Title: Canine parvovirus

{{Short description|Contagious virus mainly affecting dogs}}
{{About|canine parvovirus type 2|canine parvovirus type 1|Carnivore bocaparvovirus 1}}
{{Virusbox
| image = Canines Parvovirus.jpg
| image_alt = Electron micrograph of canine parvovirus
| image_caption = [[Electron micrograph]] of canine parvovirus
| parent = Protoparvovirus
| species = Carnivore protoparvovirus 1	
| virus = Canine parvovirus
}}

'''Canine parvovirus''' (also referred to as '''CPV''', '''CPV2''', or '''parvo''') is a [[infectious disease|contagious]] [[virus]] mainly affecting [[dog]]s and [[wolves]]. CPV is highly contagious and is spread from dog to dog by direct or indirect contact with their [[feces]]. Vaccines can prevent this infection, but mortality can reach 91% in untreated cases. Treatment often involves veterinary hospitalization. Canine [[parvovirus]] often infects other mammals including [[fox]]es, [[cat]]s, and [[skunk]]s.&lt;ref name=Holmes&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Holmes|first1=Edward C.|last2=Parrish|first2=Colin R.|last3=Dubovi|first3=Edward J.|last4=Shearn-Bochsler|first4=Valerie I.|last5=Gerhold|first5=Richard W.|last6=Brown|first6=Justin D.|last7=Fox|first7=Karen A.|last8=Kohler|first8=Dennis J.|last9=Allison|first9=Andrew B.|date=2013-02-15|title=Frequent Cross-Species Transmission of Parvoviruses among Diverse Carnivore Hosts|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=87|issue=4|pages=2342–2347|doi=10.1128/JVI.02428-12|issn=0022-538X|pmid=23221559|pmc=3571474}}&lt;/ref&gt; Felines (cats) are also susceptible to panleukopenia, a [[Carnivore protoparvovirus 1|different strain of parvovirus]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Hartmann|first1=Katrin|last2=Steutzer|first2=Bianca|date=August 2014|title=Feline parvovirus infection and associated diseases|journal=Veterinary Journal |volume=201|issue=2|pages=150–155|doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.05.027|pmid=24923754}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Signs ==
Dogs that develop the disease show signs of the illness within three to ten days. The signs may include [[lethargy]], vomiting, fever, and diarrhea (usually bloody). Generally, the first sign of CPV is [[lethargy]]. Secondary signs are loss of weight and appetite or diarrhea followed by vomiting. Diarrhea and vomiting result in [[dehydration]] that upsets the [[electrolyte]] balance and this may affect the dog critically. Secondary infections occur as a result of the weakened immune system. Because the normal intestinal lining is also compromised, blood and protein leak into the intestines, leading to [[anemia]] and loss of protein, and [[endotoxin]]s escape into the bloodstream, causing [[endotoxemia]]. Dogs have a distinctive odor in the later stages of the infection. The white blood cell level falls, further weakening the dog. Any or all of these factors can lead to [[Shock (circulatory)|shock]] and death. Younger animals have worse survival rates.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ettinger_1995&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine|author1=Ettinger, Stephen J.|author2=Feldman, Edward C.|publisher=W.B. Saunders Company|year=1995|isbn=978-0-7216-6795-9|edition=4th}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Diagnosis ==
[[File:CPV pozitif.jpg|thumb|A test kit of a CPV positive dog]]
Diagnosis is made through detection of CPV2 in the feces by either an [[Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay|ELISA]] or a [[hemagglutination]] test, or by [[electron microscopy]]. [[Polymerase Chain Reaction|PCR]] has become available to diagnose CPV2, and can be used later in the disease when potentially less virus is being shed in the feces that may not be detectable by ELISA.&lt;ref name=&quot;Silverstein&quot; /&gt; Clinically, the intestinal form of the infection can sometimes be confused with [[coronavirus]] or other forms of [[enteritis]]. Parvovirus, however, is more serious and the presence of bloody [[diarrhea]], a low [[white blood cell]] count, and [[necrosis]] of the intestinal lining also point more towards parvovirus, especially in an unvaccinated dog. The cardiac form is typically easier to diagnose because the symptoms are distinct.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jones1997&quot; /&gt;

== Treatment ==
Survival rate depends on how quickly CPV is diagnosed, the age of the dog, and how aggressive the treatment is. There is no approved treatment, and the current standard of care is supportive care, involving extensive hospitalization, due to severe dehydration and potential damage to the intestines and bone marrow. A CPV test should be given as early as possible if CPV is suspected in order to begin early treatment and increase survival rate if the disease is found.

Supportive care ideally also consists of crystalloid [[Intravenous therapy|IV fluids]] and/or [[colloid]]s (e.g., Hetastarch), antinausea injections ([[antiemetic]]s) such as [[maropitant]], [[metoclopramide]], [[dolasetron]], [[ondansetron]] and [[prochlorperazine]], and broad-spectrum [[antibiotic]] injections such as [[cefazolin]]/enrofloxacin, [[ampicillin]]/[[enrofloxacin]], [[metronidazole]], [[timentin]], or [[enrofloxacin]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Macintire&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last = Macintire | first = Douglass K. | title = Treatment of Severe Parvoviral Enteritis | work = Proceedings of the CVC Veterinary Conference, Kansas City | year = 2008 | url = http://veterinarycalendar.dvm360.com/avhc/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=567275 | access-date = 2011-08-10 | archive-date = 2014-01-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140102081604/http://veterinarycalendar.dvm360.com/avhc/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=567275 | url-status = dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; IV fluids are administered and antinausea and antibiotic injections are given subcutaneously, intramuscularly, or intravenously. The fluids are typically a mix of a sterile, balanced electrolyte solution, with an appropriate amount of [[B vitamins|B-complex vitamins]], [[dextrose]], and potassium chloride. Analgesic medications can be used to counteract the intestinal discomfort caused by frequent bouts of diarrhea; however, the use of opioid analgesics can result in secondary ileus and decreased motility.

In addition to fluids given to achieve adequate rehydration, each time the puppy vomits or has diarrhea in a significant quantity, an equal amount of fluid is administered intravenously. The fluid requirements of a patient are determined by the animal's body weight, weight changes over time, degree of dehydration at presentation, and surface area.

A [[blood plasma]] [[blood transfusion|transfusion]] from a donor dog that has already survived CPV is sometimes used to provide [[passive immunity]] to the sick dog. Some veterinarians keep these dogs on site, or have frozen serum available. There have been no controlled studies regarding this treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Macintire&quot; /&gt; Additionally, fresh frozen plasma and human albumin transfusions can help replace the extreme protein losses seen in severe cases and help assure adequate tissue healing. However, this is controversial with the availability of safer colloids such as Hetastarch, as it will also increase the colloid osmotic pressure without the ill effect of predisposing that canine patient to future transfusion reaction.

Once the dog can keep fluids down, the IV fluids are gradually discontinued, and very bland food slowly introduced. Oral antibiotics are administered for a number of days depending on the white blood cell count and the patient's ability to fight off secondary infection. A puppy with minimal symptoms can recover in two or three days if the IV fluids are begun as soon as symptoms are noticed and the CPV test confirms the diagnosis. If more severe, depending on treatment, puppies can remain ill from five days up to two weeks. However, even with hospitalization, there is no guarantee that the dog will be cured and survive.

=== Treatments in development ===
Kindred Biosciences, a biopharmaceutical company, is developing a monoclonal antibody as a prophylactic therapy to prevent clinical signs of parvovirus infection and also as treatment of established parvovirus infection. In 2021, Kindred Biosciences announced the completion of a pivotal efficacy study showing a 100% survival rate for dogs treated with KIND-030 compared to a 41% survival rate for dogs treated with placebo.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2021-06-02|title=Kindred Biosciences Announces Positive Results from Pivotal Efficacy Study of Parvovirus Monoclonal Antibody for the Prevention of Deaths in Dogs Infected by Parvovirus|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/kindred-biosciences-announces-positive-results-from-pivotal-efficacy-study-of-parvovirus-monoclonal-antibody-for-the-prevention-of-deaths-in-dogs-infected-by-parvovirus-301303909.html|access-date=2023-03-25|website=prnewswire.com|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Preliminary research in kidney cell lines have identified [[nitazoxanide]], [[closantel sodium]], and [[closantel]] as drugs which have the most potential as broad-spectrum antiviral agents against canine parvovirus and its various subspecies, raising the prospect that these drugs may yield potential for future treatments of this disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31412574&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhou H, Su X, Lin L, Zhang J, Qi Q, Guo F, Xu F, Yang B |title=Inhibitory Effects of Antiviral Drug Candidates on Canine Parvovirus in F81 cells |journal=Viruses |volume=11 |issue=8 |date=August 2019 |page=742 |pmid=31412574 |pmc=6724046 |doi=10.3390/v11080742 |url= |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Tuteja-et-al-2022&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Tuteja | first1=Deepika | last2=Banu | first2=Kauser | last3=Mondal | first3=Bhairab | title=Canine parvovirology – A brief updated review on structural biology, occurrence, pathogenesis, clinical diagnosis, treatment and prevention | journal=[[Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases]] | publisher=[[Elsevier]] | volume=82 | year=2022 | issn=0147-9571 | doi=10.1016/j.cimid.2022.101765 | article-number=101765 | s2cid=246781209 | pmid=35182832}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In May 2023, the [[United_States_Department_of_Agriculture|USDA]] granted [[Elanco|Elanco Animal Health]] conditional approval to develop a Canine Parvovirus Monoclonal Antibody (CPMA) which targets the virus instead of its symptoms. Initial distribution of CPMA to veterinarians began in July 2023.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last= Jacob |first= Julie |date= November 21, 2023 |title= Monoclonal antibodies show promise as new therapy for veterinary patients |url= https://www.avma.org/news/monoclonal-antibodies-show-promise-new-therapy-veterinary-patients |access-date= December 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==History==
Parvovirus CPV2 is a relatively new disease that appeared in the late 1970s. It was first recognized in 1978 and spread worldwide in one to two years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Carmichael L |title=An annotated historical account of canine parvovirus |journal=Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B |volume=52 |issue=7–8 |pages=303–11 |year=2005 |pmid=16316389 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0450.2005.00868.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; The virus is very similar to [[feline panleukopenia]] (also a [[parvovirus]]); they are 98% identical, differing only in two amino acids in the viral [[capsid]] protein VP2.&lt;ref name=Carter&gt;{{cite book|author1=Carter, G.R. |author2=Wise, D.J. |year=2004|chapter=Parvoviridae|title=A Concise Review of Veterinary Virology| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vx6HuAAACAAJ|access-date=2014-01-30|publisher=IVIS}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is also highly similar to [[mink enteritis virus]] (MEV), and the parvoviruses of [[raccoon]]s and [[fox]]es.&lt;ref name=Jones1997&gt;{{cite book
| last1= Jones |first1=T.C.
| year = 1997
| title = Veterinary Pathology
| publisher = Blackwell Publishing
| last2= Hunt |first2=R.D. |last3=King |first3=W.
}}&lt;/ref&gt;  It is possible that CPV2 is a mutant of an unidentified parvovirus (similar to feline parvovirus (FPV)) of some wild carnivore.&lt;ref name=Hirayama&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Shackelton LA, Parrish CR, Truyen U, Holmes EC |title=High rate of viral evolution associated with the emergence of carnivore parvovirus |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=379–384 |year=2005 |pmid= 15626758 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0406765102 |pmc=544290|bibcode=2005PNAS..102..379S |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; CPV2 was thought to only cause diseases in canines,&lt;ref name=&quot;Jones1997&quot;/&gt; but newer evidence suggest pathogenicity in cats too.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-22652-3.00001-3 |chapter=Rational Approach to Diagnosing and Managing Infectious Causes of Diarrhea in Kittens |title=August's Consultations in Feline Internal Medicine, Volume 7 |pages=1–22 |year=2016 |last1=Marks |first1=Stanley L. | name-list-style = vanc |isbn=978-0-323-22652-3 |s2cid=78691815 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Ikeda2002 &gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Ikeda Y, Nakamura K, Miyazawa T, Takahashi E, Mochizuki M | title = Feline host range of canine parvovirus: recent emergence of new antigenic types in cats | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 341–6 | date = April 2002 | pmid = 11971764 | pmc = 2730235 | doi = 10.3201/eid0804.010228 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Variants ==
There are two types of canine [[parvovirus]] called [[canine minute virus]] (CPV1) and CPV2. CPV2 causes the most serious disease and affects domesticated dogs and wild canids. There are variants of CPV2 called CPV-2a and CPV-2b, identified in 1979 and 1984 respectively.&lt;ref name=Hirayama/&gt; Most of canine parvovirus infection are believed to be caused by these two strains, which have replaced the original strain, and the present day virus is different from the one originally discovered, although they are indistinguishable by most routine tests.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last = Macintire | first = Douglass K. | title = Treatment of Parvoviral Enteritis | work = Proceedings of the Western Veterinary Conference | year = 2006 | url = https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&amp;q=cache:ydAED0UsVhUJ:www.campusveterinariosenweb.com/file.php/1/moddata/forum/14/31269/Treatment_of_Parvoviral_Enteritis_2006_.PDF+management+of+severe+parvoviral+enteritis&amp;gl=us&amp;pid=bl&amp;srcid=ADGEESgLjDQx5yAEW4DLEOA_2dqJLUXhxhZbJyBDo1V1-iSrsRHQ_dgAAmQDQuviwJYT36Vabv48_W9rqBT4sDBASVjEysrCBMp3rXpHSV1-Yn68zRLPHDtkfx6IQmbm4dDjgLD-0k9P&amp;sig=AHIEtbSqG38azlfuHn8v591Q6c5BmysPaw | access-date = 2007-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|vauthors=Gamoh K, Senda M, Inoue Y, Itoh O|year=2005|title=Efficacy of an inactivated feline panleucopenia virus vaccine against a canine parvovirus isolated from a domestic cat|journal=Vet. Rec.|volume=157|issue=10|pages=285–7|pmid=16157570|doi=10.1136/vr.157.10.285|s2cid=24254820}}&lt;/ref&gt; An additional variant is CPV-2c, a Glu-426 mutant, and was discovered in Italy, Vietnam, and Spain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|vauthors=Decaro N, Martella V, Desario C, Bellacicco A, Camero M, Manna L, d'Aloja D, Buonavoglia C|year=2006|title=First detection of canine parvovirus type 2c in pups with haemorrhagic enteritis in Spain|journal=Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B|volume=53|issue=10|pages=468–72|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0450.2006.00974.x|pmid=17123424|pmc=7165763}}&lt;/ref&gt; The antigenic patterns of 2a and 2b are quite similar to the original CPV2. Variant 2c however has a unique pattern of antigenicity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cavalli&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Evaluation of the Antigenic Relationships among Canine Parvovirus Type 2 Variants|journal=Clin Vaccine Immunol|date=March 2008|first=Alessandra|last=Cavalli|author2=Vito Martella |author3=Costantina Desario |author4=Michele Camero |author5=Anna Lucia Bellacicco |author6=Pasquale De Palo |author7=Nicola Decaro |author8=Gabriella Elia |author9=Canio Buonavoglia  |volume=15|issue=3|pages=534–9|pmid=18160619 |doi=10.1128/CVI.00444-07|pmc=2268271}}&lt;/ref&gt; This has led to claims of ineffective vaccination of dogs,&lt;ref name=&quot;Wood&quot;&gt;{{cite news | first=Wood | last=TV.com | title=Virus killing Kent County dogs | date=August 23, 2008 | publisher=WoodTV.com-Grand Rapids | url =http://www.woodtv.com/Global/story.asp?S=8886937 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080827081145/http://www.woodtv.com/Global/story.asp?S=8886937 | archive-date = 2008-08-27|access-date=2011-08-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt; but studies have shown that the existing CPV vaccines based on CPV-2b provide adequate levels of protection against CPV-2c. A strain of CPV-2b (strain FP84) has been shown to cause disease in a small percentage of domestic cats, although vaccination for FPV seems to be protective.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; With severe disease, dogs can die within 48 to 72 hours without treatment by fluids. In the more common, less severe form, mortality is about 10 percent.&lt;ref name=Carter/&gt; Certain breeds, such as Rottweilers, Doberman Pinschers, and Pit bull terriers as well as other black and tan colored dogs may be more susceptible to CPV2.&lt;ref name=Nelson&gt;{{cite book|author1=Nelson, Richard W. |author2=Couto, C. Guillermo |title=Small Animal Internal Medicine|edition=2nd|publisher=Mosby |year=1998|isbn=978-0-8151-6351-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; Along with age and breed, factors such as a stressful environment, concurrent infections with bacteria, parasites, and canine coronavirus increase a dog's risk of severe infection.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ettinger_1995&quot;/&gt; Dogs infected with parvovirus usually die from the dehydration it causes or secondary infection rather than the virus itself.

The variants of CPV-2 are defined by surface protein (VP capsid) features. This classification does not correlate well with phylogenies built from other parts of the viral genome, such as the NS1 protein.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30934948&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mira |first1=F |last2=Canuti |first2=M |last3=Purpari |first3=G |last4=Cannella |first4=V |last5=Di Bella |first5=S |last6=Occhiogrosso |first6=L |last7=Schirò |first7=G |last8=Chiaramonte |first8=G |last9=Barreca |first9=S |last10=Pisano |first10=P |last11=Lastra |first11=A |last12=Decaro |first12=N |last13=Guercio |first13=A |title=Molecular Characterization and Evolutionary Analyses of Carnivore Protoparvovirus 1 NS1 Gene. |journal=Viruses |date=29 March 2019 |volume=11 |issue=4 |page=308 |doi=10.3390/v11040308 |pmid=30934948 |pmc=6520740 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Intestinal form===
Dogs become infected through oral contact with CPV2 in feces, infected soil, or [[fomite]]s that carry the virus. Following ingestion, the virus replicates in the lymphoid tissue in the throat, and then spreads to the bloodstream. From there, the virus attacks rapidly dividing cells, notably those in the [[lymph node]]s, [[Crypts of Lieberkühn|intestinal crypts]], and the [[bone marrow]]. There is depletion of [[lymphocyte]]s in lymph nodes and [[necrosis]] and destruction of the intestinal crypts.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | last = Lobetti | first = Remo | title = Canine Parvovirus and Distemper | work = Proceedings of the 28th World Congress of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association | year = 2003 | url = http://www.vin.com/proceedings/Proceedings.plx?CID=WSAVA2003&amp;PID=6671&amp;O=Generic | access-date = 2007-04-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Anaerobic bacteria that normally reside in the intestines can then cross into the bloodstream, a process known as translocation, with  [[bacteremia]] leading to [[sepsis]]. The most common bacteria involved in severe cases are ''[[Clostridium]]'', ''[[Campylobacter]]'' and ''[[Salmonella]]'' species. This can lead to a syndrome known as [[systemic inflammatory response syndrome]] (SIRS). SIRS leads to a range of complications such as hypercoagulability of the blood, endotoxaemia and [[acute respiratory distress syndrome]] (ARDS). Bacterial [[myocarditis]] has also been reported secondarily to sepsis.&lt;ref name='Silverstein'&gt;{{Cite conference| first=Deborah C. | last= Silverstein| title=Intensive Care Treatment of Severe Parvovirus Enteritis| conference=International Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Symposium 2003| year=2003| conference-url=http://www.vin.com/Members/Proceedings/Proceedings.plx?CID=iveccs2003&amp;PID=pr04828&amp;O=VIN}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dogs with CPV are at risk of [[intussusception (medical disorder)|intussusception]], a condition where part of the intestine prolapses into another part.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ettinger_1995&quot;/&gt; Three to four days following infection, the virus is [[Viral shedding|shed]] in the feces for up to three weeks, and the dog may remain an asymptomatic carrier and shed the virus periodically.&lt;ref name=Merck&gt;{{cite web | title = Canine Parvovirus | work = The Merck Veterinary Manual | year = 2006 | url = http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/23301.htm | access-date = 2007-04-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060503025614/http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm%2Fbc%2F23301.htm | archive-date = 2006-05-03 | url-status = dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The virus is usually more deadly if the host is concurrently infested with worms or other [[intestinal parasite]]s.

===Cardiac form===
This form is less common and affects puppies infected in the uterus or shortly after birth until about 8 weeks of age.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ettinger_1995&quot;/&gt; The virus attacks the heart muscle and the puppy often dies suddenly or after a brief period of breathing difficulty due to pulmonary edema. On the microscopic level, there are many points of necrosis of the heart muscle that are associated with [[monocyte|mononuclear cellular]] infiltration. The formation of excess fibrous tissue ([[fibrosis]]) is often evident in surviving dogs. [[Myofiber]]s are the site of viral replication within cells.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jones1997&quot;/&gt; The disease may or may not be accompanied with the signs and symptoms of the intestinal form. However, this form is now rarely seen due to widespread vaccination of breeding dogs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Merck&quot;/&gt;

Even less frequently, the disease may also lead to a generalized infection in neonates and cause [[lesion]]s and viral replication and attack in other tissues other than the [[gastrointestinal]] tissues and [[heart]], but also [[brain]], [[liver]], [[lungs]], [[kidneys]], and [[adrenal cortex]]. The lining of the blood vessels are also severely affected, which lead the lesions in this region to hemorrhage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jones1997&quot;/&gt;

===Infection of the fetus===
This type of infection can occur when a pregnant female dog is infected with CPV2. The adult may [[seroconversion|develop immunity]] with little or no clinical signs of disease. The virus may have already crossed the placenta to infect the fetus. This can lead to several abnormalities. In mild to moderate cases the pups can be born with neurological abnormalities such as [[cerebellar hypoplasia]].&lt;ref name='Schatzberg'&gt;{{Cite conference| first=S.J. | last=Schatzberg |author2=N.J. Haley |author3=S.C. Bar |author4=A. deLahunta |author5=J.N. Kornegay |author6=N.J.H. Sharp | title=Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplification Of Parvoviral DNA From The Brains Of Dogs And Cats With Cerebellar Hypoplasia| conference=ACVIM 2002| place=Cornell University Hospital for Animals, Ithaca, NY; College of Vet Med, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO; Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.| year=2002| conference-url=http://www.vin.com/Members/Proceedings/Proceedings.plx?CID=acvim2002&amp;PID=pr01891&amp;O=VIN}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!--
==Prognosis==
Untreated cases of CPV2 have a [[mortality rate]] approaching 91%. With aggressive therapy, survival rates may approach 80–95%, a mortality rate of 5–20%. However in small dogs and small puppies in most breeds (Chihuahua, Pomeranian, Rottweiler) the survival rate is much lower, between 20–50% **(Neither of the references given state these values. The first references also cites opinion and not scientific fact. These references and this passage stating increased mortality in small breed dogs should be removed, rottweilers and dobermans have increased susceptibility to the virus but not significantly ale red survival rate - check your sources!)&lt;ref&gt;http://www.cpvh.com/2011/08/08/parvovirus-canine/ {{Bare URL inline|date=May 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name='Prittie'&gt;{{cite journal|title=Canine Parvoviral Enteritis: A Review of Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention|journal=Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care|date=September 2004|first=Jennifer|last= Prittie|volume=14|issue=3|pages=167–176|doi=10.1111/j.1534-6935.2004.04020.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;--&gt;

== Virology ==
CPV2 is a non-[[viral envelope|enveloped]] single-stranded [[DNA virus]] in the ''[[Parvoviridae]]'' family. The name comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[wikt:parvus|parvus]]'', meaning small, as the virus is only 20 to 26 [[nanometre|nm]] in diameter. It has an [[Icosahedron|icosahedral]] symmetry. The [[genome]] is about 5000 [[nucleotide]]s long.&lt;ref&gt;ICTVdB Management (2006). 00.050.1.01. Parvovirus. In: ICTVdB—The Universal Virus Database, version 4. Büchen-Osmond, C. (Ed), Columbia University, New York, USA [https://web.archive.org/web/19990202065356/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/Ictv/index.htm]&lt;/ref&gt; CPV2 continues to evolve, and the success of new strains seems to depend on extending the range of hosts affected and improved binding to its receptor, the canine [[transferrin]] [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Truyen U |title=Evolution of canine parvovirus—a need for new vaccines? |journal=Vet. Microbiol. |volume=117 |issue=1 |pages=9–13 |year=2006 |pmid=16765539 |doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.04.003}}&lt;/ref&gt; CPV2 has a high rate of [[evolution]], possibly due to a rate of nucleotide [[Point mutation|substitution]] that is more like [[RNA virus]]es such as [[Influenzavirus A]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Shackelton L, Parrish C, Truyen U, Holmes E |title=High rate of viral evolution associated with the emergence of carnivore parvovirus |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=379–84 |year=2005 |pmid=15626758 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0406765102 |pmc=544290|bibcode=2005PNAS..102..379S |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; In contrast, FPV seems to evolve only through random [[genetic drift]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Horiuchi M, Yamaguchi Y, Gojobori T, Mochizuki M, Nagasawa H, Toyoda Y, Ishiguro N, Shinagawa M |title=Differences in the evolutionary pattern of feline panleukopenia virus and canine parvovirus |journal=Virology |volume=249 |issue=2 |pages=440–52 |year=1998 |pmid=9791034 |doi=10.1006/viro.1998.9335|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

CPV2 affects dogs, [[wolf|wolves]], [[fox]]es, and other [[canid]]s. CPV2a and CPV2b have been isolated from a small percentage of symptomatic [[cat]]s and is more common than [[feline panleukopenia]] in big cats.&lt;ref&gt;Recent Advances in Canine Infectious Diseases, Carmichael L. (Ed.) International Veterinary Information Service, Ithaca NY (www.ivis.org), 2000; A0106.0100&lt;/ref&gt;

Previously it has been thought that the virus does not undergo cross species infection. However studies in Vietnam have shown that CPV2 can undergo minor antigenic shift and natural mutation to infect felids. Analyses of feline parvovirus (FPV) isolates in Vietnam and Taiwan revealed that more than 80% of the isolates were of the canine parvovirus type, rather than feline panleukopenia virus (FPLV).&lt;ref name=&quot;Ikeda2000&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Predominance of canine parvovirus (CPV) in unvaccinated cat populations and emergence of new antigenic types of CPVs in cats|journal=Virology|date=2000-12-05|first=Y|last=Ikeda |author2=Mochizuki M |author3=Naito R |author4=Nakamura K |author5=Miyazawa T |author6=Mikami T |author7=Takahashi E |volume=278|issue=1|pages=13–9|pmid=11112475 |doi=10.1006/viro.2000.0653|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; CPV2 may spread to cats easier than dogs and undergo faster rates of mutation within that species.

==Prevention and decontamination==
{{See also|DA2PPC Vaccine}}CPV2 is an extremely [[virulent]] and [[infectious disease|contagious]] virus; the only reliable way to prevent infection is by vaccination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Paul Pion |first1=D. V. M. |last2=Spadafori |first2=Gina |date=2017-08-08 |title=Parvovirus in Dogs |url=https://veterinarypartner.vin.com/default.aspx?pid=19239&amp;id=4951463 |website=VIN.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Puppies are generally vaccinated in a series of doses, extending from the earliest time that the immunity derived from the mother wears off until after that passive immunity is definitely gone.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |access-date=November 20, 2024 |title=2022 AAHA Canine Vaccination Guidelines |url=https://www.aaha.org/resources/2022-aaha-canine-vaccination-guidelines/}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Oh J, Ha G, Cho Y, Kim M, An D, Hwang K, Lim Y, Park B, Kang B, Song D |title=One-Step Immunochromatography Assay Kit for Detecting Antibodies to Canine Parvovirus |journal=Clin. Vaccine Immunol. |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=520–4 |year=2006 |pmid=16603622 |doi=10.1128/CVI.13.4.520-524.2006 |pmc=1459639}}&lt;/ref&gt; Vaccines are performed starting at 7–8 weeks of age, with a booster given every 2–4 weeks until at least 16 weeks of age. Older puppies (16 weeks or older) are given at least two vaccinations 2 to 4 weeks apart.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; The duration of immunity of vaccines for CPV2 has been tested for all major vaccine manufacturers in the [[United States]] and has been found to be at least three years after the initial puppy series and a booster 1 year later.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Schultz R |title=Duration of immunity for canine and feline vaccines: a review |journal=Vet. Microbiol. |volume=117 |issue=1 |pages=75–9 |year=2006 |pmid=16707236 |doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.04.013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A dog that successfully recovers from CPV2 generally remains contagious for up to three weeks, but it is possible it may remain contagious for up to six.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}} CPV2 is an extremely resilient virus once it has been shed through the feces into the environment. CPV2 has been found to survive indoors for months and outdoors in moist environments for years.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;  It can survive in extremely low and high temperatures, and is resistant to many chemical disinfectants.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Paul Pion |first1=D. V. M. |last2=Spadafori |first2=Gina |date=2017-08-08 |title=Sanitizing and Disinfecting the Environment after Parvovirus in Dogs |url=https://veterinarypartner.vin.com/default.aspx?pid=19239&amp;id=10259151 |website=VIN.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Viruses}}
* [https://cloud9vets.co.uk/knowledge-base/parvo-in-dogs/ Canine Parvovirus Information - Common Symptoms and Treatments]
* [http://www.veterinarypartner.com/Content.plx?P=A&amp;S=0&amp;C=0&amp;A=1199 ''Parvovirus Information Center'' from The Pet Health Library]
* [http://www.2ndchance.info/parvo.htm Parvovirus Infection In Your Dog Parvo Virus Enteritis—CPV]
* [https://www.bluecross.org.uk/pet-advice/parvovirus-dogs Parvovirus in dogs]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Canine Parvovirus}}
[[Category:Parvovirinae]]
[[Category:Animal viral diseases]]
[[Category:Dog diseases]]
[[Category:Infraspecific virus taxa]]
[[Category:Vaccine-preventable diseases]]