Title: Epilepsy in animals

{{Short description|none}}
{{Main|Epilepsy}}
'''Epilepsy in animals''' is a group of neurological disorders characterized by [[Epileptic seizure|seizures]], caused by uncontrolled, abnormal bursts of electrical activity in the brain. They can start and stop very abruptly and last any amount of time from a few seconds to a few minutes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://cgap.ucdavis.edu/Epilepsy.htm|title=Epilepsy Study|last=Barlough|date=1995|publisher=Ney York: Harper Publishers|access-date=15 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224113211/http://cgap.ucdavis.edu/Epilepsy.htm|archive-date=24 December 2016|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Canine epilepsy is often genetic, but epilepsy in cats and other pets is rarer, likely because there is no hereditary component to epilepsy in these animals.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

== Characteristics ==
Epilepsy is most commonly recognised by involuntary movements of the head and limbs; however, other characteristics include salivation, lack of [[wikt:bodily functions|bodily functions]] and [[anxiety]]. Animals often lose [[consciousness]] and are not aware of their surroundings.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://cvm.ncsu.edu/research/labs/clinical-sciences/companion-animal-epilepsy/|title=Companion Animal Epilepsy|date=2016|publisher=NC State University|access-date=15 May 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Dogs ==
[[File:Potassium_bromide_veterinary.JPG|thumb|200x200px|A bottle of veterinary pharmaceutical [[potassium bromide]] oral solution used in dogs, primarily as an [[antiepileptic]] (to stop seizures)&lt;ref name=&quot;fda&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-grants-first-conditional-approval-under-expanded-authority-control-seizures-dogs-idiopathic|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114191340/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-grants-first-conditional-approval-under-expanded-authority-control-seizures-dogs-idiopathic|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 14, 2021|title=FDA Grants First Conditional Approval Under Expanded Authority to Control Seizures in Dogs with Idiopathic Epilepsy|date=14 January 2021 |publisher=[[FDA]]|lang=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
In [[dog]]s, epilepsy is often an inherited condition. The incidence of epilepsy/seizures in the general dog population is estimated to be between 0.5% and 5.7%.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wiersma2&quot;&gt;[http://www.k9web.com/dog-faqs/medical/epilepsy.html K9web.com], Wiersma-Aylward, A. 1995. Canine Epilepsy. Retrieved August 6, 2007&lt;/ref&gt; In certain breeds, such as the [[Belgian Shepherd]], the incidence may be much higher.

=== Diagnosis ===
There are three types of epilepsy in dogs: reactive, secondary, and primary.&lt;ref&gt;Peterson, M., &quot;Inherited epilepsy can be devastating in dogs&quot;. [http://www.essfta.org/Health_Research/epilepsy.htm essfta.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709022133/http://essfta.org/Health_Research/epilepsy.htm |date=2012-07-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Reactive epileptic seizures are caused by metabolic issues, such as [[Hypoglycemia|low blood sugar]] or [[Renal failure|kidney]] or [[liver failure]].  Epilepsy attributed to [[Canine brain tumors|brain tumor]], [[stroke]] or other trauma is known as secondary or symptomatic epilepsy.

There is no known cause for primary or idiopathic epilepsy, which is diagnosed only by eliminating other possible causes for the seizures.  Dogs with [[idiopathic]] epilepsy experience their first seizure between the ages of one and three.  However, the age at diagnosis is only one factor in diagnosing canine epilepsy, as one study found cause for seizures in one-third of dogs between the ages of one and three, indicating secondary or reactive rather than primary epilepsy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Podell|first1=M|last2=Fenner|first2=WR|last3=Powers|first3=JD|title=Seizure classification in dogs from a nonreferral-based population|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|date=1 June 1995|volume=206|issue=11|pages=1721–8|doi=10.2460/javma.1995.206.11.1721|pmid=7782244}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A [[veterinarian]]'s initial work-up for a dog presenting with a history of seizures may include a physical and neurological exam, a [[complete blood count]], [[Blood test|serum chemistry profile]], [[urinalysis]], bile tests, and [[thyroid function tests]].&lt;ref&gt;The Canine Epilepsy Network, [http://www.canine-epilepsy.net/basics/basics_index.html canine-epilepsy.net]&lt;/ref&gt;  These tests verify seizures and may determine cause for reactive or secondary epilepsy. Veterinarians may also request that dog owners keep a &quot;seizure log&quot; documenting the timing, length, severity, and recovery of each seizure, as well as dietary or environmental changes.

=== Treatment ===
Many [[antiepileptic]] drugs are used for the management of [[canine epilepsy]]. Oral [[phenobarbital]], in particular, [[levetiracetam]] and [[imepitoin]] are considered to be the most effective [[antiepileptic]] drugs and usually used as 'first line' treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Charalambous2&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Charalambous|first1=M|last2=Brodbelt|first2=D|last3=Volk|first3=HA|title=Treatment in canine epilepsy-a systematic review|journal=BMC Veterinary Research|date=22 October 2014|volume=10|article-number=257|doi=10.1186/s12917-014-0257-9|pmid=25338624|pmc=4209066|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Other anti-epileptics, such as [[zonisamide]], [[primidone]], [[gabapentin]], [[pregabalin]], [[sodium valproate]], [[felbamate]] and [[topiramate]], may also be effective and used in various combinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Charalambous2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=WB|title=Idiopathic epilepsy in dogs and cats|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|date=January 2010|volume=40|issue=1|pages=161–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2009.09.004|pmid=19942062}}&lt;/ref&gt; A crucial part of the treatment of pets with epilepsy is owner education to ensure compliance and successful management.&lt;ref&gt;De Risio, L and Platt, S. 2014. Canine and feline epilepsy: diagnosis and management. CAB International: Wallingford, UK. {{ISBN|9781780641096}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Cats ==
Seizures in cats have various initiating factors. Cats can have reactive, primary ([[Idiopathy|idiopathic]]) or secondary seizures. Idiopathic seizures are not as common in cats as in dogs; however, a 2008 study conducted showed that of 91 feline seizures, 25% were suspected to have had idiopathic epilepsy.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://zimmer-foundation.org/sch/cse.html|title=Feline Seizure Disorders|last=Sonius|first=Chelsea|date=2010|access-date=16 May 2016|archive-date=29 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129041432/http://zimmer-foundation.org/sch/cse.html|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the same group of 91 cats, 50% were secondary seizures and 20% reactive.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

=== Classifications ===
Idiopathic epilepsy does not have a classification due to the fact there are no known causes of these seizures, however both reactive and symptomatic secondary epilepsy can be placed into classifications.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

====Cancer====
{{Main|Cancer in cats}}
[[Meningioma]]s, [[Lymphoma in animals|lymphomas]] and glial cell brain tumours are the most common cancers in cats and are all common causes of seizures.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

==== Vascular disease ====
[[Vascular disease]] refers to any condition that effects the flow of blood to the brain and can potentially result in seizure disorders.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Common vascular diseases in cats include, feline ischemic encephalopathy, [[Polycythemia vera|polycythemia]] and [[hypertension]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

==== Inflammatory/infectious ====
Any inflammatory or infectious disease that reaches the brain can result in inducing seizures. The most common inflammatory or infectious diseases which cause seizures in cats include, [[feline infectious peritonitis]], [[Toxoplasmosis]] and [[Cryptococcus]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

==== Reactive seizure disorders ====
Many diseases that occur as a result from illness in parts of the body other than the brain can cause felines to have seizures, especially in older cats. Some of the common [[Metabolism|metabolic]] causes of seizures in felines include, [[hepatic encephalopathy]], [[Kidney|renal]] [[encephalopathy]], [[Idiopathic postprandial syndrome|hypoglycaemia]] and [[hypothyroidism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

== Other animals ==

* '''Birds''' are diagnosed with idiopathic epilepsy once all other causes of seizures have been ruled out and when they exhibit normal behavior between seizures.&lt;ref name=&quot;Delk-2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Delk |first1=Katie |title=Clinical Management of Seizures in Avian Patients |journal=Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine |date=1 April 2012 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=132–139 |doi=10.1053/j.jepm.2012.02.014 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1557506312000274 |issn=1557-5063|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; Birds cannot obtain [[Therapeutic index|therapeutic level]]s of the anticonvulsant [[phenobarbital]] in their blood.&lt;ref name=&quot;Delk-2012&quot;/&gt; As of 2012 there are no published therapeutic levels for anticonvulsants in birds.&lt;ref name=&quot;Delk-2012&quot;/&gt; Drug therapy, therefore, is individualized to the bird patient, and in most cases seizures can be successfully managed, providing a good quality of life for the bird.&lt;ref name=&quot;Delk-2012&quot;/&gt;

* '''[[Zebrafish]]''' have been studied as [[model organism]]s for epilepsy research in place of the more widely-used rodents.&lt;ref name=&quot;D'Amora-2023&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=D'Amora |first1=Marta |last2=Galgani |first2=Alessandro |last3=Marchese |first3=Maria |last4=Tantussi |first4=Francesco |last5=Faraguna |first5=Ugo |last6=De Angelis |first6=Francesco |last7=Giorgi |first7=Filippo Sean |title=Zebrafish as an Innovative Tool for Epilepsy Modeling: State of the Art and Potential Future Directions |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |date=22 April 2023 |volume=24 |issue=9 |pages=7702 |doi=10.3390/ijms24097702 |pmid=37175408 |pmc=10177843 |doi-access=free |issn=1422-0067}}&lt;/ref&gt; Zebrafish are already widely used to research [[central nervous system]] disorders (such as [[Parkinson’s]] and [[Alzheimer’s Disease]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;D'Amora-2023&quot;/&gt; Zebrafish were first used as a model for epilepsy in 2005, and since then have been used as such in hundreds of papers.&lt;ref name=&quot;D'Amora-2023&quot;/&gt;

*'''[[California sea lion]]s''' can develop epilepsy after consuming [[domoic acid]], the neurotoxin responsible for [[amnesic shellfish poisoning]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Buckmaster-2014&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Buckmaster |first1=Paul S. |last2=Wen |first2=Xiling |last3=Toyoda |first3=Izumi |last4=Gulland |first4=Frances M. D. |last5=Van Bonn |first5=William |title=Hippocampal neuropathology of domoic acid-induced epilepsy in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) |journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology |date=1 May 2014 |volume=522 |issue=7 |pages=1691–1706 |doi=10.1002/cne.23509 |pmid=24638960 |pmc=4100486 |issn=1096-9861}}&lt;/ref&gt; Their epilepsy has been compared to [[temporal lobe epilepsy]] in humans, for which they have been considered a model for.&lt;ref name=&quot;Buckmaster-2014&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Cameron-2019&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=Starr |last2=Lopez |first2=Ariana |last3=Glabman |first3=Raisa |last4=Abrams |first4=Emily |last5=Johnson |first5=Shawn |last6=Field |first6=Cara |last7=Gulland |first7=Frances M. D. |last8=Buckmaster |first8=Paul S. |title=Proportional loss of parvalbumin-immunoreactive synaptic boutons and granule cells from the hippocampus of sea lions with temporal lobe epilepsy |journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology |date=1 October 2019 |volume=527 |issue=14 |pages=2341–2355 |doi=10.1002/cne.24680 |pmid=30861128 |issn=1096-9861|pmc=6656599 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

*'''Cattle''' with idiopathic epilepsy have been rarely described in the literature.&lt;ref name=&quot;D'Angelo-2015&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=D'Angelo |first1=A. |last2=Bellino |first2=C. |last3=Bertone |first3=I. |last4=Cagnotti |first4=G. |last5=Iulini |first5=B. |last6=Miniscalco |first6=B. |last7=Casalone |first7=C. |last8=Gianella |first8=P. |last9=Cagnasso |first9=A. |title=Seizure disorders in 43 cattle |journal=Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine |date=2015 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=967–971 |doi=10.1111/jvim.12592 |pmid=25857732 |pmc=4895412 |issn=1939-1676}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is because larger animals have a higher threshold for seizures, and in most cases the cause of seizures in cattle can be determined to be from metabolic or toxic disorders.&lt;ref name=&quot;D'Angelo-2015&quot;/&gt;

==See also==
* [[Canine epileptoid cramping syndrome]]
* [[Mongolian gerbil#Epilepsy|Epilepsy in gerbils]]
* [[Rage syndrome]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{Seizures and epilepsy}}

[[Category:Dog diseases]]
[[Category:Cat diseases]]
[[Category:Animal diseases]]
[[Category:Epilepsy]]
[[Category:Animal nervous system]]