CROSS-MOTIONS FOR SUMMARY JUDGMENT GRANTED
IN PART AND DENIED IN PART: August 13, 2020 1
CBCA 6049
TRANSWORLD SYSTEMS INC.,
Appellant,
v.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION,
Respondent.
Paul A. Debolt and Chelsea B. Knudson of Venable LLP, Washington, DC; and James
Y. Boland of Venable LLP, Tysons Corner, VA, counsel for Appellant.
Michael S. Taylor and Megan R. Nathan, Office of the General Counsel, Department
of Education, Washington, DC, counsel for Respondent.
Before Board Judges HYATT, LESTER, and RUSSELL.
LESTER, Board Judge.
Appellant, Transworld Systems Inc. (TSI), challenges a final decision issued by a
contracting officer for the Department of Education’s Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA),
1 The Board issued a prior version of this decision under seal on July 14, 2020, and
directed the parties to submit proposed redactions. Although the Board, by separate order,
has denied respondent’s request to redact dollar figures from the decision, this reissued
decision incorporates other minor modifications, made at respondent’s request, that do not
affect the decision’s substance.

CBCA 6049 2
demanding the return of $1,334,873.13, plus accrued interest. FSA believes that it overpaid
TSI’s predecessor-in-interest by that amount under the predecessor’s contract for student debt
collection services. TSI asks us to find on summary judgment that FSA’s claim is barred by
an accord and satisfaction between the parties, which is reflected in a bilateral contract
modification defining how much money TSI’s predecessor was to receive, or, in the
alternative, that FSA has waived its claim. FSA has filed a cross-motion, seeking summary
judgment on the existence and amount of the alleged overpayment (a fact that TSI questions),
that the modification was not an accord and satisfaction and did not waive FSA’s right of
recovery, that FSA is entitled as a matter of law to recoup mistaken overpayments regardless
of the bilateral modification, and that TSI breached either an implied-in-fact contract or the
implied duty of good faith and fair dealing by failing to tell FSA of its calculation error
before executing the contract modification.
For the following reasons, we grant FSA’s motion for summary judgment regarding
TSI’s waiver, estoppel, and laches arguments, but otherwise deny it. We grant summary
judgment to TSI on FSA’s implied-in-fact contract argument, but otherwise deny TSI’s
motion, although we limit the elements of accord and satisfaction that TSI will need to
establish in future proceedings.
Statement of Undisputed Material Facts
The Contract
TSI’s predecessor-in-interest, NCO Financial Systems, Inc. (NCO), held a contract
with the General Services Administration (GSA) for private collection services, as part of
GSA’s Financial and Business Solutions (FABS) Schedule, under which individual federal
agencies could issue task orders. TSI Statement of Undisputed Material Facts (TSI-SOF)
¶ 1.2
On April 7, 2009, as part of its student loan debt collection program, FSA awarded
performance-based, firm-fixed-price task orders to twenty-three different private collection
agencies (PCAs). FSA Statement of Undisputed Material Facts (FSA-SOF) ¶¶ 1, 3. NCO
was one of those task order awardees. NCO’s award of task order no. ED-FSA-09-O-0014
(task order 0014) encompassed an initial twenty-four-month ordering period beginning
July 1, 2009, a period that was later extended through April 21, 2015, as a result of FSA’s
2 Unless otherwise noted, any paragraph from either party’s statement of undisputed
material facts to which the Board cites in this decision was identified in the opposing party’s
statement of genuine issues as uncontested.

CBCA 6049 3
exercise of options. Under task order 0014, NCO was to collect defaulted student debt and,
depending upon the type of collection activity, would receive either a percentage of the
payment that it recovered or a fixed fee for each collection. Id. ¶¶ 1, 4, 5. As NCO
performed, a record of each collection was to be recorded on an electronic FSA system, and
FSA would use those records to prepare a monthly invoice for each of the PCAs, including
NCO. Id. ¶¶ 7-9; TSI-SOF ¶ 7. The task order language provided that the FSA-prepared
invoice would be processed as follows:
Payments under this Task Order are based on data maintained in [FSA’s]
systems. Each month, the Government will prepare and send an invoice to the
Contractor. The Government will also send detailed documentation supporting
the amounts on the invoice. The Contractor shall review these materials and
return the invoice via e-mail in order to be paid for products and/or other
services rendered under this Task Order.
Appeal File, Tab 1 at 11.3 The amount of a PCA’s monthly compensation depended on the
type of collection services that the PCA accomplished and the type of repayment that was
obtained. See FSA-SOF ¶ 6; TSI-SOF ¶ 4; Tab 1.
From the date of the task order awards through September 15, 2011, FSA used a
portfolio management system known as the “Legacy system” to track and record all financial
activity on defaulted borrowers’ student loan accounts. TSI-SOF ¶ 9. During that time, all
loan payments were logged into the Legacy system for FSA’s use in determining the
appropriate method and amount of payment to each of the PCAs holding task orders. Id.
FSA’s Change in Invoicing Practices
On September 16, 2011, FSA transitioned from the Legacy system to a new electronic
system for recording collection activity, the Debt Management Collection System (DMCS),
although, according to FSA, the new DMCS system did not actually come on-line until
October 1, 2011. TSI-SOF ¶ 10; FSA-SOF ¶ 10. Because the DMCS could not generate
invoices when it was first launched, FSA instructed NCO and the other PCAs to generate
their own invoices, something that NCO and the other PCAs did until August 2013, although
no contract modification was issued to reflect the change in requirements. FSA-SOF ¶¶ 11,
13; TSI-SOF ¶ 12. FSA did not ask the PCAs to provide support for their invoices when they
3 Citations to a “Tab” number in this decision refer to documents in the Rule 4
appeal file.

CBCA 6049 4
were submitted, but informed them that FSA would eventually verify the accuracy of all
invoiced sums during a later “reconciliation period.” TSI-SOF ¶ 15.
The first invoice that NCO prepared and submitted was dated October 13, 2011, and
sought payment of $1,355,737.46 for collection services for the month ending September 30,
2011. Tab 2 at 1-2; FSA-SOF ¶ 32. Nevertheless, the invoice, as submitted, indicated that
$174,568.85 of the billed amount covered collections under 2000 and 2004 student debt
collection contracts that are not at issue in this appeal.See Tab 2 at 1; Transcript at 61 (oral
argument held on December 9, 2019). FSA paid, and NCO received payment of, the full
amount of that invoice. See TSI’s Request for Admission Responses at 2-3.
FSA’s Invoice Reconciliation Process
In July 2013, as FSA was preparing to begin issuing monthly invoices using its DMCS
system, FSA started the reconciliation process for performance from September 16, 2011,
to August 31, 2013. TSI-SOF ¶ 15; FSA-SOF ¶ 15. Instead of trying to verify the accuracy
of or obtain supporting data for the PCAs’ prior invoices, FSA decided to calculate from the
ground up what each PCA was owed for that period. Deposition of Michael Bryant (Jan. 17,
2019) at 32 (Mr. Bryant was the FSA business specialist associated with the negotiation at
issue). The ultimate purpose of the process was to compare what PCAs had billed during the
reconciliation period when PCAs were responsible for preparing invoices with what FSA
determined the PCAs were owed. TSI-SOF ¶ 16.
Because FSA’s DMCS data for the period from September 2011 to August 2013
contained a large number of errors, FSA and the PCAs worked to establish a new set of
procedures and business rules that FSA would apply to calculate the commission amount to
which each PCA was entitled for that period. TSI-SOF ¶¶ 17, 18; FSA-SOF ¶ 16. FSA’s
business operations specialist met with the PCAs on a weekly basis for approximately six
months to share the results of FSA’s findings and ask for input about problems from the
PCAs. FSA-SOF ¶ 17; Bryant Deposition at 33-34. While FSA was putting a lot of time and
effort into resolving problems in its system of recording collections for purposes of
calculating commissions, FSA was also demanding a great deal of time and effort from the
PCAs to support that process. According to FSA, “there [were] a lot of teleconferences
between the parties regarding the reconciliation process, how to deal with it, how to address
certain issues that came up, and . . . how they were going to calculate these total fees that
were either underpaid or overpaid or properly paid during that process or during that time
period.” Transcript at 74.
One of the biggest areas of discussion was compensation for rehabilitations, which
involved loan resolutions wherein the borrower had made nine monthly payments and was

CBCA 6049 5
no longer considered to be in default, allowing transfer to a federal loan servicer as a
non-defaulted loan. Tab 5 at 4. Rehabilitations are typically the biggest source of revenue
for the PCAs, and, for a period of about seven months, the DMCS had failed to record them.
Bryant Deposition at 36, 69-70. FSA had to “come up with an equitable way to pay [the
PCAs] for the work that they had done in getting a borrower to a point where he was eligible
for rehabilitation, not penalize the PCA for the fact that [FSA’s] system didn’t effect [or
record] that rehabilitation when it was supposed to occur.”Id. at 36. By March 6, 2014,
FSA was giving PCAs the option of opting out of an individualized review of their
commission situation in favor of a “systematic approach” that would relieve the PCA of some
of the time requirements that FSA had been imposing. Tab 75. NCO opted for the
systematic approach. Id.
On March 20, 2014, FSA emailed NCO what FSA said was an accounting of NCO’s
payment entitlements under the new reconciliation business rules:
Attached is the summary information for the final results of the invoice
reconciliation. The detailed data will be coming soon, hopefully this week.
Please review this information and return any comments to Mike Bryant.
At the bottom of the spreadsheet is the FSA total and then your invoice total
and a Difference value. If the value is BLACK, we owe you. If the value is
RED you owe us.
Tab 4 at 1. On April 18, 2014, FSA sent another email “[a]ttach[ing] the final version of
[NCO’s] summary report,” which appears to have been the same as the one sent on
March 20, 2014. Id. In the accounting, FSA calculated that it owed NCO a total of
$69,935,693.92 for performance during the period covered by the reconciliation, that it had
already paid NCO $68,783,348.48 based upon invoices that NCO had submitted to FSA, and
that FSA therefore owed NCO an additional $1,152,345.44. Id. at 8-9. There is nothing in
the record showing that, between its March 20 and April 18, 2014, emails, FSA provided
NCO with the “detailed data” that it promised in its March 20, 2014, email.Further, FSA’s
statement of undisputed material facts failed to address whether NCO looked at its records
to confirm FSA’s “already paid” calculation or made any representations to FSA about
whether that figure was correct, and FSA has provided no evidence on that point.
In determining that NCO had already been paid $68,783,348.48, FSA did not include
the $1,355,737.46 that it had previously paid NCO for September 2011.See FSA-SOF ¶¶ 27,
30; Tab 9 at 1, 5. Although TSI contends that it cannot confirm how FSA calculated NCO’s
total payments from September 2011 to August 2013, the evidence makes clear that FSA

CBCA 6049 6
added together the amounts in all NCO invoices for that period, but, for whatever reason,
excluded the September 2011 invoice amount. See Tab 9 at 5. Nevertheless, the current
record does not show that, during this time, FSA ever provided NCO with a breakdown of
how FSA had calculated the amounts that it believed NCO had already been paid. Further,
various contemporaneous emails during the six-month period in which FSA, NCO, and the
other PCAs were negotiating suggest that FSA was telling the PCAs to focus on commissions
earned beginning October 2011, rather than September 2011. See Tab 49 (email in which
FSA defined “the entire reconciliation period” for payment purposes as “October, 2011 -
August, 2013” and the transactions pilot period as “October, 2011 - December, 2011”);see
also Tabs 19, 23, 25.
The Contract Modification
On April 23, 2014, the FSA contracting officer and a representative of NCO executed
bilateral modification 0052 (mod-52), the stated purpose of which was “to incorporate
Invoice Reconciliation Procedures . . . [that] are hereby effective for performance occurring
from September 16, 2011 through August 31, 2013.” Tab 5 at 1; TSI-SOF ¶ 35. The other
twenty-two PCAs executed substantially similar contract modifications at about the same
time. The modifications all provided that, “[i]n the event the Invoice Reconciliation
Procedures conflict with a term of the contract, the Invoice Reconciliation Procedures shall
take precedence during the aforementioned period of performance. See following pages for
Invoice Reconciliation Procedures.” Tab 5 at 1-2.
The first two pages of NCO’s twenty-two-page modification contained a Standard
Form 30 (SF 30), which included the parties’ signatures and identified the stated purpose of
mod-52. Tab 5 at 1-2. Box 12 of the SF 30, entitled “Accounting and Appropriation Data,”
stated: “Modification Amount: $0;” “Modification Obligated Amount: $0.”Id. at 1.
The next twelve pages, under the heading “Invoice Reconciliation Procedures,”
contained specific written procedures and rules regarding how to calculate each PCA’s
commissions for each of the following types of activities: regular payments, rehabilitations,
consolidations, administrative resolutions, reversals, and refunds. Tab 5 at 3-14. For regular
payments, “[t]he applicable commission rate for a given payment [would] depend[] on three
factors”: the payment’s effective date, the contract code of the PCA holding the account on
that date, and “[t]he program type of the debt(s) to which the payment applied.”Id. at 3. At
the end of the section defining the applicable commission rate for regular payments, the
following language was added: “The table in Appendix 1 shows the applicable rates for each
contract code over time.”Id.

CBCA 6049 7
Appendix 1, titled “Historical Commission Rates,” began with a half-page chart listing
NCO’s historical commission rates for collections that NCO had performed under earlier
FSA contracts awarded in 1997, 2000, 2004, and 2009. Tab 5 at 15. After that chart,
however, the parties added a second chart to Appendix 1, one without any kind of
introductory title or description.Id. at 15-18. That three-and-a-half-page chart was identical
to the accounting chart that FSA had emailed NCO on April 18, 2014. See Tab 4 at 1, 8-9.
The chart listed the same accounting numbers that FSA had included in its April 18, 2014,
email and, at its end, indicated a “FSA Total Invoice Value” of $69,935,693.92, a “PCA-
Created Invoices” number of “($68,783,348.48),” and a “Difference” of $1,152,345.44. Tab
5 at 18.
In that second chart, there were forty-six line items for “Regular Collections,”
sixty-one for “Rehabilitations,” three for “Administrative Resolutions,” two for
“Consolidations,” one for “Litigation Referrals,” and one for “Performance Incentive.”
Tab 5 at 15-18. There were also line items for “Aug-11 Titanium Invoice” and “Sep-11
Legacy Invoice.”Id. at 18. Nowhere in mod-52 is there any explanation of why an invoice
from August 2011, which predates the September 16, 2011, commencement of the invoice
reconciliation period, is included in the chart. 4 As for the “Sep-11 Legacy Invoice,” FSA
included the following language as a “Special Scenario” in the “Regular Payments” part of
the “Invoice Reconciliation Procedures,” which appears to address how FSA, for purposes
of reconciliation, would handle student debt payments with an effective date after September
15, 2011, but said nothing about payments with an effective date from September 1 to 15:
Payments received in September, 2011 after Legacy shutdown (9/15/2011).
Payments received during this period would normally have an effective date
(“date entered”) [for commission calculation purposes] in September, 2011.
DMCS assigned them an effective date in October, 2011. For compensation
purposes, FSA will use the system-assigned effective date and actual posting
date.
4 An email dated September 5, 2013, conveying PCA invoice reconciliation meeting
minutes indicates that, during negotiations, PCAs requested inclusion of the August 2011
Titanium activity “because PCAs were instructed to include that activity in a subsequent
invoice,” and FSA agreed. Tab 40. We can find no language in mod-52 consistent with that
agreement.

CBCA 6049 8
Id. at 4. Nothing in mod-52 explains why the second chart contains a reference to a
September 2011 invoice based on the Legacy system that shutdown on September 15, 2011.5
In the entirety of the twelve-page “Invoice Reconciliation Procedures” portion of
mod-52, the only reference to Appendix 1 is the one identified above, which was contained
in the description of “Regular Payments” procedures and read, “The table in Appendix 1
shows the applicable rates for each contract code over time.” Tab 5 at 3. That portion does
not indicate that Appendix 1 would also contain a listing of current accountings of monies
paid (or not paid) or that should be paid under the existing contract. The parts of the
“Procedures” addressing invoice reconciliation for rehabilitations, consolidations,
administrative resolutions, reversals, or refunds do not refer to Appendix 1. Id. at 4-14.
The largest portion of the invoice reconciliation procedures set out new business rules
for rehabilitations, which were necessitated by and were the result of a lack of reliable
DMCS data on rehabilitations for the first seven months after PCAs began creating invoices.
TSI-SOF ¶ 26. The new rules for rehabilitations referenced “Appendix 2: Rehabilitation
Scenarios,” which identified twenty different rehabilitation scenarios and defined a
rehabilitation fee, or rate, that would be applied to each scenario. Id. ¶ 27; see Tab 5 at
19-22. The parties’ agreement on these fees resulted from extensive analysis and discussion
between the parties. TSI-SOF ¶ 27.
At the bottom of each of the twenty pages constituting mod-52 (except for the SF 30),
including every page of Appendix 1 and Appendix 2, is a footer with the words “Invoice
Reconciliation Procedures.” Tab 5 at 3-20.
FSA’s Reconciliation Payment to NCO
On May 16, 2014, NCO submitted an invoice seeking payment of the $1,152,345.44
listed in the second (untitled) chart in mod-52’s Appendix 1. Tab 6 at 4. FSA paid the
invoice. FSA-SOF ¶ 24. No other contract modification or authorization document, other
than mod-52, was issued to support payment of the invoice. Transcript at 71.
5 Nonetheless, FSA indicated in meeting minutes from a September 5, 2013, PCA
invoicing reconciliation meeting that “[t]he September [2011] legacy activity is going to be
part of this reconciliation.” Tab 40. Mod-52 contains no language reflecting that.

CBCA 6049 9
FSA’s Demand for Repayment
On May 4, 2015, one of the twenty-three PCAs that held a student debt collection task
order and, like NCO, had entered into an invoice reconciliation procedures contract
modification notified FSA that it had been overpaid through the reconciliation process.
Tab 82. Specifically, the PCA informed FSA that FSA had failed to include in its calculation
of past payments for the period from September 2011 to August 2013 an invoice that the
PCA had previously submitted covering student loan debt collections in September 2011.
Id. The PCA also indicated that it had previously disclosed the error to FSA during the
reconciliation process, but that FSA had not acted on the information. Id.
After review, FSA confirmed that the PCA-created invoice for September 2011 was
not, but should have been, included in the reconciliation as part of the calculation of “what
the PCA has previously been paid.” FSA-SOF ¶ 27. None of the other PCAs had notified
FSA of any issues associated with the absence of PCA-created invoices covering September
2011. See Transcript at 80-81.
In response to that notification, FSA began to question the manner in which it had
calculated the amounts owed to the other PCAs in the reconciliation process and retained an
accounting firm to review all of the PCA invoices. TSI-SOF ¶ 43. On January 13, 2017,
after more than a year-and-a-half of review, the auditor reported that FSA had overpaid NCO
and the other PCAs during the reconciliation process because, “[f]or every PCA, FSA had
erroneously excluded the September 2011 invoice payment amounts from the [calculation
of total commissions previously paid to each PCA] in its PCA reconciliation. Tab 11 at 21;
see TSI-SOF ¶ 43.
By letter dated March 6, 2017, FSA notified TSI, which had become NCO’s
recognized successor-in-interest,6 that, as a “result of the payment of duplicate invoices for
the month of September 2011,” FSA had “overpaid [NCO] $1,355,737.84 in September
2011, the final month of the Legacy system,” under task order 0014. Tab 7 at 1; see
FSA-SOF ¶ 33; TSI-SOF ¶ 44. In the letter, FSA described the mistake as follows:
During the reconciliation process, FSA used invoice data based on information
from the Legacy Invoice Database. PCAs were instructed to include the
amount paid from the Legacy Invoice Database as a line item on their self-
6 TSI acquired NCO on November 1, 2014, and FSA recognized TSI as NCO’s
successor through a contract novation on November 23, 2015. Complaint ¶ 8; Amended
Answer ¶ 8.

CBCA 6049 10
generated invoices for October, 2012. However, the PCAs were also
instructed to submit an estimated invoice for September 2011. This
overpayment has been confirmed during a recent independent audit.
Tab 7 at 1. FSA requested repayment of the identified amount “in accordance with the
Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) 32.604.”Id.
On March 8, 2017, the FSA contracting officer emailed TSI a further explanation of
the repayment calculation, indicating that “[t]he overpayment stems from confusion at FSA
about how the September, 2011 invoices were handled.” Tab 9 at 1. According to the
contracting officer, the FSA business operations specialist who coordinated the reconciliation
process “believed PCAs did not submit a PCA-created invoice for September, 2011” and
thought that they had been “instructed to include the total for the September, 2011 invoices
generated out of the Legacy Invoice Database as a line item on their PCA-generated invoices
for October, 2012.”Id. FSA explained the problem as follows:
1) Put simply, the purpose of the reconciliation was to compare how much
each PCA had billed FSA for to how much FSA actually owed the PCA
a. The “how much the PCA had billed FSA for” number was the
sum total of all the invoices each PCA created using its own
information—we call those “PCA-generated” invoices
b. The “how much FSA actually owed” number was the result of
all our work in the reconciliation process—identifying all the
payments that had actually posted, what rehabs to give credit
for, etc.
2) One of the line-items we included in “what FSA actually owed” was the
final Legacy Invoice Database-generated invoice for September, 2011.
Recall that there was no operating system for the second half of
September, 2011, so that final Legacy invoice reflectedall of the actual
verified activity that posted during the month of September, 2011.
3) What FSA should have done to offset that line item was to include your
PCA-created invoice for September, 2011. Due to a misunderstanding,
[the FSA business operations specialist] did not realize PCAs had
submitted a PCA-created invoice for that month; he wrongly believed
that it was entirely being dealt with on the October, 2012 invoices. As
a result, when he totaled up the “how much the PCA had billed FSA

CBCA 6049 11
for” number, it did not include your PCA-created invoice for
September, 2011.
4) If you had included this as a line item in your October, 2012 invoice,
that would already have been accounted for in the original
reconciliation make whole adjustment we made on your Mar, 2014
invoice (i.e., it would have made your “how much the PCA had billed
for” number larger). Again, though, whether you included it as a line
item or not does not change the fact that FSA wrongly omitted your
PCA-created invoice for September, 2011 from the reconciliation.
Attached, please find your original reconciliation summary, showing:
a) That FSA gave you credit for the “Sept-11 Legacy Invoice” (this will
usually be near the end of the list of line items), and
b) The amount FSA used as the total of your “PCA-Created Invoices”
Also attached is a listing of the PCA-Created invoices for which you were
paid. You will see that the total we used in the original reconciliation omitted
the invoice for September, 2011.
Tab 9 at 1. According to the accounting attached to the March 8, 2017, email, the total
amount that FSA should have calculated as having been paid to NCO between September
2011 and August 2013 was $70,139,085.94, an amount that was $1,355,737.46 more than
what FSA had listed as previously paid to NCO in mod-52. Tab 9 at 5.
TSI rejected FSA’s demand for repayment, asserting that “the parties previously
settled issues regarding outstanding invoices from September 2011 through August 2013 by
jointly executing Amendment Modification No. 0052.” Tab 10 at 1;see TSI-SOF ¶ 46. TSI
contended that, “to the extent the Agency is seeking to renegotiate the Amendment, TSI
requests the following information to conduct a detailed account-level reconciliation: [a] list
of rehabilitated accounts placed with NCO that [were] funded during the period from
September 2011 to August 2013; [a] list of payments received during the period September
2011 to August 2013 from borrowers placed with NCO; and [a]ny other information used by
the agency’s independent auditors to conclude that $1,355,737.84 is due and owing by TSI.”
Tab 10 at 1.
FSA responded by emailing TSI a copy of the auditor’s report and reiterating its
demand for payment. See Tabs 11, 12. On April 14, 2017, TSI again informed FSA that TSI

CBCA 6049 12
disagreed with FSA’s asserted entitlement to payment, reiterated its contention that mod-52
constituted a settlement, and asserted that the audit report did not provide the account level
details that it had requested. Tab 13 at 1-2; TSI-SOF ¶ 48.
On December 22, 2017, the FSA contracting officer issued a final decision demanding
that TSI repay $1,334,873.13, which FSA asserted was the value of the September 2011
invoice less $20,864.71 in chargebacks that TSI paid FSA after FSA’s audit was completed.
Tab 14 at 2; FSA-SOF ¶ 35; TSI-SOF ¶ 49.
Proceedings Before the Board
On February 26, 2018, TSI filed a notice of appeal with the Board, challenging the
FSA contracting officer’s decision. In response to TSI’s request, and recognizing that the
claim at issue here is the Government’s, the Board directed FSA to file the complaint.See
Transworld Systems Inc. v. Department of Education, CBCA 6049, 18-1 BCA ¶ 36,987. In
its answer, as subsequently amended, TSI alleged several affirmative defenses, including
accord and satisfaction and a right of offset.
A short time before TSI filed its notice of appeal, Collecto, Inc. (Collecto), another
of the PCAs from which the FSA contracting officer had demanded repayment for reasons
similar to the demand to TSI, had filed its own notice of appeal, which the Board docketed
as CBCA 6001.7 Although FSA requested that the Board consolidate this appeal and the
Collecto appeal, we declined to do so, but agreed to coordinate discovery in the two appeals.
Collecto, Inc. v. Department of Education , CBCA 6001, et al., 18-1 BCA ¶ 37,104. The
parties in this appeal and inCollecto completed discovery, except for discovery in this appeal
relating to an offset defense that TSI wishes to preserve for future proceedings, if they are
needed. TSI and Collecto have both filed summary judgment motions in their respective
appeals, and FSA has filed cross-motions in both appeals. The Board conducted a joint oral
argument on the parties’ motions in both this and theCollecto appeal on December 9, 2019.
This decision is limited to TSI’s appeal.
7 The parties represent that a third PCA has challenged another contracting officer’s
repayment demand in a case currently pending before the Court of Federal Claims.

CBCA 6049 13
Discussion
Standard for Summary Judgment
“[T]he function of summary judgment is to avoid a useless trial.”United States Steel
Corp. v. Vasco Metals Corp., 394 F.2d 1009, 1011 (CCPA 1968). “‘Useless’ in the context
of this case means that more evidence than is already available in connection with this
motion could not be reasonably expected to change the result herein.”Exxon Corp. v.
National Foodline Corp. , 579 F.2d 1244, 1246 (CCPA 1978). Nevertheless, summary
judgment is appropriate only where the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of
law based on undisputed material facts. See, e.g., Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S.
242, 247 (1986); Celotex Corp. v. Catrett , 477 U.S. 317, 322 (1986). When both parties
move for summary judgment, “each party’s motion must be evaluated on its own merits and
all reasonable inferences must be resolved against the party whose motion is under
consideration.”Government Marketing Group v. Department of Justice, CBCA 964, 08-2
BCA ¶ 33,955 (citing Anderson, 477 U.S. at 248). Simply because both parties “have
cross-moved for summary relief does not impel a grant of one of the motions; each motion
must be independently assessed on its own merit.”Id. (citing California v. United States,
271 F.3d 1377, 1380 (Fed. Cir. 2001)).
FSA’s Overpayment Argument
As an initial matter, the parties dispute whether there was any overpayment at all, and
FSA wants us to resolve that issue on summary judgment. FSA asserts that, through error,
the FSA business operations specialist responsible for developing the reconciliation
procedures excluded the PCAs’ invoices for September 2011 from his calculation of how
much each PCA had already been paid for September 2011 through August 2013. TSI
asserts that it lacks sufficient information to know how FSA made its calculations and
whether NCO was overpaid.
The record is clear that, when originally applying the invoice reconciliation
procedures, FSA did not include the NCO invoice covering September 2011 in its prior
payment calculations for September 2011 through August 2013. FSA has presented a chart
showing how it originally calculated its already-paid figure of $68,783,348.48, a figure that
matches the total of NCO’s invoices covering commissions from October 2011 through
August 2013. NCO’s invoice in the amount of $1,355,737.46 for commissions in September
2011 is clearly, for whatever reason, not included in that calculation. Because FSA included
commissions due for September 2011 in its calculation of what NCOshould have been paid
for that period, FSA is correct that there is an inconsistency in its inputs into the should-have-
been-paid and already-paid calculations. The amount that FSA is seeking to recover clearly

CBCA 6049 14
mirrors the September 2011 invoice payment amount, less some adjustments arising from
other factors that FSA has identified. To the extent that TSI argues that it does not know
how FSA calculated the “already paid” figure, it presents nothing but conjecture, which is
insufficient to contest summary judgment.
Nevertheless, although FSA has established how it calculated what it had already paid,
that does not mean it has proven that TSI was overpaid and the amount of overpayment, for
three reasons:
First, the basis for part of FSA’s calculations is inconsistent with the actual language
of mod-52. The NCO invoice for September 2011 encompasses commissions from
September 1 through 30, 2011, but the invoice reconciliation procedures in mod-52 were
supposed to encompass a period that did not begin until September 16, 2011. FSA’s
September figures do not break out the amount applicable only to September 16 to 30.
Although FSA argues that everyone understood that commissions for the entirety of
September 2011 were part of the reconciliation process, FSA has not explained how it can
require TSI to adhere to that verbal agreement, which conflicts with the plain language of
mod-52, while simultaneously arguing that it is not bound by verbal agreements aboutother
amounts that are not supported by mod-52’s language. FSA cannot pick-and-choose which
side agreements, outside the actual language of mod-52, it will enforce. Restatement
(Second) of Contracts § 383 cmt. a (1981) (A party “cannot disaffirm part of the contract that
is particularly disadvantageous to himself while affirming a more advantageous part, and an
attempt to do so is ineffective as a disaffirmance.”).
Second, we question FSA’s inclusion, in its accounting of NCO’s prior task order
payments, of commissions identified on NCO’s September 2011 invoice as having been
earned under two predecessor contracts, rather than under this task order. At least on its face,
it does not appear appropriate to include in NCO’s “already paid” figure commissions paid
on other contracts.
Third, TSI believes that FSA miscalculated what TSI was owed for rehabilitations and
that FSA may have significantly undercalculated that amount during the invoice
reconciliation process. The Board agreed to suspend discovery on that issue, and to defer
ruling on it, so that, if the Board were to deny TSI’s motion for summary judgment on accord
and satisfaction, TSI would still be able to conduct discovery to learn more about, and
potentially challenge, FSA’s calculations. Although we deferred this issue, TSI has included
in the record a significant number of contemporaneous email communications showing
problems in FSA’s ability during the six-month negotiation period to identify and calculate
the PCAs’ commissions. Because the FSA contracting officer’s final decision at issue here
demands repayment of what the contracting officer views as FSA’s overpayment to TSI, it

CBCA 6049 15
will be FSA’s burden, assuming that mod-52 (as FSA argues) did not constitute an accord
and satisfaction, to show that TSI received an overpayment that FSA is entitled to recoup.
See JBG/Federal Center, L.L.C. v. General Services Administration, CBCA 5506, et al., 18-1
BCA ¶ 37,120 (“The assertion of a right to recoup funds paid in error is a government claim
upon which the Government bears the burden of proof.”). To prove overpayment, FSA will
have to establish that the “should have been paid” amount exceeds the “already paid”
amount, without reference to any prior verbal agreements that did not result in an accord and
satisfaction.
In summary, FSA has established that it excluded the September 2011 commission
invoice from its calculation of NCO’s already-paid figure when negotiating the invoice
reconciliation procedures leading to mod-52. However, inconsistencies between the written
invoice reconciliation procedures themselves and the manner in which FSA applied them,
as well as the deferred issue of whether FSA miscalculated TSI’s commissions for
rehabilitations, preclude FSA from proving overpayment or its amount on summary
judgment.
TSI’s Accord and Satisfaction Argument
A. The Legal Standard
TSI asserts that, even if FSA overpaid TSI, mod-52 constituted an accord and
satisfaction that “terminates any previous right that a party may have had to assert a claim
of the same subject matter.” Appellant’s Motion for Summary Judgment at 17. Both parties
seek summary judgment on TSI’s accord and satisfaction argument.
An accord and satisfaction terminates an otherwise existing right and constitutes a
“perfect defense in an action for the enforcement of a previous claim, whether that claim was
well founded or not”:
An “accord” is “an agreement by one party to give or perform and by the other
party to accept, in settlement or satisfaction of an existing or matured claim,
something other than that which is claimed to be due.” “Satisfaction” means
“the execution or performance of the agreement, of the actual giving and
taking of some agreed thing.”
Chesapeake & Potomac Telephone Co. v. United States , 654 F.2d 711, 716 (Ct. Cl. 1981)
(quoting 1 Am. Jur. 2d Accord & Satisfaction § 1 (1962)). “Accord and satisfaction occur
‘when some performance different from that which was claimed as due is rendered and such
substituted performance is accepted by the claimant as full satisfaction of his claim.’”Bell

CBCA 6049 16
BCI Co. v. United States , 570 F.3d 1337, 1340-41 (Fed. Cir. 2009) (quoting Community
Heating & Plumbing Co. v. Kelso, 987 F.2d 1575, 1581 (Fed. Cir.1993)). “[T]he presence
of a release . . . is not necessary to effectuate an accord and satisfaction.” Trataros
Construction, Inc. v. General Services Administration, GSBCA 15344, 03-1 BCA ¶ 32,251.
A valid accord and satisfaction requires four elements: (1) proper subject matter;
(2) competent parties; (3) consideration; and (4) a meeting of the minds of the parties.
A-Son’s Construction, Inc. v. Department of Housing & Urban Development, CBCA 3491,
et al., 15-1 BCA ¶ 36,184 (quoting O’Connor v. United States, 308 F.3d 1233, 1240 (Fed.
Cir. 2002)). FSA adds a fifth requirement: that the parties’ agreement resolve “a bona fide
dispute between the parties.” Respondent’s Motion for Summary Judgment at 8;
Respondent’s Opposition Brief at 2. Although the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit
has not expressly mandated that fifth requirement,see Meridian Engineering Co. v. United
States, 885 F.3d 1351, 1363 (Fed. Cir. 2018) (describing test for finding an accord and
satisfaction as a “four-part test”);O’Connor, 308 F.3d at 1240 (same), several trial court and
board decisions, including this Board in National Housing Group, Inc. v. Department of
Housing & Urban Development, CBCA 340, 09-1 BCA ¶ 34,043, have identified a bona fide
dispute as a necessary fifth element. See, e.g., CYR Construction Co. v. United States , 27
Fed. Cl. 153, 157 (1992);American Telephone & Telegraph Co., Federal Systems Advanced
Technologies, DOT BCA 2479, 93-3 BCA ¶ 26,250. The court decision that is most often
cited as the original basis of that fifth “element” describes a bona fide dispute as the most
common form of the four elements, rather than a separate element, of an accord and
satisfaction: “And its most common pattern is a mutual agreement between the parties in
which one pays or performs and the other accepts payment or performance in satisfaction of
a claim or demand which is a bona fide dispute.” Nevada Half Moon Mining Co. v.
Combined Metals Reduction Co., 176 F.2d 73, 76 (10th Cir. 1949);see O’Connor, 308 F.3d
at 1240 (“In its most common form, an accord and satisfaction exists” as an agreement that
resolves “a bona fide dispute.”).
Concerns about whether a bona fide dispute existed are not truly a separate “element”
of an accord and satisfaction, but play into whether there was adequate consideration to
support an accord. See, e.g., Lowrance v. Hacker, 866 F.2d 950, 953 (7th Cir. 1989) (bona
fide dispute requirement “is designed to insure that the necessary consideration is present to
create the contract”);Supply & Service Team GmbH, ASBCA 59630, 17-1 BCA ¶ 36,678
(“The reason for the [bona fide] dispute requirement appears to be rooted in the need for
consideration. After all, if one party were to simply reduce its obligations under the contract
and the other received nothing in return, there would be no consideration to the
short-changed party for having waived its contractual expectations.” (citations omitted)). We
will address FSA’s concerns about the alleged absence of a bona fide dispute when the
parties executed mod-52 as part of our analysis of consideration.

CBCA 6049 17
B. Substituted Contract v. Executory Accord
In arguing that mod-52 did not createany accord and satisfaction, FSA asserts that it
is still entitled to rely on and enforce the written portion of the invoice reconciliation
procedures contained in mod-52 and that it is entitled to recalculate the amounts owed by
reference to those written procedures. It argues that only specific dollar figures identified
in mod-52 require an accord and satisfaction to be enforceable. We do not understand the
manner in which FSA has dissected the accord and satisfaction doctrine.
Generally, a bilateral modification in which the parties agree to add or substitute a
new performance obligation in exchange for discharging an original contract duty constitutes
an ‘accord,’ which is satisfied when the new performance, typically payment, is rendered.
Brock & Bevins Co. v. United States , 343 F.2d 951, 954-55 (Ct. Cl. 1965). In some
agreements, though, the “additional performance” is actually a part of and is “satisfied”
within the terms of the modification itself, making both the “accord” and the “satisfaction”
complete upon execution of the “substituted contract”:
[A]n accord and satisfaction may occur in two ways: (1) the agreement itself
may be considered a new or “substituted contract” comprising both the accord
and the satisfaction, extinguishing the subject claims and permitting suit only
to be brought on the “substituted contract” or, (2) the parties may enter into an
“executory accord” that discharges the claims only if the agreement is later
performed and, if not performed, the original claims may be reopened.
Edward H. Foran, ASBCA 51596, et al., 01-1 BCA ¶ 31,323.
The Restatement (Second) of Contracts distinguishes between a “substituted contract”
and an “executory accord.” It defines an enforceable “substituted contract” as follows:
A substituted contract is one that is itself accepted by the obligee in
satisfaction of the original duty and thereby discharges it. A common type of
substituted contract is one that contains a term that is inconsistent with a term
of an earlier contract between the parties. If the parties intend the new contract
to replace all of the provisions of the earlier contract, the contract is a
substituted contract.
Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 279 cmt. a (1981). Unlike a substituted contract,
“which immediately discharges a prior obligation, an [executory] accord discharges the prior
obligation only after the performance of the new agreement.” GE Capital Mortgage
Services, Inc. v. Pinnacle Mortgage Investment Corp. , 897 F. Supp. 854, 865 (E.D. Pa.

CBCA 6049 18
1995). “The accord entitles the obligor to a chance to render the substituted performance in
satisfaction of the original duty,” and, once he does, “his performance discharges both his
original duty and his duty under the accord.” Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 281
cmt. b. Nevertheless, “[i]t is the essence of an [executory] accord that the original duty is not
satisfied until the accord is performed.”Id. § 281 cmt. a. If the obligor fails to perform the
substituted obligation, the obligee “is no longer bound by the accord” and “may then choose
between enforcement of the original duty and any duty under the accord.”Id. cmt. b.
The parties are interpreting mod-52 in different ways, with FSA defining it as a
“substituted contract” that needs no actual payment to render it binding and TSI defining it
as an executory accord. “The determination of whether the modification is in the nature of
a substituted contract or an accord and satisfaction, operating as an immediate discharge, or
is an executory accord, where substituted performance was meant as a future discharge, is
a question of the intention of the parties and of reasonable interpretation of the expressions
of the parties.”TMW, Joint Venture, Inc. , ASBCA 23115, 84-2 BCA ¶ 17,250; see
Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 281 cmt. e (1981) (“Whether a contract is an accord or
a substituted contract is a question of interpretation.”). A tribunal is “less likely to find a
substituted contract and more likely to find an accord if the original duty was one to pay
money [or] if it was undisputed.” Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 281 cmt. e (1981).
Nevertheless, the mere fact that FSA is arguing in favor of interpreting mod-52 as a
substituted contract rather than an executory accord does not mean that the elements of
accord and satisfaction do not apply.
C. The Elements As Applied in This Case
1. Proper Subject Matter
FSA asserts that, because the parties disagree as to the subject matter of mod-52, the
“proper subject matter” element of an accord and satisfaction is not satisfied. We disagree.
Certainly, TSI and FSA are at odds about what the subject matter of mod-52 is, whether it
should be limited to the establishment of written reconciliation procedures or, instead,
encompasses a defined final payment amount. Their dispute, though, is about the scope of
the relevant subject matter. “The subject matter of a [modification] is not proper if, for
example, it is to commit an unlawful act (to restrain trade, to sell illegal drugs, to obstruct
justice, to commit treason, or to kill someone) or to contravene public policy (to prevent
someone from holding elective office).”Trataros Construction, Inc.(citing Hudson County
Water Co. v. McCarter , 209 U.S. 349, 357 (1908)). Subject matter is proper where it
addresses “matters that had arisen during the course of the performance of the contract.”Id.
No matter which party is correct in its interpretation of mod-52, each party’s proposed
interpretation involves “proper” subject matter. Questions about the properscope of the

CBCA 6049 19
modification relate to whether there was a “meeting of the minds” between the parties, which
we will discuss below.8
2. Competent Parties
Neither party disputes that NCO and FSA were both competent to enter into and
execute a contract modification.
3. Consideration
FSA argues that it received no consideration for mod-52 because NCO was
performing the same student debt collection services both before and after the modification:
mod-52 “does not require TSI or the Agency to perform any new or different responsibilities
nor is there a promise bargained for,” says FSA. Respondent’s Motion for Summary
Judgment at 15. We disagree.
“[T]o constitute consideration, a performance or a return promise must be bargained
for.”National Housing Group, Inc. v. Department of Housing & Urban Development ,
CBCA 340, et al., 09-1 BCA ¶ 34,043. “Under a traditional benefit/detriment analysis,
consideration is sufficient if there is any benefit to the promisor or detriment to the
promisee,” but, “in the context of a Government contract, [consideration] must render a
benefit to the Government and not merely a detriment to the contractor.” Turner
Construction Co. v. General Services Administration , GSBCA 15502, et al., 05-1 BCA
¶ 32,924; see Metzger, Shadyac & Schwarz v. United States , 12 Cl. Ct. 602, 605 (1987)
(consideration requires a benefit to the Government). Nevertheless, “[n]either the benefit nor
detriment need be actual; it is a sufficient legal detriment if the promisee agrees to perform
any act, no matter how slight, and so long as he does so at the request of the promisor and
in exchange for the promise. The term ‘benefit’ means the receipt as the exchange for a
promise some performance or forbearance which the promisor was not previously entitled
to receive.”Turner Construction.
Even though the substance of NCO’s debt collection services was the same before and
after mod-52, that contract modification plainly memorialized a significant change to the
8 To the extent that some tribunals may view the “proper subject matter” element
as requiring agreement between the parties as to the scope of a modification, see Thomas
Creek Lumber & Log Co. v. United States, 36 Fed. Cl. 220, 238 (1996), we elect, in light of
our predecessor board’s decision inTrataros Construction, to consider that matter as part of
the “meeting of the minds” element of an accord and satisfaction.

CBCA 6049 20
original task order that the parties negotiated for months, creating a series of new rules
defining how PCAs would receive commissions to deal with the fact that, for almost two
years, FSA had been unable accurately to record a basis for them. That is sufficient
consideration to support mod-52.See Edo Corp., ASBCA 2622, 56-2 BCA ¶ 1141 (rejecting
the Government’s argument that a contract modification failed for lack of consideration
because, even though the Government alleged that the modification required the contractor
to furnish “only that which was already required by the original contract,” the modification
actually changed some of the contractor’s performance obligations, even if minimally).
Although FSA broadly states its “no consideration” argument, it appears, looking at
FSA’s briefs as a whole, that FSA really means to argue only that the portion of mod-52
dealing with the actual dollar amounts to be paid NCO, if it is interpreted as an enforceable
part of the modification, lacks consideration. This is because FSA relies upon and seeks to
enforce as binding the written invoice reconciliation procedures that are contained in
mod-52. If mod-52 truly lacked consideration, the entire modification, including the
procedures adopted therein, would be ineffective. See Restatement (Second) of Contracts
§ 279 cmt. b. Yet, we cannot split the modification into pieces in the manner that FSA
appears to request. Unless a contract modification is divisible, we do not require separate
consideration for each part of the modification unless the language of the agreement
specifically calls for it: “Where consideration is shown for an obligation as a whole, any
particular part of the obligation cannot be extracted and said to be inoperative because
particular consideration is not assigned to it.”Denver Steel & Iron Works, ENG BCA 2204,
1963 WL 164 (Mar. 8, 1963);see Brown-Forman Distillers Corp. v. Northwest Liquor Co.,
171 F.2d 255, 256 (7th Cir. 1948) (for an indivisible contract, the consideration for the whole
is the consideration for each part);Philipp Brothers Inter-Continent Corp. v. United States,
17 A.F.T.R. 2d 1072, 1966 WL 14651 (S.D.N.Y. May 18, 1966) (“[O]nce there is
consideration for the contract as a whole, . . . there need not have been separate consideration
for every stipulation, promise or provision in the contract. . . .”).
If TSI is correct that mod-52 includes not only the invoice reconciliation procedures,
but also the dollar amount derived from those procedures, we cannot find that the procedures
and the resulting dollar amount are divisible. Absent express language to the contrary, “a
contract is generally construed to be divisible [only] where the articles of the contract are
entirely distinct and not in their nature connected with one another.” 77A C.J.S.Sales § 15;
see In re Payless Cashways, 203 F.3d 1081, 1085 (8th Cir. 2000) (a divisible contract is, in
legal effect, a series of independent agreements about different subjects that just happen to
be made at the same time and to have been incorporated into the same written contract
document). The invoice reconciliation procedures and the resulting amount to be paid to the
PCAs are not so distinct and separate as to permit us, in the absence of other evidence of a
contrary intent, to find the two to be entirely unrelated. To the extent that FSA is arguing that

CBCA 6049 21
relieving it of liability for not maintaining better rehabilitations completion records and for
not performing its invoicing obligations was an insufficient benefit to support a modification,
tribunals “ordinarily ‘do not inquire into the adequacy of consideration,’ especially ‘when
one or both of the values exchanged are uncertain or difficult to measure.’”Moore v. United
States Department of State , 351 F. Supp. 3d 76, 89 (D.D.C. 2019) (quoting Restatement
(Second) of Contracts § 79 cmt. c. (1981)). FSA has no valid basis for arguing that there was
no consideration to support mod-52, regardless of its scope.
FSA also argues that, because the parties agreed that new invoice reconciliation
procedures were necessary to allow for proper payment to the PCAs, there was no bona fide
dispute between the parties, an argument that, as we previously discussed, amounts to a
challenge to the adequacy of consideration. We disagree with FSA’s definition of a “bona
fide dispute” for purposes of the accord and satisfaction doctrine. “The requirement of a
bona fide dispute presupposes both parties’ knowledge that there exists a particular issue as
to a greater liability that is settled by the accord.”Flowers v. Diamond Shamrock Corp., 693
F.2d 1146, 1152 (5th Cir. 1982). That requirement is important to ensure that a party does
not unknowingly create an accord and satisfaction, such as where an individual receives and
deposits a check without realizing that the sender intended it to constitute payment in full for
work performed. See, e.g., IFC Credit Corp. v. Bulk Petroleum Corp., 403 F.3d 869, 872-73
(7th Cir. 2005); Neal H. Howard & Associates v. Carey & Danis, LLC , 244 F. Supp. 2d
1344, 1347-48 (M.D. Ga. 2003). In the context of a bilateral contract modification, a “bona
fide dispute” means that there are “accompanying expressions sufficient to make the creditor
understand, or to make it unreasonable for him not to understand, that the performance is
offered to him as full satisfaction of his claim and not otherwise.”Chesapeake & Potomac
Telephone, 654 F.2d at 716 (quoting 6 Arthur L. Corbin, Corbin on Contracts § 1276
(1962)).
Contrary to FSA’s position, mod-52 resolved a dispute between the parties. Both
parties knew during the six months that they spent negotiating mod-52 that they were
working to resolve a change in FSA’s original task order obligation to prepare and issue
invoices and to agree upon a method by which the PCAs’ commissions would be calculated
and paid. They knew that FSA’s DMCS system had not properly recorded payment dates
associated with, at a minimum, rehabilitations, making it impossible for FSA to satisfy its
underlying task order obligations. The contemporaneous emails that TSI has added to the
record reflect the extent of FSA’s recordation problems and the extensive compromises that
the PCAs had to make with FSA, over the course of several months of negotiations, to
resolve the lack of reliable data from which to calculate their commissions. We disagree
with FSA’s position that the PCAs’ agreement to substitute the invoice reconciliation
procedures for FSA’s original obligations and to excuse FSA’s failures properly to track
student debt payments and issue appropriate invoices was not a change to the task order.

CBCA 6049 22
FSA cannot validly argue that the PCAs did not significantly compromise what, without
mod-52, would have been a breach of contract by FSA.
FSA has no basis for contesting that mod-52 was supported by consideration.
4. Meeting of the Minds
“An accord and satisfaction does not operate as a bar in regard to matters not
contemplated by an agreement . . . .”John A. Volpe Construction Co., GSBCA 2570, 70-1
BCA ¶ 8070. “The intent of the parties is the controlling factor in deciding whether there
was a meeting of the minds, and ‘[t]he contract modification provides the best source of
evidence regarding intent.’”Trataros Construction, Inc. (quoting McLain Plumbing &
Electrical Service, Inc. v. United States, 30 Fed. Cl. 70, 81 (1993)). In considering a meeting
of the minds for purposes of an accord, we look first to the language of the agreement.
Saturn Construction Co., VABCA 3229, 91-3 BCA ¶ 24,151. When the contract language
is unambiguous, a tribunal’s inquiry ends, and the plain contract language controls.Textron
Defense Systems v. Widnall, 143 F.3d 1465, 1469 (Fed. Cir. 1998).
In this case, reading mod-52 in its entirety, there is nothing that explains why FSA
included its dollar calculations in the bilateral modification. As FSA notes, the stated
purpose of the modification, as set forth on its first page, is “to incorporate Invoice
Reconciliation Procedures,” rather than specific dollar amounts, that “are hereby effective
for performance occurring from September 16, 2011 through August 31, 2013.” Tab 5 at 1.
Mod-52 includes several pages of written procedures that describe how FSA will calculate
the commissions owed to each PCA for that reconciliation period. The “regular payments”
section of those procedures refers to Appendix 1 as containing historical commission rates,
and those historical rates are set forth on the first page of Appendix 1. Id. at 3, 15.
Seemingly inexplicably, though, Appendix 1also includes three-and-a-half pages of
something other than historical commission rates: the entirety of FSA’s breakdown of what
it then viewed as the amounts owed to the PCA for its work from September 2011 to August
2013; the amount that FSA thought it had previously paid the PCA; and FSA’s calculation
of the difference between the “should have been paid” and “already paid” numbers.
Nowhere in mod-52 is there any explanation of why those amounts are contained in
Appendix 1 or in the modification. TSI submitted an invoice to FSA in the amount of that
calculated difference, and FSA paid it.
At oral argument, FSA could not explain why the detailed dollar figures were included
in Appendix 1. All that FSA could say was that FSA was “trying to have a place in the
record that reflects the emails that were being exchanged without incorporating the emails,”

CBCA 6049 23
and “that was just a simple way for them to do so.” Transcript at 70-71. Yet, when
interpreting a contract, the Board must attempt to interpret it in a manner that “give[s]
reasonable meaning to all of its parts.”NVT Technologies, Inc. v. United States , 370 F.3d
1153, 1159 (Fed. Cir. 2004). Such an interpretation “is to be preferred over one that leaves
a portion of the contract useless, inexplicable, void, or superfluous.” Id.; see Fortec
Constructors v. United States , 760 F.2d 1288, 1292 (Fed. Cir. 1985) (interpretation “that
leaves portions of the contract meaningless” is not preferred). In interpreting mod-52, we
cannot view the inclusion of detailed dollar figures as meaningless. Their inclusion has to
mean something. FSA’s assertion that their inclusion was simply for purposes of
convenience, as a storage mechanism, and that only the written paragraphs detailing invoice
reconciliation procedures were intended to bind all parties makes no sense. FSA’s
interpretation of mod-52 renders a significant portion of it superfluous and meaningless.
Nevertheless, TSI’s assertion that the three-and-a-half pages of dollar figures in
Appendix 1 constituted a binding resolution of the dollar amount that FSA owed TSI is
equally unsupported by contract language. As noted above, the purpose of including dollar
figures is not expressly stated anywhere in mod-52. The only reference to Appendix 1 in the
entirety of mod-52 indicates that it identifies historical commission rates under previous
contracts. The modification saysnothing indicating that a detailed calculation defining what
TSI was actually owed wouldalso be found there. And, as we now know, the dollar figure
calculated in Appendix 1 is inconsistent with the invoice reconciliation procedures set forth
in mod-52, given that it fails to account for NCO’s receipt of the September 2011 payment.
Further, if the inclusion of dollar calculations in Appendix 1 was intended to define TSI’s
precise final payment amount for the period from September 16, 2011, to August 30, 2013,
why bother to include the actual invoice reconciliation procedures in the contract
modification at all, since the parties only needed to insert a final dollar figure? Should we
find that the actual written procedures override the stated dollar amount or, instead, that the
dollar amount overrides the written procedures? The absence of a reference anywhere in
mod-52 to the fact that there would be a detailed dollar calculation in Appendix 1 or why it
is there creates an irreconcilable ambiguity.9
9 We also note, without deciding what it means, that the first page of mod-52
included Box 12, entitled “Accounting and Appropriation Data,” that stated “Modification
Amount: $0” and “Modification Obligated Amount: $0.” Tab 5 at 1. FSA appears to
suggest that this notation evidences the parties’ intent that the modification did not reflect
an agreement for FSA to pay any specific dollar amounts to NCO. Subsequently, though,
FSA paid NCO’s invoice in the specific dollar amount identified in mod-52, without, as far
as we can tell, issuing any additional modifications or supplemental funding documents to
cover the payment, making it appear that the modification did not have to add money to the

CBCA 6049 24
Where the existence of an accord and satisfaction is unclear from the language of the
contract modification itself, we must examine evidence surrounding the development of the
modification to understand the parties’ intent.See Merritt-Chapman & Scott Corp. v. United
States, 458 F.2d 42, 44-45 (Ct. Cl. 1972) (approving of the board’s examination “at great
length [of] the negotiations preceding acceptance of the . . . proposal, for any evidence of
such exceptions or reservations”). “The [tribunal] therefore must examine the totality of the
circumstances to determine whether a meeting of the minds occurred concerning an
accord—whether there were ‘accompanying expressions sufficient to make the [obligee]
understand, or to make it unreasonable for him not to understand, that the performance is
offered to him as full satisfaction of his claim and not otherwise.’”Kanag’iq Construction
Co. v. United States, 51 Fed. Cl. 38, 47 (2001) (quoting Chesapeake & Potomac, 654 F.2d
at 716); see Texas Instruments Inc. v. United States , 922 F.2d 810, 815 (Fed. Cir. 1990)
(“Whether a legally enforceable contract has been formed by a meeting of the minds depends
upon the totality of the factual circumstances.”). At least one court has recognized that “[t]he
fact-intensive nature of the court’s inquiry into the scope of the meeting of the minds is a
poor candidate for summary judgment. Although common sense strongly suggests that the
bilateral modifications constitute accords regarding any equitable adjustments arising out of
the changed work, common sense cannot resolve a genuine issue of material fact, particularly
when that fact is the intent of the parties.”Kanag’iq Construction, 51 Fed. Cl. at 47.
Comparing the parties’ competing evidence regarding their negotiations, we cannot
resolve the scope of the parties’ “meeting of the minds” on summary judgment. TSI cites
deposition testimony from the FSA business operations specialist who negotiated mod-52
with the PCAs, who indicated that the entire purpose of the negotiations was to “come up
with what we called a make whole number” for each PCA, which was the number included
in the modification:
So the reconciliation process was to compare what the PCAs had billed us for
during that period to what we agreed with the PCAs they were owed during
that period, and then come up with what we called a make whole number,
which was to say either the PCAs have billed us for and been paid for more
than what we now realize they were owed, or less than what we now realize
they were owed.
Bryant Deposition at 31-32. Similarly, the FSA contracting officer who executed mod-52
on FSA’s behalf testified that “[i]t was my understanding that they were bilateral
contract for payment to be authorized. As a result, it is unclear what this notation in Box 12
was intended to convey. The parties should address this matter in future proceedings.

CBCA 6049 25
modifications that memorialized the performance of the PCAs for that period of time” and
“[t]he purpose was to pay them the correct amount . . . for their performance.” Deposition
of John E. Ramsey, III (June 10, 2019) at 36, 38. He also testified as to his belief that, by
executing mod-52, TSI was certifying the dollar amounts set forth therein. Id. at 46, 60. In
addition, FSA’s “should have been paid” dollar calculations in Appendix 1 include items that
are not mentioned in the written procedures, but to which the parties agreed during mod-52
negotiations (Tab 40)—commissions billed in the “Titanium” and “Legacy” invoices
covering August and early September 2011—providing at least some support for interpreting
the Appendix 1 dollar calculations as more representative of the totality of the parties’
agreements than the written procedures alone. The cited testimony, coupled with additional
evidence in the record, provides some support for TSI’s interpretation of mod-52.
Nevertheless, FSA cites other portions of those witnesses’ testimony, as well as
testimony of another witness, in which the witnesses disclaim any understanding that the
dollar numbers in the PCAs’ modifications were binding or final, although the testimony
generally lacks specifics aboutwhy the dollar figures were included into the actual bilateral
modifications. The evidence that FSA cites is enough to create a genuine issue of material
fact that will require us to resolve the parties’ intent through a hearing or, if the parties so
elect, on a written record under Board Rule 19 (48 CFR 6101.19 (2019)). On summary
judgment, we cannot weigh evidence or evaluate credibility, but must, in reviewing each
party’s summary judgment motion, make all justifiable inferences and presumptions in the
non-moving party’s favor.Navigant SatoTravel v. General Services Administration, CBCA
449, 08-1 BCA ¶ 33,821. Based upon that standard, we cannot decide the scope of the
parties’ agreement or their “meeting of the minds” on summary judgment.
Mistake, The Duty of Good Faith, and Misrepresentation
FSA argues that, as a matter of law, it is entitled to reclaim monies that it overpaid by
mistake and that an accord and satisfaction cannot preclude recovery if based upon a mistake
that would require the Government to overpay a contractor. That right of recovery is not
dependent, says FSA, on any fault or knowledge of the mistake by the contractor, but, even
if it were, NCO was not innocent in dealing with FSA’s mistake, and the underlying contract
and task order created an implied duty of good faith and fair dealing requiring NCO to
recognize and tell FSA of its failure to include the September 2011 invoice in its “already
paid” calculation. According to FSA, NCO could easily have “determine[d] how much [it
was] paid during the reconciliation period by simply adding all the payments [it] received
during that time,” and its failure to “ma[k]e a good faith effort to maintain and review its own
records in order to evaluate the Agency’s claim,” and to tell FSA of FSA’s error, constitutes
a breach of that good faith duty. Respondent’s Motion for Summary Judgment at 13.

CBCA 6049 26
It is well-settled that the Federal Government is entitled to recover funds that “its
agents have wrongfully, erroneously, or illegally paid.”United States. v. Wurts, 303 U.S.
414, 415 (1938). An erroneous payment is one “made as a result of an unauthorized
agreement, or one not authorized by the terms of the parties’ agreement.”Maykat
Enterprises, N.V., GSBCA 7346, 84-3 BCA ¶ 17,510. As defined in the FAR, an erroneous
payment “to a contractor to which the contractor is not currently entitled under the terms and
conditions of the contract,” including an overpayment, is considered a contract debt that the
Government can recoup. 48 CFR 32.601(a), (b)(8), (b)(12). It matters not that the
Government was responsible for the error at issue. Lodge 2424, International Association
of Machinists & Aerospace Workers v. United States, 564 F.2d 66, 71 (Ct. Cl. 1977).
Yet, in the face of a bilateral contract modification, FSA is not necessarily entitled to
recoup any amount that it thinks it overpaid simply because it made a mistake when
negotiating: “The Government is bound by those agreements of its agents that are within the
scope of their actual authority, even if those agreements were the result of a unilateral
mistake of law or fact,” and “the Government enjoys no special status permitting it to
disavow those agreements.”Maykat Enterprises, N.V. In some ways, the arguments that
FSA is raising here mirror those of the Government inAirmotive Engineering Corp., ASBCA
15235, 71-2 BCA ¶ 8988, a case in which the Government, through a bilateral contract
modification, had accepted and defined the dollar amount for a Value Engineering Change
Proposal (VECP). The Government later discovered that the employee who had accepted
the VECP had relied on faulty information in calculating the cost savings resulting from the
VECP and recomputed the amount to which the contractor was entitled, resulting in a
significantly lower award. On appeal, the board determined that, although the Government
used terms like “mistake,” “mutual mistake,” and “misapprehension” to describe the reasons
that its contract negotiator had miscalculated the dollar figure for the contract modification,
the real basis of the Government’s complaint was “some shortcoming in its own negotiating
efforts.” Rejecting the notion that contracting officers only have the authority to make good
bargains for the Government, the board held that, if it turns out that a bilateral contract
modification results in a bad bargain, the Government has no right simply to rescind the
agreement or to reform its terms. Instead, the Government has to live with the mistake that
it made if the agreement in which it is contained is otherwise binding. See Applied Cos. v.
United States, 37 Fed. Cl. 749, 757 (1997) (“The government’s failure to protect itself . . .
from liability to the bank when it easily could have, was not reason to allow it to renege on
its commitment under the agreement.”),aff’d, 144 F.3d 1470 (Fed. Cir. 1999).
Nevertheless, “[i]n many situations, if one party knows that the other is mistaken as
to a basic assumption, he is expected to disclose the fact that would correct the mistake.”
Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 161 cmt. d (1979). “[E]very contract imposes upon
each party a duty of good faith and fair dealing in its performance and its enforcement,”

CBCA 6049 27
Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 205 (1981), and that good faith duty requires “honesty
in fact in the conduct or transaction concerned.”Id. § 205 cmt. a. “Subterfuges and evasions
violate the obligation of good faith in performance even though the actor believes his conduct
to be justified.”Id. § 205 cmt. d. Although the Restatement (Second) of Contracts, in
discussing the concept of “[g]ood faith in negotiations,” makes clear that this good faith duty
“does not deal with good faith in the formation of a contract,”id. § 205 cmt. c, it can apply
in appropriate circumstances to the “negotiation for modification of an existing contractual
relationship,”id., like the negotiation between NCO and FSA that resulted in mod-52. See
6800 Corp., GSBCA 5880, 83-2 BCA ¶ 16,581 (applying duty of good faith to negotiations
for modifications to existing contractual relationships). “Whether a party is chargeable with
an overall failure to bargain in good faith ‘involves a finding of motive or state of mind,’
which must be inferred from the evidence viewed as a whole.”National Labor Relations
Board v. Columbia Tribune Publishing Co., 495 F.2d 1384, 1391 (8th Cir. 1974) (quoting
National Labor Relations Board v. Reed & Prince Manufacturing Co., 205 F.2d 131, 139-40
(1st Cir. 1953)).
“[An] action to recover mistaken overpayments [embodied within a contract
modification] may . . . be maintained on the theory that the mistake was induced by
misrepresentation on the part of the contractor.”Coral Petroleum, Inc., ASBCA 27888, 86-1
BCA ¶ 18,533 (1985). “[T]o prevail on a claim of misrepresentation, the [Government] must
show that the [contractor] made an erroneous representation of a material fact that the
[Government] honestly and reasonably relied on to the [Government’s] detriment.”T. Brown
Constructors, Inc. v. Pena, 132 F.3d 724, 729 (Fed. Cir. 1997). “To justify reformation of
a contract on the ground of misrepresentation, the evidence must be clear and convincing.”
Timber Investors, Inc. v. United States , 587 F.2d 472, 475 (Ct. Cl. 1978). “Extrinsic
evidence is admissible to prove that a [party] entered a contract [modification] based on a
misrepresentation . . . .”C&H Commercial Contractors, Inc. v. United States, 35 Fed. Cl.
246, 256 (1996).
In its summary judgment briefing, FSA does not tell us whether it believes that NCO
made any affirmative statements misrepresenting its “already paid” amount. Nevertheless,
a misrepresentation “may also be inferred from conduct other than words,” Restatement
(Second) of Contracts § 159 cmt. a (1981), such that, in certain circumstances,
“[c]oncealment or even non-disclosure may have the effect of a misrepresentation.”Id.
§ 159 cmt. a. “Concealment is an affirmative act intended or known to be likely to keep
another from learning of a fact of which he would otherwise have learned,” which “is always
equivalent to a misrepresentation.”Id. § 160 cmt. a. “Non-disclosure without concealment
is equivalent to a misrepresentation only in special situations.”Id. § 161 cmt. a. “A person’s
non-disclosure of a fact known to him” could constitute a “misrepresentation” in the
following circumstances:

CBCA 6049 28
(a) where he knows that disclosure of the fact is necessary to prevent some
previous assertion from being a misrepresentation, [or]
(b) where he knows that disclosure of the fact would correct a mistake of the
other party as to a basic assumption on which that party is making the contract
and if non-disclosure of the fact amounts to a failure to act in good faith and
in accordance with reasonable standards of fair dealing.
Id. § 161. Nevertheless, “[a]ctual knowledge is required for the application of the rule stated
in Clause (b).”Id. § 161 cmt. d.
We cannot tell from the current record whether NCO actually knew of FSA’s mistake
before executing mod-52. Although we might want to assume that NCO, as a good business
practice, would likely have checked its records against FSA’s “already paid” calculation,
FSA has placed virtually nothing from the period of the parties’ negotiations into the
evidentiary record, and we cannot know exactly what FSA was telling NCO and the other
PCAs about its calculations, what it was asking them to do, or what information FSA was
providing.10 We do not know whether NCO verified FSA’s numbers against its records,
whether it discovered an error and said nothing, or, if it conducted a verification, exactly
what NCO thought it was verifying. As a result, we cannot find on the record before us that
NCO actually knew of FSA’s mistake.
FSA instead appears to ask us to find that, even if NCO had no actual knowledge,
NCO should have known of FSA’s mistake and that FSA is automatically entitled to
reformation of the agreed-upon mod-52 dollar amount. “The case of a party who does not
know but has reason to know of a mistake is governed” not by Restatement (Second) of
Contracts § 161, but “by the rule stated in § 153(b),”id. § 161 cmt. d (emphasis added),
which provides as follows:
Where a mistake of one party at the time a contract was made as to a basic
assumption on which he made the contract has a material effect on the agreed
exchange of performances that is adverse to him, the contract is voidable by
him if he does not bear the risk of the mistake under the rule stated in
10 Although the record contains an email from the FSA business operations specialist
indicating that he would be providing TSI and the other PCAs a detailed breakdown of how
he calculated the “already paid” number, nothing in the current record indicates that FSA
provided the PCAs with that breakdown prior to executing mod-52.

CBCA 6049 29
[Restatement (Second) of Contracts] § 154, and . . . the other party had reason
to know of the mistake or his fault caused the mistake.
Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 153 (1979). “‘Reason to know’ is the Restatement’s
analytically more precise term for ‘constructive knowledge.’”Bowen-McLaughlin-York Co.
v. United States, 10 Cl. Ct. 223, 224 (1986), rev’d on other grounds, 813 F.2d 1221 (Fed.
Cir. 1987). “A person has reason to know a fact, present or future, if he has information
from which a person of ordinary intelligence would infer that the fact in question does or will
exist.” Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 19 cmt. b;see Chernick v. United States, 372
F.2d 492, 496 (Ct. Cl. 1967) (test for determining what a party “‘should’ have known must
be that of reasonableness, i.e., whether under the facts and circumstances of the case there
were any factors which reasonably should have raised the presumption of error”). “[T]he
words ‘reason to know’ are used both where the actor has a duty to another and where he
would not be acting adequately in the protection of his own interests were he not acting with
reference to the facts which he has reason to know.” Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 19
cmt. b. With regard to defining which party bears the risk of a particular mistake, a party
bears that risk when “(a) the risk is allocated to him by agreement of the parties, or (b) he is
aware, at the time the contract is made, that he has only limited knowledge with respect to
the facts to which the mistake relates but treats his limited knowledge as sufficient, or (c) the
risk is allocated to him by the court on the ground that it is reasonable in the circumstances
to do so.”Id. § 154.
In its reply brief, FSA argues that FAR 4.703 (48 CFR 4.703) requires NCO “to
maintain and review its own records in order to evaluate the Agency’s claim,” Respondent’s
Reply Brief at 11, and suggests that, based upon that duty, we should infer constructive
knowledge by NCO of FSA’s mistake, even if NCO elected to accept FSA’s word about the
“already paid” number and either did not actually check its records or misunderstood what
FSA was asking it to check. That FAR provision, though, only requires contractors to retain
certain records for specific periods of time and to make them available to the Government
for audit. It does not impose an affirmative obligation on the contractor to verify the
Government’s numbers, at least absent evidence that the contractor knowingly was
attempting to deceive the Government. We cannot find that the cited FAR provision creates
automatic inferred knowledge.
Beyond that FAR citation, FSA merely asserts, without citing any evidence, that TSI
has engaged in “lack of diligence, negligence, and/or subterfuge” and that NCO “should have
known,” if it did not actually know, of FSA’s miscalculation. FSA’s Summary Judgment
Motion at 10, 13. Again, though, FSA asks us to make assumptions without presenting any
evidence. NCO’s level of knowledge and intent are crucial in determining not only the
extent to which there was an actionable “misrepresentation,” but also the remedy for it. If

CBCA 6049 30
one party induces assent through afraudulent misrepresentation, the harmed party may seek
reformation of the parties’ agreement. Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 166 (1981).
“[W]here only one party is mistaken and the other, although [actually] aware of the mistake,
says nothing to correct it,” reformation may be appropriate in certain circumstances.Id.
§ 166 cmt. a. Under the Restatement, reformation isnot available for a mistake about which
a party only had “reason to know” or “should have known,” but did notactually know. In
that circumstance, “the contract [action] may bevoidable . . . , but reformation is not
appropriate.”id. § 166 cmt. b (emphasis added), although, in limited circumstances, some
board decisions have permitted reformation for a clear-cut “clerical or arithmetical error” by
the Government, not involving a mistake of judgment, “of which the [contractor] was aware
or should have been aware,” applying a rule similar to that for contractors who make a
unilateral mistake in bid. See, e.g., Cresto & Lanphere, Inc., AGBCA 84-208-1, 84-3 BCA
¶ 17,653; Burnett Electronics Laboratory, Inc., ASBCA 23938, 80-2 BCA ¶ 14,619.
We are hesitant to decide what NCO “should have known” on summary judgment
based upon the record before us. NCO was far from the only PCA that did not recognize a
problem with FSA’s “already paid” numbers at the end of the invoice reconciliation
procedures negotiations. Although FSA alleges that it overpaid all twenty-three PCAs
holding task orders like NCO’s, only one of those PCAs originally noticed any problem with
the numbers that FSA provided. There is some evidence in the record suggesting that, for
at least portions of the negotiating period, the FSA business operations specialist was telling
the PCAs that he was only counting commissions from October 2011 onward.See, e.g., Tabs
19, 23, 25, 49. The record also shows that, when FSA notified the PCAs that it was
demanding refunds, all of the PCAs were initially skeptical that there had been any
overpayment and disagreed with FSA’s assessment before most finally agreed, for whatever
reason, to return the demanded money. That twenty-two of twenty-three PCAs did not notice
the error that FSA made during negotiations and expressed surprise when FSA later
identified an error does not support FSA’s argument that its error was obvious in the
circumstances of this negotiation.
Absent evidence about the details of the parties’ negotiations and mutual
understandings during those negotiations, we are not in a position to grant FSA’s request for
summary judgment on its good faith and fair dealing and misrepresentation argument.
Further, we cannot identify what the appropriate remedy would be—whether it be to reform
mod-52 to fix FSA’s error or to render mod-52 voidable in its entirety—without more

CBCA 6049 31
information about NCO’s actual knowledge or “reason to know” of FSA’s error. We deny
FSA’s summary judgment request on this issue.11
We also note that, “to justify reformation of a contract and damages on the ground of
misrepresentation, innocent or not, the evidence must establish not only the existence of a
misrepresentation, but also that the party seeking relief both relied upon such
misrepresentation, and was damaged thereby.”Roseburg Lumber Co. v. Madigan, 978 F.2d
660, 667 (Fed. Cir. 1992). The record contains evidence that the PCA which identified the
missing September 2011 commissions invoice first notified the FSA negotiators of that error
during the negotiation process and that FSA took no action, executing the PCAs’
modifications after that disclosure. The evidentiary record on this point, however, is
ill-developed, consisting of a single comment by the PCA in a post-modification
communication to FSA. The parties can explore in further proceedings this aspect of the
misrepresentation doctrine.
FSA’s Implied-in-Fact Contract Argument
FSA asks us to find on summary judgment that it had an implied-in-fact contract with
NCO, TSI’s predecessor-in-interest, that obligated NCO, when negotiating mod-0052, to
notify FSA of any errors in FSA’s calculation of the amounts that FSA had previously paid
to NCO for the September 2011 to August 2013 time period. We deny FSA’s request and
enter summary judgment for TSI on this issue.
“An implied-in-fact contract is founded on a meeting of the minds, which,though ‘not
embodied in an express contract, is inferred, as a fact, from conduct of the parties showing,
in the light of the surrounding circumstances, their tacit understanding.’”Parsons
Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas, Inc. , DOT CAB 1299, 84-2 BCA ¶ 17,309 (quoting
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Co. v. United States , 261 U.S. 592, 597 (1922)) (emphasis
added). FSA asserts that NCO “had actual or constructive knowledge that [FSA’s calculation
11 To the extent that FSA might have attempted to disclaim mod-52 on the basis of
a mutual mistake of fact, it did not raise such an argument in its complaint or in its motion
for summary judgment. In its reply brief, FSA for the first time mentioned mutual mistake,
but, in response to a motion to strike the late-raised argument that the appellant inCollecto
filed, FSA disclaimed that it was alleging a mutual mistake or relying on that defense. In
light of FSA’s disclaimer, we do not further address this legal theory.See Novosteel SA v.
United States , 284 F.3d 1261, 1273-74 (Fed. Cir. 2002) (declining to consider legal
arguments first raised before the trial court in a reply brief). Further, we do not know NCO’s
level of knowledge about FSA’s mistake when it executed mod-52.

CBCA 6049 32
of the amounts previously paid to NCO as set forth in] Appendix 1 to [mod-52] was not an
accurate calculation of the payments received for PCA-created invoices during the
reconciliation period.” Respondent’s Motion for Summary Judgment at 12. Because NCO
“was explicitly requested to notify the Agency of any errors in the reconciliation calculations
and [NCO] failed to do so,” NCO breached the parties’ implied-in-fact contract, which
should bar enforcement of any possible agreement on dollar amounts in mod-52. Id. at 13.
For at least two reasons, no basis exists for finding an implied-in-fact contract:
First, FSA identifies no offer or acceptance that created any type of “contract”
requiring NCO to comply with FSA’s request for the PCAs’ voluntary input, precluding the
formation of an implied-in-fact contract. See Howard v. United States, 31 Fed. Cl. 297, 312
(1994) (“To prove the existence of an implied-in-fact contract, plaintiffs must show the same
elements required to constitute an express contract, that is, mutuality of intent, consideration,
and lack of ambiguity in offer and acceptance.”). No contract with mutually binding
obligations can arise simply because FSA made a request to someone for assistance.
Second, FSA had an express written contract with NCO covering NCO’s student loan
debt collection work. “The existence of an express contract precludes the existence of an
implied contract dealing with the same subject, unless the implied contract is entirely
unrelated to the express contract.”Atlas Corp. v. United States, 895 F.2d 745, 754-55 (Fed.
Cir. 1990). Because negotiations for mod-52 were far from “entirely unrelated” to the
underlying express student debt collections contract, no separate implied-in-fact contract
could arise. In arguing for an implied-in-fact contract separate and distinct from its express
contract, FSA asserts that neither its task order nor mod-52 “cover assurances regarding
overpayments.” Respondent’s Reply Brief at 10. Given that TSI performed debt collection
work only because of its FSA task order and is entitled to receiveany payment only because
of that task order, FSA cannot validly assert that its effort to reclaim an alleged overpayment
under its task order is somehow “entirely unrelated” to the task order. If FSA wants to find
a contract obligation that required NCO to notify FSA of FSA’s calculation defects, it has
to find support for that obligation in the terms of its actual written contract.
TSI’s Waiver, Estoppel, and Laches Defenses
TSI argues that, even if mod-52 did not create an accord and satisfaction entitling it
to retain FSA’s prior payment, FSA has separately waived any right to repayment. Each
party seeks summary judgment on this argument in its favor.
Waiver is “an intentional relinquishment of a known right,”Alliance Business
Enterprises LLC v. General Services Administration , CBCA 1101, 08-2 BCA ¶ 33,994

CBCA 6049 33
(citing United Technologies Corp., ASBCA 46880, et al., 97-1 BCA ¶ 28,818), that “must
be ‘supported by clear, decisive, and unequivocal conduct or statements of [authorized]
government officials,’”id. (quoting Adelaide Blomfield Management Co. v. General Services
Administration, GSBCA 12851, 95-1 BCA ¶ 27,514). TSI’s waiver argument depends upon
the same facts and is largely duplicative of its accord and satisfaction argument. TSI has not
shown how, if FSA did not agree by contract modification to an accord and satisfaction as
to TSI’s reconciliation period payment amount, FSA somehow intentionally waived its right
to object to the amount of that payment. Further, to establish waiver, TSI must show that it
detrimentally changed its position in reliance on the supposed waiver. Sam’s Electric Co.,
GSBCA 9359, 90-3 BCA ¶ 23,128;Towncenter Management Corp., GSBCA 4574-R, 80-1
BCA ¶ 14,363. In response to FSA’s summary judgment motion, TSI has shown nothing that
could constitute detrimental reliance. The mere fact that three years passed before FSA
raised the issue is insufficient, in and of itself, to satisfy that burden.Futuronics, Inc., DOT
CAB 67-15, 68-2 BCA ¶ 7079.
TSI further alleges that it would be “patently unfair” to allow FSA to recover an
overpayment because of FSA’s three-year delay after signing mod-52 in demanding
repayment, essentially raising an equitable estoppel or laches defense. Appellant’s Motion
for Summary Judgment at 29. To the extent that equitable estoppel may apply against the
Government, the party seeking to invoke it must show, at a minimum, detriment to the
contractor as a result of reliance on the Government’s misleading conduct,Mabus v. General
Dynamics C4 Systems, Inc., 633 F.3d 1356, 1359 (Fed. Cir. 2011), as well as some form of
affirmative misconduct by the Government.Zacharin v. United States, 213 F.3d 1366, 1371
(Fed. Cir. 2000). “The inability to retain money that should have never been received is not
a detriment that gives rise to estoppel.”United States v. Board of Education of City of Union
City, 697 F. Supp. 167, 178 (D.N.J. 1988). As discussed above, TSI has not identified a basis
for finding detrimental reliance, and it has not alleged affirmative misconduct. With regard
to laches, the Government’s claim is timely under the Contract Disputes Act’s limitations
period, having been asserted within six years after the overpayment was made, 41 U.S.C.
§ 7103 (2018), and TSI has not alleged, much less supported with factual evidence, the
necessary prejudice resulting from an unreasonable government delay. See JANA, Inc. v.
United States, 936 F.2d 1265, 1269-70 (Fed. Cir. 1991) (discussing laches claims against the
Government).
FSA is entitled to summary judgment on TSI’s waiver, estoppel, and laches claims.
Decision
FSA’s motion for summary judgment on TSI’s waiver, estoppel, and laches arguments
is GRANTED, and the remainder of its summary judgment motion is DENIED. TSI’s

CBCA 6049 34
motion for summary judgment on FSA’s implied-in-fact contract argument isGRANTED,
but is otherwise DENIED, although, in further proceedings, TSI need not establish proper
subject matter, consideration, or competent parties in support of its accord and satisfaction
argument.
Future proceedings will focus on whether TSI can establish a binding “meeting of the
minds” in mod-52 defining the specific dollar amount that NCO was to be paid for the period
covered by the invoice reconciliation procedures. If TSI meets that burden, FSA must then
establish that NCO knew or should have known when it executed mod-52 that FSA had made
a mistake in calculating its “already paid” dollar figure and, if so, that NCO, either
affirmatively or by silence, misrepresented that figure. If a misrepresentation occurred, we
must then decide whether FSA relied upon the misrepresentation and, if so, whether the
proper remedy is to reform the price in mod-52 or to find the entire modification voidable.
The extent to which we must address TSI’s argument about the miscalculation of its
commissions for rehabilitations will depend upon the resolution of its accord and satisfaction
and FSA’s duty of good faith and misrepresentation arguments.
Harold D. Lester, Jr.
HAROLD D. LESTER, JR.
Board Judge
We concur:
Catherine B. Hyatt Beverly M. Russell
CATHERINE B. HYATT BEVERLY M. RUSSELL
Board Judge Board Judge