Click - Changing Sexual Attitudes - Women's Sexuality History ...

Search This Exhibit
Body & Health
Changing Sexual Attitudes and Options
Going to jail for providing contraceptives to married women? Margaret Sanger believed that birth control was the key to women’s personal freedom.
Excerpt from “Margaret Sanger: A Public Nuisance,” a film by Terese Svoboda and Steve Bull. (Running time 5:36) Used with permission. The complete film is available from Women Make Movies.
The simultaneous appearance of the sexual revolution of the 1960s and the revival of feminism — both symbolized in the popular mind by the fashion trend of the miniskirt — suggested a causal link between the two, but each had its own history. The sexual revolution basically opened to women many of the pleasures and responsibilities of sexual expression that had previously been reserved for men, challenging the double standard that allowed men sexual license but punished women who claimed the same freedom. The recognition of women’s sexual needs and desires, which extended first to married women and then, somewhat more tentatively, to single women, and wider acceptance of women’s ability to choose when and with whom to have sexual relations make up some of the most far-reaching changes of recent history.
Ellen Key
Changing attitudes about female sexuality began to take hold early in the twentieth century. The popularization of the ideas of Sigmund Freud, Havelock Ellis, and Ellen Key promoted an ideal wherein sexual satisfaction, not repression, limitation, or abstinence, was encouraged. And access to a satisfying sexual life was just as important for wives as for husbands. This view of companionate marriage was widely accepted by the 1920s. Historians Estelle Freedman and John D’Emilio summed up this change: the meaning of sexuality shifted “from a primary association with reproduction within families to a primary association with emotional intimacy and physical pleasure for individuals.”
These evolving attitudes about women’s sexuality intersected with, and indeed were made possible also by, another long-term trend: the ability to regulate conception, both to limit the number of children and to offer opportunities for sexual expression that did not result in procreation. Traditionally, without the ability to choose when to bear children and how many to have, women’s lives could be upended by an unplanned pregnancy. Although rudimentary birth control information and devices were available in the nineteenth century (which helps explain how the birthrate dropped by half from 1800 to 1900), they were generally illegal, especially after the passage of the Comstock Act of 1873. Birth control methods such as withdrawal or condoms required the cooperation of male partners, which was not always forthcoming; female methods such as douching, using pessaries (an early form of diaphragm), or limiting intercourse were better than nothing but were still hit or miss.
Margaret Sanger
Margaret Sanger, a public health nurse with feminist sensibilities, set out to change women’s lack of control over their reproductive lives by opening the first birth control clinic in the country in New York City in 1916. She was quickly arrested. Thus began her forty-year campaign to make birth control legal and widely available. Her device of choice was the diaphragm, which maximized women’s control over the sex act. In the 1920s Sanger deliberately allied herself with the medical establishment in the hope that their support would bolster what was still seen as a dangerously radical cause. In effect, she gave doctors control over the dissemination of birth control information and devices. At the same time she located women’s sexuality squarely within the construct of marriage, a far less radical stance than her original focus on women’s sexual liberation.
In the 1930s and 1940s, Sanger successfully chipped away at restrictions limiting access to birth control for married women, although the issue wasn’t finally settled until the 1965 Supreme Court case of Griswold v. Connecticut. Far more controversial was the idea of single women having easy access to birth control, precisely because that meant condoning premeditated sexual activity outside the institution of marriage. This is where the birth control battles were fought in the 1960s and beyond.
Single women had already been expanding the boundaries of acceptable sexual expression over the course of the twentieth century, as Alfred Kinsey found in his 1953 study of female sexual behavior. But there were still clear lines about what was considered proper sexual behavior for most young women, depending on the norms of various communities. Generally speaking, extensive “petting” short of intercourse was tolerated; “proper” or “morally clean” young women were supposed to keep their virginity for their wedding night. “Going all the way” carried a distinct social stigma, as well as the risk of unplanned pregnancy.
Photo by T. Takemoto
If single women did engage in sexual relations (as many clearly did), they often did so without access to reliable birth control information. One mistake could literally change a woman’s life. If a teenager or young adult found herself pregnant, she could either hastily marry the father, seek an illegal abortion, raise the baby as a single mother, or put the baby up for adoption.
The possibilities for increased sexual activity without fear of pregnancy took a giant leap forward in the 1960s with the introduction of two new forms of contraception, the birth control pill (first offered in 1960 and widely available by mid-decade) and the intrauterine device (IUD). Somewhat ironically, wider access to safe, reliable contraception put more pressure on women to engage in sexual relationships with men now that fear of pregnancy was removed. And yet feminist consciousness raising helped women imagine sexuality from a female point of view, not just in terms of pleasing men. This was a truly revolutionary perspective for many women.
How to Navigate our Interactive Timeline
Place the cursor over the timeline to scroll up and down within the timeline itself. If you place the cursor anywhere else on the page, you can scroll up and down in the whole page – but the timeline won’t scroll.
To see what’s in the timeline beyond the top or bottom of the window, use the white “dragger” located on the right edge of the timeline. (It looks like a small white disk with an up-arrow and a down-arrow attached to it.) If you click on the dragger, you can move the whole timeline up or down, so you can see more of it. If the dragger won’t move any further, then you’ve reached one end of the timeline.
Click on one of the timeline entries and it will display a short description of the subject. It may also include an image, a video, or a link to more information within our website or on another website.
Our timelines are also available in our Resource Library in non-interactive format.
Yellow bars mark entries that appear in every chapter
This icon indicates a book
This icon indicates a film
1971 The Click! Moment
The idea of the “Click! moment” was coined by Jane O’Reilly. “The women in the group looked at her, looked at each other, and ... click! A moment of truth. The shock of recognition. Instant sisterhood... Those clicks are coming faster and faster. They were nearly audible last summer, which was a very angry summer for American women. Not redneck-angry from screaming because we are so frustrated and unfulfilled-angry, but clicking-things-into-place-angry, because we have suddenly and shockingly perceived the basic disorder in what has been believed to be the natural order of things.” Article, “The Housewife's Moment of Truth,” published in the first issue of Ms. Magazine and in New York Magazine. Republished in The Girl I Left Behind, by Jane O'Reilly (Macmillan, 1980). Jane O'Reilly papers, Schlesinger Library.
Scroll, click and discover! You will find unique content in each chapter’s timeline.Timeline How-To
1946 Common Sense
The enormous popularity of Dr. Benjamin Spock’s Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care was due to its empathetic tone, respect for mothers, the focus on children’s emotional needs, calls for flexibility in the raising of children, and its comprehensive coverage. The book changed the way baby-boomers were raised. Dr. Spock obituary. “Feminists Protest Spock's Sex Bias,” by Louise Bernikow.
1948 The Kinsey Reports
Alfred Kinsey and his team at the Kinsey Institute published two Kinsey Reports about modern sexual behavior: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953). The books, while academic in nature, expanded the public discussion about sexuality. History of The Kinsey Institute. Review in New York Times. Dr. Kinsey obituary. Photo: staff at Kinsey Institute for Sex Research; Smithsonian Institution archives.
1952 Christine Jorgensen
Christine Jorgensen, born George Jorgensen, became the first person to complete a sex reassignment surgery. Her initial surgeries were performed in Denmark. Jorgensen became a public advocate for transsexuals. Christine Jorgensen’s website.
1953 Playboy
In December 1953, the first issue of Hugh Hefner’s Playboy magazine featured film star Marilyn Monroe on its cover and inside was a picture of a nude Monroe as the Sweetheart of the Month (now called the Playmate of the Month). Almost 55,000 copies, at 50 cents each, were sold. History of Playboy. “A Bunny’s Tale” by Gloria Steinem.
1956 Althea Gibson
When Althea Gibson won the French Open she became the first African American to win a tennis Grand Slam title. The next year, after she won Wimbledon and the U.S. Nationals, she became the top-ranked woman tennis player. In 1957, she became the first Black woman to appear on the cover of Time magazine. Biography. Tennis Hall of Fame. Brooklyn Museum exhibit. Photo: Library of Congress.
1957 Odd Girl Out
Ann Bannon’s lesbian pulp fiction novel, Odd Girl Out, was the first in a series of books about lesbian love and relationships. The series, known as The Beebo Brinker Chronicles, was published from 1957 to 1962 and the books are now considered lesbian classics. Bannon (a pseudonym for Ann Weldy) is recognized as a pioneering lesbian writer. Ann Bannon’s website.
1962 Sex and the Single Girl
Helen Gurley Brown’s best-selling self-help book, Sex and the Single Girl, told women how to meet men, act sexy, succeed at work, handle money, entertain, dress, and have an affair. In 1965, Brown became the editor-in-chief of Cosmopolitan magazine. Brown told the New York Times in 1982: “I am a feminist.” Obituary, Washington Post. Obituary, New York Times. Photo: Library of Congress.
1962 Sherri Finkbine
Sherri Finkbine, a married woman from Arizona, sought an abortion after discovering that the drug Thalidomide, which she had been taking, causes deformity in fetuses. She was forced to travel to Sweden because her local hospital refused to allow the abortion. Finkbine’s story raised public awareness about the drug Thalidomide and contributed to changes in abortion laws. Abortion Collection, Smith College. “Abortion mother returns home,” BBC.
1963 The Bell Jar
Sylvia Plath’s semi-autobiographical novel The Bell Jar tells the story of a young woman’s struggle with depression and her feelings about women’s roles. Plath committed suicide soon after the book was published. Biography. Reflections on her legacy.
1963 The Feminine Mystique
Betty Friedan’s study about “the problem that has no name” was an instant best-seller and raised public awareness about the lives of well-educated women. The book is considered a foundational text of the post-World War II women’s movement. Review in NY Times, 1963. Review in The Atlantic, 2013.
1966 National Organization for Women
Seen by its founders as a “NAACP for women,” NOW was established to work independently of government agencies in the effort to increase women’s rights and fight sex discrimination. In 1968, NOW endorsed the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment. NOW. NOW records, Schlesinger Library. Photo, founders of NOW.
1967 Twiggy arrives in New York
When the English model Twiggy arrived in New York City in 1967 she was already an icon with her thinness, bobbed hair, and “Twiggy Dresses.” The “Twiggy phenomenon” lasted long after Twiggy retired from modeling in 1970. Photos, Life Magazine. Twiggy’s website.
1968 Miss America Pageant protest
New York Radical Women organized this protest to bring public attention to sexism, especially society’s ideas about women and beauty. Some of the 400 protestors tossed into a “Freedom Trash Can” items they considered demeaning or oppressive, including women’s magazines, wigs, high heels, and bras. The protest brought media attention to the feminist movement. Video excerpt from “Miss America,” a Clio film.
1968 Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm
Anne Koedt’s classic feminist text The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm argues that the clitoris, not the vagina, is the center of a woman’s sexual sensitivity and that ignorance about this leads to ideas about women’s frigidity. Koedt drew on the work of Alfred Kinsey and Masters and Johnson. Full text.
1968 Poor Black Women
Patricia Robinson’s “Poor Black Women” was written in response to “Birth Control Pills and Black Children,” a statement by the Black Unity Party of Peekskill, New York, and “The Sisters Reply” to that statement. Robinson writes that the time had come for black women “to question aggressive male domination and the class society which enforces it, capitalism.” “Poor Black Women,” Duke University Digital Collections.
1969 NARAL
NARAL, the National Association for the Repeal of Abortion Laws, was created in 1969 to eliminate laws that could compel a woman to bear a child against her will. NARAL’s initial work included political actions to repeal abortion laws. After Roe v. Wade, NARAL’s new name was the National Abortion Rights Action League. NARAL. NARAL records, Schlesinger Library.
1969 Woodstock
The festival called Woodstock was held in Bethel, New York and attended by close to half a million people. The “3 Days of Peace and Music” is considered one of the great music festivals of all time and a defining moment for the counterculture of the 1960s. Woodstock Festival History. Photo by Mark Goff; public domain.
1970 Are You There God?
Judy Blume’s novel, Are You There God? It’s Me, Margaret, centers on a sixth grader’s life as she deals with her family’s Jewish and Christian religions and tackles coming-of-age issues such as her changing body, a new school environment, and boys. Judy Blume’s website. Judy Blume biography.
1970 “Take a Good Look”
In her essay “Take a Good Look at Our Problems,” which was published in the book Black Women’s Liberation, Pamela Newman wrote “The very idea that women are here on earth just for having children isn’t true either. We have minds and have the right to determine what we do and say. Child rearing should be a profession, not an automatic duty.” Full text (page 12), Duke University Digital Collections.
1970 “Women and Their Bodies”
“Women and Their Bodies” was first a workshop at a women’s liberation conference at Emmanuel College (near Boston). Workshop members founded the Doctor’s Group, which became the Boston Women’s Health Book Collective. The Doctor’s Group issued a 193-page course booklet, “Women and Their Bodies,” which was reissued in 1971 as Our Bodies, Ourselves. History of Our Bodies, Ourselves.
1970 “Women in Revolt”
Newsweek’s “Women in Revolt” cover story on the women’s movement ran on the same day that 46 women Newsweek employees, with Eleanor Holmes Norton as their lawyer, filed an EEOC complaint charging the magazine with sex discrimination. The women charged that women were hired as researchers and men were hired as writers. For its cover story on the women’s movement, Newsweek hired a woman freelance writer. The Good Girls Revolt by Lynn Povich. Review and interview on NPR.
1971 Dalkon Shield
The Dalkon Sheild, a contraceptive intrauterine device (IUD), was promoted by the A. H. Robins Company as a safe and reliable form of birth control when it went on the market in 1971. The deaths of eighteen women and injuries to thousands more led to court cases and settlements that cost billions of dollars. In 1976, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration mandated that IUDs be tested and approved. “The Charge: Gynocide” by Barbara Ehrenreich. National Women's Health Network records.
1971 The Click! Moment
The idea of the “Click! moment” was coined by Jane O’Reilly. “The women in the group looked at her, looked at each other, and ... click! A moment of truth. The shock of recognition. Instant sisterhood... Those clicks are coming faster and faster. They were nearly audible last summer, which was a very angry summer for American women. Not redneck-angry from screaming because we are so frustrated and unfulfilled-angry, but clicking-things-into-place-angry, because we have suddenly and shockingly perceived the basic disorder in what has been believed to be the natural order of things.” Article, “The Housewife's Moment of Truth,” published in the first issue of Ms. Magazine and in New York Magazine. Republished in The Girl I Left Behind, by Jane O'Reilly (Macmillan, 1980). Jane O'Reilly papers, Schlesinger Library.
1971 “Rape: The All-American Crime”
Susan Griffin’s “Rape: The All-American Crime” appeared in the New Left journal Ramparts. It was then published as a book titled Rape: The Power of Consciousness. Griffin argues that rape must not be understood as a sexual act but as resulting from the political system of patriarchy. Full text.
1971 “The Motherhood Myth”
Bev Cole’s essay “Black Women and the Motherhood Myth” was published in “The Right to Choose Abortion,” a pamphlet issued by Female Liberation, a Boston women’s liberation group. Cole’s first sentence is “The abortion issue must be faced by each and every woman, especially Black and Third World women.” Full text, p. 52, Before Roe v. Wade (PDF).
1972 Feminists for Life
Feminists for Life, an anti-abortion organization, was founded with the vision of creating “a better world in which no woman would be driven by desperation to abortion.” The organization provides a “herstory worth repeating” about how “early feminists” were “overwhelmingly pro-life.” Feminists for Life. Video, “The Feminist Case Against Abortion.”
1972 The Healthy Homosexual
George Weinberg coined the term homophobia in his book Society and the Healthy Homosexual. The book, which criticized psychiatric and psychological theories about sexuality, was considered a revolutionary manifesto. George Weinberg interview.
1972 Witches, Midwives and Nurses
Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English’s Witches, Midwives and Nurses — as well as their two subsequent books, Complaints and Disorders (1973) and For Her Own Good (1978) — are popular feminist texts that raised awareness about women’s historical involvement and the patriarchal controls that led to their loss of power in the healthcare arena. Excerpt (PDF). Barbara Ehrenreich video interview.
1972 “Chicanas and Abortion”
Beverly Padilla published “Chicanas and Abortion” in The Militant. She argues that a woman’s control of her body and mind is a “collective problem,” not a personal issue. The article also addresses the relationship of Chicanas to Chicano men. Reprinted in Chicana Feminist Thought, p. 120.
1973 COYOTE
COYOTE (Cut Off Your Old Tired Ethics) was founded by Margo St. James to advocate for the rights of sex workers (including prostitutes, strippers, and those involved in pornography). St. James argued that sex workers should be considered laborers with the right to the same protections given other workers. COYOTE. COYOTE records, Schlesinger Library. St. James Infirmary.
1973 Fear of Flying
In Fear of Flying, a novel about a woman’s sexual fantasies and acts, Erica Jong explored the psychological effects of spontaneous sexual encounters on the narrator’s marriage, poetry, and personal liberation. Erica Jong’s website. Video interview.
1973 Our Bodies, Ourselves
Written by members of the Boston Women’s Health Book Collective, this 276-page book of information, illustrations, and personal narratives aimed to empower women to understand their bodies and navigate the health care system. Our Bodies Ourselves.
1974 Women’s Advocates
When Women’s Advocates was founded in Minneapolis in 1974 it became the first battered women’s shelter in the United States. At first it was a hotline; then a house was purchased. The group now provides care for about 45 women and children every day. Women’s Advocates. Sharon Rice-Vaughan video interview.
1975 Take Back the Night
In Philadelphia, after the murder of a woman who was walking home alone at night, feminists held a march to raise public awareness of violence against women. In Pittsburgh in 1977, the name “Take Back the Night” was coined by Anne Pride at an anti-violence rally. Take Back the Night marches are now held annually across the country. Take Back The Night. National Online Resource Center on Violence Against Women.
1975 UN International Women’s Year
The United Nations declared 1976 to 1985 the Decade of Women and four international conferences on women were held, in Mexico City (1975), Copenhagen (1980), Nairobi (1985), and Beijing (1995). A result of the conferences has included resolutions to elimination discrimination and violence against women. UN Women. Declaration of Mexico, 1975. Full report.
1976 La Casa de las Madres
Founded by women in the California Bay Area, La Casa de las Madres was the first domestic violence shelter founded in the state and the third in the nation. In 2014, Sonia Melara, one of the shelter’s founders, was appointed to the San Francisco Police Commission. La Casa de las Madres.
1976 Planned Parenthood v. Danforth
The Supreme Court case of Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth stated that women seeking an abortion did not require parental or spousal consent. The court also ruled that abortion providers must do certain record keeping and reporting. Case documents, Cornell University. Case Summary.
1976 The Hite Report
The Hite Report on Female Sexuality, by historian Shere Hite, documents responses to a questionnaire Hite distributed to women asking about their sexual experiences and feelings. Women’s orgasms are a key subject of the book. Shere Hite’s website. Review in The New York Times.
1976 Title IX Protest at Yale
The women of the Yale Crew wrote Title IX on their bodies and read a protest to the Director of Women’s Athletics about unequal facilities and treatment, and finally obtained showers at the Yale Boathouse. Newspaper coverage raised public awareness about the implementation of Title IX. Video excerpt from the film “A Hero for Daisy” used with permission from 50 Eggs. “Title IX Pioneer Honored by Sports Museum of New England.”
1976 WAVAW
Women Against Violence Against Women was founded in Los Angeles in 1976 to protest the film “Snuff.” Boston women founded their chapter a year later after the release of the Rolling Stones album “Black and Blue.” The focus of their work was on protesting violence against women in the media. The group disbanded in 1984. WAVAW records, Northeastern University. WAVAW archive, UCLA.
1977 CESA
The article “Sterilization Abuse: A Task for the Women’s Movement,” written by members of the Chicago Committee to End Sterilization Abuse (CESA), provided statistics and shocking stories about involuntary sterilization of women, mostly women of color. The article concluded that in addition to legal battles against sterilization abuse, it is important for provide education about patient rights to communities most effected by the abuse. Full text. History of CESA. Relf v. Weinberger.
1978 Carol Leigh & “Sex Worker”
Carol Leigh is an artist, prostitute and activist known as Scarlot Harlot. While attending a San Francisco Women Against Violence in Pornography and Media Conference, she coined the term “sex worker” to describe all individuals who work in the sex industry. Biography. Origins of terminology, Prostitutes Education Network.
1979 The Dinner Party
Judy Chicago, a feminist artist, created The Dinner Party to honor women in history. The art installation created controversy because each plate depicts a vulva symbol and as one moves forward chronologically the vulvas become larger as a way to depict women’s empowerment. The Dinner Party is now on permanent exhibit at the Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art at the Brooklyn Museum. Judy Chicago’s website. Brooklyn Museum.
1980 Ronald Reagan
The election of Ronald Reagan as President of the United States and Republican control of the U.S. Senate signaled America’s conservative political turn. Reagan opposed abortion rights, gender equality, affirmative action, and many of the policies of the Great Society. Reagan Presidential Foundation. Reagan Presidential Library.
1982 Gay Games
The Gay Games (first called the Gay Olympics) was founded in San Francisco by Tom Waddell in 1982 as a “celebration of freedom.” Over 1,000 athletes from 10 countries competed in 17 sports at the first Gay Games. Over 10,000 people competed in the 1994 Games, making it a larger event than the Olympics. The Gay Games are held every four years at various international locations. Federation of Gay Games. Federation of Gay Games archive (PDF).
1982 Ohoyo One Thousand
Ohoyo One Thousand: A Resource Guide of American Indian/Alaska Native Women was compiled by the Ohoyo (“woman” in Choctaw) Resource Center, which was founded by Choctaw women in 1979. The publication profiles more than 1,000 women from 321 tribes who have achieved success in their respective fields. The Ohoyo Resource Center also published Ohoyo Makachi: Words of Today’s American Indian Women.Ohoyo One Thousand. Ohoyo Makachi. Owanah Anderson biography.
1983 Asian Immigrant Women Advocates
Asian Immigrant Women Advocates was founded as a grassroots organization to provide educational assistance to Asian immigrant women and to engage in social justice campaigns. The Garment Workers’ Justice Campaign from 1992 to 1998 raised public awareness about corporate responsibility to workers. AIWA.
1983 Lesbian & Gay Community
The Lesbian and Gay Community Services Center opened in New York City to provide an affordable space for lesbian and gay groups to hold meetings. Among the founding groups of the Center were the Gay and Lesbian Switchboard, which was established in 1972, and the Coalition for Lesbian and Gay Rights, which led the successful fight for the passage of New York City’s 1986 Gay Rights Bill. In 2001 the name was changed to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual & Transgender Community Center. History of The Center. Lesbian and Gay Community Services Center records.
1984 Akwesasne Mother’s Milk
The Akwesasne Mother’s Milk Project was founded by the midwife Katsi Cook, a member of the Mohawk tribe. In response to environmental concerns surrounding the development of the St. Lawrence Seaway Project, the project began monitoring PCB levels in breast milk. The project worked on a number of environmental justice issues connected to women and children’s health. Katsi Cook papers, Sophia Smith Collection. Katsi Cook biography. “Into Our Hands” by Katsi Cook.
1984 Grove City v. Bell
The Supreme Court case of Grove City v. Bell stated that Title IX applied to specific programs receiving federal funding, such as athletic scholarships, not all athletic activities in an educational setting. Grove City was reversed by the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, which stated that schools receiving federal funds must comply with civil rights laws in all areas. Clearly the battle for equality in sports was not over. Case documents.
1984 Pluralism and Abortion
“A Catholic Statement on Pluralism and Abortion,” a full-page advertisement in The New York Times paid for by Catholics for a Free Choice, was published in support of vice-presidential candidate Geraldine Ferraro, who had been attacked for stating that Catholics did not have a monolithic position on abortion. The ad stated that only 11% of U.S. Catholics disapproved of abortion in all circumstances and that a large number of Catholic theologians believed that “abortion, though tragic, can sometimes be a moral choice.” Full text (PDF).
1985 Connexxus & Centro des Mujeres
Connexxus, a women’s center, was founded by Adel Martinez and Lauren Jardine to provide health and social services to lesbians in the Los Angeles area. The first center was in West Hollywood. A second center, Connexxus East/Centro des Mujeres, opened in East Los Angeles in 1986. Connexxus closed in 1990. The group was notable for having an operating budget of over $200,000. Connexxus/Centro des Mujeres archive. Summary, Mazer Lesbian Archives.
1985 Minority Task Force on AIDS
Setsuko (Suki) Terada Ports founded the Minority Task Force on AIDS under the auspices of the Council of Churches in New York City as an advocacy service that emphasized the needs of black and Hispanic people. Ports also started the Family Health Project in 1988 to expand her work with low-income families affected by AIDS. The Minority Task Force is now known as FACES NY. Setsuko Ports interview (PDF). FACES NY.
1986 Bowers v. Hardwick
In Bowers v. Hardwick, the Supreme Court ruled that gay adults do not have the constitutional right to engage in consensual sodomy and that the Georgia Sodomy Law was legal. In 2003, the Court ruled in Lawrence v. Texas that that state’s sodomy law was unconstitutional and all adults have the right to engage in private sexual activity. Case documents. Summary, PBS. Harry A. Blackmun papers, Library of Congress.
1987 ACT UP
ACT UP, the Aids Coalition to Unleash Power, was initiated by the playwright Larry Kramer. The group held its first action on Wall Street in New York City to protest how pharmaceutical companies were profiting from the AIDs epidemic. ACT UP New York. Maxine Wolfe interview.
1987 NAMES Quilt Project
San Francisco gay rights activists, wanting to memorialize those who lost their lives to AIDS, created the Memorial Quilt and the NAMES Project Foundation. The quilt, with 1,920 panels, was first displayed at the 1987 National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights. AIDS Memorial Quilt.
1987 National Women's History Month
Congress designated the month of March to celebrate women’s historical accomplishments following celebrations of International Women’s Day (first celebrated in 1911 on March 8) and Women’s History Week (established in 1980). The National Women’s History Project played a key role in developing Women’s History Month. National Women’s History Project.
1988 National Coming Out Day
October 11, National Coming Out Day, was established by Jean O’Leary and Robert Eichberg after the 1987 March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights. The annual event is considered a celebration of individual lives and community acceptance of gays and lesbians. Summary, Human Rights Campaign. Exhibition, Cornell University.
1989 Asian Communities
Asian Communities for Reproductive Justice was founded to protect women’s reproductive rights, health, and justice by using a social justice framework, which explores the intersection of racism, sexism, xenophobia, heterosexism, and class oppression. The group’s former name was Asians and Pacific Islanders for Reproductive Health, and is known now as Forward Together. “A New Vision” brochure (PDF).
1989 Webster v. Reproductive Health
Webster v. Reproductive Health Services was a serious challenge to Roe v. Wade, which made abortion a woman’s fundamental right. In a 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the Missouri law’s provisions, which included a prohibition on public funding for abortions, was constitutional. Pro-choice advocates saw the decision as an encouragement to states to pass restrictive antiabortion laws. Case documents. Video, oral arguments. “Can Pro-Choicers Prevail?” by Margaret Carlson.
1989 “We Remember”
The brochure “We Remember: African American Women Are for Reproductive Freedom” declared women’s right to abortion and asserted that women of color have the right to choose whether to have children. It was written in response to the Supreme Court’s 1989 Webster v. Reproductive Health Services decision. The statement begins: “Choice is the essence of freedom.” In 1990, the authors created the group African-American Women for Reproductive Freedom to continue their work. Full text. “African-American Women and Abortion” by Loretta Ross.
1990 Domestic Violence Coalition
The Domestic Violence Coalition on Public Policy was founded to advocate for federal legislation and evolved into a national alliance of advocates and activists. One of its major efforts was the passage of the Violence Against Women Act (1994). It is now known as the National Network to End Domestic Violence.
1990 Empowerment Through Dialogue
The Empowerment Through Dialogue conference was organized by the Native American Women’s Health Education Resource Center in South Dakota. The event was attended by Native American women from eleven tribes. They created a Native Women’s Reproductive Rights Coalition. By 1994, the Reproductive Rights Coalition included 150 women from 26 tribes. Historical Note, Sophia Smith Collection. Reproductive Justice Agenda.
1990 NIH Research on Women’s Health
Since 1990, the National Institutes of Health Office of Research on Women’s Health has promoted research on women’s health, worked to ensure that women are represented in health research studies, and supported women’s advancement in biomedical careers. It is the first public health service office to focus specifically on promoting women’s health research. National Institutes of Health Office on Women’s Health.
1990 The Beauty Myth
Naomi Wolf’s The Beauty Myth argues that while women have made legal and economic gains, they have been psychologically and politically undermined by societal expectations about women’s physical beauty. A debate ensued about the book’s argument and Wolf’s use of facts. Naomi Wolf profile, The Guardian.
1990 The Women’s Collective
Pat Nalls started a hotline for women in the Washington D.C. area after her husband and daughter died of AIDS and she was diagnosed as HIV positive. The hotline evolved into a support group that became, in 1995, the Women’s Collective, to support women and families dealing with AIDS and HIV. The Women’s Collective.
1991 Backlash
Susan Faludi’s Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women, which won the National Book Critics Award for Nonfiction, examines the 1980s media backlash against feminism, which included unsubstantiated stories such as the “man shortage.” Reviewers compared it to Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique. Susan Faludi's website.
1991 Jeanne Clery Act
In 1986, 19-year old Jeanne Clery was raped and murdered in her Lehigh University dorm room. Her parents formed the Clery Center for Security on Campus and lobbied Congress for what became the Jeanne Clery Act, or Crime Awareness and Campus Security Act. It requires colleges and universities to make public their security policies and crime reports, and to provide timely warnings about campus threats. Clery Center. Text of Jeanne Clery Act. U.S. Department of Education campus security resources.
1991 Pink Ribbon
The Pink Ribbon became associated with breast cancer awareness after pink ribbons were distributed by the Susan G. Komen Foundation in New York City. In 1992, the organizers of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month adopted the pink ribbon as its official symbol. Pink ribbon campaigns have been praised for raising awareness and criticized for the commercialization and corporatization of breast cancer. Susan G. Komen Foundation. Pink Ribbon International. Think Before You Pink. Photo: Creative Commons license.
1991 riot grrrl
The zine riot grrrl popularized the name riot grrrl, a movement within third-wave feminism that uses music, art and literature to explore a range of feminist issues. An earlier zine, Jigsaw, founded in 1988, helped build the riot grrrl community, which includes the American band Bikini Kill, the English band Gossip, and the Russian activists Pussy Riot. Riot Grrrl Collection, New York University.
1991 Tailhook Association
At the annual convention of the Tailhook Association, a fraternal organization for those who work with aircraft carriers, U.S. Navy and Marine Corps officers sexually assaulted 83 women and 7 men. Assistant Secretary of the Navy Barbara S. Pope played a central role in making sure there was a proper investigation. The incident raised public awareness about sexual assault, sexual harassment, and inequalities in the U.S. military. Tailhook '91, PBS Frontline. “Tailhook '91 and the U.S. Navy” by Joslyn Ogden.
1992 Equality Now
Equality Now was founded to promote the human rights of women and girls around the world through coalition building and by documenting violence and discrimination. In 1993, the Women’s Action Network had about 1,000 groups and individuals in 23 countries campaigning on behalf of women. Equality Now.
1992 March for Women’s Lives
The National Organization for Women and other feminist organizations led the March for Women’s Lives in Washington D.C., totaling about 750,000 marchers. Like the 1989 March for Women’s Lives, this one was prompted by a Supreme Court case (Planned Parenthood v. Casey) that would restrict women’s abortion rights. Video, “1992 March for Women's Lives.”Planned Parenthood v. Casey.
1992 Planned Parenthood v. Casey
In 1982, Pennsylvania passed a restrictive abortion law with five regulations. The Supreme Court ruling of Planned Parenthood v. Casey upheld requirements for parental consent, informed consent, and a 24-hour waiting period. The court ruled against the spousal notice rule. Case documents.
1992 Population and the Environment
The Committee on Women, Population and the Environment is a multi-racial organization that examines the relationship between the environment, women’s fertility choices, and population control policies that target specific communities. More recently the organization also focused on immigration rights and what it calls the “greening of hate.” CWPE.
1993 California Breast Cancer Act
The California Breast Cancer Act was passed after grassroots activists, most of them women who had or had survived breast cancer, demanded more resources be spent on research. The Act allocated 45 percent of an increased tobacco tax to breast cancer research and established the California Breast Cancer Research Program. California Breast Cancer Research Program.
1993 Family and Medical Leave Act
Unlike earlier acts, including the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, this federal law requires that employers provide all eligible employees with unpaid leaves for family or health reasons. The Act has been seen as expanding the legal definition of the family and a major step in balancing the demands of family and work for women and men. Family and Medical Leave Act.
1993 UN Declaration on Violence
In the 1990s, violence against women emerged as one of the global challenges facing communities around the world. The United Nation’s declaration makes a connection between women’s rights, world peace, and the elimination of violence against women. United Nations Declaration.
1994 National Latina Institute
The National Latina Institute for Reproductive Health was founded in 1994 around the core values of “salud, dignidad, y justicia” (health, dignity, and justice). It is the only national reproductive justice organization for Latinas and their families. The group focuses on abortion access and affordability, sexual and reproductive health equity, and immigrant women’s health and rights. National Latina Institute for Reproductive Health. Video, 15th anniversary celebration.
1996 First Nations Women’s Alliance
The First Nation Women’s Alliance evolved out of the Native American Domestic Violence Forum, a committee of the North Dakota Council on Abused Women’s Services. The Alliance worked to support and advocate on behalf of Native women who have experienced violence in their lives. Alliance of Tribal Coalitions to End Violence.
1996 The Vagina Monologues
The Vagina Monologues is a play by Eve Ensler that includes monologues about sexual experiences, sexual violence, body image, women’s experiences of menstruation and other topics. Ensler sought to “celebrate the vagina” as a symbol of women’s empowerment. The play is often performed to raise funds for local women’s anti-violence organizations. Eve Ensler’s website. V-Day. Interview, The Guardian. TED Talk. Photo: The Vagina Monologues at Tufts University, Creative Commons license.
1996 WNBA
The Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) was founded by the National Basketball Association in 1996 and began its first season in 1997. The WNBA followed in the footsteps of the Women’s Professional Basketball League (WBL), which played from 1978 to 1981, and the Women’s American Basketball Association (WABA), which played in 1984, 1992 to 1995, and 2002. History of WNBA. Photo: Karima Christmas, Washington Mystics; Creative Commons license.
1997 Khmer Girls in Action
First named HOPE for Girls, Khmer Girls in Action is a women’s reproductive health and empowerment project founded by young Cambodian women. The group expanded its programs to help Southeast Asian women and men in Southern California by advocating for wellness centers and school health clinics. Khmer Girls in Action.
1997 SisterSong
The SisterSong Women of Color Reproductive Justice Collective began as a network of sixteen organizations representing the interests of African American, Arab American, Asian/Pacific Islander, Latina, and Native American women. It was founded to educate women of color about issues of reproductive justice and advocate for public policies in their interests. SisterSong. SisterSong archives.
1997 Third Wave Foundation
In 1992, in response to anti-feminist events, Rebecca Walker wrote a Ms. Magazine article titled “Becoming the Third Wave.” The third wave of feminism concentrates on ending gender violence, expanding reproductive rights, and challenging media misrepresentations of young women. Five years later, the Third Wave Foundation was created to foster youth-led activism for gender justice. Third Wave Foundation records, Duke University.
1998 Have Justice Will Travel
Lawyer Wynona Ward founded Have Justice Will Travel to help battered women and children in rural communities. The group provides women with free legal services, transportation to court hearings, and transition counseling. Have Justice Will Travel.
1999 SAFER
SAFER, Students Active For Ending Rape, was established by Columbia University students to reform their university’s sexual assault policy. The group has evolved into a national organization fighting sexual violence and rape culture on campuses through policy changes. SAFER.
2000 Incite!
Incite! Women of Color & Trans People of Color Against Violence began as a local group who met at a “Color of Violence” conference at the University of California, Santa Cruz, and has grown into a nationwide network of feminists of color working to end violence against women. Incite!Interview with Nadine Naber and Andrea Smith (PDF).
2002 Venus and Serena Williams
In 2002, Venus and then Serena Williams were ranked #1 in women’s singles tennis, with Venus becoming the first black woman to hold the #1 position in the Open Era. The sisters turned professional when they were fourteen years of age, in 1994 and 1995 respectively. Since then they have often dominated both singles and doubles women’s tennis. Both women have won four Olympic Gold Medals. WTA website. Venus Williams website. Serena Williams website.
2003 Indigenous Women’s Health
Indigenous Women’s Health Book, Within the Sacred Circle, edited by Charon Asetoyer, is a groundbreaking book about Native American women’s health issues. Like Our Bodies, Ourselves, the book encourages women to take charge of their health care. Educational Materials, Native Shop.
2005 The Case of Female Orgasm
The Case of Female Orgasm: Bias in the Science of Evolution by philosopher Elisabeth Lloyd is a criticism of androcentric evolutionary accounts of the human female orgasm, which are built on the assumption that female and male sexuality are alike. Lloyd’s work is part of a larger body of scholarship addressing cultural assumptions in human sexuality studies. Elisabeth Lloyd website. “A Critic Takes on the Logic of Female Orgasm” by Dinitia Smith.
2007 Maze of Injustice
Maze of Injustice: The Failure to Protect Indigenous Women from Sexual Violence in the USA is an Amnesty International Report that shows how domestic and sexual violence against Native American women is an international human rights issue. The report was researched and compiled, in part, by Sarah Deer (Muscogee Creek), who won a MacArthur Genius Award for her efforts for Native American women and their communities. Maze of Injustice (PDF). Institute for Native Justice.
2008 Health and Rights Worldwide
The Ms. Magazine Forum on Reproductive Health and Rights Worldwide helped enlarge the international discussion about women’s reproductive health as a basic human right. The forum was called specifically to advocate for an increase in U.S. funding for international family planning programs. Daniel Pellegrom, president of Pathfinder International, was among the participants. Video of forum. Pathfinder International.
2010 UN Women
Officially known as the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, this group focuses on the empowerment of women economically and in leadership positions, ending violence against women, and keeping gender equality at the forefront of development initiatives. UN Women. UN Women Watch.
2012 “Lesbiana”
“Lesbiana: A Parallel Revolution” is a film by Myriam Fougère that documents the history of an international clandestine movement of lesbians who sought to live only with women. “Lesbiana” website.
2013 Black Lives Matter
Black Lives Matter is a decentralized movement that campaigns against violence and racism towards black people. It was founded by Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi in the wake of the 2012 killing of Trayvon Martin. Website. Interview. Sydney Peace Prize.
2013 End Rape On Campus
End Rape on Campus (EROC) was founded as a survivor advocacy group, to lobby for policy and legislative reforms, and to increase public awareness about sexual violence on campus. EROC helps those who want to file a federal complaint under the provisions of Title IX and the Clery Act. End Rape On Campus.
2013 Gay & Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame
The National Gay and Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame was established in Chicago in 2013 to recognize individuals and groups who have enhanced athletics for the gay and lesbian community. Its 2013 inaugural class had five women out of 17 inductees and in 2014 only three women were included in a class of fifteen. National Gay & Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame.
2013 Know Your IX
Know Your IX is a national campaign run by students and survivors of sexual violence. It aims to empower students to stop sexual violence and educate them about their rights under Title IX. Know Your IX.
2013 Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet is a grassroots organization that has campaigned to influence policies about birth control access, violence against women, pay inequality and other issues, to show “corporations, media outlets, and public officials that there is a clear cost for being anti-woman.” The group’s slogan is “Equality at a Higher Frequency.” One of its first campaigns influenced Reebok to end its sponsorship of rapper Rick Ross because his lyrics celebrate rape. Ultraviolet.
2016 Hillary Clinton wins Nomination
At the Democratic National Convention, Hillary Clinton became the first woman to receive the presidential nomination from a major political party. “When there are no ceilings,” she stated in her acceptance speech, “the sky’s the limit.” Acceptance Speech.