tax at 20% is also charged on the price of the fuel and on the duty. An additional vehicle excise duty, depending on a vehicle's theoretical  production per kilometre, which is applied regardless of the amount of fuel actually consumed, is also levied.

Diesel for use by farmers and construction vehicles is coloured red (red diesel) and has a much reduced tax, currently .

Jet fuel used for international aviation attracts no duty, and no VAT.

North America

Canada

Fuel taxes in Canada can vary greatly between locales. On average, about one-third of the total price of gas at the pump is tax. Excise taxes on gasoline and diesel are collected both federal and provincial governments, as well as by some select municipalities (Montreal, Vancouver, and Victoria); with combined excise taxes varying from 16.2 ¢/L (73.6 ¢/imperial gal)) in the Yukon to 30.5 ¢/L ($1.386/imperial gal) in Vancouver. As well, the federal government and some provincial governments (Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Quebec) collect sales tax (GST and PST) on top of the retail price and the excise taxes.

United States

The first U.S. state to enact a gas tax was Oregon in 1919. The states of Colorado, North Dakota, and New Mexico followed shortly thereafter. By 1929, all existing 48 states had enacted some sort of gas tax.  Today, fuel taxes in the United States vary by state. The United States federal excise tax on gasoline is  and  for diesel fuel. On average, as of July 2016, state and local taxes add 29.78 cents to gasoline and 29.81 cents to diesel for a total US average fuel tax of  for gas and  for diesel.

The state and local tax figures includes fixed-per-gallon taxes as well as variable-rate taxes such as those levied as a percentage of the sales price.  For state-level fuel taxes, nineteen states and the District of Columbia levy variable-rate taxes of some kind. The other thirty one states do not tie the per-gallon tax rate to inflation, gas prices, or other factors, and the rate changes only by legislation. As of July 2016, twenty one states had gone ten years or more without an increase in their per-gallon gasoline tax rate.

Because the fuel tax is universally styled as a "road use" tax, exempting off-road farming, marine, etc. use; states impose a tax on commercial operators traveling through their state as if the fuel used was bought there, wherever the fuel is purchased. While most commercial truck drivers have an agent to handle the required paperwork: what's reported is how much tax was collected in each state, how much should have been paid to each state, the net tax for each state and the combined net tax for all states to be paid by or refunded to the operator by their base jurisdiction where they file. The operator carries paperwork proving compliance. The member jurisdictions, the US states and the CA provinces, transmit the return information to each other and settle their net tax balances with each other either by a single transmittal through a clearinghouse set up by the IFTA and operated by Morgan Stanley, or by separate transfers with the other member jurisdictions.

Oceania

Australia
The fuel tax system in Australia is very similar to Canada in terms of featuring both a fixed and a variable tax, but varies in the case of exemptions including tax credits and certain excise free fuel.

Since October 2018, the fuel tax in Australia is A$0.412 per litre for petrol and ultra-low sulphur diesel (conventional diesel being taxed at A$0.412 per litre) and the excise for LPG is $0.282 per litre. Since 2000, there is also the GST (goods and services tax) on top of the fuel tax and inflation calculated twice a year called CPI (consumer price index) into the fuel tax since 2015.

New Zealand
Fuel taxes in New Zealand are considered an excise applied by the New Zealand Customs Service on shipments brought into the country. A breakdown of the fuel taxes is published by the Ministry of Economic Development. Excise as at 1 August 2012 totals 50.524 cents per litre (NZ  on petrol. In addition the national compulsory Accident Compensation Corporation motor vehicle account receives a contribution of . The ethanol component of bio blended petrol currently attracts no excise duty. This was to be reviewed in 2012. Diesel is not taxed at the pump, but road users with vehicles over 3.5 tonne in Gross Laden Weight and any vehicles not powered wholly by any combination of petrol, LPG or CNG must pay the Road User Charge instead. The Goods and Services Tax (15%) is then applied to the combined total of the value of the commodity and the various taxes. On 25 July 2007 the Minister of Transport Annette King announced that from 1 July 2008 all fuel excise collected would be hypothecated to the National Land Transport Programme.

Africa

South Africa
South Africa imposes a fuel tax, in Dec 2020, per (unleaded 93 octane, inland) liter, composed of the Fuel Levy – R3,37, Road Accident Fund levy – R1,93, associated costs – R3,12, and the Basic Fuel Price – R5,81 for a total of R14.23. (R = South African Rand (ZAR) ~ R15 per US$ in Dec 2020)

See also
 Carbon fee and dividend
 Carbon tax
 Fuel taxes and rising oil prices – how the taxes of various countries could be used to mitigate the rise in oil prices since 2003
 Excise tax
 Vehicle miles traveled tax
 International Fuel Tax Agreement

References

External links
 International Fuel Prices 2009 with diesel and gasoline prices of 172 countries and information on fuel taxation for state financing
 2012 NACS Retail Fuels Report
 Actual taxes on Unleaded and diesel Fuels in Europe
 Fuel Price in Gurgoan India

Environmental tax
Petroleum products
Energy economics
Transport economics
Vehicle taxes

Fuel tax


A highway, also spelled "hi-way", is a road made for travel by the public between important places, such as cities, towns and landmarks. The word "highway" can be different between countries and also mean a road, freeway, superhighway, autoroute, autobahn, parkway, expressway, autostrasse, autostrada, byway or motorway.

Highways come in many different designs. They can include many lanes of traffic, a median (strip of lane or barrier) between lanes of opposing traffic, and access control (ramps and bridges). Highways can also be as simple as a two-lane road.

In many countries, these roads are numbered to easily tell them apart. These numbered highways are usually called routes. The United States includes a system called the Interstate Highway system, controlled by AASHTO, where major north/south routes are odd numbered and east/west are even numbered. In Canada, routes that are in the 400s are freeways. In China, types of routes are separated by the first letter of the route; "G" for national road, "S" for provincial road and "Y" for rural roads.

Highways are sometimes criticised because of the pollution cars make when driving highways. When too many cars travel along a highway, traffic slows down; this is known as a traffic jam. Public transportation (such as buses) and special lanes for those who have a given number of people in a car are used to help stop these problems.

Highways

Highway


Natural history is the study of plants and animals in the wild, and the environments they live in. This includes the geology of the places in which they live.

The work of naturalists is observation, interpretation, collecting and classification, rather than experiments. People who study natural history are called naturalists. They were among the first to explore the world. They were the first to study the Amazon and other tropical places. Naturalists find new species and classify plants and animals. They study ecology.

Naturalists developed some theoretical ideas which were valuable. They noticed that living things fitted the lives they led. This was adaptation. They noticed a struggle for existence between animals. They thought they could see a chain of being from lower animals to higher, which they thought was the work of God. The idea that such things might happen by natural means began to surface in the 18th century, and become the majority view in time of Charles Darwin.

Before Darwin, most naturalists did not think of themselves as scientists. When they looked at nature, perhaps as explorers, they looked at everything. They looked at the land, the people, the plants and animals. After Darwin, they did see themselves as scientists. Early on, Darwin called himself a geologist. Thomas Henry Huxley was an anatomist. Joseph Dalton Hooker was a botanist. Charles Lyell was a geologist. They changed the way in which they were educated as well. They often took degrees in science. That sort of education was rare before Darwin.

Naturalists were educated amateurs; scientists are trained professionals. The change happened slowly, during the 19th century. The very word scientist was invented in 1837 by William Whewell. Before then, the term was natural philosopher (for the physical sciences) or natural historian (for the biological sciences and geology). Naturalist is short for natural historian.

Important naturalists
Some of the people who are important because they were interested in natural history are:

Aristotle
Pliny the Elder
Conrad Gessner
John Ray
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
Gilbert White
Alexander von Humboldt
Charles Darwin
Alfred Russel Wallace

References

Biology
Geology

Natural history


An algorithm is a set of instructions for solving logical and mathematical problems, or for accomplishing some other task.

A recipe is a good example of an algorithm because it says what must be done, step by step. It takes inputs (ingredients) and produces an output (the completed dish).

The words 'algorithm' and 'algorism' come from the name of a Persian mathematician called Al-Khwārizmī (Persian: خوارزمی, c. 780–850).

Informally, an algorithm can be called a "list of steps". Algorithms can be written in ordinary language, and that may be all a person needs.

In computing, an algorithm is a precise list of operations that could be done by a Turing machine.
For the purpose of computing, algorithms are written in pseudocode, flow charts, or programming languages.

Comparing algorithms
There is usually more than one way to solve a problem. There may be many different recipes to make a certain dish which looks different but ends up tasting the same when all is said and done. The same is true for algorithms. However, some of these ways will be better than others. If a recipe needs lots of complicated ingredients that you do not have, it is not as a good as a simple recipe. When we look at algorithms as a way of solving problems, often we want to know how long it would take a computer to solve the problem using a particular algorithm. When we write algorithms, we like our algorithm to take the least amount of time so that we can solve our problem as quickly as possible.

In cooking, some recipes are more difficult to do than others, because they take more time to finish or have more things to keep track of.
It is the same for algorithms, and algorithms are better when they are easier for the computer to do.  The thing that measures the difficulty of an algorithm is called complexity.  When we ask how complex an algorithm is, often we want to know how long it will take a computer to solve the problem we want it to solve.

Sorting
This is an example of an algorithm for sorting cards with colors on them into piles of the same color:

 Pick up all of the cards.
 Pick a card from your hand and look at the color of the card.
 If there is already a pile of cards of that color, put this card on that pile.
 If there is no pile of cards of that color, make a new pile of just this card color.
 If there is still a card in your hand, go back to the second step.
 If there is not still a card in your hand, then the cards are sorted. You are done.

Sorting by numbers

These are examples of algorithms for sorting a stack of cards with many different numbers, so that the numbers are in order.

Players start with a stack of cards that have not been sorted.

First algorithm
This algorithm goes through the stack of cards, one card at a time. This card is compared to the next card in the stack. Please note that this position only changes in step 6.  This algorithm is called bubble sort. It is slow.

If the stack of cards is empty, or it only contains one card, it is sorted; you are done.
Take the stack of cards. Look at the first card (the top) of the stack.
The card you are looking at is card A. The position where card A currently, is in stack P.
If there are no more cards in the stack after card A, go to step 8.
The next card in the stack is card B.
If card B has a lower number than card A, swap the positions of cards A and B. Remember you did this. When you swap cards, do not change the position P.
If there is another card in the stack after position P, look at it; go back to step 3.
If you did not swap the position of any cards in the last run, you are done; the stack of cards is sorted.
Otherwise go back to step 2.

Step-by-step example

Let us take a stack of the cards with the numbers "5 1 4 2 8", and sort it from smallest number to biggest one using this algorithm. In each step, the algorithm compares the elements written in bold. The top of the stack of cards is on the left-hand side.

First pass:
( 5 1 4 2 8 )  ( 1 5 4 2 8 ) Here, the algorithm compares the first two elements, and swaps them.
( 1 5 4 2 8 )  ( 1 4 5 2 8 )
( 1 4 5 2 8 )  ( 1 4 2 5 8 )
( 1 4 2 5 8 )  ( 1 4 2 5 8 ) These elements are already in order, so the algorithm does not swap them.
Second pass:
( 1 4 2 5 8 )  ( 1 4 2 5 8 )
( 1 4 2 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )
( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )
( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )
Now, the stack of cards is already sorted, but our algorithm does not know this. The algorithm needs one whole pass without any swap to know it is sorted.
Third pass:
( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )
( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )
( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )
( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )
Finally, the array is sorted, and the algorithm can stop.

History
This is an easy-to-understand algorithm for sorting. Computer scientists called it Bubble sort, because smaller elements will rise to the top, changing their position in each run. Unfortunately, the algorithm is not very good, because it needs a long time (many passes through the stack of cards) to sort it.

Second algorithm

This algorithm uses another idea. Sometimes solving a problem is difficult, but the problem can be changed so it is made of simpler problems that are easier to solve. This is called recursion. It is more difficult to understand than the first example, but it will give a better algorithm.

Basic idea

 If the stack has no cards in it, or it only has one card, it is sorted, and you are done.
Split the stack of cards into two halves of about the same size. If there is an odd number of cards, one of the two stacks will have one card more than the other.
Sort each of the two stacks using this algorithm (For each stack, start at item 1 of this list.)
Merge the two sorted stacks together, as described below.
The result is a sorted stack of cards. You are done.

Merging two stacks together
This works with two stacks of cards. One of them is called A, the other is called B. There is a third stack that is empty at the start, called C. At the end, it will contain the result.
If either stack A or stack B is empty, put all the cards of the stack that is not empty on top of stack C; you are done, stack C is the result of the merge. (Note: take the whole stack, and put it on stack C; doing it card-by-card will change the order and will not work as it should.)
Look at the top cards of stack A and stack B. Put the one with the lower number on top of stack C. If stack C had no cards in it, it will now have one card.
If either stack A or stack B has cards left, go back to step 1 to sort them.

History
John von Neumann developed this algorithm in 1945. He did not call it Sorting by numbers, he called it Mergesort. It is a very good algorithm for sorting, compared to others.

Third algorithm

The first algorithm takes much longer to sort the cards than the second, but it can be improved (made better). Looking at bubble sort, it can be noticed that cards with high numbers move from the top of the stack quite quickly, but cards with low numbers at the bottom of the stack take a long time to rise (move to the top).
To improve the first algorithm here is the idea:
Rather than comparing two cards that are next to each other, at the start a 'special' card is picked. All the other cards are then compared to this card.

We start out with a stack A. There will be two other stacks B and C, which will be created later.
If stack A has no cards, or it only has one card, we are done sorting.
A card is picked from stack A, if possible at random. This is called a pivot.
All the remaining cards of stack A are compared to this pivot. Cards with a smaller number go to stack B, those with an equal or bigger number go to stack C.
If there are any cards in stacks B or C, these stacks need to be sorted with the same algorithm (Start at pos 1 of this list for both stack B and stack C in turn.)
Done. The sorted stack of cards first has the sorted stack B, then the pivot, and then the sorted stack C.

History
This algorithm was developed by C. A. R. Hoare in 1960. It is one of most widely used algorithms for sorting today. It is called Quicksort.

Putting algorithms together
If players have cards with colors and numbers on them, they can sort them by color and number if they do the "sorting by colors" algorithm, then do the "sorting by numbers" algorithm to each colored stack, then put the stacks together.

The sorting-by-numbers algorithms are more difficult to do than the sorting-by-colors algorithm, because they may have to do the steps again many times. One would say that sorting by numbers is more complex.

Related pages
The Euclidean algorithm was found over 2000 years ago. It is able to find the greatest common divisor of two numbers.

Other websites
 Algorithm -Citizendium

Recursion

Algorithm


Harmony means playing several notes together to make "chords".  The word comes from the Greek harmonia meaning "to join things up" .  A tune by itself can sound nice, but it can be "harmonized" by adding an accompaniment of chords.  Studying how to do this is called harmonization.  Music students learn which chords sound nice after one another.  These are called "chord progressions".  Many music theorists have written books about harmony.

Music which is made of a tune with harmony underneath is called "homophonic".  In a way it is the opposite of polyphonic which means that each part (each voice) is a tune in itself. However, even polyphony needs to make pleasant harmony. Harmony as we know it in European music had become fully developed by the Baroque period (17th century).

One can play a chord with three notes using the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes of the scale of whatever key the music is in.  This gives a chord which sounds like the "home chord".  This means that at least three notes are needed for harmony.  In most homophonic music there are four: for example a choir will normally divide into soprano, alto, tenor and bass, or a string quartet will divide into violin 1, violin 2, viola and cello.

Harmony which uses just the notes of the key (e.g. just using white notes for C major) is called "tonal harmony".

Harmony which adds lots of extra sharps and flats is called "chromatic harmony".

If music is not in any key at all, like in some music by Arnold Schoenberg, it is "atonal".  Harmony can be atonal.

music theory

Harmony


An HTTP cookie (usually just called a cookie) is a simple computer file made of text.  The information stored by cookies can be used to personalise the experience when using a website.  A website can use (the information used by) cookies to find out if someone has visited a website before and record information (data) about what they did.

When someone is using a computer to browse a website, a personalised cookie file can be sent from the website's server to the person's computer.  The cookie is stored in the web browser on the person's computer. At some time in the future, the person may browse that website again. The website can send a message to the person's browser, asking if a cookie from the website is already stored in the browser.  If a cookie is found, then the data that was stored in the cookie before can be used by the website to tell the website about the person's previous activity.  Some examples where cookies are used include shopping carts, automatic login and remembering which advertisements have already been shown.

Cookies have been a problem for Internet privacy. This is because they can be used to track browsing behavior. Because of this, laws have been made in some countries to protect people's privacy. There are many other options than cookies, but each option has its own problems.

Cookies have often been mistaken for computer programs. But cookies cannot do much on their own. They are simply a piece of data. They are often called spyware or viruses, but they are not either of these.

Most web browsers allow users to choose whether to accept cookies. If the user does not allow cookies, some websites will become unusable. For example, shopping baskets which use cookies do not work if the user does not allow cookies.

Internet

HTTP cookie


An ambassador is a person sent by the government of a country to a different country. The ambassador is the official representative of their country.  The ambassador speaks to officials of the other country about any problems and issues between the two countries.

In past years, communication between countries could take days or weeks. It was necessary to have a person in each foreign capital to have meetings and make negotiations between countries. Nowadays, communication is much faster, and often governments can be in direct contact with each other.  However, it is still true that many problems need person-to-person meetings, so ambassadors are still needed.

Often an ambassador will live in the foreign country for a number of years. An embassy is where the ambassador lives. Embassies are most often in the capital of the foreign country. An ambassador may bring people with him to help him and work at the embassy. Some of the high ranking people may be called embassy officials.

It is both tradition and law that the ambassador and many embassy officials have diplomatic immunity. They cannot be arrested or prosecuted in the foreign country. The only possibility is to send a person back to their own country.

Government occupations

Ambassador


Infrastruktur nyaéta sakumpulan unsur-unsur struktural nu silisambung nu nyadiakeun framework pikeun ngarojong struktur sacara gembleng. Istilah ieu mindeng ogé dipaké sacara abstrak.

Definition disputes

In national security, the term "critical infrastructure" is also extremely broad (although it should be less inclusive as not all infrastructure should be considered critical) and includes support, e.g. for banking, and other such processes of questionable merit.  One issue is the necessity of means of protection, and of akuntansi, in incréasing ajen hirup.  Advocates of a broad definition usually argue that without these "critical" systems, the rest of the infrastructure is looted, burned, or not safe to use.

Another issue is whether means of persuasion, kawas tehnologi komputer or radio or televisi, can qualify as infrastructure in any sense, as it is more belief-sustaining than life-sustaining.  The arguments parallel those for méans of protection, with conservatives generally asserting that belief in a common view of réality, especially in emergency response, is critical to survival.

Urban planning usage

The term is used most often in an urban planning context to denote the facilities that support specific land uses and built environment.  This article focuses on those, to avoid the more political issues above.

Typically, infrastructure in this context denotes two general groups of support systems: transportation modalities (roads, rail, etc.) and utilities.  These typically compose both public and private systems, and some ambiguously held in common.

Infrastructure may also refer to necessary municipal services, whether provided by the government or by private companies.  If provided by nature, e.g. the flow of a river, they are called nature's services and are distincted (at léast in economics) as the product of natural capital.  This may be augmented or directed by infrastructural capital, e.g. a dam or canal or irrigation ditch.  In general what is called infrastructure tends to be very embedded in the natural landscape and cannot be moved from place to place.  Even municipal services rely necessarily on fixed locations, e.g. fire stations in central positions in a city, transmission towers on tall buildings, etc..

Infrastructure (in the civic sense) includes:
Angkutan
Jalan
Jalanrayas
Jalur karéta
Angkutan umum
Bandara
River freight
Bike paths
Trotoar
Utilities
Listrik
Gas alam
Coal delivery
Water supply
Sewers
Telephone service
Radio and television bandwidth allocation
Cable service
Municipal services
Trash collection
Police protection
Fire protection
Flood protection
Postal system
Minting and backing currency
Soft Infrastructure is a term that denotes institutions that maintain the héalth and cultural standards of the population. Principally, this refers to
Public Education
Public Health Systems including Public Hospitals

Infrastruktur
Masarakat

Infrastruktur


A digital camera is a camera that stores pictures in electronic memory instead of film. Because of this, a digital camera can hold many more pictures than a traditional film camera. A digital camera can sometimes hold hundreds or thousands of pictures. Many use a memory card to store them. Most digital cameras can use a USB cable that connects into a computer to send pictures that are in the camera to the computer.

Digital photography is a kind of photography where a digital camera is used to take photos. Digital cameras use an image sensor instead of photographic film. Very often, they also use a memory card to store the photos in a digital format. Most photography is digital, though some photographers still use the old film cameras.

The majority of cameras are part of a mobile phone, called a "camera phone". They can send their pictures to other phones and other devices. Most camera phones do not make as good pictures as larger separate cameras do, especially where light is not bright.

Most digital cameras can serve as Video cameras. Some have a direct link to another computer where the data may be stored.

Data storage
When you take a picture or a video, it is saved on a memory device. The memory device can be internal - flash memory inside the camera, or external - memory cards, microdrives and so on. The most used method for saving pictures and videos from a camera is a SD card.

The picture can be saved in a compressed file (JPEG, TIFF) or in an uncompressed, proprietary RAW file.  The compressed picture is lower quality but the RAW picture has to be processed with a special computer program.

A video is usually saved as an AVI, MPEG or MOV file format (it depends on the producer of the camera).

Most modern cameras also put Exif information in the picture file. This metadata information usually includes the date of taking the picture, the camera type, and its settings. Some cameras include GPS coordinates.

Gallery

Other websites

Cameras
Electronics
Data input

Digital camera


Thomas Connor (1842 – Unknown) was a U.S. sailor stationed aboard the  during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Second Battle of Fort Fisher on January 15, 1865.

Military service
Emigrating from his native Ireland, Connor volunteered for service in the U.S. Navy and was assigned to the Union steam frigate . His enlistment is credited to the state of Maryland.

On January 15, 1865 the North Carolina Confederate stronghold of Fort Fisher was taken by a combined Union landing party of sailors, U.S. Marines, and soldiers under the command of Admiral David Dixon Porter and General Alfred Terry. Connor was one of nine crewmen from the USS Minnesota who received the Medal of Honor for their actions during the battle.

Medal of Honor citation
"The President of the United States of America, in the name of Congress, takes pleasure in presenting the Medal of Honor to Ordinary Seaman Thomas Connor, United States Navy, for extraordinary heroism in action while serving on board the U.S.S. Minnesota, in action during the assault on Fort Fisher, North Carolina, 15 January 1865. Landing on the beach with the assaulting party from his ship, Ordinary Seaman Connor charged up to the palisades and, when more than two-thirds of the men became seized with panic and retreated on the run, risked his life to remain with a wounded officer. With the enemy concentrating his fire on the group, he waited until after dark before assisting in carrying the wounded man from the field."

General Orders: War Department, General Orders No. 59 (June 22, 1865)

Action Date: January 15, 1865

Service: Navy

Rank: Ordinary Seaman

Division: U.S.S. Minnesota

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A–F

Notes

External links

1842 births
19th-century Irish people
Year of death missing
Irish emigrants to the United States
People of Maryland in the American Civil War
Union Navy sailors
United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients
Irish-born Medal of Honor recipients
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor

Thomas Connor


In analytical and organic chemistry, elution is the process of extracting one material from another by washing with a solvent; as in washing of loaded ion-exchange resins to remove captured ions.

In a liquid chromatography experiment, for example, an analyte is generally adsorbed ("bound to") an adsorbent in a liquid chromatography column. The adsorbent, a solid phase (stationary phase), is a powder which is coated onto a solid support. Based on an adsorbent's composition, it can have varying affinities to "hold" onto other molecules—forming a thin film on the surface of its particles. Elution then is the process of removing analytes from the adsorbent by running a solvent, called an "eluent", past the adsorbent/analyte complex. As the solvent molecules "elute", or travel down through the chromatography column, they can either pass by the adsorbent/analyte complex or they can displace the analyte by binding to the adsorbent in its place. After the solvent molecules displace the analyte, the analyte can be carried out of the column for analysis. This is why as the mobile phase passes out of the column, it typically flows into a detector or is collected for compositional analysis.

Predicting and controlling the order of elution is a key aspect of column chromatographic methods.

Eluotropic series
An eluotropic series is  listing of various compounds in order of eluting power for a given adsorbent. The "eluting power" of a solvent is largely a measure of how well the solvent can "pull" an analyte off the adsorbent to which it is attached. This often happens when the eluent adsorbs onto the stationary phase, displacing the analyte. Such series are useful for determining necessary solvents needed for chromatography of chemical compounds. Normally such a series progresses from non-polar solvents, such as n-hexane, to polar solvents such as methanol or water. The order of solvents in an eluotropic series depends both on the stationary phase as well as on the compound used to determine the order.

Eluent
The eluent or eluant is the "carrier" portion of the mobile phase. It moves the analytes through the chromatograph. In liquid chromatography, the eluent is the liquid solvent; in gas chromatography, it is the carrier gas.

Eluate
The eluate is the analyte material that emerges from the chromatograph. It specifically includes both the analytes and solutes passing through the column, while the eluent is only the carrier.

Elution time and elution volume
The "elution time" of a solute is the time between the start of the separation (the time at which the solute enters the column) and the time at which the solute elutes.  In the same way, the elution volume is the volume of eluent required to cause elution.  Under standard conditions for a known mix of solutes in a certain technique, the elution volume may be enough information to identify solutes.  For instance, a mixture of amino acids may be separated by ion-exchange chromatography.  Under a particular set of conditions, the amino acids will elute in the same order and at the same elution volume.

Antibody elution
Antibody elution is the process of removing antibodies that are attached to their targets, such as the surface of red blood cells. Techniques include using heat, a freeze/thaw cycle, ultrasound, acids or organic solvents. No single method is best in all situations.

See also
 Chromatography
 Desorption
 Gradient elution in high performance liquid chromatography
 Leaching

References

External links
 Chemistry glossary
 Eluotropic series

Analytical chemistry
Chromatography

Elution