Enhancing Stability and Jumping Skills Through Combined Static and Dynamic Balance Training in Female Chinese University-Level Gymnastics Beginners
Phase: NA
Conditions: Stability, Jumping Performance, Balance Training, Gymnastics Injury, Motor Learning, Balance
Sponsor: Yi Wang

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PHD RESEARCH PROPOSAL 
Enhancing Stability and Jumping Skills 
Through Combined Static and Dynamic Balance Training 
in Female Chinese University-Level Gymnastics Beginners 
 
WANG YI  
Matrix No: 23305262 
Main Supervisor: Dr. Marilyn Ong Li Yin 
Co-Supervisor: Dr. Rosniwati Ghafar 
 
 
EXERCISE AND SPORTS SCIENCE PROGRAMM 
SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES 
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA 
25/9/25 
 
 

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Table of Contents 
 
CHAPTER 1................................................................................................................................7 
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 7 
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ............................................................................. 7 
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT & STUDY RATIONALE ............................................... 12 
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ........................................................................................ 13 
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 13 
1.4.1 General objective ............................................................................................. 13 
1.4.2 Specific objective ............................................................................................. 13 
1.5 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY .............................................................................. 14 
1.6 Definitions of Operational Terms ............................................................................... 15 
CHAPTER 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..18 
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 18 
2.1 Introduction to gymnastics .......................................................................................... 18 
2.2 Athlete Technical Level Grading System ................................................................... 19 
2.3 Different types of balance training ............................................................................. 22 
2.3.1 Static Balance Training .................................................................................... 22 
2.3.2 Dynamic Balance Training .............................................................................. 26 
2.3.3 Functional Balance Training ............................................................................ 29 
2.3.4 Technology-Assisted Balance Training ........................................................... 29 
2.3.5 Compound Balance Training ........................................................................... 29 
2.4 Balance in Gymnastics ................................................................................................ 30 
2.5 Testing Protocols for Jumping Ability in Gymnastics ................................................ 32 
2.5.1 Take - off Phase ............................................................................................... 32 
2.5.2 Flight Phase ...................................................................................................... 33 
2.5.3 Landing Phase .................................................................................................. 33 
2.6 Stability capability ...................................................................................................... 36 
2.7 Gymnastics Performance Movements ........................................................................ 39 

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2.7.1 Jumping Movements ........................................................................................ 39 
2.7.2 Turning Movements ......................................................................................... 39 
2.7.3 Biomechanics and Training Optimization ....................................................... 40 
2.8 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 40 
CHAPTER 3………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..43 
3.0 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 43 
3.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................... 43 
3.2 Research design .......................................................................................................... 44 
3.2.1 Study design ..................................................................................................... 45 
3.2.2 Testing Components ........................................................................................ 60 
3.2.3 Skills Measurement .......................................................................................... 63 
3.3 STUDY AREA ........................................................................................................... 72 
3.4 STUDY POPULATION ............................................................................................. 73 
3.5 SUBJECT CRITERIA ................................................................................................ 73 
3.5.1 Inclusion criteria .............................................................................................. 73 
3.5.2 Exclusion Criteria ............................................................................................ 73 
3.5.3 Withdrawal Criteria ......................................................................................... 74 
3.6 Sample Size Estimation .............................................................................................. 74 
3.7 SAMPLING METHOD AND SUBJECT RECRUITMENT ..................................... 75 
3.8 INTERVENTION METHODS ................................................................................... 76 
3.8.1 Safety consideration ......................................................................................... 80 
3.8.2 Research tool .................................................................................................... 80 
3.8.3 Data analysis .................................................................................................... 86 
CHAPTER 4………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..87 
4.0 EXPECTED RESULTS .............................................................................................. 87 
4.1 Anthropology .............................................................................................................. 87 
4.2 Jumping ability test results .......................................................................................... 88 
4.3 Stability test results ..................................................................................................... 89 
4.4 Gymnastics skills test results ...................................................................................... 90 
4.4.1 Straight jump 360 ° turn test results ................................................................. 90 

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4.4.2 Standing Single-leg 360 ° turn test results ....................................................... 91 
CHAPTER 5………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..92 
5.0 SUMMARY OF THE RESEACH PROGRESS ........................................................ 92 
5.1 Gantt chart and Milestone ........................................................................................... 92 
5.2 Milestone for Research Project ................................................................................... 95 
5.3 BUDGENT PROPOSAL ............................................................................................ 96 
5.4 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................ 96 
5.4.1 Subject vulnerability ........................................................................................ 96 
5.5 DECLARATION OF CONFLICT OF INTEREST ................................................... 96 
5.6 PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY .................................................................... 96 
5.7 COMMUNITY SENSITIVITIES AND BENEFITS .................................................. 97 
5.8 HONORARIUM AND INCENTIVES ....................................................................... 97 
5.9 OTHER ETHICAL REVIEW BOARD APROVAL .................................................. 97 
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….98 
APPENDIX ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………131 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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LIST OF TABLES 
Table 1 Gymnasts' Sport Levels .................................................................................... 21 
Table 2 Summary of the static balance training programme ......................................... 25 
Table 3 Summary of the dynamic balance training programme .................................... 28 
Table 4 Summary of the jumping ability test programme ............................................. 35 
Table 5 Summary of the stability test programme ......................................................... 38 
Table 6 History of Results for Beijing Sport University Campus Gymnastics  
Competitions .................................................................................................................. 46 
Table 7 Routin exercise-Tuesday Training Plan ............................................................ 47 
Table 8 Routin exercise-Thursday Training Plan .......................................................... 49 
Table 9 Stability and Jumping Test Programme ............................................................ 52 
Table 10 Gymnastic Performance Movements .............................................................. 52 
Table 11 Experimental Training group .......................................................................... 53 
Table 12 Marker Position and Name ............................................................................. 64 
Table 13 Static balance training intervention content .................................................... 77 
Table 14 Dynamic balance training intervention content .............................................. 78 
Table 15 The combination of static and dynamic balance training content .................. 79 
Table 16 BMI tests ......................................................................................................... 87 
Table 17 Countermovement jump and single-leg countermovement jump tests ........... 88 
Table 18 Eight- point Star Offset stability test .............................................................. 89 
Table 19 Straight jump 360 °turn test ......................................................................... 90 
Table 20 Standing Single-leg 360 ° turn test ................................................................. 91 

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Table 21 Gantt chart of the research project .................................................................. 93 
Table 22 Milestone for Research Project ....................................................................... 95 
LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 1 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................... 43 
Figure 2 Flow chart of the experimental design ............................................................ 44 
Figure 3 Diagram of ttaining movements ...................................................................... 54 
Figure 4 8 - Point Star Offset Test ................................................................................. 61 
Figure 5 Countermovement Jump .................................................................................. 62 
Figure 6 Single - Leg Countermovement Jump ............................................................. 62 
Figure 7 Marker placement schematic diagram ............................................................. 65 
Figure 8 Straight Jump 360° Turn ................................................................................. 67 
Figure 9 Standing Single - leg 360° turn ....................................................................... 70 
Figure 10 Flow chart of the G-power ............................................................................ 75 
Figure 11 Kunwei Force Plate ....................................................................................... 82 
Figure 12 The Star Excursion Balance Test .................................................................. 83 
Figure 13 3D Motion Capture System ........................................................................... 84 
Figure 14 Xiaomi Smart Band ....................................................................................... 86

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CHAPTER 1 
1.0 INTRODUCTION 
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 
As a highly technical sport, gymnastics integrates multi-dimensional physical quality 
requirements such as strength, flexibility, coordination, and balance ability, posing extremely 
stringent challenges to athletes' body control and stability (De Gymnastique, 2023). Athletes 
need to have excellent physical fitness and be highly concentrated mentally to precisely control 
every movement detail (Takei, 2007). Due to the quantified scoring criteria with strict 
thresholds of gymnastics—for example: 
Balance beam: Lateral sway exceeding 5cm triggers immediate deductions (≥0.3 points per 
10cm deviation) (Mkaouer et al., 2012). 
Vaulting: Incomplete rotation (e.g., "half-turn" error) results in mandatory score reduction of 
0.5-1.0 points (Laws, 2002). 
Even slight movement deviations can lead to significant differences in scores. This requires 
athletes to undergo long-term systematic training, continuously optimize their movement 
techniques, and improve their movement technique standardization and stability to meet the 
high-intensity competitive requirements (De Gymnastique, 2023). 
Chinese gymnastics has a profound historical and cultural heritage. Over the years, relying on 
a complete training system, scientific training methods, and the unremitting efforts of athletes, 
numerous world-class gymnasts have been cultivated (Caine et al., 2013). From the difficult 
promotion in the early days to winning numerous awards in international top-level 
competitions today, Chinese gymnastics has achieved huge success, demonstrating the 
achievements in talent development, technical advancement, and innovation (Jemni, 2017). 
The systematic training of beginner gymnasts is the key to the sustainable development of 
gymnastics. In the initial training phase, beginner gymnasts demonstrate high trainability and 
a steep learning curve. During this phase, mastering basic skills, such as stability and jumping 
ability, is crucial for their development (Wang et al., 2013). Therefore, a scientific and well-
structured training plan, personalized technical guidance, and a strong emphasis on 

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fundamental training serve to lay a solid technical foundation for beginner gymnasts. This 
approach will help them progress steadily in gymnastics, contribute to the ongoing success of 
Chinese gymnastics, and ensure that China remains a leader on the international stage (Bento-
Soares & Schiavon, 2023). 
Jumping is a foundational skill in gymnastics, playing a pivotal role across apparatus events 
such as vault, floor exercise, and balance beam, thereby permeating the entirety of the 
discipline (Villa et al., 2015). As a universal element in gymnastics, jumping serves as a core 
indicator of athletes' technical proficiency and competitive excellence. The execution of 
gymnastic jumps imposes rigorous demands on athletes in three critical dimensions: 
1. Explosive Power-Driven Takeoff: Serves as the primary propulsive force propelling athletes 
into the air (Nitzsche et al., 2022); 
2. Mechanical Posture Control: Ensures compliance with aerodynamic principles to minimize 
air resistance while maintaining spatial body equilibrium during flight (Taylor, 2001); 
3. Temporal Precision Management: Dictates optimal force application timing and coordinates 
movement fluidity throughout the air phase (Tan et al., 2007). 
These integrated elements collectively enhance vertical jump height, facilitate the synthesis of 
strength and technical mastery, ensure stable landings, and enable seamless transitions between 
movements. In floor exercise, high-difficulty jumping sequences constitute the focal point of 
performance routines, where both jump elevation and kinematic smoothness directly influence 
scoring criteria and audience engagement (Makadada et al., 2024). Similarly, vault athletes 
must exploit springboard elasticity to achieve maximal launch heights, execute complex aerial 
maneuvers with artistic precision, and finalize with controlled landing postures—any 
procedural error in this sequence risks falls or score deductions, profoundly impacting overall 
performance outcomes. Empirical research establishes a strong correlation between vault 
performance and technical parameters including takeoff force, takeoff angle, and in-air control 
mechanisms (Yang et al., 2024; Zhao et al., 2024), further underscoring the centrality of 
jumping in gymnastics. Moreover, sustained, targeted jumping training induces significant 
improvements in muscular strength and neuromuscular coordination (Alkjaer et al., 2013; 
Moeskops et al., 2024), providing a physiological foundation for optimizing jump quality.  

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Stability is also of paramount importance in gymnastics. It is the key for athletes to achieve 
excellent results and ensure their own safety (Mkaouer et al., 2017). The ability of gymnasts to 
maintain body control after jumping or during movement transitions directly affects the error 
rate. Research shows that even slight instability may lead to a 15% to 20% increase in 
deductions (Leandro, 2018). In the gymnastics competition scoring system, although difficulty 
is important, the quality of movement execution is equally crucial. Stability is the core indicator 
for measuring the quality of movements. High-difficulty movements accompanied by body 
imbalance or unstable center of gravity will lead to significant deductions (Sands, 2000). 
From a safety perspective, research shows that enhancing stability can effectively reduce injury 
risks, particularly in high-impact landings and repetitive movements prevalent in gymnastics 
(Harry-Leite et al., 2022). For example, a longitudinal study on balance beam athletes found 
that those who incorporated proprioceptive training into their routines had a 34% lower 
incidence of falls during competitions (Mekić et al., 2024). In balance beam events, athletes 
must perform complex movements on a narrow apparatus requiring extreme stability. 
According to statistics from the 2020 FIG World Championships, 42% of balance beam routine 
failures were directly attributed to stability impairments (de Oliveira et al., 2022). 
Similarly, in vault landings and floor exercise transitions, stability is critical for maintaining 
control over movements. This is supported by biomechanical analyses showing that athletes 
with superior core stability achieved 12% better angular momentum control during tumbling 
passes (Small & Neptune, 2024). Furthermore, a systematic review of Olympic-level 
performances revealed that stability-based training regimens reduced landing injury rates by 
28% compared to traditional training methods (İpek Dongaz et al., 2024). Studies have 
demonstrated that core stability training significantly enhances gymnasts' balance and control 
during complex movements (Nazari & Hooi, 2019), underscoring the necessity of stability 
training within comprehensive gymnastics training systems. 
In gymnastics, both dynamic and static balance play a crucial role in enhancing athletes' body 
control and coordination (Poliszczuk et al., 2012). An athlete's balance ability largely 
determines whether they can successfully complete a series of movements while ensuring 
safety and artistic quality (Zemková & Zapletalová, 2022). Balance movement training can 
develop athletes' sense of balance and coordination, enhance the strength of the core muscle 

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group and body control. Various methods, such as stability training, balance apparatus training, 
and movement decomposition training, provide both theoretical and practical foundations for 
improving gymnasts' stability. These approaches highlight the crucial role of targeted balance 
training in significantly enhancing athletes' overall performance (Ahmadabadi et al., 2015). 
Although the significance of balance training has been widely acknowledged, research on the 
combined effects of static and dynamic balance training for beginner Chinese gymnasts 
remains limited (Yu et al., 2024). Current studies primarily focus on single training modalities 
or elite athletes, frequently neglecting the specific training needs of beginner gymnasts. 
Beginner gymnasts are in a developmental stage of physical fitness and motor skills, which 
differs significantly from that of elite athletes. (Goodway & Robinson, 2015). Their muscle 
strength, joint flexibility, and neuromuscular coordination are still developing, requiring 
targeted training methods to support their progress (Omorczyk et al., 2018). 
Balance training is the foundation of the gymnastics training system, integrating neuromuscular 
control, movement coordination, and proprioception (U. Granacher et al., 2010). The two main 
types of balance training commonly used in gymnastics training are static balance training and 
dynamic balance training. For static balance training, athletes are required to maintain specific 
postures on the apparatus, which helps them develop the ability to control their bodies in a 
stationary state (Marchenkova et al., 2021). On the other hand, dynamic balance training 
focuses on maintaining balance during movement. In the training, it simulates the challenges 
that athletes encounter during processes such as rotations and dismounts (Wang et al., 2024), 
helping them adapt to changes in the center of gravity and improve their ability to control 
movement transitions and recover from unstable landings. Research shows that compared with 
single training methods, combining static and dynamic balance training can produce better 
results(Eleni G Fotiadou et al., 2009). A study in 2023 showed that compared with athletes 
who only received static or dynamic training separately, a group of athletes who received a 
comprehensive balance training program improved their balance-related performance 
indicators by 20% (Lockard & Gable, 2023). This comprehensive training method can improve 
the stability of athletes when they complete complex gymnastics movement sequences (for 
example, the complex rotational movements in somersaults, which require precise spatial 
orientation and angular momentum control during the three-dimensional rotation of the body; 

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or the dynamic takeoffs and landings in jumps, where athletes must instantaneously adjust the 
center of mass and implement corrective kinematic strategies to stabilize the body both in the 
air and upon landing) (Ringhof & Stein, 2018). 
Since 2020, remarkable progress has been made in the balance training of gymnasts (Farana et 
al., 2023). These studies have systematically investigated how different training methods affect 
the balance ability and related physical qualities of gymnasts. In competitive gymnastics, Bosu 
ball training (in which athletes perform dynamic and static postures on the ball to improve their 
balance ability and proprioception) has been proven to be able to improve the activation pattern 
of trunk muscles (Gao et al., 2024). Similarly, compared with traditional flat surface training, 
balance board training (maintaining stability on an unstable surface) shows better effects in 
terms of balance control (Behm et al., 2015). At the same time, balance beam (basic skill) 
training plays a crucial role in cultivating balance ability in complex movement routines and 
enhancing mental concentration under high-pressure conditions, which is evidenced by its 
ability to reduce the movement errors of beginner gymnasts. (Mahdi et al., 2024). Studies have 
shown that these methods can significantly enhance the trunk muscle strength of gymnasts 
(Ekaitz Dudagoitia Barrio et al., 2022). However, it cannot be ignored that there are still 
limitations in the existing research in two key aspects. Firstly, most of the studies focus on 
specific events such as the balance beam, vault, and uneven bars (McAuley et al., 1985), and 
there is limited exploration of the training adaptability of different apparatus events. Secondly, 
there is insufficient evidence regarding the long-term effects of static-dynamic balance training 
on beginner groups, especially Chinese gymnasts (Urs Granacher et al., 2010). 
In the field of gymnastic balance training, research achievements have been continuously 
emerging (Barker et al., 2018). In particular, the latest breakthrough in motion capture 
technology has deeply revealed the internal mechanism of expected postural adjustment during 
dynamic transitions (Burton et al., 2024). However, despite the significant achievements of 
these studies in specific fields, research across methodologies and cultural backgrounds still 
remains insufficient (Kueh et al., 2021). 
With the continuous development of gymnastics, the requirements for athletes are increasingly 
growing, and the scientific and effectiveness of training methods have become more and more 
crucial (Armstrong & Relph, 2021). Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap by systematically 

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exploring the impact of the combination of static and dynamic balance training on the stability 
and jumping skills of beginner gymnasts (Gaspari et al., 2024). By revealing the effects and 
mechanisms of this training method, this study will provide scientific guidance for coaches and 
optimize the training plans for beginner gymnasts (Jimenez-Diaz et al., 2021). 
Meanwhile, through customized training plans, this study will support the formulation of 
effective coaching strategies, bridge the gap between basic skills and advanced performance, 
and promote the progress of talent cultivation in Chinese gymnastics (Bergeron et al., 2015). 
 
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT & STUDY RATIONALE 
During the initial stage of gymnastics learning, the improvement of athletes' stability and 
jumping ability represents a critical milestone toward mastering complex gymnastics 
techniques (Hrysomallis, 2011). Static and dynamic balance training have been shown to 
significantly enhance athletic performance and prevent sports injuries (Granacher & Behm, 
2023). However, current research primarily focuses on elite athletes or individuals with sports 
injuries, with insufficient attention to the unique needs of beginner gymnasts (Borghuis et al., 
2008). Furthermore, the differential effects of various types of balance training remain 
underexplored, particularly the comparative effects of combined static and dynamic balance 
training versus single-task balance interventions (Behm & Colado, 2012). Previous studies 
have demonstrated that static balance training primarily enhances static postural control (e.g., 
standing on one leg with eyes closed), effectively reducing the risk of falls, while dynamic 
balance training focuses on improving neuromuscular coordination during transitional 
movement phases (e.g., the moment of landing after a jump), thereby enhancing dynamic 
control (Abdelmohsen et al., 2025). Based on this, the present study, grounded in motor 
control and balance theories (Shumway-Cook & Woollacott, 2007), aims to investigate the 
effective mechanisms by which combined static and dynamic balance training improves 
jumping performance and enhances movement stability in beginner gymnasts. 
 

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1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS     
(1) What are the differential effects of static, dynamic, and static-dynamic combined balance 
training on the stability (measured by the maximum distance of single-leg extension and the 
bilateral symmetry index in the Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT)) of beginner gymnasts? 
(2) Do static, dynamic, combined balance training induce distinct improvements in jumping 
mechanics (CMJ/SLCMJ: jump height, PF, RFD, impulse) and kinetic efficiency (jump 
height/GRF ratio), and does combined training show superior neuromuscular adaptations? 
(3) Among static, dynamic, and static-dynamic combined balance training modalities, which 
one most effectively minimizes the center of mass (COM) offset distance, body sway amplitude, 
and landing impact force—while maximizing rotational smoothness and single-leg balance 
duration—in beginner gymnasts when they perform 360° single-leg standing pirouettes and 
360° straight-body jump turns, with all outcomes quantified by 3D motion capture technology? 
 
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 
1.4.1 General objective 
To determine the effectiveness of static, dynamic, and combined static-dynamic balance 
training interventions on the stability and jumping skills of beginner gymnasts, as well as their 
impact on the biomechanics and motor performance of gymnastic movements. 
 
1.4.2 Specific objective 
(1) Evaluate the effects of static balance training, dynamic balance training, and combined 
static-dynamic balance training on the stability of beginner gymnasts. Quantify the maximum 
single-leg extension distance (reflecting lower limb support force) and the bilateral symmetry 
index (reflecting neuromuscular coordination) through the SEBT test to compare the 
differential effects of different training modes on stability improvement. 
(2) To evaluate the effects of static balance training, dynamic balance training, and combined 
static-dynamic balance training on the jumping skills of beginner gymnasts, this study 
measures the changes in data (such as jumping height, peak force, rate of force development, 
and impulse) of athletes during countermovement jump (CMJ) and single-leg 
countermovement jump (SLCMJ) before and after training. Through these measurements, it 

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aims to deeply analyze the mechanism of action of different training modes in enhancing the 
jumping ability of beginner gymnasts. 
(3) This study aims to explore the improvement effects of static balance training, dynamic 
balance training, and combined static-dynamic balance training on the performance of 
gymnastic movements (such as standing 360° single-leg turn and straight jump 360° turn). 
Through three-dimensional motion capture technology, the study assesses beginner gymnasts 
in terms of center of gravity deviation distance, body oscillation amplitude, rotation 
smoothness index, and landing impact force during the standing 360° single-leg turn. For the 
straight jump 360° turn, it conducts quantitative analysis based on center of gravity deviation 
distance, joint angle variation, vertical jump efficiency, and landing impact force. 
 
1.5 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY 
Statistical Hypotheses for the First Part: 
HA1: There is a significant improvement in the stability of beginner gymnasts (as measured 
by the 8-Point Star Offset Test) following static balance training, dynamic balance training, or 
combined static-dynamic balance training interventions. 
H01: There is no significant improvement in the stability of beginner gymnasts (as measured 
by the 8-Point Star Offset Test) following static balance training, dynamic balance training, or 
combined static-dynamic balance training interventions. 
Statistical Hypotheses for the Second Part: 
HA2: There is a significant improvement in the jumping skills of beginner gymnasts (as 
measured by Countermovement Jump and Single-leg Countermovement Jump) following 
static balance training, dynamic balance training, or combined static-dynamic balance training 
interventions. 
H02: There is no significant improvement in the jumping skills of beginner gymnasts (as 
measured by Countermovement Jump and Single-leg Countermovement Jump) following 
static balance training, dynamic balance training, or combined static-dynamic balance training 
interventions. 
Statistical Hypotheses for the Third Part: 

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HA3: Static balance training, dynamic balance training, or combined static-dynamic balance 
training significantly enhances gymnastic performance movements (as measured by Standing 
Single-leg 360 ° turn and Straight jump 360 ° turn), as captured using 3D motion capture 
technology. 
H03: Static balance training, dynamic balance training, or combined static-dynamic balance 
training does not significantly enhance gymnastic performance movements (as measured by 
Standing Single-leg 360 ° turn and Straight jump 360 ° turn), as captured using 3D motion 
capture technology. 
 
1.6 Definitions of Operational Terms 
There operational terms used in this research proposal are shown below： 
Static Balance: 
The ability to regulate the body’s center of gravity in a relatively stationary 
state (Halabchi et al., 2020). 
Dynamic 
Balance: 
The ability to regulate the body’s center of gravity and adjust posture 
during movement (Lu et al., 2022). 
Stability: 
The inherent characteristic of an object to maintain or restore balance and 
avoid tipping over (Abadi Marand et al., 2023). 
Human Stability: 
The inherent ability of the human body, through the motor system, sensory 
system, and individual characteristics, to maintain, achieve, or restore 
balance and prevent falling (Thomas et al., 2019). 
Jump or Leap in 
Gymnastics: 
A skill in which athletes use lower body strength to propel themselves off 
the ground, perform specific movements or postures in the air, and land 
steadily (Suchomel et al., 2016). 
Beginner 
Gymnasts: 
Gymnasts with less than 1 year of systematic training experience in 
gymnastics, have not yet acquired complex gymnastic skills, and are in a 
phase of rapid development regarding fundamental physical fitness and 
motor skills. (Vickers, 1988). 

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Kinesiology in 
Gymnastics: 
Kinesiology in gymnastics mainly describes the characteristics of athletes' 
movements (Al-Jaafreh & Qawaqzeh, 2024). 
Definition of 
Biomechanics in 
Gymnastics: 
Biomechanics in gymnastics combines biological and mechanical 
principles to study the laws of athletes' mechanical movements (Bartlett, 
2014). 
Peak Force: 
During the concentric contraction phase (i.e., from the lowest point of the 
squat during the push-off until just before toe-off), the ground reaction 
force (GRF) gradually increases as the muscles generate force, and the 
highest force value within this phase is defined as the peak force (Kim et 
al., 2022). 
Rate of Force 
Development: 
The rate of force development (RFD) in countermovement jumps refers to 
the rate at which ground reaction force (GRF) changes over time during the 
concentric contraction phase (from the lowest squat point to just before 
takeoff) (Mackala et al., 2013), reflecting the neuromuscular system’s 
ability to generate force rapidly and directly determining explosive takeoff 
power (Djurić et al., 2023). 
Impulse: 
In countermovement jumps, impulse is the accumulation of ground reaction 
force (GRF) over time (the area under the force-time curve) (Claudino et 
al., 2017). Its net impulse (total impulse minus gravitational impulse) 
determines the change in human momentum, directly dictating the takeoff 
velocity and jump height (Painter et al., 2022). 
Center of gravity 
deviation distance 
In rotational movements, the center of gravity deviation distance refers to 
the perpendicular deviation distance of the center of gravity (CoG) relative 
to the rotation axis—the smaller the deviation, the higher the efficiency of 
rotational control (Lee et al., 2021). 
Joint Angle 
variation 
It refers to the dynamic angular changes in each joint relative to the initial 
posture, which regulates the moment of inertia and angular momentum by 
adjusting joint flexion/extension to achieve precise control over rotational 
speed and stability (Moke et al., 2020). 

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Vertical Jump 
Efficiency 
It refers to the ability to convert energy generated by muscle contraction 
(especially the elastic energy stored during the eccentric-concentric 
contraction cycle and the energy from active force generation) into the 
gravitational potential energy required for the vertical displacement of the 
body's center of mass (Kazuaki et al., 2022). 
Landing Impact 
Force 
It refers to the instantaneous peak force generated by the ground reaction 
force (GRF) now the body contacts the ground (Mojaddarasil & Sadigh, 
2021a). 
Body Oscillation 
Amplitude 
It refers to the maximum displacement of the body's center of mass (or 
specific segments) relative to the equilibrium position during dynamic 
movements such as running, jumping, and walking (Pettorossi et al., 2013). 
Rotation 
Smoothness Index 
It is a quantitative index used to evaluate the smoothness of the angular 
velocity time series in rotational movements (such as gymnastic twists and 
figure skating spins) (Sjölander et al., 2008). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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CHAPTER 2 
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.1 Introduction to gymnastics 
Gymnastics is a high-level sport that integrates strength, flexibility, coordination, and artistic 
expression, characterized by complex and diverse movements that demand exceptional 
technical precision (de Gymnastique, 2016). Gymnasts are required to perform a series of 
intricate routines within a limited time, including jumps, rotations, somersaults, and static holds. 
These routines not only require tremendous physical fitness but also demand precise movement 
control and a high level of psychological focus. The scoring system for artistic gymnastics 
considers both the difficulty and execution quality of movements while emphasizing fluidity 
and aesthetic appeal (Leite et al., 2023). As a result, gymnasts must balance the pursuit of 
difficulty with maintaining stability and elegance. Additionally, the training and competition 
environments in artistic gymnastics are often high-pressure, requiring athletes to overcome 
physical limits while facing psychological challenges, demonstrating their resilience and 
concentration. These characteristics make artistic gymnastics not only a highly competitive and 
visually engaging sport but also a comprehensive test of athletes’ physical abilities, 
perseverance, and mental fortitude (Hambas, 2015). 
However, the complexity and high demands of artistic gymnastics pose significant challenges 
for beginners. The training and development of gymnasts is a multidimensional process that 
requires comprehensive improvement in technical skills, physical fitness, and psychological 
abilities. Among these, balance ability is a core quality in gymnastics, as it not only affects the 
stability of movements but also directly correlates with performance success (Szabo, 2021). 
Research has shown that gymnasts need long-term, systematic training in balance, flexibility, 
and explosive strength to meet the demands of high-intensity and complex movements. 
Moreover, psychological resilience and focus play a critical role in gymnastics, especially in 
high-pressure competitive environments, where athletes rely on these traits to maintain peak 
performance (Mahoney & Avener, 1977). These capabilities typically require years of 
professional training and competitive experience to develop, with elite gymnasts demonstrating 

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notable advantages in these domains. In contrast, beginner gymnasts often exhibit relatively 
weaker proficiency in these aspects, necessitating targeted training programs to enhance their 
performance (Calmels et al., 2003). 
Beginner gymnasts represent a unique cohort in gymnastics training, often characterized by 
underdeveloped foundational skills, insufficient movement stability, and limited psychological 
adaptability. Research indicates that beginners frequently encounter issues such as poor 
coordination, recurrent movement errors, and low execution efficiency when acquiring 
gymnastics skills (Vickers, 1996). Compared to elite gymnasts, beginners exhibit significant 
deficiencies in core strength, center-of-gravity control, and flexibility—deficits that directly 
constrain their jumping performance and dynamic stability (Sloanhoffer et al., 2018). 
Furthermore, beginners are more vulnerable to external distractions and psychological pressure, 
rendering it challenging to maintain consistency and stability during training and competition. 
To address these limitations, research suggests that balance training, as a foundational 
intervention, not only enhances the movement stability of beginners but also establishes a solid 
basis for the subsequent development of more complex skills (Lesinski et al., 2015). Therefore, 
training for beginners should prioritize the improvement of balance and coordination abilities 
while progressively integrating the development of other skills. 
 
2.2 Athlete Technical Level Grading System 
The sports grading system in higher education institutions serves as a crucial criterion for 
evaluating athletes’ technical skills and competitive abilities (Tanner & Gore, 2012). This 
system not only provides scientific support for the cultivation and selection of athletes but also 
establishes a systematic evaluation framework for sports education institutions (Thompson et 
al., 2022). According to the Regulations on the Management of Athlete Technical Levels, 
sports grades are classified into International Master of Sports, Master of Sports, First-Class 
Athlete, Second-Class Athlete, and Third-Class Athlete (Fukuda, 2019). These classifications 
are primarily based on athletes’ performance in official competitions, reflecting a hierarchical 
progression from basic to advanced competitive abilities (Wang & Shan, 2023). 
The evaluation criteria for sports grades are uniformly formulated by the General 
Administration of Sport of China and are specifically adjusted based on the characteristics of 

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different sports (Novokshanova & Nikityuk, 2024). The certificates for athlete technical levels 
are issued by authorized institutions of the General Administration of Sport of China, with 
different organizations responsible for different levels (Mitten & Davis, 2008). Certificates for 
International Masters of Sports and Masters of Sports are issued by the General Administration 
of Sport’s directly affiliated sports project management centers, while First-Class Athlete 
certificates are issued by provincial sports bureaus or authorized entities. Second- and Third-
Class Athlete certificates are usually issued by local sports bureaus or universities (Park, 2024). 
For example, Beijing Sport University, as an authorized institution by the General 
Administration of Sport, is responsible for awarding the corresponding certificates to eligible 
athletes. All certificates follow a unified numbering system, which includes the year of issuance, 
organization code, serial number, and grade code, ensuring standardized and consistent 
management (Koopmann et al., 2020). 
As a leading institution in sports education, Beijing Sport University strictly adheres to the 
requirements of the General Administration of Sport for evaluating athlete technical levels 
(Chenyi et al., 2024). Its Implementation Rules for the Management of Athlete Technical 
Levels clearly stipulate the application conditions, evaluation procedures, and certificate 
issuance requirements, ensuring the scientific and rigorous execution of the evaluation process 
(Hong et al., 2005). The evaluation of sports grades holds significant value for athletes, serving 
as an authoritative certification of their technical skills and competitive level and as a symbol 
of honor (Dorn, 2009). Furthermore, obtaining an athlete technical level certificate provides 
more career opportunities. For instance, many non-sports background students achieve Second- 
or Third-Class Athlete titles by participating in specialized training and university-level 
competitions (Hudson & Frank, 2024). Additionally, sports grade evaluations are also an 
essential criterion for sports university admissions, offering athletes more pathways for 
academic advancement and career development (Livingston, 2014). Table 1 is the polished 
version of the introduction to the competitive gymnastics’ sports levels. 

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Table 1: Gymnasts' Sport Certification Levels 
Competitive Gymnastics Level 
Certificate 
competition 
Authorized/Issuing Organization 
International Master of Sports 
Achieve a ranking within the top 24 in individual all-around or top 8 in individual events or team 
competitions in major international events such as the Olympic Games or World Championships. 
Sports Project Management Center directly 
under the General Administration of Sport 
of China 
National Master of Sports 
1.Rank within the top 12 in team events at the Olympic Games or World Championships. 
2.Rank within the top 6 in team events, top 24 in individual all-around, or top 8 in individual events 
at the World University Games, Asian Games, or East Asian Games. 
3.Achieve an individual all-around score of at least 51 points for men or 34 points for women, or rank 
within the top 3 in individual events at the National Games, National Gymnastics Championships, or 
National Gymnastics Cup. 
Sports Project Management Center directly 
under the General Administration of Sport 
of China 
National First-Class Athlete 
1.National Games or National Championships: Top 36 in individual all-around qualification, top 16 
in individual events, or top 12 in team events. 
2.National Cup: Top 36 in individual all-around, or top 16 in individual events. 
3.National Youth Games: Ranked 13th to 24th in individual all-around finals, top 8 in team events, 
or top 12 in individual event qualifications. 
4.National Youth Championships: Ranked 9th to 24th in individual all-around finals, top 12 in 
individual event qualifications, or top 8 in team events. 
5.National Junior Gymnastics Competition: Girls aged 9-10 scoring 49 points, girls aged 11-12 
scoring 48 points; boys aged 9-12 scoring 75 points (excluding trampoline scores). 
Provincial Sports Bureaus or Authorized 
Units 
National Second-Class Athlete 
Participation in city-level competitions or sports university campus competitions with designated 
routines: 
1.Male athletes: Achieve top 2 in individual events and a total score of at least 33 points (participating 
in 4 out of 6 designated events). 
2.Female athletes: Achieve top 2 in individual events and a total score of at least 25 points 
(participating in 3 out of 4 designated events). 
Managed by Local Sports Bureaus or 
Universities 
National Third-Class Athlete 
Participation in county-level competitions or sports university campus competitions with designated 
routines: 
1.Male athletes: Achieve top 6 in individual events and a total score of at least 32 points across 4 
events (vault, horizontal bar, parallel bars, floor exercise). 
2.Female athletes: Achieve top 6 in individual events and a total score of at least 21 points across 3 
events (floor exercise, horizontal bar, balance beam). 
Managed by Local Sports Bureaus or 
Universities 
 

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2.3 Different types of balance training 
 
Balance ability is critical for maintaining daily activities and sports performance, particularly in 
preventing falls in the elderly, rehabilitation therapy, and injury prevention for athletes (Howe et 
al., 2011). In recent years, various types of balance training, including static, dynamic, and 
functional balance training, have garnered significant research attention.  
 
2.3.1 Static Balance Training 
Static balance ability, as the biological cornerstone of the gymnastics movement chain, essentially 
achieves precise alignment between the center of gravity projection and the support surface 
through neuromuscular regulation, providing a stable mechanical interface for dynamic 
movements. Classical theories indicate that the maintenance of human static balance relies on a 
multi-level control system: isometric contraction of ankle muscles forms the primary stabilizing 
torque, tonic contraction of core muscles constructs a rigid trunk structure, and the cerebellum-
basal ganglia circuit integrates proprioceptive and vestibular information to correct postural 
deviations (Peng et al., 2022). This regulatory mechanism exhibits special manifestations in 
gymnastics-specific skills—during handstands on the balance beam, athletes must finely adjust 
plantar pressure distribution to keep the vertical line of the center of gravity within the narrow 
support surface while activating scapular stabilizing muscles to maintain the integrity of the upper 
limb mechanical chain (Hrysomallis, 2011). The International Gymnastics scoring system imposes 
strict requirements on the standardization of such static postures, explicitly incorporating 
indicators like body axis deviation and support surface sway into deduction criteria, establishing 
the technical weight of static balance ability from the dimension of competitive rules (Floría et al., 
2015). 
Empirical observations of Chinese beginner athletes reveal that movement errors often originate 
from center-of-gravity control defects during the static preparation phase, manifested as low 
energy transfer efficiency caused by unstable pre-takeoff postures (Caron et al., 2000). This 
phenomenon highlights the dual functions of static balance in the movement chain: first, as a 

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mechanical fulcrum for dynamic bursts, it enhances the utilization of ground reaction forces by 
optimizing joint alignment; second, it establishes trunk rigidity through pre-activation of core 
muscles, creating ideal conditions for angular momentum transfer in aerial movements (Kibler & 
Sciascia, 2016). Traditional training emphasizes duration-based static posture exercises but 
ignores the environmental specificity of neural adaptation—repetitive practice on fixed planes may 
strengthen isometric contraction capabilities of specific muscle groups but weaken the nervous 
system’s adaptive regulation to dynamic perturbations (Deschenes & Stock, 2022). This limitation 
is particularly pronounced in beginner groups, whose motor cortices have not yet formed complete 
cross-task control strategies, making them prone to developing "static isolated adaptation" in 
technical movements. 
Modern training theory proposes an improved "static-dynamic ordered coupling" approach: using 
static balance as a foundational anchor, gradually introducing dynamic disturbances to facilitate 
the migration of stability to functional movements (Lv et al., 2022). Its physiological essence lies 
in: optimizing support surface pressure distribution through slow muscle fiber tension maintenance 
during the static phase, while activating elastic potential energy reserves of fast muscle fibers 
during the dynamic phase, with both phases synergistically enhancing the neuromuscular system’s 
multi-task adaptation ability (Bishop et al., 2021). Take vault training as an example: athletes first 
establish shoulder-hip-ankle force line alignment in static handstands, then perform progressive 
takeoff exercises to prompt the nervous system to transform static stability into dynamic control 
strategies. The key to this training model is maintaining the mechanical continuity of static-
dynamic transitions to avoid the movement chain fragmentation caused by traditional methods 
(Guo et al., 2025). 
Biomechanical studies further confirm a significant positive correlation between static balance 
ability and dynamic performance (Karimi & Solomonidis, 2011). When athletes achieve effective 
force line alignment in static postures, their joint torque output efficiency and movement economy 
during dynamic phases are systematically improved (Jackson et al., 2019). This gain effect stems 
from the reconstruction of neuromuscular control: static training strengthens spinal-level reflex 

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regulation pathways, while dynamic challenges activate the predictive control functions of the 
cortex-cerebellum pathway (Nunes et al., 2023). Longitudinal studies on Chinese adolescents 
show that systematic static-dynamic combined training significantly reduces static error rates on 
the balance beam while improving jump height and landing stability in vaulting movements, 
highlighting the method’s special suitability for beginner groups (Ratamess, 2021). Table 2 
summarizes the static - balance training content in gymnastics, the instruments utilized for training, 
and key outcomes.

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Table 2: Summary of the static balance training programme 
Author 
Country 
Population 
Research 
design 
Intervention 
time 
Training content 
Instruments 
Used 
Test content 
Outcome 
Cabrejas et al., 2022 
Spanish 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=44 
Sex = Female 
Age: 10.5±1.8 
Control group: 21 years 
Experimental group: 23 
RCT 
8 
weeks, 
3 
times 
per 
week, 
40 
minutes 
each 
time 
1. 
Plank support (standard plank 
support.) 
2. 
Lateral 
Plank 
Support, 
Dynamic Support (e.g. Leg Raise)) 
3. 
Core curls (including stability 
ball curls and hanging leg raises) 
4. 
Single leg support training 
(single leg stand or squat on an 
unstable surface (e.g. balance mat)) 
5. 
Dynamic core stability training 
(e.g. Russian Twists or medicine ball 
rotational throws) 
1.Bosu ball 
2.Hanging 
equipment 
3.Balance mat 
1.Biomechanical 
indicators  
2. Muscle activity 
1. Decreases in the area of center of pressure 
displacement: indicate that subjects have 
significantly improved body stability in static 
balance tasks. 
2. Increased muscle activity: the coordination and 
activation efficiency of core muscle groups (such 
as abdominal muscles, back muscles) are 
improved, further supporting the balance control 
ability. 
Muehlbauer et al., 2024 
German 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=44 
Sex=Male/Female: 
22/20 
Age: 9.6±0.5 years 
Control group: 22 
Experimental group: 20 
RCT 
6 
weeks, 
2 
times 
per 
week, 
30 
minutes 
each 
time 
1. Single-Leg Stance (Single-Leg 
Stance) 
2. Single-Leg Stance with eyes 
closed. 
3.Unstable Balance Board Stability. 
Unstable board 
1. Static balance indicators 
- Single - leg stance 
duration (seconds) - Eyes - 
closed single - leg stance 
sway amplitude 
2. Dynamic balance on 
unstable 
board 
(time 
maintained, 
times 
of 
adjustment) 
1. Static balance: The time of single - leg standing 
with eyes open and closed is significantly 
prolonged, and the body offset amplitude when 
eyes 
are 
closed 
decreases, 
indicating 
the 
enhancement of static postural control ability. 
2. Dynamic balance: The time maintained on an 
unstable board increase, and the number of 
adjustments decreases, reflecting the improvement 
of balance adaptation ability in a dynamic 
environment. 
Gonener & Gonener, 
2020 
Istanbul 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=40 
Sex=Female 
Age：7 years 
Control group：20 
Experimental group：20 
RCT 
8 
weeks, 
3 
times 
per 
week, 
40 
minutes 
each 
time 
1. 
Single-leg 
stand 
(Single-leg 
Stance) 
2. Close your eyes or strap small 
weights to your legs to increase the 
difficulty. 
3. 
Double-leg 
Balance 
Hold 
（Double-leg Balance Hold） 
Small 
weight 
straps 
(for 
adding 
resistance 
to 
legs) 
1. 
Dynamic 
balance 
adjustment 
frequency 
(times during task) 
2. 
Postural 
sway 
displacement 
during 
double - leg balance hold3. 
Single - leg stance stability 
(variance of center of 
pressure) 
1.Dynamic 
balance 
adjustment 
frequency 
decreases: Subjects can maintain balance more 
efficiently in dynamic tasks and reduce body sway. 
2.Postural sway displacement decreases: Body 
stability is improved during bipedal balance. 
3. Variance of the center of pressure decreases: 
Center of gravity control is more precise during 
single - leg standing, and static balance ability is 
significantly improved.  
The yellow section indicates that the article is a combination of static and dynamic balances and compares the individual balance  
 

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2.3.2 Dynamic Balance Training 
Dynamic balance ability, as a core element of gymnastics performance and safety, derives its 
significance from the spatiotemporal complexity of gymnastic movement systems—athletes must 
consecutively execute multiple tasks in three-dimensional space, including support surface 
transitions, momentum transfer, and postural regulation, which imposes extreme demands on the 
real-time adaptability of the neuromuscular system (Malíř et al., 2023). From a biomechanical 
perspective, the essence of dynamic balance lies in the human body’s ability to maintain the 
spatiotemporal consistency between the center of gravity trajectory and the expected movement 
path through the coordination of feedforward control and feedback regulation during motion 
(Horak, 2006). The specialized characteristics of gymnastics push this demand to the extreme: the 
10 cm-wide support surface of the balance beam compresses the allowable offset range of the 
center of pressure (COP) under the foot to 1/5 of that in normal gait (Jemni, 2017); the vault takeoff 
phase requires the kinetic chain to transition from horizontal running to vertical leaping within 
0.25 seconds, where any dynamic balance deficiency will lead to kinetic energy leakage and axis 
deviation; and the tumbling and twisting combinations in floor exercises demand that athletes 
maintain aerial posture control through proprioceptive remapping under semicircular canal 
stimulation without visual reference (Plessa et al., 2010). This stringent biomechanical 
environment makes dynamic balance ability a key indicator for distinguishing competitive 
levels—according to the (De Gymnastique, 2006), over 60% of deduction items are directly related 
to postural stability during dynamic phases, including insufficient takeoff height, excessive landing 
adjustment steps, and twisting axis drift. 
The regulation of dynamic balance on movement completion quality is manifested in two 
dimensions: energy transfer efficiency and neural coordination (Neptune & Vistamehr, 2018). 
During vault takeoff, the eccentric-concentric contraction transition of the lower limb extensor 
muscles requires precise timing control: premature activation causes the peak of ground reaction 
force (GRF) to shift forward, reducing vertical impulse; delayed activation leads to knee 

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hyperextension and energy dissipation (Barreto et al., 2023). High-level athletes can significantly 
reduce the COP trajectory fluctuations during the takeoff preparation phase through anticipatory 
postural adjustments established via dynamic balance training, ensuring optimal matching between 
the momentum transfer direction and the target movement (Alghadir et al., 2020). In the tumbling 
techniques of floor exercises, dynamic balance ability optimizes the linkage pattern of the trunk-
pelvis-lower limbs, making the angular momentum distribution between the sagittal and coronal 
planes more reasonable—this mechanism, known as "dynamic axial stabilization," can reduce the 
energy consumption required for mid-air posture correction and reserve biomechanical resources 
for subsequent movement transitions (Akın, 2013). Neuroscience research further reveals that elite 
gymnasts exhibit enhanced functional connectivity between the cerebellum and parietal cortex 
during dynamic tasks, a neuroplastic change that enables them to more quickly integrate visual, 
vestibular, and proprioceptive information for efficient sensorimotor processing (E. G. Fotiadou 
et al., 2009). 
In the field of injury prevention, dynamic balance ability constructs a biomechanical protection 
system through a triple mechanism: firstly, enhancing the proprioceptive acuity of the ankle joint 
to improve the strain response efficiency during sudden inversion; second, optimizing the co-
contraction pattern of the lower limb muscles to control knee valgus torque within a safe range 
during landing impact (Sibley et al., 2015); secondly, improving the pre-activation timing of core 
muscles to maintain spinal rigidity through the tonic contraction of the transverse abdominis and 
multifidus, reducing asymmetric loading on the lumbar intervertebral discs (Akuthota et al., 2008). 
Table 3 summarizes the dynamic - balance training content in gymnastics, the instruments utilized 
for training, and key outcomes.

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Table 3: Summary of the dynamic balance training programme 
Author, Year 
Country 
Subject Characteristics 
Research 
design 
Intervention time 
Training content 
Instruments 
Used 
Test content 
Outcome 
Muehlbauer et al., 
2024 
German 
Artistic gymnasts  
N=44 
Sex=Male/Female: 22/20 
Age: 9.6±0.5 years 
Control group: 22 
Experimental group: 20 
RCT 
6 weeks, 2 times per 
week, 30 minutes 
each time 
1.Single-Leg Stance 
2.Single-Leg Stance 
with eyes closed. 
3.Balance Board 
Stability. 
Unstable 
board 
1. Static balance indicators - 
Single - leg stance duration 
(seconds) - Eyes - closed 
single - leg stance sway 
amplitude 
2. Dynamic balance 
1. Static balance: The time of single - leg standing 
with eyes open and closed is significantly 
prolonged, and the body offset amplitude when 
eyes 
are 
closed 
decreases, 
indicating 
the 
enhancement of static postural control ability. 
2. Dynamic balance: The time maintained on an 
unstable board increase, and the number of 
adjustments decreases, reflecting the improvement 
of balance adaptation ability in a dynamic 
environment. 
Kenville et al., 
2021 
America 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=19 
Sex = Female 
Age: 6-18 years 
Control group: 10 
Experimental group: 9 
RCT 
8 weeks, 2 times per 
week 
1.Single-Leg 
Balance 
Exercises 
Advanced: eyes closed, 
incorporating 
unstable 
surfaces  
2.Dynamic 
Balance 
Drills.  
3.Star Balance Drill.  
4.Jumping and Landing 
Control 
1. Balance 
board 
2. Unstable 
surface 
1.Postural 
stability 
parameters 
2. Dynamic balance ability 
3. Neuromuscular control 
indices 
1. Postural stability: 
Single-leg 
(eyes-closed/unstable) 
balance 
exercises enhance core-lower limb coordination, 
reducing sway and improving static/dynamic 
stability. 
2. Unstable surface control: 
Balance pad training boosts proprioception, 
increasing balance duration and decreasing 
adjustments. 
3. Neuromuscular control: 
Star 
balance/jump-landing 
drills 
improve 
neuromuscular rapid response. 
Gonener & 
Gonener, 2020 
Istanbul 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=40 
Sex = Female 
Age: 7 years 
Control group: 20 
Experimental group: 20 
RCT 
8 weeks, 3 times 
per week, 40 
minutes each time 
1.One-legged 
standing 
on unstable equipment 
such as balance boards 
and foam mats 
2.Dynamic 
movement 
and 
balance 
control 
exercises 
Unstable 
surface 
1. Dynamic balance ability 
2.Postural sway parameters 
3. Functional performance 
1.Dynamic 
balance 
adjustment 
frequency 
decreases: Subjects can maintain balance more 
efficiently in dynamic tasks and reduce body sway. 
2.Postural sway displacement decreases: Body 
stability is improved during bipedal balance. 
3. Variance of the center of pressure decreases: 
Center of gravity control is more precise during 
single - leg standing, and static balance ability is 
significantly improved. 

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2.3.3 Functional Balance Training 
Functional balance training simulates dynamic actions in daily or sports scenarios to enhance 
balance ability. (Gusi et al., 2012) reported that functional balance training, incorporating virtual 
reality (VR), effectively improved older adults’ balance and task execution in real-life settings. 
(Hirase et al., 2015)also noted that task-oriented balance training could improve gait and posture 
control in stroke patients, accelerating the rehabilitation process.In high-intensity athletic 
populations, (Muehlbauer et al., 2013) emphasized that combining functional balance training with 
plyometric training significantly enhanced athletes’ explosive power and dynamic balance, 
optimizing performance. 
 
2.3.4 Technology-Assisted Balance Training 
Technological advancements have opened new avenues for balance training, such as virtual reality 
(VR) and robot-assisted balance training. (Wulf et al., 2010) emphasized that VR-based balance 
training not only increased engagement but also significantly improved training outcomes. 
(Donath et al., 2016) demonstrated that VR technology combined with real-time biofeedback 
effectively enhanced balance recovery in patients with nervous system injuries. Wearable sensor 
technology also supports monitoring and feedback in balance training. (Gordt et al., 2018) 
developed a gravity sensor-based balance training device that significantly improved training 
efficiency through real-time feedback. 
 
2.3.5 Compound Balance Training 
In the field of sports training, balance ability is crucial for athletes' performance, and researchers 
have long been seeking more effective balance training methods. A wealth of studies indicate that 
rationally combining static and dynamic training can yield a synergistic effect, effectively 
enhancing an individual's balance ability and sports performance (Ibáñez-Gijón et al., 2017; 
Lesinski et al., 2015). The "Stepped Balance Training" model offers a new direction for compound 

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balance training. When applied to the training of beginner gymnasts, it follows a three-stage 
approach: 30-second single-leg standing for static postural control training, then dynamic 
transition training of stepping on a balance pad, and finally compound movement training of 
single-leg standing with eyes closed followed by a spinning jump (Robnik et al., 2021). Other 
relevant research also provides theoretical support and practical evidence for compound balance 
training. For example, specific compound balance training can significantly improve the balance 
function of the elderly and reduce the risk of falls (Wolfson et al., 1993), and (Kibler et al., 2006) 
has confirmed that it can enhance the on - court adaptability and balance stability of basketball 
players. This type of compound balance training is related to the development of the rapid 
switching ability of the vestibular - visual - proprioceptive system. The vestibular system senses 
head movements, the visual system provides environmental information, and the proprioceptive 
system reports the body's state, with these three systems coordinating to assist athletes in 
maintaining balance during rapid body position changes (Sherrington et al., 2008). In summary, 
compound balance training, especially the "Stepped Balance Training" model, is of great 
significance for gymnastic movements that demand rapid body position changes, enabling athletes 
to better meet the movement requirements and elevate their competitive performance (Yoshida et 
al., 2023). 
 
2.4 Balance in Gymnastics 
Balance is a fundamental ability in human movement, essential not only for daily activities but 
also as a core element in high-level athletic performance. In the early 20th century, balance was 
first defined as a measurable physiological phenomenon, with (Ting & McKay, 2007) conducting 
in-depth research on its neuromuscular control mechanisms. In gymnastics, balance plays a crucial 
role throughout every stage of movement, especially in complex actions such as flips and twists, 
where its importance becomes particularly evident. During mid-air execution, athletes rely on 
proprioceptive cues to perceive their body position and make anticipatory adjustments, ensuring 

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proper orientation and posture before ground contact (Gauchard et al., 1999). Upon landing, 
balance directly determines the quality of performance and the athlete’s safety. Precise motor 
control and effective management of ground reaction forces enable athletes to quickly stabilize 
their bodies, preventing errors or injuries (Cho et al., 2014).The realization of balance depends on 
the dynamic collaboration of three primary systems: the vestibular system (inner ear), visual input, 
and proprioceptive feedback. The vestibular system provides information about head position and 
movement, visual input assists in spatial localization, and proprioceptive feedback conveys the 
body’s position relative to the environment (Tchoumi, 2023). These sensory systems interact with 
central nervous structures, such as the cerebellum, to collectively adjust postural stability and 
movement patterns (Marchese et al., 2020). 

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2.5 Testing Protocols for Jumping Ability in Gymnastics 
Gymnastic jumping movements can be systematically partitioned into three distinct phases: the 
take - off phase, the flight phase, and the landing phase. Each phase is characterized by unique 
biomechanical properties that exert a profound influence on the overall performance of 
gymnasts during jumps. 
 
2.5.1 Take - off Phase 
The take - off phase serves as the inception of a jump. During this phase, gymnasts generate 
upward propulsion by harnessing the explosive power of their lower limbs and capitalizing on 
the ground reaction force (GRF). As elaborated by (Harrison et al., 2004), the quality of the 
take - off not only determines the vertical height attained during the jump but also significantly 
impacts the stability and execution of subsequent movements. The intricate coordination 
among different joints, as emphasized by (Morin et al., 2011), is of paramount importance for 
optimizing the force output during take - off. 
In the present study, to ensure the accurate and comprehensive acquisition of data related to 
the take - off phase, a state - of - the - art Kistler 9287CA force platform with a sampling 
frequency of 1000 Hz was employed in tandem with a Vicon MX - T40 motion capture system 
(Parkman, 2022). The Vicon system, equipped with 12 high - precision cameras operating at a 
sampling frequency of 200 Hz, enabled the synchronous collection of both the ground reaction 
force and detailed kinematic data (Merriaux et al., 2017). This combination of advanced 
equipment allowed for a meticulous analysis of the take - off mechanics. 
Several key performance indicators are commonly utilized to evaluate the take - off 
performance. Jump height (measured in cm) serves as a direct quantification of the vertical 
displacement, thereby reflecting the explosive power of the athlete's lower limbs (Jarvis et al., 
2022). Peak force (measured in N) represents the maximum magnitude of the ground reaction 
force generated during the take - off process. It is a core metric for assessing the athlete's force 
- generating capacity (Ortega et al., 2010). Relative peak force (expressed as N·kg⁻¹) 
normalizes the peak force with respect to the athlete's body weight. This normalization 
procedure is crucial as it enables a fair comparison of the take - off performance across 
gymnasts with varying body sizes (Bogdanis et al., 2019). 

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Peak power (measured in W) is a composite metric that integrates both force and velocity, 
providing a comprehensive measure of the explosive power exerted during take – off (Vanezis 
& Lees, 2005). Peak velocity (measured in m·s⁻¹) denotes the highest speed attained during the 
take - off phase. This parameter is critical as it determines the fluidity of the aerial movements 
and the duration of the athlete's time in the air (Barker et al., 2018). The rate of force 
development (RFD, measured in N·s⁻¹) quantifies the speed at which the force is generated 
during take - off. It is a critical determinant of the athlete's explosive strength capabilities 
(Mackala et al., 2013). Impulse (measured in N·s), which accounts for the product of force and 
the time interval over which it acts, has a direct bearing on the stability and continuity of the 
jump (Cabrejas et al., 2023). 
 
2.5.2 Flight Phase 
The flight phase is characterized by the need for gymnasts to maintain a high degree of balance 
and coordination. This is essential for ensuring the smooth execution of aerial maneuvers and 
for preparing the body optimally for the subsequent landing phase. The design and execution 
of aerial actions play a pivotal role in guaranteeing the stability and safety of the landing 
(Gollhofer & Bruhn, 2003). Precise control of body orientation and movement during the flight 
phase can significantly influence the success of the landing. 
 
2.5.3 Landing Phase 
The landing phase demands the highest level of balance and stability from gymnasts. The 
magnitude and distribution of the ground reaction force during landing have a profound impact 
on the stability of the landing and are closely associated with the risk of potential injuries (Xiao 
et al., 2017). To ensure a stable landing, gymnasts must exercise precise control over their 
center of mass (COM) to prevent any significant deviations beyond the base of support (BOS). 
As pointed out by (Park et al., 2008), maintaining balance during landing is of utmost 
importance, and any loss of balance can lead to suboptimal landings or even injuries. 
For the landing - phase testing in this study, a 10 - cm standard jump box was set up in strict 
accordance with the standards promulgated by the International Gymnastics Federation 

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(Niespodziński et al., 2021). This standardized setup allowed for a consistent and reliable 
evaluation of gymnasts' landing performance. 
The landing process can be further dissected into three sub - stages. The deceleration stage 
involves the absorption of the impact forces generated upon landing through the controlled 
flexion of the knee and ankle joints. If the GRF is excessively large and not adequately buffered, 
it can lead to various joint - related injuries (McKay et al., 2001). The balance adjustment stage 
follows, during which the central nervous system rapidly modulates the relationship between 
the COM and the BOS. This process is highly dependent on the rapid activation of the 
quadriceps and gastrocnemius muscles, as reported by (Griffin et al., 2006). Finally, in the 
stabilization stage, gymnasts are required to swiftly adjust their body postures to maintain the 
COM within the BOS, thereby preventing falls or forward tilts. At this stage, both static and 
dynamic balance rely heavily on the strength of the lower - limb muscles and the athlete's 
proprioceptive sense (Rossignol et al., 2006). 
The stability during landing can be comprehensively evaluated using a suite of metrics, 
including landing impact force (N), COM displacement (Holden et al., 2016), landing time (s), 
and postural control. These metrics can be accurately measured and analyzed through advanced 
techniques such as 3D motion capture and video analysis (Christoforidou et al., 2017; 
Cleveland, 2011; Reily et al., 2017). Additionally, the dynamic balance ability of gymnasts can 
be effectively assessed using methods like the 8 - point star offset test. This test is designed to 
evaluate an athlete's adaptability and balance control in multiple directions under dynamic 
conditions (Ringhof & Stein, 2018). 
By integrating the performance metrics across the take - off, flight, and landing phases, a 
comprehensive and in - depth understanding of gymnastic jumping mechanics can be achieved. 
This knowledge base provides invaluable insights for optimizing training regimens, enhancing 
gymnastic performance, and minimizing the risk of injuries during training and competition. 
Table 4 summarizes the published research the tests of jumping skills in gymnastics, the testing 
instruments utilized, and key outcomes.

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Table 4: Summary of the jumping ability test programme 
Author 
Country 
Population 
Study 
design 
testing time 
Testing Instruments 
Test content 
Outcome 
Feng et al., 
2024 
German 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=54 
Sex = Female 
Age: 15.4 ± 1.2 years 
Control group: 18 
Experimental group: 18/18 
RCT 
Baseline 
Measurement 
End of experiment 
week 8 test 
1. Force Plate 
2. Photoelectric timing 
system or vertical jump 
test equipment 
3. High-Speed Camera 
1.Squat Jump (SJ) 
2.Countermovement Jump (CMJ） 
3.Reactive Strength Index (RSI） 
1. Increased vertical jump height: Lower limb 
explosive strength training (e.g., squat jumps, 
countermovement jumps) may significantly 
enhance vertical jump height. 
2. RSI improvement: Training targeting 
reactive strength (e.g., plyometric training) 
may enhance muscle elasticity, shorten 
ground contact time, and improve jump 
efficiency. 
3. Optimized force output: Force plate data 
show an accelerated rate of force 
development, indicating improved 
neuromuscular coordination. 
Bogdanis et al., 
2019 
Greece 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=50 
Sex = Female 
Age:  
EG=28.7 ± 5.8 years 
CG=27.5 ± 6.0 years 
Control group: 17 
Experimental group: 33 
RCT 
Baseline 
Measurement 
End of experiment 
week 8 test 
1. Force Plate 
2. Photoelectric timing 
system or vertical jump 
test equipment 
1. Jumping performance: 
Single-leg and double-leg reverse jump 
(CMJ) 
Deep squat jump (SJ) 
Standing long jump (SLJ) 
Drop jump (DJ) 
2. Sprint speed: 
10 meters and 20 meters straight-line 
sprint tests 
3. Change of direction speed 
3. 5+5 meters and 10+10 meters 180° 
turning run test 
1. Enhanced jumping ability: Multi-
directional jump training (e.g., standing long 
jump, drop jump) may improve lower limb 
explosive power, increasing both jump height 
and distance. 
2. Improved sprint speed: Short-distance 
sprint training combined with strength 
exercises may shorten sprint time. 
3. Optimized agility: Direction change 
training (e.g., 180-degree turn running) may 
enhance change-of-direction speed and 
movement coordination. 
Ma et al., 2024 
Polish 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=73 
Sex = Female 
Age: 16.2 ± 1.3 years 
Control group: 25 
Experimental group: 24/24 
RCT 
Baseline 
Measurement 
End of experiment 
week 8 test 
Force Plate 
Countermovement Jump Test (CMJ): 
assesses vertical jumping height and lower 
limb explosive power. 
1. Significantly increased vertical jump 
height: Specific training for 
countermovement jumps may optimize the 
force generation efficiency of lower limb 
extensor muscles. 
2. Enhanced explosive strength: Force plate 
data show increased peak power, indicating 
the enhanced ability of muscles to generate 
greater force in a short period. 

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2.6 Stability capability 
Stability refers to the body's ability to maintain or quickly restore balance when subjected to 
internal and external forces. It is generally categorized into static stability and dynamic stability, 
which respectively describe balance in stationary and moving states (Eleni G Fotiadou et al., 
2009; Gebel et al., 2020). In gymnastics, stability is a fundamental element for athletes to 
perform precise movements and is closely related to their performance and safety. 
Stability directly affects gymnasts' ability to execute complex skills. For example, during 
balance beam routines, athletes must precisely control their center of gravity (COG) to avoid 
falling or deviating from the intended movement trajectory (Leetun et al., 2004). Moreover, 
enhanced stability can effectively reduce the stress on muscles and joints, thereby decreasing 
the risk of injury (Promsri et al., 2021) (Ayala et al., 2024). This makes stability of crucial 
importance in gymnastics and other sports that require high - intensity strength output and 
precise coordination, serving as a key factor in improving competitive performance (McGill, 
2010). 
To enhance stability, gymnasts can adopt various strategies. Maintaining a stable center of 
gravity (COG) through awareness and targeted training, as highlighted by (Norwood et al., 
2007) and (Kibler et al., 2006), is critical for improving balance and preventing deviations. 
Task decomposition training—breaking complex movements into simpler components—
enables athletes to better master motions, enhance stability, and reduce execution difficulty 
(Land et al., 2013). Moreover, core - strength training focusing on key muscles like the rectus 
abdominis, transverse abdominis, and erector spinae offers better support and stability during 
challenging routines (Sternlicht et al., 2007); (de Bruin et al., 2021). 
In gymnastics, stability during the jumping and landing phases is of utmost importance. 
Landing stability reflects the body's ability to absorb impact forces and maintain balance, with 
key test metrics including: Landing Impact Force (N), which measures the ground reaction 
force (GRF) at the moment of landing and directly demonstrates an athlete's capacity to absorb 
impact forces (Seegmiller & McCaw, 2003); Center of Mass Displacement, which evaluates 
the movement of the center of gravity (COG) during landing—the smaller the displacement, 
the higher the stability (Dingenen et al., 2016); Landing Time (s), which refers to the time 
required for the body to stabilize after touching the ground and reflects the athlete's recovery 
speed (Nazari & Hooi, 2019); and Postural Control, which uses 3D motion capture or video 
analysis techniques to assess the stability and coordination of various body parts during landing 
(Müller et al., 2017). 

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Stability testing also includes dynamic balance assessments, such as the 8 - Point Star Offset 
Test. This test mainly evaluates the athlete's dynamic balance and adaptability in multiple 
directions, especially in complex and multi - task environments (Yoon et al., 2020). By 
incorporating these metrics into the stability assessment system, a comprehensive and in - depth 
analysis of gymnasts' performance can be achieved, providing valuable references for 
improving execution accuracy, reducing the risk of injury, and optimizing training programs 
(Daly et al., 2001). 
It is worth noting that according to the Dynamic Systems Theory (Flam & Powell, 2009), the 
stability of gymnastic landings is essentially a self-organizing process of movement 
coordination patterns. When the center of mass (COM) deviation exceeds the critical threshold 
(usually 15% - 20% of the projected area of the base of support, BOS), the human system will 
be adjusted through a series of cascade reactions of ankle - hip - stepping strategies (Williams 
et al., 2016). Beginner athletes often experience regulatory failures due to neuromuscular 
delays (an average of 180–220 milliseconds), which well explains why their landing error rate 
is 3.2 times higher than that of elite athletes (Wesley et al., 2015). This theory further reveals 
the complex mechanisms behind the stability of gymnastic landings and is interrelated with the 
previously mentioned stability strategies and testing metrics. For example, when conducting 
center-of-gravity control training, athletes can, based on the Dynamic Systems Theory, be 
clearer about how to reasonably adjust their body movements upon landing to avoid the COM 
deviation exceeding the critical threshold, thereby improving landing stability. Coaches can 
also refer to this theory when designing task-decomposition training. In view of the 
neuromuscular delay problem of beginner athletes, they can develop more targeted training 
steps to gradually improve the athletes' self-adjustment ability during landing (Gittoes & Irwin, 
2012). 
Table 5 summarizes the published research the tests related to stability in gymnastics, the 
testing instruments employed, and key outcomes. 
 

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Table 5: Summary of the stability test programme 
Author 
Country 
Population 
Study 
design 
Testing time 
Testing Instruments 
Test content 
Outcome 
Ma et al., 
2024 
China 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=40 
Sex = Female/male: No 
details on the exact quantity 
Age: 16-18 years 
Control group: 20 
Experimental group: 20 
RCT 
Baseline Measurement 
End of experiment week 
12 test 
Electromyography 
(EMG) 
1.Superman Test 
2.Plank Test 
3.Crunch Test 
4.Side Plank Test 
5.Leg Raise Test 
6.Single-Leg Balance Test 
7.Static Squat Test 
8.Bird-Dog Test 
1. 
Enhanced 
core 
activation: 
Training 
improves the coordination and endurance of 
core muscles (e.g., transverse abdominis, 
multifidus), enhancing spinal stability. 
2. Increased static endurance: Longer duration 
in plank and side plank exercises indicates 
improved anti-fatigue capacity. 
3. Optimized dynamic control: Reduced body 
sway during single-leg balance and bird-dog 
tests reflects improved neuromuscular control. 
Hao et al., 
2022 
China 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=30 
Sex = Female 
Age:  
EG=20.5±1.5 years 
CG=21.5±1.5 years 
Control group: 15 
Experimental group: 15 
RCT 
Baseline Measurement 
End of experiment week 
8 test 
Star 
Excursion 
Balance Test 
1. Rotating sit-ups 
2. Push-ups 
3. Seated Pull Down 
4. Kick 
8 Point Star Offset 
1. Enhanced balance ability: Increased reach 
distance in the star balance test indicates 
improved lower limb flexibility and dynamic 
balance. 
2. 
Increased 
muscle 
strength: 
More 
repetitions/higher resistance in push-ups and 
seated cable rows reflect stronger upper limb 
and back muscles. 
3. 
Optimized 
coordination: 
Improved 
efficiency in rotational sit-ups and leg kicks, 
with fewer compensatory movements. 
Cabrejas et 
al., 2022 
Spanish 
Artistic gymnasts 
N=45 
Sex=Female 
Age：10.5 ± 1.8 years 
Control group：22 
Experimental group：23 
RCT 
Baseline Measurement 
End of experiment week 
8 test 
Pressure 
Biofeedback 
Unit 
(PBU） 
1. Bent Knee Fall Out 
(BKFO） 
2. Active Straight Leg 
Raise (ASLR） 
Pelvic Tilt Test 
1. Improved pelvic stability: Reduced pelvic 
asymmetry in BKFO test indicates enhanced 
control of hip surrounding muscles. 
2. Increased lower limb flexibility: Larger 
straight leg raise angle in ASLR test reflects 
improved 
hamstring 
and 
lumbopelvic 
flexibility. 
3. Enhanced core anti-disturbance ability: 
Reduced trunk sway in cobblestone tilt test 
shows stronger core stability under dynamic 
perturbations.  

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2.7 Gymnastics Performance Movements 
Gymnastics performance movements are a composite skill system composed of dynamic and 
static elements, which assess athletes’ comprehensive physical qualities through specific 
biomechanical mechanisms, including strength, flexibility, coordination, balance, and 
movement accuracy. According to the apparatus classification system of the International 
Gymnastics Federation (de Gymnastique, 2016), these movements can be systematically 
divided into four major technical categories: jumping, turning, balancing, and transitional 
movements. Each technical module exhibits differentiated performance characteristics in 
apparatus such as the balance beam, floor exercise, vault, and uneven bars. 
 
2.7.1 Jumping Movements 
As the dynamic foundation of the gymnastics movement system, jumping techniques include 
typical modes such as jump turns, tucked jumps, split jumps, and straddle jumps. Their 
biomechanical characteristics can be analyzed through a three - phase model: 
1. Take - off Phase: The vertical ground reaction force (GRF) is generated through the eccentric 
- concentric contraction coupling mechanism of the lower limb muscles. The competitive 
performance in this phase mainly depends on the peak force and power output efficiency, with 
the plantar - flexion speed of the ankle joint and the extension angular acceleration of the hip 
joint being the key dynamic parameters (Bath & Wang, 2024). 
2. Flight Phase: Athletes need to perform multi - axial compound movements in an unsupported 
state. The quality of movement completion in this phase can be quantitatively assessed through 
the stability of the center - of - mass parabolic trajectory, the degree of conservation of angular 
momentum, and the two ability regulate the moment of inertia (Adashevskiy et al., 2014). 
3. Landing Phase: As a key phase for injury prevention and referee scoring, the technical 
characteristics of this phase are reflected in the impact force attenuation, the trunk stability 
angle (≤5°), and the displacement of the center of pressure on the foot - apparatus contact 
surface (Straker et al., 2022). 
 
2.7.2 Turning Movements 
Representative turning movements, such as single - foot standing 360° turns and straight - body 
jump 360° turns, have their technical core in the dynamic regulation of human moment of 
inertia and angular velocity, which are mainly influenced by the following three elements: 

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1. Angular Momentum Generation: The initial rotational kinetic energy is determined by the 
angular impulse (τΔt) generated by asymmetric arm swinging in the pre - swing phase and the 
torque output efficiency of the supporting leg (Willson et al., 2005). 
2. Posture Compensation Control: The “axial - limb” coordinated regulation strategy is adopted 
to maintain the stability of the rotation axis through the spatial conjugate movement of the head 
- shoulder - hip. The displacement of the center of pressure of the supporting foot within the 
base of support (BOS) should be controlled within ±2cm (Cholewicki et al., 1999). 
3. Core Stiffness Regulation: The coordinated activation of the transverse abdominis and 
multifidus muscles forms a rigid trunk pillar, and the coupling of the momentum of the upper 
and lower limbs is realized through the transmission of fascial tension. The level of 
electromyographic activation is significantly positively correlated with the number of turns (r 
= 0.72) (Leetun et al., 2004). 
 
2.7.3 Biomechanics and Training Optimization 
The training intervention system based on movement analysis should include the following 
three progressive dimensions: 
1. Strength Development Module: Velocity - based training (VBT) is used to enhance eccentric 
strength reserves, and combined training (depth jumps + turns) is used to simultaneously 
improve vertical jump power (≥45 W/kg) and rotational explosive power. 
2. Neural Adaptation Training: The virtual reality balance training system (VRBT) is used to 
enhance the integration of vestibular - proprioceptive abilities, reducing the posture sway index 
(SI) by 30% - 40% under dynamically unstable conditions (E. D. Barrio et al., 2022). 
3. Technical Diagnosis System: Inertial measurement units (IMU) and three - dimensional 
force platform data are integrated to establish a movement quality evaluation model containing 
13 joint angle parameters and 8 dynamic indicators, achieving real - time feedback of the 
energy transfer efficiency of the kinetic chain (Fang et al., 2023). 
 
2.8 Summary 
In recent years, the field of balance research has witnessed remarkable advancements. 
Extensive studies have delved into the mechanisms underlying static and dynamic balance, as 
well as the corresponding evaluation methods. For instance, (Lee & Lee, 2017) conducted a 
longitudinal study on middle - aged and older adults, revealing that regular balance training 
can remarkably enhance gait stability and lower limb muscle strength. This research provides 

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solid evidence for the positive impact of balance training on physical function maintenance in 
this age group (Eltoukhy et al., 2017). 
Despite these significant achievements, the research on jumping ability and stability in 
gymnastics still has several limitations. Jumping ability and stability are fundamental to high - 
quality gymnastic performances. Jumping ability determines the height and smoothness of 
aerial maneuvers, while stability ensures accurate landings after complex movements. Current 
research in this area predominantly focuses on elite gymnasts. For example, the study by Sands 
et al., (2003) on gymnastic jumps mainly analyzed the biomechanics of top - tier athletes, 
overlooking the unique requirements of beginner gymnasts. There is a dearth of systematic 
research that combines static and dynamic balance training to enhance the jumping ability and 
stability of beginner gymnasts. Additionally, existing studies have not fully explored the 
balance control mechanisms in multi - task environments, which are common in gymnastics 
training. For example, gymnasts often need to perform multiple movements simultaneously 
while maintaining balance, but the underlying neural and biomechanical mechanisms remain 
unclear. 
Research on individual differences in gymnastics also has room for improvement. Gender, age, 
and skill level can all significantly affect how gymnasts respond to balance training. For 
example, a study by (Milosis & Satras, 2023) indicated that male and female gymnasts may 
have different optimal training intensities due to physiological differences. However, these 
factors are not yet well - understood, and the current training methods lack generalizability and 
specificity, which restricts the improvement of jumping ability and stability across different 
groups of gymnasts. 
Looking ahead, several emerging areas in the field of balance and gymnastic performance 
research show great promise. First, the integration of virtual reality (VR) and biofeedback in 
training is a burgeoning area. (Kumar et al., 2017) explored the use of the Hololens 2 for real - 
time center - of - mass (COM) projection training. This technology allows gymnasts to 
visualize their COM in real - time during training, providing immediate feedback to improve 
balance control. Second, the influence of gene polymorphisms, such as the BDNF Val66Met 
polymorphism, on the sensitivity to balance training is an area that requires further exploration. 
A study by (Nascimento et al., 2015) suggested that genetic factors may play a role in an 
individual's response to balance training, but more research is needed to fully understand these 
relationships. Third, the use of transcranial direct - current stimulation (tDCS) to promote 
vestibular cortex plasticity has also attracted attention. According to a recent study by (Kang 

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et al., 2016), tDCS may enhance the brain's ability to adapt to balance - related training, but the 
optimal stimulation parameters and long - term effects remain to be determined. 
The present study aims to fill the existing research gaps. It intends to systematically design a 
comprehensive training program that combines static and dynamic balance training, 
specifically tailored to beginner gymnasts. By integrating multi-task environments to simulate 
complex gymnastic scenarios and developing personalized training plans that consider factors 
such as gender, age, and skill level, this study aims to effectively improve the balance abilities 
and overall performance of beginner gymnasts. Long-term follow-up evaluations will be 
conducted to provide data-driven evidence for the effectiveness of the training. This research 
not only contributes to enhancing gymnastic skills but also provides valuable scientific 
references for injury prevention and ensuring the long - term safety of gymnasts. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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CHAPTER 3 
3.0 METHODOLOGY 
3.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 
 
Figure 1 Conceptual Framework 
 

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3.2 Research design 
This study employs a four-arm parallel-group randomized controlled trial design to evaluate 
the efficacy of static, dynamic, and combined balance training on beginner gymnasts’ 
stability and rotational performance. Figure 2 illustrates the experimental flow, including 
recruitment, randomization, interventions, and outcome assessments. 
 
Figure 2 Flow chart of the experimental design 

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3.2.1 Study design 
3.2.1.1 History of Beijing Sport University Campus Competition Results 
This research design is based on the training designs in 2021, 2023, and 2024 by Coach Li Ji 
from Beijing Sport University. This training plan is unpublished. 
Rationale for this training plan: 
The campus gymnastics proficiency competition of Beijing Sport University can be traced 
back to 2019. In the early years of the competition (before 2021), due to low awareness and 
insufficient promotion, only a very small number of students participated. In recent years, 
with the increasingly severe employment situation in China, this competition has become an 
important opportunity for students specializing in gymnastics to obtain gymnastics level 
certificates. 
The statistics given by Coach Li Ji show that since 2021 (the competition was suspended in 
2022 due to the pandemic), students instructed by Coach Li Ji have achieved results reaching 
the national second-level athlete standard in three consecutive competitions in 2023 and 
2024. In addition, the research team has collected, for the first time, Coach Li Ji's 
unpublished training plans, aiming to provide theoretical and practical references for 
subsequent students participating in campus gymnastics competitions. 
Table 6 lists the results of Li Ji's students from Beijing Sport University in the Competitive 
Gymnastics Campus Grading Competition during 2021, 2023, and 2024. The training 
methods he employed are illustrated in Tables 7 and 8; accordingly, these methods will be 
implemented in the routine training of the control group.  

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Table 6: History of Results for Beijing Sport University Campus Gymnastics Competitions (2021, 2023, 2024) 
 
 
Name 
Vault Rank 
Uneven 
Bars 
Rank 
Balance 
Beam 
Rank 
Floor 
Exercise 
Rank 
All-Around 
Individual 
Rank 
Women's Level 
2 (Graduate 
Group) in 2021 
Yu, J. M 
8.45 
5 
2.65 
9 
8.90 
1 
9.25 
1 
26.60 
1 
Chen, J. L 
8.65 
2 
2.85 
8 
8.85 
2 
8.90 
4 
26.40 
2 
Liang, S. Y. 
8.9 
1 
8.40 
3 
7.60 
8 
8.30 
6 
25.60 
4 
Chai, H. W 
8.65 
2 
1.30 
10 
7.80 
6 
9.05 
2 
25.50 
5 
He, Z. Y. 
8.25 
8 
8.30 
5 
8.10 
5 
8.10 
8 
24.65 
9 
Fan, S. S. 
8.45 
5 
8.40 
3 
7.50 
9 
7.65 
10 
24.50 
10 
Women's Level 
2 (Graduate 
Group) in 2023 
Lei, L. Z. 
9.0 
5 
8.70 
4 
9.30 
1 
8.45 
4 
27.0 
1 
Wang, A. Z  
9.10 
2 
8.75 
2 
8.50 
5 
8.35 
8 
26.35 
2 
Duan, W. C. 
8.95 
7 
8.80 
1 
8.35 
8 
8.40 
7 
26.15 
6 
Yang, L. 
8.25 
11 
7.95 
8 
8.25 
9 
8.50 
2 
25.0 
10 
Women's Level 
2 (Graduate 
Group) in 2024 
Gao, N. F. 
9.20 
1 
8.75 
3 
8.30 
3 
8.40 
9 
26.35 
1 
Liu, Y. J. 
8.30 
7 
9.20 
1 
7.65 
5 
8.60 
5 
26.10 
2 
Liu, Y. 
8.80 
2 
8.25 
7 
4.60 
10 
8.45 
8 
25.50 
7 
Yang, Y. P. 
8.40 
5 
8.60 
5 
7.80 
4 
8.20 
11 
25.20 
9 
*Note:  
1. The criteria for second-level athletes are: achieving the top 2 places in individual gymnastics events and scoring at least 25 points in personal 
performance for female athletes (3 out of 4 events can be selected) to qualify for grading. 
2. The all-around individual score is calculated by selecting the top three highest scores from four events.

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Table 7: Routine exercise- Training Plan 
Teaching 
Process 
Time 
HR 
Teaching Content 
Intensity 
Organization, Methods, and Requirements 
Introducti
on section 
3 
min 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
80 
 
↓ 
 
120 
1.The class monitor organizes the lineup 
and reports attendance. 
2.Greetings between teacher and students. 
3.Announce 
the 
objectives 
of 
the 
preparation section for this lesson: 
(1) Learn to transform a single horizontal 
row into two horizontal rows in place and 
revert to the original formation. 
(2) 
Practice 
bodyweight 
gymnastics 
exercises. 
4.Arrange tasks for the observer(s). 
 
Organization: Assemble in four horizontal rows  
 
   ╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳ 
   ╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳     represent students 
   ╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳ 
   ╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳ 
 
            ▲                      
represent teacher 
   
Preparatio
n section 
40 
min 
Routine Drills: 
1.At Ease, Attention, Align, and Counting 
Off. 
2.Transform a single horizontal row into 
two horizontal rows in place. 
3.Transform two horizontal rows back into 
a single horizontal row. 
Bodyweight Exercises: 
Learn 
raising, 
bending, 
swinging 
movements, 
and 
simple 
movement 
combinations: 
1.Side raise, overhead raise, forward raise, 
side-up raise, side-down raise, forward-up 
raise, forward-down raise. 
2.Arm side bend and arm swing. 
2-3 times 
Organization: Combined class for collective practice 
Organizational Teaching Methods: 
1.Teacher demonstration. 
2.Explanation of movement requirements and command 
essentials (including characteristics of preparatory commands 
and execution commands). 
3.Teacher-led practice: The teacher leads students in 
practicing command execution. 
4.Group-based student practice: Students are divided into 
small groups for hands-on practice, with teachers providing 
guidance to each group individually. 
 
╳╳╳╳   ╳╳╳╳ 
                     represent students 
╳╳╳╳   ╳╳╳╳      
 
▲               
represent teacher 
Rest for 5 minutes 

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Table 7: Routine exercise- Training Plan (continued) 
Teaching 
Process 
Time 
HR 
Teaching Content 
Intensity 
Organization, Methods, and Requirements 
Main 
section 
40 
min 
 
 
80 
↓ 
12
0 
Main Section 
I. Special Preparatory Activities 
Specific warm-up exercises to prepare for the main 
techniques. 
II. Techniques 
1.Tucked Forward and Backward Rolling (Rocking Motion) 
 
Key Points of Forward Roll 
1. Stand with hands extended horizontally to the sides. 
2. Swing hands backward while squatting with knees bent. 
3. Extend hands forward. 
4. Place hands on the ground, lower your head, and push off 
with your legs to roll forward. 
5. Round your back and push with your hands. 
6. Hug your knees with both hands. 
7. Hug your knees, tuck your body, and smoothly transition 
into a squatting - standing position. 
8. Return to a standing position with hands extended 
horizontally to the sides, head up, and chest out. 
III. Parallel Bars 
2-3 times 
II. Groups of 2-3 people. (Techniques) 
 
 
 
III. Students are divided into two groups to practice 
simultaneously on two different apparatuses. 
(Parallel Bars) 
 
 
 
 
Closing 
section 
 
2 min 
1.Return the equipment to its proper place. 
2.Relaxation activities (approximately 1 minute). 
3.Summary of the lesson. 
 
Assemble in two horizontal rows.   
 ╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳        represent students 
 ╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳  
            ▲ 
             represent teacher 
gymnastics mat 
Parallel Bars 

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Table 8: Routine exercise- Training Plan 
Teaching 
Process 
Time 
HR 
Teaching Content 
Intensity 
Organization, Methods, and Requirements 
Introducti
on section 
3 
min 
 
80 
 
↓ 
 
120 
1.The class monitor organizes the lineup and 
reports attendance. 
2.Greetings between teacher and students. 
3.Announce the objectives of the preparation 
section for this lesson: 
4.Learn stationary formation drills: transforming 
one row into three rows and reverting to the 
original formation. 
5.Learn/review 
bodyweight 
gymnastics 
movements. 
6.Assign tasks for observers. 
 
Organization: Assemble in four horizontal rows  
  
   ╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳ 
   ╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳          represent students 
   ╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳ 
   ╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳╳ 
 
            ▲                    represent teacher 
 
Preparatio
n section 
 
40 min 
I. Games 
1.Number-calling relay game 
 
II. Formation Drills 
1.Transform a single horizontal row into three 
horizontal rows in place. 
2.Transform three horizontal rows back into a 
single horizontal row in place. 
 
III. Bodyweight Exercises 
1.Review the movements learned in the previous 
lesson. 
2.Upper body movements: Arm circles and 
rotations. 
3.Lower body movements: Half squats and full 
squats. 
 
 
 
 
2-3 times 
 
Organization: Combined class for collective practice 
Organizational Teaching Methods: 
1.Teacher demonstration. 
2.Explanation of movement requirements and command 
essentials (including characteristics of preparatory commands 
and execution commands). 
3.Teacher-led practice: The teacher leads students in 
practicing command execution. 
4.Group-based student practice: Students are divided into 
small groups for hands-on practice, with teachers providing 
guidance to each group individually. 
 
╳╳╳╳   ╳╳╳╳ 
                     represent students 
╳╳╳╳   ╳╳╳╳      
 
▲                   represent teacher 
Rest for 5 minutes 

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Table 8: Routine exercise- Training Plan (continued) 
Teaching Process 
Time 
HR 
Teaching Content 
Intensity 
Organization, Methods, and Requirements 
Main section 
40 
min 
 
 
 
 
100 
 
↓ 
 
140 
I. Special Preparatory Activities 
•  Specific warm-up exercises to 
prepare for the following techniques. 
 
II. Jumping Techniques 
•  Learn run-up and take-off using a 
springboard. 
 
III. Low bar practice 
•  Learn to jump onto the bar to 
achieve a support position and 
perform a forward roll dismount. 
2-3 times 
Organization: Practice complete movements in turn according to 
height order. 
 
 
 
Organization: Students are divided into two groups for practice. 
 
    
 
Closing section 
 
 
2 min 
1.Return the equipment to its proper 
place. 
2.Relaxation 
activities 
(approximately 1 minute). 
3.Summary of the lesson. 
 
 
Assemble in two horizontal rows.      
          
╳╳╳╳╳╳ 
        ╳╳╳╳╳╳  
 
             ▲ 
Vaulting box 
Gymnastics board: Athletes sit on the gymnastics board 
and wait while observing the movements of other 
represent teacher 
represent students 
Students waiting to practice 
represent teacher 
Students preparing to perform 
movements 
Gymnastics protective mat 
Low bar 
Gymnastics 
protective mat 
represent students 

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3.2.1.2 Tests and Training Plan Schedule for the Experimental Group 
The test protocols and training components for stability and jumping skills were derived from 
outcome measures in an unpublished systematic review and deemed appropriate following 
discussions with Li Ji, a gymnastics coach at Beijing Sport University. Thus, Table 9 and 10 
present the stability and jumping test programme to be conducted, table 11 outlines the 8-
week training schedule for the experimental group participants. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Table 9: Stability and Jumping Test Programme 
Test items 
Testing time 
Testing content 
Testing 
Instruments 
Stability test 
Baseline 
Measurement 
End of experiment 
week 8 test 
8 Point Star Offset 
Star 
Excursion 
Balance Test 
Jumping test 
Baseline 
Measurement 
End of experiment 
week 8 test 
1. Countermovement 
Jump 
2. Single-leg 
countermovement 
Jump 
Force Plate 
 
 
 
 
Table 10: Gymnastic Performance Movements 
Test items 
Testing time 
Testing content 
Testing Instruments 
Standing 
Single-leg 360 ° 
turn  
Baseline 
Measurement 
End of experiment 
week 8 test 
Standing 
Single-
leg 360 ° turn  
3D motion capture 
technology 
 
Straight 
jump 
360 ° turn 
Baseline 
Measurement 
End of experiment 
week 8 test 
Straight jump 360 ° 
turn 
3D motion capture 
technology 
 
 
 

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Table 11: Experimental Training group 
Training Programme 
Routine Training 
Group1 
(Static balance 
training) 
Group2 
(Dynamic balance 
training) 
Group3 
(Static and Dynamic balance 
training) 
Week 1 
baseline test 
Week 2-3 
●Activity/Mode 
Basic Adaptation Period 
①Preparatory Exercises 
②Review of the Complex
 Movements from the 
Previous Session 
③Practice of New 
Complex Movements 
④Strength Training 
⑤Relaxation Exercises 
①Double leg stand on a BOSU 
ball 
②Single leg stand on a BOSU 
ball 
①Jump in multiple directions on 
one leg 
② Half squat exercise 
①Single-leg stance+ Leg - lifting 
exercise 
②Half squat exercise + Throwing - 
catching ball exercise 
●Duration 
● 90 minutes/per session 
●15 minutes/ session 
●15 minutes/ session 
●30 minutes/ session 
●Intensity 
(Heart rate) 
● 100bpm-160bpm 
● 80bpm-100bpm 
● 90bpm-110bpm 
● 90bpm-110bpm 
●Inter-group Rest Duration 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
Week 4 
●Activity/Mode 
Ability Strengthening Period 
The same content 
①Eyes-closed double-leg stance 
②Plank support 
①Jumping onto a low balance 
beam 
②Half squat exercise 
①Jumping onto a low balance beam + 
Walking on the Balance Beam + Landing 
control training 
②Half Squat Exercise + Throwing - 
catching ball exercise 
●Duration 
● 90 minutes/per session 
●15 minutes/ session 
●15 minutes/ session 
●30 minutes/ session 
●Intensity 
(Heart rate) 
● 100bpm-160bpm 
● 80bpm-110bpm 
● 90bpm-110bpm 
● 90bpm-110bpm 
●Inter-group Rest Duration 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
Week 5 
●Activity/Mode 
Ability Strengthening Period 
The same content 
①Eyes-closed Single-leg stance 
②Half Squat Exercise 
①Jumping onto BOSU ball 
② Half squat-to-stand and catch-
and-throw ball exercise 
①Jumping onto BOSU ball + Double-
leg stance 
②Plank and convert to two-hand support 
●Duration 
● 90 minutes/per session 
●15 minutes/session 
●15 minutes/session 
●30 minutes/session 
●Intensity 
(Heart rate) 
● 100bpm-160bpm 
● 80bpm-110bpm 
● 90bpm-120bpm 
● 90bpm-120bpm 
●Inter-group Rest Duration 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
Week 6 
●Activity/Mode 
Ability Strengthening Period 
The same content 
①Jumping onto BOSU ball + 
Eyes-closed double-leg stance 
②Single-Leg Standing Leg + 
Leg Lift Exercise 
①Practice of jumping with rotation 
②Plank and convert to two-hand 
support 
①Jump training + Jumping with rotation 
②Plank and convert to two-hand support 
+ Plank support 
●Duration 
● 90 minutes/per session 
●15 minutes/ session 
●15 minutes/session 
●30 minutes/session 
●Intensity 
(Heart rate) 
● 100bpm-160bpm 
● 80bpm-120bpm 
● 90bpm-120bpm 
● 90bpm-120bpm 
●Inter-group Rest Duration 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
Week 7 
●Activity/Mode 
Integration and Optimization Period 
The same content 
①Single-Leg Standing Leg + 
Leg Lift Exercise 
②Single-Leg Standing Pointe 
Exercise 
①Walking on the Balance Beam 
②Landing control training 
①Jumping onto a low balance beam + 
Walking on the Balance Beam + Landing 
control training 
②Forward roll + swallow balance 
●Duration 
● 90 minutes/per session 
●15 minutes/session 
●15 minutes/session 
●30 minutes/session 
●Intensity 
(Heart rate) 
● 100bpm-160bpm 
● 80bpm-120bpm 
● 90bpm-120bpm 
● 90bpm-120bpm 
●Inter-group Rest Duration 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
● 2 minutes 
Week 8 
Post test 

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3.2.1.3 Decomposition and Description of Training Movements 
As shown in Figure 3a-o, the following are the training movements. The participants, 
personally guided by Coach Li Ji from Beijing Sport University, will complete these 
movements under his supervision. During the recording process, Coach Li will monitor the 
details of the movements throughout and carry out professional optimizations to ensure their 
standardization. All motion imagery materials will not reveal the identities of the participants. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Stand on the hemispherical surface 
center of a BOSU ball with both 
legs, maintaining continuous core 
engagement. Place palms inward on 
thighs and adjust eye opening as 
needed to sustain balance and 
postural stability. 
Stand on the hemispherical center 
of a BOSU ball with the dominant 
leg, positioning the non-dominant 
leg in a passé (toes touching inner 
knee). Maintain core engagement 
and hold hands in lateral 
horizontal abduction or resting on 
thighs. 
Initiate single-leg stance on the 
BOSU ball’s hemispherical 
surface. Following dominant leg 
stabilization, engage the core to 
lift the non-dominant leg 
anteriorly, grasp the ankle with 
the contralateral hand, and 
maintain the ipsilateral hand in 
lateral horizontal abduction. 
Figure 3a Double leg stand on a 
BOSU ball 
Figure 3b Single leg stand on a 
BOSU ball 
Figure 3c Leg Lift Exercise 

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Front view 
Side view 
 
  
Stand in front of the balance beam and maintain a single-leg stance with the dominant foot. Use one or both 
hands to grip the beam for balance. Lift the other leg into a passe position (ballet term), where the toes gently 
touch the inner side of the knee. Rise onto the balls of the feet (toes fully pointed) with the standing leg. Each 
set consists of 10 repetitions of rising (plantarflexion) and lowering (dorsiflexion) the heel, followed by a 10-
second hold in the toe-standing position, completing 3 sets in total. 
Figure 3d Single-Leg Standing Pointe Exercise 
 
 Front view 
Side view 
 
 
 
 
 
 
① Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart, toes slightly outward at about 15°. 
② Shift weight posteriorly, initiate squatting at hip axis with neutral spine and engaged core. Align knees with 
second toes (avoid anterior translation beyond toes) until thighs reach horizontal plane. Concurrently, flex 
elbows to position fists at chest level, with fingertips opposed and elbows slightly abducted; maintain forward 
gaze for postural stability. 
③ Activate quadriceps and gluteus maximus, extend knees and hips in coordination while pushing through 
heels. Sustain core engagement and forward visual focus, returning to full upright stance. 
Figure 3e Half Squat Exercise 

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① Stand facing the hemispherical side of a BOSU ball with both feet, perform shoulder abduction to 90 
degrees, and maintain core engagement. 
② Maintain shoulder abduction at 90°, execute a quarter squat, engage the glutes and quadriceps to generate 
elastic energy, and prepare for vertical propulsion. 
③ Explosively execute a vertical leap, swinging the hands forward to shoulder height. Maintain a rigid 
straight-body position from head to heels, fix your gaze on the BOSU ball’s hemispherical surface, and 
sustain core tension until landing. 
Figure 3f Jumping onto BOSU ball (Step-by-Step Breakdown) 
        
   
 
① Stand on the hemisphere. Hinge 
at hips, lower to 45° squat. Knees 
over toes, core tight, eyes forward. 
② Watch the ball, extend 
arms to catch. Bend elbows to 
absorb impact, pull ball back 
to chest, steady your squat. 
③ Use core twist or arm swing to toss 
the ball up (chest height). Control the 
arc for easy catches. 
Figure 3g Half squat exercise + Throwing - catching ball exercise 

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Participants adopt a feet-together upright stance facing the beam, arms at sides. Initiate by shifting center of 
mass posteriorly to heels, flexing knees to store energy, and swinging arms backward. Coordinate lower 
limb push-off (ankle plantarflexion, knee extension) with forward-upward arm swings for takeoff. Maintain 
moderate trunk anterior tilt and upright alignment during flight, fixating visually on the landing spot. Land 
with simultaneous full-foot contact, dorsiflex ankles and flex knees to cushion impact, while abducting arms 
to 90° for stability. Post-landing, activate core/limbs and use visual-proprioceptive feedback to stabilize 
center of mass on the beam. 
Figure 3i Jumping onto a low balance beam (low balance beam) 
 
 
 
 
Front view 
 Side view 
 
 
 
 
① Elbows flexed at 90°, forearms on ground (palms down), elbows under shoulders; toes planted, heels 
extended. Maintain a straight line from head to heels with neutral spine. Activate core muscles and depress 
scapulae. 
② Initiate with dominant hand: advance palm forward, fingers spread, extend elbow (control shoulder 
movement). Shift weight to opposite forearm for balance. Repeat with non-dominant hand to achieve 
shoulder-width placement, fully extending arms with slight elbow flexion. Maintain trunk stability and 
visual focus on the ground. 
③ Hands shoulder-width apart, fingers forward, arms vertical under shoulders. Sustain straight-body 
alignment and core engagement with neutral hip/trunk rotation. 
Figure 3h Plank and convert to two-hand support + Plank support 

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The lead leg flexes at the hip joint to a certain degree and slightly flexes the knee to swing forward, with the 
heel landing on the beam’s midline. Subsequently, the body’s center of mass shifts to the lead leg as the 
trailing leg lifts off the beam, and the ankle appropriately dorsiflexes to ensure toe clearance during the 
swing phase. Subsequent steps maintain a heel-to-toe progression where each foot lands directly in front of 
the previous one, with the single-leg stance phase accounting for a large proportion of the gait cycle, 
minimizing lateral displacement of the center of mass. 
Figure 3j Walking on the Balance Beam (low balance beam) 
 
 
Standing upright at the low beam's end, swing arms back to jump, keeping the body upright in the air. Land 
with forefeet first, then fully cushion with feet, using sight and body awareness to steady the center of mass 
on the ground, completing the beam-to-ground transition. 
Figure 3k Landing control training (low balance beam) 
 
 
Stand upright at the high beam’s end, swing arms back to jump, keeping the body upright or slightly leaning 
forward mid-air. Land on forefeet first, then bend knees and ankles deeply to cushion the impact, swinging 
arms forward to steady balance. Use eyes and body awareness to settle the center of mass safely on both feet, 
completing the beam-to-ground dismount. 
Figure 3l Landing control training (high balance beam) 

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The subject assumes an upright posture (with the body stiff and straight like a "straight stick", core 
engaged, and no torso bending), pushes off with one or both feet to jump, completes a 360-degree 
horizontal rotation in the air around the body's longitudinal axis, while keeping the body fully extended 
and limbs fixed (such as arms pressed tightly against the torso or maintaining a specific pose), and finally 
lands smoothly on both feet, with the body still maintaining upright stability upon landing. 
Figure 3n Jumping with rotation 
 
 
 
 
Stand on one foot, extend and lift the other leg straight backward and upward (with toes pointed), lean the 
upper body forward until it is parallel to the ground or lower, and naturally spread the arms (such as in 
lateral or forward raises) to maintain balance. It requires the standing leg to stay straight and stable, the 
lifted leg and upper body to form a straight line, the core to be engaged, and the eyes to look forward or at 
the ground, demonstrating flexibility and balance. 
Figure 3o Swallow balance 
 
 
 
 
Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart, lean your body slightly forward, and bend your knees into a 
half-squat position (ensure your knees do not go past your toes and your hips are pushed back), while 
engaging your core muscles to maintain stability. Then, explosively push through your feet and use 
coordinated arm swings to jump upward as high as possible. When landing, gently absorb the impact by 
bending your knees and smoothly returning to the half-squat position to keep your body balanced. 
Training recommendation: Perform 10 repetitions per set, and complete 3 sets in total. 
Figure 3m Jump training 

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3.2.2 Testing Components 
When evaluating the effectiveness of balance training for athletes, the Star Excursion Balance 
Test (SEBT) and the force plate, which are used for the 8 - Point Star Offset Test, 
Countermovement Jump (CMJ), and Single - Leg Countermovement Jump (SLCMJ), play a 
crucial role in assessing athletes' stability.  
 
3.2.2.1 8 - Point Star Offset Test (using SEBT) 
Participants stand on one leg at the center of a star-shaped testing platform, extend the non-
supporting leg slowly toward eight predefined directions (forward, backward, lateral, and four 
diagonal directions), and touch the farthest marked point on the ground with the toe precisely 
before returning to the starting position at a constant speed (Gribble et al., 2012). Throughout 
the test, the trunk must remain vertically stable, the knee of the supporting leg bent at 
approximately 20°, hip tilting or center of gravity displacement avoided, and the arms either 
hanging naturally or fixed at the waist to maintain balance (Bastien et al., 2014). If the 
supporting foot moves, the non-supporting leg touches the ground accidentally, or the body 
loses control and interrupts the movement, the trial is deemed invalid and must be repeated. 
Before the test, a tape measure is used to accurately measure the subject’s lower limb length 
(straight-line distance from the anterior superior iliac spine to the medial malleolus) as a 
standardized parameter, and eight-directional scale lines with uniform spacing are drawn on 
the surface of the testing platform. Each direction undergoes three valid trials, with the 
maximum reaching distance recorded and substituted into the dynamic stability index 
calculation (reaching distance/lower limb length × 100%). After completing independent tests 
for both lower limbs, by comparing inter-directional differences, bilateral symmetry, and 
performance characteristics in specific directions, and referring to the movement trajectories 
of the supporting and non-supporting legs at the eight testing direction points marked in the 
schematic diagram of the decomposed movements in Figure 4, a comprehensive evaluation of 
the directional characteristics of dynamic stability and bilateral functional coordination can be 
achieved (Al Attar et al., 2022). 
 
 
 

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Forward 
Forward 
45 ° 
lateral 90° 
Backward 
45° 
Backward 
Backward 
45° 
(opposite) 
Contralateral 
lateral 90° 
forward 
45°(opposite) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4 8 - Point Star Offset Test 
 
3.2.2.2 Countermovement Jump 
The participant begins in a standing position with feet shoulder-width apart and arms relaxed. 
Upon initiation, the athlete rapidly performs a countermovement by flexing the hips and knees 
to approximately 90° between the trunk and thighs, followed by explosive vertical propulsion 
through coordinated hip and knee extension, synchronized with upward arm swing to ear level 
(Hou et al., 2025). During the airborne phase, the body remains upright, and upon landing, the 
athlete transitions from forefoot to full-foot contact while maintaining stability, with post-
landing knee flexion limited to ≤30° to minimize impact forces (Morin et al., 2011) (see Figure 
5 for movement breakdown).   
Force plates are utilized to record ground reaction forces (GRF) across all phases 
(countermovement, takeoff, and landing) (Myer et al., 2008). Jump height is calculated via the 
impulse-momentum method by integrating force-time data from the countermovement phase 
to takeoff (Weyand et al., 2000). Key parameters—including rate of force development (RFD), 
peak force magnitude, force-time curve symmetry, and force attenuation gradients during the 
initial 200 ms of landing—are analyzed to quantify lower limb stiffness, neuromuscular 
coordination, and dynamic stability. Notably, landing-phase force decay patterns correlate with 
knee joint stability and serve as predictive indicators of injury risk (Higashihara et al., 2018; 
Myer et al., 2011). 
 

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Figure 5 Countermovement Jump 
 
3.2.2.3 Single - Leg Countermovement Jump 
Participants stand on one leg on a force platform, with the non-supporting leg flexed at 
approximately 90° at the knee and hands on hips to maintain an upright posture (Sharrock et 
al., 2011). At the start of the test, subjects perform a rapid countermovement by coordinated 
flexion of the hip and knee (with a trunk-thigh angle of approximately 45°), followed by an 
explosive single-leg extension to jump vertically, synchronizing arm swing to enhance 
momentum. During the aerial phase, a neutral pelvic position must be maintained. Upon 
landing, subjects make contact with the forefoot and maintain knee flexion ≤25°, avoiding 
compensatory trunk tilt or swinging of the non-supporting leg throughout the movement 
(Hibbs et al., 2008), the decomposed movements are shown in Figure 6. 
 
Front view 
Side view 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 6 Single - Leg Countermovement Jump 
 

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3.2.3 Skills Measurement 
3.2.3.1 Biomechanical Application and Kinematic Analysis of Motion Markers 
This study will employ the TecnoBody D-WALL 3D motion capture system, which is 
equipped with 12 cameras operating at a frequency of 200 Hz. The system will track 
retroreflective markers, whose placement strictly adheres to the standards established by the 
International Society of Biomechanics (ISB) (Wu et al., 2002). As illustrated in (Table 12, 
Figure7a and 7b), these markers will be precisely positioned at key joint sites of beginner 
female gymnasts, including the ankle, knee, hip, shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints, as well as 
the thoracic and lumbar spine regions. As emphasized by Sadeghi et al., (2021), this 
meticulous marker placement is designed to comprehensively capture detailed movement 
patterns. 
Given that all subjects are female, the process of attaching markers will be exclusively 
carried out by female researchers. Additionally, the subjects are required to wear gymnastic 
uniforms and gymnastic shoes during the test. A comparative analysis of the subjects' 
performance before and after the intervention will be conducted, with a primary focus on 
evaluating stability during rotational movements and jumping skills. This aligns with the 
research direction of Pupo et al., (2012). This methodology will facilitate a profound 
understanding of how interventions impact the gymnasts' performance in these critical 
movement segments. 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Table 12: Marker Positions and Names 
Body Part 
Marker Position 
Marker Code 
Head 
On the head, above the left/right ear. 
A1/A2 
On the head, at the front center. 
A3 
Trunk 
Superior end of sternum 
B1 
Spinous process of second thoracic vertebra 
B2 
Spinous process of tenth thoracic vertebra 
B3 
Left/Right 12th Rib 
B4/B5 
Upper Limb 
Left/Right Acromion 
C1/C2 
Left/Right Lateral Epicondyle of Humerus 
C3/C4 
Left/Right Medial Epicondyle of Humerus 
C5/C6 
Left/Right Styloid Process of Radius 
C7/C8 
Left/Right Styloid Process of Ulna 
C9/C10 
Left/Right Head of 2nd Metacarpal 
C11/C12 
Pelvis 
Left/Right Anterior Superior Iliac Spine 
D1/D2 
Left/Right Posterior Superior Iliac Spine 
D3/D4 
Left/Right Highest Point of Iliac Crest 
D5/D6 
Midpoint between Spinous Processes of L4 
and L5 
D7 
Lower Limb 
Left/Right Thigh Point 
E1/E2 
Left/Right Lateral Condyle of Femur 
E3/E4 
Left/Right Medial Condyle of Femur 
E5/E6 
Left/Right Anterior Leg (Tibial Tuberosity) 
E7/E8 
Left/Right Lateral Malleolus 
E9/E10 
Left/Right Medial Malleolus of Tibia 
E11/E12 
Left/Right Heel Point (at the Same Height as 
Toe Point) 
E13/E14 
Left/Right 1st Metatarsal Point 
E15/E16 
Left/Right 5th Metatarsal Point 
E17/E18 
Left/Right Toe Tip (Midpoint between 2nd 
and 3rd Metatarsal) 
E19/E20 

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Figure 7a Placement of marker attachment on participants. The red points in the diagram indicate the joint areas 
where marks need to be pasted. 

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Figure 7b The marker that will be used to attached on the participant’s body. Marks are typically reflective 
materials or high-contrast stickers applied to key observation sites on athletes' bodies (e.g., joints or motion-
sensitive areas) for biomechanical analysis. These visual markers assist technical devices such as cameras and 
sensors in precisely tracking body movement trajectories by providing distinct visual references, enabling 
accurate capture of motion patterns for performance 
 
 

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3.2.3.2 Measurement of Straight Jump 360° Turn 
Participants start in an upright position with feet together and arms raised overhead. During 
the test, they swing their arms backward, perform a natural squat, and execute an explosive 
vertical jump upward, synchronizing arm movement to generate momentum. Upon reaching 
the aerial phase, subjects rapidly engage core muscles to complete a 360° horizontal rotation 
around the vertical axis, maintaining stable head and gaze direction to control the rotation 
axis. When landing, contact is made first with the forefoot, transitioning to full-foot support, 
while maintaining knee flexion ≤30°, avoiding lateral hip displacement, and keeping the 
trunk upright to absorb impact forces (Joseph, 2012). The entire movement must ensure 
continuity among the takeoff, rotation, and landing phases, with no loss of balance or 
deviation in the rotation axis, the decomposed movements are shown in Figure 8. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 8 Straight Jump 360° Turn 
 
3.2.3.2.1 Center of Gravity Deviation 
The athlete executes a two-leg takeoff and completes a 360° aerial rotation around the hip joint 
as the axis, requiring the maintenance of body balance upon landing. During the test, this metric 
is defined as the maximum distance by which the three-dimensional displacement of the center 
of gravity (COG) deviates from the ideal rotational path (Hechenblaikner, 2024). Dynamic 
Balance Control: Smaller values indicate stronger ability of the central nervous system to 

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regulate aerial posture and higher landing stability. Biological Explanation: The mechanical 
model is expressed as 
D = &(𝑋 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙−𝑋 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙)² + (𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 −𝑦 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙)² + (𝑍 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙−𝑍 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙)²   
where X, Y, Z represent the actual COG coordinates versus the ideal trajectory coordinates 
(Etkin & Reid, 1995). 
 
3.2.3.2.2 Joint Angle Variation 
Student participants need to analyze angular fluctuations of hip, knee, and ankle joints during 
the aerial phase of two-footed vertical jumps with rotation. These fluctuations serve as crucial 
performance indicators: A coefficient of variation (CV) below 8% (professional athlete 
standard) suggests efficient lower limb coordination, while CV exceeding 12% typically 
indicates compensatory muscle strategies (e.g., excessive quadriceps activation may increase 
patellar tendon stress) (Cazzola et al., 2016). Angular fluctuations also serve as an energy 
loss indicator, positively correlated with muscular work through the theoretical model Eloss= 
k·∆θ2 (Ditroilo et al., 2011). For measurement, 200Hz high-speed cameras will capture joint 
angular velocity curves to calculate CV. Elevated CV values reflect insufficient hamstring-
gluteal complex stiffness, indicating the need for targeted strength and neuromuscular 
coordination training. 
 
3.2.3.2.3 Vertical Jump Efficiency 
This student particimpant will be evaluate the energy conversion efficiency of lower limb 
muscles during the jumping-rotating-landing process (e.g., the ratio of squat jump height to 
ground reaction force), where a power output efficiency exceeding 85% indicates excellent 
lower limb stiffness and neuromuscular coordination (Markovic & Mikulic, 2010). This metric 
serves as a training monitoring parameter, and optimization of this efficiency is shown to 
enhance jumping height. The biomechanical model is expressed as:  

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Efficiency = 
!"#$ &'()*+
,-."/0 1'23+(./ 4.-3'·3.6(8) 
where the ideal take-off angle 𝜃 is approximately 30°. 
 
3.2.3.2.4 Landing Impact Force (N) 
During the landing phase, the peak value of vertical impact force in participants is measured 
(simulating sudden stop scenarios in competitions), serving as an indicator of lower limb 
cushioning ability. Injury Prevention Indicator: An impact force below 1,200 N reduces the 
risk of Achilles tendon injury by 30% (Joseph, 2012), while forces exceeding 1,500 N 
typically indicate abnormal landing posture (e.g., inward knee buckling leading to stress 
concentration), providing a basis for technical optimization. The mechanical cushioning 
model is expressed as: 
Fbuffer= 
#)*
+²  
where t represents cushioning time (ideal value < 0.3 seconds). This model provides a 
quantitative framework for analyzing the relationship between impact force and motor 
control efficiency. 
 
3.2.3.3 Measurement of Standing Single - leg 360° turn 
Participants assume a split stance position with the front leg flexed at 20–30°, weight evenly 
distributed over the supporting leg, the corresponding arm extended forward, and the 
contralateral arm naturally positioned at the side. At the start of the test, using the supporting 
leg as the axis of rotation, participants complete a 360° horizontal rotation around the vertical 
axis at a constant speed through coordinated control of the hip joint and core muscles. 
Throughout the movement, fixed head orientation and gaze direction must be maintained to 
stabilize the rotational axis, while avoiding trunk flexion, extension, or lateral deviation (Fukata 
et al., 2025). Upon returning to the starting posture after rotation, the trial is deemed valid if 

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there is no displacement of the supporting foot, the non-supporting leg does not touch the 
ground, and no loss of balance or sway occurs, the decomposed movements are shown in Figure 
9. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 9 Standing Single - leg 360° turn 
 
3.2.3.3.1 Center of Gravity Deviation 
The student participant completes a 360° rotation around the axis of one leg, with the other leg 
off the ground, and maintains static balance. During the test, the student participant must keep 
the torso stable during high-speed rotation to avoid imbalance caused by the deviation of the 
center of gravity. To assess performance, the three-dimensional displacement of the center of 
mass is tracked via an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), and the overlap degree between the 
actual trajectory and the ideal path is calculated using the formula  
D = &(X real −X ideal)² + (y real −y ideal)² + (Z real −Z ideal)²  ; smaller values 
indicate higher neuromuscular coordination and stronger action stability (Farana et al., 2023). 
The Vicon high-speed camera system (200 Hz) captures the movement trajectory, and center 
of mass deviation is calculated in combination with an inverse dynamics model, while ground 
reaction force is measured by a Force Plate (sampling rate 1 kHz) to provide biomechanical 
validation of balance control (Karatsidis et al., 2019). 
 

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3.2.3.3.2 Body Oscillation Amplitude (m) 
During the dynamic single-leg support rotation, student participants are required to maintain 
the other leg completely off the ground while keeping the spine in a stable neutral position, 
with measurements taken for the maximum lateral/longitudinal displacement of the torso and 
lower limbs (e.g., lateral sway of the upper body during rotation). This assessment evaluates 
core stability by reflecting the anti-interference capability of deep core muscle groups (e.g., 
transversus abdominis, multifidus) against rotational centrifugal force (Vasseljen et al., 2012). 
The oscillation amplitude serves as an action economy indicator, with a positive correlation to 
energy consumption—optimizing this parameter can enhance movement efficiency, as 
described by the theoretical model Eloss=k·A2 (where A represents oscillation amplitude). 
Using high-speed photography (≥200 Hz), movement trajectories are captured and combined 
with a rigid body dynamics model to calculate three-dimensional oscillation amplitudes. 
Insufficient activation of core muscles, as noted by Gribble et al., 2012, often leads to 
compensatory excessive abduction/adduction of the hip joint, highlighting the neuromuscular 
mechanisms underlying rotational stability. 
 
3.2.3.3.3 Rotation Smoothness Index (°) 
During the evaluation of an athlete’s momentum coherence from the starting position to 
completing a 360° rotation—characterized by uniform rotation without deceleration or 
acceleration phases—the participant must maintain natural hanging of the upper limbs and 
avoid torso twisting as key action requirements (Fukata et al., 2025). A smoothness index 
(SI) > 85°, a benchmark for professional athletes, indicates optimal movement quality, while 
an SI < 70° signals muscle coordination disorders (e.g., mismatched force generation between 
the hamstrings and gluteus maximus). This metric correlates positively with rotational speed 
and landing stability, as described by the theoretical model v = 
;<·=
>  (where T is the rotation 

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period) (Kuo & Donelan, 2010). To quantify movement smoothness, the joint angular 
velocity curve is analyzed via Fourier transform using the formula SI = 
?
> ∫|θ(t)|dt
>
@
), which 
captures deviations from uniform rotation. Neurologically, the cerebellum-basal ganglia loop 
regulates movement rhythm; abnormal neural discharges within this circuit can disrupt speed 
consistency, highlighting the neuromuscular mechanisms underlying rotational control and 
competitive performance optimization (Taiar et al., 2022). 
 
3.2.3.3.4 Landing Impact Force (N) 
After a 360° rotation, vertical impact force at landing is measured with requirements for 
slightly bent knees and ankle cushioning. An impact force < 1000 N signals high lower limb 
cushioning efficiency, reducing Achilles tendon injury risk (model: Fbuffer= 
ABC
D²  ). Research 
shows impact force negatively correlates with the coordination of take-off height and rotation 
speed (Green, 2006). 
Using an impact sensor, peak vertical force is recorded, and cushioning efficiency is 
calculated via Efficiency=
4#2EF42G)
4#2E
 . Stiffer hamstring-gluteus muscles correlate with lower 
impact force, offering a basis for technique optimization and injury prevention by linking 
force measurements to muscle function (Mojaddarasil & Sadigh, 2021b). 
 
3.3 STUDY AREA 
The location of the training and test will be conducted at Beijing Sport University’s North 
Gymnasium, a ‘Fédération International de Gymnasium’ -certified facility equipped with:   
1. Olympic-grade balance beams (10 cm width, 5 m length).   
2. Spring floors (Ariake, Japan) for jump training.   
3. Climate-controlled environment (20–22°C, 50–60% humidity).  
 

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3.4 STUDY POPULATION 
The target population for this study is newly registered female university students (aged 18 to 
22), who are enrolled in the gymnastic class as part of their physical education degree 
programme. 
 
3.5 SUBJECT CRITERIA 
3.5.1 Inclusion criteria 
The inclusion criteria for the study population are as follows: 
1. Females 
2. Age ranged between 18 -22 years old, normal body mass index (BMI) (18.5 -25kg/m²) 
(Traczyk et al., 2023).  
3. Undergraduate students of physical education at Beijing Sport University. 
4. No prior systematic gymnastics training (or with ≤ 1 year of systematic training 
experience), and no history of congenital diseases or musculoskeletal injuries.  
 
3.5.2 Exclusion Criteria 
1. Participants suffering from acute or chronic musculoskeletal injuries (lasting for 6 months 
or more), neurological disorders (such as epilepsy), or vestibular dysfunction. 
2. Ranked athletes or elite athletes. 
3. Participants with poor compliance (< 80%) who are unable to complete the 8 - week exercise 
intervention program.   
4. Individuals who have recently undergone or are scheduled to undergo surgery within three 
months. 
 

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3.5.3 Withdrawal Criteria 
Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Participants may refuse to participate in this 
study or stop participating in this study at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which 
they are otherwise entitled. An example of this would be if a subject develops an illness during 
the intervention. The research team may also stop their participation without their consent if 
they breach the study eligibility criteria in any way. 
3.6 Sample Size Estimation 
Using G - power 3.1 (Figure 10), the study focuses on time (within - subject factor), group 
(between - subject factor), and their interaction effects. The effect size is set to medium (0.35), 
with an alpha value of 0.05 and a statistical power of 0.80. A total of four groups will be 
included (static balance, dynamic balance, combined static and dynamic balance, and a control 
group), with measurements conducted twice, pre - and post - intervention. The calculated 
sample size is 52 participants. Considering a dropout rate of 15%, 60 participants will be 
recruited. Participants will be randomly assigned to four groups, with 15 participants in each 
group. Since the total dropout rate applies uniformly and participants are equally distributed 
across the four groups, each group’s dropout rate is also 15%. 

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Figure 10 Flow chart of the G-power 
 
3.7 SAMPLING METHOD AND SUBJECT RECRUITMENT 
We will use convenience sampling to recruit participants, ensuring that all participants are 
female beginner gymnasts meeting the inclusion criteria. Recruitment will be conducted with 
prior approval from the Gymnastics Teaching and Research Department of Beijing Sport 
University. Additionally, recruitment posters will be displayed on the first-floor bulletin board 
of the university’s teaching building. Eligible participants will be contacted via WeChat to 
confirm their interest in joining the study. Group allocation will be conducted using a random 
number table. All participant information will remain strictly confidential unless required by 
law.  
 

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3.8 INTERVENTION METHODS 
Participants in the SG intervention group will complete an 8-week training program consisting 
of Plank Support, Single-Leg Stance, Eyes-Closed Double-Leg Stance, and Half-Squat 
Exercise. The DG intervention group will engage in Landing Control Training, Balance Beam 
Walking, jumping onto the Balance Beam, and Squat-to-Stand Exercises. The SDG 
intervention group will perform Plank Support, Single-Leg Stance, Eyes-Closed Double-Leg 
Stance, Half-Squat Exercise, Landing Control Training, Balance Beam Walking, jumping onto 
the Balance Beam, and Squat-to-Stand Exercises. Each exercise will be repeated 3 times or the 
corresponding number of times per session, with each session lasting 15 minutes (including 30 
minutes of dynamic and static balance exercises), conducted twice a week for 8 weeks. All 
participants will enroll simultaneously, and each group will be guided by qualified instructors. 
Before and after each training session, participants will wear a heart rate monitor (Xiaomi 
Smart Band) on their wrist to ensure adherence to the prescribed training intensity outlined in 
Tables 13, 14, and 15. Additionally, participants may adjust their limb positions and movement 
intensity based on their physical condition. At the end of each session, training logs will be 
completed to document the activities. Only data from participants who adhere to at least 80% 
of the prescribed training program will be included in the analysis. 
Participants in the control group (CG) will continue their regular training routine as detailed in 
Tables 7 and 8. They will be advised to maintain their usual daily activities without 
incorporating any additional exercises. 

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Table 13: Static balance training intervention content (n=15) 
Week 
content 
Minutes/ 
Groups  
Inter-group Rest 
Duration 
Training 
duration 
HR Monitoring 
Indicators 
Heart Rate 
Monitoring 
Equipment 
Intervention 
time 
Heart rate range 
Equipment 
W 1 
baseline test 
W 2-3 
①Double leg stand 
②Single leg stand 
1/3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
15minutes 
Resting Heart 
Rate (Before 
Training)/Maxi
mum Heart 
Rate/Maximum 
Heart Rate 
Xiaomi Smart 
Band 
8 weeks, 2 
times per week, 
15 minutes each 
time 
80bpm-100bpm 
Balance board、BOSU ball 
W 4 
①Eyes-closed 
double-leg 
stance 
②Plank support 
1/3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
15minutes 
80bpm-110bpm 
Balance board 、BOSU 
ball、Gymnastic mat 
W 5 
①Eyes-closed 
Single-leg 
stance 
②Half Squat Exercise 
1/3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
15minutes 
80bpm-110bpm 
Gymnastic mat、Balance 
board、BOSU ball 
W 6 
①Jumping onto BOSU ball + 
Eyes-closed double-leg stance 
②Single-Leg Standing Leg + 
Leg Lift Exercise 
1/3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
15minutes 
80bpm-120bpm 
Balance board、BOSU ball 
W 7 
①Single-Leg Standing Leg + 
Leg Lift Exercise 
② Single-Leg Standing 
Pointe Exercise 
1/3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
15minutes 
80bpm-120bpm 
Gymnastics ball、balance 
board、BOSU ball 
W 8 
Post test 
 

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Table 14: Dynamic balance training intervention content (n=15) 
Week 
content 
Times/ 
Groups 
Inter-group Rest 
Duration 
Training 
duration 
HR 
Monitoring 
Indicators 
Heart Rate 
Monitoring 
Equipment 
Intervention time 
Heart rate range 
Equipment 
W 1 
baseline test 
W 2-3 
①Jump in multiple directions 
on one leg 
② Half squat exercise 
8/3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
15 minutes 
Resting Heart 
Rate (Before 
Training)/Maxi
mum Heart 
Rate/Maximu
m Heart Rate 
Xiaomi Smart 
Band 
8 weeks, 2 times 
per week, 15 
minutes each time 
90bpm-110bpm 
Gymnastic 
mat 、
Balance beam 
W 4 
①Jumping onto a low balance 
beam 
②Half squat exercise 
8/3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
15 minutes 
90bpm-110bpm 
Balance 
beam
、
Balance 
board
、
BOSU ball 
W 5 
①Jumping onto BOSU ball 
② Half squat-to-stand and 
catch-and-throw ball exercise 
8/3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
15 minutes 
90bpm-120bpm 
Balance 
board
、
BOSU ball 
W 6 
①Practice of jumping with 
rotation 
②Plank and convert to two-
hand support 
8/3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
15 minutes 
90bpm-120bpm 
Gymnastics ball 、
balance board、BOSU 
ball 
W7 
①Walking on the Balance 
Beam 
②Landing control training 
5/3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
15 minutes 
90bpm-120bpm 
Gymnastic 
mat 、
Balance beam 
W 8 
Post test 
 

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Table 15: The combination of static and dynamic balance training content (n=15) 
Week 
content 
Times/ 
Minutes 
Groups 
Inter-group 
Rest Duration 
Training 
duration 
HR Monitoring 
Indicators 
Heart Rate 
Monitoring 
Equipment 
Intervention 
time 
Heart rate range 
Equipment 
W 1 
baseline test 
W 2-3 
①Single-leg stance+ Leg - lifting exercise 
②Half squat exercise + Throwing - 
catching ball exercise 
2min 
10times 
3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
30 
minutes 
Resting Heart 
Rate (Before 
Training)/Maxi
mum Heart 
Rate/Maximum 
Heart Rate 
Xiaomi 
Smart Band 
8 weeks, 2 
times per 
week, 15 
minutes 
each time 
90bpm-110bpm 
Gymnastic mat、Balance 
beam 
W 4 
①Jumping onto a low balance beam + 
Walking on the Balance Beam + Landing 
control training 
②Half Squat Exercise + Throwing - 
catching ball exercise 
10times 
10times 
3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
30 
minutes 
90bpm-110bpm 
Balance beam、Balance 
board、BOSU ball 
W 5 
①Jumping onto BOSU ball + Double-leg 
stance 
②Plank and convert to two-hand support 
10times
（1minutes） 
10times 
3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
30 
minutes 
90bpm-120bpm 
Balance board、BOSU 
ball 
W 6 
①Jump training + Jumping with rotation 
②Plank and convert to two-hand support + 
Plank support 
10times 
10times
（1minutes） 
3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
30 
minutes 
90bpm-120bpm 
Gymnastics 
ball
、
balance board、BOSU 
ball 
W 7 
①Jumping onto a low balance beam + 
Walking on the Balance Beam + Landing 
control training 
②Forward roll + swallow balance 
10times 
10times 
3 
Rest for 2 
minutes 
30 
minutes 
90bpm-120bpm 
Gymnastic mat、Balance 
beam 
W 8 
Post test 

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3.8.1 Safety consideration 
To ensure safety throughout the study, comprehensive measures were implemented across all 
stages: Prior to the experiment, participants were subjected to thorough health screenings, 
including medical history reviews and baseline physical assessments (e.g., BMI, 
musculoskeletal evaluations), to confirm eligibility and identify potential risks. Training 
sessions emphasized the importance of proper warm-up routines, standardized movement 
execution, and immediate reporting of discomfort, with all participants signing written 
documents to acknowledge risks, benefits, and withdrawal rights. During the intervention, 
training took place in a FIG-certified facility equipped with Olympic-grade apparatus and 
shock-absorbing flooring, supervised by three certified instructors. Real-time heart rate 
monitoring via Xiaomi Smart Bands ensured intensity levels remained within the prescribed 
range (80–140 bpm). For high-risk maneuvers such as balance beam dismounts, spotters and 
crash mats were deployed. In case of falls or acute pain, activities were immediately halted, 
and emergency protocols—including on-site first-aid personnel and equipment—were 
activated. Post-experiment, participants completed cooldown routines and underwent follow-
up assessments to monitor for delayed soreness or adverse effects. All health and performance 
data were anonymized in accordance with institutional privacy policies to protect 
confidentiality. A continuous communication channel was maintained after the study to address 
any ongoing concerns. 
 
3.8.2 Research tool 
3.8.2.1 Kunwei Force Plate（jumping test） 
The Kunwei force plate is a high-precision biomechanical measurement device widely used to 
assess jump performance, balance, and force development in athletes (Cormie et al., 2007). To 
scientifically evaluate the biomechanical performance of the countermovement jump (CMJ) 
and single-leg countermovement jump (SLCMJ), the standardized testing protocol using the 

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Kunwei Force Plate is as follows: Participants stand barefoot on the force plate with arms 
relaxed to complete a 10-second static calibration, recording baseline center of pressure (CoP) 
trajectories (re-test required if CoP drift exceeds 2 cm), with the system sampling rate set to 
1000 Hz. For CMJ testing, participants perform rapid countermovement jumps from self-
selected knee flexion depth to maximal height, landing symmetrically and stabilizing for 2 
seconds, repeated 5 times (60-second rest intervals) (Markovic et al., 2004). For SLCMJ, 
participants execute single-leg jumps followed by ipsilateral landing with 3-second balance 
maintenance; failed trials (contralateral limb contact or external support) trigger retesting. The 
force plate continuously acquires vertical ground reaction force (vGRF) to calculate jump 
height (flight time method:ℎ=
)×+!
I  ) peak force (max vGRF), rate of force development (RFD: 
slope of force-time curve from 0-200 ms), and impulse (force-time integral). Real-time 
feedback on adjacent screens highlights critical metrics (e.g., RFD <3000 N/s—optimize ankle 
stiffness or bilateral peak force asymmetry >10%—adjust symmetry). Raw data undergo 
Butterworth low-pass filtering (50 Hz cutoff) and body weight normalization, with outliers 
excluded based on predefined criteria (e.g., pre-activation force exceeding 5% body weight or 
stabilization time >1.5 seconds). Processed datasets are encrypted and stored as CMJ/SLCMJ-
Date-Subject. This protocol quantifies lower-limb explosive power, bilateral symmetry, and 
energy transfer efficiency (Gathercole et al., 2015), supporting athlete selection, training 
monitoring, and rehabilitation assessment (Meylan & Malatesta, 2009). 
 

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Figure 11 Kunwei Force Plate 
   
3.8.2.2 Star Excursion Balance Test，(SEBT)  stability test 
The Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT) is an effective tool for assessing dynamic balance in 
participants. During the test, the participant stands on one leg at the center of a star-shaped 
diagram and extends the other leg as far as possible in eight specific directions: anterior 
(ANT), anterolateral, lateral (LAT), posterolateral (PLAT), posterior (POST), posteromedial 
(PMED), medial (MED), and anteromedial (AMED) (Dendrinos et al., 2022). These 
directions are designed to evaluate balance in multiple planes. The maximum reach distance 
in each direction, normalized to the participant’s leg length, is used as an indicator of 
dynamic balance ability. Before the formal test, participants should undergo adequate 
practice trials to ensure proficiency and reliable data. During the test, the standing leg must 
remain stable, and the participant should avoid significant shifts in the center of gravity or 
loss of balance. Each direction should be tested multiple times, and the average of the best 
scores is used for analysis. Studies have shown that SEBT is highly sensitive in detecting 
functional deficits in the lower limbs, making it particularly useful for evaluating dynamic 
balance in athletes. Additionally, SEBT can be used to assess the impact of core strength 
training on dynamic balance. Research indicates that athletes who undergo core strength 

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training exhibit significant improvements in SEBT performance, demonstrating that core 
training can enhance dynamic balance (Gong et al., 2023). 
 
Figure 12 The Star Excursion Balance Test 
  
3.8.2.3 TecnoBody 3D Motion Capture System（gymnastic performance movements） 
To accurately assess the biomechanical parameters of the 360° straight jump turn and single-
leg standing rotation, experimental procedures must integrate standardized protocols with 
real-time interaction: Test operators first instruct participants to stand still while reflective 
markers are affixed to anatomical landmarks (acromion, anterior superior iliac spine, greater 
trochanter, and lower limb joints), emphasizing that "markers must align with bone 
structures—avoid movement to prevent displacement (Soylu et al., 2025). During static 
calibration, participants are directed to stand naturally at the center of the force platform with 
arms relaxed and gaze forward, maintaining stillness for 10 seconds to establish the skeletal 
model. For formal testing, the straight jump turn requires execution under the command jump 
vertically, complete a 360° mid-air rotation, and land stably, while the single-leg rotation 
emphasizes upright posture on the support leg, stable trunk alignment, and 2-second balance 
maintenance post-rotation, with each movement repeated three times to ensure data 
reliability. During acquisition, the system provides real-time alerts such as "right knee marker 

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occluded—adjust arm posture and retest" or "insufficient rotational angular velocity—reduce 
trunk compensation," ensuring movement standardization. Coaches view screens displaying 
the participant’s center of mass trajectory (red) overlaid with the ideal biomechanical model 
(green), accompanied by feedback like "0.2-second delay in hip extension—optimize takeoff 
sequencing." Post-test, data undergoes quality control screening (e.g., center-of-mass 
deviation standard deviation <1.5 cm, marker occlusion rate <5%), encrypted and stored 
under the naming convention ‘action-date’ for subsequent biomechanical modeling and 
training optimization. This protocol, combining movement standardization, real-time 
correction, and multimodal data integration, enables granular analysis of rotational techniques 
(Bravi et al., 2023), supporting technical refinement and injury prevention research in 
disciplines such as artistic gymnastics and dance.  
 
 
 
Figure 13(a) The 3D Motion Capture System 
Figure 13(b) The Schematic placements of the 
motion capture system 
 

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3.8.2.4 Xiaomi Smart Band (Measure heart rate, exercise intensity) 
Heart rate monitoring devices, such as the Xiaomi Smart Band, are commonly used to measure 
exercise intensity. The device is securely worn on the wrist. Before testing, participants 
undergo a 5-minute resting period to record their resting heart rate (RHR) as baseline data. 
During exercise, the device continuously records heart rate, activity duration, step count, 
calories burned, and distance covered (Concheiro-Moscoso et al., 2022). Depending on the 
type of exercise, such as running or interval training, the appropriate mode is selected to 
monitor heart rate in real time and assess intensity levels. These intensity levels are categorized 
into low intensity (50–60% of maximum heart rate, MHR), moderate intensity (60–70% of 
MHR), and high intensity (70–85% of MHR). For interval training, the device tracks heart rate 
fluctuations during different intensity phases. After the exercise, the ending heart rate (EHR) 
is recorded, and heart rate recovery (HRR) is monitored during a 5-minute cooldown period. 
By analyzing metrics such as average heart rate (AHR), maximum heart rate (MHR), and 
recovery rate, a comprehensive understanding of physiological responses and fitness levels can 
be obtained (Bravi et al., 2023). 
The purpose of testing exercise intensity is to optimize training efficiency, evaluate 
cardiovascular function, ensure safety, monitor progress, and personalize training plans. By 
identifying different intensity zones, it is possible to target specific fitness goals, such as 
improving aerobic or anaerobic capacity, while minimizing risks and avoiding overtraining. 
This method provides data-driven personalized training strategies that not only enhance 
performance but also effectively monitor long-term fitness progress (Lugones-Sanchez et al., 
2022). 

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Figure 14 Xiaomi Smart Band 
3.8.3 Data analysis 
To ensure the reliability and validity of the collected data, an effective database will first be 
established by importing the experimental data into an Excel spreadsheet. Subsequently, SPSS 
29.0 software will be utilized for comprehensive statistical analysis. 
Following this, a series of detailed statistical analyses will be conducted on the data related to 
jump performance and stability of beginner gymnasts. These analyses include: 
1.Descriptive statistics to summarize the central tendencies and variability in the data. 
2.Demographic variable analysis to explore the influence of participants’ characteristics (e.g., 
age, BMI, or gender) on the outcomes. 
3.Correlation analysis to examine the relationships between key variables, such as balance 
training methods and improvements in jump performance and stability. 
4.Factor analysis to identify the underlying factors contributing to the observed improvements, 
thereby determining the most significant influencing variables. 
This multi-layered analysis ensures a thorough understanding of the data and provides robust 
evidence for identifying the most effective training strategies for enhancing the jumping and 
stability performance of beginner gymnasts. Through this systematic approach, the research 
aims to generate scientifically valid and practically applicable insights. 

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CHAPTER 4 
4.0 EXPECTED RESULTS 
4.1 Anthropology 
Table 16 Height, weight, and BMI at baseline and after 8 weeks in the static, dynamic, static and dynamic intervention and control groups. Data presented as 
mean ± SD. 
Anthropometry 
Groups 
Two-way repeated measures 
ANOVA  
Bonferroni (p) 
Static 
Dynamic 
Static + 
Dynamic 
Control 
B 
W8 
B 
W8 
B 
W8 
B 
W8 
SS 
df 
MS 
F 
p 
 
Height  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Weight (kg) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BMI (kg/m2) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
B= Baseline, W=Week, ANOVA= Analysis of variance; SS=Sum of squares; df= degrees of freedom, MS=Mean square, F= F-test statistical value, p<0.05 
denotes significance diffe

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4.2 Jumping ability test results 
Table 17 Countermovement jump (CMJ) and single-leg countermovement jump tests at baseline and after 8 weeks in the static intervention, 
dynamic intervention, static-dynamic intervention, and control groups. Data presented as mean ± SD. 
Group 
Test Type 
Time Point 
Jump 
Height 
(Mean ± 
SD) 
Peak Force 
(N) (Mean 
± SD) 
Rate of Force 
Development 
(N·S) (Mean ± 
SD) 
Impulse (N·s) 
(Mean ± SD) 
Two-Way 
Repeated 
Measures 
ANOVA 
Bonferroni 
(p) 
Static balance group 
Countermovement jump 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Single-leg 
countermovement jump 
B 
W8 
Dynamic balance group 
Countermovement jump 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Single-leg 
countermovement jump 
B 
W8 
Static and Dynamic balance 
group 
Countermovement jump 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Single-leg 
countermovement jump 
B 
W8 
Control group 
Countermovement jump 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Single-leg 
countermovement jump 
B 
W8 

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4.3 Stability test results 
Table 18 Eight-point Star Offset stability test results at baseline and 8 weeks postintervention in the static intervention, dynamic intervention, 
static-dynamic intervention, and control groups. Data presented as mean ± SD. 
Group 
Test Type 
Time Point 
Anterior 
reach  
posteromedial 
reach  
composite 
score 
Two-Way Repeated 
Measures ANOVA 
Bonferroni (p) 
Static balance group 
SEBT(Pre-Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
SEBT(Post-Test) 
B 
W8 
Dynamic balance group 
SEBT(Pre-Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
SEBT(Post-Test) 
B 
W8 
Static and Dynamic balance 
group 
SEBT(Pre-Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
SEBT(Post-Test) 
B 
W8 
Control group 
SEBT(Pre-Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
SEBT(Post-Test) 
B 
W8 

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4.4 Gymnastics skills test results 
4.4.1 Straight jump 360 ° turn test results 
Table 19 Straight jump 360 ° turn test results at baseline and 8 weeks postintervention in the static intervention, dynamic intervention, static-
dynamic intervention, and control groups. Data presented as mean ± SD. 
Group 
Test Type 
Time Point 
Center of 
gravity 
deviation 
distance  
Joint 
Angle 
variation 
(°)  
Vertical Jump 
Efficiency 
(%) 
Landing Impact 
Force (N) 
Two-Way Repeated 
Measures ANOVA 
Bonferroni (p) 
Static balance group 
Straight 
jump 
360 ° turn (Pre-
Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Straight 
jump 
360 ° turn (Post-
Test) 
B 
W8 
Dynamic balance group 
Straight 
jump 
360 ° turn (Pre-
Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Straight 
jump 
360 ° turn (Post-
Test) 
B 
W8 
Static and Dynamic balance group 
Straight 
jump 
360 ° turn (Pre-
Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Straight 
jump 
360 ° turn (Post-
Test) 
B 
W8 
Control group 
Straight 
jump 
360 ° turn (Pre-
Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Straight 
jump 
360 ° turn (Post-
Test) 
B 
W8 

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4.4.2 Standing Single-leg 360 ° turn test results 
Table 20 Standing Single-leg 360 ° turn test results at baseline and 8 weeks postintervention in the static intervention, dynamic intervention, static-
dynamic intervention, and control groups. Data presented as mean ± SD. 
Group 
Test Type 
Time 
Point 
Center of 
Gravity 
Deviation 
Body 
Oscillation 
Amplitude 
(mm) 
Rotation 
Smoothness 
Index (°) 
Landing Impact 
Force (N) 
Two-Way Repeated 
Measures ANOVA 
Bonferroni (p) 
Static balance group 
Standing 
Single-leg 
360 ° turn (Pre-Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Standing 
Single-leg 
360 ° turn (Post-Test) 
B 
W8 
Dynamic balance group 
Standing 
Single-leg 
360 ° turn (Pre-Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Standing 
Single-leg 
360 ° turn (Post-Test) 
B 
W8 
Static and Dynamic 
balance group 
Standing 
Single-leg 
360 ° turn (Pre-Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Standing 
Single-leg 
360 ° turn (Post-Test) 
B 
W8 
Control group 
Standing 
Single-leg 
360 ° turn (Pre-Test) 
B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
W8 
Standing 
Single-leg 
360 ° turn (Post-Test) 
B 
W8 

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CHAPTER 5 
5.0 SUMMARY OF THE RESEACH PROGRESS 
5.1 Gantt chart and Milestone 
Table 21 presents the time - planning for the PhD research project. 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Table 21 Gantt chart of the research project 
ACTIVITIES / MONTH 
Oct 
2024 
Nov 
204 
Dec 
2024 
Jan 
2025 
Feb 
2025 
Mar 
2025 
Apr 
2025 
May 
2025 
June 
2025 
July 
2025 
Aug 
2025 
Sep 
2025 
Oct 
2025 
Nov 
2025 
Dec 
2025 
Jan 
2026 
Feb 
2026 
Mar 
2026 
Find research topic-Refine research 
title and discussion of project details 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Preparing research proposal-Journal & 
article search from database             
- Research proposal write-up -Amend 
proposal follow supervisor’s approval 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Submit ethical application 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Obtain ethical approval-Amend 
research proposal based on ethical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Manuscript Preparation - Systematic 
Review: " Lower Extremity Injury 
Prevention Through Balance and 
Flexibility Training in Gymnastics: 
Meta-Analysis" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Manuscript Preparation - " Mechanisms 
of Balance State Transition Influenced 
by Apparatus Contact Characteristics in 
Gymnastics: A Systematic Review" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Table 21 Gantt chart of the research project (continued) 
ACTIVITIES / MONTH 
Apr 
2026 
May 
2026 
June 
2026 
July 
2026 
Aug 
2026 
Sep 
2026 
Oct 
2026 
Nov 
2026 
Dec 
2026 
Jan 
2027 
Feb 
2027 
Mar 
2027 
Apr 
2027 
May 
2027 
June 
2027 
July 
2027 
Aug 
2027 
Sep 
2027 
Thesis write-up-Chapters 1-3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Recruitment of study participants 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Experimentation and data 
collection 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Data entry and statistical analysis 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Thesis write-up - results 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Discussion, conclusion and 
abstract write-up                  
- Submit draft to supervisor for 
approval and thesisamendment 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Thesis presentation-Prepare 
PowerPoint slides & presenter 
notes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Thesis submission 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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5.2 Milestone for Research Project 
Table 22 presents the key research milestones of the Research Project, along with their 
corresponding cumulative project completion percentages. 
Table 22 Milestone for Research Project 
Research Activities 
Date 
Cumulative Project Completion Percentage 
(%) 
Find research topic /Literature review 
1/10/2024 
5 
Preparing research 
proposal 
1/1/2025 
10 
Obtain ethical approval 
1/6/2025 
15 
Balance training programme and 
systematic evaluation of jumping and 
stability 
1/10/2025 
20 
Balance training programme and cross-
sectional study of jumping and stability 
1/1/2026 
25 
Recruitment of study 
participants 
1/7/2026 
40 
Experimentation and data 
collection 
1/9/2026 
70 
Data entry and statistical 
analysis 
1/3/2027 
80 
Final research project, 
presentation of data 
1/5/2027 
90 
Submission of research 
project 
1/8/2027 
100 
  
 
 
 

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5.3 BUDGET PROPOSAL 
There is no grant available for this project. All facilities and equipment are supplied by the 
Beijing Sports University at no costs to the researchers. 
  
5.4 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS  
5.4.1 Subject vulnerability 
In this study, participants may experience mild symptoms such as muscle fatigue, slight 
dizziness, or balance instability during the intervention. However, these symptoms typically 
subside within 24–48 hours after completing the training or testing. If participants experience 
any discomfort, appropriate medical care and interventions will be provided as needed. 
Throughout the training and testing period, participants’ safety will be closely monitored. 
Medical laboratory officers and technicians trained in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) 
and basic life support (BLS) will always be on standby to ensure timely responses to any 
emergencies. Participants are free to withdraw from the study at any time without any 
obligations or penalties.  
If these symptoms occur, they should immediately stop training and rest as needed. In the 
event of acute symptoms during the intervention, medical treatment will be promptly 
provided. Should a participant’s condition worsen to the extent that hospitalization is 
required, the training will be suspended and resumed only after the participant’s condition 
stabilizes. If the condition continues to deteriorate and medical professionals deem the 
participant unfit to continue, they will be excluded from the study to ensure their safety. The 
research team is committed to providing a safe environment and a supportive framework to 
safeguard the health and well-being of all participants throughout the study. 
The participant will not be subjected to coercion or deception. All participants in this study are 
voluntary. 
 
5.5 DECLARATION OF CONFLICT OF INTEREST  
There are no conflicts of interest exist. 
  
5.6 PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY  
All information will be kept confidential by the researchers and will not be made publicly 
available unless disclosure is required by law. All electronic copies will be encrypted in a 
password protected medium in a portable storage. The data will be retained by the researchers 
for knowledge purposes only for at least 7 years until which will then be destroyed. Neither the 

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name nor any identifying information will be used in any publication or presentation resulting 
from this study. Permission will be obtained before any videos or photographs taken. 
 
5.7 COMMUNITY SENSITIVITIES AND BENEFITS  
The physical fitness test used in this study may provide participants with health-related and 
balance training information. We recognize that some people might not respond well to 
treatments. As a result, we will discuss this with participants at the briefing and before getting 
their permission. In addition, participants will gain from increasing the knowledge in the 
balance training (static and dynamic) and its associated tests. 
  
5.8 HONORARIUM AND INCENTIVES  
This participation in this study is entirely voluntary with no honorarium provided to the 
participants. 
 
5.9 OTHER ETHICAL REVIEW BOARD APROVAL  
A letter of approval from Beijing Sports University, China has been obtained (Appendix1, page 
131 to 132). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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APPENDIX 
Appendix 1
 

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Appendix 2 
 
 
 

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