Effects and Comparison of Eccentric Cycling Trainings Versus Concentric Cycling Training on Muscular and Functional Capacities in Sedentary People
Phase: NA
Conditions: Sedentary, Deconditioning, Eccentric Exercise Training, Eccentric Cycling Exercise, Elderly, Healthy Participants
Sponsor: University of Liege

Eccentric cycling in sedentary people  
15/09/2025 
 
LIEGE University 
Faculty of Medicine 
Department of physical activity sciences and rehabilitation 
Ethical Committee ref 2023-072 – Belgian Number B707203000019 
I. 
Introduction 
Physical deconditioning is a prevalent issue among individuals aged 55 years and older, often resulting 
from age-related inactivity or underlying pathological conditions. It is characterized by a progressive 
decline in aerobic capacity (i.e., maximal oxygen consumption and maximal aerobic power – VO2max 
and MAP) (Vanhees et al., 2005) and is frequently accompanied by increased adiposity, fatigue, reduced 
muscle mass, strength, and function —collectively termed sarcopenia (Cruz-Jentoft & Sayer, 2019). 
These changes elevate the risk of falls and the development of chronic diseases. Globally, 
approximately 31% of adults fail to meet the World Health Organization’s recommended levels of 
physical activity, thereby exacerbating the burden of noncommunicable diseases and contributing to 
an estimated economic cost of US$27 billion annually (Bull et al., 2020). It is therefore of paramount 
interest to develop strategies to tackle this phenomenon.  
Physical activity is widely recognized as an effective intervention to improve muscular strength and 
functional capacities.(Bull et al., 2020; Miles, 2007) Traditional training modalities such as resistance 
(strength) training and aerobic conditioning have been extensively utilized (Grgic et al., 2019; Knuttgen, 
2007). However, these methods may be perceived as physically demanding or inaccessible to older 
populations due to their intensity or cardiovascular demands (Falck et al., 2017; Lambert & Evans, 
2005). More recently eccentric training has emerged as a new effective method presenting various 
interesting characteristics for rehabilitation (Isner-Horobeti et al., 2013; P. LaStayo et al., 2014; Lewis et 
al., 2018). 
Eccentric contractions involve muscle lengthening under tension, typically occurring during 
deceleration movements, such as descending stairs or sitting down. Compared to concentric or 
isometric contractions, eccentric contractions can generate higher force outputs while eliciting a 
significantly lower metabolic cost—characterized by reduced heart rate and oxygen consumption 
(Hody et al., 2019; Isner-Horobeti et al., 2013; P. LaStayo et al., 2014; Lewis et al., 2018). These effects 
are attributed to biomechanical and physiological mechanisms including the contribution of elastic 
elements (e.g., storage and restitution of potential energy) and the engagement of sarcomeric 
structural proteins such as titin working as a molecular spring enhancing force production independent 
Effects and Comparison of Eccentric Cycling Trainings Versus Concentric Cycling Training on Muscular 
and Functional Capacities in Sedentary People 

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of ATP hydrolysis (Hody et al., 2019). Additionally, eccentric contractions require lower motor unit 
activation and reduced recruitment of both agonist and antagonist muscles, contributing further to 
their metabolic efficiency (Duchateau & Baudry, 2014; Duchateau & Enoka, 2016; Enoka, 1996). 
Given these advantages, eccentric-based exercise modalities have been successfully implemented in 
rehabilitation settings for patients with cardiopulmonary diseases (Besson et al., 2013; Chasland et al., 
2017; Inostroza et al., 2022; Peñailillo et al., 2022), obesity (Julian et al., 2019), and age-related 
deconditioning (Chen et al., 2017; P. C. LaStayo et al., 2003; Mueller et al., 2009). More recently 
eccentric cycling has emerged as a particularly promising intervention. This technique utilizes a motor-
driven ergocycle to produce backward pedal motion that the user resists, thereby inducing repeated 
eccentric contractions in the lower limbs (Abbott et al., 1952; Abbott & Bigland, 1953; Barreto, De Lima, 
et al., 2023; Barreto et al., 2021; Barreto, Lima, et al., 2023). Such devices allow for the generation of 
high mechanical loads within relatively short durations and at a low rating of perceived exertion (RPE) 
(Lastayo et al., 1999). 
Recent studies have explored the metabolic and functional benefits of high-intensity interval training 
(HIIT), which alternates short bursts of high-intensity effort with recovery periods (Coates et al., 2023). 
Compared to continuous moderate-intensity training, HIIT has been shown to improve maximal oxygen 
uptake and induce muscular adaptations more rapidly and with lower total training volume (Oliveira et 
al., 2024; Ramos et al., 2015; Rohmansyah et al., 2023). Moreover, HIIT is often perceived as more 
enjoyable than continuous training, despite similar RPE (Thum et al., 2017). 
While eccentric HIIT, a novel combination of eccentric exercise and interval training, has shown 
promise, especially in terms of eliciting greater mechanical stimuli with lower cardiovascular strain, it 
may initially provoke muscle soreness, decrements in muscle function and longer recovery times 
compared to a work matched continuous training (Green et al., 2022; Lipski et al., 2018a). Nonetheless, 
evidence suggests that gradual exposure to eccentric loading fosters neuromuscular adaptations that 
attenuate the adverse effects (delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), decreased muscular function 
and range of motion, inflammatory episodes, swelling ) over time (Hody et al., 2019; Nosaka et al., 
2001). Eccentric HIIT thus represents a potential compromise between the high metabolic demands of 
concentric HIIT and the limited cardiovascular stimulus of continuous eccentric training (Peñailillo et 
al., 2023). 
Given that eccentric cycling at a fixed workload elicits 40–80% lower oxygen consumption compared 
to concentric cycling (Barreto et al., 2021; P. C. LaStayo et al., 2003), combining eccentric loading with 
the interval format may provide a unique stimulus to enhance both aerobic and neuromuscular 

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adaptations. Furthermore, this modality may confer these benefits with lower perceived effort and 
cardiovascular strain, making it particularly relevant for elderly or clinical populations. 
However, despite its theoretical advantages, comparative studies examining the acute and chronic 
effects of eccentric HIIT versus other training modalities remain scarce. In particular, no previous study 
has comprehensively assessed the physiological and perceptual responses to eccentric interval cycling 
relative to both continuous eccentric training and concentric HIIT under matched workload conditions. 
The present study aims to compare the acute and training responses of (1) eccentric high intensity 
interval training, (2)work-matched continuous eccentric training, and (3) concentric high intensity 
interval training, all performed on cycle ergometers. The variables of interest include ratings of 
perceived exertion (RPE), cognitive demand (Fat), heart rate (HR), maximal oxygen consumption 
(VO₂max), maximal aerobic power (MAP), and various functional and health-related parameters. 
It is hypothesized that eccentric HIIT will produce comparable or superior improvements in functional 
outcomes relative to concentric HIIT, but at a lower metabolic and perceptual cost. Furthermore, 
eccentric HIIT is expected to yield greater physiological benefits than continuous eccentric training for 
a similar perceived and metabolic load. 
II. 
Population 
A. 
Recruitment 
The study was conducted on sedentary individuals aged 50–75, engaging in no more than 3 hours of 
light-to-moderate activity per week. 
Participants were recruited through: 
• 
Notices in the Movement Sciences Department (ULiège, Blanc-Gravier), 
• 
Social media, 
• 
Professional/personal networks. 
All participants are legal adults, volunteers, and signed an informed consent form, previously approved 
by the University Hospital Ethics Committee of Liège (ref 2023/072). 
B. 
Sample Size Estimation 
Given the study design (three groups, two time points), a repeated-measures ANOVA was selected to 
assess within-group changes, between-group differences, and potential group × time interactions. The 
primary outcomes were changes in isometric maximal strength and maximal aerobic power. The 
significance level (α) was set at 2.5% to account for multiple primary comparisons. 

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Assuming a moderate to large effect size (f = 0.3–0.5) and a statistical power of 80%, the required total 
sample size was estimated to range from n = 18 to n = 36. Accounting for an anticipated dropout rate 
of 20%, the recommended sample size ranged from 8 to 15 participants per group. Sample size 
calculations were performed using G*Power software. 
Inclusion criteria: 
• 
Aged 55 to 75 yo; 
• 
Sedentary or engaging in <3h of regular physical activity/week. 
Exclusion criteria: 
• 
Smoking; 
• 
Recent lower limb injury or pain (past 6 months) interfering with ergocycle tests; 
• 
Uncontrolled acute or chronic disease; 
• 
Cardiovascular disorders. 
III. 
Experimental Protocol 
This is a prospective interventional longitudinal study, conducted during a single period (year 2024 - 
2025). 
The experimental study will compare the effects of: 
• 
Two eccentric training protocols (continuous or interval training), 
• 
One concentric training protocol, all using ergometric bikes. 
Random assignment will place subjects into one of three experimental groups. They will follow a 14-
week training program with 2 sessions/week (total 28 sessions). Participants must abstain from physical 
activity the week before and during the entire protocol. 
Symptomatic management techniques are prohibited. Various parameters will be assessed before, 
during, and after the program to compare the protocols. 
A. 
Experimental Design 
Participants in the EI and EC groups trained using an eccentric ergometer, while the CI group trained 
on a concentric ergometer. Baseline and post-intervention assessments were conducted during weeks 
1 and 14, respectively. These included a maximal incremental cycling test to determine maximal oxygen 
consumption and maximal aerobic power, followed by six functional performance assessments. 
The training protocol consisted of three consecutive 4-week phases: 
1. Familiarization Phase (Weeks 2–5) 
2. Initial Training Phase (Weeks 6–9) 
3. Progressive Training Phase (Weeks 10–13) with increased training intensity. 

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B. 
Incremental Cycling Test 
At the first and final visits, participants underwent a concentric incremental cycling test to determine 
maximal oxygen consumption and maximal aerobic power. The test began with a standardized 2-
minute warm-up at 30 watts (W) and a cadence of 60 revolutions per minute (rpm). The workload was 
then increased every minute by 15 W for women and 20 W for men until volitional exhaustion. 
Participants were instructed to maintain a cadence above 60 rpm and were verbally encouraged 
throughout the test. Respiratory gas exchange, heart rate and blood lactate concentration (sampled 
every 2 minutes) were continuously monitored. The test was considered maximal if one or more of the 
following criteria were met: 
- 
Plateau in VO₂ despite increasing workload, 
- 
Respiratory quotient (RQ) > 1.1, 
- 
HR > 85% of age-predicted maximum, 
- 
Blood lactate concentration > 4 mmol/L, 
- 
Inability to maintain the target cadence. 
C. 
Training Protocol 
The 14-week training intervention was structured into three consecutive phases: (1) familiarization, (2) 
initial training, and (3) progressive training. All participants completed two supervised sessions per 
week, either on a recumbent eccentric ergometer (Cyclus 2, RBM Elektronik-Automation GmbH, 
Germany) or a seated concentric cycle ergometer (Technogym, Italy), depending on group allocation. 
1. 
Phase 1 (T1) – Familiarization (Weeks 2–5) 
During the familiarization phase, all groups completed work-matched sessions adapted to their 
respective contraction modality (eccentric or concentric cycling). Based on the findings of Lipski et al., 
a conversion ratio of 1.5 was used to estimate eccentric MAP (eMAP) from concentric MAP (cMAP), 
such that 100% eMAP was considered equivalent to 150% of cMAP. 
Training intensity and duration were progressively increased across the four weeks. Participants began 
with 5 minutes of cycling at 30% of their cMAP and progressed to 30 minutes by the end of the phase. 
Final familiarization sessions were as follows: 
- 
Eccentric Continuous Group (EC): 30 minutes (min) at 60% of cMAP 
- 
Concentric Interval Group (CI): 9 x 2 min training/1 min rest at 65% of cMAP 
- 
Eccentric Interval Group (EI): 9 x 2 min training/1 min rest at 100% of cMAP 
This phase aimed to ensure adequate neuromuscular adaptation to the modality-specific demands and 
minimize potential DOMS, particularly in the eccentric groups. 

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2. 
Phase 2 (T2) – Initial Training (Weeks 6–9) 
In the second phase, all groups trained at an intensity equivalent to 80% of their modality-specific MAP 
for 30 minutes per session: 
- 
EI Group: 10 x 2 min training/1 min rest at 120% of cMAP 
- 
EC Group: 30 min at 80% of cMAP 
- 
CI Group: 10 x 2 min training/1 min rest at 80% of cMAP 
3. 
Phase 3 (T3) – Progressive Training (Weeks 10–13) 
Training intensity was further increased to 90% of each group’s modality-specific MAP: 
- 
EI Group: 10 x 2 min training/1 min rest at 135% of cMAP 
- 
EC Group: 30 min at 90% of cMAP 
- 
CI Group: 10 x 2 min training/1 min rest at 90% of cMAP 
This progressive overload aimed to enhance aerobic capacity and muscular adaptations in a 
contraction-specific manner. All sessions remained isocaloric and time-matched across groups to allow 
for valid comparisons. 
D. 
Training Parameters 
1. 
Heart Rate Monitoring 
Throughout each training session, HR was continuously monitored using a Polar Verity Sense optical 
heart rate sensor (Polar Electro Oy, Finland), worn on the upper arm and connected to the Polar Flow 
application via an Apple iPad. Both mean and maximal HR (mean HR and max HR) values were recorded 
per session. They are expressed in percentage of the maximal HR measured during the incremental 
cycling test (% max HR). For analysis, mean and max HR values were averaged for each of the three 
training phases. 
2. 
Rating of Perceived Exertion 
At the end of each training session, participants reported their RPE using the Borg RPE scale, ranging 
from 6 (no exertion) to 20 (maximal exertion). Average RPE values were calculated for each training 
phase and used for subsequent analysis. 
3. 
Cognitive Demand 
Perceived Fat was assessed following each session using a modified Borg scale ranging from 0 (no 
cognitive effort) to 10 (maximal cognitive effort). Participants were asked to evaluate the mental 
demand specifically related to the cognitive focus required during training. Phase-wise averages were 
computed for analysis. 

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4. 
Perceived Muscle Soreness 
Prior to each training session, participants rated their perceived muscle soreness in the lower limbs 
using a visual analog scale (VAS) ranging from 0 millimeters (mm) (no soreness) to 200 mm (unbearable 
soreness). These ratings were intended to reflect residual soreness from the previous session. Means 
of each training phase were computed for statistical analysis. 
E. 
Functional Parameters 
A battery of six functional tests was performed pre- and post-intervention to evaluate intra-group 
improvements and inter-group differences. All tests were administered by the same trained evaluator 
to minimize inter-rater variability. Standardized instructions and verbal encouragement were provided 
to ensure consistency across participants. 
1. 
Maximal Isometric Force (MIF) 
Maximal isometric knee extensors strength of the dominant leg was assessed using a MicroFET2 
handheld dynamometer (Hoggan Scientific, USA) secured to an immovable frame. Participants were 
seated with hips at 85° and knees at 90° flexion. After a warm-up involving five minutes of low-intensity 
cycling and three submaximal isometric contractions (50–90 % maximal effort), participants completed 
five maximal voluntary contractions, each lasting five seconds with 30 seconds of rest between efforts. 
The highest recorded value was retained for analysis and expressed in newton-meters (Nm). 
2. 
Handgrip Strength 
Handgrip strength of the dominant hand was measured using a handheld isometric dynamometer 
(Takei Hand Grip Dynamometer, Japan). Participants performed three maximal grip trials, with 30 
seconds of rest between each trial. During testing, the arm was kept extended along the body without 
any auxiliary movements. The best value was retained and expressed in kilograms (kg). 
3. 
Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) 
Static balance was assessed using the BESS protocol, which includes three stance positions (double-
leg, single-leg, and tandem) performed on both firm and foam surfaces. Each position was held for 20 
seconds with eyes closed and hands on hips. Errors, such as opening eyes, lifting hands or losing 
balance were counted, with a maximum of 10 errors per trial. 
4. 
Ten Times Sit-to-Stand Test (TTSST) 
Functional lower limb strength and mobility were assessed via the TTSST. Participants began seated 
with arms crossed over their chest and were instructed to stand up and sit down 10 times as quickly as 
possible. The test started with a countdown and was timed using a stopwatch. Participants performed 
3 trials and the best values was retained for analysis and expressed in seconds. 

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5. 
Timed Up and Go (TUAG) Test 
Mobility and dynamic balance were assessed using the TUAG test. Participants rose from a seated 
position, walked three meters, turned 180°, returned to the chair, and sat down, performing a second 
180° turn. The time to complete the sequence was recorded with a stopwatch. Participants performed 
3 trials and the best values was retained for analysis and expressed in seconds. 
6. 
Six-Minute Walking Test (6MWT) 
Aerobic endurance was evaluated via the 6MWT. Participants were instructed to walk as far as possible 
in six minutes along a 30-meter indoor track, turning around two cones at either end. HR and RPE were 
monitored throughout the test. The total distance covered was expressed in meters. 
F. 
Statistical Analyses 
All statistical analyses were conducted using R Commander (R version 4.4.2; R Foundation for Statistical 
Computing, Vienna, Austria). Data were initially assessed for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test and 
for homogeneity of variances using Levene’s test. For normally distributed variables with equal 
variances, repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the effects of time 
(pre- vs. post-intervention), group (EI, EC, CI), and their interaction. When significant main effects or 
interactions were found, post hoc comparisons were performed using Tukey’s Honestly Significant 
Difference (HSD) test to control for Type I error. 
For outcome variables related to participants characteristics and functional performance that did not 
meet the assumptions of normality, non-parametric tests were applied. Specifically, within-group 
comparisons across time were conducted using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and between-group 
comparisons were evaluated using the Kruskal–Wallis test,. 
All results were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05. Data are presented as mean ± standard 
deviation (SD) for parametric variables and as median with interquartile range (IQR) for non-parametric 
variables, unless otherwise stated. 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Summary 
Phase 0 – Testing  
Week –1 (2 sessions)  
Evaluation 
Phase 1 – Familiarization  
Week 2-3 (2x/wk)  
5’ 20% MAP - 10' 30% MAP  
15’ 30% MAP - 20' 40% MAP  
5’ 20% - 10’ 20%  
15’ 30% - 20’ 30%  
Week 4-5 (EC, 2x/wk)  
20’ 40 et 50 % MAP, 60 rpm  
30’ 50 et 60% MAP, 60 rpm  
Week 4-5 (EI, 2x/wk)  
6 x 2’-1’ à 60 et 80% MAP, 60 
rpm  
9 x 2’-1’ à 80 et 100% MAP, 60 
rpm  
Week 4-5 (CI, 2x/wk)  
6 x 2’-1’ à 40 et 50% MAP, 60 
rpm  
9 x 2’-1’ à 50 et 65% MAP, 60 
rpm  
Phase 2 – Training 
Week 6-9 (EC, 3x/wk)  
30’ 80% MAP, 60 rpm  
Week 6-9 (EI, 3x/wk)  
10 x 2’-1’ 120% MAP, 60 rpm  
Week 6-9 (CI, 3x/wk)  
10 x 2’-1’ 80% MAP, 60 rpm  
Phase 3 – Training  
Week 10 – 13 (EC, 3x/wk)  
30’ 90% MAP, 60 rpm  
Week 10 – 13 (EI, 3x/wk)  
10 x 2’-1’ 135% MAP, 60 rpm  
Week 10 – 13 (CI, 3x/wk)  
10 x 2’-1’ 90% MAP, 60 rpm  
Phase 4 – Retesting  
Week 14 
Evaluation  
EI = eccentric interval ; EC = eccentric continuous ; CI = concentric interval ; x/wk = time per week ; ‘ = minute ; MAP = 
maximal aerobic power ; rpm = revolution per minute ; % = percent 
 
 
 

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