Environmental full-cost accounting (EFCA) is a  method of cost accounting that traces direct costs and allocates indirect costs by collecting and presenting information about the possible environmental, social and economical costs and benefits or advantagesin short, about the "triple bottom line"for each proposed alternative. It is also known as true-cost accounting (TCA), but, as definitions for "true" and "full" are inherently subjective, experts consider both terms problematic.

Since costs and advantages are usually considered in terms of environmental, economic and social impacts, full or true cost efforts are collectively called the "triple bottom line". Many standards now exist in this area including Ecological Footprint, eco-labels, and the United Nations International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives approach to triple bottom line using the ecoBudget metric. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has several accredited standards useful in FCA or TCA including for greenhouse gases, the ISO 26000 series for corporate social responsibility coming in 2010, and the ISO 19011 standard for audits including all these.

Because of this evolution of terminology in the public sector use especially, the term full-cost accounting is now more commonly used in management accounting, e.g. infrastructure management and finance. Use of the terms FCA or TCA usually indicate relatively conservative extensions of current management practices, and incremental improvements to GAAP to deal with waste output or resource input.

These have the advantage of avoiding the more contentious questions of social cost.

Concepts
Full-cost accounting embodies several key concepts that distinguish it from standard accounting techniques. The following list highlights the basic tenets of FCA.

Accounting for:
 Costs rather than outlays (see explanation below);
 Hidden costs and externalities;
 Overhead and indirect costs;
 Past and future outlays;
 Costs according to lifecycle of the product.

Costs rather than outlays
Expenditure of cash to acquire or use a resource. A cost is the cash value of the resource as it is used. For example, an outlay is made when a vehicle is purchased, but the cost of the vehicle is incurred over its active life (e.g., ten years). The cost of the vehicle must be allocated over a period of time because every year of its use contributes to the depreciation of the vehicle's value.

Hidden costs
The value of goods and services is reflected as a cost even if no cash outlay is involved. One community might receive a grant from a state, for example, to purchase equipment. This equipment has value, even though the community did not pay for it in cash. The equipment, therefore, should be valued in an FCA analysis.

Government subsidies in the energy and food production industries keep true costs low through artificially cheap product pricing. This price manipulation encourages unsustainable practices and further hides negative externalities endemic to fossil fuel production and modern mechanized agriculture.

Overhead and indirect costs
FCA accounts for all overhead and indirect costs, including those that are shared with other public agencies. Overhead and indirect costs might include legal services, administrative support, data processing, billing, and purchasing. Environmental costs as indirect costs include the full range of costs throughout the life-cycle of a product (Life cycle assessment), some of which even do not show up in the firm's bottom line.  It also contains fixed overhead, fixed administration expense etc.

Past and future outlays
Past and future cash outlays often do not appear on annual budgets under cash accounting systems. Past (or upfront) costs are initial investments necessary to implement services such as the acquisition of vehicles, equipment, or facilities. Future (or back-end) outlays are costs incurred to complete  operations such as facility closure and postclosure care, equipment retirement, and post-employment health and retirement benefits.

Examples

Waste management
The State of Florida uses the term full-cost accounting for its solid waste management. In this instance, FCA is a systematic approach for identifying, summing, and reporting the actual costs of solid waste management. It takes into account past and future outlays, overhead (oversight and support services) costs, and operating costs.

Integrated solid waste management systems consist of a variety of municipal solid waste (MSW) activities and paths. Activities are the building blocks of the system, which may include waste collection, operation of transfer stations, transport to waste management facilities, waste processing and disposal, and sale of byproducts. Paths are the directions that MSW follows in the course of integrated solid waste management (i.e., the point of generation through processing and ultimate disposition) and include recycling, composting, waste-to-energy, and landfill disposal. The cost of some activities is shared between paths. Understanding the costs of MSW activities is often necessary for compiling the costs of the entire solid waste system, and helps municipalities evaluate whether to provide a service itself or contract out for it. However, in considering changes that affect how much MSW ends up being recycled, composted, converted to energy, or landfilled, the analyst should focus the costs of the different paths. Understanding the full costs of each MSW path is an essential first step in discussing whether to shift the flows of MSW one way another.

Benefits
 Identify the costs of MSW management  When municipalities handle MSW services through general tax funds, the costs of MSW management can get lost among other expenditures. With FCA, managers can have more control over MSW costs because they know what the costs are.

 See through the peaks and valleys in MSW cash expenditures  Using techniques such as depreciation and amortization, FCA produces a more accurate picture of the costs of MSW programs, without the distortions that can result from focusing solely on a given year's cash expenditures.

 Explain MSW costs to citizens more clearly  FCA helps you collect and compile the information needed to explain to citizens what solid waste management actually costs. Although some people might think that solid waste management is free (because they are not billed specifically for MSW services), others might overestimate its cost. FCA can result in "bottom line" numbers that speak directly to residents. In addition, public officials can use FCA results to respond to specific public concerns.

 Adopt a business-like approach to MSW management  By focusing attention on costs, FCA fosters a more businesslike approach to MSW management. Consumers of goods and services increasingly expect value, which means an appropriate balance between quality and cost of service. FCA can help identify opportunities for streamlining services, eliminating inefficiencies, and facilitating cost-saving efforts through informed planning and decision-making.

 Develop a stronger position in negotiating with vendors  When considering privatization of MSW services, solid waste managers can use FCA to learn what it costs (or would cost) to do the work. As a result, FCA better positions public agencies for negotiations and decision-making. FCA also can help communities with publicly run operations determine whether their costs are competitive with the private sector.

 Evaluate the appropriate mix of MSW services  FCA gives managers the ability to evaluate the cost of each element of their solid waste system, such as recycling, composting, waste-to-energy, and landfilling. FCA can help managers avoid common mistakes in thinking about solid waste management, notably the error of treating avoided costs as revenues.

 Fine-tune MSW programs  As more communities use FCA and report the results, managers might be able to "benchmark" their operations to similar communities or norms. This comparison can suggest options for "re-engineering" current operations. Furthermore, when cities, counties, and towns know what it costs to manage MSW independently, they can better identify any savings that might come from working together.

Food and Agriculture
Over the last ten years there has been considerable attention for Full Cost Accounting (FCA) or True Cost Accounting (TCA) in the field of food and agriculture. In 2013 and 2016, the Sustainable Food Trust organised two conferences on True Cost Accounting in food and farming, in the UK and the USA respectively. The FAO published two studies in 2014 and 2015 with a TCA-analysis of the impact of food wastage ("Food wastage footprint: full cost accounting" ) and another TCA-analysis of the total impact of world food production on Natural Capital ("Natural Capital Impacts in Agriculture" ). In the first report, the FAO comes to the conclusion that the yearly hidden impact of food wastage on Natural Capital amounts to USD 700 billion while the hidden impact on social capital amounts to USD 900 billion dollars. In the second report, the FAO estimates the environmental damage of the world food production at USD 2330 billion per year.

Motives for adoption

Various motives for adoption of FCA/TCA have been identified.  The most significant of which tend to involve anticipating market or regulatory problems associated with ignoring the comprehensive outcome of the whole process or event accounted for.  In green economics, this is the major concern and basis for critiques of such measures as GDP.  The public sector has tended to move more towards longer term measures to avoid accusations of political favoritism towards specific solutions that seem to make financial or economic sense in the short term, but not longer term.

Corporate decision makers sometimes call on FCA/TCA measures to decide whether to initiate recalls, practice voluntary product stewardship (a form of recall at the end of a product's useful life).  This can be motivated as a hedge against future liabilities arising from those who are negatively affected by the waste a product becomes.  Advanced theories of FCA, such as Natural Step, focus firmly on these.  According to Ray Anderson, who instituted a form of FCA/TCA at Interface Carpet, used it to rule out decisions that increase Ecological Footprint and focus the company more clearly on a sustainable marketing strategy.

The urban ecology and industrial ecology approaches inherently advocate FCA — treating the built environment as a sort of ecosystem to minimize its own wastes.

See also
Environmental accounting
Environmental pricing reform
Environmental profit and loss account
Externalities
Genuine Progress Indicator
Opportunity cost
Pollution credit
Total cost
Total cost of ownership
Whole-life cost

Notes

References

Industrial ecology
Ecological economics
Management accounting
Waste management concepts
Management cybernetics

Environmental full-cost accounting


Humanitarianism is a way of behaving out of kindness to other people.  Someone who is a humanitarian is a person who helps to improve the lives of other people without thinking about their race, belief or nationality.

Humanitarianism is not the same thing as Humanism which is about not believing in a god.

A good example of Humanitarianism is the well-known story from the New Testament about the Good Samaritan who goes to help the poor man who has been robbed.

Humanitarianism also means basic morality indispensable for human being. There are international laws called "international humanitarian laws" considered to created out of humanitarianism of this mean. Among them, Geneva Conventions on the matter made at the time of wars are well known.

Related pages
Charity
Humanism
Humanitarian aid
Geneva Conventions

Ethics
Society
Altruism

Humanitarianism


An epidemic is a disease that spreads over a large area and affects many people at the same time. Epidemics are when a disease spreads from person to person faster than doctors can control. If the disease spreads over the whole world, sometimes it is called a pandemic.

Such diseases must be treated quickly and properly otherwise they can infect people on large scale and pose a danger to the world. It is very important that timely vaccination and treatment is provided. The study of epidemics is part of epidemiology.

Infectious diseases
Epidemiology

Epidemic


A pilot is a person that drives a vehicle (form of transportation) such as an airplane, spacecraft, or boat. All types of pilots must pass a number of tests and obtain a license before they can operate the vehicle. The pilot of a flying machine is usually in charge for the whole trip. A ship pilot usually only guides the ship through an especially difficult place such as a harbor.

Occupations in aviation
Water transport

Pilot


David was an important King of Israel. He is described in the Qu'ran, Bahá'í scripture and the Old Testament books of 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel. He was the father of King Solomon, and an ancestor of Jesus.

Early years
David was the youngest of the eight sons of Jesse, a shepherd; Jesse was the grandson of Ruth (Ruth 4: 17, 22). David was a shepherd, like his father. While taking care of the sheep, he would use a sling to keep wild animals from hurting them. He would also play his harp. Many of the songs he wrote during his life are found in the book of Psalms.

In Saul's service
When Saul, the first King of Israel, disobeyed the Lord's wikt:command to destroy Amalek, God sent an evil spirit in him to torment him.
He called David, the shepherd, to his palace because David was good at playing the harp, and the soft music soothed Saul when he was being tormented by the evil sprit. Saul "liked him very much, and David became one of his armor-bearers." So, "...whenever the spirit from God came upon Saul, David would take his harp and play. Then relief would come to Saul; he would feel better, and the evil spirit would leave him."  He unknowingly puts in his court the person God chose to replace him.

David's first victory

When David was about twelve years old, his older brothers had to join the army to fight for Israel, under the leadership of King Saul. His father was worried about them, and sent David to check on them.  He took his harp with him, and King Saul, who was very troubled, heard him play and found it soothing. He asked for David to remain with the army.

At the time David arrived, a giant Philistine enemy, Goliath, was mocking the Israelites and God, saying, "Who will come and fight me? If he wins, we will be your slaves, but if I win, then you will be our slaves!" All the Israelites were afraid. When David saw this, he was very angry, and he said, "I will go and fight him!"

David's faith was very different from that of King Saul, who, not thinking about God, immediately said, "You are not able...you are only a boy..." But David said confidently, "The Lord who delivered me from the paw of the lion and the paw of the bear will deliver (save) me from the hand of this Philistine." He had faith, not in his own fighting skills, but in the power of God, whose honor has been hurt by the Philistines and whose covenant promises had been forgotten by the Israelites.

When King Saul saw that David was brave enough to fight Goliath, he agreed to send him. Saul gave David armour and weapons, but they were too heavy for him. David told Saul that he would use his sling instead. He then used a smooth stone and hit Goliath in the forehead, killing him instantly. Using Goliath's own sword, David cut off Goliath's head. Although Saul was pleased at the victory, he began to worry that David would begin to seek power.

Jealousy erupts
Later, because of David's excellent fighting skills and loyalty to God, King Saul appointed David to a high rank in the army and married him to one of his own daughters, Michal. Whenever David went into battle, he returned with a victory, and all the people were pleased with him, and King Saul treasured him very much. David became a close companion and friend of Saul's son Jonathan. But one day, when King Saul was coming out to greet his people, the women of the town came out, singing and dancing, with tambourines and lutes. And as they danced, they sang the following words:
"Saul has slain his thousands,
and David his tens of thousands."
Saul, hearing this song, was seized with fury and jealousy, and began to suspect that the people liked David more than him.

Saul tries to kill David
Saul's jealousy then began to heat into hatred, and he wanted to kill David, but not yet with his own hand - and so he asked David to marry his daughter, Merab, but David refused politely, and Merab was married to Adriel of Meholah. Then he asked, again, for David to marry Michal, who was in love with David. David again refused. Finally, he asked him to bring a hundred Philistine foreskins, and then he would give the bride over. David was pleased to become Saul's son-in-law when he heard this, and agreed. Saul thought, "Now he will be killed by the Philistine's hand!" But God was with David, and he was not hurt. Saul tells Jonathan and all the officials to kill David, but Jonathan loved David very much (and had made a covenant of friendship with him), and warned Saul not to. Saul listened, but later he grew angry again, and kept trying to kill David. Many times David did not kill Saul when he had a chance to, but instead said, "How can I kill the Lord's anointed?" and spared Saul; and many times Saul blessed David and repented, and determined to stop trying to kill David - but he always returned with a spear.

David crowned king

In battle with the Philistines, Saul's sons Jonathan, Abinadab and Malki-Shua were killed (the surviving son, Ish-Bosheth or Esh-Baal, was later made king by Abner). Saul was injured, and he said to his armor-bearer to kill him before "...these uncircumcised fellows will come and run me through and abuse me."  The armor-bearer was too afraid to do it, so Saul "...took his own sword and fell on it", killing himself. The armor-bearer killed himself, as well. "So Saul and his three sons and his armor-bearer and all his men died together that same day."

An Amalekite came to David and lied that he had killed Saul, probably hoping that David would reward him. David realized that Saul was dead, and ripped his clothes and wept. He was not happy to hear that Saul was dead, and even killed the Amalekite, thinking that he was Saul's murderer. He was anointed again in front of everybody.

Meanwhile, Ish-Bosheth, the only son of Saul left, was made king by Abner, a relative of Saul. "The war between the house of Saul and the house of David lasted a long time. David grew stronger and stronger, while the house of Saul grew weaker and weaker.", Later, Abner slept with one of Saul's concubines, and Ish-Bosheth asked, "Why did you sleep with my father's concubine?" Ish-Bosheth suspected that Abner wanted to be king instead of him (sleeping with the concubine of a king was thought very important). Abner became very angry and decided to help David instead. However, Joab, the commander of David's army, did not like Abner because Abner had killed his brother. Maybe he also thought his job as the leader of the army would not be safe if Abner helped David, because Abner was very powerful in the northern tribes of Israel. So, Joab killed him by stabbing him in the stomach. David cursed Joab for murdering Abner and said that he did not join in the killing.

When Ish-Bosheth heard that Abner had died, he became very worried: the northern tribes were now without a strong leader. Two men, Recab and his brother Baanah, killed Ish-Bosheth in his house and brought his head to David, saying, "This day the LORD has avenged my lord the king against Saul." David was very angry, and killed them: cutting off the hands that had killed Ish-Bosheth and the feet that had run with the news. They buried the head of Ish-Bosheth in Abner's tomb.

All the tribes of Israel then came to David and made him king over Israel.

A promise not forgotten

A few years after David had captured Jerusalem, he asked, "Is there anyone...to whom I can show kindness for Jonathan's sake?" remembering the promise he had made. They found a servant of King Saul named Ziba, who said that there was still a son of Jonathan who was crippled in both feet named Mephibosheth. David told Mephibosheth that he would get back all the land Saul had when he was king, and that Mephibosheth would always eat at his table - a mark of great honor. Mephibosheth bowed down and cried, "What is your servant, that you should notice a dead dog like me?"  From then on, Mephibosheth lived in Jerusalem and always ate at the king's table like one of David's sons.

David and Bathsheba

One day, David was walking around on the roof of his palace when he saw a very beautiful woman bathing. David found out that her name was Bathsheba, the daughter of Eliam and the wife of Uriah the Hittite, who was one of David's royal guards. David "sent messengers to get her...and he slept with her."  Because of this, David eventually broke the sixth, seventh, ninth and tenth commandments  She soon became pregnant. The law said that both David and Bathsheba must die for their sin. David made Uriah come back from battle and tried to make him go back home and sleep with Bathsheba, so everybody would think it was Uriah's son. But Uriah did not go home, saying, "The ark and Israel and Judah are staying in tents...How could I go to my house...and lie with my wife?"  His devotion demonstrated how sinful David was. Finally, when David could not make him go home, he decided to make Uriah die so he could marry Bathsheba himself quickly. He said, "Put Uriah in the front line where the fighting is fiercest (most violent).  Then withdraw (go away) from him so he will be struck down and die."  Because of this, Uriah died.

David married Bathsheba, but "...the thing David had done displeased the LORD." So, Nathan the prophet went and told him that he had done a very bad sin. David saw he was guilty and was very sorry. He said, "I have sinned against the Lord."  Nathan told David that he was forgiven, and the LORD mercifully did not make David die, as the law said he must. However, Nathan said that Bathsheba's first son, born as a result of their sins would die. After Nathan had gone home, the child became sick and died. David was very sad, but humbly accepted the results of his sin. Bathsheba had another son, and they named him Solomon. The LORD loved him, and said to name him Jedidah (it means loved by the LORD)  This name showed that the LORD loved Solomon from when he was born, and also showed that the LORD still loved David, even though he had sinned.

Descendants
After the overthrow of King Zedekiah of the House of David his lineage was carried on by the Exilarchs.Descendants of the house of exilarchs were living in various places long after the office became extinct. A descendant of Hezekiah, Hiyya al-Daudi, Gaon of Andalucia, died in 1154 in Castile according to Abraham ibn Daud. Several families, as late as the 14th century, traced their descent back to Josiah, the brother of David ben Zakkai who had been banished to Chorasan (see the genealogies in [Lazarus 1890] pp. 180 et seq.). The descendants of the Karaite Exilarchs have been referred to above.A number of Jewish families in the Iberian peninsula and within Mesopotamia continued to preserve the tradition of descent from Exilarchs in the Late Middle Ages, including the families of Abravanel, Benveniste, Hajj Yachya and Ben-David. One tradition also traces the ancestry of Judah Loew ben Bezalel to Babylonian Exilarchs (during the era of the geonim) and therefore also from the Davidic dynasty, which is however disputed. According to another tradition, Rabbi Elazar Rokeach of Amsterdam of the Belz (Hasidic dynasty) was a descendent from the house of King David. Another Rabbanic Dynasty Charlap also are reportably from the House of King David.

Cultural references
Leonard Cohen's song "Hallelujah" has references to David ("there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord", "The baffled king composing Hallelujah") and Bathsheba ("you saw her bathing on the roof") in its opening verses.

References

Old Testament people
Kings of ancient Israel
Kings of ancient Judah
People from Bethlehem
11th-century BC people
10th-century BC people

David


Basil (Ocimum basilicum) ( or ) is a plant of the Family Lamiaceae. It is also known as Sweet Basil or Tulsi. It is a tender low-growing herb that is grown as a perennial in warm, tropical climates. Basil is originally native to India and other tropical regions of Asia. It has been cultivated there for more than 5,000 years. It is prominently featured in many cuisines throughout the world. Some of them are Italian, Thai, Vietnamese and Laotian cuisines. It grows to between 30–60 cm tall. It has light green, silky leaves 3–5 cm long and 1–3 cm broad. The leaves are opposite each other. The flowers are quite big. They are white in color and arranged as a spike. Is the Medicinal plant.

The plant tastes somewhat like anise, with a strong, pungent, sweet smell. Basil is very sensitive to cold. It is best grown in hot, dry conditions. While most common varieties are treated as annuals, some are perennial, including African Blue and Holy Thai basil.

The word basil comes from the Greek βασιλεύς (basileus), meaning "royal". This is because it is believed to have grown above the spot where St. Constantine and Helen discovered the Holy Cross. The Oxford English Dictionary quotes speculations that basil may have been used in "some royal unguent, bath, or medicine". Basil is still considered the "king of herbs" by many cookery authors. An alternative etymology has "basil" coming from the Latin word basilicus, meaning dragon and being the root for basilisk, but this likely was a linguistic reworking of the word as brought from Greece.

Basil for cooking

Most of the time, Basil should be used fresh. In recipes it is generally added at the last moment. Cooking it quickly destroys the meal. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator. Using a freezer will allow for it to be kept a longer time. In both cases, it needs being blanched quickly in boiling water. The dried herb also loses most of its flavour, and what little flavour remains tastes very different, with a weak coumarin flavour, like hay.

Mediterranean and Indochinese cuisines frequently use basil. In Mediterranean cuisines it is often combined with tomato. Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto—a green Italian oil-and-herb sauce from the city of Genoa. The other two main ingredients  of Pesto are olive oil and pine nuts. The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are "Genovese", "Purple Ruffles", "Mammoth", "Cinnamon", "Lemon", "Globe", and "African Blue". Chinese also use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods. In Taiwan, people add fresh basil leaves into thick soups (羹湯; gēngtāng). They also eat fried chicken with deep-fried basil leaves.

Basil is sometimes used with fresh fruit and in fruit jams and sauces. Most commonly this is done with strawberries, but also raspberries or dark-colored plums. Some people say that the flat-leaf basil used in Vietnamese cooking is more suitable for use with fruit.

Basil seeds

When soaked in water the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous. They are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as falooda or sherbet. Such seeds are known variously as sabja, subja, takmaria, tukmaria, falooda, or hột é. They are used for their medicinal properties in Ayurveda, the traditional medicinal system of India.

other types

Several other basils, including some other Ocimum species, are grown in many regions of Asia. Most of the Asian basils have a clove-like flavour that is generally stronger than the Mediterranean basils. In China, the local cultivar is called 九層塔 (jiǔcéngtǎ; literally "nine-level pagoda"), while the imported varieties are specifically called 羅勒 (luólè) or 巴西里 (bāxīlǐ), although [巴西里] often refers to another different kind plant—parsley.

'Lemon basil' has a strong lemony smell and flavour very different from those of other varieties because it contains a chemical called citral. It is widely used in Indonesia, where it is called kemangi and served raw, together with raw cabbage, green beans, and cucumber, as an accompaniment to fried fish or duck. Its flowers, broken up, are a zesty salad condiment.

Growing Basil
Basil grows well in hot weather. It  behaves like an annual if there is any chance of a frost. In Northern Europe, the northern states of the U.S., and the South Island of New Zealand it will grow best if sown under glass in a peat pot. It can be planted out in late spring/early summer, when there is little risk of frost. It fares best in a well-drained sunny spot.

Although basil will grow best outdoors, it can be grown indoors in a pot. Like most herbs, it will do best on a south-facing windowsill (in the Northern Hemisphere). It should be kept away from extremely cold drafts. It grows best in strong sunlight. A greenhouse or cloche is ideal if available. Basil plants can even be grown  in a basement, under fluorescent lights.

If its leaves have wilted from lack of water, it will recover if watered thoroughly and placed in a sunny location. Yellow leaves towards the bottom of the plant are an indication that the plant needs more sunlight or less fertilizer.

In sunnier climates such as Southern Europe, the southern states of the U.S., the North Island of New Zealand, and Australia, basil will thrive when planted outside. It also thrives over the summertime in the central and northern United States, but dies out when temperatures reach freezing point, to grow again the next year if allowed to go to seed. It will need regular watering, but not as much attention as is needed in other climates.

Basil can also be propagated very reliably from cuttings in exactly the same manner as "Busy Lizzie" (Impatiens), with the stems of short cuttings suspended for two weeks or so in water until roots develop.

If a stem successfully produces mature flowers, leaf production slows or stops on any stem which flowers, the stem becomes woody, and essential oil production declines.To prevent this, a basil-grower may pinch off any flower stems before they are fully mature. Because only the blooming stem is so affected, some can be pinched for leaf production, while others are left to bloom for decoration or seeds.

Once the plant is allowed to flower, it may produce seed pods containing small black seeds. These can be saved and planted the following year. Picking the leaves off the plant helps "promote growth", largely because the plant responds by converting pairs of leaflets next to the topmost leaves into new stems.

Diseases

Basil suffers from several plant diseases that can ruin the crop and reduce yield. Fusarium wilt is a soilbourne fungal disease that will quickly kill younger basil plants. Seedlings may also be killed by Pythium damping off.

A common foliar disease of basil is gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea, can also cause infections post-harvest and is capable of killing the entire plant. Black spot can also be seen on basil foliage and is caused by the fungi genus Colletotrichum.

Health issues
Basil, like other aromatic plants such as fennel and tarragon, contains estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in rats and mice. While human effects are currently unstudied, the rodent experiments indicate that it would take 100–1000 times the normal anticipated exposure to become a cancer risk.

Cultural aspects

There are many rituals and beliefs associated with basil. The French call basil "herbe royale". Jewish folklore suggests it adds strength while fasting. It is a symbol of love in present-day Italy, but represented hatred in ancient Greece, and European lore sometimes claims that basil is a symbol of Satan. African legend claims that basil protects against scorpions, while the English botanist Culpeper cites one "Hilarius, a French physician" as affirming it as common knowledge that smelling basil too much would breed scorpions in the brain.

Holy Basil, also called 'Tulsi', is highly revered in Hinduism and also has religious significance in the Greek Orthodox Church, where it is used to prepare holy water. It is said to have been found around Christ's tomb after his resurrection. The Serbian Orthodox Church, Macedonian Orthodox Church and Romanian Orthodox Church use basil (Macedonian: босилек;  Romanian: busuioc, Serbian: босиљак) to prepare holy water and pots of basil are often placed below church altars.

In Europe, they place basil in the hands of the dead to ensure a safe journey. In India, they place it in the mouth of the dying to ensure they reach God. The ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks believed that it would open the gates of heaven for a person passing on.

In Boccaccio's Decameron a memorably morbid tale (novella V) tells of Lisabetta, whose brothers slay her lover. He appears to her in a dream and shows her where he is buried. She secretly disinters the head, and sets it in a pot of basil, which she waters with her daily tears. The pot being taken from her by her brothers, she dies of her grief not long after.  Boccaccio's tale is the source of John Keats' poem Isabella or The Pot of Basil.  A similar story is told of the Longobard queen Rosalind.

References

 Diseases of Basil and Their Management

Other websites

 Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages explain the culinary use of basil in European and Asian cooking; further web links.

Lamiaceae
Herbs

Basil


The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryo Dynasty also called the "Kingdom of Goryeo", is one of the Korean dynasties which existed from 918 to 1392. It began in 918 with Emperor Taejo. The name "Goryeo" came to be said as "Korea" by foreigners and is still the name of the country. Goryeo united the Later Three Kingdoms of Korea (Later Baekje, Later Goguryeo, and Silla) and by 1374 ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392. Goryeo increased its borders to Chung-cheon river and Youngheong (936~943) and the Amnok River (933).

Background
Silla had accomplished a unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in 668. But it weakened as local lords achieved power during the end of the 9th century. The country entered a period of civil war and rebellion, led by Gung Ye, Gi Hwon, Yang Gil, and Gyeon Hwon. Gung Ye established Hugogureo (meaning "Later Goguryeo") and Wang Geon (Later, Taejo) made a contribution as Gung Ye's subordinate. However, Gung Ye became more and more tyrannical and finally killed his own wife and son. Also he insisted that he was Maitreya (the future Buddha). Meanwhile, Wang Geon increased his power as he conquered Geumsung area in Later Baekje. Finally, some people who followed Wang Geon broke out the rebellion and he named the dynasty as Goryeo and changed its capital city to Song-ak.

Goryeo made the policy to win the favor of people and maintained good relationship with Silla. As a result, Silla surrendered unconditionally to Goryeo. Meanwhile, Later Baekje collapsed by itself as princes fought each other over uccession to the throne. Because of the internal conflict, Later Baekje became weaker and weaker and was conquered by Goryeo. Finally, Goryeo united the Later Three Kingdoms again (936) and accomplished re-unification of Korean people.

Taejo made important policies. First, he insisted that Goryeo should expand its territory to further North. It is because he succeed to Goguryeo (ancient Korean kingdom founded in 37 BC–668) and Goguryeo had the biggest territory in Korean history. So, Taejo named the dynasty as Goryeo from Goguryeo and tried to take back the territory of Goguryeo. He emphasized the importance of Sukyung area because it is placed in the North part and kept in check Gu Ran (kind of Mongolian) that made an effort to come down to Goryeo. Later, all of these policies contributed to expanding its territory to Apnok River. Taejo unified all people from different Korean kingdoms (Baekje, Silla, Goguryeo, Balhae). Because of this policy, Goryeo is considered to have united Korea.

Related pages

Historic Monuments and Sites in Kaesong

History of Korea
Royal dynasties
918 establishments
1392 disestablishments

Goryeo


Peta atawa atlas mangrupa gambaran dua-diménsi pikeun rohangan tilu diménsi. Élmu nyieun peta disebut kartografi.

Pedaran
Atlas baheula mah tara jelas, sarta biasana mah sok dilieurkeun ku masalah mana nu jadi puseurna. Sigana mah tujuan dijieunna peta gé lain pikeun tujuan géografis, sabab leuwih condong midangkeun sajarah nu patali jeung éta wewengkon.

Peta éléktronik

For maps on a computer display, e.g. from the web or locally stored on CD-ROM or harddisk, zooming in méans enlarging the scale, either by showing a smaller aréa in the same viewing window or by showing the same aréa in a larger viewing window, and one of the following:
 replace the map by a more detailed one
 enlarge the same map without enlarging the pixels, hence show more detail
 enlarge the same map with the pixels enlarged (replaced by rectangles of pixels); no additional detail is shown, but, depending on the quality of one's vision, possibly more detail can be seen; if a computer display does not show adjacent pixels réally separate, but overlapping instéad (this does not apply for an LCD display, but may apply for a CRT), then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail.

Combinations are possible, e.g. the second applying for text and the third for the outline of a map féature such as a forest, a building etc. Also the map may have layers which are partly raster graphics and partly vector graphics.

For a single raster graphics image the second applies until the pixels in the image file correspond to the pixels of the display; on further zooming in, the third applies.

For a PDF-file typically the second applies. The incréase in detail is, of course, limited to the information contained in the file: enlarging a curve it may eventually become a series of straight line segments, or other standard géometric figures such as arcs of circles.

A variation of the third possibility is that interpolation is performed.

Text is not necessarily enlarged when zooming in. Similarly, a road represented by a double line may or may not become wider when one zooms in. A variation of the first possibility above is that more text is displayed (such as more town names), but that for the rest of the image the second applies.

See also Webpage#Graphics, Portable Document Format#Layers.

Peta na Wikipédia
Unggal artikel nagara kudu nyadiakeun peta nagarana, ogé bagian-bagian tina nagara éta. Tempo ogé Peta dunya, Peta na Wikipédia.

Tumbu jeung acuan

Acuan
 David Buisseret, ed., Monarchs, Ministers and Maps: The Emergence of Cartography as a Tool of Government in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, [ISBN 0-226-07987-2]
 Mark Monmorier, How to Lie with Maps, [ISBN 0-226-53421-9]

Tempo ogé
 Atlas (kartografi)
 Peta topografik
 Peta géologis

Tumbu kaluar
 Multimap world atlas: on UK, US, Canada, Australia and Western Europe more detailed than the rest of the world
  - Microsoft/Encarta/Expedia world atlas, for North America and Europe to street level.
 MapQuest: on US, Canada and Western Europe more detailed than the rest of the world
 Yahoo Maps: on US, Canada, Germany, France, Spain, Italy
 Yahoo Germany: on France, UK, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Austria, Switzerland, Benelux
 Map South Pacific: on Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia
  - ESRI atlas of the US
 National Atlas of the United States
 Small country maps, conveniently linked from continent maps
 UT scanned collection: by the University of Texas at Austin
 Example of legend (Cito-Plan city maps)
 https://web.archive.org/web/20040619192908/http://www.geocities.com/marcoschmidt.geo/geo-data.html
 USGS National Map

Kartografi

Atlas


The larynx (plural larynges), also known as the voice box, is an organ in the neck of humans and animals. It  helps to protect the wind pipe by stopping it from inhaling food. It also helps with breathing and making sounds. The larynx houses the vocal cords.

Function
The larynx makes the voice. Both pitch and loudness are controlled here. It has a small slit through which air passes and makes the vocal cords vibrate. The vibrating vocal cords make the air vibrate. This sound changes as it travels through the vocal tract. It becomes a different sound based on the position of the tongue, lips, mouth, and pharynx.

When swallowing, the backward motion of the tongue forces part of the larynx called the epiglottis to cover up the opening to the larynx, also called the laryngeal opening. This is to stop the food swallowed from entering the lungs. The larynx is also pulled upwards to help with this process. If the larynx is irritated by something that is swallowed, a strong cough reflex is used to protect the lungs.

Disorders of the larynx

There are several things that can cause a larynx to not function properly. Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing difficulties. Larynx transplant is not done very often. The world's first successful operation took place in 1998 at the Cleveland Clinic, and the second took place in October 2010 at the University of California Medical Center in Sacramento.

 Acute laryngitis is the sudden inflammation and swelling of the larynx. It is caused by the common cold or by excessive shouting. It is not serious. Chronic laryngitis is caused by smoking, dust, frequent yelling, or prolonged exposure to polluted air. It is much more serious than acute laryngitis.
 Presbylarynx is age-related hardening of the soft tissues of the larynx. It results in weak voice and restricted vocal range. Bowing of the front portion of the vocal cords is found on laryngoscopy (an examination of the larynx).
 Polyps and nodules are small bumps on the vocal cords. They can be caused by prolonged exposure to cigarette smoke and vocal misuse.
 Two related types of cancer of the larynx, namely squamous cell carcinoma and verrucous carcinoma, are strongly associated with repeated exposure to cigarette smoke and alcohol.
 Laryngeal spasm.
 Laryngopharyngeal reflux is a condition in which acid from the stomach irritates and burns the larynx. Similar damage can occur with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
 Laryngomalacia is a very common condition of infancy. The soft, immature cartilage of the upper larynx collapses inward during inhalation, causing the airway to be (partly) blocked.
 Laryngeal perichondritis, the inflammation of the perichondrium (a connective tissue around the cartilage) of laryngeal cartilages, causing the airway to be (partly) blocked.

References

Speech and Hearing Science: Anatomy and Physiology 3rd edition. Willard R. Zemlin. 1988. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Anatomy of the respiratory system

Larynx


The doctrine or theory of immanence holds that the divine encompasses or is manifested in the material world. It is held by some philosophical and metaphysical theories of divine presence. Immanence is usually applied in monotheistic, pantheistic, pandeistic, or panentheistic faiths to suggest that the spiritual world permeates the mundane. It is often contrasted with theories of transcendence, in which the divine is seen to be outside the material world.

Major faiths commonly devote significant philosophical efforts to explaining the relationship between immanence and transcendence but do so in different ways, such as:
 casting immanence as a characteristic of a transcendent God (common in Abrahamic religions),
 subsuming immanent personal gods in a greater transcendent being (such as with Brahman in Hinduism), or
 approaching the question of transcendence as something which can only be answered through an appraisal of immanence.

Western Esotericism
Another meaning of immanence is the quality of being contained within, or remaining within the boundaries of a person, of the world, or of the mind. This meaning is more common within Christian and other monotheist theology, in which the one God is considered to transcend his creation.  Pythagoreanism says that the nous is an intelligent principle of the world acting with a specific intention. This is the divine reason regarded in Neoplatonism as the first emanation of the divine. From the nous emerges the world soul, which gives rise to the manifest realm. Neoplatonic gnosticism goes on to say the Godhead is the Father, Mother, and Son (Zeus). In the mind of Zeus, the ideas are distinctly articulated and become the Logos by which he creates the world. These ideas become active in the Mind (nous) of Zeus. With him is the Power and from him is the nous. This theology further explains that Zeus is called Demiurge (Dêmiourgos, Creator), Maker (Poiêtês), and Craftsman (Technitês). The nous of the demiurge proceeds outward into manifestation, becoming living ideas. They give rise to a lineage of mortal human souls. The components of the soul are 1) the higher soul, seat of the intuitive mind (divine nous); 2) the rational soul (logistikon) (seat of discursive reason / dianoia); 3) the nonrational soul (alogia), responsible for the senses, appetites, and motion. Zeus thinks the articulated ideas (logos). The idea of ideas (eidos - eidôn), provides a model of the Paradigm of the Universe, which the Demiurge contemplates in his articulation of the ideas and his creation of the world according to the Logos.

Buddhism

Tantric Buddhism and Dzogchen posit a non-dual basis for both experience and reality that could be considered an exposition of a philosophy of immanence that has a history on the subcontinent of India from early CE to the present. A paradoxical non-dual awareness or rigpa (Tibetan — vidya in Sanskrit) — is said to be the 'self-perfected state' of all beings. Scholarly works differentiate these traditions from monism. The non-dual is said to be not immanent and not transcendent, not neither, nor both. One classical exposition is the Madhyamaka refutation of extremes that the philosopher-adept Nagarjuna propounded.

Exponents of this non-dual tradition emphasize the importance of a direct experience of non-duality through both meditative practice and philosophical investigation. In one version, one maintains awareness as thoughts arise and dissolve within the 'field' of mind; one does not accept or reject them, rather one lets the mind wander as it will until a subtle sense of immanence dawns. Vipassana, or insight, is the integration of one's 'presence of awareness' with that which arises in the mind. Non-duality or rigpa is said to be the recognition that both the quiet, calm, abiding state as found in samatha and the movement or arising of phenomena as found in vipassana are not separate.

Christianity

Catholicism, Protestantism, and Eastern Christianity

According to Christian theology, the transcendent God, who cannot be approached or seen in essence or being, becomes immanent primarily in the God-man Jesus the Christ, who is the incarnate Second Person of the Trinity. In Byzantine Rite theology the immanence of God is expressed as the hypostases or energies of God, who in his essence is incomprehensible and transcendent. In Catholic theology, Christ and the Holy Spirit immanently reveal themselves; God the Father only reveals himself immanently vicariously through the Son and Spirit, and the divine nature, the Godhead is wholly transcendent and unable to be comprehended.

This is expressed in St. Paul's letter to the Philippians, where he writes:

The Holy Spirit is also expressed as an immanence of God.

The immanence of the triune God is celebrated in the Catholic Church, traditional Protestant Churches, and Eastern Churches during the liturgical feast of the Theophany of God, known in Western Christianity as the Epiphany.

Pope Pius X wrote at length about philosophical-theological controversies over immanence in his encyclical Pascendi dominici gregis.

Mormonism
According to Latter Day Saint theology, all of material creation is filled with immanence, known as the light of Christ. It is also responsible for the intuitive conscience born into man. The Light of Christ is the source of intellectual and spiritual enlightenment, and is the means by which God is in and through all things. LDS scriptures identify the divine Light with the mind of God, the source of all truth and conveyor of the characteristics of the divine nature through God's goodness. The experienced brilliance of God reflects the "fullness" of this spirit within God's being. Similarly, mankind can incorporate this spiritual light or divine mind and thus become one with God. This immanent spirit of light bridges the scientific and spiritual conceptualizations of the universe.

Judaism

Traditional Jewish religious thought can be divided into Nigleh ("Revealed") and Nistar ("Hidden") dimensions. Hebrew Scripture is, in the Kabbalistic tradition, explained using the four level exegesis method of Pardes. In this system, the first three approaches, Simple, Hinted and Homiletical interpretations, characterise the revealed aspects. The fourth approach, the Secret meaning, characterises a hidden aspect. Among the classic texts of Jewish tradition, some Jewish Bible commentators, the Midrash, the Talmud, and mainstream Jewish philosophy use revealed approaches. Other Bible commentators, the Kabbalah, and Hasidic philosophy, use hidden approaches. Both dimensions are seen by adherents as united and complementary. In this way, ideas in Jewish thought are given a variety of ascending meanings. Explanations of a concept in Nigleh are given inherent, inner, mystical contexts from Nistar.

Descriptions of divine immanence can be seen in Nigleh, from the Bible to Rabbinic Judaism. In Genesis, God makes a personal covenant with the forefathers Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Daily Jewish prayers refer to this inherited closeness and personal relationship with the divine, for their descendants, as "the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob". To Moses, God reveals his Tetragrammaton name, that more fully captures divine descriptions of transcendence. Each of the Biblical names for God describe different divine manifestations. The most important prayer in Judaism, that forms part of the Scriptural narrative to Moses, says "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One." This declaration combines different divine names, and themes of immanence and transcendence. Perhaps the most personal example of a Jewish prayer that combines both themes is the invocation repeatedly voiced during the time in the Jewish calendar devoted to Teshuva (Return, often inaccurately translated as Repentance), Avinu Malkeinu ("Our Father, Our King"). Much of the later Hebrew Biblical narrative recounts the reciprocal relationship and national drama of the unfolding of themes of immanence and transcendence. Kabbalistic, or Hasidic Jewish thought and philosophy describe and articulate these interconnected aspects of the divine-human relationship.

Jewish mysticism gives explanations of greater depth and spirituality to the interconnected aspects of God's immanence and transcendence. The main expression of mysticism, the Kabbalah, began to be taught in 12th-Century Europe, and reached a new systemisation in 16th-Century Israel. The Kabbalah gives the full, subtle, traditional system of Jewish metaphysics. In the Medieval Kabbalah, new doctrines described the 10 Sephirot (divine emanations) through which the Infinite, unknowable divine essence reveals, emanates, and continuously creates existence. The Kabbalists identified the final, feminine Sefirah with the earlier, traditional Jewish concept of the Shekhinah (immanent divine presence). This gave great spirituality to earlier ideas in Jewish thought, such as the theological explanations of suffering (theodicy). In this example, the Kabbalists described the Shekhinah accompanying the children of Israel in their exile, being exiled alongside them, and yearning for Her redemption. Such a concept derives from the Kabbalistic theology that the physical World, and also the Upper spiritual Worlds, are continuously recreated from nothing by the Shefa (flow) of divine will, which emanates through the Sefirot. As a result, within all creations are divine sparks of vitality that sustain them. Medieval Kabbalah describes two forms of divine emanation, a "light that fills all worlds", representing this immanent divine creative power, and a "light that surrounds all worlds", representing transcendent expressions of Divinity.

The new doctrines of Isaac Luria in the 16th Century completed the Kabbalistic system of explanation. Lurianic Kabbalah describes the process of Tzimtzum (צמצום meaning "Contraction" or "Constriction") in the Kabbalistic theory of creation, where God "contracted" his infinite essence in order to allow for a "conceptual space" in which a finite, independent world could exist. This has received different later interpretations in Jewish mysticism, from the literal to the metaphorical. In this process, creation unfolds within the divine reality. Luria offered a daring cosmic theology that explained the reasons for the Tzimtzum, the primordial catastrophe of Shevirat Hakelim (the "Breaking of the Vessels" of the Sefirot in the first existence), and the messianic Tikkun ("Fixing") of this by every individual through their sanctification of physicality. The concept of Tzimtzum contains a built-in paradox, as it requires that God be simultaneously transcendent and immanent:

 On the one hand, if the Infinite did not "restrict itself", then nothing could exist. There would be no limits, as the infinite essence of God, and also His primordial infinite light (Kabbalistic sources discuss God being able to reign alone, a revealed 'light' of the Sefirah of Kingship, "before" creation) would comprise all reality. Any existence would be nullified into the divine infinity. Therefore, we could not have the variety of limited, finite things that comprise the creations in the universe that we inhabit. (The number of such creations could still be potentially limitless, if the physical universe, or Multiverse had no end). Because each limited thing results from a restriction of God's completeness, God Himself must transcend (exist beyond) these various limited things. This idea can be interpreted in various ways. In its ultimate articulation, by the Hasidic leader Shneur Zalman of Liadi, in the intellectual Hasidic method of Chabad, the Tzimtzum is only metaphorical, an illusion from the perspective of man. Creation is panentheistic (taking place fully "within God"), and acosmic (Illusionary) from the divine perspective. God himself, and even his light, is unrestricted by Tzimtzum, from God's perspective. The Tzimtzum is merely the hiding of this unchanged reality from creation. Shneur Zalman distinguishes between the "Upper Level Unity" of God's existence from the divine perspective, with the "Lower Level Unity" of God's existence as creation perceives him. Because God can be above logic, both perspectives of this paradox are true, from their alternative views. The dimension of the Tzimtzum, which implies divine transcendence, corresponds to the Upper Level Unity. In this perspective, because God is the true, ultimate infinity, then creation (even if its physical and spiritual realms should extend without limit) is completely nullified into literal non-existence by the divine. There is no change in the complete unity of God as all Reality, before or after creation. This is the ultimate level of divine transcendence.
 On the other hand, in Lurianic Kabbalah, the Tzimtzum has an immanent divine dimension. The Tzimtzum formed a "space" (in Lurianic terminology, the Halal, "Vacuum") in which to allow creation to take place. The first act of creation was the emanation of a new light (Kav, "Ray") into the vacated space, from the ultimate divine reality "outside", or unaffected, by the space. The purpose of the Tzimtzum was that the vacated space allowed this new light to be suited to the needs and capacities of the new creations, without their being subsumed in the primordial divine infinity. Kabbalistic theology offers metaphysical explanations of how divine and spiritual processes unfold. In earlier, mainstream Jewish philosophy, logical descriptions of creation ex nihilo (from nothing) describe the new existence of creation, compared to the preceding absence. Kabbalah, however, seeks to explain how the spiritual, metaphysical processes unfold. Therefore, in the Kabbalistic system, God is the ultimate reality, so that creation only exists because it is continuously sustained by the will of God. Creation is formed from the emanated "light" of the divine Will, as it unfolds through the later Sefirot. The light that originated with the Kav later underwent further contractions that diminished it, so that this immanent expression of Divinity could itself create the various levels of Spiritual, and ultimately, Physical existence. The terms of "light" and temporal descriptions of time are metaphorical, in a language accessible to grasp. In this immanent divine dimension, God continuously maintains the existence of, and is thus not absent from, the created universe. In Shneur Zalman's explanation, this corresponds to the conscious perception by Creation of "Lower Level Unity" of God. In this perspective, Creation is real, and not an illusion, but is utterly nullified to the immanent divine life force that continuously sustains and recreates it. It may not perceive its complete dependence on Divinity, as in our present World, that feels its own existence as independent reality. However, this derives from the great concealments of Godliness in our present World. "The Divine life-force which brings all creatures into existence must constantly be present within them ... were this life-force to forsake any created being for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation ...". (Tanya, Shaar Hayichud, Chapter 2–3. Shneur Zalman of Liadi).

Continental philosophy
Giordano Bruno, Baruch Spinoza and possibly Hegel espoused philosophies of immanence versus philosophies of transcendence such as Thomism or Aristotelian tradition. Kant's "transcendental" critique can be contrasted to Hegel's "immanent dialectics."<ref>For further information on Hegel's immanent dialectics, see J. T. Fraser, F. C. Haber, G. H. Müller (eds.), The Study of Time: Proceedings of the First Conference of the International Society for the Study of Time Oberwolfach (Black Forest) — West Germany, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012, p. 437.</ref>

Gilles Deleuze qualified Spinoza as the "prince of philosophers" for his theory of immanence, which Spinoza resumed by "Deus sive Natura" ("God or Nature"). Such a theory considers that there is no transcendent principle or external cause to the world, and that the process of life production is contained in life itself. When compounded with Idealism, the immanence theory qualifies itself away from "the world" to there being no external cause to one's mind.

Thomas Carlyle's idea of "Natural Supernaturalism" posited the immanence of the divine in nature, history and man. Clement Charles Julian Webb explained that "Carlyle had done more than any other nineteenth-century writer to undermine belief in the transcendence of God and the origin of the material world in an act of creation in time, and to put in its place an 'essentially immanentist' theology, drawn largely from the writings of the German Idealists." Carlyle's "Natural Supernaturalism" was highly influential on American Transcendentalism and British Idealism.

Giovanni Gentile's actual idealism, sometimes called "philosophy of immanence" and the metaphysics of the "I", "affirms the organic synthesis of dialectical opposites that are immanent within actual or present awareness". His so-called method of immanence "attempted to avoid: (1) the postulate of an independently existing world or a Kantian Ding-an-sich (thing-in-itself), and (2) the tendency of neo-Hegelian philosophy to lose the particular self in an Absolute that amounts to a kind of mystical reality without distinctions."

Political theorist Carl Schmitt used the term in his book Politische Theologie (1922), meaning a power within some thought, which makes it obvious for the people to accept it, without needing to claim being justified. The immanence of some political system or a part of it comes from the reigning contemporary definer of Weltanschauung, namely religion (or any similar system of beliefs, such as rationalistic or relativistic world-view). The Nazis took advantage of this theory creating, or resurrecting, basically religious mythology of race, its heroes, and its destiny to motivate people and to make their reign unquestionable, which it became.

The French 20th-century philosopher Gilles Deleuze used the term immanence to refer to his "empiricist philosophy", which was obliged to create action and results rather than establish transcendents. His final text was titled Pure Immanence: Essays on a Life'' and spoke of a plane of immanence.

Furthermore, the Russian Formalist film theorists perceived immanence as a specific method of discussing the limits of ability for a technological object. Specifically, this is the scope of potential uses of an object outside of the limits prescribed by culture or convention, and is instead simply the empirical spectrum of function for a technological artifact.

See also

 Buddha-nature
 Hasidic Judaism
 Iman (concept)
 Immanent evaluation
 Immanentize the eschaton
 Metaphysical naturalism
 Plane of immanence
 Substance (God is either transcendent or immanent, as is the case in Spinoza's philosophy)
 Transcendence (philosophy), often considered as the opposite of immanence

References

External links

 Catholic encyclopedia: Immanence
 "Immanence and Deterritorialization: The Philosophy of Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari"
 "the culture of Immanence", Ricardo Barreto and Paula Perissinotto

Pantheism
Religious philosophical concepts
Metaphysical properties
Mysticism
Attributes of God in Christian theology
Spinozism
Nature of Jesus Christ

Immanence


A nymph is a kind of female nature entity/spirit in Greek mythology. They are often companions of Greek gods and goddesses. Nymphs can be divided into different kinds, such as:
 Dryads (trees)
 Naiads (fresh water)
 Oreads (mountains)
 the Okeanids, the daughters of Okeanos, and the Nereids, the daughters of Nereus (seas)
 the Pleiades (stars)

Other websites

Nymph


Sound recording and reproduction is the storage of sound and playing it back so that a person can hear the same sound more than once. It is a process wherein sound waves are captured by a machine. The machine converts the waves into electrical signals or digital data, that are then stored on recording media (such as gramophone records, cassette tapes, compact discs or computer hard drives). The sound can then be played back by reversing the process.

Most recordings are of music, people speaking or singing, and sound effects. They are usually used for entertainment (fun), or for scientific and historical reasons.

Sound is recorded onto a medium by different methods. The ways that recordings are made have changed a lot since sound was first recorded.

Technology

Analog cylinder
The first machines for recording sound were mechanical, not electrical. The phonograph was invented by Thomas Alva Edison in 1877. Phonographs have a spinning cylinder covered in a soft material such as tin foil, lead, wax, or amberol. Sound waves shake a small needle so that its motion carries the waves. As the cylinder turns, the needle draws the motion of the sound waves in the soft coating. This made the cylinder a recording of the sound that was in the needle.

This recording is played back by tracing another needle through the groove in the cylinder. This recreates the small vibrations in the playback needle. These vibrations could be amplified (made louder) to create louder, more audible sound.

The phonograph was useful for making single recordings, but a big disadvantage was the difficulty of making copies of the cylinders.

Analog disk
The problem of copying recordings got better with the invention of the gramophone (also called the phonograph in American English) around 1888. The gramophone works in much the same way as the phonograph, but instead of a cylinder, the needle's grooves are etched into a disk record which turns on a spinning table. Because the record media was flat, copying recordings was much simpler. Pressing the original recording onto a plate of shellac created a negative master, where the grooves were bumps on the surface instead of being scratched into the surface. The master could be used to produce many copies through the opposite process.

The first records were made mostly of rubber or shellac, but later records were made of  vinyl.

Originally, records spun at a rate of 78 rotations per minute, or 78 rpm. As technology got better, records could spin more slowly, but still reproduce sound better and play for longer amounts of time. 45 rpm became common in the middle 20th century, and by the late 1900s most records were 33 rpm.

Tape

In the late 1930s the tape recorder appeared. Tape recorders use a magnetic tape as a medium, with a recording head to store the sound on the tape. Sound waves are converted into an electrical signal inside the recorder. This signal goes into the head, where it changes the polarity of very small magnets. Tape moves past the head at a constant speed, and its magnetic particles are rearranged by these magnets to a pattern that represents the sound wave. These magnetic patterns are much like the small grooves of a cylinder or disc record in the way that they represent the vibration energy of sound waves.

When a tape is played back, it runs past a playback head which reads the magnetic patterns off the tape and converts them back into an electrical signal. The electrical signal can then be converted into sound waves or copied to some other kind of sound-processing machine.

A magnetic tape is divided into several tracks. Each track uses up part of the width of the tape, and can store a completely different recording that can be played back at the same time as the other tracks. A two-track tape has one track on half of the tape and another track on the other half. A four-track tape has four tracks all lying next to one another, like a highway with four lanes. Most tape recordings today are stereophonic (or stereo), meaning that they have two tracks which are meant to be played together. Usually one is played on the listener's left side and the other is on the listener's right side, to match the listener's two ears.

Early tapes were wound flat on a storage reel and transferred to a take-up reel as they were recorded or played. After recording or playback, they were rewound so that they were stored only on the storage reel. This kind of system is usually called reel to reel today. It is still used today for some professional recording and playback, but for home use reels were mostly replaced with other kinds of tape in the 1970s. Cassettes are small cartridges containing two reels inside. Cassettes move a four-track tape in either of two directions, corresponding to their side A and side B labels. The reel on the left contains the unplayed or unrecorded tape, and the reel on the right contains the tape that has already passed the recording or playback head. When you turn the cassette over, the tape still moves from left to right, but this is really the opposite direction. The "side A" recording plays two tracks as stereo, and the "side B" recording plays the other two.

Eight-track tapes were popular for a while in the 1970s and 1980s. Eight-tracks work much like cassettes, but the tape is a loop: it repeats after being played all the way through. Because it has eight tracks, there are four programs to select from, each in stereo. Eight-tracks are not very popular anymore, but can still be found in hobbyist collections.

Professional tape-recording systems may have even more tracks, or might use them differently. Usually a system like this is designed to allow someone to mix the tracks in different ways than they were originally recorded. However, there is a kind of recording called quadraphonic that uses four-track tape to play four different tracks at the same time. A good quadraphonic recording can sound much more "real" than stereo or monophonic recordings.

Digital Audio Tape
Tape recording technology was used from the early days of computing to store digital information. As computer technology improved, so did magnetic tape technology. In the 1980s Digital Audio Tape (DAT) technology emerged.  DAT is designed to work much like cassette, except DAT's magnetic patterns represent digital data instead of sound vibrations. This digital data is a digital audio recording which can be copied and reproduced with many different computer systems. Moving to digital takes the medium one step farther from the original sound. Instead of being a sound medium, the DAT is a data medium, and the data is a sound medium. This is more technically complex, but also more flexible. DAT has been used for many kinds of data recording, in addition to sound.

Compact Disc
The compact disc (CD) medium was developed in the 1980s as a new way to bring digital recordings of music to the market. Except for the introduction of the CD-ROM and several kinds of recordable CD, the CD has not changed much since then. Like DAT, it is a data medium rather than a way of recording vibrations directly. It was introduced to provide music in a way that is cheap for manufacturers but relatively high-quality, but it has since been adapted to meet many data-storage needs. Like DAT, the CD requires computer technology to record and to play.

By the 1990s, CDs had replaced cassettes and records as the main kind of commercial music media. Today, although CDs are still very popular, "online" digital recordings like MP3s are gaining fast.

Techniques
The earliest methods of recording sound involved the live recording of the performance directly to the recording medium. This was an entirely mechanical process, often called "acoustical recording". The sound of the performers was captured by a diaphragm with the cutting needle connect to it. The needle made the grooves in the recording medium.

To make this process as efficient as possible the diaphragm was located at the apex of a cone and the performer(s) would crowd around the other end. If a performer was too loud then they would need to move back from the mouth of the cone to avoid drowning out the other performers. As a result of this, in early Jazz recordings a block of wood was used in place of the bass drum.

The introduction of electrical recording made it possible to use microphones to capture the sound of the performance. The leading record labels switched to the electric microphone process in 1925, and most other record companies followed their lead by the end of the decade. Electrical recording increased the flexibility and sound quality. However once the performance was still cut to the recording medium, so if a mistake was made the recording was useless.

Electrical recording made it possible to record one part to disc and then play that back while playing another part, recording both parts to a second disc. This is called over-dubbing. The first commercially issued records using over-dubbing were released by the Victor Talking Machine Company in the late 1920s. However overdubbing was of limited use until the introduction of analog audio tape. Use of tape overdubbing was pioneered by Les Paul and is called 'sound on sound' recording. In this way performances could be built up over time.

The analog tape recorder made it possible to erase or record over a previous recording so that mistakes could be fixed. Another advantage of recording on tape is the ability to cut the tape and join it back together. This allows the recording to be edited. Pieces of the recording can be removed, or rearranged. See Audio editing

The introduction of electronic instruments (especially keyboards and synthesisers), effects and other instruments has led to the importance of MIDI in recording. For example, using MIDI timecode, it is possible to have different equipment 'trigger' without direct human intervention at the time of recording.

In more recent times, computers (digital audio workstation) have found an increasing role in the recording studio, as their use eases the tasks of cutting and looping, as well as allowing for instantaneous changes, such as duplication of parts, the addition of affects and the rearranging of parts of the recording.

History

The French bookseller and printer Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville was the earliest known inventor of sound recording. It is believed he invented the first ever sound recording device known as the Phonautograph.

References

Other websites
 Mix Magazine/Primedia 2005 directory of Audio Engineering Programs
 Sound recording and reproduction formulas and calculators
 Audio Engineering Society
 The Engineer's Notebook
 A selection of artefacts held at the British Library
 WikiRecording An Online Guide to Audio Recording anyone can edit.

Sound

Sound recording and reproduction


The Twenty-Second United States Census, known as Census 2000 was a count of the population of the United States. It was done by the Census Bureau. It found that the population of the United States on April 1, 2000 was 281,421,906. This was an increase of 13.2% over the 248,709,873 people counted during the 1990 Census. This was the twenty-second federal census. It was the largest single administrative effort in the history of the United States that was not done during wartime.

About 16 percent of households received a "long form" of the 2000 census. It had over 100 questions.

Other websites

 Census 2000 gateway
 Population Profile of the United States: 2000
 Population Profile Introductory slide show, in MS Powerpoint format
 State and County QuickFacts , the most requested information
 American FactFinder, for population, housing, economic, and geographic data
 How the Census Works via Howstuffworks.com

Census
United States Census

2000 United States Census


Lawon nyaéta bahan (matérial) anu dijieun tina anyaman kantéh/benang, boh benang alam atawa benang Sintétik/ buatan. Benang sorangan dijieunna ku cara muntirkeun jeung ngarara atawa mintal (id: memintal, en:spinning) serat, nyaéta sarupaning serat wol, sutra, katun, atawa serat séjénna dina hiji pakakas pintal benang.

'Lawon' ilahar disebut ogé 'kaén' minangka kapangaruhan ku basa Indonésia.

Terminology

The words fabric and cloth are commonly used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres. Fabric refers to any material made through wéaving, knitting, crocheting, or bonding. Cloth refers to a finished piece of fabric that can be used for a purpose such as covering a bed.

History

The production of textiles is an important craft, whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modérn manufacturing techniques.  However, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill or satin weave there is little difference between the ancient and modérn methods.

Incan Indians have been crafting quipus (or khipus) made of fibers either from a protein, such as spun and plied thréad like wool or hair from camelids such as alpacas, llamas and camels or from a cellulose like cotton for thousands of yéars. Khipus are a series of knots along pieces of string. They have been believed to only have acted as a form of accounting, although new evidence conducted by Harvard professor, Gary Urton, indicates there may be more to the khipu than just numbers. Preservation of khipus found in muséum and archive collections follow general textile preservation principles and practice.

Uses
Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and containers such as bags and baskets. In the household, they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, covering for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. In the workplace, they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellanéous uses include flags,backpack, tents, nets, cleaning devices, such as handkerchiefs; transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes; strengthening in composite materials such as fibre glass and industrial geotextiles, and smaller cloths are used in washing by "soaping up" the cloth and washing with it rather than using just soap.

Textiles used for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than their appéarance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (e.g. implants), géotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (e.g. against héat and radiation for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met.

Fashion and textile designs

Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others.
Marisol Deluna, Nicole Miller, Lilly Pulitzer, the late Gianni Versace and Emilio Pucci can be éasily recognized by their signature print driven designs.

Sources and types

Textiles can be made from many materials. These materials come from four main sources: animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, and mineral sources. In the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum.

Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas. The relative thickness of fibres in cloth is méasured in deniers. Microfiber refers to fibers made of strands thinner than one denier.

Animal textiles
Animal textiles are commonly made from hair or fur.

Wool refers to the hair of the domestic goat or sheep, which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with an oil known as lanolin, which is waterproof and dirtproof. Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn which is spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing. Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness.

Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings. Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit.

Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500CE.

Silk is an animal textile made from the fibers of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm. This is spun into a smooth, shiny fabric prized for its sleek texture.

Plant textiles
Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope. In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are utilized. Coir (coconut fiber) is used in making twine, and also in floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking.

Straw and bamboo are both used to maké hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok.

Fibres from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle are used in making paper.

Cotton, flax, jute, hemp and modal are all used in clothing. Piña (pineapple fiber) and ramie are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fabrics such as cotton.

Acetate is used to incréase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas.

Seaweed is used in the production of textiles. A water-soluble fiber known as alginate is produced and is used as a holding fiber; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, léaving an open aréa

Mineral textiles
Asbestos and basalt fiber are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting, and adhesives, "transite" panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.

Glass Fiber is used in the production of spacesuits, ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fiber for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibers.

Metal fiber, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewelry.  Hardware cloth is a coarse wéave of steel wire, used in construction.

Synthetic textiles

All synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing.

Polyester fiber is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.

Aramid fiber (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armor.

Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools, including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.

Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose.  Thicker nylon fibers are used in rope and outdoor clothing.

Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane fibre that stretches éasily and can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement.  It is used to maké activewéar, bras, and swimsuits.

Olefin fiber is a fiber used in activewéar, linings, and warm clothing.  Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly.  A sintered felt of olefin fibers is sold under the trade name Tyvek.

Ingeo is a polylactide fiber blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing.  It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration.

Lurex is a metallic fiber used in clothing embellishment.

Production methods

Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longer threads (called the warp) with a set of crossing thréads (called the weft). This is done on a frame or machine known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some wéaving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanised.

Knitting and crocheting involve interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on a knitting needle or on a crochet hook, together in a line. The two processes are different in that knitting has several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to interlock with another loop, while crocheting never has more than one active loop on the needle.

Braiding or plaiting involves twisting thréads together into cloth. Knotting involves tying thréads together and is used in making macrame.

Lace is made by interlocking thréads together independently, using a backing and any of the methods described above, to créate a fine fabric with open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand or machine.

Carpets, rugs, velvet, velour, and velveteen, are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, créating a tufted layer known as a nap or pile.

Felting involves pressing a mat of fibers together, and working them together until they become tangled.  A liquid, such as soapy water, is usually added to lubricate the fibers, and to open up the microscopic scales on strands of wool.

Treatments
Textiles are often dyed, with fabrics available in almost every colour. Coloured designs in textiles can be créated by wéaving together fibres of different colours (tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery), créating patterns by resist dyeing methods, tying off aréas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dye), or drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), or using various printing processes on finished fabric. Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at léast 220CE in China.

Textiles are also sometimes bleached. In this process, the original colour of the textile is removed by chemicals or exposure to sunlight, turning the textile pale or white.

Textiles are sometimes finished by starching, which makes the fabric stiff and less prone to wrinkles, or by waterproofing, which makes the fabric slick and impervious to water or other liquids. Since the 1990s, finishing agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and maké them wrinkle free.

Tempo ogé
 Textile preservation
 Textile manufacturing
 Textile manufacturing terminology
 Timeline of clothing and textiles technology
 Textile printing
 Quipu

Rujukan

 Good, Irene. 2006. "Textiles as a Medium of Exchange in Third Millennium B.C.E. Western Asia." In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Edited by Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu. Pages 191-214. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4
 Fisher, Nora (Curator Emirta, Textiles & Costumes), Museum of International Folk Art. "Rio Grande Textiles." Introduction by Teresa Archuleta-Sagel. 196 pages with 125 black and white as well as color plates, muséum of New Mexico Press, Paperbound.
 David H. Abrahams, "Textile chemistry", McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science—available in AccessScience@McGraw-Hill, DOI 10.1036/1097-8542.687500, last modified: February 21, 2007.] (Subscription access)

Tumbu luar

 Global Textile and Clothing Trade Textile and Clothing Information and Reporting.
 The Museum of International Folk Art
 Weaving document archive
 union of textile industries
 Textiles Nanotechnology Laboratory at Cornell University
 Compact informations about materials German textile site.
 Textile Technology - Textile Machinery, News and Directory
 Tex.in - Textile & Apparel Directory & WWW Database

Bahan nu bisa didaur ulang

Lawon


Howard E. Woodford (June 21, 1921 – June 7, 1945) was a soldier in the United States Army who received the Medal of Honor in World War II during actions in the campaign to recapture the Philippines from Japanese forces in 1945. He was killed in action while helping a Filipino guerrilla battalion repulse enemy forces.

He is buried in Akron, Ohio.

Medal of Honor citation

He volunteered to investigate the delay in a scheduled attack by an attached guerrilla battalion. Reaching the line of departure, he found that the lead company, in combat for the first time, was immobilized by intense enemy mortar, machinegun, and rifle fire which had caused casualties to key personnel. Knowing that further failure to advance would endanger the flanks of adjacent units, as well as delay capture of the objective, he immediately took command of the company, evacuated the wounded, reorganized the unit under fire, and prepared to attack. He repeatedly exposed himself to draw revealing fire from the Japanese strongpoints, and then moved forward with a 5-man covering force to determine exact enemy positions. Although intense enemy machinegun fire killed 2 and wounded his other 3 men, S/Sgt. Woodford resolutely continued his patrol before returning to the company. Then, against bitter resistance, he guided the guerrillas up a barren hill and captured the objective, personally accounting for 2 hostile machinegunners and courageously reconnoitering strong defensive positions before directing neutralizing fire. After organizing a perimeter defense for the night, he was given permission by radio to return to his battalion, but, feeling that he was needed to maintain proper control, he chose to remain with the guerrillas. Before dawn the next morning the enemy launched a fierce suicide attack with mortars, grenades, and small-arms fire, and infiltrated through the perimeter. Though wounded by a grenade, S/Sgt. Woodford remained at his post calling for mortar support until bullets knocked out his radio. Then, seizing a rifle he began working his way around the perimeter, encouraging the men until he reached a weak spot where 2 guerrillas had been killed. Filling this gap himself, he fought off the enemy. At daybreak he was found dead in his foxhole, but 37 enemy dead were lying in and around his position. By his daring, skillful, and inspiring leadership, as well as by his gallant determination to search out and kill the enemy, S/Sgt. Woodford led an inexperienced unit in capturing and securing a vital objective, and was responsible for the successful continuance of a vitally important general advance.

Namesake
A transport ship was named in his honor the Sgt. Howard E. Woodford.  Woodford elementary school in Barberton, Ohio, is also named in his honor.

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II

External links

1921 births
1945 deaths
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
United States Army non-commissioned officers
People from Barberton, Ohio
United States Army personnel killed in World War II
World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor

Howard E. Woodford


Excretion is one of the most basic functions of life. It is the process of eliminating waste products of metabolism and other non-useful materials. It is an essential process in all forms of life. It contrasts with secretion, where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the cell.

In single-celled organisms, waste products are discharged directly through the surface of the cell. Multicellular organisms use more complex methods. Higher plants eliminate gases through the stomata on the surface of leaves. Animals have special excretory organs.

Mammalian excretion
In mammals, excretion is the formation of urine in the kidneys, and expelling carbon dioxide from the lungs. These waste products are eliminated by urination and breathing out respectively. If excretion does not occur in an organism, waste products accumulate, which eventually kill the organism.

Also, food waste is expelled through the anus. Other substances are secreted into the bile, and then eliminated in the faeces. The skin and lungs also have excretory functions: the skin eliminates metabolic wastes like urea and lactic acid through sweating,p395 and the lungs expel carbon dioxide.

Some terms
 Mucociliary excretion is the excretion of mucus in the respiratory system. Cilia work to clear the small passages, and coughing removes phlegm.
 Biliary excretion goes through the bile duct to the duodenum and removed in the faeces.
 Perspiration is the excretion of salts and water from the body, although the main purpose is to cool the body.

Other vertebrates
Aquatic animals usually excrete ammonia directly into the water, as this compound is soluble and there is ample water available for dilution. In terrestrial animals ammonia-like compounds are converted into other nitrogenous materials as there is less water in the environment, and ammonia itself is toxic.

Reptiles and birds excrete their nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of a white paste. This allows efficient water retention and it can be stored more easily in the egg. Both uric acid and faeces are expelled through a common opening called the cloaca. Their waste is usually two-coloured: part white (uric acid) and part green or black (organic waste).

Many bird species, especially seabirds, can also excrete salt via specialized nasal salt glands, the saline solution leaving through nostrils in the beak.

References

Physiology

Excretion


The 1850s was the decade that began on January 1, 1850 and ended on December 31, 1859.

Events
 Production of steel revolutionised by invention of the Bessemer process
 Benjamin Silliman fractionates petroleum by distillation for the first time
 First transatlantic telegraph cable laid
 First safety elevator installed by Elisha Otis
 Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species, putting forward the theory of evolution by natural selection
 Epidemiology begins when John Snow traces the source of an outbreak of cholera in London to a contaminated water pump.
 Discovery of Neandertal fossils in Neanderthal, Germany
 Solar flares discovered by Richard Christopher Carrington
 Crimean War (1854–1856) fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire. The majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea.
 The Indian Mutiny: revolt against the East India Company's British rule in India
 Dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British.
 156 are killed in Paris in a failed assassination attempt on Napoleon III, Emperor of France
 Moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania.
 Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party.

World leaders
 Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)
 Emperor Napoleon III (Second French Empire)
 King Frederick William IV (Germany)
 Pope Pius IX
 Queen Maria II (Portugal)
 King Peter V (Portugal)
 Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
 Emperor Alexander II (Russia)
 Queen Isabella II (Spain)
 Queen Victoria, (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord John Russell (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord Aberdeen (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord Palmerston (United Kingdom)
 President Millard Fillmore (United States)
 President Franklin Pierce (United States)
 President James Buchanan (United States)
 Nasser-al-Din Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia)

1850s


Afrikaners are white South Africans who speak Afrikaans as mother tongue and follow the Afrikaans culture. Most of them have Dutch, German, French Huguenot, ancestors. Also known as Boere, Voortrekkers and Burgers, although under slightly different contexts. In South Africa there are about 3 million white people with Afrikaans as mother tongue, that can be assumed to be Afrikaners if they chose to follow the Afrikaans culture.

Ethnic groups in South Africa

Afrikaner people