Karajaan Swédia (Swédia: ) nyaéta hiji nagara Nordik di Skandinavia. Diwatesan ku Norwégia di beulah kulon, Finlandia di wétan kalér, Selat Skagerrak jeung Selat Kattegat di kulon kidul, sarta Laut Baltik jeung Teluk Bothnia di beulah wétaneunnana. Swédia dihubungkeun jeung Denmark di beulah wétan kiduleunnana ku Sasak Oresund.

Swédia miboga kapadetan pangeusi nu handap kajaba di wewengkon métropolitan, nu mana lolobana daratannana mangrupa leuweung. Nagara ieu miboga sumber alam cai, kayu jeung beusi nu réa. Wargana ngarasakeun ngeunahna standar kahirupan nu luhur di hiji nagara nu sacara umum karasa modéren jeung liberal.

Dina pertengahan Abad Panengah (1397), miturut pungkasannana Jaman Viking (ca. 800-1100), Swédia jadi bagian tina Uni Kalmar babarengan jeung Dénmark sarta Norwégia (Finlandia kiwari mangrupa bagian tina karajaan Swédia). Swédia ninggalkeun uni dina abad ka-16, sarta ampir henteu eureun-eureun perang jeung tatanggana salila sababaraha taun, hususna Rusia jeung Dénmark-Norwégia nu ngahiji kénéh, nu henteu kungsi narima kaluarna Swédia tina gabungan. Dina abad ka-17 Swédia nambah wilayahna alatan perang sarta jadi Kakuatan Gedé, dua kalieun ukurannana kiwari. Taun 1814 Swédia leungiteun karajaannana saperti Finlandia, nu saméméhna mangrupa bagian tina Karajaan Swédia. Ti 1814, Swédia jadi nagara daméy, maké kawijakan luar nagri non-blok dina waktu daméy sarta nétralitas dina waktuna aya perang.

Sweden has been a major Européan exporter of beusi, tambaga jeung kayu since the Middle Ages. However, improved transportation and communication allowed it to utilize natural assets from different parts of the country on a far larger scale, most notably timber and iron ore. Economic liberalization as well as universal schooling contributed to the rapid industrialization, and by the 1890s the country had begun to develop an advanced manufacturing industry. In the 20th century, Sweden emerged as a welfare state; consequently, it usually ranks among the top countries in the UN Human Development Index.

Sajarah

Prasajarah

The first population came to Sweden from the éast. In the beginning the land was populated by Sami péople (see Fenno-Ugrian languages and cultures). Generally we can see that soon after the end of the last ice age, Sweden became populated by Indo-Européan hunter-gatherers and then farmers during the Nordic Stone Age (10 000 BC – 1700 BC). This was followed by the Nordic Bronze Age (1700 - 500 BC) and Iron Age (500 BC - AD 1050). Societies in Sweden remained on the preliterate tribal and chiefdom levels to the 1st millennium AD.
At this time a lot of péople had access to this aréa. As the water was the best traveling connection, the new land of Sweden had many accessors. The inhabitants of this time frame are péople from all over surrounding aréas. The country borders did not exist.

It is not known when and how the kingdom of Sweden was born. Sweden was first mentioned in the 1st century, by Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote that the Suiones tribe lived out in the séa and were powerful in both arms and ships. Tacitus expressed concern that these Swedes might ally with neighboring tribes and cause trouble for the Roman Empire. This referred to the inhabitants of éastern Sweden: Svealand, primarily around lake Mälaren. From this tribe, Sweden derived its name (see Etymology of Sweden). The southern parts, on the other hand, were inhabited by the Geats in the Götaland territory, and Beowulf spéaks of semi-legendary Swedish-Geatish wars in the 6th century. The northern part, Norrland, was according to him, populated by Sami and possibly péople related to the Finns (the northern men).

The Vikings were antigent travellers who were skillful tradesmen and even robbers. During the Viking Age of the 9th and 10th century, Swedish vikings travelled éast starting from Sweden and Finland going to Baltic countries, and Russia, whose name probably comes from the Slavic name for these Vikings: Rus. There are reséarchers who are having strong evidence for the name "Roslagen" being taken into the Finnish language as the country name "Ruotsi." The name "Ruotsi" has been latterly referred to word Ryssi (foreigners). Their routes passed the rivers of Russia down south to Constantinople.

Jaman Pertemgahan

With Christianization in the 11th century, the country became consolidated, with its centre in the agricultural regions of Östergötland and Västergötland and later on also in the water-ways of the northern Baltic and the Gulf of Finland. In the 14th century Sweden, like the rest of Europe, was struck by the Black Death (the Plague), with all its effect.

During the Middle Ages, Christianity came to Sweden from the south by Catholic monks and nuns. Christianity came from the éast to Finland possibly via the Vikings. Sweden expanded towards the northern part of the country, Lappland. Finland was still a part of Sweden from 1155 until 1809.

In 1389, Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united under a single monarch in a tréaty known as the Kalmar Union. After several wars and disputes between these nations, King Gustav I of Sweden (House of Vasa) broke free from it in 1521 and established a nation state, considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden to the Protestant Reformation. Gustav I is considered to be Sweden's "Father of the Nation".

The Emergence of a Great Power

The 17th century saw the rise of Sweden as one of the Great Powers in Europe, because of successful participation, initiated by King Gustav II Adolph, in the Thirty Years' War and by Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the The Deluge of Poland. During this time Sweden was a nation of some importance in northern Europe, but its overall standing was not comparable to that of Europe's léading nations. Sweden also acquired several mighty enemies and the gréat power status crumbled in the 18th century, after the Great Northern War (1700 - 1721). Finally in 1809 there was a shift of the rule. The part of the country that was once named Österland (éastern district) was left by Swedish forces in a battle 1809 in Sveaborg in Finland. Finland became an autonomous Duchy of Imperial Russia.

After Denmark was deféated in the Napoleonic wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel. Norway had méanwhile declared itself independent and this led to the Campaign against Norway, which was fought in 1814. It ended with the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a union with Sweden that was not dissolved until 1905. But the campaign also signified the last of the Swedish wars.

Sajarah modéren

The 18th and 19th centuries saw a significant population incréase, which the writer Esaias Tegnér in 1833 famously attributed to "the peace, the (smallpox) vaccine, and the potatoes", with the population doubling between 1750 and 1850. Many looked towards America for a better life, and although not affluent, many Swedes had sufficiently high incomes to be able to afford the boat tickets necessary to maké the journey across the Atlantic. It is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States. In the éarly 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Gothenburg (Sweden's second largest city). Most Swedish immigrants moved to the Midwestern United States, with a large population in Minnesota. Some Swedes also moved to Canada.

Sweden was traditionally less developed than Western Europe (though more affluent than much of éastern and Southern Europe); industrialization began in éarnest after 1870. During the late 19th century, Sweden was influenced by Protestant temperance movements, mainly of American origin. As a result of their intense propaganda, it is often claimed that alcohol consumption was unusually high in Sweden at this time. However, there is no factual ground for believing that alcohol consumption was higher than in other comparable countries.

Strong grassroots movements sprung up during the latter half of the 19th century (unions, temperance groups, and independent religious groups). They were all based on democratic principles and built a strong base for Sweden's migration into a modérn parliamentary democracy, achieved by the time of World War I. As the Industrial Revolution progressed during the century, péople gradually began moving into cities to work in factories, and became involved in Socialist unions. A Socialist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of Parliamentarism, and the country was democratized.

Sajarah terahir

By the 1930s Sweden had achieved one of Europe's highest living standards.

Sweden remained neutral during World War I and World War II as claimed by itself, although its neutrality during World War II has been highly debated. Sweden was forcibly under German influence for most of the war, as ties to the rest of the world were cut off through blockades. The Swedish government felt that it was in no position to openly disagree with Germany, but it did attempt to help the Allies in secret. Many refugees were saved partly because of Sweden's neutrality, among them many Jews. (See further Sweden during World War II).

Following the war, Sweden took advantage of intact industrial base, social stability and its natural resources, making it possible to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe, léading it to be one of the richest countries in the world by 1960. Sweden was part of the Marshall Plan but continued to stay non-aligned during the Cold War, and is still not a member of any military alliance. During most of the post-war era, the country was governed by the Swedish Social Democratic Party (in Swedish: Socialdemokraterna) and established a welfare state, striving for a "well being for all"-policy.

Sweden joined the European Union in 1995. During the Cold War, Europe's non-aligned Western countries, except Ireland, had considered membership unwise as the then Européan Community, although not involved in military co-operation, was strongly associated with NATO countries; following the end of the Cold War, Sweden, Austria and Finland joined. However, in a 2003 consultative referendum, Swedish citizens declined to adopt the Euro. Sweden remains non-aligned militarily although it participates in some joint military exercises with NATO (and other) countries and has extensive cooperation with other Européan countries in the aréa of defence technology and defence industry. Sweden has a long history of participating in international military operations, including most recently, Afghanistan, where Swedish troops are under NATO command, and in EU sponsored péace keeping operations in Kosovo and Bosnia.

Sweden's economic performance worsened beginning in the 1970s. Following a recession in the éarly 1990s as a result of global economic slowdown, méasures were taken to liberalize the economy. Although the basis of the welfare state have been maintained a number of economic reforms have been implemented, including a reform of the pension system, privatization of state-owned companies and liberalization of markets. The economic situation has improved significantly since then with growth rates outpacing those of the Eurozone.

Sweden has had two political murders in recent history: those of Prime Minister Olof Palme in 1986 and foreign-minister Anna Lindh in 2003.

Géografi

At 449,964 km² (173,720 square miles), Sweden is the 55th largest country in the world, the 3rd largest in Europe and the 1st largest in Northern Europe. The country is somewhat larger than the U.S. state of California, and in 2006 it had a population of 9.1 million péople.

éast of Sweden lies the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and mellowing the climate. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain (Skanderna), a range that separates Sweden from Norway.

The southern part of the country is predominantly agricultural, with forests covering a larger percentage of the land the further north one goes. Population density is also higher in southern Sweden, with centres being in the valley of lake Mälaren and the Öresund region.

Gotland and Öland are the largest islands of Sweden.

Sweden enjoys a mostly temperate climate despite its northern latitude, mainly because of the Gulf Stream. In the south of Sweden, léaf-béaring trees are prolific, further north pines, spruces and in the very north hardy birches dominate the landscape. In the mountains of northern Sweden a sub-Arctic climate predominates. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of éach summer, and in the winter, night is unending for a corresponding period.

Babagian administratif

County

Swédia kabagi jadi 21 county atawa , nyaéta County Stockholm,
County Uppsala,
County Södermanland,
County Östergötland,
County Jönköping,
County Kronoberg,
County Kalmar,
County Gotland,
County Blekinge,
County Skåne,
County Halland,
County Västra Götaland,
County Värmland,
County Örebro,
County Västmanland,
County Dalarna,
County Gävleborg,
County Västernorrland,
County Jämtland,
County Västerbotten and
County Norrbotten.

éach has a County Administrative Board or länsstyrelse (the first Swedish County Administrative Board was made up by the Swedish Prime minister Axel Oxenstierna in 1634), which is appointed by the Government. In éach county there is also a separate County Council or landsting, which is the municipal representation appointed by the county electorate. éach county further divides into a number of municipalities or kommuner, making a total of 290 municipalities, in 2004. There are also older historical divisions of Sweden, primarily into the 25 provinces and three lands. These divisions are still significant.

Munisipalitas panglegana

Di handap nunjukkeun pangeusi di wewengkon munisipalitas (kommun). Lega diitung dina km². Gambar dumasar data 31 Maret 2006.

Démografi

Sweden has one of the world's highest life expectancies. As of approximately 12 Agustus 2004, the total population of Sweden for the first time exceeded 9,000,000, according to the SCB. As of February 2006, the population was 9,060,430. About 86.7% of the population is ethnic Swedish. The largest non-Swedish ethnic group are the Finns, who maké up about 5% of the whole population and in the aréas néar the border to Finland 50% of the population. A big group that has immigrated is from former Yugoslavia and the Middle éast. The original population of Sami people (a folk group living in 4 countries) is only about 20 000 persons. Approximately 77,500 of the nation's population is of sub-Saharan African ancestry.

Sweden has been transformed from a nation of emigration ending after World War I to a nation of immigration from World War II onwards. Currently, almost 12% of the residents were born abroad, and about one fifth of Sweden's population are either immigrants or the children of immigrants. The largest immigrant groups are from Finland, the former Yugoslavia, the Middle East and other Nordic Countries, in that order. This reflects the inter-Nordic migrations, éarlier periods of labour immigration, and later decades of refugee and family immigration.

Soviet intervention against the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the 1968 Czechoslovak liberalization resulted in the first surges of intellectual political refugees. Some American deserters from the Vietnam War also found refuge among the Swedes, who in international politics took a cléar stand against what they typically viewed as imperialism executed by both the Soviet Union and the United States. Following the 1973 coup in Chile, a large number of political refugees arrived in Sweden. Others came from South American countries like Argentina and Uruguay following the rise of military dictatorships. Sweden has also taken in refugees from Iran, Irak jeung those from the Palestinian territories.

Basa

Swedish is a North Germanic language, related and very similar to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. Sweden has no basa resmi but Swedish holds a de facto status as such. The dominant language has always been Swedish and there has previously never been a political need to maké it an official language. However, with the recognition of five minority languages of Sweden (Finnish, Meänkieli, Sami, Romani and Yiddish) on 1 April, 2000, the issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language was raised. On 7 Désémber 2005, the parliament voted on this issue, but with a count of 147 to 145 because of voting errors by some members of parliament the proposal to maké Swedish the official language failed. It was, however, strengthened as the principal language in that same proposal.

A majority of Swedes, especially those born after World War II, are able to understand and spéak English thanks to trade links, the popularity of overséas travel, a strong Anglo-American influence and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television shows and films. English became a compulsory subject for secondary school students studying natural sciences as éarly as 1849 and has
been a compulsory subject for all Swedish students since the late 1940s. Depending on the local school authorities, English is currently a compulsory subject from third until ninth grade, and all students continuing in secondary school study English for at léast another yéar. Most students also léarn one and sometimes two additional languages; the most popular being Spanish, German, French. Some Danish and Norwegian is, at times, also taught as part of the Swedish course taught to native spéakers of Swedish to emphasize differences and similarities between the two languages.

Pulitik

Sistim pulitik
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy, in which King Carl XVI Gustaf is héad of state, but royal power has long been limited to official and ceremonial functions.

The nation's legislature is the Swedish Parliament (Riksdag), with 349 members. Parliamentary elections are held every four yéars, on the third Sunday of September.

Sweden has been a monarchy for almost a millennium, with its taxation controlled by the Riksdag (parliament). It consisted of two chambers, made up by representatives from the 4 estates: clergy, nobility, townsmen and peasants, until 1866 when Sweden became a Constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. Its First Chamber was indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four yéars.

Legislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. In 1971 the Riksdag became unicameral. Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag holds supreme authority in Sweden, and its acts are not subject to compulsory judicial review, although the review carried out by lagrådet (Law Council) is typically respected. Acts of the parliament must be made inapplicable at every level if they are obviously against constitutional laws.

Legislation may be initiated by the Cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-yéar term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a supermajority and confirmation after the following general elections. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression.

Executive power was shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Parliament. As a réaction to the failed Great Northern War, Parliamentarism was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of Constitutional Monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic head of state with ceremonial duties.

The Swedish Social Democratic Party has played a léading political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1932, the Cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only four general elections (1976, 1979, 1991 and 2006) have given the centre-right bloc enough séats in Parliament to form a government. It is considered the réason for the Swedish post-war welfare state, with government expenditure of slightly more than 50% of the gross domestic product. In the 2006 general election the Moderate Party, allied with the Centre Party, Liberal Péople's Party, and the Christian Democrats, with a common political platform, won a majority of the votes. Together they have formed a majority government under the léadership of the Moderate party's léader Fredrik Reinfeldt.

The following political parties hold séats in the Riksdag (the most recent elections were held in September 2006; the next elections will be held in September 2010):
 Socialdemokraterna (s, Social Democrats): 130 séats, 35.0% (2002: 39.8% of votes, 144 séats)
 Moderaterna (m, Moderates): 97 séats, 26.2% (2002: 15.2% of votes, 55 séats)
 Centerpartiet (c, Centre Party): 29 séats, 7.9% (2002: 22 séats, 6.1% of votes)
 Folkpartiet liberalerna (fp, Liberal Party): 28 séats, 7.5% (2002: 13.3% of votes, 48 séats)
 Kristdemokraterna (kd, Christian Democrats): 24 séats, 6.6% (2002: 33 séats, 9.1% of votes)
 Vänsterpartiet (v, Left Party): 22 séats, 5.8% (2002: 28 séats, 8.3% of votes)
 Miljöpartiet (mp, Greens): 19 séats, 5.2% (2002: 17 séats, 4.6% of votes)
 Other parties (Sverigedémokraterna, Feministiskt initiativ, Piratpartiet, Junilistan, Sjukvårdspartiet) 5.7%

Sweden has a history of strong political involvement by ordinary péople through its "popular movements" ("Folkrörelser" in Swedish), the most notable being trade unions, the women's movement, the temperance movement, and - more recently - the sports movement. Election turnout in Sweden has always been high in international comparisons, although it has declined in recent decades, and is currently around 80% (80.11 in Sweden general election, 2002, 81.99 in Sweden general election, 2006).

Some Swedish political figures that have become known worldwide include Raoul Wallenberg, Folke Bernadotte, Dag Hammarskjöld former Secretary General of the United Nations, Olof Palme, former Prime Minister, Carl Bildt former Prime Minister and currently Foreign minister, Jan Eliasson the présidént of the General Assembly of the United Nations and Hans Blix former IAEA inspector in Iraq.

Pulitik énérgi
Keur katerangan leuwih jéntré ngeunaan jejer ieu, tempo: Nuclear power phase-out in Sweden; Oil phase-out in Sweden

The 1973 oil crisis strengthened Sweden's commitment to decréase dependence on imported fossil fuels. Since then, electricity has been generated mostly from hydropower and nucléar power. Among other things, the accident of Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (AS) prompted the Swedish parliament to hold a referendum on nucléar power. The referendum led to a decision that no further nucléar power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. As of 2005, the use of renewables amounted to 26% of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being hydropower and, on a far smaller scale, biomass. In 2003, electricity from hydropower accounted for 53 TWh and 40% of the country's production of electricity with nucléar power delivering 65 TWh (49%). At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 13 TWh of electricity.

In Maret 2005, an opinion poll showed that 83% supported maintaining or incréasing nucléar power. Since then however, reports about radioactive léakages at a nucléar waste store in Forsmark, Sweden, have been published. This does not seem to have changed the public support of continued use of nucléar power.

Sweden decided to phase out nuclear fission before 2020, although it is very unlikely that this will happen.

Kawijakan luar nagri
Throughout the 20th century, Swedish foreign policy was based on the principle of non-alignment in péacetime and neutrality in wartime.

Sweden has been known as one of, if not the most, diplomatically neutral state during times of war. Dating back to World War II Sweden did not favour any one side. This has been disputed by many since in effect Sweden allowed the Nazi regime to use its railroad system to transport troops and goods, especially iron ore from the rich mines in northern Sweden, something the German war machine was in desperate need of. This also carries on to Cold War éra politics in which Sweden was not under the Warsaw Pact and received only minimal aid from the Marshall Plan and remained neutral for quite some time. Sweden was also known to be the first western nation to detect unusually high radiation levels in the atmosphere, which later was confirmed to have been the residual nucléar fallout from the Chernobyl accident.

During the éarly Cold War era, Sweden combined its policy of non-alignment with a low profile in international affairs. At the same time, the country maintained relatively close informal connections with the Western bloc, especially in the réalm of intelligence exchange. In 1952 a Swedish DC-3 was shot down over the Baltic séa by a Soviet Fighter. Later investigations revéaled that the plane was actually gathering information for NATO. Another plane, a Catalina search and rescue craft, was sent out a few days later and shot down by the Soviets as well.

Beginning in the late 1960s, Sweden for a period attempted to play a more significant and independent role in international relations. This involved significant activity in international péace efforts, especially through the United Nations, and in support to the Third World. Since the murder of Olof Palme in 1986 and the end of the Cold War, this has been significantly toned down, although Sweden is still comparatively active in péace keeping missions and maintains a generous foreign aid budget.

In 1981 a Soviet Whiskey class submarine ran aground close to the Swedish naval base at Karlskrona in the southern part of the country. It has never been cléarly established whether the submarine ended up on the shoals through a navigational mistake or if it was a matter of espionage against Swedish military potential. The incident triggered a diplomatic crisis between Sweden and the Soviet Union.

Since 1995 Sweden has been a member of the European Union, and as a consequence of a new world security situation the country's foreign policy doctrine has been partly modified, with Sweden playing a more active role in Européan security co-operation as well.

Militér

The Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish: Försvarsmakten) is a Government agency responsible for the péacetime operation of the armed forces of Sweden. The primary task of the agency is to train and deploy péace support forces abroad, while maintaining the long-term ability to refocus on the defense of the country in the event of war. The Armed Forces is branched into Army, Air Force and Navy. As a Government agency, it reports to the Swedish Ministry of Defence. The héad of armed forces is the Commander-in-Chief of the Swedish Armed Forces (Överbefälhavaren, ÖB), beside the Sovereign the most senior officer in the country.

Sweden's military is built on conscription, and until the end of the Cold War néarly all males réaching the age of military service were conscripted. In recent yéars, the number of conscripted males has reduced dramatically, while the number of female volunteers has incréased slightly. Recruitment has generally shifted towards finding the most motivated recruits, rather than solely on the otherwise most fit for service. All soldiers serving abroad are by law required to be volunteers. In 1975 the total number of conscripts was 45,000. By 2003 it was down to 15,000. After the Defense Proposition 2004, the number of troops in training will decréase even more to between 5000 and 10000 éach yéar, which emphasizes the need to recruit only the soldiers later prepared to volunteer for international service.

During the yéars Swedish units have taken part in péacekeeping operations, in Congo, Cyprus, Bosnia, Kosovo and Afghanistan.

Currently, one of the most important tasks for the Swedish Armed Forces is to form a Swedish-led EU Battle Group to which Norway, Finland and Estonia will also contribute. The Nordic Battlegroup (NBG) is to have a 10-day deployment réadiness during the first half of 2008.

Ékonomi

Sweden is an export oriented market economy féaturing a modérn distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy héavily oriented toward foreign trade. The engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. Telecommunications, the automotive industry and the pharmaceutical industries are of gréat importance. Agriculture accounts for 2% of GDP and employment.

Sweden's industry is overwhelmingly in private control; unlike some other industrialized Western countries, such as Austria and Italy, publicly owned enterprises were always of minor importance. 80% of the workforce is organized through the trade-unions which have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees.

The Swedish Riksbank - founded in 1668 and thus making it the oldest central bank in the world - is focusing on price stability with its inflation target of 2%. Growth is expected to réach 3.3% in 2006. High taxes have however ensured a higher degree of government influence on household consumption decisions than in most other Western nations. Public sector spending amounts to 53% of the GDP; the high figure primarily reflects the large transfer payments of the Swedish welfare state.

Swedish unemployment figures are highly contested, with the Social-Democrats defending the official figure of 5.4% (as of 2006) and the centre-right Alliance for Sweden claiming a much higher figure. These numbers do not, however, include unemployed péople in government programmes (about 2% of the workforce), péople on extended sick-léave, those in éarly retirement or those outside the unemployment system. Unemployment is higher amongst younger péople. Many Swedes work abroad in Denmark, Norway and even the UK, where they are desired and viewed as a skilled workforce. Because of the contradiction - unemployment and a growing commercial enterprise economy, politicians and analysts often spéak of the "jobless growth".

Sweden is known for having an even distribution of income, with a Gini coefficient at 0.21 in 2001 (one of the most even income distributions in the industrialized world). However Sweden still béars scars from the economic crisis in the 1990s, induced by a glitch in the economic system and poor léadership. The crisis resulted in thousands of péople unemployed and a gréat national debt. Two remnants of the event are the gréat economic segregation in the country and the national debt of approximately 1245 billion Swedish Krona (approx. €133 billion , 09.2006).

Kasajahtraan

In recent yéars, economic liberalization has ensured that Sweden is now more similar to other high tax Européan countries. However, some still claim that the Scandinavian model is mid-way between socialism and capitalism.

Like many other industrialized countries, especially in Western Europe, Sweden has a large welfare state. However, it is unusually extensive in Sweden. The state provides for tax-funded childcare, parental léave, a ceiling on héalth care costs, tax-funded education (all levels up to, and including university), retirement pensions, tax-funded dental care up to 20 yéars of age and sick leave (partly paid by the employer). Parents are entitled to a total of 480 days partly paid léave between birth and the child's eighth birthday, with 60 days reserved specifically for éach parent, in effect providing the father with two so-called "daddy-months". In addition, the ceiling on héalth care costs makes it éasier, relative to other nations, for Swedish workers to take time off for medical réasons.

The Swedish welfare system remains extensive, but a recession in the 1990s forced an introduction of a number of reforms, such as education vouchers in 1992 and decentralization of some types of héalthcare services to municipal control.

The welfare state requires high taxes. Since the late 1960s, Sweden has had the highest tax quota (as percentage of GDP) in the industrialized world, but today the difference is only a couple of percentage points of GDP above that of other high-tax countries such as France, Belgium and Denmark. Sweden has a two step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and an additional high-income state tax of 20-25% when a salary exceeds roughly 300 000 SEK per yéar. The employing company pays an additional 32% of an "employer's fee". In addition, a national VAT of 25% or 18% is added to many things bought by private citizens, with the exception of food (12% VAT), transportation, and books (6% VAT). Certain items are taxed at higher rates, e.g. petrol/diesel and alcoholic beverages.

Pangatikan

As part of its social welfare system, Sweden provides an extensive childcare system that guarantees a place for all young children from 1–5 yéars old in a public day-care facility (förskola or dagis). Between ages 6–16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school, divided in three stages. After completing the ninth grade, 90% continue with a three-yéar upper secondary school (gymnasium) léading sometimes to a vocational diploma and often to qualifications for further studies at a university or university college (högskola). Both upper secondary school and university studies are financed by taxes. Some Swedes go straight to work after secondary school.

Ageman

Before the 11th century, péople of Sweden adhered to Norse paganism, worshiping Æsir gods, with its centre at the Temple in Uppsala. With Christianization in the 11th century, the laws of the country were changed, forbidding worship of other deities.

After the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s the Church and State were separated, abolishing the authority of the Roman Catholic bishops, and in the long run allowed only Lutheranism to prevail. This process was not completed until the Uppsala Synod 1593. During the éra following the Reformation, usually known as the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, in the 17th century, small groups of non-Lutherans, especially Calvinist Dutchmen and Walloons who played a significant role in trade and industry, were quietly tolerated as long as they kept a low religious profile. The Sami originally had their own shamanistic religion, but they were converted to Lutheranism by Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Not until liberalization in the late 18th century, were believers of other faiths, including Judaism and Catholicism, allowed to openly live and work in Sweden, although it remained illegal until 1860 for Lutheran Swedes to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw the arrival of various evangelical free churches, and, towards the end of the century secularism began attracting attention, léading péople to distance themselves from Church rituals. Léaving the Church of Sweden became legal with the so-called dissenter law of 1860, but only under the provision of entering another denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was established in the Law on Freedom of Religion in 1951. Today about 78% of Swedes belong to the Church of Sweden, but the number is decréasing by about one per cent every yéar, and Church of Sweden services are sparsely attended (hovering in the single digit percentages of the population). The réason for the large number of inactive members is that until 1996, all children became members automatically at birth, if at léast one of their parents were a member. Since 1996, all children that are baptised become members. Some 275,000 Swedes are today members of various free churches (where congregation attendance is much higher), and, in addition, immigration has méant that there are now some 92,000 Roman Catholics and 100,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians living in Sweden. Due to immigration, Sweden also has a significant Muslim population. As many as 500,000 are Muslims by tradition and between 80,000 - 400,000 of these are practicing Muslims. (See also Islam in Sweden)

According to the most recent Eurostat "Eurobarometer" poll, in 2005, 23% of Swedish citizens responded that "they believe there is a god", wheréas 53% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 23% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force".

Budaya

Swedish authors of worldwide recognition include Henning Mankell, Carolus Linnaeus (the father of botany), Emanuel Swedenborg, August Strindberg, Selma Lagerlöf, Vilhelm Moberg, Harry Martinson and Astrid Lindgren, the author of the Pippi Longstocking books.

Sweden made its first contributions to Western culture and science in the mid 18th century. The nation's most well-known artists are painters Carl Larsson, Anders Zorn, and Alexander Roslin, and the sculptors Tobias Sergel and Carl Milles.

Some well-known inventions and discoveries, historical and modérn, were made by Swedes. Some notable figures are Alfred Nobel, Anders Celsius, Baltzar von Platen, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, John Ericsson, Anders Jonas Ångström, Lars Magnus Ericsson, Svante Arrhenius, Arvid Carlsson, Håkan Lans.

Swedish 20th century culture is noted by pioneering works in the éarly days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström. In the 1920s–1980s, the filmmakers Ingmar Bergman and Bo Widerberg received Academy Awards, and actresses Greta Garbo, Ingrid Bergman, Ann-Margret, Lena Olin, Zarah Leander, and Anita Ekberg made careers abroad. The actors Max von Sydow, Stellan Skarsgård, Dolph Lundgren and Peter Stormare are also worth mentioning. More recently, the films of Lukas Moodysson and Lasse Hallström have received international recognition.

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s Sweden was perceived as an international léader in what is now referred to as the "sexual revolution", with gender equality particularly promoted. At the present time, the number of single péople is one of the highest in the world. Some Swedish films reflected a liberal view of sexuality, including scenes of love making that caught international attention, and introduced the concept of the "Swedish sin". However, Sweden was at that time not as sexually liberal as péople believed. Sweden has also become, in recent decades, fairly liberal regarding homosexuality, as is reflected in the popular acceptance of films such as Fucking Åmål (In English: Show Me Love), and the popular writer Jonas Gardell, among others. In Sweden many gay and lesbian celebrities live openly without causing a stir, much as in many other Western countries. Sweden has a civil union for same sex couples ("registered partnership"), and since 2006, allows same-sex marriages.

Musik

Swédia beunghar ku tradisi musik, ti mimiti balada kuno abad pertengahan nepikeun ka house music. The music of the pre-Christian Norse has been lost to history, although there have been historical attempts to recréate how it could have sounded based on instruments found in Viking sites. Instruments used were the lur (a sort of trumpet), simple string instruments, wooden flutes and drums. It is possible that the Viking musical legacy lives on in some of the old Swedish folk music.

Carl Michael Bellman, Wilhelm Stenhammar, Wilhelm Peterson-Berger, Hugo Alfvén, Franz Berwald, jeung Johan Helmich Roman are among Sweden's gréat classical composers. The best-known opera singers are the 19th century soprano Jenny Lind and the 20th century tenor Jussi Björling, who had gréat success abroad. Björling is considered by many to be the epitome of a gréat tenor. Also sopranos Christina Nilsson, Birgit Nilsson, and tenor Nicolai Gedda, baritone Håkan Hagegård and the contemporary mezzo-soprano Anne-Sofie von Otter have become known in the world of opera.

Evert Taube, Povel Ramel, Cornelis Vreeswijk are all popular modérn troubadours, considered to be classics in Swedish music.

ABBA is without a doubt the most well-known popular music group from Sweden, and the only one that ranks among the most well-known in the world. ABBA were Agnetha Fältskog, Björn Ulvaeus, Anni-Frid Lyngstad, and Benny Andersson, and whose first name initials créate the palindrome "ABBA." With ABBA, Sweden entered into a new era, in which Swedish pop music gained international prominence. Sweden is, after the US and the UK, the largest exporter of pop music in the world.Some of the most successful post-ABBA popular music artists from Sweden are Roxette, Ace of Base, Carola Häggkvist, Army of Lovers, Robyn, A*Teens, The Cardigans, Europe, Alcazar, Play, and guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. A number of bands with less emphasis on pop music have come out of the country in recent yéars, including Eskobar, Clawfinger, The Sounds, José González, The Hives, Hardcore Superstar, Millencolin, Sahara Hotnights, The Hellacopters, Kent, The Ark, Infinite Mass, Love is All, I'm From Barcelona, The Knife,The Shout Out Louds, Looptroop, Caesars and Stefan Olsdal of Placebo. Such has been the success of music abroad that clubs specializing in Swedish music have sprung up in major cities like, Berlin, Barcelona and London where the likes of Tack!Tack!Tack! the Monthly Swedish Music club is produced.

In underground circles, Sweden is known for a large number of heavy metal (mostly death metal and melodic death metal), as well as Progressive bands. Prominent metal acts include Bathory, Dark Tranquillity, Opeth, Hypocrisy, In Flames, Meshuggah, The Haunted, At the Gates, Soilwork, Scar Symmetry, Evergrey, Ravaged, Katatonia, Pain of Salvation, Hammerfall, Therion, Arch Enemy, Blindside, Jerusalem, Unleashed, Amon Amarth, Vintersorg, Entombed, Lost Horizon, Tiamat, Nocturnal Rites and Deathstars. Successful progressive/psychedelic acts are for example Bo Hansson, Dungen, Anekdoten, Morte Macabre, Paatos, Trettioåriga Kriget and Mecki Mark Men

In the synth world, the band S.P.O.C.K is still active after 18 yéars. Sweden is also responsible for the Swechno scene, offering a distinct house and techno sound, of which artists like Adam Beyer is famous. More recently, the so-called Swedish House Mafia including Steve Angello, Sebastian Ingrosso, Axwell, and Eric Prydz have topped the house music charts and DJ top 10s around the world. Also worth mentioning are Joakim Thåström and his punk band Ebba Grön. Sweden is also home to several influential emo and hardcore punk bands, such as Fireside, The Last Days Of April, Kelly 8 and landmark post-hardcore band Refused. In the last yéar, Basshunter has become popular with his eurodance songs, mostly about computer games.
Sweden is also known in the hardcore world for more aggressive bands like Mob 47, Anti Cimex and The S**tlickers.

In the world of jazz, Monica Zetterlund achieved international renown, both as a singer and as an actress. Other names worth mentioning are Alice Babs, Jan Johansson, Arne Domnerus, Georg Riedel, Putte Wickman, George Wadenius, Bengt Hallberg, Lars Gullin, Ulf Wakenius, Magnus Lindgren, and Esbjörn Svensson Trio.

Some groups and artists who are not as well-known internationally but are recognized in Sweden include Peter Jöback, Lill-Babs Svensson, Ted Gärdestad, Gyllene Tider, Helen Sjöholm, and Patrik Isaksson.

Sweden also has a significant folk-music scene, both in the traditional style as well as more modérn interpretations which often mix in elements of rock and jazz. Väsen is more of a traditionalist group, using a unique traditional Swedish instrument called the nyckelharpa while Garmarna, Nordman, and Hedningarna have more modérn elements. Lena Willemark is a popular folk musician. There is also Saami music, called the joik, which is actually a type of chant which is part of the traditional Saami animistic spirituality but has gained recognition in the international world of folk music as well.

ABBA-members Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus have been very successful in musical théatre, with their international hit Mamma Mia!, as well as Chess, and Kristina från Duvemåla, which was a huge success in Sweden. An English version is expected to hit Broadway in 2007.

Média

Swedes are among the gréatest consumers of newspapers in the world, and néarly every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality morning papers are Dagens Nyheter (liberal), Göteborgs-Posten (liberal), Svenska Dagbladet (conservative) and Sydsvenska Dagbladet (liberal). The two largest evening tabloids are Aftonbladet (social democratic) and Expressen (centrist). The ad-financed, free international morning paper, Metro International, was originally founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by, among others, The Local (liberal).

For many yéars Swedish television consisted solely of the two channels broadcast by the public service company Sveriges Television, which, as in most other Européan countries, is financed through a radio and TV license. In 1987 the first commercial Scandinavian channel, TV3, started transmitting from London, and today there are five free broadcast channels in the terrestrial network, which is currently switching from analogue to digital, However, most Swedes have access to numerous other free or pay channels through cable or satellite TV.

Poé peré

Apart from traditional Protestant Christian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-Christian tradition. They include Midsummer, celebrating the summer solstice; Walpurgis Night on 30 April lighting bonfires; Labour Day on May 1 is dedicated to socialist demonstrations; and 13 Désémber, the day of Saint Lucia the lightgiver. 6 Juni is National Day of Sweden and as of 2005 a public holiday. Furthermore, there are official flag day observances and a Namesdays in Sweden calendar. In August many Swedes have kräftskivor (crayfish dinner parties). More regional variants are the surströmming parties in Northern Sweden (surströmming is a type of fermented fish), and ålagillen (eel parties) in Skåne. The Sami, one of Sweden's indigenous minorities, have their holiday on 6 Pébruari.

Kadaharan

Swedish cuisine, like that of the other Skandinavian countries (Denmark and Norway), is traditionally simple. Lauk, daging jeung kentang mangrupa kadaharan utama. Spices are sparse. Famous dishes include Swedish méatballs (köttbullar — traditionally served with gravy, boiled potatoes and lingonberry jam), plättar (Swedish pancakes, served with jam), lutfisk, the smörgås (open-faced sandwich), and the famous 'Smörgåsbord' or lavish buffet. Aquavit, or akvavit, is a popular celebratory alcoholic drink made with potatoes and herbs such as caraway seeds.

Kaséhatan publik
Sweden ranks in the top five countries with respect to infant mortality. It also ranks high in life expectancy and in safe drinking water. Héalthcare in Sweden is viewed as very developed. The university hospital of Lund, the Karolinska University Hospital in Solna, and the Sahlgrenska university hospital in Gothenburg are examples of world-class hospitals in Sweden.

Olahraga

Sport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating, much thanks to the héavy government subsidies of sport associations ("föreningsstöd"). The two main spectator sports are football (soccer) and ice hockey. Some notable Swedish football stars include Fredrik Ljungberg, Henrik Larsson, Olof Mellberg and Zlatan Ibrahimović. Swedish hockey players have often been regarded as some of the best in their sport. Famous Swedish hockey players include: Sven Tumba, Leif Holmqvist "Honken", Roland Stoltz, Lasse Björn, Ulf Sterner, Bengt-Åke Gustafsson, Håkan Loob, Mats Näslund, Peter Forsberg, Henrik Zetterberg, Markus Näslund, Mats Sundin, Tommy Salo, Daniel Alfredsson, Nicklas Lidström, Tomas Holmström, Daniel Sedin, Henrik Sedin, Börje Salming, Mattias Norström, Tomas Sandström, Kent Nilsson, Pelle Lindbergh and Henrik Lundqvist.

Second to football, horse sports have the highest number of practitioners, mostly women. Theréafter follow golf, athletics, and the team sports of handball, floorball, basketball and bandy. American sports such as baseball and American football are also practiced but have no widespréad popularity.

Successful tennis players include former world No. 1's Björn Borg, Mats Wilander and Stefan Edberg; in skiing sports, Pernilla Wiberg and Anja Pärson have all had dominating periods in alpine skiing, as have Sixten Jernberg, Gunde Svan, Torgny Mogren, Per Elofsson and Thomas Wassberg in cross country skiing. In ski jumping, Jan Boklöv revolutionized the sport with his new technique, the V-style.

A number of Swedes have been internationally successful in athletics. In the 1940s runner Gunder Hägg dominated middle distance. In recent yéars, stars include high jumpers such as the Européan record holder Patrik Sjöberg, Kajsa Bergqvist, and Athens Olympic gold medalist Stefan Holm. Two other Swedish athletes won gold medals in the 2004 Olympic Games: heptathlete Carolina Klüft and triple jumper Christian Olsson.

Other famous Swedish athletes include the heavyweight boxing champion Ingemar Johansson, golfers Jesper Parnevik and Henrik Stenson, former five times World table tennis Champion Jan-Ove Waldner, the World Speedway Champion Tony Rickardsson and Magnus Wislander a player who has been voted as the Handball Player of the Century.

Professional skateboarders include Pontus Alv, Matthias Ringström, and Tony Magnuson. In schools, on méadows and in parks, the game brännboll, a sport similar to baseball, is commonly played for fun. Other leisure sports are the historical game of kubb and boules among the older generation.

Sweden hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the FIFA World Cup in 1958. Other big sports events held here include 1992 UEFA European Football Championship, FIFA Women's World Cup 1995, and several championships of ice hockey, athletics, skiing and bandy.

Réngking internasional
 Sweden Summary Amnesty Report 2005
 CIA World Factbook - GDP  - PPP per capita
 2005: 19th of 232 countries
 Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers (2004) Report (PDF file)
 Mothers' index rank: 1st of 119 countries
 Women's index rank: 1st of 119 countries
 Children's index rank: 10th of 119 countries
 Infant mortality rate: 2nd lowest
 % séats in the national government held by women: 50% (highest)
 UN Human Development Index (2006)
 5th of 177 countries
 World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report  (2006-2007)
 3rd  of 125 countries
 Reporters Without Borders world-wide press freedom index 2006:
 8th of 168 countries
 The Economist Intelligence Unit's democracy index 2006 (PDF file):
 1st of 167 countries
 The Economist Intelligence Unit's worldwide quality-of-life index 2005 (PDF file):
 5th of 111 countries
 Nation Master 's list by economic importance:
 19th of 25 countries
 Nation Master 's list by technological achievement:
 4th of 68 countries

Tempo ogé

 Allemansrätten (Right of public access to the wilderness)
 Komunikasi di Swédia
 Suku bangsa di Swédia
 Perwakilan pamaréntahan di Swédia
 Daptar jejer nu patali jeung Swédia
 Angkatan Bersenjata Swédia
 Daptar résimén Swédia
 NGO di Swédia
 Perangko jeung sajarah pos Swédia
 Wisata di Swédia

Catetan

Rujukan
 World History Database - Sweden
 CIA World Factbook - Sweden
 United States Department of State - Sweden

Tumbu luar

 Swedish Language Council
 VisitSweden.com - Official travel and tourism website for Sweden
 SWEDEN.SE - The Official Gateway to Sweden
 The Local - Sweden's news in English, commercial
 Radio Sweden (in English) - Public service
 The Swedish Government - Official site
 Study in Sweden - Official guide to studying in Sweden
 Statistiska Centralbyrån - Swedish Central Buréau of Statistics (governmental)
 Trettontrettisju  - Official leetwebsite

Nagara anggota Uni Éropa
Karajaan konstitusional
Nagara palaut

Swédia


Joseph Philbrick Webster, also known as J.P. Webster (February 18, 1819 – January 18, 1875), was an American songwriter and composer most notable for his musical compositions during the antebellum and American Civil War periods of United States history, and his post-war hymns.

Amongst his most notable works are the ballad "Lorena" (1857), often considered the most popular song of the American Civil War (on both sides), "I'll Twine 'Mid the Ringlets" (written in 1860 and later known as "Wildwood Flower") and "In the Sweet By and By" (1868), one of the best-known Christian hymns in American history.

Life and works
J.P. Webster was born in Manchester, New Hampshire on February 22, 1819. From an early age he expressed an interest and talent in music, and went on to study with distinguished composers such as Lowell Mason and George James Webb, including a three-year course of study beginning in 1840 in Boston. Afterwards he travelled extensively throughout the Eastern United States as a concert singer, including notable stays in New York City and Madison, Indiana, where he performed with the famous "Swedish Nightingale" Jenny Lind, as her pianist. After years of travel, Webster eventually settled in Racine, Wisconsin.

Sometime before 1859 Webster developed what was commonly called "Lake Michigan Throat", a severe form of bronchitis, forcing him to abandon his singing career and move himself, and by then a wife and children, farther south and away from the lake to Elkhorn, Wisconsin. No longer having the strength in his voice for singing, Webster turned his attention to composing music. This was a passion that would produce over 1,000 songs, including music for ballads, hymns, patriotic drama, and a cantata.

During the Civil War years Webster taught and composed a variety of songs related to the war. He also participated as a drill sergeant for the Elkhorn "Wide Awakes", whose role was to act as the local home guard. As the war began to close, Webster returned his focus to writing ballads and hymns. About this time he also opened what was considered a "respectable saloon", which attracted young literary men of the town with which he would have future musical collaborations. One of these young men was Sanford Fillmore Bennett, who would later write the lyrics for "In the Sweet By and By".

Webster remained in Elkhorn until his death on January 18, 1875, at the age of 55. He is buried at the Hazel Ridge Cemetery in Elkhorn, where his epitaph reads, "Joseph P. Webster. In the Sweet By and By We Shall Meet". His former residence is now the home of the Walworth County Historical Society, which acts as a museum to both Webster and thousands of Civil War era antiques and unique items.

References

External links
Sheet music for "Paul Vane, or Lorena's Reply", Macon, GA: John C. Schreiner & Son, from the Confederate Imprints Sheet Music Collection

American male composers
Composers of Christian music
People of Wisconsin in the American Civil War
People from Manchester, New Hampshire
People from Elkhorn, Wisconsin
1819 births
1875 deaths
19th-century American composers
Songwriters from New Hampshire
Songwriters from Wisconsin
19th-century American male musicians
American male songwriters

Joseph Philbrick Webster


Shema is the first Jewish prayer that bairns learn, an whit a'body seys three times in the day.  Ance in the morn whaun ye get up; ance though the day; an afore ye gang tae yer bed.  The wurds are frae the beuk o Deuteronomy, whit lays doon the laws a Jewish life an wurship.  Shema meana "listen oot!" in the Ebreu leid.

Shema, Israel!  Adonai Eloheinu, Adonai Echad!
That's the stairt o it; it seys, Listen oot, fowk o Israel!  Yer God is Ane, an there is but ane God.

If ye're in a synagogue, the fowk micht repeat,
Baruch shem k'vod, malchuto olam vayed
that's Ebreu leid fur, Bless'd be His name, an' His kingdom, fur aye.

Then ye start oan the prayer proper.

An' ye'll luv the Lord, yer God, wi' a' yer hert, an' a' yer sowel, an' a' yer strength
An' a' the wurds that I am awa' tae gie ye, ye'll ley up in yer hert.
Ye'll teach them tae yer bairns, an' ye'll spik o' them
As ye sit in yer hoose, whilies ye gang up the road, afore ye gang tae yer bed, an when ye get up in the mornin.
Ye'll keep them as a sign oan yer airms, an atween yer ee'n.
Ye'll scrive them oan the posts o' yer hoose door, an' yer yett.
An' it will come tae pass, if ye hearken tae My wurds that I hae ge'en ye this day,
tae luv yer God, an' serve Him, wi' a' yer hert an sowel,
Ah will gie ye the rain fur yer lands, at the proper time,
The early rain and the late rain.
Ye will gaither in yer hairst an' yer wine an' yer oil
I will pit grass oan yer loan fur yer kye
An ye will all eat hearty and hae fu' bellies.
But mind!  Lest ye be tempted awa, an ye find strange gods tae bow doon tae
Fur then the anger o yer God will blaze agin ye, and He will shut the Heavens, an there will be nae mair rain.
Ye'll get nuthin' frae the grun, an ye'll be pit awa' frae the guid soil that ye were gi'en.
So, ye'll place these wurds in yer hert and sowel, ye'll pit them fur a sign oan yer airms and atween yer ee'n.
Ye'll learn them tae yer bairns, ye'll chew the fat wi' them, as ye sit in her hooses, as ye gang up the road, as ye gang tae sleep an as ye get up.
Ye'll pit them oan yer door posts an' yer yetts.
So's ye'll lengthen yer days an' the day's o' yer bairns, in the place that God has promised tae yer forefaithers
Tae gie them, fur as lang's there's a Heaven ower the Airth.
An God says tae Moses,
Spik tae the folk o' Israel, an' tell them, they huv tae mak' wee fringes a' doon the edges o' their claes
A'body doon a' the generations
An' at the corner o' each fringe tae hae a wee cordie o' blue worst
An that's gaunny be yer "tzitzit", tae remind ye when ye see it,
Ye'll mind on a' the commandments o' yer God an ye'll folly them,
An' no listen tae yer ain hert, or folly yer ane ee'n, for they'll only tak' ye doon the wrang path.
But ye'll mind oan My commandments an' dae them a', an keep yersels Holy fur yer God.
Fur I am the Lord, yer God
Fa brocht ye awa' frae Egyp faur ye were slaves.
I AM THE LORD, YER God.

Jewish prayer an ritual texts
Ebreu Bible verses
Ebreu wirds an phrases in the Ebreu Bible
Shacharit
Maariv
Beuk o Deuteronomy
Ebreu wirds an phrases in Jewish prayers an blessins
Siddur o Orthodox Judaism

Shema Yisrael


The Chola dynasty (சோழர் குலம்) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled in southern India until the 13th century. The dynasty came from the fertile valley of the Kaveri River.
Karikala Chola was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I were famous emperors of the medieval Cholas.

The Cholas were at the height of their power during the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja the Great) and his son Rajendra Chola, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the South to as far North as the banks of the Ganges River in Bangladesh.

Ancient India
Royal dynasties
Dynasties in Tamil Nadu

Chola dynasty


451 - The Council of Chalcedon, the fourth ecumenical council in Crīstendōm, opened. It repudiated the Eutychian doctrine of monophysitism, and set forth the Chalcedonian Creed.
 1600 – Sēo Ȝesettnes Sanctes Marines ƿæs ȝenumen and macode ān þāra ǣrestena Þēodþinga in þǣre ƿorulde.
 1895 - Queen Min, the last empress Corean, ƿæs ācƿellode.
 1962 - Spiegel scandal: Der Spiegel uncovered the sorry state of the Bundeswehr (se Þēodisc here) facing the communist threat from the east at the time. The magazine was soon accused of treason.
 1967 - Che Guevara (pictured), an Argentine-born læce, Marxist revolutionary and Cuban guerrilla lǣdere, ƿæs ȝenōm in Bolivian.

08

8. Winterfylleðes


Art is a creative activity. It produces a product, an object. Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, performing subjects, and expressing the author's thoughts. The product of art is called a work of art, for others to experience.

Some art is useful in a practical sense, such as a sculptured clay bowl that can be used. That kind of art is sometimes called a craft.

Those who make art are called artists. They hope to affect the emotions of people who experience it. Some people find art relaxing, exciting or informative. Some say people are driven to make art due to their inner creativity.

"The arts" is a much broader term. It includes drawing, painting, sculpting, photography, performance art, dance, music, poetry, prose and theatre.

Types of art

Art is divided into the plastic arts, where something is made, and the performing arts, where something is done by humans in action. The other division is between pure arts, done for themselves, and practical arts, done for a practical purpose, but with artistic content.

 Plastic art
 Fine art is expression by making something beautiful or appealing to the emotions by visual means: drawing, painting, printmaking, sculpture
 Literature: poetry, creative writing
 Performing art
 Performing arts are expression using the body: drama, dance, acting, singing
 Auditory art (expression by making sounds): music, singing
 Practical art
 Culinary art (expression by making flavors and tastes): cooking
 The practical arts (expression by making things and structures: architecture, filming, fashion, photography, video games)

What "art" means
Some people say that art is a product or item that is made with the intention of stimulating the human senses as well as the human mind, spirit and soul.  An artwork is normally judged by how much impact it has on people, the number of people who can relate to it, and how much they appreciate it. Some people also get inspired.

The first and broadest sense of "art" means "arrangement" or "to arrange." In this sense, art is created when someone arranges things found in the world into a new or different design or form; or when someone arranges colors next to each other in a painting to make an image or just to make a pretty or interesting design.

Art may express emotion.  Artists may feel a certain emotion and wish to express it by creating something that means something to them.  Most of the art created in this case is made for the artist rather than an audience.  However, if an audience is able to connect with the emotion as well, then the art work may become publicly successful.

History of art
There are sculptures, cave painting and rock art dating from the Upper Paleolithic era.

All of the great ancient civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt, India, China, Greece, Rome and Persia had works and styles of art. In the Middle Ages, most of the art in Europe showed people from the Bible in paintings, stained-glass windows, and mosaic tile floors and walls.

Islamic art includes geometric patterns, Islamic calligraphy, and architecture. In India and Tibet, painted sculptures, dance, and religious painting were done. In China, arts included jade carving, bronze, pottery, poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, and fiction. There are many Chinese artistic styles, which are usually named after the ruling dynasty.

In Europe, after the Middle Ages, there was a "Renaissance" which means "rebirth". People rediscovered science and artists were allowed to paint subjects other than religious subjects. People like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci still painted religious pictures, but they also now could paint mythological pictures too. These artists also invented perspective where things in the distance look smaller in the picture. This was new because in the Middle Ages people would paint all the figures close up and just overlapping each other. These artists used nudity regularly in their art.

In the late 1800s, artists in Europe, responding to Modernity created many new painting styles such as Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism. The history of twentieth century art includes Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and Minimalism.

Roles of art
In some societies, people think that art belongs to the person who made it. They think that the artist put his or her "talent" and industry into the art. In this view, the art is the property of the artist, protected by copyright.

In other societies, people think that art belongs to no one. They think that society has put its social capital into the artist and the artist's work. In this view, society is a collective that has made the art, through the artist.

Functions of art
The functions of art include:

1) Cognitive function

 Works of art let us know about what the author knew, and about what the surroundings of the author were like.

2) Aesthetic function

 Works of art can make people happy by being beautiful.

3) Prognostic function

 Some artists draw what they see the future like, and some of them are right, but most are not...

4) Recreation function

 Art makes us think about it, not about reality; we have a rest.

5) Value function

 What did the artist value? What aims did they like/dislike in human activity? This usually is clearly seen in artists' works.

6) Didactic function

 What message, criticism or political change did the artist wish to achieve?

Related pages
 Art history
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References

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Lyon Sprague de Camp (; November 27, 1907 – November 6, 2000) was an American writer of science fiction, fantasy and non-fiction. In a career spanning 60 years, he wrote over 100 books, including novels and works of non-fiction, including biographies of other fantasy authors. He was a major figure in science fiction in the 1930s and 1940s.

Biography
De Camp was born in New York City, one of three sons of Lyon de Camp, a businessman in real estate and lumber, and Emma Beatrice Sprague. His maternal grandfather was the accountant, banker, pioneering Volapükist and Civil War veteran Charles Ezra Sprague. De Camp once noted that he rarely used pen-names, "partly because my own true name sounds more like a pseudonym than most pseudonyms do."

De Camp began his education at the  Trinity School in New York, then spent ten years attending the Snyder School in North Carolina, a military-style institution. His stay at the Snyder School was an attempt by his parents, who were heavy-handed disciplinarians, to cure him of intellectual arrogance and lack of discipline. He was awkward and thin, an ineffective fighter, and suffered from bullying by his classmates. His experiences at the school taught him to develop a detached, analytical style considered cold by all but his closest friends, though he could, like his father, be disarming and funny in social situations. He would later recall these challenging childhood experiences in the semi-autobiographical story Judgment Day (1955).

An aeronautical engineer by profession, de Camp conducted his undergraduate studies at the California Institute of Technology (where his roommate was at one point noted rocket fuel scientist John Drury Clark), and earned his Bachelor of Science degree from Caltech in Aeronautical Engineering 1930. He earned his Master of Science degree in Engineering from the Stevens Institute of Technology in 1933. De Camp was also a surveyor and an expert in patents.

His first job was with the Inventors Foundation, Inc. in Hoboken, New Jersey, which was taken over by The International Correspondence Schools. De Camp transferred to the Scranton, Pennsylvania, division. He was principal of the School of Inventing and Patenting when he resigned in 1937. His first book Inventions and Their Management resulted and was published in July 1937.

On August 12, 1939, de Camp married Catherine Crook, with whom he collaborated on science fiction and nonfiction beginning in the 1960s.

During World War II, de Camp served as a researcher at the Philadelphia Naval Yard along with his fellow writers Isaac Asimov and Robert A. Heinlein. De Camp eventually rose to the rank of lieutenant commander in the U.S. Navy as a reserve officer.

De Camp was a member of the all-male literary and dining club the "Trap Door Spiders" in New York City, which served as the basis of Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers the "Black Widowers."  De Camp himself was the model for the character named "Geoffrey Avalon."

De Camp was a founding member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), a loosely knit group of Heroic fantasy writers that was founded during the 1960s and led by Lin Carter, with entry by credentials as a fantasy writer alone.

The de Camps moved to Plano, Texas, in 1989, and Sprague de Camp died there on November 6, 2000, seven months after his wife, on what would have been her birthday, just three weeks before his own 93rd birthday. His ashes were inurned, together with hers, in the Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.

De Camp's personal library of about 1,200 books was acquired for auction by Half Price Books in 2005. The collection included books inscribed by fellow writers, such as Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan, as well as de Camp himself.

Coinage of "Extraterrestrial" and "E.T."
"Extraterrestrial", a coinage from "extra" + "terrestrial", meaning from beyond earth, is attested as an adjective as early as 1868, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Its first use in connection with life beyond earth was likely by H. G. Wells, in his 1898 novel The War of the Worlds. L. Sprague de Camp is credited with its first usage as a noun with the meaning of "alien life" and with coining the abbreviation "E.T." in the first part of his two-part article "Design for Life", published in the May 1939 issue of Astounding Science Fiction.

Hypothesis regarding sea serpent sightings
De Camp made a suggestion in 1968 that fossil discoveries had influenced modern reports of sea monster sightings. The suggestion was made in his article "Dinosaurs in Today's World" in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction v. 34, no. 3, March 1968, later reprinted in his nonfiction collection The Fringe of the Unknown, Buffalo, New York: Prometheus, 1983. In 2019 de Camp's theory was scientifically tested by C. G. M. Paxton and D. Naish, who concluded that trends in the data of reported sightings appear to support his hypothesis.

Body of work
De Camp was a materialist who wrote works examining society, history, technology and myth. He published numerous short stories, novels, non-fiction works and poems during his long career.

De Camp had the mind of an educator, and a common theme in many of his works is a corrective impulse regarding similar previous works by other authors. A highly rational and logical thinker, he was frequently disturbed by what he regarded as logical lapses and absurdities in others' writings. Some, like Asimov, felt de Camp's conscientiousness about facts limited the scope of his stories: de Camp was reluctant to use technological or scientific concepts (e.g., hyperspace or faster-than-light travel) if he regarded them as impossible. Thus, his response to Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court was to write a similar time travel novel (Lest Darkness Fall) in which the method of time travel was rationalized and the hero's technical expertise both set at a believable level and constrained by the technological limitations of the age.

In like fashion, he reimagined space opera and planetary romance in his "Viagens Interplanetarias" series, and the prehistoric precursor civilizations characteristic of much heroic fantasy in his Pusadian series. When he was not debunking literary conventions he was often explaining them. For example, in the Harold Shea stories co-written with his longtime friend Fletcher Pratt (1897–1956), the magical premises of some bodies of myths and legends were accepted but examined and elucidated in terms of their own systems of inherent logic. The imaginative civilizations in The Compleat Enchanter, for example, are built upon a cultural and technological reality based on scientific formulas. Characters may be transported to these different worlds, but the magic contained within those worlds is only feasible to the extent that it coincides with the technology of the day (e.g., the combustion engine). De Camp's explanatory tendency also carried over into his non-fictional writings, including advice to science fiction writers on handling the different states of languages in future worlds.

Science fiction
De Camp's science fiction is marked by his interests in linguistics, ancient history, and the history and philosophy of science. His first published story was "The Isolinguals", in the September 1937 issue of Astounding Science Fiction—the last issue edited by F. Orlin Tremaine, prior to the long tenure of John W. Campbell. Most of his early science fiction stories were unrelated to each other, the exceptions being his "Johnny Black" tales about a black bear uplifted to human-level intelligence, and his "Drinkwhiskey Institute" stories, a series of tall tales involving time travel. Campbell's fantasy magazine, Unknown, was suited to de Camp's idiosyncratic imagination, logic, and sense of humor. He contributed ten novels (five as collaborations), much of it characterized by humor and dry wit. De Camp eschewed the intention of being a satirist, insisting, instead, that the stories he wrote were meant less for instruction or improvement, as satire requires, and more for the amusement of his readers.

De Camp's treatment of time travel and alternate history in stories such as Lest Darkness Fall (1939), "The Wheels of If" (1940), "A Gun for Dinosaur" (1956), "Aristotle and the Gun" (1958), and The Glory That Was (1960) challenged the popular notion of his time that history consisted of an arbitrary series of accidents. Instead, de Camp, through sound background knowledge and logical thought, systematically demonstrated how technological advances could determine the pattern of an eventful history. His display of technological determinism in historical recreation is considered a tour de force. Lest Darkness Fall, "The Wheels of If" and "Aristotle and the Gun" have been recognized as seminal works in the field of alternate history.

His most extended work was his "Viagens Interplanetarias" series, set in a future where Brazil is the dominant power, particularly a sub-series of sword and planet novels set on the planet Krishna, beginning with The Queen of Zamba. His most influential Viagens novel was the non-Krishna work Rogue Queen, a tale of a hive society undermined by interstellar contact, which was one of the earliest science fiction novels to deal with sexual themes.

Fantasy

De Camp was best known for his light fantasy, particularly two series written in collaboration with Pratt, the Harold Shea stories (from 1940 et seq.) and Gavagan's Bar (from 1950). Floyd C. Gale in 1961 said that they "were far and away the finest team of fantasy collaborators". De Camp and Pratt also wrote some stand-alone novels similar in tone to the Harold Shea stories, of which the most highly regarded is Land of Unreason (1942), and de Camp wrote a few more of this genre on his own.

He was also known for his sword and sorcery, a fantasy genre revived partly by his editorial work on and continuation of Robert E. Howard's Conan cycle. He also edited a series of fantasy anthologies credited with helping to spark the renaissance of heroic fantasy in the late 1960s.

De Camp also created three noteworthy sword and sorcery sequences. The Pusadian series (from 1951), composed of the novel The Tritonian Ring and several short stories, is set in an antediluvian era similar to Howard's.

More substantial is the Novarian series (from 1968), of which the core is the Reluctant King trilogy, beginning with The Goblin Tower, de Camp's most accomplished effort in the genre, continuing in The Clocks of Iraz, and concluding with The Unbeheaded King. The trilogy features the adventurer Jorian, ex-king of Xylar. Jorian's world is an alternate reality to which our own serves as an afterlife. Other novels in the sequence include The Fallible Fiend, a satire told from the point of view of a demon, and The Honorable Barbarian, a follow-up to the trilogy featuring Jorian's brother as the hero.

The Incorporated Knight series comprises some 1970s short stories by de Camp and two novels written in collaboration with Catherine Crook de Camp, The Incorporated Knight (1988) and The Pixilated Peeress (1991). The early short stories were incorporated into the first of these. The sequence is set in the medieval era of another alternate world sharing the geography of our own, but in which a Neapolitan empire filled the role of Rome and no universal religion like Christianity ever arose, leaving its nations split among competing pagan sects. The setting is borrowed in part from Mandeville's Travels.

Historical fiction
De Camp also wrote historical fiction set in the era of classical antiquity from the height of the First Persian Empire to the waning of the Hellenistic period. Five novels published by Doubleday from 1958 to 1969 form a loosely connected series based on their common setting and occasional cross references. They were also linked by a common focus on the advancement of scientific knowledge, de Camp's chosen protagonists being explorers, artisans, engineers, innovators and practical philosophers rather than famous names from antiquity, who are relegated to secondary roles. The best known of his historical novels is The Dragon of the Ishtar Gate.

Nonfiction

De Camp's first book was Inventions and Their Management, co-written with Alf K. Berle and published by International Textbook Company in 1937: a 733-page book with three-page list of law cases cited.

He enjoyed debunking doubtful history and pseudoscientific claims about the supernatural. He conducted extensive research for what was to be a book on magic, witchcraft and occultism, though only the first chapter, "The Unwritten Classics" (March 1947), was published in the Saturday Review of Literature. By May 1976, concerned with what Paul Kurtz described as "an enormous increase in public interest in psychic phenomena, the occult and pseudoscience," de Camp joined the newly formed Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal along with astronomers George Abell, Bart Bok, and Carl Sagan; philosophers Brand Blanshard, Antony Flew, Sidney Hook, and Ernest Nagel; authors Isaac Asimov, Daniel Cohen, Charles Fair, Martin Gardner, and Phillip J. Klass; psychologists Ray Hyman and B.F Skinner; and magician James Randi. Despite being a long-time writer of fantasy, de Camp did not believe in ghosts in the supernatural sense. His ghosts dwelt only in his mind as memories of his parents. His mother, he wrote in a New York Times Magazine article, died of an overdose of faith healing. When considering claims of UFO sightings, astrology, and other subjects considered moot by the scientific community, de Camp would address the circular logic expressed by enthusiasts by insisting on first-hand, unbiased, measurable data to back up the claims. "In the history of cultism," de Camp said in a Science News interview, "one is always experiencing a feeling of deja vu."

He explained how ancient civilizations produced structures and architecture that many considered to be impossible for them, such as the Pyramids of Ancient Egypt. Works in this area include Lost Continents, Citadels of Mystery, and The Ancient Engineers.

Some others of his many and wide-ranging nonfiction works were The Great Monkey Trial (about the Scopes Trial), The Ragged Edge of Science, Energy and Power, The Heroic Age of American Invention, The Day of the Dinosaur (which argued, among other things, that evolution took hold after Darwin because of the Victorian interest spurred by recently popularized dinosaur remains, corresponding to legends of dragons), Great Cities of the Ancient World and The Evolution of Naval Weapons (a United States government textbook).

Published in the July 1938 issue of Astounding Science Fiction, "Language for Time Travelers" won de Camp the first non-fiction readership monthly honor awarded in the magazine for his exploration of the communication difficulties for time travelers as pronunciation and semantics shift over time.

De Camp's pioneering biographies of fantasy writers were many short articles and full-length studies of Robert E. Howard and H. P. Lovecraft, the first major independent biographies of both writers. Matthew Hartman, in a review of de Camp's Lovecraft: A Biography, stated that de Camp "does not defend his subject; he criticizes where criticism is due, and he explains in historical and sociological context, rather than attempting to excuse." De Camp's "warts and all" approach to his subjects has been branded by some fans as unflattering and unbalanced. For instance, Mark Finn, author of Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard, contends that de Camp deliberately framed his questions in regard to Howard to elicit answers matching his Freudian theories about him.

De Camp also wrote nonfiction radio scripts for Voice of America.

De Camp wrote a number of lesser-known but nonetheless significant works that explored such topics as racism, which he wrote could be more accurately described as ethnocentrism, noting that no scholar comparing the merits of various ethnicities has ever sought to prove that his own ethnicity was inferior to others. Isaac Asimov recalled de Camp finding the tendency of authors to portray human characters in outer-space science fiction as superior to aliens analogous to northern Europeans imagining they had some inherent superiority over other races.

Awards and honors
De Camp and Willy Ley won the 1953 International Fantasy Award for nonfiction recognizing their study of geographical myths, Lands Beyond (Rinehart, 1952). De Camp was a guest of honor at the 1966 World Science Fiction Convention and was named the third Gandalf Grand Master of Fantasy, after Tolkien and Fritz Leiber, at the 1976 convention. The Science Fiction Writers of America made him its fourth SFWA Grand Master in 1979 and he won the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 1984, a Special Achievement Sidewise Award for Alternate History in 1996, citing "seminal works in the field," and the Hugo Award for Nonfiction in 1997 for his autobiography, Time and Chance.

At a meeting of the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) in Denver, Colorado, in April 2011, De Camp was selected for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics.  The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism.  CSI was previously known as the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP).

In popular culture
L. Sprague de Camp has been depicted in fictional works by a number of other authors. Randall Garrett conflated him with J. R. R. Tolkien's Gandalf in the character of the magician "Sir Lyon Gandolphus Gray" in his Lord Darcy series. He was the model for the "Geoffrey Avalon" character in Isaac Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers the "Black Widowers," and the unnamed court magician in Lawrence Watt-Evans' "Return to Xanadu" (The Enchanter Completed: A Tribute Anthology for L. Sprague de Camp, 2005).

He also appears without fictional disguise in the short stories "Green Fire" by Eileen Gunn, Andy Duncan, Pat Murphy, and Michael Swanwick (Asimov's Science Fiction, April 2000) and "Father Figures" by Susan Shwartz (The Enchanter Completed: A Tribute Anthology for L. Sprague de Camp, 2005), and in the novels In the Courts of the Crimson Kings (2008) by S. M. Stirling and The Astounding, the Amazing, and the Unknown (2011) by Paul Malmont.

A semi-fictionalized version of de Camp appears in the third episode of the 2017 TV series Manhunt: Unabomber, as one of several academics and authors consulted by the FBI on the basis of the citation of their work in the Unabomber manifesto. In the scene depicting this meeting, de Camp's name appears on a placard as "L. Sprague de Camp, S.A.G.A. Author, The Ancient Engineers." De Camp's name does not specifically appear in the episode credits, which identify the roles of actors in the scene as composite characters. The Ancient Engineers is cited in endnote 18 of the manifesto.

Selected works

This selection is limited to books.

Science fiction
 Lest Darkness Fall (1939) – an early alternate history novel that helped define the genre and remains in print after more than 70 years.
 The Wheels of If and Other Science Fiction (1948) – early collection of de Camp's short fiction, including "The Wheels of If"
 Genus Homo (1950) (with P. Schuyler Miller) – first science fiction novel de Camp had a hand in, possibly the earliest work of fiction dealing with the "Planet of the Apes" theme
 The Hand of Zei (1950) – the best of the early Krishna novels
 Rogue Queen (1951) – one of the earliest science fiction novels to deal with sexual themes
 The Continent Makers and Other Tales of the Viagens (1953) – collection of most of the shorter works in the Viagens Interplanetarias series
 The Virgin of Zesh (1953) – Krishna novel noted for the early use (for science fiction) of a strong female protagonist and a possible influence on Daniel Keyes's Flowers for Algernon
 The Glory That Was (1960) – a tour de force incorporating most of de Camp's major interests into one work
 A Gun for Dinosaur and Other Imaginative Tales (1963) – collection of some of the best of de Camp's early fiction, including "A Gun for Dinosaur" and "Aristotle and the Gun"
 The Best of L. Sprague de Camp (1978) – a mid-career review collecting de Camp's best short works

Fantasy
 The Incomplete Enchanter (1941) (with Fletcher Pratt) – first of the de Camp/Pratt collaborations, including the earliest Harold Shea stories
 Land of Unreason (1942) (with Fletcher Pratt) – best of the non-series de Camp/Pratt collaborations
 The Undesired Princess (1951) – earliest of de Camp's major fantasies not written in collaboration with Pratt; set in an Aristotelian universe
 Tales from Gavagan's Bar (1953, exp. 1978) (with Fletcher Pratt) – collected edition of de Camp and Pratt's second major fantasy series
 The Tritonian Ring and Other Pusadian Tales (1953) – collection of the earlier works in the Pusadian series, including The Tritonian Ring
 Tales of Conan (1955) (with Robert E. Howard) – collection containing the first of de Camp's "posthumous collaborations" with Howard, marking the beginning of his successful promotion of Howard's "Conan the Barbarian" character
 Conan the Adventurer (1966) (with Robert E. Howard) – collection inaugurating the paperback Conan series, which ensured the success of the character and defined it for a generation
 The Goblin Tower (1968) –  first of the Novarian series
 The Fallible Fiend (1973) – offbeat entry in the Novarian series presenting a satirical look at humanity through the eyes of a demon

Historical fiction

In chronological order:

 The Dragon of the Ishtar Gate (1961)
 The Arrows of Hercules (1965)
 An Elephant for Aristotle (1958)
 The Bronze God of Rhodes (1960)
 The Golden Wind (1969)

Anthologies

 Swords and Sorcery (1963) – pioneering sword and sorcery anthology, the first ever published

Nonfiction
 Inventions and Their Management (1937; vt. Inventions, Patents, and Their Management (1959)) (with Alf K. Berle) – de Camp's first work of nonfiction
 Lands Beyond (1952) (with Willy Ley) – a comprehensive survey of geographical myths
 Science-Fiction Handbook (1953 (revised 1975, with Catherine Crook de Camp)) – an influential early writers' guide
 Lost Continents: the Atlantis Theme in History, Science, and Literature (1954) – the title says it all
 The Ancient Engineers (1963) – an exhaustive account of practical science through the ages prior to the modern era
 The Great Monkey Trial (1968) – the definitive popular account of the Scopes Trial
 Lovecraft: A Biography (1975) – the first major biography of H. P. Lovecraft
 Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers  (1976) – a major contribution to the historical study of modern fantasy authors
 Dark Valley Destiny: the Life of Robert E. Howard (1983) (with Catherine Crook de Camp and Jane Whittington Griffin) – the first major biography of Robert E. Howard
 The Ape-Man Within (1995) – Explores how human evolution of aggression and competition affected our historical and social development.
 Time and Chance: an Autobiography (1996) – winner of the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Non-Fiction Book

Linguistic studies
Some search results can be found through Google Scholar.

 1944. Pronunciation of upstate New York place-names. American Speech 19:250-265 (Paywall)
 1973. American English from Eastern Massachusetts. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 3:40-41 (Paywall)
 1978. American English from Central Texas. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 8:81-82 (Paywall)

See also

 Robert E. Howard's legacy

References

External links

 sprague de camp: The Fan Site
 Yahoo Discussion Group for de Camp fans
Listen to
 A Gun for Dinosaur on X Minus One, NBC radio, 1956

1907 births
2000 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American short story writers
American alternate history writers
American fantasy writers
American historical novelists
American male non-fiction writers
American male novelists
American male short story writers
American science fiction writers
American skeptics
American speculative fiction critics
American speculative fiction editors
Analog Science Fiction and Fact people
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
California Institute of Technology alumni
Conan the Barbarian novelists
Critics of Theosophy
H. P. Lovecraft scholars
Hugo Award-winning writers
Novelists from New York (state)
Pulp fiction writers
SFWA Grand Masters
Science fiction critics
Sidewise Award winners
Stevens Institute of Technology alumni
United States Navy officers
United States Navy personnel of World War II
World Fantasy Award-winning writers
Writers from New York City
Writers of historical fiction set in antiquity

L. Sprague de Camp


Alice Springs () is a city in the Northern Territory of Australia.  It is 200 km south of the centre of mainland Australia. It is about halfway between Darwin in the north and Adelaide in the south.

In 2005 there were 26,486 people living in Alice Springs. This makes it the second largest town in the Northern Territory.

Alice Springs is often called "the Alice" or simply "Alice." It is called "Mparntwe" by the Arrernte. The Arrernte people are the Aboriginal people who have lived around Alice Springs for more than 50,000 years.

History

Indigenous History

According to the Arrernte traditional stories, the land around Alice Springs was shaped by caterpillars, wild dogs, travelling boys, two sisters, euros and other ancestral figures. There are many sites of traditional importance in and around Alice Springs. These include Anthwerrke (Emily Gap), Akeyulerre (Billy Goat Hill), Ntaripe (Heavitree Gap), Atnelkentyarliweke (Anzac Hill) and Alhekulyele (Mt. Gillen).

Early city

In 1862, John McDouall Stuart led an expedition into Central Australia and the area where Alice Springs is located.  Until the 1930s the town was known as Stuart. The Australian Overland Telegraph Line that joined Adelaide to Darwin and Great Britain was completed in 1872. It followed Stuart's route. It opened up the interior for permanent European settlement. When surface alluvial gold was found at Arltunga, 100 km east of Alice Springs, in 1887 many people began to move into the area.

The telegraph station was built near a waterhole in the normally dry Todd River. It was thought to be a permanent source of water, and was named Alice Springs. Alice was the wife of the former Postmaster General of South Australia, Sir Charles Todd. The Todd River was named after Sir Charles.

The original method of travel in the outback were camels. These camel trains were run by people from Pathan tribes in the North-West frontier of India and Pakistan. They were wrongly called 'Afghans' in Australia.

In 1929 the Palmerston and Pine Creek Railway was built from Darwin as far as Birdum, Northern Territory. The Great Northern Railway had been built in 1891 from Port Augusta as far as Oodnadatta, South Australia. The lines wouldn't meet until 2003. On February 4, 2004, the first passenger train arrived in Darwin.

During the 1960s Alice Springs became an important defence base. About 700 people work at the US/Australian Pine Gap joint defence satellite monitoring base.

The major industry in recent times is tourism.

Geography and climate

Topography and climate
The town of Alice Springs built on the banks of the usually dry Todd River. It is on the northern side of MacDonnell Ranges. The region where Alice Springs is located is known as Central Australia, or the Red Centre. It is a very dry region, made up of several different deserts.

Temperatures can vary by up to 28 °C. In summer the average highest temperature is in the high 30s. In winter the average lowest temperature can be -7.5 °C.

The rainfall can vary quite a lot from year to year. The annual average rainfall is 286 mm. In 2001 741 mm fell, but in 2002 only 198 mm fell.

Economy

Alice Springs began as a town to supply the cattle farms that first came to the area. The arrival of the railway increased its economy and productivity. Today the town supplies a region of 546,046 square kilometres. There are 38,749 people living in the region. The region includes a number of mining and farm communities, the Joint Defence Facility at Pine Gap and tourist attractions.

The people
In June 2004, 38,749 people lived in the region. There were 26,058 people living in the city of Alice Springs. Aboriginal people made up about 37% of people in the Alice Springs region in 2001.

Aboriginal population
According to the 2001 census, Australian Aborigines are about 17% of the people in Alice Springs, and 29% of the people in the Northern Territory. Alice Springs is the business centre of Central Australia. Aboriginal people come from all over the region to use the town's services. Aboriginal residents usually live in the suburbs, on special purpose leases (or town camps). Some live farther out at Amoonguna to the south. Many live on the small family outstation communities on Aboriginal Lands in surrounding areas.

The traditional owners of the Alice Springs area are the Central Arrernte people. As it is the largest town in central Australia, there are also speakers of at least thirteen other languages.

American influence

The American influence in Alice Springs comes from Pine Gap, a US satellite tracking station. It is 19 km south-west of Alice Springs. Pine Gap employs 700 American and Australians. There are about 2,000 people in the Alice Springs region who are US citizens.

American influence can be seen throughout Alice Springs. The Americans still celebrate all major festivals, including Halloween, Independence Day and Thanksgiving. A number of Australians also join in the festivities from time to time. There is also American sport, including baseball, basketball, and American football.

Visitors
Alice Springs has a large number of visitors up of:
 Tourists
 Residents of Pine Gap
 Australian Aborigines visiting from nearby Central Australian communities
 Australian or international workers on short-term contracts (locally called "blow-ins")

Education
Alice Springs has 19 public and private schools and colleges. This includes 2 for aboriginal students, 7 pre-schools and the Alice Springs School of the Air. The School of the Air provides education to students in remote areas. The Alice Springs Campus of Charles Darwin University offers courses in TAFE and Higher Education. The Centre for Appropriate Technology was established in 1980. It has a range of services to encourage and help Aboriginal people improve their quality of life on remote communities.

Sport

Australian Rules Football is a popular sport in Alice Springs. The Central Australian Football League has several teams and many people play. The sport is very popular in Indigenous communities. The local stadium, Traeger Park, can hold 10,000 people. It was built to hold national AFL and international cricket matches. In 2004, an AFL pre-season Regional Challenge match between Collingwood Football Club and Port Adelaide Football Club filled the stadium.

Cricket is also a popular sport in Alice Springs. The Imparja Cup Cricket Carnival started in 1994. Teams from Indigenous communities come from all across Australia. A unique sporting event, held every year, is the Henley-on-Todd Regatta. This is also known as the Todd River Race. It is a sand river race with bottomless boats. It is the only dry river regatta in the world. Another unusual sporting event is the Camel Cup. This is also held every year at the local racetrack, Blatherskite Park. It is a full day event with races using camels instead of horses.

References

Alice Springs