Jamhuri ya Watu wa China

Uchina, rasmi inajulikana kama Jamhuri ya Watu wa China (PRC), ni nchi kubwa iliyoko Asia ya Mashariki. Ni taifa lenye idadi kubwa zaidi ya watu duniani, zaidi ya bilioni 1.4, ikishika nafasi ya pili kwa idadi ya watu. China inapakana na nchi 14: kaskazini na Mongolia na Urusi, magharibi na Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, na Pakistani, kusini na India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, na Vietnam na mashariki na Korea Kaskazini. Mji wake mkuu ni Beijing na Shanghai ikiwa kitovu cha uchumi. Ikiwa na eneo la takriban kilomita za mraba milioni 9.6, China ni nchi ya nne kwa ukubwa duniani, ikiwa na mandhari mbalimbali kama milima, nyanda za juu, na pwani.

China inatawaliwa na Chama cha Kikomunisti cha China (CCP), ambacho kimeendeleza mfumo wa chama kimoja cha kisiasa tangu kuanzishwa kwa Jamhuri ya Watu wa China mwaka 1949. Chini ya mfumo huu, nchi imepitia mabadiliko makubwa, hasa kupitia mageuzi ya kiuchumi yaliyoanzishwa mwishoni mwa karne ya 20. Mageuzi haya yalibadilisha uchumi kutoka mfumo wa mipango ya kati kwenda kwenye mfumo unaoongozwa na soko, na kusababisha ukuaji wa haraka wa viwanda, mijini, na ongezeko kubwa la ushawishi wa kiuchumi duniani. Leo, China ni ya pili kwa ukubwa wa uchumi duniani kwa kipimo cha PLT(Pato la taifa) ya kawaida, na ya kwanza kwa kipimo cha Usawa wa nguvu ya ununuzi (PPP).

Mbali na kupanda kwake kiuchumi, China ina nafasi ya kipekee katika masuala ya kimataifa. Ni mwanachama wa kudumu wa Baraza la Usalama la Umoja wa Mataifa na inashiriki kikamilifu katika mashirika ya kimataifa kama Shirika la Biashara Duniani (WTO), kundi la BRICS, na Shirika la Ushirikiano la Shanghai (SCO). Mpango wa Ukanda na Njia (Belt and Road Initiative) ulioanzishwa mwaka 2013 unalenga kuboresha muunganiko wa kanda na ushirikiano wa kiuchumi barani Asia, Afrika, na Ulaya. Licha ya ushawishi wake unaokua, China inakabiliana na changamoto ngumu, ikiwa ni pamoja na uharibifu wa mazingira, mabadiliko ya idadi ya watu, na mvutano wa kikanda, hasa kuhusu Taiwan, Bahari ya China Kusini, na uhusiano wake na mataifa makuu duniani.
Jiografia

China ina eneo la kilomita za mraba milioni 9.6 hivyo ni nchi ya tatu au ya nne kwa ukubwa duniani.

Sura ya nchi inaonyesha tabia tofautitofauti.

Upande wa kaskazini, mpakani mwa Siberia na Mongolia, kuna maeneo yabisi pamoja na jangwa la Gobi.

Kinyume chake upande wa kusini, mpakani mwa Vietnam, Laos na Burma, hali ya hewa ni nusutropiki yenye mvua nyingi inayolisha misitu minene.

Sehemu za magharibi zina milima mingi ambayo ni kati ya milima mirefu duniani kama Himalaya na Tian Shan.

Mashariki ya nchi huwa na tambarare zenye rutuba na hapa ndipo kanda lenye wakazi wengi.

Upana wa China kati ya kaskazini na kusini ni kilomita 4,200 na kati ya mashariki na magharibi ni kilomita 4,200.

Pwani ina urefu wa kilomita 14,400.

Kuna mito mikubwa; mrefu zaidi ni Yangtse (km 6,300), Hwangho au Mto Njano, Xi Jiang au mto wa Magharibi, Mekong, Mto wa Lulu, Brahmaputra na Amur. Mito hiyo yote ina vyanzo vyake katika milima mikubwa yenye usimbishaji mwingi, ikibeba maji kwenda tambarare pasipo mvua nyingi.

Jiografia hiyo ilikuwa chanzo cha kilimo cha umwagiliaji na kukua kwa madola ya kwanza.

Kutokana na madawa ya kilimo na maji machafu ya viwanda, mito na maziwa ya China hupambana na machafuko makali; mwaka 2007 ziwa Tai lilisafishwa kwa gharama kubwa mno kwa sababu maji hayakufaa tena kwa mahitaji ya binadamu (maji ya bomba).
Hali ya hewa

thumbnail|left|180px|Kanda za usimbishaji za China
Kuna kanda 18 za hali ya hewa zinazoonyesha tofauti kubwa kati yake. Upande wa magharibi, kaskazini na kaskazini-mashariki huwa na majira yenye joto kali na baridi kali. Upande wa kusini ina tabia ya tropiki au nusutropiki. Tibet huwa na hali ya hewa kulingana na kimo chake juu ya mita 4,000.

Ramani ya usimbishaji inaonyesha ya kwamba kilimo kinawezekana katika nusu ya kusini na kusini-mashariki ya nchi tu. Upande wa kaskazini na magharibi mvua ni chache mno. Mstari mwekundu unaonyesha mpaka na juu yake usimbishaji ni chini ya milimita 390 kwa mwaka.
Historia

.]]

Historia ya China ni ya maelfu ya miaka na inachukuliwa kuwa mojawapo ya ustaarabu wa kale zaidi unaoendelea duniani. Ushahidi wa kiakiolojia wa shughuli za mwanadamu wa mwanzo katika eneo hilo unarudi zaidi ya miaka milioni moja, huku makazi ya zama za mawe mapya (Neolithic) kama yale ya tamaduni za Yangshao na Longshan yakitokea katika mabonde ya Mto Yellow kufikia mwaka 5000 KK. Dola la Xia lenye hadithi za kale, lilifuatiwa na Dola za Shang na Zhou, na lilianzisha historia ya China iliyorekodiwa, ambapo Dola la Zhou liliingiza mfumo wa kifalme na dhana yenye ushawishi mkubwa ya "Mamlaka ya Mbinguni" (Mandate of Heaven).

Muungano wa China chini ya Dola la Qin mwaka 221 KK uliweka msingi wa utawala wa kifalme. Mfalme Qin Shi Huang alikusanya mamlaka, kuweka viwango vya mizani, vipimo, na maandishi, na kuanzisha miradi mikubwa ya miundombinu kama Ukuta Mkubwa. Dola la Han (206 KK – 220 BK) lilimrithi Qin na kupanua wigo wa himaya huku likiimarisha Confucianismkama falsafa rasmi ya serikali. Baada ya karne za kugawanyika na kuibuka na kuanguka kwa falme mbalimbali, Dola za Tang na Song ziliileta China kipindi cha ustawi, uvumbuzi, na maendeleo ya tamaduni.

Dola la Yuan (1271–1368), lililoanzishwa na Wamonogoli chini ya Kublai Khan, lilifuatiwa na Dola la Ming (1368–1644) na Dola la Qing (1644–1912). Dola la Qing lilikuwa dola ya mwisho ya kifalme ya China, ambalo baadaye lililazimika kuanguka kutokana na mapinduzi ya ndani, uvamizi wa mataifa ya kigeni, na makubaliano yaliyolazimishwa na nguvu za Magharibi. Kuanguka kwa Qing mwaka 1912 kulizusha kuanzishwa kwa Jamhuri ya China. Hata hivyo, miongo kadhaa ya vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe na uvamizi wa kigeni, ikiwa ni pamoja na uvamizi wa Kijapani wakati wa Vita Vikuu vya Pili vya Dunia, vilileta ukosefu wa utulivu katika taifa hilo.

Mnamo mwaka 1949, baada ya ushindi wa Chama cha Kikomunisti cha China katika Vita vya Kiraia vya China, Jamhuri ya Watu wa China ilitangazwa chini ya Mao Zedong, wakati serikali ya kitaifa ikihamia Taiwan. Katika utawala wa Kikomunisti, China ilipitia mabadiliko makubwa ya kisiasa, kijamii, na kiuchumi, ikiwa ni pamoja na Mpango wa Kukimbilia Mbele na Mapinduzi ya Kitamaduni. Kuanzia mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1970, chini ya Deng Xiaoping na viongozi waliomfuata, China ilikubali mageuzi ya soko huru, na kuibuka kuwa mojawapo ya uchumi mkubwa duniani huku ikidumisha utawala wa chama kimoja.
Siasa

Serikali ya China inatawala kwa mfumo wa udikteta chini ya uongozi wa Chama cha Kikomunisti ya China. Kuna vyama vidogo pia, lakini hivi havina umuhimu wowoteː vinasimamiwa na Wakomunisti, hivyo hali halisi ni mfumo wa chama kimoja.

Kikatiba chombo kikuu ni Bunge la umma la China linalomchagua rais, serikali, mahakama kuu, kamati kuu ya kijeshi na mwanasheria mkuu. Lakini hali halisi maazimio yote ya bunge ni utekelezaji tu wa maazimio ya uongozi wa chama cha Kikomunisti.

Uongozi huo ni kundi dogo la wakubwa wa chama na jeshi. Mwanasiasa muhimu ni Xi Jinping. Kwa sasa yeye anaunganisha vyeo vya Katibu Mkuu wa Chama cha Kikomunisti, Rais wa Jamhuri ya Watu wa China na mwenyekiti wa Kamati Kuu ya Kijeshi. Kwa jumla katika mapokeo ya Kikomunisti vyeo vya chama ni muhimu kuliko vyeo vya serikali ingawa katiba na sheria inasema tofauti.

Kuna pia "maeneo yenye utawala wa pekee" ambayo ni Hongkong na Macau. Katika miji hiyo miwili, iliyokuwa makoloni ya Uingereza na Ureno, kuna uhuru wa kisiasa na wa uandishi, uchaguzi huru na upinzani kwa kiasi fulani, lakini maeneo yana tu madaraka kadhaa ya kujitawala kwa mambo ya ndani.
Demografia

China ikiwa na wakazi milioni 1,400 (Januari 2020) ni nchi yenye watu wengi zaidi duniani. Historia yake yote iliona tena na tena vipindi vya njaa kutokana na idadi kubwa ya watu wake. Msongamano wa watu kwa wastani ni wakazi 145 kwa kilomita ya mraba. Lakini tofauti ziko kubwa kati ya miji mikubwa ambako milioni 115 wanakaa kwenye eneo la km² 50,000 na Tibet yenye watu 2 tu kwa kilomita ya mraba.

Zaidi ya asilimia 90 za wakazi wote wanakaa katika theluthi ya kusini-mashariki ya nchi yenye mvua ya kutosha. Ndani ya theluthi hiyo ni nusu ya Wachina wote wanaosongamana kwenye asilimia 10 za China yote, maana yake katika 10% hizi kuna msongamano wa watu 740 kwa km².

Wakazi walio wengi ni Wahan au Wachina wenyewe. Wanatumia hasa lahaja mbalimbali za lugha ya Kichina. Pamoja na Wahan kuna makabila 55 yaliyotambuliwa na serikali. Kwa jumla lugha hai ni 292 ambazo zinahusika na makundi mbalimbali ya lugha (angalia orodha ya lugha za China).
Dini

Serikali inafuata rasmi ukanamungu, lakini inaruhusu dini kwa kiasi fulani. Pamoja na hayo, dhuluma zinaendelea dhidi ya madhehebu mbalimbali. Takwimu hazieleweki, pia kwa sababu kabla ya Ukomunisti kupinga dini, hasa wakati wa Mapinduzi ya utamaduni, watu waliweza kuchanganya mafundisho na desturi za Ukonfusio, Utao na Ubuddha. Leo wanaoendelea kufanya hivyo wanakadiriwa kuwa asilimia 30-80 za wakazi. Wabuddha ni 6-16%, Wakristo (hasa Waprotestanti, halafu Wakatoliki na kidogo Waorthodoksi) ni 2-4%, Waislamu ni 1-2%.
Tazama pia

* Majimbo ya China
* Orodha ya nasaba za Kichina
* Orodha ya nchi kufuatana na wakazi
Tanbihi
Marejeo

*
* Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Legal Issues of Economic Integration. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3. pp. 263–304. Abstract.
* Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007). China Bibliography – Online . China-Profile.com.
* Jacques, Martin (2009).When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order. Penguin Books. Revised edition (28 August 2012). ISBN 978-1-59420-185-1.
*
*
Vyanzo kuhusu dini

* Adler, Joseph A. Confucianism as a Religious Tradition: Linguistic and Methodological Problems. Kenyon College, 2014.
*
* Billioud, Sébastien. Carrying the Confucian Torch to the Masses: The Challenge of Structuring the Confucian Revival in the People's Republic of China. On: OE 49 (2010)
*
* Chan, Kim-Kwong. Religion in China in the Twenty-first Century: Some Scenarios. On: Religion, State & Society, Vol. 33, No. 2. Routledge, June 2005.
* Chen, Yong. Confucianism as Religion: Controversies and Consequences. Brill, 2012. ISBN 9004243739
* Clart, Philip. Conceptualizations of "Popular Religion" in Recent Research in the People's Republic of China. In: Wang Chien-chuan, Li Shiwei, Hong Yingfa; Yanjiu xin shijie: “Mazu yu Huaren minjian xinyang” guoji yantaohui lunwenji. Taipei: Boyang, 2014. pp. 391–412
* Clart, Philip. Confucius and the Mediums: Is There a "Popular Confucianism"?. On: T'uong Pao LXXXIX. Brill, Leiden, 2003.
* Didier, John C. In and Outside the Square: The Sky and the Power of Belief in Ancient China and the World, c. 4500 BC – AD 200: Volume I: The Ancient Eurasian World and the Celestial Pivot, Volume II: Representations and Identities of High Powers in Neolithic and Bronze China, Volume III: Terrestrial and Celestial Transformations in Zhou and Early-Imperial China. On: Sino-Platonic Papers, n. 192, 2009. Victor H. Mair, University of Pennsylvania.
*
* Fan Lizhu, Chen Na. Revival of Confucianism and Reconstruction of Chinese Identity. Paper presented at: The Presence and Future of Humanity in the Cosmos, ICU, Tokyo, 18–23 March 2015. (a)
* Fan Lizhu, Chen Na. The Revival of Indigenous Religion in China. Published on China Watch, Fudan-UC Center for China Studies, Fudan University, 2013.
* Fan Lizhu, Chen Na. The Religiousness of "Confucianism" and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today. On: Cultural Diversity in China 1: 27-43. De Gruyter Open, 2015. ISSN 2353-7795, DOI: 10.1515/cdc-2015-0005
*
* Fowler, Jeaneane D. An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality. Sussex Academic Press, 2005. ISBN 1845190866
* Goossaert, Vincent, David Palmer. The Religious Question in Modern China. University of Chicago Press, 2011. ISBN 0226304167
* Jing, Jun. The Temple of Memories: History, Power, and Morality in a Chinese Village. Stanford University Press, 1996. ASIN: B004FPIAVW
*
* Lagerway, John. China: A Religious State. Hong Kong, University of Hong Kong Press, 2010. ISBN 9888028049
*
* Libbrecht, Ulrich. Within the Four Seas...: Introduction to Comparative Philosophy. Peeters Publishers, 2007. ISBN 9042918128
* Littlejohn, Ronnie. Confucianism: An Introduction. I. B. Tauris, 2010. ISBN 184885174X
* Lü Daji, Gong Xuezeng. Marxism and Religion. Brill, 2014. ISBN 9047428021
* Miller, James. Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies. ABC-CLIO, 2006. ISBN 1851096264
*
*
* Overmyer, Daniel. Religion in China Today. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521538238
* Palmer, David A., Glenn Landes Shive, Glenn Shive, Philip L. Wickeri. Chinese Religious Life. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 0199731381
* Palmer, D. A. Chinese Redemptive Societies and Salvationist Religion: Historical Phenomenon or Sociological Category?. On: Journal of Chinese Ritual, Theatre and Folklore, V. 172, 2011, p. 21-72
* Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary of Taoism. Part of: Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series. Scarecrow Press, 2014. ASIN: B00IZ9E7EI
* Ruokanen, Miikka, Paulos Zhanzhu Huang. Christianity and Chinese Culture. William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2011. ISBN 0802865569
* Sautman, Barry. Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China. In: Frank Dikötter. The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Honolulu, University of Hawai'i Press, 1997, pp. 75–95. ISBN 9622094430
* Shahar, Meir, Robert Paul Weller. Unruly Gods: Divinity and Society in China. University of Hawaii Press, 1996. ISBN 0824817249
* Shen, Qingsong, Kwong-loi Shun. Confucian Ethics in Retrospect and Prospect. Council for Research in Values & Philosophy, 2007. ISBN 1565182456
* Shi, Yilong. The Spontaneous Religious Practices of Han Chinese Peoples — Shenxianism (中国汉人自发的宗教实践 — 神仙教). On: Journal of South-Central University for Nationalities (Humanities and Social Sciences) (中南民族大学学报 — 人文社会科学版), Vol. 28, No. 3, 2008.
* Teiser, Stephen F.The Chinese Cosmos: Basic Concepts, extracts from: Stephen F. Teiser. The Spirits of Chinese Religion. In: Religions of China in Practice. Princeton University Press, 1996.
* Thien Do. Vietnamese Supernaturalism: Views from the Southern Region. Series: Anthropology of Asia. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0415307996
* Wang, Robin R. Chinese Philosophy in an Era of Globalization. State University of New York Press, 2004. ISBN 0791460061
* Yang, Fenggang, Graeme Lang. Social Scientific Studies of Religion in China. Brill, 2012. ISBN 9004182462
* Chapter of: David Held, Henrietta Moore. Cultural Politics in a Global Age: Uncertainty, Solidarity and Innovation, Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851685502
* Yao, Xinzhong. Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach. Bloomsbury Academic, 2011. ISBN 1847064760
* Payette, Alex. Shenzhen's Kongshengtang: Religious Confucianism and Local Moral Governance . Part of: Role of Religion in Political Life, Panel RC43, 23rd World Congress of Political Science, 19–24 July 2014.
* Pregadio, Fabrizio. The Encyclopedia of Taoism, 2 vol. Routledge, 2008. ISBN 9780700712007
* Tay, Wei Leong. Kang Youwei: The Martin Luther of Confucianism and His Vision of Confucian Modernity and Nation. In: Haneda Masashi, Secularization, Religion and the State, University of Tokyo Center for Philosophy, 2010.
* Xie, Zhibin. Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China. Ashgate Publishing, 2006. ISBN 9780754656487
* Zhou, Jixu. Old Chinese “*tees” and Proto-Indo-European “*deus”: Similarity in Religious Ideas and a Common Source in Linguistics. On: Sino-Platonic Papers, n. 167, 2005. Victor H. Mair, University of Pennsylvania.
Marejeo mengine

* Bays, Daniel H. Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996). ISBN 0804726094.
* Ch'en, Kenneth K. S. Buddhism in China, a Historical Survey. (Princeton, N.J.,: Princeton University Press, The Virginia and Richard Stewart Memorial Lectures, 1961, 1964).
*De Groot, J.J.M. (Jan Jakob Maria) , The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith , Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands, 1892–1910. 6 volumes.
* Overmyer, Daniel L. Religions of China: The World as a Living System. (New York: Harper & Row, Religious Traditions of the World, 1986).
*
* Wright, Arthur F.. Buddhism in Chinese History. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959; various reprints and translations).
* Yang, CK., Religion in Chinese Society (California U. Press, 1970)
* Xinzhong Yao and Yanxia Zhao, Chinese Religion (Continuum, 2010)
Viungo vya nje

* China at a Glance from People's Daily
* BBC News – China Profile
*
* China, People's Republic of from UCB Libraries GovPubs
*
* China's Encyclopædia Britannica entry
* "Rethinking 'Capitalist Restoration' in China" by Yiching Wu
* Key Development Forecasts for China from International Futures
* "China on the Rise". PBS Online NewsHour. October 2005.
* ChinaToday.com
* Interesting China facts

;Serikali
* The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China
* China Internet Information Center —Authorized government portal site to China

;Masomo
* "Assertive Pragmatism: China's Economic Rise and Its Impact on Chinese Foreign Policy" . Minxin Pei (2006). IFRI Proliferation Papers. No. 15.

;Utalii
* China National Tourist Office (CNTO)

;Ramani
* Google Maps—China
*

;Dini
* Buddhist Association of China
*China Confucian Philosophy
*China Confucian Religion
* China Confucian Temples
* Chinese Taoist Association
* China Ancestral Temples Network
* China Temples and Monasteries Network
* Living in the Chinese Cosmos, Asia for Educators, Columbia University.

;Media
* Euraxess Science Slam: Meihuaquan and Community Life in North China
* eRenlai Ricci: The boundary between religion and the state in China by Prof. Lagerwey
* GBTimes: THE DEBATE: Insight into religion in modern China (part 1)—Part 2
* Berkeley Center: Ritual Economy and Religious Revivial in Rural Southeast China
* Berkeley Center: Secularization Theory and the Study of Chinese Religions
* Berkeley Center: Understanding Contemporary Religious Pluralism in China



Jamii:Nchi za Asia
Jamii:Nchi
Jamii:Nchi za G20
Jamii:Asia ya Mashariki