CBT for PTSD in Veterans With Co-Occurring Substance Use Disorders
Phase: NA
Conditions: PTSD, Substance Use Disorders
Sponsor: VA Office of Research and Development

 
DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS 
 
CBT for PTSD in Veterans 
with Co-occurring Substance 
Use Disorders 
  
 
NCT01357577 
 8/15/18 
 
 
8/15/18 
•  

14 
 
I. SPECIFIC AIMS 
Approximately 30-40% of patients with substance use disorders (SUDs) meet criteria for current posttraumatic 
stress disorder (PTSD).1, 2 In 2006 there were 46,429 SUD patients in VA with a chart diagnosis of comorbid 
PTSD.3 Both PTSD and SUDs are associated with poorer physical health3, 4 and functioning5, 6 and the 
comorbid condition confers even greater risk. Co-occurring PTSD and SUDs add to greater problem severity in 
psychiatric, medical, social, and employment functioning.7-9 These patients respond less favorably to standard 
treatment, incur higher costs, are more likely to relapse, use more treatment services, are more likely to drop 
out of treatment, and less likley to remain in continuing care.10, 11 Further, although outcomes in substance use 
vary, psychiatric symptoms, health, and psychosocial functioning are consistently worse.10, 12-15 
This proposal responds directly to CSR&D’s RFA CX-09-006 to integrate treatment for PTSD with treatment for 
SUD. The VHA Handbook 1160.01 on Uniform Mental Health Services Handbook requires that when PTSD or 
other mental health conditions co-occur with SUDs, evidence-based psychosocial interventions for the other 
conditions need to be made available, and with appropriate coordination of care. Yet few treatments have been 
developed for patients with co-occurring PTSD and SUD. Additionally, these therapies were neither designed 
to be integrated within existing addiction treatment programs, nor delivered by typical addiction therapists. Only 
one therapy, Seeking Safety, has been tested within a randomized controlled trial but has yet to demonstrate 
efficacy over a manual-guided relapse prevention treatment16 or women’s health education.17 Thus, there is a 
clear need for more effective interventions for PTSD in people with co-occurring PTSD and SUD that can be 
implemented in routine addiction settings.  
The development of a model of integrated treatment for Veterans with PTSD and substance use disorders 
would represent a significant advance in the healthcare being provided to Veterans. Historically addiction 
treatment programs have not addressed PTSD out of concern that targeting the PTSD would exacerbate re-
experiencing symptoms and jeopardize early and unstable periods of abstinence.18, 19 The opposite argument 
has also been proposed. Evidence in support of the self-medication theory indicates that people use 
substances as a means to control their re-experiencing symptoms.20, 21 Therefore ignoring the PTSD may lead 
to increased relapse and poorer outcome. Integrating PTSD treatment into an addiction setting could result in 
improved PTSD and substance use outcomes as well as improved physical health and functioning.13  
We propose to conduct a randomized clinical trial to evaluate the effectiveness of a relatively simple, manual-
guided cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for PTSD in patients with SUD. One hundred sixty outpatients with 
comborbid PTSD and SUD  will be randomly assigned to receive either: CBT for PTSD in conjunction with 
standard treatment as usual (TAU) (n = 80) or TAU only (n = 80) without additional individual treatment.  
Our hypotheses are as follows: 
Primary Hypothesis 
1. Patients who receive CBT will have greater improvements in PTSD symptom severity relative to patients 
who receive TAU only at both the conclusion of treatment and at the 6-month follow-up. 
Secondary Hypotheses 
2. Patients who receive CBT will have greater reductions in substance use severity (drugs and/or alcohol) 
than patients who receive TAU only at both the conclusion of treatment and at the 6-month follow-up.  
3. Patients in the CBT condition will have better retention in the addiction treatment program relative to 
patients who receive TAU only. 
Typically patients with co-morbid PTSD/SUD are required to have their SUD “under control” before they are 
referred for PTSD treatment. This puts these patients in a symptomatic “Catch-22:” If they stop using 
substances PTSD symptoms worsen, if they only try to address PTSD without clinical attention to their 
substance use disorder, their substance use worsens.  
In summary, this study proposes a simple objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of CBT for PTSD in 
Veterans with co-occurring substance use and posttraumatic stress disorders. Our overarching goal is to 
increase the number of Veteran SUD patients who receive treatment for their co-morbid PTSD, and 
consequently improve their treatment and life outcomes. 

15 
 
II. BACKGROUND and SIGNIFICANCE  
A. Background 
1. Prevalence and consequences of PTSD in addiction treatment 
PTSD is common among patients in addiction treatment. Approximately 30-40% 1, 10, 12, 22-24 of SUD patients 
meet criteria for current PTSD. The Program Evaluation and Resource Center (PERC) reported that in 2006, 
34.7% of all VA SUD patients had a chart diagnosis of PTSD.25 This number likely represents a conservative 
estimate of the actual number with comorbid PTSD and SUD as PTSD is often undetected in addiction 
settings.26  
PTSD is associated with greater problem severity among patients presenting to addiction treatment, including: 
more severe problems with drugs and alcohol;7, 11, 27 additional Axis I disorders;7, 28 more employment 
problems;7 more legal problems;29 more psychiatric distress, including suicidality;28 medical problems, including 
more chronic cardiovascular and neurological problems,13, 28 and more physical pain and poorer health.13, 28  
Relative to patients without PTSD, SUD patients have less favorable substance abuse outcomes. These 
patients have greater alcohol consumption and lower remission rates, more substance related problems, worse 
psychological symptoms, and worse psychosocial outcomes including higher arrest rates and unemployment 
and fewer friend resources than SUD patients without PTSD.29 Few studies report on the effect of PTSD on 
treatment outcome for substance use.  One found poorer adherence and greater substance use following 
treatment in the PTSD patients.14 Another study conducted in Australia found similar treatment adherence but 
poorer treatment outcomes in terms of occupational functioning, overdose, and physical and mental health.12 
2. Models of the relationship between substance use and PTSD 
Two models have been proposed to account for the association between PTSD and SUD.30 In one case the 
PTSD is primary and patients drink to cope with PTSD symptoms. In the other SUD is primary and patients’ 
substance use places them in risky environments where they are more likley to be traumatized. Data support 
the first model,20, 21 sometimes called the self-medication theory, where patients use substances to manage 
their PTSD symptoms. Then withdrawal symtoms may trigger and exacerbate PTSD symtoms initiating a cycle 
that precipitates poorer addiction outcomes.  
In either model, it is clear that treating PTSD in patients undergoing treatment for substance use disorders is 
important given that greater problem severity and poorer outcomes are associated with PTSD in this 
population. The preponderance of evidence suggests that not addressing PTSD in addiction treatment risks 
negative outcomes for both substance use and PTSD. These findings stimulated development of interventions 
designed to improve these outcomes 
3. Treatments for co-occurring PTSD and substance use disorder 
Several clinical practice guidelines offer recommendations for the treatment of PTSD.31, 32 The Institute of 
Medicine (IOM) also recently published a report evaluating the evidence on PTSD treatment.33 The guidelines 
unanimously recommend cognitive behavioral therapies as the most effective treatment for PTSD and 
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) (e.g. sertraline, paroxetine) as the frontline medication. 
Comparative studies and reviews of medications vs. psychosocial treatments favor the psychosocial 
treatments in terms of clinical change (effect size) and durability of effects (positive response after 
discontinuation of treatment).33 
a. Pharmacological treatments. Few treatments exist for the comorbid condition, particularly in the area of 
pharmacotherapy. In the rare study specific to comorbid PTSD and SUD, sertraline had modest effects on 
alcohol use and PTSD symptoms but only in non-severe cases.34, 35 In a reanalysis of data from an addiction 
medication study, Petrakis et al 36, 37 reported reductions in alcohol craving and PTSD symptoms with 
disulfiram and naltrexone. Few conclusions can be drawn from these studies. Meanwhile, the more potent and 
durable effects of the behavioral therapies have been the focus of development and testing.  
b. Cognitive behavioral treatments. There is unambiguous evidence for the efficacy of cognitive behavioral 
treatments for PTSD. VA is rolling out two cognitive behavioral treatments for PTSD as part of the Uniform 
Mental Health Services Handbook: Cognitive Processing Therapy and Prolonged Exposure. However, the vast 
majority of studies on cognitive behavioral treatments excluded patients with substance abuse38 and none that 

16 
 
we are aware of included patients with substance dependence. While these treatments may prove to be 
effective with patients with co-occurring substance use disorders, there is no evidence available to date.   
Four distinctive efforts have emerged to extend and modify existing psychosocial PTSD treatments for patients 
with co-occurring PTSD and substance use disorders. These interventions either are exposure-based (focused 
on past trauma), cognitive and coping skills based (focused on current adjustment), or a combination of both.  
Exposure therapies. Exposure therapies typically involve in vivo or imaginal exposure to the traumatic or 
feared event. But the stress associated with direct exposure to feared memories and situations has been 
identified as a barrier to patients seeking or completing exposure-based approaches. Exposure treatments, 
although effective, may be intolerable to many patients and clinicians, and consequently may result in high 
attrition rates and low adoption by community treatment providers.39, 40 There have been two specific exposure-
based behavioral therapies studied among persons with co-occurring PTSD and substance use disorders: 
Substance Dependence PTSD Treatment (SDPT)41 and Concurrent Treatment of PTSD and Cocaine 
Dependence (CTPCD).42, 43 SDPT has been minimally researched; there is a single unpublished, uncontrolled 
trial on 19 patients. CTPCD was studied in an uncontrolled trial of 39 patients. Although improvement was 
significant for PTSD symptoms at the end of treatment, drop out was extremely high (62%) and results were 
marginal at 6 month follow up. No research has been conducted on CTPCD since 2000, but plans are 
underway for resuming its study.44  
Seeking Safety and other non-exposure based therapies. There are two, non-exposure based therapies that 
are specific to co-occurring PTSD and substance use disorders, Transcend45 and Seeking Safety (SS).9, 46 In 
an open trial of Transcend with 46 patients, PTSD symptoms, and days of alcohol and drug use, decreased in 
treatment completers. However, this program is no longer being actively researched.  
To date, SS has generated the most interest perhaps due to the absence of other therapies for comorbid 
PTSD and SUD and the availability of a treatment manual. It has an active program of research and its use in 
VA is widespread. Although no data are available on the fidelity to the SS model, PERC reports (personal 
communication) that in 2006, 41% of programs indicated using SS in their intensive outpatient programs 
(IOPs). SS is a present-focused therapy that focuses on teaching coping skills that are relevant to both PTSD 
and SUD. There are 25 topics that address cognitive, behavioral, interpersonal, and case management issues. 
Several uncontrolled pilot studies looked promising,e.g.,9, 47 suggesting SS may be effective in reducing 
substance use and in some cases PTSD symptoms in women. A small, randomized controlled pilot study of 33 
adolescent girls, conducted by the developer of SS, also found that SS improved general trauma symptoms 
(but not PTSD) and substance use compared to TAU.48  
Findings from larger, more rigorous studies are inconclusive. There have been two studies of SS using pre-
post nonequivalent control group designs.  Both included women only (one in Veterans and one in non-
Veterans) and found statistically significant, but not clinically meaningful, reductions in PTSD symptoms and 
either no difference or an increase in drug use relative to the comparison groups.49, 50 
Two large randomized controlled trials of SS both demonstrated significant reductions in PTSD symptoms, but 
SS was no more effective than either control condition in reducing PTSD symptoms. In the first study,16 96 
substance dependent women from the community were randomized to either SS or a manualized relapse 
prevention therapy. A non-randomized community sample of women in addiction treatment (n=75) was also 
included. The second study,17 conducted as part of the National Institute on Drug Abuse Clinical Trials 
Network, randomized 353 women to receive a shortened version of SS (12 sessions) or women’s health 
education. This study also found no discernable differences between SS and the control condition in reducing 
PTSD symptom severity.  
In concluding a review of SS, two randomized controlled trials found clinically and statistically large reductions 
in PTSD symptoms but no differences versus the comparison conditions. This is unexpected given that neither 
relapse prevention nor health education includes treatment components shown to be effective in reducing 
PTSD. Outcomes related to substance use were inconsistent. While both SS and relapse prevention resulted 
in improved substance outcomes in the first study, there was no effect of SS or women’s health education on 
substance use in the second study.  
 

17 
 
3. Summary 
There are high rates of PTSD in patients with SUD. The comorbid condition results in greater problem severity 
and poorer addiction treatment outcomes. Effective treatments exist for PTSD, in particular Cognitive 
Processing Therapy and Prolonged Exposure, but no studies have included patients with co-occurring PTSD 
and substance dependence and many excluded abuse.  
Of the treatments designed for this comorbid population, most were freestanding and not integrated within 
addiction treatment programs. SS, the most widely used treatment, looked promising in uncontrolled pilot trials, 
but more recent research indicates that it is no more effective than control conditions in reducing PTSD and 
has been shown to have inconsistent effects on substance use. Additionally, it was never intended to function 
as a PTSD specific treatment.  
One possible solution is to refer these cases to PTSD treatment teams. However, many clinicians believe that 
the substance abuse must be treated first out of concern that the intense emotions aroused during PTSD 
treatment may lead to instability and relapse.2 So, they may be hesitant to refer. In addition, although there are 
new PTSD/SUD clinicians assigned to every PTSD clinical team in the VA, they cannot provide the intensive 
substance abuse care found in addiction settings. Thus a referral to this clinician would not be appropriate for 
all SUD patients. 
An unanswered question is whether a PTSD-specific treatment can be successfully delivered in an addiction 
setting. We believe by targeting the PTSD directly we can improve PTSD outcomes as well as substance use. 
A brief, cognitive behavioral treatment that does not incorporate exposure components is ideally suited to the 
population of patients with PTSD and SUD. A treatment focused on cognitive restructuring will be more likely to 
be utilized by clinicians who remain fearful of exposure. And, cognitive restructuring is a simple and easy to 
learn therapeutic skill that has been shown to generalize beyond PTSD to other areas of patients’ lives.  
B. Significance 
Comorbid PTSD and SUD pose a tremendous burden to VA SUD treatment resources and to the VA Health 
Care System. Approximately 1/3 of patients with SUD have co-morbid PTSD.2 In 2006, 354,507 VA patients 
were diagnosed with substance use disorders. Of these, 121,926 (34%) received specialized substance abuse 
treatment,51 of which an estimated 40,000 (1/3 of the total) would be expected to have comorbid PTSD. If the 
PTSD remains untreated, these patients have a high probability for premature attrition and relapse. The burden 
of non-remitted disease not only includes continued problems with substance use and the demands on the 
system for continued SUD treatment, but also medical morbidity and higher medical costs associated with 
prolonged substance use disorders52 that would likely have been offset by effective treatment.52, 53 
Addressing PTSD in SUD patients can result in significant improvements. Patients with comorbid PTSD and 
SUD who receive PTSD-related treatment within a year of SUD treatment are 3.7 times more likely to be in 
remission from SUD 5 years later.8 Therefore, the Uniform Mental Health Services Handbook requires that 
when PTSD or other mental health conditions co-occur with SUDs, evidence-based pharmacotherapy and 
psychosocial interventions for the other conditions need to be made available, with appropriate coordination of 
care, where there are no medical contraindications.  
The development of a model of integrated treatment for Veterans with PTSD and SUD that could be 
implemented without major changes to SUD treatment delivery systems would insure that patients identified 
as comorbid could access effective treatment. CBT for PTSD is such an intervention. This treatment is 
designed for use in an addiction setting as an addition to usual care. The treatment does not involve 
exposure, which is believed by some to be so emotionally intense as to risk relapse. Therefore, it is safer to 
administer to patients who are not yet stably in remission from SUD and it may also increase addiction 
therapists’ comfort in using the therapy. CBT for PTSD also teaches cognitive restructuring as a skill that can 
be applied to a range of upsetting situations, not just trauma related cognitions. As a result, it is well suited to 
address the multi-problem presentations of dual disorder patients. Because it does not require patients to be 
stably abstinent during treatment, it also provides a viable treatment option for those patients whose PTSD 
prevents them from abstaining. 
 

18 
 
III. PRELIMINARY STUDIES 
Our research team is well suited to carry out the proposed research for several reasons. First, team members 
have been instrumental in conducting the background research on the impact of PTSD on SUD outcomes and 
in the development and validation of PTSD assessment measures for use with this population. Second, the 
team has considerable experience in the design, management, and analysis of clinical trials related to PTSD 
and substance use. Drs. Schnurr, McGovern, Mueser, and Kimerling have all been funded to conduct 
randomized controlled trials, most of which were multisite. Dr. Hamblen is currently funded under an NIMH 
center grant to conduct an RCT of CBT for postdisaster distress. Third, the research team leverages the 
strength of several large research infrastructures including the National Center for PTSD, the Dartmouth 
Psychiatric Research Center, and an HSR&D Center for Excellence. Finally, Dr. Hamblen can capitalize on her 
experiences as Deputy Director for Education at the National Center for PTSD. In that role, she has substantial 
experience designing and implementing multi-site projects, developing and administering large budgets, 
forming and working collaboratively with partners.  
Below we review studies on the development of our model for treating PTSD and provide data in support of 
adaptations to the model for special populations. These studies will demonstrate our ability to implement the 
model under various conditions and our skill in conducting and managing clinical trials. 
A. The model: Cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD  
Under the direction of Drs. Mueser and Rosenberg, Dr. Hamblen, along with other Dartmouth investigators, 
developed a CBT model for PTSD for persons with severe mental illness (SMI).54 The treatment is flexible in its 
ability to both address the psychological effects of any traumatic event, and to accommodate to a broad range 
of individual differences, such as different co-morbid disorders, level of education and intellectual functioning, 
and ethnic or cultural background. Stress related to treatment is minimized by relying on cognitive restructuring 
as the main active ingredient. The CBT for PTSD model has been manualized, and for most special 
populations requires 10-16 weekly sessions to complete. The treatment also includes educational materials 
and worksheets that are readily accessible to all traumatized individuals. The model has been successfully 
implemented by a wide variety of clinicians with different backgrounds and in different settings.55 
The CBT for PTSD model is based on modern theories of posttraumatic reactions that place a premium on the 
importance of individuals' appraisals of traumatic events, their own reactions and those of others, and the 
meaning of the experience in terms of oneself and one’s place in the world. In addition, the model employs 
cognitive restructuring to teach individuals how to examine and challenge their trauma-related appraisals and 
does not include exposure therapy. This approach is based on research showing that cognitive restructuring is 
just as effective as exposure therapies for posttraumatic disorders39, 40, 56 and more effective than any 
alternatives.39, 57-59 Many clinicians believe exposure is contraindicated for PTSD patients with SUD60 and may 
therefore be more likely to utilize a model based on cognitive restructuring. Consequently, a growing research 
base indicates that the model has high acceptability to both vulnerable individuals from special populations and 
clinicians, poses low stress, and is clinically effective.18, 61, 62 
1. Pilot study 
An initial pilot study of CBT for PTSD63 was conducted with 12 SMI patients. Hamblen (PI) treated several of 
these patients, including one with substance dependence (in addition to PTSD and bipolar disorder).64 The 
patient had a history of child physical and emotional abuse by his mother and sexual abuse by a priest. He was 
later raped while serving in the Navy. Following the rape he began drinking heavily and using intravenous 
drugs; he was eventually administratively discharged. The patient’s longest period of sobriety was 2½ years 
following an inpatient substance abuse treatment program. He had two other inpatient psychiatric admissions 
as well. The patient responded will to the CBT for PTSD treatment.  He was actively engaged and attended all 
sessions. At post-treatment and 3-month follow-up he no longer met criteria for PTSD. His score on the 
Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) dropped from 57 at pretreatment to 8 at post treatment and 9 at 3-
month follow-up. Although he did not attempt to quit drinking during the treatment his continued use did not 
prevent him from making significant treatment gains. 
2. Randomized controlled trial 
We recently completed a randomized controlled trial comparing our treatment model with TAU in 108 SMI 

19 
 
patients who also had PTSD. The participants, much like those from addiction settings, were complex, multi-
problem patients with significant comorbidities. Primary diagnoses included schizophrenia or schizoaffective 
disorder (16%), major depression (61%), or bipolar disorder (23%). Secondary diagnoses included current 
substance abuse (41%) and borderline personality disorder (25%). Ninety percent of patients had at least one 
prior psychiatric hospitalization; the median was 4 admissions. In the patients who received CBT for PTSD 
there were high retention rates (81%) and significantly greater improvements than in the TAU patients in PTSD 
symptoms, depression, perceived health, and trauma-related thoughts at 3- and 6-month follow-ups.62 
3. Generalizability of the model 
The CBT for PTSD model is highly generalizable.  As we describe below in Section III.B, we have successfully 
modified it for implementation in a range of PTSD populations, including substance users in addiction settings, 
adolescents, disaster survivors, and primary care patients.55 There are several reasons why the model is well-
suited for use in varying populations. First, because it initially was designed as a treatment for people with SMI 
(i.e., schizophrenia, mood disorders, and borderline personality disorder), considerable effort was applied to 
determining how to make an intellectually challenging concept, such as cognitive restructuring, as basic and 
understandable as possible. For example, the model focuses on only four major feeling states, includes 
supplemental training on identifying thoughts related to these feelings, and utilizes a basic cognitive 
restructuring worksheet. This simplified version of PTSD treatment is well suited for populations with 
considerable problems and comorbidity such as patients with PTSD and SUDs. 
Second, the goal of the cognitive restructuring is not necessarily to modify cognitions but rather to teach a skill 
for evaluating one’s thinking when negative emotions are experienced. If a thought is determined to be 
inaccurate, the individual is taught to replace it with a more accurate one. When thoughts are determined to be 
accurate, or beliefs are resistant to change, the model allows for brain storming and problem solving to 
address the situation. This is different from more traditional cognitive therapy models where patients are 
confronted with the assertion that their thinking is inaccurate and forced to change their thoughts. We believe 
this approach will be more acceptable to SUD patients who may initially be more resistant to changing their 
thoughts, especially those around how their substance use may be worsening their PTSD symptoms and 
putting themselves at risk. 
Third, the cognitive restructuring is intended to be applied in any situation in which the person identifies 
negative affect; thus it can easily be extended to a range of situations that go beyond PTSD. The treatment is 
especially well suited to patients with comorbid conditions as the cognitive restructuring can be applied to 
those situations as well. For example, patients with PTSD and SUD may be concerned that they may relapse. 
The cognitive restructuring can easily be applied to this situation where patients can either develop a more 
accurate thought or problem solve around strategies to prevent relapse. 
B. Adaptations to the model 
Investigators from our research team took the lead on developing two primary adaptations, PTSD for disaster 
survivors and PTSD for people with co-occurring substance use disorders. Both retain the core cognitive 
restructuring component.  
1. CBT for Postdisaster Distress  
Under the direction of Dr. Hamblen, CBT for Postdisaster Distress (CBT-PD)65 was developed for use by 
Project Liberty, the Statewide Crisis Counseling Program developed in response to the September 11th, 2001 
terrorist attack in New York. Several modifications of the manual were necessary to adapt the model to the 
disaster context. For example, we needed to significantly expand the psychoeducation module to include 
information about common disaster related reactions in addition to PTSD. We also added a behavioral 
activation component (i.e., pleasant activities scheduling) to target the high rates of depression. The model 
was also shortened from 16 to 8-12 sessions. 
The New York State Office of Mental Health conducted an evaluation of CBT-PD as part of the overall program 
evaluation of Project Liberty.66 Crisis counseling participants who scored above a specified cut-point on a 
screening tool were offered a referral to either CBT-PD or a grief intervention program. Participants improved 
significantly in 3 of 5 functioning domains and had significantly fewer symptoms of depression and grief and 
marginally less traumatic stress compared to baseline levels.  

20 
 
We recently completed an evaluation of CBT-PD among survivors of Hurricane Katrina.61 Trained community-
based therapists provided CBT-PD to adult survivors as part of InCourage, a mental health program sponsored 
by the Baton Rouge Area Foundation. Participants (n = 88) who were assessed at referral, pretreatment, 
intermediate treatment, and posttreatment showed significant and large improvements. The overall pre-post 
effect size was 1.4 in intention-to-treat analyses. Improvements were comparable for persons with more severe 
distress and persons with moderate distress at referral. Benefits were maintained at follow-up for the 66 adults 
who have been assessed.61  
We are currently conducting a randomized controlled trial of CBT-PD in survivors of Hurricane Ike from the 
Galveston Bay Area. One hundred fifty participants will be randomized to one of two conditions: CBT-PD (n = 
75) or Education for postdisaster distress (n = 75). Consistent with the goals of CBT-PD, the range of 
assessed outcomes is broad, including psychiatric diagnoses, PTSD symptoms, depressive symptoms, 
functioning, and quality of life. 
An important question was whether we could successfully recruit and train community clinicians to deliver the 
intervention with fidelity. We examined this question in a paper currently under review.67 One hundred four 
therapists attended a two-day training in CBT-PD with on-going case consultation. Following training, 
therapists showed significant improvements in their ratings of the importance of various elements of CBT, their 
knowledge and understanding of those elements, and their confidence that they could use them effectively. 
Immediately following the training, 90% of therapists demonstrated excellent retention of CBT-PD. Self-report 
measures from both therapists and patients indicated that therapists delivered critical session elements. This 
work suggests that the CBT model can be used with therapists who are not trauma specialists and do not have 
doctoral-level training. This is particularly relevant given the therapists encountered in addiction settings. 
In summary, there is growing support for CBT-PD. The treatment, an adaptation from the CBT for PTSD 
model, has been shown to be effective for disaster survivors with PTSD, depression, and other disaster related 
distress. We have had success in recruiting and training non-academic, clinicians in delivering the intervention 
and in retaining survivors in the treatment. 
2. CBT for PTSD in patients with SUD 
Under the direction of Dr. McGovern (co-investigator), the CBT for PTSD model was adapted for use in an 
addiction setting. The primary modifications involve formally integrating discussion and work that address the 
relationship between PTSD and addiction. The introduction of the treatment makes clear the nature of the 
relationship between the addiction treatment program and CBT for PTSD. For example, patients are required 
to be in “good status” in the addiction program for the CBT to continue.  Patients are informed about the type of 
information that might be shared (substance use) or not shared (details of trauma) with the addiction program 
by the CBT therapist. The crisis plan focuses on relapse to substances, and not relapses of psychiatric 
symptoms. Psycho-education more thoroughly establishes the relationship between PTSD and substance use, 
such as use of substances to cope with re-experiencing and hyper-arousal symptoms, and as the primary 
manifestation of avoidance symptoms. Finally, since addiction can be conceptualized as a chronic condition, 
most people are encouraged to attend peer recovery support group meetings in the community for the 
foreseeable future. The last module on generalization training and termination addresses the weaving of skills 
learned in the CBT for PTSD model into these treatments. 
a. Feasibility study. Initial feasibility was evaluated with 3 patients from a community addiction treatment 
program to determine the safety and practicality of the approach. All patients achieved substantial reduction in 
PTSD symptoms at post-treatment, and for 2 patients these reductions increased at 3-month follow-up (Fig.1). 
On average, there was a 40% reduction in PTSD symptoms (CAPS Baseline Mean=63, CAPS 3-month follow 
up mean=38). Using the PTSD diagnostic criteria cut-off score on the CAPS of 45, none of the cases met 
criteria for a PTSD diagnosis at post-treatment or follow-up. Two patients were abstinent at post-treatment 
(note that patient 1001’s data is behind patient 1015’s data), and 1 had reduced days of use by 50%. At follow-
up, one patient had continued to use alcohol, one had maintained consistent abstinence and one had used 
cocaine for one day (Fig. 2). All patients completed both CBT for PTSD and the addiction treatment program.   

21 
 
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Baseline
Post-Tx
3-mo Follow-
u p
CAPS Total Score
100
101
101
0
10
20
30
40
Typical
Baseline
Post-Tx
3-month
Follow-
up
Days Used in Past 30
1001
1014
1015
    
Figure 1: CAPS Total Score 
Figure 2: Substance Use 
b. Uncontrolled trial. In the next phase, clinicians from 3 community programs were recruited to deliver the 
therapy: 1 psychiatric nurse practitioner, 1 masters’ level and 1 bachelors’ level counselor, 1 doctoral-level 
psychologist, and 1 addiction counselor intern. Only 1 had experience with CBT, PTSD, or manual-guided 
treatments. In addition to the didactic training, therapists received weekly supervision. Twice-monthly 
supervision was face-to-face, and twice monthly supervision was via telephone.  
Eleven patients were enrolled in the treatment.18 Their average age was 34.4 years, all were Caucasian, and 
91% were women. All patients met criteria for current PTSD (past 30 day symptoms) and had an average 
CAPS score of 73.9 (SD=13.9), indicating significant severity. With respect to baseline substance use, most 
patients were negative on current toxicological screens (urine and breath), but reported use on an average of 
25 out of the past 90 days. Drug and alcohol severity composite scores on the Addiction Severity Index (ASI) 
were within a moderate to severe range of problem level. 
Figure 3: CAPS Diagnosis Over Time    
CAPS scores were significantly reduced from baseline 
to post-treatment (p<.001), and follow-up (p<.001). As 
seen in Figure 3, the number of cases who met criteria 
for PTSD dropped from 100% at baseline to 27% at 
post-treatment. At follow-up, 80% of cases no longer 
met diagnostic criteria for PTSD.18 
There were no changes in positive toxicological data or 
in days of drug or alcohol use. However, there were 
significant decreases in the ASI severity composite 
scores between baseline and the follow-up periods 
(alcohol, p <.05; drug, p<.05).18  With respect to 
retention, 65% of patients completed at least 8 
sessions. 
c. Randomized controlled trial. We are now piloting the treatment in a randomized controlled trial comparing 
CBT for PTSD with Individual Addiction Counseling (IAC); all patients receive addiction TAU. IAC was adapted 
from the Individual Drug Counseling manual used in the NIDA Cocaine Collaborative Study. IAC is an 
intervention that does not directly address PTSD symptoms, but instead its mechanism of action is focused on 
addiction and recovery. We selected IAC because it has an evidence-base for effectiveness with drug use 
disorders, is matched in attention and frequency to CBT, and its mechanisms of therapeutic action should not 
directly affect PTSD but instead reduce substance use.  
Two therapists from 4 sites volunteered. Therapists were staff members at the program from which patients 
were being recruited. The therapists include 6 masters’ level counselors (2 of whom were licensed alcohol and 
drug counselors) and 2 bachelors’ level counselors (1 a licensed alcohol and drug counselor). Thus, these 
clinicians might be considered representative of the community addiction treatment program clinical workforce.  
Therapists trained in CBT were also trained in IAC and therefore crossed in the delivery of treatments. Thus, 
each therapist was randomly assigned cases for delivery of CBT or IAC.  
0
20
40
60
80
100
Baseline
Post-
Treatment
3-Mo
Follow-up
% Positive for PTSD

22 
 
0
20
40
60
80
100
Baseline
Post-Tx
Mean CAPS Total Score
CBT
IAC
0
20
40
60
80
100
Baseline
Post-Treatment
% Positive for PTSD
CBT
IAC
To date, we have gathered baseline and post-treatment data on 8 cases in CBT, and 4 cases in IAC (30% of 
planned enrollment). The following preliminary findings are available at the time of this application. The 
average age of participants in the CBT group was 40 years, 87.5% are women, and all are Caucasian. Among 
the IAC group, the average age was 35 years, 50.0% are women, and all are Caucasian. At baseline, all of the 
participants had PTSD, with an average CAPS score of 67.3 (SD=16.5) in the CBT group and 77.0 (SD=23.5) 
in the IAC group. The majority of patients had negative breathalyzer and urine toxicological screens (100% and 
87.5%, respectively in CBT; 75.0% and 75.0% respectively in IAC). The CBT group reported significantly more 
drinking than the IAC group (29 out of 90 days vs. 1 out of 90 days), whereas the IAC group reported 
significantly more drug use (48 out of 90 days vs. 9 out of 90 days). Alcohol and drug severity scores (on the 
ASI) were in the moderate to severe range at baseline. 
CAPS total scores decreased over time in both groups (Figure 4). Although there was not a significant group X 
time interaction, there was a significant reduction in PTSD severity only in the CBT group (p=.05) and not in 
the IAC group. After treatment, only 12.5% of the CBT participants met criteria for PTSD, in comparison with 
50% of IAC participants, but the difference was not statistically significantly, most likely given the small sample 
size (Figure 5). 
Figure 4: CAPS Total Score in CBT (n=8) and IAC (n=4) 
Figure 5: CAPS Diagnosis in CBT (n=8) and IAC (n=4) 
 
In terms of substance use, CBT had the largest impact on alcohol use and IAC had the largest impact on drug 
use.  This may have been due to the fact that most participants in CBT drank and most in IAC used drugs. For 
the CBT group, there was a significant reduction in the number of days of alcohol use (p=.01) and a reduction 
in alcohol severity on the ASI alcohol composite (p=.05). Participants in the IAC group significantly reduced the 
number of days of drug use (p=.05), but not alcohol use, and had no significant changes on the ASI alcohol or 
drug composite scores.  
In terms of retention, 69.2% of the patients in the CBT group completed at least 8 sessions and 80.0% of the 
IAC patients completed at least 8 sessions. On average, CBT completers attended 10.0 sessions and IAC 
completers attended 10.5 sessions.  
d. Summary. These findings suggest that CBT for PTSD is a promising treatment for patients with PTSD and 
SUD in an addiction setting. CBT for PTSD is yielding greater improvement in PTSD diagnoses than IAC. It is 
less clear how well CBT for PTSD affects drug and alcohol use because of the imbalance of these problems 
between treatment arms in our sample to date. Both treatments have equivalent retention. CBT retention 
(69.2%) is consistent with the findings in the feasibility study (65%) and indicates good patient acceptability. 
Data on therapist adherence and competence continues to be favorable.  All therapists are consistently 
delivering adequate quality CBT and IAC.  
4. Summary 
Given the scientific literature on the prevalence and consequences of PTSD in standard addiction treatment 
and a synthesis of the evidence for the available research-based therapies, it is clear that there is a need for a 
PTSD treatment that can be integrated into existing addiction services. Currently, there are no PTSD specific 

23 
 
treatments that have been evaluated for use in an addiction setting. We believe that our CBT for PTSD model 
can respond to this need.   
There is a strong program of research behind the CBT for PTSD model. CBT for PTSD has been tested in 
three different populations, SMI patients, disaster survivors, and individuals seeking treatment for substance 
use problems. In each population, research has progressed from small, uncontrolled studies to randomized 
controlled trials. The logical next step is to conduct a randomized controlled trial of the CBT for PTSD in a VA 
setting, the single, largest medical provider in the country. 
Our team is well-suited to conduct the trial. We bring together key members of the initial PTSD treatment 
model development team (Mueser & Hamblen) with the investigator who took the lead on its adaptation for use 
in an addiction setting (McGovern). Additionally, we have brought in leaders in VA on both the impact of PTSD 
on SUD treatment outcomes (Ouimette) and the effectiveness of SS in a VA addiction setting (Kimerling).  
IV. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS 
A. Design 
1. Overview 
The proposed research will evaluate the effectiveness of the addition of a relatively simple, manual-guided 
CBT for PTSD to TAU in patients with co-occurring PTSD and SUD. One-hundred-sixty outpatients with 
comborbid PTSD/SUD will be randomly assigned to receive either CBT for PTSD in conjunction with standard 
TAU (n = 80) or TAU (n = 80) without additional individual treatment. Recruitment will target participants at 
three VA intensive outpatient addiction programs as well as participants with SUD and PTSD in those facilities 
who are not in the IOP. Participants will be assessed at baseline, post-treatment (approximately 4 months from 
baseline) and 6 month follow-up (approximately 10 months from baseline). Consistent with the goals of CBT for 
PTSD, the range of assessed outcomes includes both PTSD and substance use. Clinician adherence to the 
manual will be evaluated. Primary analyses will focus on the hypothesis that CBT for PTSD is more effective in 
reducing symptoms of PTSD than TAU.  
2. Design considerations 
We proposed an additive design because we think it optimizes the internal and ecological validity of the study. 
We are interested in determining whether care as usual can be improved by adding CBT for PTSD. 
Specifically, we want to test whether it is desirable to add a new therapeutic regimen to TAU for substance 
abusing patients with the additional problem of PTSD. Thus, all participants must receive usual care for 
substance abuse treatment in addition to the new treatment. One concern that is sometimes raised with 
additive designs is that they do not control for the amount of treatment. To control for this, an alternative 
treatment can be offered to equate time. However, we do not think amount of treatment would be a plausible 
explanation for the expected difference between the CBT and TAU arms because the amount of CBT we 
propose to add is small relative to the amount of time in TAU treatment. Depending on the site, Veterans will 
receive between 87 and 225 hours of care in their intensive outpatient program, not including any mental 
health treatment Veterans may receive outside of the program. On average, CBT would only add 4-11% more 
treatment, depending on the program. We will carefully measure treatment services of the participants with 
SUD and PTSD who are not enrolled in one of the two intensive outpatient programs. 
Another reason to consider comparing an active treatment to an alternative one is if the question focuses on 
whether the new treatment improves outcomes obtained by another standard of care. Currently there is no 
standard of care to use as a comparison. Although Seeking Safety appears to be the most widely used 
treatment in VA for patients with comorbid PTSD and SUD, the empirical evidence suggests it is no more 
effective in improving PTSD than control conditions such as relapse prevention and women’s health education. 
Therefore, treatment as usual can serve as the control for whether observed outcome is due to any addiction 
treatment versus the addition of CBT specifically. 
B. Sample and Recruitment 
1. Inclusion criteria 
Eligible subjects will meet the following inclusion criteria: (1) At least 18 years old, (2) Diagnosis of current 
substance use disorder, (3) Diagnosis of PTSD confirmed by the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale with a 

24 
 
total symptom score of 45 or more, (4) English speaking, (5) Agree to be audio recorded, and (6) Willing and 
able to provide informed consent.  
2. Exclusion criteria 
Only three exclusion criteria will be applied in order to maximize sample representativeness. (1) Individuals 
with acute psychotic symptoms will be excluded if they are not well-connected with appropriate mental health 
services. (2) Patients with a psychiatric hospitalization due to a suicide attempt or severe suicide risk or who 
made an attempt in the last month regardless of hospitalization will be excluded. (3) Individuals with unstable 
medical or legal situations that would make completion of the study highly unlikely will be excluded. Thus, as 
previously noted, the proposed research will attempt to recruit as heterogeneous and representative a patient 
sample as possible. 
3. Expected participant demographics and diagnostic characteristics 
Based on information provided by PERC on SUD outpatients seen in specialized care throughout VA,51 about 
95% of the patients are male, 24% are married, and the average age is 50 years old. About 52% are 
Caucasian, 41% African American, 7% Hispanic and 1% some other racial/ethnic group. Overall, 50% are 
Vietnam War era and 36% have a service-connected disability. With respect to diagnostic characteristics, 24% 
of SUD outpatients have a diagnosis of alcohol abuse/dependence only, 17% have a diagnosis of drug 
abuse/dependence only, and 45% have both disorders. Of the SUD outpatients seen in specialized care 
without alcohol or drug diagnoses, 4.5% had nicotine dependence as their only SUD diagnosis. About 60% 
had one or more other psychiatric disorders. 
4. Sites 
A search conducted by PERC identified 112 IOPs (i.e., SUD programs that offer at least 3 hours a day of 
treatment, 3 days per week). Of these 46 (41%) were excluded because they reported offering SS. We felt it 
was important to exclude sites that offered SS because it is not clinically indicated to have patients receive two 
trauma treatments simultaneously. From this search we selected, Tampa, FL and Syracuse, NY. These sites 
were selected because they treat more than 1,000 unique patients annually, were interested in conducting 
research at their sites, and were able to commit the necessary resources. We are also going to be using White 
River Junction VA as a site. White River Junction has the necessary resources, and will help bolster 
recruitment for the study. 
5. Recruitment and enrollment 
At least 1,000 unique Veterans were seen at each site over the last fiscal year. Thus we expect that each 
recruitment site will see at least 1,500 unique patients over the 18-month recruitment period. We used the VA 
performance measure on continuity of care to estimate the number of patients seen who have been actively 
engaged in the IOP for at least 3 days. This measure corresponds to the number of patients that have no SUD 
contact in the prior 90 days and then have at least 3 SUD visits within 30 days. Next we conservatively 
estimate that 30% of SUD patients will meet criteria for PTSD (see background). Finally, we included only 
those we believed will be interested. Randomized trials of brief interventions for SUD patients found that 
approximately 60% of patients eligible for study participation agreed to participate.68-70 Assuming similar rates 
of participation, we expect that at least 60% of eligible participants will be interested. However, our study will 
have adequate power even if only 33% of patients agree to participate (See Table 1, Section B6 below, and 
the Inclusion and Enrollment Table included under Human Subjects). 
Table 1. Recruitment and Enrollment 
Site 
# of SUD 
patients 
with SUD 
visit in 2008  
Expected # of 
SUD patients 
available over 
18 months  
# SUD patients “successfully 
retained” based on 
continuity of care 
performance measure 
Estimated # 
of PTSD 
cases 
(30%) 
If 60% 
patients 
interested 
If 33% 
patients 
interested 
Tampa, FL 
1000 
1500 
801 (53.4%) 
240 
144 
80 
Syracuse, NY 
1200 
1800 
869 (48.3%) 
267 
160 
88 
 
 

25 
 
Below is a revised recruitment table, assuming we are approved to recruit within the next two months through 
the end of the proposed study.  These numbers show potentially eligible participants assuming we open 
recruitment up beyond the IOP in the two facilities.  Numbers of veterans with comorbid PTSD and SUD were 
provided by PERC for FY 2012. (Note: numbers would be higher if we receive a one year no-cost extension) 
Site 
Estimated # 
of PTSD 
cases with 
SUD (25%) 
If 60% 
patients 
interested 
If 33% 
patients 
interested 
Tampa, FL 
1274 
764 
420 
Syracuse, NY 
901 
540 
270 
 
In August of 2013, we made the decision to add a third site, White River Junction VA. This decision was made 
to boost enrollment and because of the cost-effectiveness of this particular site.  
 
6. Power analysis 
We aim to have a sample that would yield .80 power in longitudinal analysis with generalized estimating 
equations model (a type of generalized linear mixed models) to find a standardized detectable difference from 
.4 to .5 between intervention and usual care, assuming alpha = .05, two-tailed. We assume that the correlation 
between repeated measures will be .60. The outcome of treatments will be measured at two points in time (3-
month and 9-month) for each individual. The sample size for our primary hypothesis (difference in slopes by 
treatments) is based on Diggle, Liang, and Zeger,71 who developed a formula to calculate sample size for 
longitudinal studies with repeated measures to estimate the difference between slopes (or rate of change in 
CAPS as in this case) of two groups (m = size per arm): 
 
where 
 , the within-subject variance of the xj; type I error α= 0.05, power β = 0.8 and 
the smallest meaningful difference d = β1B – β1A and σ2 = Var(εij) measures the unexplained variability in the 
response, Corr(Yij,Yik) =  ρ for all j ≠ k, and n is the number of repeated measures per person.  
Using this formula and based on these assumptions, we estimated the sample size needed. Table 2 shows 
how required total enrollment (both groups) would vary for a range of expected effects and if the true effect is 
larger or smaller than expected for a range of possible missing data scenarios. 
Table 2. Enrollment Number N (total of two groups) as a function of effect size and rates of missing endpoints due to 
drop out and loss to follow-up 
 
Loss to Measurement 
actual effect size 
10% 
15% 
20% 
.40 
160 
169 
180 
.45 
126 
134 
142 
.50 
102 
108 
115 
 
We propose to enroll 160 subjects (80 in each treatment arm). The table shows we will have adequate power 
to find an effect as small as d = 0.4 if the percentage of missing data is 10%. And if the actual missing data is 
20%, we still have enough subjects to detect an effect as small as .45. Because the primary analysis is 
intention-to-treat, we are basing our drop out on participants who are completely lost to measurement and not  
on those who do not complete treatment. We believe 20% is a conservative rate. Trafton et al (2003)72 
successfully tracked and interveiwed 270 subjects participating in a multi-site opiod substitution treatment 
study at remote sites with a 90% follow-up rate at 6-months.  
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26 
 
C. Study Treatments 
Participants will be randomized to TAU plus CBT or TAU alone. Therapists who provide CBT will not provide 
TAU services to study patients. Ratings of CBT recordings (adherence and competence indexes) will confirm 
therapy integrity and independence.  
1. CBT for PTSD 
CBT for PTSD in addiction treatment programs is a simple, manual-guided individual therapy.54 It consists of 3 
learning and skill components designed to improve PTSD symptoms and substance use: (1) Patient education 
about PTSD and its relation to substance use and treatment; (2) Breathing retraining: A behavioral anxiety 
reduction skill; and (3) Cognitive restructuring: A cognitive approach and functional analysis of the link among 
emotions, cognitions and situations.  
CBT for PTSD has 8 modules and is delivered over 8-12 hour-long individual sessions. We have set the 
completion of 8 sessions as the criterion for completion. The modules are listed in Table 3. A patient workbook 
is used in conjunction with the therapist manual, and, as with most cognitive behavioral therapies, the 
approach includes homework between sessions, patient education and self-monitoring, skill acquisition, 
implementation and practice, and developing self-efficacy about more adaptive and alternative cognitions and 
behaviors.  
The first session begins with an orientation to the treatment and is followed by the development of a crisis and 
relapse prevention plan. Breathing retraining is introduced as a skill for managing and decreasing anxiety. It 
involves teaching patients how to slow their breathing in order to reduce hyperventilation by taking in normal 
breaths and exhaling slowly often while saying a soothing self-statement such as “calm” or “relax.” Patients are 
reminded of the “fight or flight” response and how under threat people respond by taking in excess oxygen. 
Breathing retraining counteracts the automatic response and thereby slows down the intake of oxygen. After 
the therapist models the skill, the patient practices it first in session and then for homework under calm 
situations. Later, when patients become more proficient at the skill, they are encouraged to use the breathing 
skill to calm themselves when anxious. 
Typically psycho-education is introduced in sessions 2 and 3. Psycho-education aims to provide patients with 
an understanding of PTSD symptoms and associated symptoms and is one way to normalize patients’ 
reactions and reduce stigma concerns. If done properly, it can also provide a rationale for why patients are 
experiencing their distress, instill hope, and improve engagement.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

27 
 
Cognitive restructuring is taught over the next several sessions. First patients are introduced to the concept 
that people’s emotional reactions to events are determined by their interpretations of those events. These 
interpretations may be influenced by other events the person has experienced, including traumatic events. 
Patients are informed that different types of negative feelings are associated with specific types of thoughts, 
which are often automatic and occur outside of their awareness. Patients identify upsetting situations and the 
associated thoughts and feelings.  
Next patients are introduced to the cognitive distortions (called common styles of thinking) that may result from 
basing current thinking on past traumatic experiences. For example, patients who have experienced traumatic 
events often “catastrophize” or “overestimate risk” in situations in which there is no reason to suspect that 
something bad will happen. Patients are apprised of common problematic thinking styles and are helped to 
identify and correct distortions related to negative emotions. 
Thereafter, patients are introduced to a five-step cognitive restructuring (CR) method for dealing with negative 
emotions. These steps are summarized on a worksheet, which is used both in the session with the therapist 
and practiced by the patient outside of the session on his or her own or with the help of another person. The 
five steps of CR are (1) Describe the situation, (2) Identify the negative feeling, (3) Identify the thought related 
to the feeling, (4) Challenge the thought, and (5) Take action. Patients practice CR for the remainder of the 
treatment sessions. The goal is to help patients move from learning CR as a skill to applying it to their disaster-
related thoughts and from using the formal CR worksheet to completing the steps in their head when they are 
in an upsetting situation or immediately after it is over.  
The last session focuses on generalization training and termination to ensure that the patient is able to use 
cognitive restructuring on their own outside of sessions, to review treatment gains, and discuss any plans to 
meet ongoing or potential needs that may arise.  
Table 3: Organization of CBT for PTSD therapist manual: Module, topic and therapeutic focus 
Module 
Session 
Topic 
Therapeutic focus 
1 
1 
Introduction 
Relationship between therapy and addiction treatment program, 
substance use. 
2 
1 
Crisis & Relapse Plan Review 
Identify relapse triggers, cues, alternative coping tactics, pre- and post- 
slip/relapse contact persons and numbers. 
3 
1 
Breathing Retraining  
Develop skills to reduce tension and anxiety as specific relapse 
antecedent. 
4 
1-2 
Psycho-education Part I:    
Core symptoms of PTSD 
Examine relationship among trauma, PTSD symptoms, and substance 
use, by historical and current coping strategies. 
5 
2-3 
Psycho-education Part II:  
Associated Symptoms of 
PTSD 
Educate on specific relationships between substance use, addiction 
treatment compliance, use of peer recovery support groups and 
associated symptoms. 
6 
3-4 
Cognitive Restructuring Part I: 
Thoughts & Feelings 
Introduction to cognitive restructuring: Situations, feelings, common 
styles of thinking 
7 
4-7 
Cognitive Restructuring Part II:  
Challenging Your Thoughts & 
Feelings 
Acquisition and practice of cognitive restructuring, including evaluation of 
evidence for thoughts (that lead to PTSD-related feelings) and 
development of alternative thoughts and actions. 
8 
8-12 
Generalization Training & 
Termination 
Focus on generalization of skill acquisition, integration with addiction 
treatment and peer recovery support groups, and minimizing re-
traumatization potential. 

28 
 
2. TAU 
Addiction treatment programs vary widely in VA. Data from PERC51 provide a sense of typical IOP services. 
95% of all SUD IOP programs report providing group and/or individual psychotherapy to their patients. Just 
over half of the programs (57%) report that their patients participate in on-site SUD-related self help groups, 
such as Alcoholics Anonymous. Only 11% of programs offered contingency contracting. The majority of 
programs conduct a psychiatric assessment of SUD patients (78%) and about half receive psychiatric 
treatment (54%) or medication (41%) for a co-morbid psychiatric disorder.  
The Tampa Alcohol and Drug Abuse Treatment Program (ADATP) is a 3 week IOP that consists of a 7 day, 4 
hours per day, program.  Relapse prevention, aftercare groups, and family sessions are offered additionally in 
the afternoon and evenings. The philosophy of the ADATP is based on an understanding of alcohol and drug 
abuse/dependence as a complex biopsychosocial illness. The major thrust of the treatment approach is 
derived from the 12-step model of recovery with additional emphasis on educational and cognitive-behavioral 
approaches. Each patient’s individual recovery program has its own structured aftercare component, which is 
an integral part of treatment. Patients are strongly encouraged to participate in voluntary substance recovery 
organizations such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Al-Anon, Narcotics Anonymous (NA), Cocaine Anonymous, 
and Adult Children of Alcoholics (ACOA). The ADATP program includes a six week dual diagnoses treatment 
program for patients who have co-occurring substance abuse and mental health disorders.  The focus is on 
evaluation, stabilization, and intensive treatment. This phase includes individual and group therapy, 
educational classes, therapeutic outings, and medication management.   
The Syracuse Substance Abuse Treatment Service offers a six week IOP that consists of a 3 day, 4 hours per 
day, group treatment program based on a cognitive-behavioral treatment philosophy. The first hour of the 
program is focused on meditation and one time per week, patients receive acupuncture. The second hour is 
education; topics include education about cognitive-behavioral strategies (e.g., relapse warning signs) and 
other relevant topics (e.g., dealing with medical problems). The final 2 hours are group psychotherapy that are 
tailored to the needs of the group based on a CBT approach. Each patient is also required to attend an hour of 
individual counseling every other week. Twelve step participation is recommended depending on patients’ 
needs but not required. The program also offers a dual-diagnosis group for patient who are mentally ill and 
chemically addicted and an aftercare program that teaches relapse prevention. 
The White River Junction Residential Recover Center (RRC) program is offered as a six week intensive 
residential program specifically providing tandem evidence based treatments for co-morbidities such as PTSD, 
Major Depressive Disorder, and accommodation for either cognitive effects of PTSD or of traumatic brain 
injury. 
To determine actual level of involvement in the IOPs, we will extract from the electronic medical record (i.e., 
Vista) days and types of SUD treatment received as well as additional services including mental health and 
primary care visits. We will also extract utilization records for participants who are not in IOP programs.  In 
addition, all participants will provide information on a treatment services interview.  
D. Therapist selection, training, supervision and quality monitoring 
Therapists will be selected by the site principal investigator. We will not screen out therapists for this study 
based on any pre-existing criteria, experiences, or credentials. Several studies now demonstrate the feasibility 
of training community clinicians in manualized, cognitive behavioral treatments for trauma. Rape crisis 
counselors, community mental health clinicians, and school-based counselors have been shown to be able to 
learn specific cognitive behavioral interventions and to provide them with good outcome.67, 73-75 Each site will 
work with the PI to identify therapists who are interested in learning CBT for PTSD and in participating in 
research. Each site will agree to commit 2 staff to serve as research therapists, even though only one is 
needed. In this way we can respond to any attrition of therapists without losing time.  
All therapists will attend a two-day training in CBT for PTSD offered by Hamblen (PI) and McGovern (Co-I). 
This training, initially developed for the disaster treatment context, has been modified to include a specific 
module summarizing the research with co-occurring PTSD and substance use disorders and includes 
PTSD/SUD case examples. The training in CBT for PTSD includes a combination of modalities such as 
lecture, practice exercises, expert demonstration (including live and video demonstrations), and role plays. The 

29 
 
training begins by providing therapists with a solid rationale for the intervention. In presenting the rationale, 
trainers review empirical research on other PTSD/SUD treatments, such as Seeking Safety, and share the 
philosophy behind the development of this model. The goal is to establish the credibility of the treatment with 
the therapists. Next, therapists are taken step-by-step through each session of the intervention. Session goals 
are emphasized and suggestions for meeting those goals are provided. Therapists are shown how to use the 
manual during the session, how to integrate handouts into the teaching of the intervention, and how to address 
specific problems that may arise.  
After a new technique has been described, the trainers demonstrate the technique and clinicians have an 
opportunity to participate in a role play to promote skill acquisition. For example, following a lecture on 
cognitive restructuring clinicians engage in a group practice exercise where they brainstorm typical trauma 
related cognitions and then try and identify alternative thoughts. Next the trainers demonstrate cognitive 
restructuring using a clinician volunteer and a real example. Finally, therapists actively practice the cognitive 
restructuring in small group role plays.  
Barriers to implementation are openly discussed and debated throughout the training. Specific barriers 
addressed include the effects of manuals on the therapeutic relationship, therapists’ concerns about manuals 
not being able to meet patients’ individual needs, credibility of the manual, and therapist confidence. From the 
beginning, trainers emphasize the importance of the therapeutic relationship when using manualized 
treatments and encourage therapists to focus on the development of a therapeutic alliance. A second area of 
emphasis is on demonstrating the flexibility of the manual and showing how the manual can be tailored to meet 
individual patient needs.  
Follow-up consultation is crucial to ensuring fidelity to the intervention. In this study each therapist will be 
assigned one CBT case at the outset, and be carefully supervised using audio recording of each session, and 
an hour of supervision for each hour of therapy. The first case will not be included in the research, and 
subsequent cases will not be included until the PI confirms the therapist is conducting the CBT to acceptable 
levels. A similar approach was used by Hien et al76 in the study of SS. Once confirmed by the supervisor to 
deliver the therapy for the study, therapists will attend group supervision every other week by phone. 
Supervision will be provided by Hamblen (PI) and Bernardy (Co-I). McGovern will provide additional 
supervision as needed. Supervision includes a review of the status of all active cases followed by an in-depth 
presentation of 1-2 cases. Each therapist will be expected to prepare a case in advance and be able to provide 
a cognitive restructuring example for review. It is at the discretion of the supervisors to identify who will 
present.  
In advance, therapists will be provided with the adherence and competence measures for CBT for PTSD 
(Adherence and Competence [ACI] Index) so they know how their audio recordings will be evaluated. In 
addition, therapists will keep a session-by-session “Therapist Session Tracking Form”.  
All sessions will be audio recorded. Digital recordings will be uploaded to the secure server at Research 
Services at the White River Junction VA.  Dr. Mueser, one of the original developers of CBT for PTSD, will rate 
a random sample of 15% of all recorded sessions for each therapist by using the ACI and adherence and 
competence measures. From our earlier studies, we expect the therapists to be competent and adherent in 
delivering CBT.  
E. Assessments and Data Management 
The site coordinator will complete the screening assessment and the assessor will complete the eligibility, 
baseline, and follow-up assessments. Pilot testing indicates the baseline assessment will take 3.4 hours to 
administer and the follow-up interviews will take 2.1 hours to administer. Assessments will be done in person 
whenever possible. Assessments will occur by phone if necessary, so that data is not lost. The same 
assessors will be used for both methods. 
All assessment instruments are described in detail below and summarized in Table 4. 
1. Screening 
The PC-PTSD77 is a brief 4-item screen for PTSD. The PC-PTSD was developed with VA primary care 
patients, where the instrument detected PTSD diagnoses more accurately than did clinician diagnosis. In an 

30 
 
SUD population the PC-PTSD has a sensitivity of .90, and a specificity of .77. This screen has been adopted 
for use in all returning Iraq/Afghanistan Veterans and as a performance measure for primary care. The screen 
will be used to identify patients in need of full PTSD assessment to determine eligibility for the treatment trial 
prior to randomization.  
2. Eligibility 
Sociodemographics. Brief assessment of patient’s social and demographic characteristics such as age, 
gender, marital status, and level of education. Measure includes questions on periods of service and disability 
status. 
Life Events Checklist: The Life Events Checklist is used with the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale as a 
measure of trauma exposure. To be eligible for the study, patients need to endorse at least one Criterion A 
traumatic event. The Checklist will also provide descriptive information about the patients in the study. 
Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS): The CAPS78 is a structured diagnostic interview and is widely 
regarded as the gold standard for determining a diagnosis of PTSD. It has excellent reliability and validity78, 79  
PTSD diagnosis on the CAPS is based on meeting the DSM-IV symptom criteria, as well as having a minimum 
severity score of 45. Symptoms are considered to be present when they have a frequency rating of at least 1 
and an intensity rating of at least 2.79 Ratings will be based on current symptoms (past month).  
Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-Patient Edition with Psychotic Screen (SCID-P): Substance use 
disorders and other Axis I psychiatric diagnoses (other than PTSD) will be established using the SCID.80-82 The 
SCID is a semi-structured interview that is widely accepted as the gold standard for establishing adult 
psychiatric diagnosis.82 Our research center has extensive experience training research interviewers and using 
the SCID with a wide range of clinical populations, including patients with co-occurring psychiatric and 
substance use disorders. 
3. Outcomes 
Participants’ treatment outcomes will be assessed at baseline, post-treatment for the CBT group 
(approximately 3 months after baseline) and 3 months after baseline for the TAU group, and at 6 month follow 
up (approximately 9 months after baseline).  
CAPS: PTSD severity, as measured by the CAPS (see above) will serve as the primary outcome measure. 
CAPS severity is calculated by summing the frequency and intensity score for each item. We will also examine 
the percentage of patients who show clinically significant change on the CAPS, as defined as a decrease of 10 
points or more79. 
PTSD Checklist (PCL): A secondary measure of PTSD will be the PCL.83 The PCL is a widely used self-report 
measure that assesses the 17 DSM-IV PTSD symptoms. Responses to these questions are on a scale of 1 to 
5 (“not at all” to “extremely”). The PCL has excellent psychometric properties. It will be administered at all 
assessments, and at every other treatment session to monitor symptoms.83  
Addiction Severity Index (ASI): The ASI84 is a multi-dimensional semi-structured interview that assesses 
lifetime and current use of all major classes of drugs of abuse plus history of substance related problems and 
history of SUD treatment. Five domains commonly associated with substance use are also assessed: 
medical, legal, employment, social/family, and psychological functioning. The ASI has good reliability and 
validity and has been used extensively with Veterans84 We will utilize a brief, reliable and valid version of the 
ASI that derives current composite scores on alcohol and drug use which will serve as our primary outcome 
for measuring substance abuse.85 
Time-line Follow-back interview (TLFB): The timeline follow-back interview method gathers self-report 
information about drug and alcohol use over the past 90 days.86 Respondents provide information on the 
amounts and types of substances they have used. The TLFB has excellent psychometric properties87, 88 and 
will enable us to measure variables used in the COMBINE trial such as “percent days abstinent,” “heavy 
drinking,” and “good clinical outcome.”89 Heavy drinking was defined as 5 (men) or 4 (women) drinks per day. 
Good clinical outcome was measured as moderate drinking without problems. Moderate drinking was defined 
as a maximum of 14 (men) or 11 (women) drinks per week, with no more than 2 days on which more than 4 
drinks (men) or 3 drinks (women) were consumed. (Problems will be measured with the ASI).89 

31 
 
Toxicological data: Both urine screen and breathalyzer data will be collected to detect substance use. 
AlcoHawk ABI breathalyzer, a semiconductor oxide sensor, is Department of Transportation/ National Highway 
Traffic Safety Administration approved and FDA cleared for consumer use. Cannabis, cocaine, 
benzodiazepines, amphetamine, methamphetamine, and opiates will be tested for using the One Step Multi-
Drug Screen Test Card with Integrated iCup, a rapid urine screening test that uses lateral flow 
chromatographic immunoassay for the qualitative detection of multiple drugs and drug metabolites in urine. It 
includes built-in validity/adulteration tests for temperature, and specific urine characteristics such as pH, 
gravity, nitrite, creatinine, and glutaraldehyde, as well as the presence of oxidants (e.g., bleach or hydrogen 
peroxide).  
Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9):90 The PHQ-9 is adapted from the PRIME-MD. It can be used as a 
screen for depression or as a severity measure. We will be using it as a measure of severity. 
SF-12V:91 The SF-12V is a measure of functioning health and well being from the patient’s point of view. This 
version is for use in Veterans. 
Penn Alcohol Craving Scale (adapted)92: The Penn Alcohol Craving Scale (PACS) is a self-report measure ( 5 
items) that includes questions about the frequency, intensity, and duration of craving, resistance of drinking 
and drug use, and provides overall ratings. 
Treatment Utilization and Retention:  Data pertinent to service utilization and retention such as type and 
number of visits patients made to usual care SUD treatment services, as well as for other medical and 
psychiatric services, will be extracted from medical records using CAPRI or JLV and and placed into the VA 
Informatics and Computing Infrastructure (VINCI) study folder. VA TBI screening status will also be extracted in 
a similar manner. 
Table 4: Summary of Assessment Measures 
Domain 
Measure 
Time 
(minutes) 
Entry 
Post-
treatment 
6 month  
SCREEN 
Probable PTSD 
PC-PTSD 
< 1 
X 
 
 
ELIGIBILITY 
Inclusion 
 
 
 
 
 
Trauma  
Life Events Checklist 
5 
X 
 
 
PTSD diagnosis & Severity 
Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) 
45-60 
X 
 
 
SUD 
Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV 
(SCID) 
60 
X 
 
 
Exclusion 
 
 
 
 
 
Psychosis (unmanaged) 
SCID (Psychotic Screen) 
5-10 
X 
 
 
Descriptives 
 
 
 
 
 
Sociodemographics 
Demographic Measure 
5 
X 
 
 
PATIENT OUTCOMES 
 
 
 
 
 
PTSD 
Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) 
45-60 
From 
eligibility 
X 
X 
PTSD 
PTSD Checklist (PCL) 
15 
X 
X 
X 
Substance Use 
Addiction Severity Index (ASI) 
20-30 
X 
X 
X 
 
Time-line Follow-back (TLFB) 
5-10 
X 
X 
X 
 
Breathalyzer and Urine 
Not counted 
X 
X 
X 
 
Penn Alcohol Craving Scale 
5 
X 
X 
X 
Functioning 
SF-12V 
3-5 
X 
X 
X 

32 
 
Depression 
PHQ-9 
3-5 
X 
X 
X 
Treatment Utilization & 
Retention 
Patient Records; brief interview questions 
 5 
X 
X 
X 
Total Time to Administer 
3.4 hours 
2.1 hours 
2.1 hours 
 
4. Assessor training and inter-rater reliability 
Independent assessors will be trained to criteria on the CAPS and SCID. CAPS training consists of 80% 
agreement on all items, plus diagnostic agreement, on 2 consecutive cases. SCID training to criteria is exact 
diagnostic agreement on two consecutive cases. All sessions are audio-recorded and reviewed as necessary 
by the PI. Inter-rater reliability will be conducted on 10% of CAPS and 10% SCID at each assessment point 
and for each site. 
5. Follow-up methods 
Our research team has excellent experience and methods to successfully follow patients in community 
treatments. These methods include: documenting address and relevant phone number information, obtaining 
contact information on up to three locators (minimum of 2) who would be able to contact the patient, and at the 
baseline session establishing a working alliance between assessor and patient. To achieve high follow-up 
rates, we also follow the procedures recommended by Scott93 and Twitchell et al,94 such as patient education 
and motivation, collection of extensive and verified locator information, between assessments contacts via the 
mail and telephone, confirmation of follow-up appointments prior to follow-up date, standardized tracking 
procedures, and research team and site coordinator case review meetings. The same assessor who conducts 
the baseline assessment will (whenever possible) also conduct the post-treatment and 6 month follow up. We 
have found that conceptualizing the assessment process as a 3-part process (i.e., 3 assessment points) is 
helpful. For participants with travel difficulties, or for those who have left the area, telephone assessments will 
be used. 
6. Data management and security 
Data will be entered by the site-coordinator at each site. All forms will be reviewed for accuracy and 
completeness prior to data entry. Data will be entered electronically into an Access database specifically 
designed for the study and located on a VA protected server. Each item will be subject to range testing and 
validity checks as provided by the data system. We will use a double-entry method whereby data are entered 
twice and entries are matched against each other to flag inconsistencies, which are then corrected prior to data 
analyses. To maximize data accuracy, the project manager will carefully review all data prior to analyses, 
conducting several manual calculations, random spot-checking, and programmed range/validity checks on 
summary scores. 
Data from the site databases will be transmitted either by synchronization with the central database at the VA 
in White River Junction, VT through a secure internet connection, or by a secure FTP of data files which are 
then loaded into the central database at White River Junction. We will work with our local ISO to determine 
what method is most secure.  
Study site coordinators will extract data from the medical record. This will be transmitted to the White River 
Junction VA by means of the secure server at White River Junction’s Research Services. 
A participant will be identified in the central database by his or her unique subject identification number. 
Identifying information, such as name, address will not be stored electronically. It will be kept at the site in 
locked cabinets in locked offices at all times. All computer systems and programs will be password protected. 
Good computer security practice (shutting down of computers after work hours, restricting physical access to 
machines, prohibition of password sharing) will be required of all study personnel. Virus protection software will 
be installed on each study machine as required on all VA computers. Backups will allow for quick restoration of 
data in the unlikely event that a hardware failure or security breach should occur. Participant paper files will be 
stored in locked cabinets in locked offices at all times 
 

33 
 
 
F. Procedure 
We will encourage sites to screen all patients with the Primary Care PTSD Screen (PC-PTSD) as a quality 
improvement measure.  Participants will be recruited into the trial in 1 of 3 ways:  
• 
Direct referrals from clinicians (the clinician talks to a client about the study, either because the client 
has a history of trauma, symptoms of PTSD, or a positive PC-PTSD screen. If the client is interested, 
the therapist contacts the site coordinator) 
• 
Self referrals (the patient sees the posted study information, talks to his/her therapist or treatment team 
member, who contacts the site coordinator) 
• 
Indirect referrals (Research therapists who participate in treatment team meetings hear of a case and 
suggest that the clinician talk to the client about the study. If the client is interested, the clinician 
contacts the site coordinator.) 
 
The individual who approaches the participant about the study (the site coordinator or provider) will give a 
copy of the information sheet and the informed consent document to the patient for review. The site 
coordinator or other designated local site personnel will consent all participants and give participants the 
“Volunteering to Participate” brochure. The information sheet will also be posted at the site 
 
Every prospective participant will receive the 4-question PC-PTSD and this information will be retained for 
study purposes. We are requesting an Informed consent waiver for recruitment purposes and a HIPAA 
Waiver of documentation for recruitment purposes to facilitate the transfer of this information (see Form 
103). 
 
For sites that do not wish to implement routine screening, we will ask clinicians to refer interested patients to 
the site coordinator who will conduct the brief screen and invite those with a positive screen to participate. We 
will ask clinicians to refer patients who are 18 or older and English speaking. We will ask clinicians not to refer 
patients with uncontrolled psychotic symptoms, suicide attempts in the last month, or unstable medical or legal 
problems. In cases where those doing the referring do not know the answers to our inclusion/exclusion criteria, 
we are asking for a HIPAA waiver to gather the inclusion/exclusion criteria from the medical record before 
informed consent. This will help us avoid approaching patients who would turn out to be not eligible. It will 
lessen patient burden, and help get participants into the study more quickly. The only information gathered at 
this time will be that needed for inclusion/exclusion. And this data will be retained securely double-locked at the 
site. 
Once the screening is completed and informed consent is signed, a trained, blind, assessor will confirm a 
PTSD diagnosis with the CAPS. Patients who do not meet criteria for PTSD on the CAPS will be paid $20 
(form of payment determined by site regulations) and will not be enrolled in the study. Patients with PTSD will 
be given the SCID to confirm their SUD and other Axis 1 disorders as well as the rest of the eligibility and 
baseline measures. Patients will receive an additional $30  for completing the baseline assessment, for a total 
of $50 for the baseline. 
Individuals providing consent and meeting inclusion/exclusion criteria as confirmed by the baseline 
assessment will then be randomized. We will perform block randomization (block size of 2, 4, and 6) in 
allocating subjects to treatments. Moreover, stratified block assignment will be used, so that each treatment 
group will be balanced on type of substance use (alcohol only versus drug with or without alcohol, 2 
categories), whether the patient has severe PTSD (2 categories), and the site of treatment (2 sites).  

34 
 
Patients who are randomized to CBT for PTSD will receive 8-12 individual sessions of CBT for PTSD. These 
sessions will be offered once or twice per week depending on patient and therapist availability. All participants 
will receive TAU. For patients assigned to CBT, approximately one week after the end of treatment patients will 
be given the post-treatment assessment. Patients in TAU will be assessed 4-5 months after the baseline. Six 
months from the post assessments all participants will receive the 6 month follow-up assessment. Assessors 
will be blind to treatment condition. Patients will be paid $30 for the post-treatment and follow up assessments. 
Patients will receive a reminder letter about their first appointment (and about subsequent appointments if 
requested.) Patients who miss a session of treatment or assessment may be sent a letter of contact, if study 
staff are unable to reach them by phone. 
G. Data Analysis  
This study is designed as a two-arm, parallel comparison of two therapies in the treatment of PTSD in patients 
who are receiving care in a VA intensive outpatient program for substance abuse or patients with comorbid 
substance use and PTSD. In designing this study, there are analysis issues that require special attention, such 
as handling of missing data, adjustment for loss-to-follow-up, and serial correlation for sample size calculation. 
The strategy for data analysis flows from the goals of the study, and in turn defines the statistical tests and 
sample size projections.  
The unit of analysis is the participant. All analyses will be initially conducted according to intention-to-treat, i.e., 
participants’ data will be analyzed according to their assigned group regardless of their actual exposure to 
treatment. Prior to analysis, we will carefully examine descriptive statistics and the distributional form of all 
variables. We will use appropriate transformations, recode or categorize skewed and abnormally distributed 
data, and use appropriate methods for outliers and missing data so that we do not violate assumptions of our 
statistical procedures. Imputation techniques for missing data, such as linear interpolation and multiple 
imputations will be examined to determine their effect on the results. It is recognized, however, that the best 
approach to missing data is to make all effort to minimize it, since imputation is difficult when the missing data 
are non-ignorable or not missing at random. Our aim is to use careful examination and planned procedures so 
that we minimize the number of statistical tests, thereby reducing the possibility of inferential errors. Therefore, 
for tests of hypotheses 1 and 2, we will not use a downward adjustment of alphas (from .05) as the analysis 
and hypotheses have been planned and stated a priori. 
1. The effects of CBT on patient outcomes  
Hypothesis 1 (primary): Patients exposed to CBT will have greater improvements in PTSD symptom severity 
relative to patients who receive TAU as measured by the CAPS total score, and secondarily by the PCL, from 
baseline to post-treatment and 6 month follow-up.  
Hypothesis 2 (secondary): Patients receiving the CBT will have greater reductions in substance use severity 
(drugs and/or alcohol) relative to patients who receive TAU as measured by the ASI drug and alcohol severity 
composite scores, and secondarily by the TLFB, from baseline to post-treatment and 6 month follow-up. 
Several steps will be taken in preparation for performing the primary analyses. We will evaluate the 
effectiveness of randomization by comparing CBT and TAU groups on demographics, baseline measures of 
key outcomes, and other important covariates such as psychotropic medication usage. Next we will perform 
simple end-point analyses of post-treatment and 6-month outcomes using t-tests (chi-square test for retention 
proportion) and use multiple linear and logistic regression models to examine predictors of outcome. 
Demographic variables, baseline severity, and medical and psychiatric comorbidities will be considered as 
possible covariates. Only covariates that significantly reduce variance will be added to the model. 
Because the groups are randomized to be equivalent at baseline, the t-tests and end-point linear regression or 
logistic regression analyses are valid methods of comparison; however, patients who fail to provide any 
outcome data (at post-treatment and 6-months) measurement will naturally get excluded from the analyses, 
and this may introduce bias in the estimates. Furthermore, end-point analyses do not take into account the 
longitudinal nature of the data, time-varying covariates, or correlations among repeated observations.  
For our main analysis, we will perform both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses using Generalized Linear 
Mixed Model (SAS PROC MIXED) for continuous outcomes (for example, primary hypothesis) and PROC 
GLIMMIX for binary outcomes. We will model changes over time at population level. We will examine the 

35 
 
change in groups over time, i.e., change in treatment slopes over time, and the change in the difference 
between the slopes over time. We will fit a model that includes the fixed effects of PTSD severity at baseline, 
intervention, time, and the treatment by time interaction. We further plan to model changes over time at 
person-specific level by adding a random intercept and random slope to model the heterogeneity between 
individuals. We expect no significant site main effects or site by treatment interactions, but this will be 
examined. Although estimating the covariance structures is not a goal of the analyses, we will examine the 
model fit using different covariance structures as appropriate covariance structure is necessary for valid 
inferences about fixed effects. Once again, only those covariates that significantly reduce error variance will be 
added to the model. Demographic variables, baseline scores, baseline symptom severity, and site will be 
considered as possible covariates. We will plot predicted means for the groups over time, and for each site, 
along with confidence intervals. 
Some simple parametric (e.g. linear or quadratic) curves will be used to describe the changes over time of the 
mean response. The fitting of parsimonious models for the mean response will result in statistical tests of 
covariate effect (e.g. treatment by time interactions) that have greater power than, for example, in analysis of 
response profiles.95 
If the mean response changes in an approximately linear fashion over the duration of the study, we will adopt 
the following linear trend model 
Hypothesis 1 and 2: E(Yij) = β1 + β2Timeij + β3 Groupi + β4Timeij*Groupi 
Where Groupi = 1 if the ith individual was assigned to the CBT treatment, and Groupi = 0 otherwise; and Timeij 
denotes the measurement time for the jth measurement on the ith individual.  
Our primary interest concerns a comparison of the changes in the mean response over time, which is a 
comparison of the slopes. The slope, or the rate of change in the mean response per unit change in time, is β2 
in the control group, and (β2 + β4) in the treatment group. Thus, if β4 is not significantly different from 0, then 
the two groups do not differ in terms of changes in their mean response over time.  
Assuming that the changes in the mean response can be approximated by quadratic trends, the following 
model can be adopted: 
E(Yij) = β1 + β2Timeij + β3Time2ij + β3 Groupi + β5TimeijXGroupi + β6Time2ijXGroupi 
Finally, we will contrast of the group population means across time points. For example, mean difference μ1 – 
μ2   is likely to be 0 at baseline if randomization is successful. With the different impact of treatments, mean 
difference might be 10 (on the CAPS scale) at end of study. We would like to test whether this change in mean 
difference is significant. This is our hypothesis 1 and 2. 
2. The effects of CBT on retention 
Hypothesis 3 (secondary): Patients who receive CBT will have better retention in the addiction treatment 
program relative to patients who receive TAU as measured by the proportion of expected days of treatment 
attended. 
For patients in IOPs, we will calculate the proportion of substance abuse treatment completed as a percentage 
of the full treatment. Using this completion proportion as our dependent variable, we will conduct a multivariate 
linear regression analysis that includes variables such as treatment assignment, demographic information, and 
baseline symptom severity as potential covariates, for example: 
E(Yj) = β1 +  β2 Groupi + β3CAPSi0 + β3AGEi0 + β4SEXi0  
Where i0 stands for the ith individual’s measurement at baseline (time=0).If, for example, β2 is not significantly 
different from 0, then the two groups do not differ in terms of completion proportion when adjusted for age, 
gender, and baseline symptom severity as measured by CAPS. 
Data on utilization and retention will be extracted from medical records using CAPRI or JLV. The HIPPA 
Authorization and the Informed Consent both clearly state that this information will be obtained from their 
medical records. 

36 
 
3. Exploratory analyses  
In addition to the hypotheses above we will also examine if patients in CBT show greater improvement in 
depression and functioning than patients in TAU as measured by the PHQ-9 and SF-12V, respectively, at 
baseline, post-treatment and 6 month follow-up. Other exploratory analyses will examine predictors of clinical 
response, including age, gender, race, era, severity of PTSD, TBI screening status, and PTSD disability status. 
We realize that causal inferences will not be possible as the groups will not be balanced with respect to 
important covariates and risk factors. We also realize that these analyses will require multiple statistical tests 
and are not grounded in specific hypotheses. This may require downward adjustment from the conventional 
alpha (.05) level to avoid an unacceptable experimental-wise Type 1 error rate. At the same time, we also 
recognize that statistical power for some of these analyses may be unacceptably low. Therefore, we will focus 
on reporting effect sizes in addition to p-values so that we do not infer causality and instead place the results in 
a practical context.  
H. Project Management Plan 
1. Management Plan 
Dr. Hamblen will coordinate the management and oversight of the study. She works closely with Dr. Schnurr, 
who has agreed to meet weekly or more often to discuss study progress and problems. Dr. Schnurr’s track 
record managing multi-site studies in VA and her close proximity to the PI enhances the likelihood of the trial 
being conducted successfully. Dr. Hamblen will meet weekly with site-PIs initially to monitor start up issues 
such as human subjects, hiring, and training and later to insure that patient recruitment goals are being met 
and that the study is being conducted in an effective and unintrusive manner. Dr. Hamblen will hold monthly 
calls with co-investigators to provide study updates and to troubleshoot. Together with Dr. McGovern, Dr. 
Hamblen will train therapists. She will then supervise them with the assistance of Dr. Bernardy. Dr. Mueser 
will provide overall fidelity monitoring.  
2. Project Timeline 
Table 5 depicts the timeline to realize the proposed study. The first 5 months will be devoted to preparation 
and training. We will recruit and hire site coordinators and obtain IRB approval. We will also finalize the 
operations manual. The next phase involves training therapists and the independent assessor. We will also set 
up the database. Beginning in month 6 and continuing for 18 months, we will recruit patients into the trial. 
Treatment and follow-up begins in month 6 as well, continuing 6 months past the end of the recruitment 
through month 29. The last year will be devoted to closeout, analysis, and report writing. 
 

14 
 
Table 5. Project Timeline (Updated with no-cost extensions) 
 
Calendar Year 
2010 
2011 
Fiscal Year 
2011 
Month 
OCT 
NOV 
DEC 
JAN 
FEB 
MAR 
APR  
MAY 
JUN 
JUL 
AUG 
SEP 
Obtain IRB approval 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
  
  
  
  
  
  
Develop Ops Manual 
  
  
  
  
  
  
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Site IRB approval 
  
  
  
  
  
  
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Calendar Year 
2011 
2012 
Fiscal Year 
2012 
Month 
OCT 
NOV 
DEC 
JAN 
FEB 
MAR 
APR  
MAY 
JUN 
JUL 
AUG 
SEP 
Hire research staff 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Staff training 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Site IRB approval 
X 
X 
X 
X 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Therapist training 
  
  
  
  
  
  
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Calendar Year 
2012 
2013 
Fiscal Year 
2013 
Month 
OCT 
NOV 
DEC 
JAN 
FEB 
MAR 
APR 
MAY 
JUN 
JUL 
AUG 
SEP 
Develop Ops Manual 
X 
X 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Hire research staff 
X 
X 
X 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Staff training 
X 
X 
X 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Site IRB approval 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
X 
X 
X 
Recruitment 
  
  
  
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Treatment 
  
  
  
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Follow-up 
  
  
  
  
  
  
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Database mgmt 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Calendar Year 
2013 
2014 
Fiscal Year 
2014 
Month 
OCT 
NOV 
DEC 
JAN 
FEB 
MAR 
APR 
MAY 
JUN 
JUL 
AUG 
SEP 
Recruitment 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Treatment 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Follow-up 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Database mgmt 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
Calendar Year 
2014 
2015 

15 
 
Fiscal Year 
2015 
Month 
OCT 
NOV 
DEC 
JAN 
FEB 
MAR 
APR 
MAY 
JUN 
JUL 
AUG 
SEP 
Recruitment 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Treatment 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Follow-up 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Database mgmt 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Calendar Year 
2015 
2016 
Fiscal Year 
2016 
Month 
OCT 
NOV 
DEC 
JAN 
FEB 
MAR 
APR 
MAY 
JUN 
JUL 
AUG 
SEP 
Recruitment 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Treatment 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Follow-up 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
Database mgmt 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Calendar Year 
2016 
2017 
Fiscal Year 
2017 
Month 
OCT 
NOV 
DEC 
JAN 
FEB 
MAR 
APR 
MAY 
JUN 
JUL 
AUG 
SEP 
Recruitment 
X 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Treatment 
X 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Follow-up 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
  
Database mgmt 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
  
Data analysis 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Calendar Year 
2017 
2018 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fiscal Year 
2018 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Month 
OCT 
NOV 
DEC 
JAN 
FEB 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Data analysis 
X  
X  
X  
X  
X  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Manuscript preparations 
X  
X  
X  
X  
X  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

14 
 
3. Roles of Study Staff 
a. Key Personnel. The study brings together an experienced team of investigators and research staff who have 
a history of collaboration. Jessica Hamblen, PhD (Principal Investigator), is the Deputy Director for Education 
at the National Center for PTSD located at the VA Medical Center in White River Junction, VT and an Assistant 
professor at Dartmouth Medical School. She has experience developing PTSD treatments and conducting 
clinical trials and, in her role as Deputy, overseeing national educational initiatives. Dr. Hamblen is responsible 
for the overall project management and for supervising staff at the Project Management office to ensure 
successful conduct of the study. She will insure that protocols for human subjects are maintained and followed. 
In collaboration with Drs. McGovern and Bernardy, she will train and supervise research and assessment staff 
as well as provide clinical supervision to the study therapists. Dr. Hamblen will donate 20% effort to the project. 
Paula Schnurr, PhD (co-investigator) is the Deputy Executive Director at the National Center for PTSD and a 
Research Professor at Dartmouth Medical School.  She is an expert in the management and methodology of 
clinical trials. She led 2 VA Cooperative Studies on PTSD treatment and is currently a PI on two PTSD 
treatment studies, including a multi-site trial of integrated primary care for PTSD that is being conducted in 
VISN 17.  As the senior researcher on the project she will assist the PI on all aspects of implementing and 
managing the trial to ensure that the project is carried out effectively. She will advise on analyses and 
collaborate with the PI on the interpretation of findings, manuscript preparation, and dissemination of the 
findings. Dr. Schnurr will donate 10% effort to the project. 
Mark McGovern, PhD (co-investigator) is an Associate Professor of Psychiatry and of Community and Family 
Medicine at Dartmouth Medical School. Dr. McGovern has conducted research and published in the field of co-
occurring disorders, was the recipient of a NIDA K23 Career Development Award to translate evidence-based 
treatments for co-occurring disorders into typical community addiction treatment settings, and is the primary 
developer of CBT for PTSD in addiction treatment. Dr. McGovern will be involved in all aspects of this proposal 
from study design, to implementation, to dissemination. In addition he will participate in the training of study 
therapists. Dr. McGovern will work 10% on this research project 
Kim Mueser, PhD, (co-investigator), is a Professor of Psychiatry and of Community and Family Medicine at 
Dartmouth Medical School. Dr. Mueser is a clinical psychologist and the primary developer of the CBT for 
PTSD among persons with severe mental illnesses. Dr. Mueser will be the primary treatment fidelity monitor. 
He will assist with the examination of CBT for PTSD and in interpretation of findings. Dr. Mueser will work 5% 
on this research project.  
Rachel Kimerling, PhD (co-investigator) is a licensed clinical psychologist on the research staff at the 
National Center for PTSD in Palo Alto. She is currently conducting a randomized controlled trial of SS. 
Building on her experience with her current trial, she will advise the PI how to most successfully interface with 
the addiction staff so as to best integrate the CBT treatment into services as usual. She will also oversee  our 
medical record data extraction plan. 
Kyle Possemato, PhD (co-investigator and site PI) is a clinical research psychologist and Assistant Research 
Director of the VISN 2 Center for Integrated Healthcare at Syracuse. Dr. Possemato’s research focuses on 
testing and implementing cognitive-behavioral and mindfulness interventions focused on increasing 
engagement in care and reducing PTSD symptoms and alcohol use among Veterans. She will assist the PI 
with subject recruitment and retention, help with data extraction required to measure utilization and retention, 
and serve in the additional role as Site-PI for Syracuse. 
Nancy Bernardy, PhD (co-investigator) is a clinical psychologist and Program Director of the National Center 
for PTSD’s Mentoring Program. Dr. Bernardy served as project coordinator on two of Dr. Schnurr’s trials 
before accepting a clinical position with the Department of Defense in Europe where she worked for over four 
year with returning troops with primary substance abuse issues. Now back at the Center, Dr. Bernardy will 
provide supervision to study therapists and will assist with matters pertaining to coordinating clinical trials. Dr. 
Bernardy will donate 5% effort on the project. 
Carole A. Lunney, MA and Bernard Cole, PhD will serve as biostatisticians. They currently work for the 
National Center for PTSD and have expertise in clinical trials research methods, and longitudinal data analysis. 
They will collaborate with the PI to develop optimal plans for study design and data analysis, will provide on-
going consultation, and will randomize study patients to treatment groups. 

15 
 
Christopher Monahan, PhD (Site PI) is the PTSD-SUD staff psychologist at the Tampa, VA IOP. He will serve 
as site-PI. He will donate 10% effort on the project.  
Project Manager (TBA).  A 1.0 FTEE Project Manager will be recruited to oversee the day-to-day operations 
of the study, coordinate communication across all sites, and manage the budget. The project manager will 
ensure that all study materials are recorded, mailed, monitored, and reviewed in a timely fashion.  
Assessment Fidelity Monitor (TBA). A .2 FTEE psychologist will serve as an Assessment Fidelity Monitor 
and will rate 10% of all SCID and CAPS assessments to assess inter-rater reliability.  
Daniel Kivlahan, PhD (consultant) serves as Chair of the Research Review Committee and Director of the 
Center of Excellence in Substance Abuse Treatment and Education (CESATE). He is also Associate Professor 
at the University of Washington's Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences. He will provide expertise 
into VA’s system of SUD care and will provide consultation on study design and implementation. Dr. Kivlahan 
will donate his time as needed. 
Tracy Stecker, PhD (collaborator) is an Assistant Professor of Community and Family Medicine, Dartmouth 
Medical School. She is a NIMH and NIAAA funded principal investigator, with expertise in treatment access 
and engagement using cognitive behavioral approaches. She will assist in recruitment issues and guidance in 
approaches to engage patients. She will work 2.5% across all three years. 
b. Other personnel 
Each of the sites will have the following field staff: 
Site-Coordinator (TBA) a .5 FTEE site coordinator will manage the day-to-day operations of the study and will 
stay in close communication with the project manager. They will recruit and consent patients, perform chart 
abstraction, be responsible for maintaining data in an approved, safe environment and entering it into 
electronic databases maintained on the VA Network. 
Independent Assessor (TBA). A .2 FTEE independent assessor will be responsible for administering 
eligibility assessments to patients and conducting the initial and follow up assessments.  
Therapist (TBA). A .2 FTEE therapist will be identified to provide the CBT treatment. This will be an unfunded 
position. However, an additional therapist will be trained at the outset in case the primary therapist is unable to 
deliver the treatment for any reason. 

16 
 
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