ARMED SERVICES BOARD OF CONTRACT APPEALS 
 
 
OPINION BY ADMINISTRATIVE JUDGE HERZFELD 
ON THE GOVERNMENT’S MOTION TO DISMISS  
 
Endure Industries, Inc. (Endure), appeals the Defense Health Agency’s 
(DHA’s) decision to cancel Endure’s incentive agreement to provide sterilization 
packaging supplies.  DHA moves to dismiss Endure’s complaint, asserting that 
Endure’s incentive agreement was not a contract with the government and, thus, 
Endure has failed to state a claim upon which relief may be granted.  In its response to 
the motion, Endure asserts for the first time that it also has a separate implied-in-fact 
contract with the government.  For the reasons discussed below, we dismiss Endure’s 
appeal. 
 
STATEMENT OF FACTS FOR PURPOSES OF THE MOTION 
 
The Defense Logistics Agency’s Troop Support (DLA Troop Support) is the 
Department of Defense’s (DoD) contracting office responsible for supplying 
pharmaceuticals, surgical supplies, and medical equipment to DoD’s worldwide 
medical treatment facilities.  DEFENSE LOGISTICS AGENCY, Working with DLA 
Troop Support Medical, https://www.dla.mil/Troop-Support/Medical/Working-with-
Medical/#mpvp (last visited Mar. 19, 2025).  DLA Troop Support contracts with 
pharmaceutical and medical/surgical distributers – “prime vendors” – that can deliver, 
within 24-hours, supplies ordered by DoD’s military treatment facilities at prices 
authorized by DLA Troop Support.  Id.  DLA Troop Support separately enters 
distribution and pricing agreements with manufacturers and suppliers of 
pharmaceutical and medical/surgical products.  Id.  The distribution and pricing 
agreement provides “fair and reasonable” prices for these products, which the prime 
Appeal of - )  
 )  
Endure Industries, Inc. ) ASBCA No. 64064 
 )  
Under Contract No. SP0200-22-H-0049 )  
   
APPEARANCE FOR THE APPELLANT: Mr. Manoj Kumar 
 
APPEARANCES FOR THE GOVERNMENT: Song U. Kim, Esq. 
  Associate General Counsel 
 Weston E. Borkenhagen, Esq. 
    Trial Attorney 
    Defense Health Agency 
  Falls Church, VA 

2 
 
vendors may rely on to purchase and distribute the products to military treatment 
facilities.  Id. 
 
Endure produces and supplies disposable medical products, including 
sterilization packaging supplies such as the peel packs for steam sterilization (at issue 
in this appeal) (compl. ¶¶ 1, 3).  Endure registered for a distribution and pricing 
agreement on DLA Troop Support’s website (R4, tab 7).  DLA Troop Support 
approved the agreement on September 21, 2022, which the website lists as the 
“Contract” effective date under the “Contract Details” part of the website (id. at 1).  As 
part of the distribution and pricing agreement, Endure agreed to the terms and 
conditions provided by DLA Troop Support (id. at 2; R4, tab 6).  Notwithstanding the 
terminology on the website, the terms and conditions stated:  “The government gives 
no guarantee that any quantities will be purchased by either Medical Supply Chain or 
its [Prime Vendor] awardee(s)” and the “issuance of a [distribution and pricing 
agreement] in no way binds the Government or its awardee(s) to purchase any of the 
products listed” (R4, tab 6 at 6). 
 
As part of its distribution and pricing agreement with DLA Troop Support, 
Endure consented and authorized prime vendors (who, as noted above, hold separate 
contracts with the government) to distribute Endure’s products (R4, tab 6 at 2).  The 
terms and conditions warned that “[i]n order to sell products to the Government under 
the Prime Vendor Program it is essential that [distribution and pricing agreement] 
holders enter into a distribution agreement with the Prime Vendor” (R4, tab 6 at 3).  
The distribution agreement between prime vendor and Endure would separately 
“outline the terms and conditions by which the Prime Vendor is authorized to store, 
distribute and/or sell” Endure’s products (id.).  Those terms and conditions “shall be 
consistent with the Prime Vendor’s good, commercial (that is, acceptable industry-
standard) business practices” and the “Prime Vendor is not required to accept” an 
“agreement which appears inconsistent with good, commercial business practices” 
(id.).  As to commercial specifications, the distribution and pricing agreement between 
Endure and DLA Troop Support stated, “Packaging, packing and marking shall be in 
conformance with all applicable laws and regulations” (id.). 
 
In February 2023, Endure applied to the Defense Health Agency’s Medical 
Materiel Enterprise Standardization Offices (DHA) for inclusion on the agency’s 
qualified supplier list for sterilization packaging supplies (compl. ¶ 4; app. resp., 
app’x at 16-20).  The distribution and pricing agreement’s terms and conditions 
specifically identify this program, explaining that DHA selects the “vendor offering 
the best prices . . . to supply the enterprise-wide standardized product line” and the 
“winning vendor is issued an Incentive Agreement . . . wherein the vendor agrees to 
provide the standardized products at discounted prices” (R4, tab 6 at 8).  The “vendor” 
here is the supplier (Endure) because suppliers enter incentive agreements, not the 
“prime vendor” that buys and distributes the qualified products and enters another type 
of agreement (R4, tab 6 at 7-8; D
EFENSE LOGISTICS AGENCY, Working with DLA 

3 
 
Troop Support Medical, https://www.dla.mil/Troop-Support/Medical/Working-with-
Medical/#mpvp (last visited Mar. 19, 2025). 
 
Based on Endure’s competitive pricing and complying with DHA’s technical 
specifications, DHA entered an incentive agreement with Endure on May 15, 2023 
(R4, tab 1; compl. ¶ 6; app. resp., app’x at 23 (“You are the lowest priced vendor of 
those on the Qualified Suppliers List (QSL) for the Sterilization Packaging Supplies, 
Peel Pack, Steam.”).  The incentive agreement stated it was “pursuant to” Endure’s 
distribution and pricing agreement with DLA Troop Support and “incorporated by 
reference” those terms and conditions (R4, tab 1 at 1).  The incentive agreement had a 
five-year term with “estimated effective dates from 01 November 2023 through 
31 October 2028” (R4, tab 1 at 2; compl. ¶ 8).  Consistent with the distribution and 
pricing agreement’s statement that Endure would supply its product enterprise-wide, 
the incentive agreement stated, “Each facility agrees to purchase the listed products 
according to the terms outlined in this agreement” (R4, tab 1 at 1).   
 
In the incentive agreement, Endure agreed “that incentive prices are guaranteed 
firm for 3 years” (R4, tab 1 at 2).  Based on the incentive pricing and “good faith 
volume estimates” provided by Endure in its qualified supplier listing and the 
incentive agreement “announcements,” DHA stated it would “work[] towards an 
80% purchase goal for this product line throughout the life of this agreement” (id.).  
Although DHA stated it “will advertise and promote [incentive agreement] items, the 
government has no volume commitment or purchase requirement under this 
agreement, and it is possible that actual sales may not meet the 80% estimate” (id.).  
The agreement reiterated:  “The 80% estimate does not create a commitment for the 
government and therefore the vendor should not rely on that estimate” (id.).   
 
As to cancellation, the incentive agreement stated:  “This agreement does not 
represent a contract and may be canceled by either party in whole or in part without 
cause 30 days after receipt of a written notice” (id. at 3).  The incentive agreement also 
stated:  “The parties agree that cancellation of the [incentive agreement] is the only 
recourse available if the [incentive agreement] holder ceases to be satisfied with the 
level of sales or any other benefit, tangible or intangible, they expected to receive as an 
[incentive agreement] holder” (id. at 2).   
 
Endure began manufacturing and stocking its warehouses with the sterilization 
pouches made to the government’s specific requirements in the incentive agreement 
(compl. ¶ 11).  Endure sold $43,281.60 worth of sterilization pouches to various DoD 
facilities through a prime vendor (compl. ¶ 10).   
 
Several months into the effective period of the incentive agreement, DHA 
informed Endure that some end users had two concerns about using DHA’s products:  
(1) Endure’s sterilization products included labelling on the porous side of the product, 
which meant there was a risk that the ink from the label might leak into the product; 

4 
 
and (2) the product expired after six months, which meant an end user would incur 
additional costs to track when the product expired (compl. ¶ 11 & nn.i, ii; app. resp., 
app’x at 15).  Endure offered to modify its products to comply with these technical 
concerns (compl. ¶ 12 & n.ii; app. resp., app’x at 14). 
 
On May 31, 2024, DHA issued Endure a notice cancelling the incentive 
agreement effective July 1, 2024 (R4, tab 4).  The notice stated:  “Under the terms and 
conditions of paragraph 5a of the original agreement, which allows the cancellation of 
this agreement in whole or in part, without cause, by either party, thirty (30) days after 
receipt of a written notice, this [incentive agreement] is hereby cancelled” (id.).   
 
On October 28, 2024, Endure (through its non-attorney representative) filed a 
complaint at the U.S. Court of Federal Claims alleging three counts:  (1) breach of 
contract based on the cancellation of the incentive agreement; (2) breach of the duty of 
good faith and fair dealing; and (3) request for declaratory judgment stating that the 
cancellation provision of the incentive agreement was invalid.  See Complaint, Endure 
Indus., Inc. v. United States, No. 24-1774 (Fed. Cl.) (ECF No. 1).  On October 31, 
2024, the court ordered Endure to retain counsel or show cause why the court should 
not dismiss the case.  Order to Show Cause, Endure Indus., Inc. v. United States, 
No. 24-1774 (Fed. Cl.) (ECF No. 5).  On November 12, 2024, Endure moved to 
voluntarily dismiss its appeal without prejudice.  Motion to Voluntarily Dismiss, 
Endure Indus., Inc. v. United States, No. 24-1774 (Fed. Cl.) (ECF No. 7); (app. resp., 
app’x at 4-5).  In its motion, Endure stated that government counsel in the case had 
informed Endure’s representatives that the government intended to move to dismiss 
Endure’s case for failure to file a certified claim with the contracting officer.  Id. at 2.  
Endure stated it did not file a certified claim because it asserted the government 
“contracting officer took the position that the ‘incentive agreement’ with Endure did 
not constitute a contract.”  Id.  On November 19, 2024, the court entered judgment 
dismissing Endure’s case without prejudice.  Judgment, Endure Indus., Inc. v. United 
States, No. 24-1774 (Fed. Cl.) (ECF No. 9).   
 
On November 16, 2024, Endure submitted a certified claim to the DLA Troop 
Support contracting officer and DHA’s program manager (the agency official that 
signed the incentive agreement) (R4, tab 2; app. resp., app’x at 12).  As it did at the 
Court of Federal Claims, Endure alleged that (1) DHA breached the contract based on 
the cancellation of the incentive agreement, (2) DHA breached the duty of good faith 
and fair dealing, and (3) the cancellation provision was “unenforceable as 
unconscionable” (R4, tab 2 at 2).  Endure sought “approximately $750,000” for unsold 
inventory and reinstatement of the incentive agreement (id. at 2-3).  Endure made no 
allegations seeking any costs from the government based on fees imposed by a prime 
vendor under an alleged implied-in-fact contract between the government and Endure 
(R4, tab 2).   
 

5 
 
On December 17, 2024, DLA Troop Support’s contracting officer responded to 
Endure’s claim (R4, tab 3).  DLA Troop Support determined “it was not a party to the 
Incentive Agreement” and, “[t]herefore, no response on behalf of DLA is required” 
(id.).   
 
On February 2, 2025, Endure filed a notice of appeal with the Board and we 
acknowledged the notice as Endure’s complaint, which alleged three counts (as it did   
at the Court of Federal Claims and in its certified claim):  (1) the government had 
breached the incentive agreement and the “Incentive Agreement constituted a valid 
and binding contract between Endure and the United States, as it included all essential 
elements of a contract, including offer, acceptance, consideration, and mutual 
obligations;” (2) the government had breached the duty of good faith and fair dealing 
by changing the requirements of the agreement; and (3) declaratory judgment that the 
termination provision of the incentive agreement was invalid (compl. ¶¶ 20-32).  
Again, Endure made no allegations seeking any costs from the government based on 
fees imposed by a prime vendor under an alleged implied-in-fact contract between the 
government and Endure. 
 
Counsel for DHA (not DLA Troop Support) noticed an appearance in this 
appeal.  On March 12, 2025, DHA moved to dismiss Endure’s appeal, asserting that 
Endure’s incentive agreement was not a contract and, thus, the Board had no 
jurisdiction over Endure’s appeal.  In Endure’s response, for the first time, Endure 
asserted it should receive costs from the government based on fees imposed by a prime 
vendor because the prime vendor was enforcing the government’s policies, which 
created a separate implied-in-fact contract between Endure and the government (app. 
resp. at 1-5, app’x at 7-10).  Also, Endure appeared to rely on a court decision that 
does not exist and to rely on other court decisions that did not appear to support the 
propositions for which they were cited.  We issued an order to Endure to show cause 
why we should not strike the brief.  Endure responded by acknowledging that it used a 
generative artificial intelligence program to assist in drafting the brief.   
 
DECISION 
 
I. Endure Has Failed to Plausibly Plead that its Incentive Agreement is a 
Contract 
 
A. Standard of Review 
 
DHA has moved to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction, asserting that Endure has 
failed to plausibly allege a contract between the government and Endure based on the 
incentive agreement (gov’t mot. at 2-7).  However, “the determination of whether or 
not a contract in fact exists is not jurisdictional; it is a decision on the merits.”  Avue 
Tech. Corp. v. Sec’y of Health & Human Servs., 96 F.4th 1340, 1344-45 (Fed. Cir. 
2024) (quoting, with emphasis added, Engage Learning, Inc. v. Salazar, 660 F.3d 

6 
 
1346, 1355 (Fed. Cir. 2011)); Robinson, ASBCA Nos. 63727, 63809, 24-1 BCA 
¶ 38,633 at 187,805 (same).  Parties and “[c]ourts frequently confuse or conflate the 
distinction between subject matter jurisdiction and the essential elements of a claim for 
relief.”  Engage, 660 F.3d at 1353.   
 
To show jurisdiction before the Board, a party need only meet a low bar of non-
frivolously alleging a contract.  Avue, 96 F.4th at 1344-45; Boeing Co. v. United 
States, 968 F.3d 1371, 1383 (Fed. Cir. 2020) (“Allegations of subject matter 
jurisdiction, to suffice, must satisfy a relatively low standard—must exceed a threshold 
that ‘has been equated with such concepts as “essentially fictitious,” “wholly 
insubstantial,” “obviously frivolous,” and “obviously without merit.’”) (quoting 
Shapiro v. McManus, 577 U.S. 39, 45-46 (2015)).  However, a challenge to whether a 
party can actually prove it has a contract with the government constitutes a merits 
question that may be addressed by a motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim.  
Avue, 96 F.4th at 1345 (stating that “[t]he obligation to actually prove the existence of 
such a contract does not arise until the case proceeds to the merits” (emphasis in 
original)); Engage, 660 F.3d at 1353 (“[T]he failure to state a proper cause of action 
calls for a judgment on the merits and not for dismissal for want of jurisdiction.” 
(quoting Bell v. Hood, 327 U.S. 678, 682 (1946)).   
 
Here, DHA challenges the merits of Endure’s allegations, asserting that Endure 
has failed to provide “plausible evidence” that a “contract exists between the parties” 
(gov’t mot. at 3-7).  For this standard, DHA mainly relies on one of our decisions, 
which stated that a party “must present at least some plausible evidence of a contract 
to satisfy . . . . the ‘non-frivolous’ allegation standard.”  Safeco Ins. Co. of Am., 
ASBCA No. 60952, 17-1 BCA ¶ 36,819 at 179,450; see also Man & Machine, Inc., 
ASBCA No. 61608, 19-1 BCA ¶ 37,401 at 181,811 (same).  Recently, however, the 
Federal Circuit rejected the contention that a contractor must “produce sufficient 
evidence” of a contract to meet the non-frivolous allegation standard.  Avue, 96 F.4th 
at 1345.  Thus, DHA has mislabeled its motion as seeking to dismiss for lack of 
jurisdiction rather than for failure to state a claim. 
 
Given DHA’s arguments, we treat its motion as seeking to dismiss Endure’s 
complaint for failure to state a claim.  In this regard, Endure (to the extent it even 
attempted to support its allegations of an express contract) addressed the substantive 
legal issues raised by DHA’s brief and will not be prejudiced.  Nat’l Air Cargo v. 
United States, 117 Fed.Cl. 10, 16 (2015) (treating a “motion to dismiss for lack of 
jurisdiction” as one for failure to state a claim where each party addressed the 
substantive legal arguments and “neither party would be prejudiced”); see also Nicolas  
v. United States, 35 Fed. Cl. 387, 388 n.1 (1996) (“Because both parties have taken 
advantage of the opportunity to address the substantive issue of law before the court, 
re-classifying defendant’s motion by correcting its title occasions no prejudice to 
either party.”).   
 

7 
 
Moreover, the Federal Circuit has stated that a trial court can sua sponte dismiss 
a complaint for failure to state a claim under FED. R. CIV. P. 12(b)(6) without allowing 
a party to respond:  “We . . . have never held that a plaintiff is categorically entitled to 
an opportunity to oppose a Rule 12(b)(6) motion.  To the contrary, we have held that 
the Court of Federal Claims ‘may dismiss sua sponte under Rule 12(b)(6), provided 
that the pleadings sufficiently evidence a basis for that action.’”  M.R. Pittman Grp. 
LLC v. United States, 68 F.4th 1275, 1282 (Fed. Cir. 2023) (quoting Anaheim Gardens 
v. United States, 444 F.3d 1309, 1315 (Fed. Cir. 2006)).1  While Endure had an 
opportunity to address the substantive legal issues in response to DHA’s motion, this 
appeal would nevertheless present a basis for sua sponte consideration of dismissal for 
failure to state a claim.   
 
Although the Board’s rules include no equivalent to FED. R. CIV. P. 12(b)(6) or 
12(c), “we permit motions to dismiss for failure to state a claim upon which relief may 
be granted.”  Fluor Intercontinental, Inc., ASBCA No. 62550, 22-1 BCA ¶ 38,105  
at 185,095.  “To survive a motion to dismiss, a complaint must contain sufficient 
factual matter, accepted as true, to ‘state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.’”  
Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678 (2009) (quoting Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly, 
550 U.S. 544, 570 (2007)); Kellogg Brown & Root Servs., Inc. v. United States, 728 
F.3d 1348, 1365 (Fed. Cir. 2013) (noting that a tribunal “must accept well-pleaded 
factual allegations as true and must draw all reasonable inferences in favor of the 
claimant”).  “We are not limited to the four-corners of the complaint,” and may review 
“‘matters incorporated by reference or integral to the claim, items subject to judicial 
notice, matters of public record, orders, items appearing in the record of the case, and 
exhibits attached to the complaint whose authenticity is unquestioned[.]’”  Fluor, 22-1 
BCA ¶ 38,105 at 185,096 (quoting 5B C
HARLES A. WRIGHT & ARTHUR R. MILLER, 
FED. PRAC. & PROC. CIV. §1357 (3d ed.)); Lockheed Martin Integrated Sys., Inc., 
ASBCA Nos. 59508, 59509, 17-1 BCA ¶ 36,597 at 178,281; see also Cotter Corp., 
N.S.L. v. United States, 127 F.4th 1353, 1366 (Fed. Cir. 2025) (“We may also look to 
matters incorporated by reference or integral to the claim, items subject to judicial 
notice, and matters of public record.” (internal quotations and citations omitted)).  For 
example, we may look at the terms of the parties’ agreement in assessing whether the 
complaint (which relies on the agreement) states a claim.  Ute Indian Tribe v. United 
States, 99 F.4th 1353, 1364, 1371-74 (Fed. Cir. 2024) (assessing agreement referenced 
by, but outside, the pleadings on a motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim); Ace 
Elec. Def. Sys., ASBCA No. 63224, 22-1 BCA ¶ 38,213 at 185,568 (“[W]e consider 
 
1 On appeal, the Federal Circuit has sometimes converted a trial court’s jurisdictional 
dismissal under 12(b)(1) into a dismissal for failure to state a claim under 
12(b)(6).  Columbus Rgl. Hosp. v. United States, 990 F.3d 1330, 1342 (Fed. Cir. 
2021) (“If we conclude that Columbus’s contract-based allegations fail to state 
a cognizable claim, we can convert the court’s Rule 12(b)(1) dismissal into a 
Rule 12(b)(6) dismissal.”).   

8 
 
the contract’s terms in determining whether the complaint asserts a claim upon which 
relief may be granted.”). 
 
B. Endure’s Incentive Agreement Was not a Contract 
 
“Not every agreement is a contract.”  Trauma Serv. Grp., Ltd. v. United States, 
33 Fed. Cl. 426, 429 (1995), aff’d, 104 F.3d 1321 (Fed. Cir. 1997); see also 
RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS § 3 cmt. a (1981) (“Agreement has in some 
respects a wider meaning than contract, bargain or promise. . . .  The word ‘agreement’ 
contains no implication that legal consequences are or are not produced.”).  Every 
agreement that is a government contract must have (1) mutuality of intent to contract, 
(2) lack of ambiguity in offer and acceptance, (3) consideration, and (4) a government 
representative with actual authority to bind the United States.  Am. Bankers Ass’n v. 
United States, 932 F.3d 1375, 1380-81 (Fed. Cir. 2019).  Express or implied-in-fact 
government contracts must meet these same four requirements.  Id. at 1381.   
 
In its complaint, Endure asserts that its incentive agreement with DHA 
constituted a binding contract (with an invalid termination provision) that the 
government breached by terminating the agreement (compl. ¶¶ 21-22, 32).  DHA seeks 
dismissal, asserting that the agreement lacks (1) mutuality of intent to contract, (2) 
consideration, or (3) an authorized government agent that signed the incentive 
agreement.  We agree that the incentive agreement is not a contract because it lacks 
mutuality of intent to contract and consideration.
2    
 
1.  The Incentive Agreement Lacks Mutuality of Intent to Contract 
 
The incentive agreement does not demonstrate a mutuality of intent to contract.  
“As a threshold condition of contract formation, there must be an objective 
manifestation of voluntary, mutual assent.”  Turping v. United States, 913 F.3d 1060, 
1065 (Fed. Cir. 2019) (quoting Anderson v. United States, 344 F.3d 1343, 1353 (Fed. 
Cir. 2003)); R
ESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS § 18 (1981) (“Manifestation of 
mutual assent to an exchange requires that each party either make a promise or begin 
or render a performance.”).  Typically, a party can show mutuality of intent by an offer 
and reciprocal acceptance.  Turping, 913 F.3d at 1065. 
 
On the other hand, the parties may also show an “absence of mutual 
understanding” to contract.  Blackhawk Heating & Plumbing Co. v. United States, 622 
F.2d 539, 551 (Ct. Cl. 1980).  For example, a party may state that it intends its assent 
 
2 DHA has also separately and explicitly moved to dismiss for failure to state a claim, 
asserting that even if the incentive agreement was a contract, the agreement 
only provided cancellation as a remedy to any breach (gov’t mot. at 8-9).  
Because we conclude that the parties did not enter a contract, we need not 
address this argument. 

9 
 
to have no legal consequences.  1 E. ALLAN FARNSWORTH, FARNSWORTH ON 
CONTRACTS § 3.7 (3d ed. 2003).  This “manifestation of intention that a promise shall 
not affect legal relations may prevent the formation of a contract.”  RESTATEMENT 
(SECOND) OF CONTRACTS § 21 (1981). 
 
Here, the incentive agreement states:  “This agreement does not represent a 
contract and may be canceled by either party in whole or in part without cause 30 days 
after receipt of a written notice” (R4, tab 1 at 3).  The statement that the incentive 
“agreement does not represent a contract” manifests an objective mutual intent by the 
parties not to be bound by contract.  Moreover, the incentive agreement also states that 
“the government has no volume commitment or purchase requirement under this 
agreement” (R4, tab 1 at 2).  Similarly, the terms and conditions of the distribution and 
pricing agreement (incorporated by reference into the incentive agreement) states that 
the agreement “in no way binds the Government or its [vendor] awardee(s) to purchase 
any products listed” (R4, tab 6 at 6).  While these terms also inform the question of 
consideration (discussed below), they indicate a lack of mutual intent to enter a 
contract.  Indeed, “[t]he easiest way for a party to make clear an intention not to be 
legally bound is to say so.”  1 E. ALLAN FARNSWORTH, FARNSWORTH ON CONTRACTS 
§ 3.7 (3d ed. 2003).  These terms indicate an intent by the parties not to be mutually 
bound by contract.  The parties objectively did not mutually assent to contract and, 
thus, Endure has failed to plausibly plead that it entered a contract with the 
government. 
 
2.  The Incentive Agreement Lacks Consideration 
 
The incentive agreement also lacks consideration and that serves as an 
additional reason to conclude Endure and the government did not enter a contract. 
 
Not every promise constitutes consideration:  “To constitute consideration, a 
performance or a return promise must be bargained for.”  Ridge Runner Forestry v. 
Venneman, 287 F.3d 1058, 1061 (Fed. Cir. 2002) (quoting R
ESTATEMENT (SECOND) 
OF CONTRACTS § 71(1)).  “A promise or apparent promise is not consideration if by its 
terms the promisor or purported promisor reserves a choice of alternative 
performances . . . .”  Crewzers Fire Crew Transp., Inc. v. United States, 741 F.3d 
1380, 1382 (Fed. Cir. 2014) (quoting RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS § 77).  
This is an illusory promise, which means “words in promissory form that promise 
nothing; they do not purport to put any limitation on the freedom of the alleged 
promisor, but leave his future action subject to his own future will, just as it would 
have been had he said no words at all.”  Ridge Runner, 287 F.3d at 1061; see also 
1 S
AMUEL WILLISTON & RICHARD A. LORD, WILLISTON ON CONTRACTS § 4:34 
(4th ed., May 2025 Update) (“Words of promise which by their terms make the 
performance entirely optional with the promisor whatever may happen, or whatever 
course of conduct in respects the promisor may pursue, do not constitute a promise but 
form only an illusory promise.  This unlimited choice in effect destroys the promise 

10 
 
and makes it illusory.”) (footnotes omitted).  An illusory promise makes performance 
optional and cannot serve as consideration.  Lee’s Ford Dock, Inc., ASBCA 
No. 59041, 16-1 BCA ¶ 36,298 at 177,013 (stating that “[w]ords of promise which . . . 
make performance entirely optional with the ‘promisor’” do not constitute a promise 
(quoting RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS § 77 cmt. a)), aff’d, 865 F.3d 1361 
(Fed. Cir. 2017)).  “[A] valid contract cannot be based upon the illusory promise of 
one party . . . .”  Crewzers, 741 F.3d at 1383 (quoting Ridge Runner, 287 F.3d 
at 1062).   
 
In some circumstances, tribunals will find consideration based on a party’s 
obligation “to make a good faith effort” in performance.  Franklin Co. v. United 
States, 381 F.2d 416, 420 (Ct. Cl. 1967); Ingham Reg’l Med. Ctr. v. United States, 
163 Fed. Cl. 384, n.10 (2022) (“A promise conditioned upon an event within the 
promisor’s control is not illusory if the promisor also ‘impliedly promises to make 
reasonable effort to bring the event about or to use good faith and honest judgment in 
determining whether or not it has in fact occurred’” (quoting 1 C
ORBIN ON 
CONTRACTS § 1.17 (2022)).  In this regard, Endure has invoked the implied covenant 
of good faith and fair dealing in its certified claim and complaint (R4, tab 2 at 2; 
compl. ¶¶ 23-28).  “[A] court will not find a contract to be illusory if the implied 
covenant of good faith and fair dealing can be read to impose an obligation on each 
party.”  Chodos v. West Publishing Co., 292 F.3d 992, 997 (9th Cir. 2002).
3 
 
An implied duty of good faith and fair dealing exists in all contracts, including 
government contracts, and applies to both the government and private parties.  Agility 
Pub. Warehousing Co. KSCP v. Mattis, 852 F.3d 1370, 1383-84 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (“An 
implied duty of good faith and fair dealing exists in government contracts and applies 
to the government just as it does to private parties.”); Konecranes Nuclear Equip. & 
Servs., LLC, ASBCA No. 62797, 24-1 BCA ¶ 38,586 at 187,560.  However, the 
implied duty cannot “be at odds with the terms of the original bargain, whether by 
altering the contract’s discernible allocation of risks and benefits or by conflicting with 
a contract provision.”  Metcalf Constr. Co. v. United States, 742 F.3d 984, 991 (Fed. 
 
3 This legal principle is distinct from the separate legal principle that the duty of good 
faith and fair dealing does not apply to negotiation of a contract prior to award.  
See, e.g., Scott Timber Co. v. United States, 692 F.3d 1365, 1372 (Fed. Cir. 
2012) (noting that the covenant of good faith and fair dealing does not apply to 
“pre-award conduct” because “that duty ‘does not deal with good faith in the 
formation of a contract’”) (quoting RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS 
§ 205 cmt. c)).  While the duty does not apply in pre-contractual negotiations, it 
does apply in assessing whether an alternative promise in a signed agreement 
can be found as valid consideration (and not illusory).  R
ESTATEMENT 
(SECOND) OF CONTRACTS § 77, rep. note c (stating that an alternative promise 
can be “found good consideration because of the implied duties of good faith 
(§ 205) and reasonableness of the obligor’s satisfaction (§ 228)”).   

11 
 
Cir. 2014); Amatea/Grimberg JV, ASBCA No. 60426 et al., 23-1 BCA ¶ 38,366 
at 186,329 (“This duty is not free-floating but is tied to the explicit terms of the 
contract.”), aff’d, No. 23-1700, 2025 WL 1752375 (Fed. Cir. June 25, 2025). 
 
Here, the government has made only illusory promises because it made no 
promise to buy anything from Endure prior to cancellation of the agreement.  
Torncello v. United States, 681 F.2d 756, 769 (Ct. Cl. 1982) (“It is hornbook law . . . 
that a route of complete escape vitiates any other consideration furnished and is 
incompatible with the existence of a contract.”).  In this regard, DHA points to the 
incentive agreement’s cancellation provision, which allows cancellation “in whole or 
in part without cause 30 days after receipt of a written notice” (R4, tab 1 at 3; gov’t 
mot. at 8-9).  The DHA incentive agreement “automatically expire[s]” if Endure’s 
distribution and pricing agreement with DLA Troop Support “is terminated for any 
reason” (R4, tab 1 at 3).  The distribution and pricing agreement, in turn, also states 
that it “may be canceled in whole or in part, without cause, by either party, 30 days 
after receipt of a written notice or sooner as determined by the contracting officer” 
(R4, tab 6 at 2).  Indeed, without some type of purchase commitment, the open-ended 
cancellation provision would render any promise illusory.  Torncello, 681 F.2d at 761 
(stating that “consideration is furnished” in a requirements contract “by the buyer’s 
promise to turn to the seller for all such requirements”); Mason v. United States, 615 
F.2d 1343, 1346 n.5 (Ct. Cl. 1980) (stating that, without a buyer’s promise to purchase 
a “guaranteed minimum quantity of goods or services” in an indefinite quantity 
contract, “the buyer’s promise is illusory”); see also OSC Solutions, Inc., ASBCA 
No. 63294, 23-1 BCA ¶ 38,406 at 186,615-16 (concluding a blanket purchasing 
agreement, which did not require the government to exclusively purchase from 
contractor, lacked consideration), aff’d, No. 2024-1528, 2026 WL 44221 (Fed. Cir. 
Jan. 7, 2026).   
 
The incentive agreement included neither a minimum purchase requirement nor 
required the government to purchase all of its supplies from Endure.  When a “good 
faith” undertaking has served as a basis for consideration, usually the agreement 
includes a provision requiring an exclusive or semi-exclusive purchase obligation.  See 
Ace-Fed. Reporters, Inc. v. Barram, 226 F.3d 1329, 1330-32 (Fed. Cir. 2000) (finding 
consideration where agreement had standard Federal Acquisition Regulation 
Requirements clause and “the government promised that it would purchase only from 
the contractors on the schedule”).  Here, however, the incentive agreement states that 
“the government has no volume commitment or purchase requirement under this 
agreement” and “[t]he 80% estimate does not create a commitment for the government 
and therefore the vendor should not rely on that estimate” (R4, tab 1 at 2).  Similarly, 
the distribution and pricing agreement (whose terms and conditions were incorporated 
in the incentive agreement) explains that “[t]he government gives no guarantee that 
any quantities will be purchased by either Medical Supply Chain or its [Prime Vendor] 
awardee(s)” and the “issuance of a [distribution and pricing agreement] in no way 
binds the Government or its awardee(s) to purchase any of the products listed” (R4, 

12 
 
tab 6 at 6).  The distribution and pricing agreement also disclaimed that it was 
exclusive, stating that DLA Troop Support “ancitipate[d] issuing multiple agreements 
to firms supplying the same generic types of items” (id.).  As with other types of 
interpretation, we cannot employ a good faith rule to save the agreement “by 
interpreting it as a requirements contract when it is not so susceptible” or as an 
indefinite quantity contract when “it lacks a minimum quantity term.”  Coyle’s Pest 
Control, Inc. v. Cuomo, 154 F.3d 1302, 1305, 1306 (Fed. Cir. 1998); see also Flood v. 
ClearOne Commc’n, Inc., 618 F.3d 1110, 1121 (10th Cir. 2010) (“None of this is to 
say that the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing is a magic wand that, once 
waved about, can always rescue a contractual term from being held illusory.  Or that 
the covenant may be used as a subtler way to rewrite the parties’ deal and decline to 
give effect to express contractual terms.”) (Gorsuch, J.). 
 
Ultimately, the incentive agreement lacks consideration from the government 
and served only as Endure’s standing offer providing a “framework and terms for 
future orders[.]”  Patriot Pride Jewelry, LLC, ASBCA No. 58953, 14-1 BCA 
¶ 35,624 at 174,478;  see also Zhengxing v. United States, 204 F. App’x 885, 886-87 
(Fed. Cir. 2006) (“The BPA, at issue, however, is merely a framework for future 
contracts and only creates a contractual obligation with regard to accepted orders.”); 
1 E.
 ALLAN FARNSWORTH, FARNSWORTH ON CONTRACTS § 3.7 (3d ed. 2003) (“Even 
if a promise is unenforceable because the promise given in return is illusory . . . . the 
seller’s promise may be regarded as a continuing or a ‘standing’ offer, so that a new 
contract is formed each time that the buyer accepts by placing an order.”).  Thus, 
Endure has failed to plausibly plead that it had a contract with the government because 
the incentive agreement lacked consideration. 
 
3.  It is Unclear Whether an Authorized Government Agent Executed the   
    Incentive Agreement 
 
DHA also asserts a third reason why the incentive agreement did not constitute 
a contract between the government and Endure.  DHA asserts that DHA’s program 
manager was not a contracting officer and, thus, was not an authorized government 
agent to make a contract when she signed the incentive agreement (gov’t mot. at 7).  
However, an appellant need only plausibly allege in its complaint that an appropriate 
official signed the agreement and has no duty to prove that the government employee 
was an authorized agent to contract for the Federal government.  Avue, 96 F.4th 
at 1344.  From the face of the complaint and the incentive agreement, it is unclear 
what authority the program manager had.
4  Thus, Endure has plausibly pleaded that an 
 
4 It is unclear whether DLA Troop Support or DHA is the proper agency here, because 
a program manager from DHA signed the incentive agreement but a DLA 
Troop Support contracting officer responded to Endure’s request for a 
contracting officer’s determination, albeit denying that DLA Troop Support had 

13 
 
authorized agent executed the contract, and this is not a basis for granting the 
government’s motion.  Instead, as noted above, we conclude the lack of mutuality of 
consent to contract and lack of consideration each demonstrate that Endure has failed 
to plausibly plead a contractual relationship between the parties. 
II. The Board Lacks Jurisdiction Over Endure’s Implied-in-Fact Contract 
Argument 
 
In its response to DHA’s motion to dismiss, Endure now claims for the first 
time that it had a separate implied-in-fact contract with the government based on 
Endure’s agreement with the prime vendor because the prime vendor was enforcing 
the government’s policies (app. resp. at 1-5).  We lack jurisdiction over this new claim 
because Endure never presented it to a contracting officer.   
 
Endure, as the proponent of the Board’s jurisdiction, bears the burden of 
establishing jurisdiction by a preponderance of the evidence.  Anthony & Gordon 
Constr. Co., ASBCA No. 61916, 21-1 BCA ¶ 37,887 at 184,000; K-Con Bldg. Sys., 
Inc. v. United States, 778 F.3d 1000, 1004 (Fed. Cir. 2015).   
 
Pursuant to the CDA, “[e]ach claim by a contractor against the Federal 
Government relating to a contract shall be submitted to the contracting officer for a 
decision.”  41 U.S.C. § 7103(a)(1); Lee’s Ford Dock, Inc. v. Sec’y of Army, 865 F.3d 
1361, 1369 (Fed. Cir. 2017).  The claim submitted to a contracting officer for a final 
decision defines the scope of an appeal before the Board.  Anthony & Gordon, 21-1 
BCA ¶ 37,887 at 184,000.  “[O]btaining a final decision on a claim is a jurisdictional 
prerequisite to adjudication of that claim” before the Board.  Tolliver Grp., Inc. v. 
United States, 20 F.4th 771, 776 (Fed. Cir. 2021); 41 U.S.C. §§ 7103(a)(3), 7104(a).  
“The purpose of the requirement is ‘to create opportunities for informal dispute 
 
a contract with Endure (compare R4, tab 1 (incentive agreement), with tab 3 
(contracting officer’s response)).  Endure submitted its certified claim to both 
the DHA program manager – its primary contact at DHA, who the government 
alleges was not a contracting officer – and the DLA Troop Support contracting 
officer (app. resp., app’x at 12).  Although DHA never responded (only DLA 
Troop Support did), Endure has met the submission requirement under the CDA 
even if the DHA program manager was not a contracting officer (as the 
government alleges here).  41 U.S.C. § 7103 (a)(1) (“Each claim by a contractor 
against the Federal Government relating to a contract shall be submitted to the 
contracting officer for a decision.”).  “[T]he requirement of submitting a claim 
to the [contracting officer] is satisfied if the contractor sends a proper claim to 
its primary contact with a request for a [contracting officer’s] decision and a 
reasonable expectation that such a request will be honored.”  Gardner Zemke 
Co., ASBCA No. 51499, 98-2 BCA ¶ 29,997 at 184,355 (citing Neal & Co. v. 
United States, 945 F.2d 385, 388-89 (Fed. Cir. 1991)). 

14 
 
resolution  at the contracting officer level and to provide . . . clear notice as to the’ 
content of ‘contract claims.’”  Tolliver Grp., 20 F.4th at 776 (quoting Raytheon Co. v. 
United States, 747 F.3d 1341, 1354 (Fed. Cir. 2014)).  Thus, the Board does not 
possess jurisdiction over new claims that appellant raises for the first time on appeal 
and never previously submitted to the contracting officer for decision.  Frazier Inv., 
Inc., ASBCA No. 63001, 23-1 BCA ¶ 38,313 at 186,045.   
 
This Board does not possess jurisdiction to consider an appeal that presents a 
“‘materially different factual or legal theory’ of relief” requiring that we “‘focus on a 
different or unrelated set of operative facts”’ than was presented to the contracting 
officer.  Lee’s Ford Dock, 865 F.3d at 1369 (quoting K-Con, 778 F.3d at 1006, and 
Placeway Constr. Corp. v. United States, 920 F.2d 903, 907 (Fed. Cir. 1990)).  
Conversely, “[n]o new claim arises by introduction of a new legal theory of recovery, 
additional facts that do not alter the nature of the original claim, or a dollar increase in 
the amount claimed, so long as the theory, facts, or dollar increase rely on the same 
operative facts included in the original claim.”  Anthony & Gordon, 21-1 BCA 
¶ 37,887 at 184,001.   
 
In its claim (and complaint), Endure focuses on the incentive agreement, 
seeking “approximately $750,000” for unsold inventory, a determination that the 
incentive agreement’s termination provision was “unenforceable as unconscionable,” 
and reinstatement of the incentive agreement (R4, tab 2 at 2-3; compl. ¶¶ 19-35).5   
 
In its response to DHA’s motion to dismiss, Endure now asserts an entirely new 
theory it never raised in its certified claim.  Endure now asserts that it should receive 
costs from the government based on fees imposed by a prime vendor as a government 
agent, resulting in an alleged implied-in-fact contract between the government and 
Endure (app. resp. at 1-5, app’x at 7-10).  Endure entered a separate agreement with 
the prime vendor to enable sale of its products (R4, tab 6 at 3).  The distribution and 
pricing agreement between Endure and DLA Troop Support explained that the terms 
and conditions between Endure and the prime vendor “shall be consistent with the 
Prime Vendor’s good, commercial (that is, acceptable industry-standard) business 
practices” (R4, tab 6 at 3).  Endure asserts that the government enabled the prime 
 
5 In the past, using “approximately” to qualify the claim amount would have resulted 
in an appeal’s dismissal for lack of jurisdiction due to a lack of a sum certain.  
Ford Lumber & Bldg. Supply, Inc., ASBCA No. 61618, 20-1 BCA ¶ 37487 
at 182,089-90 (discussing M.J. Hughes Constr., Inc., ASBCA No. 61782, 19-1 
BCA ¶ 37,235 at 181,235).  More recently, the Federal Circuit has stated that 
“the requirement to state a sum certain in submitting a claim under the CDA is 
a mandatory, nonjurisdictional requirement subject to forfeiture” that must be 
challenged as a failure to state a claim.  ECC Int’l Constructors, LLC v. Sec’y of 
Army, 79 F.4th 1364, 1380 (Fed. Cir. 2023).  Here, the government has not 
challenged the sum certain amount.   

15 
 
vendor to impose requirements on Endure that resulted in losses (app. resp. at 2-3).  
For example, Endure asserts it “was penalized” by the prime vendor for using the 
United States Postal Service instead of private carriers (such as United Parcel Service 
or Federal Express) and the “fines imposed exceeded the value of the shipment” (app. 
resp. at 2 n.2).   
 
Endure’s implied-in-fact contract theory (based on an agency relationship 
between the prime vendor and the government) is entirely different from what it 
asserted in its certified claim.  Endure’s new theory is not based on the same operative 
facts as its certified claim, which exclusively referenced the incentive agreement, not 
its agreement with the prime vendor.  Also, the legal theory is distinct.  To prove its 
agency theory, Endure would likely have to show that (1) the prime vendor was acting 
as the purchasing agent for the government, (2) the agency relationship between the 
government and the prime vendor was established by clear contractual consent, and 
(3) the contract stated that the government would be directly liable to Endure.  See 
United States v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 713 F.2d 1541, 1551 (Fed. Cir. 1983) 
(involving appeal from this Board); see also Wolf Creek R.R. LLC v. United States, 
No. 2024-1873, 2025 WL 3276822 at *5 (Fed. Cir. Nov. 25, 2025); Frontline Support 
Solutions, LLC, ASBCA No. 64022, 25-1 BCA ¶ 38,803 at 188,731 (recognizing the 
agency theory as one exception to the “privity requirement for subcontractors”).  
Again, this legal theory and the operative facts necessary to prove it are distinct from 
the legal theory and operative facts that Endure presented in its certified claim.  
 
Endure never gave the government’s contracting officer a chance to respond to 
this theory.  Tolliver Grp., 20 F.4th at 776 (“The focus is on whether the contracting 
officer was given ‘an ample pre-suit opportunity to rule on a request, knowing at least 
the relief sought and what substantive issues are raised by the request.’” (quoting K-
Con, 778 F.3d at 1006)).  Thus, we lack jurisdiction to hear this newly raised claim. 
III. Endure Used Generative Artificial Intelligence to Prepare its Brief, which 
Resulted in Hallucinated and Questionable Legal Citations 
 
In its response to DHA’s motion to dismiss, Endure appeared to rely on a court 
decision that does not exist and to rely on other court decisions that did not appear to 
support the propositions for which they were cited.  After DHA noted this in its reply, 
we issued an order to Endure to show cause why we should not strike the brief, 
requesting that it provide a copy of the decision we could not locate, “BMS, Inc. v. 
United States, 12 Cl. Ct. 33 (1987),” noting that another case was reported near the 
volume and page citation – Johns-Manville Corp. v. United States, 12 Cl. Ct. 1 (1987).  
We also asked Endure to support its assertions regarding three decisions that we could 
find:  T. Brown Constructors, Inc. v. Pena, 132 F.3d 724 (Fed. Cir. 1997); Russell 
Corp. v. United States, 537 F.2d 474 (Ct. Cl. 1976); and PGBA, LLC v. United States, 
389 F.3d 1219 (Fed. Cir. 2004).  We also inquired whether Endure used generative 
artificial intelligence (AI) to assist in preparing the brief.  

16 
 
 
Endure responded by acknowledging that it used a generative AI program to 
assist in drafting the brief and acknowledged that one of the court decisions it cited did 
not exist:  “BMS, Inc. v. United States, 12 Cl. Ct. 33 (1987).”  Generative AI programs 
– at least in their current state – have a tendency to hallucinate non-existent cases.  
Sanders v. United States, 176 Fed. Cl. 163, 169 (2025) (“It is no secret that generative 
AI programs are known to ‘hallucinate’ nonexistent cases, and with the advent of AI, 
courts have seen a rash of cases in which both counsel and pro se litigants have cited 
such fake, hallucinated cases in their briefs.”); Raven Investigations & Sec. 
Consulting, LLC, B-423447, 2025 CPD ¶ 81 at 3 (“[T]he use of AI programs to draft 
or assist in drafting legal briefs can—and seemingly often does—result in the citation 
of non-existent cases.”); see also Ralph Nash, Artificial Intelligence Hallucinations:  
Sanctions are Waiting, 39 NASH & CIBINIC REP. ¶ 44 (Aug. 2025) (“[I]t is well known 
that so far AI programs tend to hallucinate.”). 
 
The real decision near the hallucinated citation is Johns-Manville Corp. v. 
United States, 12 Cl. Ct. 1 (1987).  “Fake cases generated by AI often have reporter 
citations that lead to cases with different names, in different courts, and about different 
subjects.”  Sanders, 176 Fed. Cl. at 169 n.8.  Endure asserts that the Johns-Manville 
decision supports the assertions made in its brief that it originally attributed to the fake 
BMS case.  And, by luck, Johns-Manville does lay out one of the statements it 
attributed to the fake BMS decision – the requirements to demonstrate an implied-in-
fact contract.  Johns-Manville, 12 Cl. Ct. at 20.  Elsewhere, the case is less on-point.  
Relying on the fake BMS decision, Endure’s brief asserts that “[c]ourts have 
consistently rejected similar attempts by the government to evade contractual liability 
while exercising control over contract obligations” and “undisclosed procurement 
obligations were later enforced through financial penalties and operational restrictions, 
despite not being set forth in” the incentive agreement (app. resp. at 3-4).  Endure 
asserts that portions of the Johns-Manville decision support these assertions.  But, far 
from “consistently” ruling in favor of a contractor, Johns-Manville ruled against the 
contractor as to whether an implied-in-fact contract existed.  Johns-Manville, 12 Cl. 
Ct. at 35-36 (dismissing “claims for express and implied-in-fact contract”).  Also, the 
allegedly supportive legal statements from the decision Endure quotes in its response 
to show cause order (ex. at 1-2), derive from alleged facts from the contractor’s 
complaint or proposed findings (not the court’s legal rulings); and the court expressed 
skepticism of these statements because they “can be read to set forth elements of a 
classic implied-in-law contract that is beyond the jurisdiction of this court to 
consider.”  Johns-Manville, 12 Cl. Ct. at 18.  This Board, like the Court of Federal 
Claims, generally has no jurisdiction over contracts implied-in-law.  Relyant Global 
LLC, ASBCA No. 63024, 22-1 BCA ¶ 38,205 at 185,539. 
 
Other decisions Endure cites do not support its contentions even though the 
decisions are “real,” which may be a more concerning issue.  See Seither & Cherry 
Quad Cities, Inc. v. Oakland Automation, LLC, No. 23-111310 et al., 2025 WL 

17 
 
2105286 at *1 (S.D. Mich. July 28, 2025) (“The court also notes that the mere fact that 
the cases themselves that counsel cited were not fictitious (rather, only the quotes or 
parentheticals) does not help matters; if anything, it highlights the risks of AI usage 
and reliance on these tools.  When a case cite is ‘real,’ an attorney, or for that matter a 
judge, might see a case they recognize and assume the quote or holding has been 
accurately represented, where a case that an attorney does not recognize might, at least 
at first blush, trigger more exacting scrutiny.”).   
 
In particular, Endure seeks to support the statement that the “government 
cannot impose detailed procurement controls, financial penalties, and mandatory 
compliance obligations while simultaneously denying the existence of a contractual 
relationship,” by citing T. Brown Constructors, Inc. v. Pena, 132 F.3d 724 (Fed. Cir. 
1997).  Yet, in that case, neither party denied the existence of a contract and, in fact, 
had an express contract – the dispute was about the interpretation of the terms of that 
express contract.  Id. at 730-32. 
 
Endure asserts that the U.S. Court of Claims (predecessor to the Federal 
Circuit) “held that when the government directs procurement terms and supplier 
obligations, an implied-in-fact contract exists, even if not formally documented” in 
Russell Corp. v. United States, 537 F.2d 474 (Ct. Cl. 1976).  The Court of Claims did 
not “hold” this,
6 but instead found against the alleged contractor and concluded that 
“no contract was made and defendant [the government] has no obligation to pay 
damages for breach.”  Id. at 485. 
 
6 A tribunal’s holding is the legal principle of an opinion, which includes “not only the 
result, but also those portions of the opinion necessary to that result by which 
we are bound” (such as the ratio decidendi – the reasoning of the decision).  
Seminole Tribe v. Fla., 517 U.S. 44, 67 (1996); see also Alexander v. Sandoval, 
532 U.S. 275, 282 (2001) (stating that tribunals are “bound by holdings, not 
language”).  Obiter dicta (or dicta) is language that is unnecessary for the 
resolution of a case and is not binding in future cases (although it may be 
persuasive).  Cohens v. Va., 19 U.S. (6 Wheat.) 264, 399 (1821) (“It is a maxim 
not to be disregarded, that general expressions, in every opinion, are to be taken 
in connection with the case in which those expressions are used.  If they go 
beyond the case, they may be respected, but ought not to control the judgment 
in a subsequent suit when the very point is presented for decision.”).  It is 
important to “distinguish an opinion’s holding from its dicta.”  U.S. Nat’l Bank 
of Ore. v. Independent Ins. Agents of Am., Inc., 508 U.S. 439, 463 n.11 (1993).  
Admittedly, one judge’s dicta may be another’s holding.  See, e.g., Seminole 
Tribe, 517 U.S. at 66-67 (majority and dissenting opinions disagreeing whether 
prior language from a ruling was dicta or holding); Burnham v. Superior Ct. of 
Cal., 495 U.S. 604, 613 n.2 (1990) (justices debating whether prior language 
from a ruling was dicta or holding).  Thus, a party should be careful in 
describing statements from a prior ruling as the “holding.” 

18 
 
 
Endure also asserts that the “procurement structure itself was deliberately 
designed to favor only the incumbent vendor, rendering Endure’s opportunity for 
meaningful participation illusory and effectively impossible from the start” by citing 
PGBA, LLC v. United States, 389 F.3d 1219 (Fed. Cir. 2004).  PGBA does not support 
Endure’s statement in its brief.  PGBA is a bid protest decision involving a 
disappointed offeror (that happened to be an incumbent) challenging an awarded 
contract.  Id. at 1222-23.  While sometimes legal principles from protest decisions may 
overlap with contract disputes, we have been unable to find the relevance of the 
holding in PGBA to Endure’s appeal based on the briefing.  To the extent Endure seeks 
to protest the structure of the agency’s procurement, this Board has no jurisdiction 
over bid protests.  Siemens Gov’t Tech., Inc., ASBCA No. 62601, 22-1 BCA ¶ 38,136 
at 185,245, aff’d, No. 2022-2240, 2024 WL 2043201 (Fed. Cir. May 8, 2024); Spanish 
Solutions Language Servs., ASBCA No. 62233, 20-1 BCA ¶ 37,527 at 182,241. 
 
The Board’s rules permit the imposition of sanctions where a “party fails to 
obey an order issued by the Board” and “it considers necessary to the just and 
expeditious conduct of the appeal.”  ASBCA Rule 16.  Though our Rule includes no 
standard for assessing sanctions, we have looked to F
ED. R. CIV. P. 11 for guidance in 
assessing sanctions (whether it involves violation of an order or not).  Huffman 
Constr., LLC, ASBCA Nos. 62591, 62783, 25-1 BCA ¶ 38,932 at 189,484 (citing 
Globe Constr. Co., ASBCA No. 21365, 78-2 BCA ¶ 13,486 at 66,005, aff’d, 230 Ct. 
Cl. 957 (1982)).  Among other things, Rule 11 states that representations to the 
tribunal in a pleading, written motion, or other paper means “an attorney or 
represented party certifies that to the best of the person’s knowledge, information, and 
belief, formed after an inquiry reasonable under the circumstances . . . the claims, 
defenses and other legal contentions are warranted by existing law or by a 
nonfrivolous argument for extending, modifying, or reversing existing law or for 
establishing new law.”  FED. R. CIV. P. 11(b)(2); see also Huffman, 25-1 BCA 
¶ 38,932 at 189,484.  This standard imposes “an affirmative duty to conduct a 
reasonable inquiry into the facts and the law before filing, and that the applicable 
standard is one of reasonableness under the circumstances.”  Business Guides, Inc. 
v. Chromatic Commc’ns Enters., Inc., 498 U.S. 533, 551 (1991).  Rule 11 requires that 
“attorneys read, and thereby confirm the existence and validity of, the legal authorities 
on which they rely . . . to ensure that the arguments are based on those authorities are 
‘warranted by existing law,’ F
ED. R. CIV. P. 11(b)(2), or otherwise ‘legally tenable.’”  
Huffman, 25-1 BCA ¶ 38,932 at 189,484 (quoting Park v. Kim, 91 F.4th 610, 615 (2d 
Cir. 2024), and Cooter & Gell v. Hartmarx Corp., 496 U.S. 384, 393 (1990)).   
 
Similarly, parties appearing before this Board have a duty of candor that 
includes accurately citing legal and factual sources.  Professional rules of conduct 
disallow a counsel from knowingly making “a false statement of fact or law to a 
tribunal” or failing “to correct a false statement of material fact or law previously 
made to the tribunal by the lawyer.”  Model Rules of Professional Conduct 3.3(a)(1); 

19 
 
Level 3 Commc’ns, LLC v. United States, 724 F. App’x 931, 934 (Fed. Cir. 2018) 
(quoting Model Rule 3.3(a)(1)); see also Amstar Corp. v. Envirotech Corp., 730 F.2d 
1476, 1486 (Fed. Cir. 1984) (awarding costs based on a parties’ citations that were a 
“[d]istortion of the record” and violated duty of candor).  Given such a breach of 
conduct by counsel, tribunals can refer the matter to the relevant state bar for 
discipline, strike the filing, or disqualify counsel from the case.  Johnson v. Dunn, 792 
F. Supp. 3d 1241, 1267-68 (N.D. Ala. 2025) (disqualifying counsel and referring 
matter to state bar); Powhatan County School Bd. v. Skinger, No. 24-cv-874, 2025 WL 
1559593 at *10 (E.D. Va. June 2, 2025) (“If a lawyer or law firm engaged in the 
conduct in which [pro se] has engaged, the lawyer would be sanctioned, perhaps 
monetarily or with an order to pay the opponent’s fees, perhaps by the entry of an 
adverse judgment or by removing the lawyer’s privilege to practice law.”). 
 
Endure has chosen to use a non-lawyer company representative to act for the 
company pro se as permitted by our rules.  ASBCA Rule 15(a).  We give some 
procedural leniency to pro se litigants.  Steffen v. United States, 995 F.3d 1377, 1380 
(Fed. Cir. 2021).  “But procedural leniency toward a specific class of litigants does not 
translate to unfettered deference and dereliction of judicial review.”  Steffen, 995 F.3d   
at 1380.  Being pro se does not relieve a party from assuring the accuracy of citations 
that a party learns about while using generative AI.  The citation of misleading or fake 
sources results in a waste of an opposing party’s and this tribunal’s resources.  
Sanders, 176 Fed. Cl. at 169.  It undermines our ability to meet the statutory obligation 
to “provide informal, expeditious, and inexpensive resolution of disputes.”  41 U.S.C. 
§ 7105(g)(1).  Indeed, as of July 16, 2025, our website has included a warning to 
parties regarding the use of AI:  
 
The Board does not prohibit the parties from using 
artificial intelligence (AI) tools to assist in drafting filings 
before us.  Nevertheless, regardless of the means that a 
party uses to draft such filings, the party is responsible to 
ensure that they accurately reflect the facts and the law.  
We caution the parties that the current generation of AI 
tools are known to sometimes create materially false 
characterizations of legal precedent, misquote cases, and 
even create non-existent case citations.  Thus, any party 
which uses AI tools to assist in drafting filings before the 
Board is expected to take independent steps to ensure the 
accuracy of such filings and may be subject to appropriate 
sanctions if their filings mischaracterize the law, misquote 
cases, or cite to nonexistent cases.
7 
  
 
7 ARMED SERVICES BOARD OF CONTRACT APPEALS, https://www.asbca.mil/Use-of-AI/ 
(last visited on November 26, 2025). 

20 
 
“A tribunal is afforded considerable discretion in determining whether 
sanctions are appropriate, and if so, what particular sanctions are appropriate under the 
circumstances of each case.”  Gen. Dynamics Ordnance & Tactical Sys., Inc., ASBCA 
No. 56870, 12-1 BCA ¶ 34,944 at 171,806.  In assessing whether to impose sanctions 
and, if so, what type, we look at willfulness, prejudice to the parties, burden and 
expense incurred by the parties and this tribunal, bad faith, and callous disregard of 
responsibilities.  Huffman, 25-1 BCA ¶ 38,932 at 189,485.   
 
“Our power to impose sanctions is broad and may even extend to dismissal of 
an appeal.”  Envt’l Safety Consultants, Inc., ASBCA No. 58343, 14-1 BCA ¶ 35,786 
at 175,050 (quoting Turbomach, ASBCA No. 30799, 87-2 BCA ¶ 19,756 at 99,953-
54); see also Avant Assessment, LLC v. Sec’y of Army, 752 F. App’x 1000, 1003 (Fed. 
Cir. 2018) (“[T]he case management authority of the ASBCA’s administrative law 
judges is no different from that of federal trial courts which, by virtue of their case 
management authority, are given broad discretion to manage the litigation on their 
dockets.”) (quoting Metadure Corp. v. United States, 6 Cl. Ct. 61, 67 (1984)).  Lesser 
sanctions (than dismissal) have prohibited a sanctioned party from introducing 
evidence or calling witnesses; or drawn adverse inferences against a party.  Envt’l 
Safety, 14-1 BCA ¶ 35,786 at 175,050.  We may also strike a filing as a sanction.  
Huffman, 25-1 BCA ¶ 38,932 at 189,485; Jeffrey C. Stone, Inc., ASBA No. 58372, 
15-1 BCA ¶ 36,112 at 176,294 (considering striking a pleading, but denying the 
motion when the party mooted the concern by conceding the issue).  The Board has 
determined that it lacks authority to impose monetary sanctions.  Huffman, 25-1 BCA 
¶ 38,932 at 189,485. 
 
In our show cause order, we stated that the Board might strike Endure’s brief.  
As reflected above in our discussion of the parties’ substantive legal arguments, 
Endure’s brief seems to have done more harm than good by advancing the untenable 
implied-in-fact contract argument and effectively surrendering to the government’s 
argument that, by its terms, the incentive agreement was not a contract.  Thus, in the 
limited facts before us, with a pro se litigant who did not appear to recognize the risks 
it had taken, we have chosen not to strike Endure’s entire brief as a sanction for using 
fake and inaccurate legal citations.  Instead, we have simply ignored the fake and 
inaccurate legal citations in its brief and weighed the remaining arguments that are 
supported by accurate citations.  No future litigant – pro se or not – should take this to 
mean that they, too will avoid greater consequences if they rely on AI to their 
detriment:  the Board’s advice on the website is just one of many new, strong, and 
conspicuous signals putting litigants on notice that AI is imperfect and not a tool that 
excuses compliance with our rules.  Had Endure’s brief been submitted a few months 
later, the negative consequences may well have been different.  
 
 
 
 

21 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
We dismiss, with prejudice, Endure’s appeal regarding the incentive agreement 
because Endure has failed to state a claim upon which relief may be granted.  We 
dismiss, without prejudice, Endure’s newly-raised claim of government liability for 
Endure’s alleged losses incurred in supplying orders to the prime vendor because 
Endure failed to raise this claim before the contracting officer. 
 
 Dated:  March 23, 2026 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DANIEL S. HERZFELD 
Administrative Judge 
Armed Services Board 
of Contract Appeals 
I concur 
 
 
 
J. REID PROUTY 
Administrative Judge 
Acting Chairman 
Armed Services Board 
of Contract Appeals 
 I concur 
 
 
 
 DAVID D’ALESSANDRIS 
Administrative Judge 
Acting Vice Chairman 
Armed Services Board 
of Contract Appeals 
 
 
 I certify that the foregoing is a true copy of the Opinion and Decision of the 
Armed Services Board of Contract Appeals in ASBCA No. 64064,
 Appeal of Endure 
Industries, Inc., rendered in conformance with the Board’s Charter. 
 
 Dated:  March 23, 2026 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
PAULLA K. GATES-LEWIS 
Recorder, Armed Services 
Board of Contract Appeals