JayJayThrowThrow/commonwealth-wiki-mix huggingface dataset:
Wayback Machine

I-Wayback Machine ingumshini womlando wedijithali ye-World Wide Web. Yasungulwa yi-Internet Archive, umtapo wolwazi ongenzi nzuzo ozinze eSan Francisco, eCalifornia. Idalwe ngo-1996 futhi yethulwa emphakathini ngo-2001, ivumela umsebenzisi ukuthi abuyele "emuva ngesikhathi" futhi abone ukuthi amawebhusayithi abukeka kanjani phambilini. Abasunguli bayo, uBrewster Kahle noBruce Gilliat, basungule iWayback Machine ngenhloso yokunikeza "ukufinyelela kulo lonke ulwazi" ngokugcina amakhophi agcinwe emakhasini ewebhu angasasebenzi.

Kusukela yadalwa ngo-1996, kungezwe amakhasi angaphezu kwezigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezingama-544 kulengobo yomlando. Le nsizakalo iphinde yaqubula impikiswano yokuthi ngabe ukudala amakhasi afakwe kungobo yomlando ngaphandle kwemvume yomnikazi kungukuphula umthetho we-copyright kwezinye zeziphathimandla.
Imithombo
Inkolo nobungqingili

Ubudlelwano phakathi kwenkolo nobungqingili buyehluka kakhulu esikhathini nendawo, ngaphakathi naphakathi kwezinkolo namahlelo ahlukahlukene, maqondana nezinhlobo ezahlukahlukene zobungqingili nobungqingili. Izimfundiso zanamuhla zezinkolo ezinkulu zomhlaba namasonto azo ziyahlukahluka kakhulu ezimweni zengqondo ngalokhu kuthambekela kwezocansi.

Phakathi kwamahlelo ezenkolo ajabula ukwenqaba lokhu, kunezinhlobo eziningi zokuphikisana, ezisukela ekukhuthazeni buthule izenzo zobungqingili, ezinqabela ngokusobala imikhuba yezocansi yabantu bobulili obufanayo phakathi kwabalandeli bazo futhi ziphikisana ngokuqinile nokwamukelwa kobungqingili emphakathini, ukuxhasa unswinyo lobugebengu kuze kube yisijeziso esikhulu , ngisho nokuvumela ukubulawa kwabantu ngokungafanele.


Kodwa-ke, abanye abalandeli bezinkolo eziningi babheka ubungqingili noncubulili kahle, futhi amanye amahlelo ajwayele ukubusisa imishado yabantu bobulili obufanayo futhi axhase amalungelo e-LGBT, umkhuba okhulayo njengoba iningi lamazwe athuthukile lisebenzisa imithetho esekela amalungelo e-LGBT.

Ngokomlando, amanye amasiko nezinkolo zazingenisa uthando, ubulili kanye nobulili bobulili obufanayo, izinganekwane namasiko anjalo atholakala emhlabeni jikelele. Isimo sobungqingili enkolweni yamaHindu siyindida. Imibhalo yamaHindu iqukethe okumbalwa okucacisiwe kobuhlobo bobulili obufanayo, yize abanye bejezisa. Ubulili be-Ayoni, obufaka ucansi lomlomo nolwangemuva, abuzange buthathwe njengecala elibi, futhi bungase benziwe kwezinye izimo. Imikhosi yomshado wamaSikh ayicacisi ngokobulili, ngakho-ke umshado wobulili obufanayo kungenzeka ngaphakathi kweSikhism.
Izigaba

Izigaba:Ubunqigili,Inkolo
UCansi

Ucansi isenzo socansi esibandakanya ukufaka nokufaka ipipi esithweni sangasese ngenjabulo yezocansi, ukuzalwa kabusha, noma kokubili. Lokhu kwaziwa nangokuthi ubulili besitho sangasese sowesifazane noma sangasese. Ezinye izinhlobo zocansi lwendunu zifaka phakathi ucansi lwendunu (ukungena ngendunu), ucansi lomlomo (ucansi lomlomo noma lwendunu), ukungena komunwe (ukugcwala ngomunwe) nokungena. ngokusebenzisa i-dildo (ikakhulukazi i-strap-on dildo). Le misebenzi ifaka ukusondelana ngokomzimba phakathi kwabantu ababili noma ngaphezulu futhi imvamisa isetshenziswa kuphela ngabantu ukujabulisa umzimba noma imizwa futhi ingaba nomthelela ebunyeni babantu.


Ukuziphatha

Bona futhi: Umsebenzi wezocansi womuntu kanye nobulili bomuntu

Izincazelo

Ukuya ocansini kungabizwa ngokuthi yi-coitus, copulation, coition, noma ukuya ocansini. ICoitus isuselwa egameni lesiLatini elithi coitio noma coire, okusho ukuthi "ukuhlangana ndawonye noma ukuhlangana ndawonye" noma "ukuhamba ndawonye", futhi kwaziwa ngaphansi kwamagama esiLatini asendulo ahlukahlukene ngezenzo ezahlukahlukene zocansi, kepha imvamisa kuchaza ukungena kwepenile-kwesitho sangasese sowesifazane. Lokhu kuvame ukubizwa ngokuthi ucansi lwesitho sangasese sowesifazane noma ucansi lwesitho sangasese sowesifazane. Ubulili besitho sangasese sowesifazane, futhi okungajwayelekile ocansini lwesitho sangasese sowesifazane, nakho kungakhombisa noma yimuphi umsebenzi wobulili besifazane, ikakhulukazi uma ungena ngaphakathi, kufaka phakathi ezocansi phakathi kwezithandani ezithandanayo. Ukubumbana, ngokuqhathanisa, kuvame ukukhombisa inqubo yokukhwelana, ikakhulukazi ezilwaneni ezingezona ezabantu; kungasho imisebenzi ehlukahlukene yezocansi phakathi kwabantu bobulili obuhlukile noma abesilisa nabesifazane bobulili obufanayo, kepha ngokuvamile kusho isenzo sokuzala ngokocansi sokudlulisa isidoda sisuke kowesilisa siye kowesifazane noma ukuzala ngokocansi phakathi kwendoda nowesifazane.
Unkulunkulu

Ekucabangeni kokukholelwa kuNkulunkulu munye, uNkulunkulu uthathwa njengomuntu ophakeme kunabo bonke, umdali, nento eyinhloko yokholo. UNkulunkulu uvame ukucatshangelwa njengonamandla onke, owazi konke, okho konke futhi onamandla onke kanye nokuba nokuphila okuphakade futhi okudingekayo. UNkulunkulu uvame ukubhekwa njengongekho emthethweni, kuthiwa isici esithile sihlobene nemibono yokudlula noma yobudoda.


Ezinye izinkolo zichaza uNkulunkulu ngaphandle kokubhekiswa ebulilini, kanti ezinye zisebenzisa amatemu aqondene nobulili futhi ahambisana nobulili. UNkulunkulu ukhulelwe njengomuntu uqobo noma ongeyena umuntu. Ku-atheism, uNkulunkulu ungumdali nomondli womhlaba, ngenkathi ese-deism, uNkulunkulu ungumdali, kepha hhayi umsekeli, wendawo yonke. E-pantheism, uNkulunkulu uyindawo yonke uqobo. Ukungakholelwa ebukhoneni bukaNkulunkulu ukungabikho kokukholelwa kuNkulunkulu, kanti ubu-agnosticism buthi ubukhona bukaNkulunkulu abaziwa noma abaziwa. UNkulunkulu ubuye wakhulelwa njengomthombo wazo zonke izibopho zokuziphatha, futhi "omkhulu kunabo bonke ongacatshangwa ukuthi ukhona" .Izazi zefilosofi eziningi ezivelele zenze izimpikiswano zokuphikisa nobukhona bukaNkulunkulu.
Isixhakangqamu

Isixhakangqamu siwuxhoxho oluyinkimbinkimbi, oluxhuma izinkosa (filaments) zezakhamzimba ezitholakala kwingqimbazana yawo wonke amangqamuzana, kuhlanganisa nalezo zezinungwana nezingunazana. Phakathi kwezimvelendeni (eukoryotes), ijija kusuka endenini yengqamuzana kuya olwelwesini lwengqamuzana futhi yakhiwa izakhamzimba ezifanayo eziPhilini ezahlukahlukene. Yakhiwa izigcoyi ezintathu eziyinhloko, izinkosancinci (microfilaments), izinkosa ezingaphakathi kanye namathumbuncinci (microtubules), futhi konke lokhu kungakwazi ukukhula ngokushesha noma ukuqaqeka kuye ngezidingo zengqamuzana.
IsiNcithelo

IsiNcithelo, noma ushukela wezithelo, ushukela olula we-ketonic olutholakala ezitshalweni eziningi, lapho uvame ukuhlanganiswa nesiNcishuko ukwakha i-sucrose yesiNcithimbili. Ingenye yeziNcithinye amathathu okudla, kanye ne-glucose ne-galactose, efakwa ngqo egazini ngesikhathi sokugaya. UFructose watholakala ngusokhemisi waseFrance u-Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut ngo-1847. Igama elithi "fructose" laqanjwa ngo-1857 usokhemisi waseNgilandi uWilliam Allen Miller. I-fructose emsulwa, eyomile iqinile, imhlophe, ayinaphunga, i-crystalline solid, futhi iyincibilikisi enamanzi kakhulu kunabo bonke ushukela.I-Fructose itholakala kuzithelo zezinyosi, izihlahla nezomvini, izimbali, amajikijolo kanye nemifino eminingi yezimpande.

Isakhiwo se-Fructose(amakhemikhali)


I-Fructose iyi-6-carbon polyhydroxyketone.Crystalline fructose isebenzisa isakhiwo esinamalungu ayisithupha se-cyclic, esibizwa nge-β-d-fructopyranose, ngenxa yokuzinza kwe-hemiketal ne-hydrogen-bonding yangaphakathi. Kwisixazululo, i-fructose ikhona njengenhlanganisela yokulingana kwe-tautomers β-d-fructopyranose, β-d-fructofuranose, α-d-fructofuranose, α-d-fructopyranose ne-keto-d-fructose (ifomu elingeyona i-cyclic).

Ukusatshalaliswa kwama-d-fructose tautomers esixazululweni kuhlobene nokuhlukahluka okuningana, okufana ne-solvent kanye ne-temperature.d-Fructopyranose kanye ne-d-fructofuranose ukusatshalaliswa emanzini kukhonjwe kaningi njenge-70% ye-fructopyranose ne-22% ye-fructofuranose.
IsiNcithinye

IsiNcithinye (monosaccharide), sibizwa nangokuthi ushukela olula, siwuhlobo olula kunazo zonke zoshukela kanye nemuvo uyisiseko (iminxazwi (monomers)) okwakhiwe ngalo izifukuthusi (carbohydrate).
Imvamisa siwumncwebe oqinile, ongenambala, okuncibilikayo emanzini. Ngokuphikisana negama lawo elithi (shukela), iziNcithinye ezithile kuphela ezinambitheka kamtoti.
Isicabayo (formula) esijwayelekile sithi CnH2nOn, noma i- [Cn (H2O) n] noma i- {CH2O} n (yize kungewona wonke amachembe afaka lesicabayo)

Izibonelo zesiNcithinye zihlanganisa IsiNcihleke, IsiNcithelo nesiNcintusi.
imininingwane

IsiNcithinye siyisakhi sokwakha IsiNcithimbili (njenge-sucrose ne-lactose) neziNcithiningi (polysaccharides) (njenge-cellulose nesitashi). Ichwe ngalinye lomcalahle lisekela iqembu le(hydroxyl yi-chiral), ngaphandle kwalezo ezisekupheleni kochungechunge. Lokhu kuphakamisa amafomu amaningi we(isomeric)), onke anesicabayi esifanayo sevanga. Isibonelo, isiNcintusi nesiNcishuko zombili zingama-(aldohexoses), kepha zinezakhiwo ezihlukile zomzimba nezakhiwo zevanga.

IsiNcithinye esiyisincishuko sidlala indima ebalulekile ekusetshenzisweni komzimba, lapho amandla evanga akhishwa khona nge-glycolysis kanye nomjikelezo we(citric acid) ukuhlinzeka amandla ngezinto eziphilayo. Ezinye izinCithinye zingaguqulwa emzimbeni ophilayo zjbe yisiNcishuko.
I-glucose

IsiNcishuko siwushukela olula onesicabayo samangqamuzana C6H12O6. Isincishuko siyisincithinye esigcwele kakhulu, isigaba esingaphansi sezifukuthisi. Isincishuko senziwa kakhulu izitshalo nobulembu obuningi ngesikhathi somdibakhanyo (photosynthesis) kusuka emanzini nakumcalahle ontuhlambili, kusetshenziswa amandla avela elangeni, lapho isetshenziselwa ukwenza i-cellulose ezindongeni zamangqamuzana, isifukuthisi esiningi kunazo zonke emhlabeni. umthombo wamandla kuzo zonke izinto eziphilayo. Isincishuko somkhwentuko sigcinwa njengegcezi (polymer), ezitshalweni ikakhulukazi njengesitashi ne-amylopectin, nasezilwaneni njenge-glycogen. Isincishuko sijikeleza egazini lezilwane njengoshukela wegazi. Uhlobo olwenzeka ngokwemvelo lwesincishuko yisincishuko-d, kuyilapho isincishuko -l sikhiqizwa ngokwenziwa ngamanani amancane uma kuqhathaniswa futhi ibaluleke kancane. Isincishuko siyisincithinye eesqukethe amachwe ayisithupha omcalahle neqembu le-aldehyde, ngakho-ke iyi-aldohexose. Ichembe lesincishuko lingaba khona nge-open-chain (acyclic) kanye nefomu le-ring (cyclic). Isincishuko senzeka ngokwemvelo futhi sitholakala ezithelweni nakwezinye izingxenye zezitshalo zikhululekile. Ezilwaneni, isincishuko sikhishwa ekuwohlokeni kwe-glycogen kunqubo eyaziwa njenge-glycogenolysis.

Isakhiwo namakhamikhali
IsiNcithimbili

I-disaccharide (ebizwa nangokuthi ushukela ophindwe kabili noma i-biose) ushukela owakhiwa lapho ama-monosaccharides amabili ehlanganiswa nokuxhumana kwe-glycosidic. Njengama-monosaccharides, ama-disaccharides amashukela alula ancibilika emanzini. Izibonelo ezintathu ezivamile yi-sucrose, i-lactose, ne-maltose.


Ama-disaccharides angenye yamaqoqo amane amakhemikhali ama-carbohydrate (ama-monosaccharides, ama-disaccharides, ama-oligosaccharides, nama-polysaccharides). Izinhlobo ezivame kakhulu zama-disaccharides — i-sucrose, i-lactose, ne-maltose — zinama-athomu ayi-12 ekhabhoni, anefomula ejwayelekile C12H22O11. Umehluko kulawa ma-disaccharides ungenxa yokuhlelwa kwe-athomu ngaphakathi kwe-molecule.

Ukuhlanganiswa kwama-monosaccharides kushukela ophindwe kabili kwenzeka ngokusabela kwe-condensation, okubandakanya ukususwa kwe-molecule yamanzi emaqenjini asebenzayo kuphela. Ukuhlukanisa ushukela ophindwe kabili kuma-monosaccharides awo amabili kwenziwa nge-hydrolysis ngosizo lohlobo lwe-enzyme ebizwa nge-disaccharidase. Njengoba ukwakha ushukela omkhulu kukhipha i-molecule yamanzi, ukuyiqeda kudla i-molecule yamanzi. Lokhu kusabela kubalulekile emzimbeni. I-disaccharide ngayinye idiliziwe ngosizo lwe-disaccharidase ehambisanayo (i-sucrase, i-lactase, ne-maltase).molecule.
Isifo seCovid

ICoronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) yisifo esithathelwanayo esibangelwa i-acute coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Icala lokuqala elaziwayo latholakala eWuhan, eChina, ngoDisemba 2019. Lesi sifo selokhu sabhebhetheka emhlabeni wonke, saholela kubhadane oluqhubekayo.


Imbangela

I-COVID-19 ibangelwa ukutheleleka ngegciwane elinzima le-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).


Ukwelapha

Akukho ukwelashwa okuqondile, okusebenzayo noma okwelapha isifo se-coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19), isifo esibangelwe yigciwane le-SARS-CoV-2. [183] [idinga ukuvuselelwa] [184] Ngakho-ke, itshe legumbi lokuphathwa kwe-COVID- 19 ukunakekelwa okusekelayo, okubandakanya ukwelashwa ukuqeda izimpawu, ukwelashwa okunamanzi, ukwesekwa komoya-mpilo nokuma okujwayelekile njengoba kudingeka, kanye nemithi noma amadivayisi wokusekela ezinye izitho ezibalulekile ezithintekile.


Ezinye Izilwane

Abantu babonakala bekwazi ukusabalalisa leli gciwane kwezinye izilwane, uhlobo lokudluliswa kwezifo olubizwa nge-zooanthroponosis.

Ezinye izilwane ezifuywayo, ikakhulukazi amakati nama-ferrets, zingalithola leli gciwane kubantu abanaleli gciwane. [] Izimpawu emakati zihlanganisa ukuphefumula (okufana nokukhwehlela) kanye nezimpawu zokugaya ukudla. [] Amakati angasabalalisa leli gciwane kwamanye amakati, futhi angakwazi ukusabalala igciwane liya kubantu, kepha ukudluliswa kwekati-kuya-kumuntu kwe-SARS-CoV-2 akukatholakali. Uma kuqhathaniswa namakati, izinja azisengozini yokungenwa yileli gciwane.Iziphathimandla ezandisa ubungozi bokudlulisa zibandakanya ukuqabula, ukukhotha, nokuphulula isilwane


Umlando

Leli gciwane kucatshangwa ukuthi lingokwemvelo futhi livela ezilwaneni, [] ngokutheleleka nge-spillover. [] Kunemibono eminingi yokuthi icala lokuqala (okuthiwa yi-patient zero) lavelaphi futhi uphenyo ngemvelaphi yalolu bhubhane luyaqhubeka. [] I-Phylogenetics ilinganisela ukuthi i-SARS-CoV-2 yavela ngo-Okthoba noma ngoNovemba 2019. [] Ukuhlaziywa kwe-phylogenetic algorithm kwaphakamisa ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthi leli gciwane lalizungeza eGuangdong ngaphambi kweWuhan. [] Yize olunye ucwaningo lwase-Italy luphakamisa ukuthi lwalukhona lapho ekuqaleni Septhemba 2019. [] Ubufakazi buphakamisa ukuthi yehla ku-coronavirus ehlasela amalulwane asendle, futhi isakaze kubantu ngokusebenzisa umphathi wezilwane zasendle ongumxhumanisi. [] Ithuba lokuthi leli gciwane likhishwe ngephutha elabhorethri nalo lisacatshangelwa ngokuqhubekayo. []
Imbali

Imbali, kwesinye isikhathi eyaziwa ngokuthi ukuqhakaza, yisakhiwo sokuzala esitholakala ezitshalweni eziqhakazayo (izitshalo zesigaba seMagnoliophyta, esibizwa nangokuthi ama-angiosperms). Umsebenzi wezimbali ukwenza lula ukuzala, imvamisa ngokunikeza indlela yokuhlangana kwesidoda namaqanda. Izimbali zingenza kube lula ukuphuma (ukuxubana kwesidoda namaqanda kubantu abahlukahlukene kubantu) okuvela ekuvundeni impova noma kuvumele ukuzimela (ukuhlanganiswa kwesidoda neqanda kusuka ezimbalini ezifanayo) lapho ukuzitholela impova
Isidoda

Isidoda yiseli lokuzala labesilisa, noma i-gamete, ngezinhlobo ezingathandeki zokuzala ngokocansi (amafomu lapho kunengqamuzana enkulu yokuzala "yowesifazane" kanye nelincane, "lowesilisa". Izilwane zikhiqiza isidoda se-motile esinomsila owaziwa njenge-flagellum, owaziwa ngokuthi yi-spermatozoa, kanti amanye ama-algae abomvu nesikhunta akhiqiza amaseli wesidoda angenayo i-motile, eyaziwa njenge-spermatia. Izitshalo eziqhakazayo ziqukethe isidoda esingenayo i-motile ngaphakathi kwempova, kuyilapho ezinye izitshalo ezingaphansi njenge-ferns namanye ama-gymnosperms enesidoda se-motile.
Inhliziyo

Inhliziyo iyisitho semisipha ezilwaneni eziningi, esimpompa igazi ngemithambo yegazi yohlelo lokujikeleza kwegazi.Igazi elimpontshwayo lithwala umoya-mpilo nezakhi zomzimba emzimbeni, ngenkathi lithwala imfucumfucu ye-metabolic efana ne-carbon dioxide emaphashini. Kubantu, inhliziyo icishe ilingane nenqindi evaliwe futhi itholakala phakathi kwamaphaphu, egumbini eliphakathi kwesifuba.
Indlela yayo yokusebenza

Inhliziyo impompa igazi ngesigqi esinqunywa yiqembu lamaseli okwenza amandla ku-sinoatrial node. Lokhu kukhiqiza umsinga wamanje obangela ukusikwa kwenhliziyo, kudlule endaweni engeyokuqala futhi kuhambisane nohlelo lokuqhuba kwenhliziyo. Inhliziyo ithola igazi elinomoya-mpilo ophansi kusuka ekujikelezeni kwesistimu, okungena ku-atrium elungile kusuka ku-venae cavae ephezulu futhi engaphansi futhi kudlulele ku-ventricle efanele. Kusuka lapha kudonswa ekuhambeni kwegazi, ngamaphaphu lapho ithola khona umoya-mpilo futhi ikhiphe isikhutha. Igazi elinomoya-mpilo bese libuyela e-atrium engakwesobunxele, lidlule ku-ventricle engakwesokunxele bese likhishwa nge-aorta liye ekujikelezeni kwesistimu − lapho i-oxygen isetshenziswa khona futhi ihlanganiswe ne-carbon dioxide. Inhliziyo ishaya ngesilinganiso sokuphumula esiseduze kwezingu-72 ngomzuzu. Ukuvivinya umzimba kukhuphula izinga okwesikhashana, kodwa kwehlisa ukuphumula kwenhliziyo esikhathini eside, futhi kuhle empilweni yenhliziyo.
Isakhiwo

Inhliziyo yomuntu itholakala maphakathi ne-mediastinum, ezingeni le-vertebrae ye-thoracic T5-T8. Isaka elinezimbili elibizwa ngokuthi i-pericardium lizungeze inhliziyo futhi linamathele ku-mediastinum. Ingxenye engemuva yenhliziyo ilele eduze kwekholomu ye-vertebral, kanti ingaphambili langaphambili lihlala ngemuva kwe-sternum nezimbambo.] Ingxenye engenhla yenhliziyo okunamathiselwe kwemithambo yegazi emikhulu eminingana — i-venae cavae, i-aorta nesiqu samaphaphu. Ingxenye engenhla yenhliziyo isezingeni le-cartilage yesithathu ebizayo. Ithiphu engezansi yenhliziyo, isihloko, ilele ngakwesobunxele se-sternum (8 kuya ku-9 cm ukusuka kulayini ophakathi) phakathi komgwaqo wesine nezimbambo zesihlanu eziseduze nokukhuluma kwazo noqwanga olubizayo.

Ingxenye enkulu kunazo zonke yenhliziyo ivame ukubekelwa eceleni kancane kwesokunxele sesifuba (noma kwesinye isikhathi ingase isuswe ngakwesokunene) futhi izwakale ingakwesobunxele ngoba inhliziyo yangakwesokunxele inamandla futhi inkulu, ngoba ipompa kubo bonke izitho Zomzimba. Ngoba inhliziyo iphakathi kwamaphaphu, iphaphu langakwesobunxele lincane kunephaphu elifanele futhi linenothi yenhliziyo emngceleni walo ukwamukela inhliziyo. Inhliziyo imise okwengqamuzana, isisekelo sayo sibheke phezulu futhi sehlelela phezulu.Inhliziyo yabantu abadala inesisindo esingama-250-350 amagremu (9-12 oz) .Inhliziyo ivame ukuchazwa njengosayizi wenqindi: cm (5 in) ubude, 8 cm (3.5 in) ububanzi, no-6 cm (2.5 in) ngobukhulu, yize le ncazelo iphikiswa, ngoba inhliziyo kungenzeka ibe nkudlwana. Abasubathi abaqeqeshwe kahle bangaba nokukhulu kakhulu izinhliziyo ngenxa yemiphumela yokuvivinya umzimba esicutshini senhliziyo, esifana nokuphendula kwemisipha yamathambo.
Izibalo

Izibalo (Ngesingisi:Mathematics)(from Greek: μάθημα, máthēma, 'knowledge, study, learning') kufaka ukutadisha izihloko ezinjengethiyori (ithiyori), ukwakheka (i-algebra), isikhala (i-geometry), noshintsho (ukuhlaziywa). Ayinayo incazelo eyamukelwa ngokuvamile.


Ochwepheshe bezibalo bafuna futhi basebenzise amaphethini [] ukwakha izingqikithi ezintsha; baxazulula iqiniso noma amanga alokho ngobufakazi bezibalo. Lapho izakhiwo zezibalo ziyizibonelo ezinhle zezinto ezingokoqobo, ukucabanga ngezibalo kungasetshenziswa ukunikeza ukuqonda noma ukubikezela ngemvelo. Ngokusetshenziswa kokukhishwa kanye nengqondo, izibalo zithuthukisiwe kusukela ekubalweni, ekubaleni, ekulinganisweni, nasekufundweni okuhlelekile kobujamo nokunyakaza kwezinto ezibonakalayo. Izibalo ezisebenzayo bekungumsebenzi wabantu kusukela kudala njengoba amarekhodi abhaliwe ekhona. Ucwaningo oludingekayo ukuxazulula izinkinga zezibalo kungathatha iminyaka noma ngisho namakhulu eminyaka okuphenywa okuqhubekayo.
Ochwepheshe bezibalo

Isazi sezibalo umuntu osebenzisa ulwazi olunzulu lwezibalo emsebenzini wabo, imvamisa ukuxazulula izinkinga zezibalo. Ochwepheshe bezibalo bakhathazekile ngezinombolo, idatha, ubungako, isakhiwo, isikhala, amamodeli, noshintsho.

Imvelaphi

Esinye sezazi zezibalo zokuqala kwakunguThales waseMileto (c. 624 – c. 546 BC); umenyezelwe njengesazi sokuqala sezibalo kanye nomuntu wokuqala owaziwayo okutholwe kuye ukutholakala kwezibalo. [1] Ubizwa ngokusetshenziswa kokuqala kokucabanga okususwayo okusetshenziswe kuJiyomethri, ngokuthola izilinganiso ezine kuThales 'Theorem.

Inani lezazi zezibalo ezaziwayo lakhula ngenkathi uPythagoras waseSamos (c. 582 – c. 507 BC) esungula iPythagorean School, imfundiso yayo ukuthi izibalo zazilawula indawo yonke futhi isiqubulo sayo sasithi "All is number". igama elithi "mathematics", futhi okuqala ngalo isifundo sezibalo ngenxa yalo.

Owesifazane wokuqala wezibalo owaqoshwa ngumlando kwakunguHypatia wase-Alexandria (AD 350 - 415). Ulandele ubaba wakhe njengoMtapo Wezincwadi eGreat Library futhi wabhala imisebenzi eminingi ngezibalo ezisetshenzisiwe. Ngenxa yengxabano yezepolitiki, umphakathi wamaKrestu e-Alexandria wamjezisa, ecabanga ukuthi uyabandakanyeka, ngokumhlubula futhi wakhuhla isikhumba sakhe ngamagobolondo (abanye bathi ngamathayili okufulela).

Isayensi nezibalo emhlabeni wamaSulumane ngeNkathi Ephakathi kwalandela amamodeli nezindlela ezahlukahlukene zokuxhaswa kwehlukahluka ngokuya ngezazi. Kwakuwukusekelwa okubanzi kanye nezinqubomgomo eziqinile zengqondo ezisetshenziswe ngababusi abathile ababevumela ulwazi lwesayensi ukuthi lukhule ezindaweni eziningi. Imali yokuhumusha imibhalo yesayensi ngezinye izilimi yayiqhubeka phakathi nokubusa kwamaCaliph athile, kwavela ukuthi izazi ezithile zaba ngongqondongqondo emisebenzini eziyitolikayo zabuye zathola ukwesekwa okuqhubekayo ngokuqhubeka nokwakha isayensi ethile. Njengoba lawa ma-sciences athola ukunakwa okubanzi kwabaphezulu, izazi eziningi zamenywa futhi zaxhaswa ngemali yokufunda izifundo ezithile zesayensi. Isibonelo somhumushi nesazi sezibalo esazuza kulolu hlobo lokusekelwa kwakungu-al-Khawarizmi. Isici esivelele sezazi eziningi ezisebenza ngaphansi kokubusa kwamaSulumane ezikhathini zasendulo ukuthi zazivame ukuba ngama-polymath. Izibonelo zifaka phakathi umsebenzi we-optics, i-maths ne-astronomy ka-Ibn al-Haytham.
Isihlongamkhathi

Isihlongamkhathi (noma isibonakude) siyisiklamo esisetshenziselwa ukupopola izinto ezikude ngokuhlonga ukuphafuka kwazo, ukumunyunga kwazo noma ukukhwentuza kwazo imiyonzi yenzubawonga. Ngokwendabuko, sasiyinsiza yokukhanya esebenzisa izififiyela (lenses), izibuko ezibhenile, noma inhlanganisela yakho kokubili ngenhloso yokubona izinto ezikude – kuyisibonakude sokukhanya. Namuhla, lesi siklamo sesikwazi ukuhlonga izingxenye ezihlukene zomungco wenzubawonga.

Izihlongamkhathi zokuqala ezaziwayo ezisebenzayo kwakuyilezo ezigwincizayo (refracting) ezazi fakelwe izififiyela zenhlaka futhi ezaziqanjwe kwelamaDashi ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-17. Zazisetshenziselwa kokubili ukuBona ezweni nokubona emkhathini.

Isihlongamkhathi esikhwentuzayo, esisebenzisa izibuko ukuze siqoqe futhi sihlozinge ukukhanya, saqanjwa iminyaka eyishumi ingakapheli kuqanjwe esigwincizayo.

Ekhulwini lama-20, kuye kwaqanjwa izihlongamkhathi ezintsha ezinhlobonhlobo, ezihlanganisa isihlongamkhathi somsakazo (1939's) nesihlongamkhathi sensibomvu (1960's).
uMsukagama

Ibizo elithi isihlongamkhathi liyinhlanganisela yamabizo amabili, 'isihlonga' (elithathwe esenzweni ukuhlonga) + 'umkhathi' (elisho indawo ezungezile efinyelela kude). Elithi isibonakude lona lilingisa elesingisi elithi telescope elimsuka wolimi lwesiGreki sasendulo ochazwa kanje: isiGriki τῆλε, (tele: 'kude') + σκοπεῖν, (skopein: 'ukubona'); uma lihlangene τηλεσκόπος, teleskopos 'ukubona kude', uma ngesiZulu kufakwa isiqalo 'isi' lisho ukuthi isibonakude.
Womabili lamabizo ayafaneleka njengoba adlulisa umqondo womsebenzi walesi siklamo.
Umlando

Irekhodi lokuqala elikhona lesibonakude kwakuyilungelo lobunikazi elaliyi-1608 elethwe kuhulumeni waseNetherlands ngumenzi wemibukiso waseMiddelburg uHans Lippershey for a telescope refracting. UGalileo wezwa ngakho futhi, ngo-1609, wazakhela eyakhe inguqulo, futhi wenza umbono wakhe ngeteleskopu wezinto zasezulwini