The Effects of Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test With Ball and Small-Sided Games (SSG) on Exercise Performance and Enjoyment in Adolescent Soccer Players
Phase: NA
Conditions: Soccer Training, Aerobic Capacity, Anaerobic Power, Physical Activity Enjoyment
Sponsor: University of Macau

University of Macau
Faculty of Education
Master of Philosophy (Physical Education and Sport Studies)
The Effects of Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test With Ball and
Small-Sided Games (SSG) on Exercise Performance and
Enjoyment in Adolescent Soccer Players
Student Name: Ruoqi Zhang
Student No: M-C4-4101-3
Lecturer Name: Dr. Zhaowei Kong
Date: 20/9/2025

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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Research Background
Football, as the most popular sport in the world, requires high athletic capacity.
During a 90-minutes match, athletes must repeatedly perform high-intensity actions
like prolonged running, sprints and decelerations (Jimenez-Iglesias et al., 2024).
Simultaneously, they must execute technical skills like dribbling and passing under
fatigue, which shows the need of training methods develop not only conditioning but
also technical skills for players. However, conventional training programs often fail
to combine these components efficiently, resulting in limited transfer to match
performance (Akdoğan et al., 2021). This gap is vital during puberty — a key
developmental period for a youth soccer player, in which athletes gain dramatically
in strength, speed, endurance and skills under the scientific conditioning (Badenhorst,
2017; McBurnie et al., 2021). Therefore, it is crucial to find training strategies that
can enhance both physical capacities and sport-specific skills.
Small-sided games (SSGs) seem to be a potential solution for integrating fitness
and technical skills, has been widely used by soccer coaches during the last decade.
SSGs require players execute passing, dribbling and shooting by simulating dynamic
match in smaller pitches, thereby enhancing technical skills and maintaining physical
capacities (Badenhorst, 2017; F. M. Clemente et al., 2023). Furthermore, their
game-based design might be more attractive and enjoyable than traditional protocols
for adolescents (Los Arcos et al., 2015). Despite of these advantages, SSGs may
prioritize technical skills and anaerobic fitness like explosive power and agility over
aerobic fitness (Thapa et al., 2023; Wen et al., 2024). Current evidence seems
controversial: some researches demonstrated comparable endurance improvements
between SSGs and traditional training, others suggest better promotion from

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conventional aerobic training (Eniseler et al., 2017; Jastrzebski et al., 2014; Moran et
al., 2019). Thus, the effectiveness of SSG in enhancing aerobic fitness requires
further examination, and a more comprehensive training protocol should be
developed.
To address the technical and physical deficit in SSGs and conventional
conditioning, we develop a new sport-specific protocol: Yo-Yo with Ball Training.
The original Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery 1 (Yo-Yo IR1) was primarily designed to
assess repeated sprint ability, has been demonstrated strong correlations with soccer
athletes’ aerobic and anaerobic capacities (Grgic et al., 2019). Moreover, when
implementing this 40m increasing speed shuttle run as a high-intensity interval
training (HIIT) tool , it could greatly improve individuals’ aerobic and anaerobic
performance (Delahunt et al., 2013).
However, traditional Yo-Yo protocol lacks the combination of physical and
technical stimuli. While simulating real-match movements, like shuttle run involving
acceleration, deceleration and 180° turns, they neglect ball-control skills, like
dribbling and shielding, a critical factor of selecting talented and predicting match
performance (Fuhre et al., 2022; Haroune et al., 2024). Crucially, previous research
indicates that dribbling combined with interval training boost both aerobic capacity
and anaerobic power (McMillan et al., 2005). By integrating ball dribbling into each
shuttle run phase, the modified Yo-Yo protocol could enhance explosive power,
physical endurance, change of direction and the stability of dribbling of youth soccer
players simultaneously. This approach may not only not only promote physical
capacities but also trains sport-specific skills. Considering this area lacks research,
the further investigation is required.
1.2 Purpose of the Study
This study aims to investigate the differential effects of three training protocols:

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traditional Yo-Yo intermittent training, ball-dribbled Yo-Yo intermittent training,
and small-sided games (SSGs) on aerobic capacity, anaerobic and soccer-specific
performance in adolescent soccer players following a 4-week intervention.
1.3 Research Questions of the Study
Q1: How do 4-week interventions of traditional Yo-Yo training, ball-dribble
integrated Yo-Yo training, and small-sided games (SSGs) influence aerobic capacity
in adolescent soccer players?
Q2: How do 4-week interventions of traditional Yo-Yo training, ball-dribble
integrated Yo-Yo training, and small-sided games (SSGs) influence anaerobic
performance in adolescent soccer players?
Q3: Are there between-group differences in the improvements across aerobic,
capacities?
Q4: Are there between-group differences in the improvements across anaerobic
capacities?
1.4 Hypothesis of the Study
H1: The aerobic capacity of adolescent soccer players will improve following a
4-week intervention.
H2: The anaerobic performance of adolescent soccer players will improve
following a 4-week intervention.
H3: Aerobic adaptations will be equivalent between traditional Yo-Yo and
ball-dribble Yo-Yo groups, with both superior to SSGs.
H4: Anaerobic performance will be equivalent between ball-dribble Yo-Yo and
SSGs groups, with both superior to traditional Yo-Yo.

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Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 The Athletic Demands of Soccer Player
Modern
soccer
demands
that
players
perform
frequent
high-intensity
efforts—such as sprinting, turning, and rapid accelerations—interspersed with
periods of lower-intensity activity. These actions vary according to match context
and playing position. For instance, midfielders and wide attackers typically perform
more high-speed runs than defenders or goalkeepers (Jerome et al., 2024; Sarmento
et al., 2024). Although most existing studies focus on adult athletes, similar
positional differences are observable in youth soccer players (Gil et al., 2007).
Adolescence is a period of rapid physical development. During puberty, boys
experience substantial gains in height, strength, aerobic capacity, and muscular
coordination. However, these gains do not occur uniformly and may temporarily
disrupt motor control, increasing injury risk (Ribeiro et al., 2024). Therefore, the
design of youth training programs must account for both the physiological demands
of soccer and the biological variability among athletes.
2.2 Effects of Small-sided Games on Athletic Performance
Small-sided games (SSGs) have become a widely adopted training method in
soccer, due to their ability to integrate physical, tactical, and technical demands in a
game-representative environment (Halouani et al., 2014). Played on reduced pitch
sizes with fewer players, SSGs simulate match situations that require frequent
decision-making, ball-handling, and high-intensity efforts over short bursts, making
them an effective method for improving agility, speed, and anaerobic power (F.
Clemente et al., 2022; Thapa et al., 2023).
Recent randomized controlled trails have provided strong evidence of their
efficiency. A study showed that that six weeks of 4v4 SSG training produced

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significant improvements in VO₂max and CMJ height in adolescent players,
superior to traditional interval running protocols (Los Arcos et al., 2015). Similarly, a
large-scale meta-analysis confirmed that SSGs can match the effects of traditional
continuous running on aerobic performance, especially when game formats are
properly structured to maintain high intensity (Moran et al., 2019).
However, the effectiveness of SSGs on aerobic development can vary
depending on design variables such as pitch size, player numbers, and rest ratios.
Research noted that these parameters must be carefully manipulated to ensure the
physiological demands are sufficient for aerobic adaptation (Cherni et al., 2025).
In summary, SSGs is a powerful training tool for youth soccer, capable of
simultaneously developing physical fitness and sport-specific skills. However, to
optimize outcomes—particularly in aerobic conditioning—coaches should adjust
SSG variables according to the developmental needs of the players and the targeted
physical qualities.
2.3 Effects of Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery on Athletic Performance
The Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1) is one of the most
widely used tools for assessing and developing soccer-specific endurance (Grgic et
al., 2019). Designed to mimic the stop-start demands of competitive play, Yo-Yo IR1
consists of progressively faster shuttle runs interspersed with brief recovery periods,
making it suitable for not only evaluation but also high-intensity interval training
(HIIT).Studies have indicates its effectiveness in improving both aerobic and
anaerobic
capacities
(Delahunt
et
al.,
2013).
However,
despite
its
strong
physiological basis, the use of Yo-Yo IR1 as a systematic training intervention
remains relatively rare in empirical research.
High-intensity interval training (HIIT), on the other hand, has been extensively
studied and validated as a highly effective approach to enhance endurance and

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repeated sprint ability in soccer players. Meta-analyses have consistently shown that
HIIT interventions produce significant improvements in VO₂max, lactate threshold,
and anaerobic performance in both youth and adult soccer populations, often
outperforming moderate-intensity continuous training (Manuel Clemente et al.,
2021).
Given that the Yo-Yo IR1 protocol is structurally a standardized shuttle-based
HIIT format, its physiological effects can be reasonably inferred from the broader
HIIT literature. The repeated accelerations, decelerations, and recovery intervals
inherent to Yo-Yo IR1 align with the principles of effective HIIT, supporting its use
as a time-efficient and sport-specific conditioning method. This provides a strong
rationale for its inclusion in youth soccer training programs, even in the absence of
extensive Yo-Yo-specific intervention trials.
Despite these benefits, traditional Yo-Yo protocols lack technical integration.
The running patterns simulate match movement, but they do not include
ball-handling
or
decision-making
elements,
which
are
essential
to
match
performance. Emerging research highlights that integrating technical actions into
physical training can lead to greater improvements in game-relevant performance
variables, such as dribbling stability and reactive agility (Eraslan et al., 2025; Sun et
al., 2022).
To address this research gap, ball-dribbled Yo-Yo intermittent training becomes
a potential solution. Though lack of investigation, related research supports the idea
that combining technical skills with interval training can enhance both anaerobic
power and technical execution (Karahan, 2012).
2.4 Summary
This chapter has reviewed the athletic demands of adolescent soccer players
and the effects of various training interventions. Youth players’ athletic performance

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depends on a balance of aerobic endurance, anaerobic power, and technical
proficiency, all of which undergo significant development during adolescence.
Small-sided games could enhance technical and anaerobic qualities, though their
aerobic impact may vary depending on format and intensity. Conversely, the Yo-Yo
Intermittent
Recovery
protocol
demonstrates
strong
potential
for
improving
endurance through high-intensity interval training, but it lacks integration of
sport-specific technical skills.
To bridge the gap between physical conditioning and technical development,
emerging modifications such as incorporating ball-dribbling into interval-based
training have been suggested. This approach may offer a more holistic training
stimulus by simultaneously targeting aerobic, anaerobic, and technical domains.
However, further research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness and practicality of
such hybrid protocols, particularly in youth development contexts.

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Chapter 3 Research Methodology
3.1 Participants
Participants should be recruited from middle school soccer teams. Participants
shall fulfill all the following inclusion criteria to be included in the study: (1) be aged
between 13and 18 years; (2) have received at least one year of formal football
training; (3) have no history of major sports-related injuries; (4) be in good general
health, without smoking or alcohol consumption habits; and (5) have no known
psychological or psychiatric disorders that may affect participation; (6)have not
participated in any similar intervention within the past year; (7) attend the training
sessions regularly. participants should be excluded according to follow criteria: 1.are
outside the age range of 13–18 years; 2.have less than one year of formal football
training experience; 3.have a history of major sports-related injuries; 4.have chronic
diseases or unhealthy habits such as smoking or alcohol consumption; 5.have known
psychological or psychiatric disorders that may affect participation; 6.have
participated in similar training interventions within the past year; 7.fail to attend at
least 75% of the 12 training sessions.
The required sample size was calculated using G*Power 3.1 software based on a
repeated-measures ANOVA (within-between interaction). The average effect size (f)
was set at 0.25 (Cherni et al., 2025; Li et al., 2022), with a significance level of 0.05,
and the desired statistical power of 0.80 achieved. The calculations indicated that a
minimum of 42 participants are required in total, considering the 20% dropout, at
least 50 participants should be recruited at the screening session.
The experimental procedures will be explained to participants and their parents
at the screening-baseline. Before data collection, the written informed consent should
also be provided. During the study, the participants will all attend regular schools and

9
football trainings. This research should receive approval from the Ethics Committee
of University of Macau.
3.2 Study Design and Procedures
This is a randomized controlled trial (RCT) that employs an experimental mixed
design where group (traditional Yo-Yo, ball-dribbled Yo-Yo, SSGs) serves as a
between-subject factor, while time (pre, post) functions as a within-subject
factor. The participants will be randomly assigned to one of the groups: the
traditional
Yo-Yo
group,
the
ball-dribbled
group,
SSGs
group
utilizing computer-based random sorting and grouping, where each participant
will receive a number and will then be randomly placed into one of the four groups
using Research Randomize ((Karahan, 2012; Shaw et al., 2019) When randomly
grouping, the researcher in charge does not participate in the pre- and post-tests.
This research will utilize a non-blinded grouping randomization. The recruited
participants who achieve the inclusion criteria will firstly be numbered in sequence
then randomly allocated to one of the four groups. Secondly, all participants should
experience the baseline testing within 2-weeks before the intervention. The
anthropometric parameters, aerobic and anaerobic abilities will be assessed during
this stage. The anthropometric indexes and one anaerobic assessment (Wingate
Anaerobic Test) will be conducted in kinesiology Laboratory, University of Macau.
The aerobic ability and the other anaerobic assessment (Sprint test and Repeated
Sprint Ability test) will take place in the playground of a middle school. Then, the
intervention will last for four weeks, with 3 training session per week, 12 sessions in
total, which will take place in the playground of a middle school. Finally, the
post-test stage, all the measurements conducted in the pre-test should be completed
within 1-week following the last training session. During the pre- and post-test
period, the researchers involved in the test were not informed of the intervention

10
groups of the subjects.All the procedures are shown in the flow chart as follows
(figure 1).
Figure 1 Study Flowchart
3.3 Intervention
Participants will receive traditional Yo-Yo training, ball-dribbled Yo-Yo
training, SSGs training respectively. The intervention will last for 4-weeks, with 3
training sessions a week. These interventions will perform as regimens at the same
time into the whole training. The first 2-weeks training consists of 2 sets 4-minutes
exercise and a 4-minutes passive rest. During the last 2-weeks, the rest between
exercise will be reduced to 3-minutes. While training, all the participants should

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wear a heart rate belt (Verity Sensebi, Polar, Finland) to monitor the training
intensity. Heart rate and RPE will be recorded before, during and after the training.
The Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery 1 protocol will be implemented as a training
tool. Participants should perform 4-minutes repeated 20-meter shuttle runs between
two parallel lines, with running pace controlled by standardized audio cues, followed
by a 10-second passive rest. The speed will initially start from 10 km/h, increasing
by 0.5 km/h every stage. The termination rules will be cancelled, and participants
should try to maintain maximum effort regardless of the cues.
The Ball-dribbled Yo-Yo Intermittent training requires participants performing
repeated shuttle runs with a soccer ball, simulating dribbling with maximum effort in
game. Each shuttle lasts 15 seconds, followed by 15 seconds of passive rest. The
required shuttle distance per bout is calculated based on 110% of participant’s
baseline Yo-Yo IR1 terminal speed. Individualized bout distances will calculate as:
D = (Vt​ ×110%​
/ 3.6) ×15 Where: D = Required shuttle distance per bout (meters),
Vt​
= Terminal speed (km/h) from pre-test Yo-Yo IR1 (Appendix 1) and 3.6 = km/h
to m/s conversion. The turning point of the shuttle run will be marked with cone for
participant, where participants need to turn 180° with ball dribbled. To ensure
continuity of play, two coaches will be positioned near the sidelines to provide
replacement balls when necessary.
The SSGs should conduct on a 25 × 35-meter rectangular field, featuring two
teams of four players each (4v4 format). Participants will be instructed to maintain
maximal effort throughout the matches while prioritizing sustained ball possession.
To ensure continuity of play, two coaches should be positioned near the sidelines
provide
replacement
balls
when
necessary.
Matches
shall
conduct
without
goalkeepers, and players are permitted unrestricted movement across the entire
playing area.

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The overall training plan of this study is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Description of 4-Week Training Program
Weeks
Sessions
Yo-Yo IR1
Ball-dribbled
Yo-Yo
SSGs
1
2
Baseline-Tests
3
4
1-6
Increasing
speed
shuttle
run
15s 110% max
velocity
of
YYIR1
ball-dribbled
shuttle run
4
vs.4
Small-sided
games
10s
rest
between
shuttles
15s
rest
between
shuttles
25
×
35-meter
field
2 × 4
min
bouts
2 × 4
min
bouts
2 × 4 min
bouts
4min
passive
rest
between
bouts
4min
passive
rest
between
bouts
4min
passive rest
between
bouts
5
6
7-12
Increasing
speed
shuttle
run
15s
110%YYIR1
speed
4
vs.4
Small-sided
games

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ball-dribbled
shuttle run
10s
rest
between
shuttles
15s
rest
between
shuttles
2 × 4
min
bouts
2 × 4
min
bouts
2 × 4 min
bouts
3min
passive
rest
between
bouts
3min
passive
rest
between
bouts
3min
passive rest
between
bouts
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Post-Tests
3.4 Measurement
3.4.1 Aerobic Capacity
The aerobic ability will be assessed via Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery 1 test.
Participants should perform repeated 20-meter shuttle runs between two parallel lines,
with running pace controlled by standardized audio cues, followed by a 10-second
passive rest. The speed will initially start from 10 km/h, increasing by 0.5 km/h every
stage. When participants fail to keep up with the set speed for the first time, they will
be warned. If they fail to keep up for the second time, the test will be terminated, and
complected distance shall be recorded. Participants will be requested to complete the
shuttle runs before the cues sound and try to maximize the number of completed

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shuttles. Heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) will be recorded
before, every end of the stage, and once after the test. The participants’ VO2max will
be calculated by a regression equation: VO2max = distance(m) × 0.0084 + 36.4
mlkg-1min-1 (Nalbant & Özer, 2018).
3.4.2 Anaerobic Capability
The anaerobic capability will be measured via three tests: Wingate Anaerobic
Test (Wingate), 10-meters and 30-meters Sprint test (ST) and Repeated Sprint
Ability test (RSA).
The Wingate test will conduct on a Monark 894 E ergometer (Monark, Sweden).
Participant should first warm up 5-minute by cycling against a resistance of 4% body
weight, followed with 2-minutes passive rest. Then, participants are required to
sprint maximally for 30-seconds against 7.5% body weight resistance. Standardized
strong verbal encouragement will be provided by researchers across the trials. HR
and RPE will be recorded immediately pre- and post-trial, while peak power output
(PPO) and mean power output (MPO) will be extracted from the sprint data.
For acceleration and maximum velocity, participants should perform 10-meter
sprint and 30-meters sprint test for 3 times respectively with maximal effort on
synthetic turf, 2-minute passive recovery are available between trials. Best and mean
sprint times will be recorded using Witty timing System (Microgate, Italy) positioned
at 0m, 10m, or 30m marks.
Sprint performance will be evaluated using three maximal trials each of 10m
and 30m sprints on synthetic turf, with 2-min passive recovery between trials. Sprint
times will be recorded using a custom-built infrared timing gate system (Omron
E3JK-R4M1; OMRON, Japan) positioned at 0m, 10m, and 30m. Both best and mean
sprint times were recorded for analysis.

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Repeated sprint ability (RSA) will be evaluated through 6 × 40-meter shuttle
sprints (20m + 20m with 180° turn), each shuttle separated by 20-second passive
recovery. The timing gate will place at 0m and 20m position to record split times.
Prior to formal testing, participants will complete a baseline 40-m maximal sprint.
Trials will be postponed to 5-minutes later if the first sprint time exceeded the
participants’ baseline sprint time by more than 3%. The mean shuttle times, best
shuttle times and decrement (decrement = mean/best) will be calculated (Michailidis
et al., 2023).
3.4.3 Perceived enjoyment
Acute psychological responses will be assessed using the Affect Scale (AS),
Felt Arousal Scale (FAS), Exercise Enjoyment Scale (EES), and an 8-item version of
the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES-8) following each training session
(Lee et al., 2018). Scales will be provided every Saturday, immediately after the
training. Before completing the questionnaires, participants received standardized
instructions and were asked to reflect on their immediate feelings related to the
activity just performed.
The AS is a single-item measure of affective valence during exercise, rated on a
bipolar 11-point scale from -5 (very unpleasant) to +5 (very pleasant) (Hardy &
Rejeski, 1989). The FAS is also a single-item measure of perceived physiological
arousal, rated on a 6-point scale from 1 (low arousal) to 6 (high arousal) (Svebak &
Murgatroyd, 1985). The EES assesses session-specific enjoyment using a 7-point
scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely) (Stanley & Cumming, 2010). These
scales demonstrate established construct validity and sensitivity to exercise-related
affective responses (Kilpatrick et al., 2015; Van Landuyt et al., 2000).
Overall session enjoyment was further evaluated using the PACES-8, by asking
participants to rate how they feel about the physical activity they have been doing.

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Items are scored on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (unpleasurable) to 7 (pleasurable),
with two items reverse-coded (Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991). Total scores ranged
from 8 to 56, with higher scores indicating greater enjoyment. This abbreviated
version has demonstrated excellent internal consistency and construct validity across
populations (Mullen et al., 2011; Teques et al., 2020).
3.5 Statistical Analysis
Data analysis will be conducted using SPSS 29.0. First, descriptive statistics
will be performed to summarize sample characteristics. Independent samples t-tests
will be used to compare baseline differences between groups. The Shapiro-Wilk test
will be applied to assess normality; if data violate normality assumptions, appropriate
adjustments will be implemented.
A two-way repeated measures ANOVA (group × time) will be utilized to
examine between-group effects, time effects, and interaction effects on outcomes
including aerobic and anaerobic performance. If significant interactions are detected,
Bonferroni post-hoc tests will be conducted to identify simple main effects.
Effect sizes will be reported as partial eta-squared (ηp²) for ANOVA results,
with ηp² < 0.06 considered small, 0.06-0.14 moderate, and >0.14 large. Within-group
effect sizes will be calculated using Cohen’s d, where d = 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 represent
small, medium, and large effects, respectively. Statistical significance is set at α =
0.05, and results will be presented as mean ± standard deviation (Mean ± SD).

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Participant Information and Consent Form
Dear Parent/Guardian,
We sincerely invite your child to participate in a research study titled "The
Effects of Yo-Yo Ball Dribbling and Small-Sided Games on the Athletic
Performance of Youth Soccer Players." This study aims to scientifically evaluate the
impact of different training methods on young athletes, providing evidence-based
insights to enhance training effectiveness. Your child’s participation will contribute
significantly to this research.
1. Purpose and Study Details
The study will compare the effects of Yo-Yo ball training and small-sided
games on the aerobic and anaerobic capacity of youth soccer players. During the
study, your child will undergo periodic testing and evaluations.
2. Participant Rights and Safeguards
Your child may voluntarily participate or withdraw at any time without
affecting their regular activities.All personal information will remain strictly
confidential and used solely for research purposes.The study will be conducted under
the supervision of certified coaches and medical staff to ensure safety.
3. Potential Benefits

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Participants may experience improvements in their aerobic and anaerobic fitness,
technical skills, and overall training motivation. The study is also designed to expose
young athletes to structured and scientifically informed training programs under
professional supervision.
4. Potential Risks
As with any physical training program, there may be a small risk of temporary
muscle soreness, fatigue, or minor injuries (e.g., sprains). All training sessions will
be designed within appropriate intensity levels for youth athletes, and safety
precautions will be strictly followed under the guidance of certified coaches and
medical personnel.
5. Parent/Guardian Responsibilities
Please carefully review and understand the study’s objectives, procedures,
potential risks, and benefits before providing consent on behalf of your child. During
the study, we encourage you to:
1. Maintain communication with the research team.
2. Provide updates on your child’s health status.
3. Support your child’s active participation in the training sessions.
We deeply appreciate your trust and support and look forward to collaborating
with you to witness your child’s progress!

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Consent Form
I, _________ (parent/guardian name), have thoroughly read and understood the
Participant Information provided above. After detailed explanations by the research
team, I am fully aware of the study’s purpose, procedures, potential risks, and
safeguards. Voluntarily, I consent to my child’s participation in the study "The
Effects of Yo-Yo Ball Training vs. Small-Sided Games on the Athletic Performance
of Youth Soccer Players" and agree to cooperate with the research team for testing
and evaluations.
Participant (Signature):
Parent/Guardian (Signature):
Contact Number:
Date: