Inclusion Criteria:  male or female aged between 18 and 60 years; drug- resistant temporal lobe epilepsy, remaining seizures after two or more tolerated and appropriately chosen antiepileptic drugs; monthly or more seizures during the preceding year prior to trial; the full- scale intelligence quotient (IQ) more than 70, understanding and completing the trial; signing the informed consent; good compliance, at least 12- month follow- up after surgery.  Exclusion Criteria:  tumor in temporal lobe; extratemporal epilepsy and temporal plus epilepsy; drug- responsive epilepsy, seizure freedom with current drugs in recent one year; pseudoseizures; seizures arising from bilateral temporal lobes; significant comorbidities including progressive neurological disorders, active psychosis, and drug abuse; a full- scale IQ lower than 70, unable to complete tests; previous epilepsy surgery; poor compliance and inadequate follow- up.