Title: Carnivore protoparvovirus 1

{{Short description|Species of parvovirus}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc}}{{Use MDY dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Virusbox
 |image=Canines Parvovirus.jpg
 |image_alt=Electron micrograph of canine parvovirus
 |image_caption=[[Electron micrograph]] of [[canine parvovirus]]
 |parent=Protoparvovirus
 |species=Carnivore protoparvovirus 1
 |subdivision_ranks=Member virus
 |subdivision_ref=&lt;ref name=&quot;Protoparvovirus&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Genus: ''Protoparvovirus'' |url=https://ictv.global/report/chapter/parvoviridae/parvoviridae/protoparvovirus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530113730/https://ictv.global/report/chapter/parvoviridae/parvoviridae/protoparvovirus |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 30, 2023 |website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) |access-date=8 January 2019 |quote=Member species Species Virus name(s) ''Carnivore protoparvovirus 1'' canine parvovirus CPV}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 |subdivision=
*[[Canine parvovirus]] (CPV; CPV-2)
*[[Feline panleukopenia virus]] (FPLV; CPV-1)
*[[Mink enteritis virus]]
*Raccoon parvovirus (?)
}}
'''''Carnivore protoparvovirus 1''''' is a species of [[parvovirus]] that infects [[carnivorans]]. It causes a highly contagious disease in both dogs and cats separately. The disease is generally divided into two major genogroups: the group of the classical '''feline panleukopenia virus''' ('''FPLV'''), and the group of the [[canine parvovirus]] type 2 (CPV-2), which appeared in the 1970s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30934948&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Mira F, Canuti M, Purpari G, Cannella V, Di Bella S, Occhiogrosso L, Schirò G, Chiaramonte G, Barreca S, Pisano P, Lastra A, Decaro N, Guercio A |title=Molecular Characterization and Evolutionary Analyses of Carnivore Protoparvovirus 1 NS1 Gene |journal=Viruses |volume=11 |issue=4 |page=308 |date=March 2019 |pmid=30934948 |pmc=6520740 |doi=10.3390/v11040308 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Belonging to the family Parvoviridae, FPLV have linear, single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genomes. This agent is one of the smallest animal viruses, barely 18 to 20&amp;nbsp;nm in diameter.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |vauthors=Evermann JF, Kennedy MA |chapter=Chapter 16 - Viral Infections |date= January 2011 |doi=10.1016/B978-1-4160-4889-3.00016-4 |title=Small Animal Pediatrics |pages=119–129 |veditors=Peterson ME, Kutzler MA |place=Saint Louis |publisher=W. B. Saunders |isbn=978-1-4160-4889-3 |s2cid=78254034}}&lt;/ref&gt; Like other parvovirus genomes, it has hairpin structures at both ends of its genome: 3-genome Y-type structure and 5-terminal U-shaped structure, making it challenging to amplify the full-length genome of parvovirus despite its small size.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Leal É, Liang R, Liu Q, Villanova F, Shi L, Liang L, Li J, Witkin SS, Cui S |title=Regional adaptations and parallel mutations in Feline panleukopenia virus strains from China revealed by nearly-full length genome analysis |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=15 |issue=1 |article-number=e0227705 |date=16 January 2020 |pmid=31945103 |pmc=6964837 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0227705 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1527705L |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sequences in the genome show a high degree of nucleotide conservation in the [[Minor capsid proteins VP2 and VP3|VP2 gene]] after over 90 years since it has emerged; the VP2 gene codes for the capsid protein VP2, a main structural protein, which determines the major mutations during the evolution of CPV.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Miranda C, Vieira MJ, Silva E, Carvalheira J, Parrish CR, Thompson G |title=Genetic Analysis of Feline Panleukopenia Virus Full-length VP2 Gene in Domestic Cats Between 2006-2008 and 2012-2014, Portugal |journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=1178–1183 |date=August 2017 |pmid=26924760 |doi=10.1111/tbed.12483 |s2cid=26070126 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

FPLV is known to infect all wild and domestic members of the [[Felidae|felid]] (cat) family worldwide.&lt;ref name=&quot;MerckVetManual&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.merckvetmanual.com/generalized-conditions/feline-panleukopenia/overview-of-feline-panleukopenia |title=Overview of Feline Panleukopenia - Generalized Conditions |website=Merck Veterinary Manual |access-date=9 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is a highly contagious, severe infection that causes gastrointestinal, immune system, and nervous system disease. Its primary effect is to decrease the number of [[white blood cells]], causing the disease known as '''feline panleukopenia'''.

Although it was once thought that only FPLV caused panleukopenia in cats,&lt;ref name=ICTV&gt;{{cite web |title=ICTV Taxonomy history: ''Carnivore protoparvovirus 1'' |url=https://ictv.global/taxonomy/taxondetails?taxnode_id=20184273 |website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) |access-date=8 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; it has been confirmed that a feline panleukopenia illness can be caused by CPV 2a, 2b, and 2c.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-22652-3.00001-3 |chapter=Rational Approach to Diagnosing and Managing Infectious Causes of Diarrhea in Kittens |title=August's Consultations in Feline Internal Medicine, Volume 7 |pages=1–22 |year=2016 |vauthors=Marks SL |isbn=978-0-323-22652-3 |s2cid=78691815}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ikeda Y, Nakamura K, Miyazawa T, Takahashi E, Mochizuki M |title=Feline host range of canine parvovirus: Recent emergence of new antigenic types in cats |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=341–346 |date=April 2002 |pmid=11971764 |pmc=2730235 |doi=10.3201/eid0804.010228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

FPLV is commonly referred to as:

* feline infectious enteritis virus (FIE)&lt;ref name=&quot;MerckVetManual&quot; /&gt;
*feline parvovirus (FPV or FP or &quot;feline parvo&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.avma.org/public/PetCare/pages/Feline-Panleukopenia.aspx |title=Feline panleukopenia |publisher=American Veterinary Medical Association |work=AVMA.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* feline parvoviral enteritis&lt;ref name=&quot;MerckVetManual&quot; /&gt;

It is sometimes confusingly referred to as &quot;cat plague&quot; and &quot;feline distemper&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Canine and Feline Infectious Diseas&quot;&gt;{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-1-4377-0795-3.00019-3 |chapter=Feline Panleukopenia Virus Infection and Other Viral Enteritides |title=Canine and Feline Infectious Diseases |pages=187–194 |date=2014 |vauthors=Sykes JE |isbn=978-1-4377-0795-3 |s2cid=89381646}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In addition to members of the felid family, it can also affect other carnivorans (e.g. raccoon, mink).&lt;ref name=&quot;MerckVetManual&quot; /&gt;

== Transmission ==
The feline panleukopenia virus is considered ubiquitous, meaning it is in virtually every place that is not regularly disinfected. The infection is highly contagious among unvaccinated cats.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brooks_2017&quot;&gt;{{cite web |vauthors=Brooks W |date=9 January 2017 |title=Distemper (Panleukopenia) in Cats |work=Veterinary Partner |url= https://www.vin.com/apputil/project/defaultadv1.aspx?pId=17256&amp;SAId=1&amp;catId=93555&amp;id=4952250&amp;ind=575&amp;objTypeID=1007 |publisher=Veterinary Information Network}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Antibodies against FPLV, produced by the [[adaptive immune system]], play an important role in the feline response to the virus. [[Passive immunity|Maternally-derived antibodies]] (MDA) efficiently protect kittens from fatal infection. This passively acquired immunity is later replaced by an active immune response obtained by vaccination or as a consequence of a natural infection.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abcdcatsvets.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ABCD_FPV_V3_2015_for-web_final_170915.pdf |title=Feline panleukopenia |date=2015 |work=ABCDCatsVets.org |publisher=European Advisory Board for Cat Diseases |access-date=March 13, 2019 |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731090117/http://www.abcdcatsvets.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ABCD_FPV_V3_2015_for-web_final_170915.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; In kittens, the period of greatest susceptibility to infection is when maternal antibodies are absent, or waning, and vaccine-induced immunity has not yet fully developed.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brower_2004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Brower AI, Radi C, Krueger D, Toohey-Kurth K |date=1 August 2004 |title=Feline panleukopenia: A diagnostic laboratory's perspective |url=https://ucdavis.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/feline-panleukopenia-a-diagnostic-laboratorys-perspective |journal=Veterinary Medicine |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=714–721}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Free-roaming cats are thought to be exposed to the virus during their first year of life. Those that develop a subclinical infection or survive acute illness mount a robust, long-lasting, protective immune response.&lt;ref name=&quot;MerckVetManual&quot; /&gt;

An infected cat sheds large amounts of virus in all body secretions including feces, vomit, urine, saliva, and mucus during the acute phase of illness. It can continue to shed the virus for as long as six weeks after recovery.&lt;ref name=&quot;MerckVetManual&quot; /&gt; Subclinically ill cats can also shed the virus in body secretions. The virus can be carried or transferred on an infected object (such as bedding, food dishes, fur) or by other animals, fleas, and humans (see: [[fomite]]s).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-800946-8.00012-X |chapter=Parvoviridae |veditors=Dubovi EJ, Maclachlan NJ |title=Fenner's Veterinary Virology |pages=245–257 |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-12-800946-8 |vauthors=Dubovi EJ |s2cid=242082110}}&lt;/ref&gt; It persists long after evidence of the original body secretion has faded away, and can be transported long distances. Like all parvoviruses, FPLV is extremely resistant to inactivation and can survive for longer than one year in a suitable environment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Merck&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/57100.htm |title=Feline Panleukopenia: Introduction |publisher=Merck Sharp &amp; Dohme Corp., a subsidiary of Merck &amp; Co. |location=[[Whitehouse Station, New Jersey]] |access-date=26 May 2011 |archive-date=October 16, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016093400/http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm%2Fbc%2F57100.htm |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Kitten deaths have been reported in households of fully vaccinated cats, possibly because of exposure to large amounts of virus in the environment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Canine and Feline Infectious Diseas&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Addie DD, Toth S, Thompson H, Greenwood N, Jarrett JO |title=Detection of feline parvovirus in dying pedigree kittens |journal=The Veterinary Record |volume=142 |issue=14 |pages=353–356 |date=April 1998 |pmid=9587196 |doi=10.1136/vr.142.14.353 |s2cid=44269570}}&lt;/ref&gt; In a recent study, [[microRNA]] responses to FPLV infection were identified in feline kidney cells by sequencing, providing a possible link between miRNA expression and pathogenesis of FPV infection.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang L, Liang R, Zhang G, Zhai Z, Deng Y, Li J, Cui S |title=Analysis of the microRNA expression profiles in feline kidney cell line infected with feline panleukopenia virus |journal=Infection, Genetics and Evolution |volume=75 |article-number=103945 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31265913 |doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2019.103945 |bibcode=2019InfGE..7503945Z |s2cid=195788346}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Infection occurs when the virus enters the body through the mouth or nose. Whether illness results or not depends on the immunity in the victim vs. the number of individual virus particles (i.e. the amount of virus) entering the body.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brooks_2017&quot; /&gt;

== Clinical signs ==
The clinical manifestations of FPLV are variable based on the dose of the virus, the age of the cat, potential breed predispositions, and prior immunity from maternal antibodies, previous exposure, or vaccination.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lappin_2013&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://amvac.ro/files/downloads/congres-2015/Michael_Lappin-Parvovirus_updates.pdf |title=Update on the treatment of parvoviruses |vauthors=Lappin M |date=May 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most infections are subclinical, as evidenced by the high seroprevalence of anti-FPV antibodies among some populations of unvaccinated, healthy cats. The cats that become clinically ill are usually less than one year old, but older cats are also at risk.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kruse_2010_2&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kruse BD, Unterer S, Horlacher K, Sauter-Louis C, Hartmann K |title=Prognostic factors in cats with feline panleukopenia |journal=Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=1271–1276 |date=2010 |pmid=21039863 |doi=10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0604.x |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is high mortality in clinically affected kittens, and sudden death can occur.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lappin_2013&quot; /&gt;

Clinical signs usually develop in 4–6 days after exposure, but can show in 2–14 days.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.uwsheltermedicine.com/library/resources/2015-cvc-washington-dc-conference-powerpoint-slides-for-dr-cynthia-karsten-s-presentations|title=Canine Parvo &amp; Feline Panleuk: New ideas for prevention, treatment &amp; risk assessment |vauthors=Karsten C |date=April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The virus infects and destroys actively dividing cells in bone marrow, lymphoid tissues, intestinal epithelium, and—in very young animals—in the cerebellum and retina.&lt;ref name=&quot;MerckVetManual&quot; /&gt; The virus primarily attacks the lining of the [[Gut (anatomy)|gastrointestinal tract]], causing internal [[Peptic ulcer|ulceration]] and, ultimately, total [[sloughing]] of the intestinal [[epithelium]].

Primary signs include:

*anorexia
*lethargy&lt;ref name=&quot;Kruse_2010_2&quot; /&gt;
*profuse watery to bloody diarrhea (bloody diarrhea is more common in dogs with parvovirus than cats&lt;ref name=&quot;Lappin_2013&quot; /&gt;)
*vomiting (most common in cats&lt;ref name=&quot;Lappin_2013&quot; /&gt;)

Clinical laboratory findings include (but are not limited to):&lt;ref name=&quot;Brower_2004&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kruse_2010_2&quot; /&gt;

* electrolyte and total protein concentrations that reflect dehydration, vomiting, and diarrhea.
*[[leukopenia]]
*[[Lymphocytopenia|lymphopenia]]
*[[neutropenia]]
*[[thrombocytopenia]]

Other signs include: fever, loss of skin elasticity due to dehydration, abdominal pain, sternal recumbency{{Technical inline|date=January 2022}} with splayed legs and head droop, nasal discharge and [[conjunctivitis]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Lappin_2013&quot; /&gt; Cats may sit at a water bowl, but not drink.&lt;ref name=&quot;MerckVetManual&quot; /&gt; [[Terminal illness|Terminal]] cases are [[hypothermic]] and may develop [[septic shock]] and [[disseminated intravascular coagulation]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Merck&quot; /&gt;

Infection in pregnant cats can result in [[fetal resorption]], mummification, abortion, or stillbirth of [[Infant|neonates]].&lt;ref name=&quot;MerckVetManual&quot; /&gt; Fetuses infected in utero that survive and kittens less than a few weeks of age that become infected can have [[Cerebellar hypoplasia (non-human)|cerebellar hypoplasia]], [[retinal dysplasia]], and [[optic neuropathy]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat |date=January 3, 2024 |edition=4th |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-4160-6130-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{page needed|date=October 2023}}

==Diagnosis==
A presumptive clinical diagnosis of FPLV can be made for kittens with appropriate signalment, history, clinical findings and the history of no prior vaccination.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lappin_2013&quot; /&gt;

The clinical diagnosis is usually supported by documenting parvovirus antigen in feces by ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) assays. The availability of validated assays varies by country but is becoming more common. PCR assays are so sensitive that FPV DNA can be amplified from feces of cats vaccinated with modified live strains of the virus. Attenuated parvoviruses in MLV vaccines replicate in the blood and intestine, and post-vaccinal fecal shedding of FPV has been demonstrated, which can result in recent vaccinations giving false positive results on diagnostic tests.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Patterson EV, Reese MJ, Tucker SJ, Dubovi EJ, Crawford PC, Levy JK |title=Effect of vaccination on parvovirus antigen testing in kittens |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=230 |issue=3 |pages=359–363 |date=February 2007 |pmid=17269866 |doi=10.2460/javma.230.3.359|s2cid=37742906 }}&lt;/ref&gt; At least one of the ELISA antigen tests for dogs (SNAP®Parvo; [[Idexx Laboratories|IDEXX Laboratories]]) detects FPV in feline feces and has a cut point for a positive test result that excludes most vaccinated cats. Thus, this ELISA is superior to PCR for screening cats for FPV infection and can also be performed in the veterinary clinic. (These are only approved and licensed for detecting [[canine parvovirus]], but it is generally known that they also detect FPL viral antigen in feline feces. These tests are used extra-label because they allow rapid, inexpensive, in-house detection of the virus.&lt;ref name=&quot;University of Wisconsin Madison Shelter Medicine Program&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.uwsheltermedicine.com/library/guidebooks/feline-panleukopenia/recognition-and-diagnosis |title=Feline Panleukopenia |publisher=University of Wisconsin Madison |work=Shelter Medicine Program |access-date=13 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;) Positive fecal SNAP test results, including weak positives, are highly likely to be true positives in clinically affected animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Jacobson LS, Janke KJ, Giacinti J, Weese JS |title=Diagnostic testing for feline panleukopenia in a shelter setting: a prospective, observational study |journal=Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery |volume=23 |issue=12 |pages=1192–1199 |date=December 2021 |pmid=33847532 |pmc=8637359 |doi=10.1177/1098612X211005301}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some cats will have completed the shedding period by the time the test is run, leading to false-negative results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lappin_2013&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;University of Wisconsin Madison Shelter Medicine Program&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sykes 2015&quot;&gt;{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-1-4557-0306-7.00096-9 |chapter=Viral Infections |title=Small Animal Critical Care Medicine |pages=504–508 |date=2015 |vauthors=Sykes JE |isbn=978-1-4557-0306-7 |s2cid=90317389}}&lt;/ref&gt; Electron microscopy, virus isolation and seroconversion can also be used to document active or recent infection.

Leukopenia on a complete blood count (nadir 50–3,000 WBC/μL) supports a diagnosis of FPLV. In an unvaccinated cat, the presence of antibodies against FPV indicates that the cat either has the disease or has had the disease in the past. Elevated IgM titers (1:10 or greater) indicate active infection and if clinical signs are obvious (diarrhea, panleukopenia) the prognosis is poor. Elevated IgG titers (1:100 or greater) in a cat with clinical signs indicates a better prognosis.&lt;ref name=&quot;www.hansendx.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.hansendx.com/products/fpv |title=FPV |website=HansenDx.com |access-date=13 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Differential diagnosis|Differential diagnoses]] include [[salmonellosis]], enteric toxins, [[feline immunodeficiency virus]] (FIV), [[feline leukemia virus]] (FeLV), [[cryptosporidiosis]], [[pancreatitis]], [[Sepsis|septicaemia]] with acute [[endotoxemia]], [[toxoplasmosis]], [[peritonitis]], and [[Lymphoma in animals|lymphoma]].&lt;ref name=&quot;www.hansendx.com&quot; /&gt;

==Treatment==

To contain the virus, cats with suspected or diagnosed FPLV should be kept in isolation.&lt;ref name=pmid19481033&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Truyen U, Addie D, Belák S, Boucraut-Baralon C, Egberink H, Frymus T, Gruffydd-Jones T, Hartmann K, Hosie MJ, Lloret A, Lutz H, Marsilio F, Pennisi MG, Radford AD, Thiry E, Horzinek MC |title=Feline panleukopenia. ABCD guidelines on prevention and management |journal=Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=538–546 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19481033 |pmc=7129762 |doi=10.1016/j.jfms.2009.05.002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It requires immediate, aggressive treatment if the cat is to survive, as it can be fatal in less than 24 hours. Several articles and publications provide guidance for rescuers and veterinarians for optimizing outcomes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hartmann et al 2002&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=pmid19481033/&gt;

Treatment involves:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abcdcatsvets.org/abcd-guidelines-on-feline-panleukopenia-2012-edition/ |title=Feline panleukopenia |access-date=13 March 2019 |work=ABCDCatsVets.org |publisher=European Advisory Board for Cat Diseases |archive-date=March 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302024735/http://www.abcdcatsvets.org/abcd-guidelines-on-feline-panleukopenia-2012-edition/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

* anti-emetics
*IV [[antibiotics]]
* intravenous fluids with electrolytes
* injections of vitamin B
*plasma or whole blood transfusion

Feeding should be continued as long as possible.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Mohr AJ, Leisewitz AL, Jacobson LS, Steiner JM, Ruaux CG, Williams DA |title=Effect of early enteral nutrition on intestinal permeability, intestinal protein loss, and outcome in dogs with severe parvoviral enteritis |journal=Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=791–798 |date=2003 |pmid=14658714 |pmc=7166426 |doi=10.1111/j.1939-1676.2003.tb02516.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; A highly digestible diet is preferred, but the individual animal's preferences may dictate giving whatever it will eat.&lt;ref name=pmid19481033/&gt; In anorexic, [[Hypoproteinemia|hypoproteinemic]], vomiting and diarrheic cats parenteral nutrition is required.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hartmann et al 2002&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Hartmann K, Hein J |title=Feline panleukopenie. Praxisrelevante fragen anhand eines fallbeispiels |trans-title=Feline panleukopenia. Practical questions based on a case study |language=de |journal=Tierärztliche Praxis. Ausgabe K, Kleintiere/Heimtiere |date=2002 |volume=30 |pages=393–9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In a disease outbreak, unvaccinated kittens or adults can be given anti-FPV serum containing FPV antibodies injected subcutaneously or [[Intraperitoneal injection|intraperitoneal]]. This may provide protection for 2–4 weeks.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |vauthors=Greene CE, Addie DD |chapter=Feline panleukopenia |veditors=Greene CE |title=Infectious diseases of the dog and cat |location=Philadelphia |publisher=W. B. Saunders |date=2005 |pages=78–88}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference |vauthors=Macintire DK, Smith-Carr S, Jones R, Swango L |title=Treatment of dogs naturally infected with canine parvovirus with lyophilized canine IgG |conference=Proceedings of the 17th Annual Conference of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine. June 10–13, 1999 |date=1999}}&lt;/ref&gt; Therapeutic efficacy of anti-FPV serum has been demonstrated in dogs,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Meunier PC, Cooper BJ, Appel MJ, Lanieu ME, Slauson DO |title=Pathogenesis of canine parvovirus enteritis: sequential virus distribution and passive immunization studies |journal=Veterinary Pathology |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=617–624 |date=November 1985 |pmid=3001996 |doi=10.1177/030098588502200617 |s2cid=23206064}}&lt;/ref&gt; and similar beneficial effects may be expected in cats.&lt;ref name=pmid19481033/&gt;

Several studies have shown [[recombinant feline interferon omega]] is effective in the treatment of parvoviral enteritis in dogs&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mari K, Maynard L, Eun HM, Lebreux B |title=Treatment of canine parvoviral enteritis with interferon-omega in a placebo-controlled field trial |journal=The Veterinary Record |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=105–108 |date=January 2003 |pmid=12572939 |doi=10.1136/vr.152.4.105 |s2cid=25801597|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Martin V, Najbar W, Gueguen S, Grousson D, Eun HM, Lebreux B, Aubert A |title=Treatment of canine parvoviral enteritis with interferon-omega in a placebo-controlled challenge trial |journal=Veterinary Microbiology |volume=89 |issue=2–3 |pages=115–127 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12243889 |doi=10.1016/S0378-1135(02)00173-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; and also inhibits replication of FPV in cell culture. So far no data are available on its efficacy in FPV-infected cats.

=== Complications ===
Cats typically die due to complications associated with sepsis, dehydration, and [[Disseminated intravascular coagulation|disseminated intravascular coagulopathy]] (DIC).&lt;ref name=&quot;Hartmann et al 2002&quot; /&gt; [[Leukopenia|Leukocytopenia]] predisposes patients to secondary infections, especially bacterial and fungal, though secondary viral infections also occur.

It has been stated that cats with FPLV may be at risk for endocarditis or cardiomyopathy (since CPV-2 is a well-known cause of viral myocarditis in young puppies), but a 2017 retrospective study concluded that &quot;Feline Panleukopenia Virus Is Not Associated With Myocarditis or Endomyocardial Restrictive Cardiomyopathy in Cats&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=McEndaffer L, Molesan A, Erb H, Kelly K |title=Feline Panleukopenia Virus Is Not Associated With Myocarditis or Endomyocardial Restrictive Cardiomyopathy in Cats |journal=Veterinary Pathology |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=669–675 |date=July 2017 |pmid=28622497 |doi=10.1177/0300985817695516 |doi-access=free|pmc=10956504 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Prognosis==
Mortality in affected felid litters varies between 20 and 100%.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kailasan S, Agbandje-McKenna M, Parrish CR |title=Parvovirus Family Conundrum: What Makes a Killer? |journal=Annual Review of Virology |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=425–450 |date=November 2015 |pmid=26958923 |doi=10.1146/annurev-virology-100114-055150|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; Mortality of FPLV is 25–90% in domestic cats with the acute form of the disease and up to 100% in cats with peracute disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hartmann et al 2002&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Stuetzer B, Hartmann K |title=Feline parvovirus infection and associated diseases |journal=Veterinary Journal |volume=201 |issue=2 |pages=150–155 |date=August 2014 |pmid=24923754 |doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.05.027}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2010, a retrospective study of 244 infected cats showed that &quot;leukocyte and thrombocyte counts as well as serum albumin and potassium concentrations at presentation are prognostic indicators in cats with panleukopenia, whereas vaccination status, age, clinical signs, and housing conditions are not.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kruse_2010_2&quot;/&gt;

A survival rate of about 50% has been reported with supportive therapies.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Wolfesberger B, Tichy A, Affenzeller N, Galler A, Shibly S, Schwendenwein I |date=January 2012 |title=Clinical outcome of 73 cases with feline panleukopenia |journal=Wiener Tierarztliche Monatsschrift |volume=99 |issue=9 |pages=11–17 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287288814}}&lt;/ref&gt; Cats with FPLV that survive the first five days of treatment usually recover;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sykes 2015&quot; /&gt; however, the decrease in the cat's white blood cells compromises its immune system, leaving it vulnerable to secondary infection.{{cn|date=March 2024}}
Lifelong immunity is thought to follow recovery from disease, and a carrier state of the disease has never been identified.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brower_2004&quot; /&gt;

=== Preventing transmission from infected cats ===

==== Quarantine/isolation ====
Cats with suspected or diagnosed FPLV should be kept in isolation. This non-enveloped virus is very resistant to environmental conditions and many disinfectants, is highly contagious, and rapidly accumulates in the environment due to high shedding of virus from affected animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-409527-4.00013-4 |chapter=Biology and Diseases of Cats |title=Laboratory Animal Medicine |pages=555–576 |date=2015 |vauthors=Burkholder T, Feliciano CL, Vandewoude S, Baker HJ |isbn=978-0-12-409527-4 |s2cid=58533138}}&lt;/ref&gt; Strict protocols for containment – with isolation, minimal handling, and disinfection of all potential sources of fomites – is warranted. Recovered cats can still shed the virus for up to six weeks&lt;ref name=&quot;MerckVetManual&quot; /&gt; and can carry it on their body for prolonged periods.

=== Vaccination ===
The practice of recommending and giving [[vaccine]]s on a fixed schedule with annual boosters has been widely discarded. Current recommendations are based on the philosophy of vaccinating each cat no more frequently than necessary. These recommendations take into account considerations for the efficacy and longevity of each specific vaccine; the exposure, risk, and need of different cat populations; and socioeconomic limitations.&lt;ref name=pmid26780857/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;catvets.com&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abcdcatsvets.org/vaccines-and-vaccination-an-introduction/ |publisher=European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases |title=Vaccines and vaccination |work=ABCDCatsVets.org |date=5 January 2008 |access-date=14 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.noah.co.uk/briefingdocument/vaccination-animal-health-overview/ |publisher=UK National Office of Animal Health |title=Vaccination for animal health: an overview |website=NOAH.co.uk |access-date=14 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Recommendations vary for:

* animal shelters
*boarding facilities (or animals going into them)
* breeders
*community cats (free-roaming and/or feral) or TNR (Trap Neuter Return) programs
*owned pets (and based on &quot;inside only&quot; or &quot;in and out&quot;)

The FPLV vaccination is considered a &quot;core&quot; (essential for health) vaccine and is recommended for all domestic cats.&lt;ref name=pmid26780857&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Day MJ, Horzinek MC, Schultz RD, Squires RA |title=WSAVA Guidelines for the vaccination of dogs and cats |journal=The Journal of Small Animal Practice |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=E1–E45 |date=January 2016 |pmid=26780857 |pmc=7166872 |doi=10.1111/jsap.2_12431 |doi-access=free |collaboration=Vaccination Guidelines Group (VGG) of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA)}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Scherk MA, Ford RB, Gaskell RM, Hartmann K, Hurley KF, Lappin MR, Levy JK, Little SE, Nordone SK, Sparkes AH |title=2013 AAFP Feline Vaccination Advisory Panel Report |journal=Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=785–808 |date=September 2013 |pmid=23966005 |doi=10.1177/1098612x13500429 |pmc=11110975 |s2cid=31667918 |url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/23815/1/oa_23815.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even cats kept indoors can be infected from fomite transmission.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Scott FW, Geissinger CM |title=Long-term immunity in cats vaccinated with an inactivated trivalent vaccine |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=60 |issue=5 |pages=652–658 |date=May 1999 |doi=10.2460/ajvr.1999.60.05.652 |pmid=10328440}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Several types and brands of commercial FPLV vaccines are available to induce acquired immunity. These include:

*[[Inactivated vaccine|killed]] virus (&quot;non-infectious&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26780857&quot; /&gt;) [[adjuvant]]ed
* killed virus non adjuvanted
*[[Attenuated vaccine|modified-live]] virus (MLV or &quot;infectious&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26780857&quot; /&gt;) adjuvanted
*modified-live virus non adjuvanted

Combination vaccines that protect against several common viruses, including FPLV, are also available.

Selection or use of a specific type/brand of a vaccine may vary depending on the overall risk of viral infection to the specific animal in its environment, along with considerations for the time it takes to confer protection, its overall efficacy, the animal's health, and the potential risks associated with MLV vs killed, adjuvanted vs nonadjuvanted, intranasal/ocular vs injection.

Modified-live FPLV vaccines are not recommended in pregnant queens, very young kittens, or cats with FIV or FeLV.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://veterinarycalendar.dvm360.com/canine-parovirus-and-feline-panluekopenia-new-ideas-prevention-risk-assessment-and-treatment-parts-1|title=Canine {{as written|par|ovirus [sic]|expecting=parvovirus}} and feline panluekopenia: New ideas for prevention, risk assessment, and treatment (parts 1 &amp; 2) (Proceedings)|vauthors=Karsten C|date=April 2015|access-date=March 13, 2019|archive-date=March 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320194730/http://veterinarycalendar.dvm360.com/canine-parovirus-and-feline-panluekopenia-new-ideas-prevention-risk-assessment-and-treatment-parts-1|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=pmid26780857/&gt;

Kittens without maternally derived antibodies are especially vulnerable. FPLV vaccination can start as early as 4 weeks of age for kittens at high risk but are usually started at 6 weeks, then given every 3–4 weeks until 16 weeks of age. For cats older than 16 weeks, 2 doses, 3 to 4 weeks apart is generally recommended, followed by a 6-month to 1-year booster.&lt;ref name=&quot;catvets.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://catvets.com/guidelines/practice-guidelines/feline-vaccination-guidelines |title=Feline Vaccination Advisory Panel Report |publisher=American Association of Feline Practitioners |website=CatVets.com |access-date=13 March 2019 |archive-date=2 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002194634/https://catvets.com/guidelines/practice-guidelines/feline-vaccination-guidelines |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=pmid26780857/&gt; Thereafter, a booster vaccination every 3 years is usually recommended;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/hospital/animal-health-topics/vaccination-guidelines |title=Vaccination Guidelines for Dogs and Cats |publisher=School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis |website=VetMed.UCDavis.edu |access-date=13 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=pmid26780857/&gt; a blood titer test can be done to determine individual antibody levels for catering the timing of boosters.

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==

*[https://veterinarypartner.vin.com/default.aspx?pid=19239&amp;id=4952250 Feline Distemper (Panleukopenia) from The Pet Health Library]
*[https://s3.amazonaws.com/sheltermedicine/ckeditor_assets/attachments/115/parvo_and_panleuk_new_ideas_for_prevention_treatment_risk_assessment_for_cvc_for_ksmp_website.pdf How to Limit Parvo in Shelters, Rescues and Transfer Animals]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Feline Panleukopenia}}
[[Category:Cat diseases]]
[[Category:Animal viral diseases]]
[[Category:Parvovirinae]]
[[Category:Vaccine-preventable diseases]]