rheology of till beneath storglaciaren sweden in order to study in situ the rheology of a deforming subglacial till various instruments were emplaced in till beneath storglaciaren sweden boreholes were used to gain access to the till beneath about 100 m of ice tiltmeters provided an estimate of the shear strain rate in the till two other instruments yielded measures of till strength in addition water pressures were recorded in boreholes and in the till a computer controlled distance meter provided an effectively continuous record of the surface velocity and data from frequent surveys of a stake network were used to estimate the mean basal drag based on a force balance calculation tilt rates varied directly with effective pressure so decreases in water pressure apparently increased the coupling between the glacier and the bed surface speed was either out of phase with tilt or varied independently of tilt thus increases in speed were apparently a consequence either of longitudinal coupling or of reduced coupling between the glacier and the bed they were not a result of till deformation till strength varied directly with effective pressure which is consistent with it being a mohr coulomb or frictional material the devices measuring till strength are presumed to have been pulled through the till at a speed that varied in phase with the surface speed but till strength did not vary systematically with surface speed this implies that the residual strength of the till is insensitive to strain rate thus the appropriate constitutive equation for till rheology may be of the form e e k where k is a constant this is consistent with experimental data reported in the geotechnical literature

spatial patterns of glacier motion during a high velocity event haut glacier d arolla switzerland the surface motion of haut glacier d arolla switzerland was monitored at a high spatial and temporal resolution data are analyzed to calculate surface velocities surface strain rates and the components of the glacier force budget before during and after an early melt season speed up or spring event we investigate the extent to which variations in glacier motion can be attributed to hydrologically induced local forcing or to non local forcing transmitted via horizontal stress gradients enhanced glacier motion is dependent on a change in the spatial distribution of areas of high drag across the glacier

influence of subglacial drainage system evolution on glacier surface motion haut glacier d arolla switzerland 1 the relationship between the evolution of subglacial drainage system morphology and spatial patterns of glacier surface velocity was investigated using dye tracing experiments and ground surveying throughout the 1995 melt season at haut glacier d arolla switzerland with the onset of high and variable melt season discharges subglacial drainage changed from a predominantly distributed system to a predominantly channelized system the change occurred later farther up glacier during the period of drainage evolution the glacier was subjected to three periods of rapidly rising meltwater discharge the magnitude and spatial pattern of the glacier s velocity response differed between these periods and can be explained in terms of the impact of the evolving drainage system morphology on the amplitude and spatial distribution of basal hydrological forcing increasing discharge through a distributed drainage system caused widespread basal forcing and high glacier velocity increasing discharge through incipient channels below moulins not yet connected to the main channel caused more localized basal forcing and slightly increased glacier velocity increasing discharge through a fully channelized drainage system caused no significant basal forcing and glacier velocity was not significantly different from the annual deformation flow pattern empirical orthogonal function analysis of flow patterns defined two distinct spatial modes of surface velocity which corresponded closely with the drainage system morphologies inferred to be present during each event the relative importance of these modes changed through the melt season suggesting a temporal change in the spatial pattern of hydrologically induced basal forcing

stress and velocity fields in glaciers part ii sliding and basal stress distribution numerical methods are used to examine the interaction between the spatial distribution of the basal shear traction and the corresponding basal velocity for an inclined slab geometry in our improved treatment we reject the common assumption that basal velocity is a simple function of local variables in favour of a non local treatment that includes normal deviatoric stress and takes basal velocity to be an integrated response to spatially varying influences computationally one must either iterate the basal velocity with a friction parameterization that relates basal shear traction to basal velocity or alternatively prescribe the basal shear traction that results from bed decoupling and substrate deformation the average of basal shear traction over the entire bed of the ice mass is invariant under changes in sliding distribution and thus constitutes a useful reference any local relative reduction of traction leads to basal movement either sliding over the bed or moving with a deforming subglacial layer the local stress reduction is accompanied by a concentration of traction up and down glacier of the moving base growth decay and possible migration ofbasal stress concentrations may be closely related to short lived sliding events and to surges

theoretical contemporary observational and palaeo perspectives on ice sheet hydrology processes and products publisher elsevier articletitle theoretical contemporary observational and palaeo perspectives on ice sheet hydrology processes and products journaltitle earth science reviews articlelink http dx doi org 10 1016 j earscirev 2016 01 010 content type article copyright copyright 2016 elsevier b v all rights reserved

geometry bed topography and drainage system structure of the haut glacier d arolla switzerland as part of an integrated study of the hydrology meltwater quality and dynamics of the haut glacier d arolla switzerland the glacier s drainage network structure was determined from patterns of dye recovery in 342 injection experiments conducted from 47 moulins distributed widely across the glacier this structure was compared with theoretical predictions based upon reconstructed patterns of water flow governed by a the subglacial hydraulic potential surface and b the subglacial bedrock surface these reconstructions were based on measurements of ice surface and bedrock topography obtained by a combination of ground survey and radio echo sounding techniques the two reconstructions simulate the drainage system structures expected for a closed channels in which water is pressurized by the overlying ice and b gravity driven open channel flow the closed channel model provides the best fit to the observed structure even though theoretical calculations suggest that under summer discharge conditions open channel flow may be widespread beneath the glacier possible reasons for this apparent discrepancy are discussed

influence of increasing surface melt over decadal timescales on land terminating greenland type outlet glaciers over recent decades greenland ice sheet surface melt has shown an increase both in intensity and spatial extent part of this water probably reaches the bed and can enhance glacier speed advecting a larger volume of ice into the ablation area in the context of a warming climate this mechanism could contribute to the future rate of thinning and retreat of land terminating glaciers of greenland these changes in ice flow conditions will in turn influence surface crevassing and thus the ability of water to reach the bed at higher elevations here using a coupled basal hydrology and prognostic ice flow model the evolution of a greenland type glacier subject to increasing surface melt is studied over a few decades for different scenarios of surface melt increase over the next decades the evolution of crevassed areas and the ability of water to reach the bed is inferred our results indicate that the currently observed crevasse distribution is likely to extend further upstream which will allow water to reach the bed at higher elevations this will lead to an increase in ice flux into the ablation area which in turn accelerates the mass loss of land terminating glaciers

sediment deformation beneath glaciers rheology and geological consequences experiments beneath breidamerkurjokull in iceland have led to development of flow laws for the subglacial till relating strain rate to shear stress and effective pressure and assuming either bingham fluid or nonlinearly viscous fluid behavior water pressures in the till are less than ice pressures and it is suggested that this may lead to infiltration of ice into the sediment which inhibits sliding at the ice sediment interface where water pressures are equal or near to ice pressures infiltration does not occur and sliding may result a one dimensional theory of subglacial deformation is developed in which the empirical flow law is coupled with a model of subglacial hydrology and consolidation this predicts stable states in which subglacial sediment either does not deform or a dilatant deforming horizon forms with positive effective pressures at the ice bed interface or unstable states where zero or negative effective pressures are predicted time dependent analyses show that response times following perturbations of the system may be of the order of 103 years and thus that unsteady behavior may be normal on glaciers flowing over unlithified sediment beds it is suggested that the natural variability of material properties in subglacial sediment beds leads to the development of drumlins on the glacier bed it is suggested that unstable deformation at zero or negative effective stress leads to piping in subglacial sediments at the glacier terminus and the growth of sediment floored subglacial tunnels their frequency is that which is sufficient to draw down subglacial water pressures so as to prevent unstable deformation where they discharge large water volumes subglacial sediments flow laterally toward them producing tunnel valleys this sediment is then removed by water flowing along the axial tunnel tunnel valleys can be regarded as the equivalent in soft sediment areas of eskers in bedrock areas

influence of subglacial drainage conditions on the velocity distribution within a glacier cross section substrate properties and hydrological conditions at the base of haut glacier d arolla switzerland are nonuniform the thickness and grain size of subglacial sediment vary on length scales less than one ice thickness whereas hydrological conditions vary seasonally and on length scales of about one ice thickness transverse to ice motion there is a close relationship between the annually averaged velocity field and this nonuniformity of bed conditions basal motion dominates in an area with large water level variations in boreholes whereas ice deformation contributes significantly to total movement elsewhere localized enhanced basal motion occurs primarily in summer especially during a july spring event but this motion is barely discernible in annually averaged surface velocity measurements because transverse coupling suppresses surface expression of the basal motion discontinuity these results highlight the need to include representations of bed nonuniformity in models of glacier flow and to consider ice deformation and basal motion as interdependent processes

seasonal reorganization of subglacial drainage inferred from measurements in boreholes the effect of the formation of a major subglacial drainage channel on the behaviour of the subglacial drainage system of haut glacier d arolla switzerland was investigated using measurements of borehole water level and the electrical conductivity and turbidity of basal meltwaters electrical conductivity profiles were also measured within borehole water columns to identify the water sources driving water level changes and to determine patterns of water circulation in boreholes prior to channel formation boreholes showed idiosyncratic and poorly coordinated behaviour diurnal water level fluctuations were small and driven by supraglacial englacial water inputs even when boreholes were connected to a subglacial drainage system this system appeared to consist of hydraulically impermeable patches interspersed with storage spaces and transmitted a very low water flux drainage reorganization which occurred around 31 july 1993 in response to rapidly rising meltwater and rainfall inputs seems to have involved the creation of a connection between an incipient channel and a well established channelized system located further down glacier once a major channel existed within the area of the borehole array borehole water level fluctuations were forced by discharge related changes in channel water pressure although a diversity of responses was observed these included i synchronous ii damped and lagged iii inverse and iv alternating inverse lagged responses synchronous responses occurred in boreholes connected directly to the channel while damped and lagged responses occurred in boreholes connected to it by a more resistive drainage system pressure variations within the channel resulted in diurnal transfer of mechanical support for the ice overburden between connected and unconnected areas of the bed producing inverse and alternating patterns of water level response 1998 john wiley sons ltd

glacier motion dominated by processes deep in underlying till black rapids glacier is a 40 km long surge type glacier in the central alaska range in spring 1997 a wireline drill rig was set up at a location where the measured surface velocities are high and seasonal and annual velocity variations are large the drilling revealed a layer of subglacial till up to 7 m thick that is believed to be water saturated at one location a string of instruments containing three dual axis tiltmeters and one piezometer was successfully introduced into the till the tiltmeters monitored the inclination of the borehole at the ice till interface and at 1 and 2 m into the till for 410 days they showed that no significant deformation occurred in the upper 2 m of the till layer and no significant amount of the basal motion was due to sliding of the ice over the till the measured surface velocity at the drill site is about 60 m a 1 of which 20 30 m a can be accounted for by ice deformation almost the entire amount of basal motion 30 40 m a 1 was taken up at a depth of 2 m in the till possibly in discrete shear layers or as sliding of till over the underlying bedrock we propose that the large scale mobilization of such till layers is a key factor in initiating glacier surges

sedimentological and deformational criteria for discriminating subglaciofluvial deposits from subaqueous ice contact fan deposits a pleistocene example ireland a pit located near ballyhorsey 28 km south of dublin eastern ireland displays subglacially deposited glaciofluvial sediments passing upwards into proglacial subaqueous ice contact fan deposits the coexistence of these two different depositional environments at the same location will help with differentiation between two very similar and easily confused glacial lithofacies the lowermost sediments show aggrading subglacial deposits indicating a constrained accommodation space mainly controlled by the position of an overlying ice roof during ice bed decoupling these sediments are characterized by vertically stacked tills with large lenses of tabular to channelized sorted sediments the sorted sediments consist of fine grained laminated facies cross laminated sand and channelized gravels and are interpreted as subglaciofluvial sediments deposited within a subglacial de coupled space the subglaciofluvial sequence is characterized by glaciotectonic deformation structures within discrete beds triggered by fluid overpressure and shear stress during episodes of ice bed recoupling clastic dykes and folds the upper deposits correspond to the deposition of successive hyperpycnal flows in a proximal proglacial lake forming a thick sedimentary wedge erosively overlying the subglacial deposits gravel facies and large scale trough bedding sand are observed within this proximal wedge while normally graded sand beds with developed bedforms are observed further downflow the building of the prograding ice contact subaqueous fan implies an unrestricted accommodation space and is associated with deformation structures related to gravity destabilization during fan spreading normal faults this study facilitates the recognition of subglacial submarginal depositional environments formed in part during localized ice bed coupling episodes in the sedimentary record the sedimentary sequence exposed in ballyhorsey permits characterization of the temporal framework of meltwater production during deglaciation the impact on the subglacial drainage system and the consequences on the irish sea ice stream flow mechanisms

abrupt glacier motion and reorganization of basal shear stress following the establishment of a connected drainage system three episodes of strong basal motion occurred at trapridge glacier yukon territory canada on 11 june 1995 following the establishment of a connected subglacial drainage system responses to these spring events are noted in the records for 42 instruments and were recorded throughout the 60 000 m study area strong basal motion during the events is indicated by ploughmeter load bolt and vertical strain records and abrupt pressure changes in several transducer records denote damage caused by extreme pressure pulses these pressure pulses generated by the abrupt basal motion also resulted in the failure of seven pressure sensors records for pressure turbidity and conductivity sensors indicate that basal drainage patterns did not change significantly during the events geophone records suggest that the episodes of basal motion were precipitated by the gradual failure of a sticky spot following hydraulic connection of part of the study area this failure resulted in the transfer of basal stress to the unconnected region of the bed during the course of the events no evidence for strong basal motion is seen in the instrument records for several weeks following the events suggesting that the mechanical adjustments resulted in a stable configuration of basal stresses this event illustrates how unstable situations can be quickly accommodated by mechanical adjustments at the glacier bed

evidence for basal cavity opening from analysis of surface uplift during a high velocity event haut glacier d arolla switzerland high rates of surface uplift and horizontal velocities were measured during a hydrologically induced spring speed up event spatial patterns of surface uplift are analyzed to estimate components of vertical motion due to flow along an inclined bed and vertical strain areas are identified where surface uplift was most likely due in part to the opening or enlargement of subglacial cavities by bed separation results suggest a widespread enlargement of subglacial cavities during the event and survival of residual cavities after the event the spatial pattern of cavity enlargement closely matches previously identified axes of preferential subglacial drainage it is suggested that localized cavity opening along axes of preferential drainage may constitute the initial stage in the seasonal development of channelized subglacial drainage it is concluded that spatial and temporal variations in glacier motion may play an active role in determining the structure and rate of development of subglacial drainage during the summer melt season

structure morphology and water flux of a subglacial drainage system midtdalsbreen norway digital elevation models of the surface and bed of midtdalsbreen norway are used to calculate subglacial hydraulic potential and infer drainage system structure for a series of subglacial water pressure assumptions ranging from atmospheric to ice overburden a distributed degree day model is used to calculate the spatial distribution of melt on the glacier surface throughout a typical summer which is accumulated along the various drainage system structures to calculate water fluxes beneath the glacier and exiting the portals for the different water pressure assumptions in addition 78 dye tracing tests were performed from 33 injection sites and numerous measurements of water discharge were made on the main proglacial streams over several summer melt seasons comparison of the calculated drainage system structures and water fluxes with dye tracing results and measured proglacial stream discharges suggests that the temporally and spatially averaged steady state water pressures beneath the glacier are 70 of ice overburden analysis of the dye return curves together with the calculated subglacial water fluxes shows that the main drainage network on the eastern half of the glacier consists of a hydraulically efficient system of broad low channels average width height ratio 75 the smaller drainage network on the west consists of a hydraulically inefficient distributed system dominated by channels that are exceptionally broad and very low average width height ratio 350 the even smaller central drainage network also consists of a hydraulically inefficient distributed system dominated by channels that are very broad and exceptionally low average width height ratio 450 the channels beneath the western and central glacier must be so broad and low that they can essentially be thought of as a linked cavity system

instruments and methods direct measurement of sliding at the glacier bed sliding at the base of trapridge glacier yukon territory canada was measured using a drag spool we describe this simple and inexpensive instrument as well as its installation and operation from 1990 to 1992 seven sites were instrumented with drag spools at six of the sites basal sliding during the period of observation accounted for 50 70 of the total flow observed at the glacier surface the contribution from ice creep is known to be small so most of the remaining surface motion must be attributed to subglacial sediment deformation for the seventh site the observed sliding rate was 90 of the total flow an indication that the sliding contribution varies spatially across the bed diurnal variations in the response of one of our instruments appear to be correlated to subglacial water pressure fluctuations and are interpreted in terms of changes in sliding velocity rather than the opening and closing of basal cavities

seasonal changes in the morphology of the subglacial drainage system haut glacier d arolla switzerland dye tracing techniques were used to investigate the glacier wide pattern of change in the englacial subglacial drainage system of haut glacier d arolla during the ablation seasons of 1990 and 1991 analysis of breakthrough curve characteristics indicate that over the course of a melt season a system of major channels developed by headward growth at the expense of a hydraulically inefficient distributed system by the end of the melt season this channel system extended at least 3 3 km from the snout of the 4 km long glacier and drained the bulk of supraglacially derived meltwater passing through the glacier the upper limit of the channel system closely followed the retreating snowline up glacier rates of headward channel growth reached c 65 m d 1 although these rates decreased in the upper 1 km of the glacier where snowline retreat exposed a patchy firn aquifer it appears that the removal of snow with its high albedo and significant water storage capacity from the glacier surface resulted in a dramatic increase in the volume of runoff into moulins and in the peakedness of daily runoff cycles this induced transient high water pressures within the distributed drainage system which caused it to evolve rapidly into a channelised system it is therefore likely that at a local scale channel growth occurred down glacier from moulins and that the overall up glacier directed pattern of channel formation was caused by the retreating snowline exposing new moulins and crevasses to inputs of ice derived meltwater damping of diurnal melt inputs by storage in the firm aquifer accounts for the slowing of channel growth in the upper glacier 1998 john wiley sons ltd

basal mechanics of ice stream b west antarctica 1 till mechanics data from laboratory geotechnical tests on till recovered from beneath ice stream b west antarctica at the upstream b camp hereinafter the upb till show that failure strength of this till is strongly dependent on effective stress but is practically independent of strain and strain rate these data support use of a coulomb plastic rheology in modeling of ice stream behavior and subglacial till deformation our testing program combined triaxial ring shear and confined uniaxial tests to investigate till strength and compressibility results show that the upb till follows closely coulomb s equation in which shear strength is a linear function of normal effective stress apparent cohesion near zero and internal friction angle equal to 24 till compressibility is best described by a logarithmic function that relates void ratio to normal effective stress in general the behavior of the upb till is consistent with other experimental evidence regarding mechanical behavior of granular materials based on our laboratory results we formulate the compressible coulomb plastic till model in which there are three interrelated primary state variables shear strength void ratio and normal effective stress this model is used in the second part of our study to simulate response of subglacial till to realistic effective stress forcings these simulations demonstrate that the model is capable of reproducing fundamental aspects of subglacial till kinematics 1 occurrence of tilt rate oscillations and negative tilt rates in tiltmeter records and 2 distributed till deformation to depths of 0 1 1 0 m beneath the ice base our laboratory and modeling results substantiate application of the compressible coulomb plastic model in simulations of the motion of ice stream b over its weak till bed

in situ measurements of basal water quality and pressure as an indicator of the character of subglacial drainage systems continuous subglacial measurements of turbidity and electrical conductivity two indicators of basal water quality can be used to help characterize subglacial drainage systems these indicators of water quality yield information that complements that provided by water pressure measurements quantitative attributes of subglacial drainage systems such as water velocity and subglacial residence time as well as qualitative behaviour for example spatial and temporal variations in system morphology can be deduced using water quality measurements interpretation is complicated by the many potential influences on turbidity and electrical conductivity but when these complications are appreciated a richer interpretation results to demonstrate the utility of basal water quality measurements observations from trapridge glacier yukon territory canada were examined the data reveal complex behaviour of the drainage system but constraints imposed by basal water quality measurements help to clarify the nature of the subglacial flow system the measurement and interpretation methods described and demonstrated are applicable to other glaciers as such they should prove useful for characterizing different subglacial drainage configurations and behaviours thereby improving our general understanding of the hydrology and dynamics of wet based glaciers

using pressure pulse seismology to examine basal criticality and the influence of sticky spots on glacial flow 1 here we report results of water pressure pulse studies conducted at storglaciaren sweden and west washmawapta glacier british columbia canada comparison of pressure pulse records with meteorological conditions at storglaciaren indicates that several periods of increased basal slip activity observed during a 10 day interval of summer 2008 were due to precipitation loading of the glacier surface rather than to infiltration of surface water to the glacier bed this indicates that the glacier bed was close to the failure strength for much of this interval pressure pulse magnitudes for the two glaciers were well fit by power law distributions similar to those earlier observed at trapridge glacier and similar in form to the gutenberg richter relationship commonly used in seismology suggesting that the mechanical processes that give rise to these distributions are robust features of soft bedded glaciers in contrast interevent time distributions for both glaciers diverge from those observed at trapridge glacier for short recurrence intervals suggesting that the factors that govern the rate at which these processes occur differ between glaciers an examination of pressure pulse characteristics at west washmawapta glacier indicates that the establishment of a basal drainage system in summer 2008 resulted in increased stability and reduced sensitivity to meltwater input suggesting that common assumptions about the relationship between meltwater production and ice flow are oversimplified these results demonstrate that water pressure pulse observations can provide valuable insight into the dynamics of soft bedded glaciers

sediment export transient landscape response and catchment scale connectivity following rapid climate warming and alpine glacier recession abstract in the face of rapid climate warming rapid glacier recession should lead to a marked increase in the spatial extent of the paraglacial zone in glaciated drainage basins the extent of the paraglacial zone has been well established to be transient but there are very few studies of this transient response and what it means for sediment export there is good reason to expect that glacier recession could increase basin scale sediment connectivity as sediment becomes less dependent on glacier surface transport proglacial streams are more able to migrate laterally than subglacial streams and so access sediment for transport and glacier debuttressing may aid the development of gullies that can dissect moraines and so aid hillslope to proglacial zone connectivity by using records of the flushing of hydroelectric power installations we were able to develop a record of coarse sediment sand and gravel export from a basin with a rapidly retreating valley glacier the haut glacier d arolla from 1977 to 2014 modelling suggested that these data could only be partially controlled by transport capacity implying an important role for sediment supply and potentially for the influence of changing sediment connectivity indeed there was evidence of the effects of glacial debuttressing upon gullying processes and hence a possible increase in the ease of connection of upstream basins to the proglacial area more recently we were able to show possible temperature control on sediment export which may only have become apparent because of the progressive development of better sediment connectivity however whilst rapid glacier recession should result in theory in a progressive increase in connectivity of sediment sources to the basin outlet the supply to capacity ratio does not increase continually with glacier recession until maximum capacity is reached we identified two possible examples of why first gullying was also accompanied by the sediment accumulation at the base of moraines that was too coarse to be transported by the proglacial stream maintaining disconnection of the upper basins second the sediment capacity ratio appeared to be elevated during periods of more rapid retreat and we attribute this to the importance of a continued supply of unworked glacial till before fluvial reworking and sorting of freshly exposed sediment increased the resistance of sediment to entrainment and hence export rates thus the transient geomorphic response of glaciated basins to glacier recession may involve negative feedbacks that can reduce the extent to which increases in connectivity elsewhere in the basin lead to increased sediment export

inter borehole electrical resistivity imaging of englacial drainage borchole based electrical resistivity surveys have the capacity to enhance our understanding of the structure of englacial drainage pathways in temperate ice we summarize inter borehole electrical resistivity tomography ert as currently used in hydrogeological investigations and as adapted for imaging englacial drainage ert connections were success for the first time in glacier ice following artificial mineralization of borehole waters haut glacier d arolla switzerland here two types of electrical connection were made between boreholes spaced up to 10 m apart and drilled to depths of between 20 and 60 m most tests indicated the presence of resistively homogencous ice with uniform bulk resistivities of 10 10 9 m however ert was also successfully used to identify and characterize a hydraulically conductive englacial fracture that intersected two boreholes at a depth of 13 m below the glacier surface the presence of this connecting void as suggested by drilling records and verified by dual borehole impulse testing the reconstructed tomogram for these boreholes is characterized by a background ice resistivity field of 10 9 m that is disrupted at a depth of 13 m by a sharp sub horizontal low resistivity zone 10 1 m inter borehole ert therefore has the capacity to image both uniform and fractured temperate glacier ice

velocity and stress fields in grounded glaciers a simple algorithm for including deviatoric stress gradients a new and efficient algorithm for computing the three dimensional stress and velocity fields in grounded glaciers includes the role of deviatoric stress gradients a consistent approximation of first order in the aspect of ratio of the ice mass gives a set of eight field equations for the five stress and three velocity components and the corresponding boundary conditions a coordinate transformation mapping the local ice thickness on to unity and approximating the derivatives in the horizontal direction by centred finite differences yields five ordinary differential and three algebraic equations this allows use of the method of lines starting the integration with prescribed stress and velocity components at the base and a simple iteration procedure converges rapidly the algorithm can lie used for a wide range of stress strain rate relations as long as strain only depends on deviatoric and shear stresses and on temperature sensitivity tests using synthetic and realistic ice geometries show the relevance of normal deviatoric stresses in the solutions for the velocity components even for ice sheets stress and velocity fields may deviate substantially from the widely used shallow ice approximation

seasonal variations in ice deformation and basal motion across the tongue of haut glacier d arolla switzerland records of surface motion englacial tilt and repeat inclinometry are used to determine patterns of surface internal and basal motion across the tongue of haut glacier d arolla switzerland over temporal scales ranging from days to months findings are interpreted with reference to contemporaneous measurements of subglacial water pressures and prior knowledge of the glacier s subglacial drainage system structure long term inclinometry results show pronounced extrusion flow over a subglacial drainage axis with basal velocities up to twice those measured at the glacier surface deformation profiles are more conventional away from the drainage axis with basal velocities 60 70 of surface velocities comparison of long term tilt rates from repeat inclinometry and englacial tilt meters shows close correspondence englacial tiltmeter data are used to reconstruct internal velocity profiles and to split surface velocities into internal deformation and basal motion contributions over spring summer and autumn winter periods although spatial patterns of surface movement are similar between periods patterns of internal and basal motion are not results are interpreted in terms of the location of sticky and slippery spots with temporally changing patterns of basal drag reflecting changing distributions of water pressure

the relationship between subglacial water pressure and velocity of findelengletscher switzerland during its advance and retreat findelengletscher switzerland advanced about 250 m between 1979 and 1985 and retreated thereafter subglacial water pressure surface velocity and surface strain rate were determined at several sites the measurements were made early in the melt seasons of 1980 1982 1985 and 1994 and in the autumn of 1983 and the winter of 1984 changes of surface geometry were assessed from aerial photographs the estimated basal shear stress changed little between 1982 and 1994 nevertheless large changes in the relationship of subglacial water pressure and surface velocity were observed which cannot be reconciled with the most commonly used sliding law unless it is modified substantially consideration of possible reasons indicales that a change in the subglacial drainage system occurred probably involving a change in the degree of cavity interconnection isolated cavities damp the variations in sliding velocity that normally result from changes in water pressure because the pressure in isolated cavities decreases as the sliding speed increases in contrast by transmitting water pressure fluctuations to a larger area of the bed interconnected cavities amplify the effect of water pressure fluctuations on sliding speed thus we suggest that an observed decrease in velocity for a given water pressure between 1982 and 1994 was a consequence of a decrease in the interconnectedness of the subglacial cavity system

englacial and subglacial water flow at skalafellsjokull iceland derived from ground penetrating radar in situ glacsweb probe and borehole water level measurements we reconstruct englacial and subglacial drainage at skalafellsjokull iceland using ground penetrating radar gpr common offset surveys borehole studies and glacsweb probe data we find that englacial water is not stored within the glacier water content 0 0 3 instead the glacier is mostly impermeable and meltwater is able to pass quickly through the main body of the glacier via crevasses and moulins once at the glacier bed water is stored within a thin 1 m layer of debris rich basal ice 2 water content and the till the hydraulic potential mapped across the survey area indicates that when water pressures are high most of the year water flows parallel to the margin and emerges 3 km down glacier at an outlet tongue gpr data indicates that these flow pathways may have formed a series of braided channels we show that this glacier has a very low water storage capacity but an efficient englacial drainage network for transferring water to the glacier bed and therefore it has the potential to respond rapidly to changes in melt water inputs

estimating rates of basal motion and internal ice deformation from continuous tilt measurements over a two year period continuous measurements of temporal changes in tilt conducted with a string of tilt meters in a borehole on unteraargletscher bernese alps switzerland have been used to estimate the basal motion component this estimation is based on a comparison of the measurements with synthetic tilt curves computed using a parameterization of a simplified flow field the best agreement is found for a ratio of basal motion to forward motion due to ice deformation slip ratio equal to about 1 2 measured tilt curves exhibit a number of different transient features while an overall increase in tilt angle is observed at every tilt meter location two of the sensors recorded anomalous tilt behaviour these anomalies are characterized by sudden and drastic variations in tilt a particularly intriguing example of such short term tilt variations was recorded with a tilt meter positioned 40 m above the bed during the 1997 summer melt season

stick slip sliding behaviour at the base of a glacier measurement of basal sliding is an important component in studying the mechanical and hydrological coupling between a glacier and its bed during the 1992 summer field season we used a drag spool to measure sliding at the ice bed interface oftrapridge glacier a small surge type glacier in the st elias mount ains yukonterritory canada measured diurnal variations in sliding appear to be correlated to subglacial water pressure fluctuations in contrast to other observations where peak subglacial water pressure and glacier motion appear to coincide our data imply that maximum sliding rates coincide with rises in water pressure if the growth of water filled cavities at the glacier bed is associated with these pressure increases then our observations may corre spond to numerical results by iken 1981 which indicate that the largest sliding velocity occurs during cavity growth and not when the steady state size of cavitation is attained howe ver our data suggest the idea that a loca lized stick slip relaxation process is at work as the water pressure rises a local strain build up in the ice is released resulting in a momentary increase in sliding rate once the finite relaxation has occurred further rises in water pressure do not produce additional enhancement of basal sliding and the stick slip cycle begins again by accumulation of elastic strain we have developed a theoretical model for the sliding motion of ice over a surface having a basal drag that varies tem porally in response to changes in subglacial water pressure our model results support the proposed stick slip sliding process at the glacier base whereby accumulated elastic strain in the ice is released as the rising water pressure decouples the ice from the bed

mechanical and hydraulic properties of till beneath bakaninbreen svalbard original article can be found at http www igsoc org journal copyright igs doi 10 3189 172756501781832304 full text of this article is not available in the uhra

comparison of a three dimensional model for glacier flow with field data from haut glacier d arolla switzerland a three dimensional finite difference model based on a first order solution of the ice flow equations is applied to haut glacier d arolla switzerland the numerical model successfully converges at horizontal resolutions down to 70 m so a number of detailed comparisons with field data can be made modelled surface velocities with no basal sliding component are compared with surface velocities observed on the glacier over four different time periods the best fit is achieved with over winter surface velocities r 2 0 75 using a rate factor a in glen s flow law of 0 063 a 1 bar 3 surface zones of maximum computed effective stress display a high level of coincidence with observed crevassing the orientation of which is successfully predicted by the direction of the tensile component of the computed principal surface stress comparison of the relative magnitude and direction of computed principal stresses with principal strains measured at the ice surface also correspond closely in an attempt to simulate the observed annual velocity distribution within a cross section of the glacier tongue we incorporate two basal motion patterns into the model by treating net annual ice motion as a time weighted composite of three separate flow situations normal sliding enhanced sliding and no sliding we are able to reproduce the key features of the observed cross sectional ice and basal slip velocity distributions these experiments indicate there may be substantial decoupling taking place along an elongated narrow zone at the bed of haut glacier d arolla and that this decoupling interacts in a complex manner with the englacial stress and strain field

coupling between a glacier and a soft bed i a relation between effective pressure and local shear stress determined from till elasticity to predict the distribution of motion beneath glaciers on soft beds the strength of the coupling between the ice and the bed and its variation with effective pressure must be known a record of shear strain acquired with a tiltmeter emplaced in till beneath storglaciaren sweden indicates that fluctuations in water pressure cause variations in the local shear stress on the bed and that the bed deforms elastically in response to these variations to estimate the shear stress from the elastic component of the total shear strain the shear modulus of the till was measured in relaxation tests conducted in the laboratory with a ring shear device after accounting for the elastic compliance of the device these tests yielded shear moduli of about 1000 and 1800 kpa at confining pressures of 85 and 280 kpa respectively these values are comparable to those of other granular materials undergoing recoverable shear strains of the same magnitude the local shear stress on the till calculated by applying the measured shear moduli to the tilt record scales with p e 1 7 where p e is the effective pressure this relation implies that as p e decreases at the ice till interface shear stresses on the till are reduced and concentrated elsewhere on the bed perhaps where the till is absent or the glacier is frozen to the bed when compared with the strength of the till determined from ring shear tests this relation also accounts for the lack of permanent deformation at depth in the bed during periods of low p e and indicates that most basal motion was by sliding or ploughing

ice velocity changes on penny ice cap baffin island since the 1950s predicting the velocity response of glaciers to increased surface melt is a major topic of ongoing research with significant implications for accurate sea level rise forecasting in this study we u

black box modeling of the subglacial water system measurements of water pressure beneath trapridge glacier yukon territory canada yield the following generalizations about subglacial conditions in the studied region 1 even over short distances the subglacial water system is highly heterogeneous 2 the subglacial water system consists of at least two distinct components which we refer to as the connected and unconnected water systems 3 regions of the glacier bed can switch back and forth from being part of the connected or part of the unconnected water system 4 large spatial pressure gradients can exist within the unconnected water system and between the connected and unconnected systems 5 rapid pressure variations can occur in the unconnected water system 6 pressure variations in the unconnected water system do not match those in the connected system and can in fact be strongly anticorrelated with pressure variations in the connected system if the water pressure variations in the connected system are viewed as a forcing and those in the unconnected system as a response to this forcing the input output relation between forcing and response can be efficiently represented as a low order nonlinear ordinary differential equation the response of the unconnected system to forcing from the connected system is governed by time constants having approximate magnitudes of 1 7 hours and 7 4 hours that we believe are associated with process rates for substrate compression and pore water diffusion respectively

short term velocity and water pressure variations down glacier from a riegel storglaciaren sweden during the 1991 94 summer field seasons time correlated measurements of water pressure and surface speed were made over and down glacier from a major riegel on storglaciaren sweden measurements were made at sub hourly time scales in order to discern details in the diurnal cycle large water input events typically associated with rain storms produced coherent lagged surface velocity responses that could be understood in terms of till deformation or decoupling and these have been discussed elsewhere the consequences of smaller diurnal water pressure events were more enigmatic in that acceleration of ice flow generally preceded the onset of the local water pressure rise from consideration of these data and other work done on the hydrology of storglaciaren we infer that the ice in this area is generally pushed from behind via a relaxation in extensional strain across the riegel hence accelerations occur in response to increases in water pressure that occur up glacier and that precede local water pressure rises in addition following a period of large storm events surface speeds became more spatially coherent and were in phase with the diurnal ater pressure cycle this suggests that the large water pressure events lead to a spatially more homogeneous subglacial drainage system sliding laws need to take into accoun such temporal changes in spatial coherence of the subglacial drainage system

hydrological controls on patterns of surface internal and basal motion during three spring events haut glacier d arolla switzerland three early melt season high velocity events or spring events occurred on haut glacier d arolla switzerland during the melt seasons of 1998 and 1999 the events involve enhanced glacier velocity during periods of rapidly increasing bulk discharge in the proglacial stream and high subglacial water pressures however differences in spatial patterns of surface velocity internal ice deformation rates the spatial extent of high subglacial water pressures and in rates of subglacial sediment deformation suggest different hydrological and mechanical controls the data from two of the events suggest widespread ice bed decoupling particularly along a subglacial drainage axis creating the highest rates of basal motion and plug flow in the overlying ice the other event showed evidence of less extensive ice bed decoupling and sliding along the drainage axis with more mechanical support for ice overburden transferred to areas adjacent to decoupled areas we suggest that 1 plug flow may be a common feature on glaciers experiencing locally induced reductions in basal drag 2 under certain circumstances enhanced surface motion may be due in part to non locally forced enhanced bed deformation and 3 subglacial sediment deformation is confined to a depth of the order of centimetres to decimetres

subglacial drainage system structure and morphology of brewster glacier new zealand a global positioning system and ground penetrating radar surveys is used to produce digital elevation models of the surface and bed of brewster glacier these are used to derive maps of subglacial hydraulic potential and drainage system structure using three different assumptions about the subglacial water pressure pw i pw ice overburden ii pw half ice overburden iii pw atmospheric additionally 16 dye tracing experiments at 12 locations were performed through a summer melt season dye return curve shape together with calculations of transit velocity dispersivity and storage are used to infer the likely morphology of the subglacial drainage system taken together the data indicate that the glacier is underlain by a channelised but hydraulically inefficient drainage system in the early summer in which water pressures are close to ice overburden by mid summer water pressures are closer to half ice overburden and the channelised drainage system is more hydraulically efficient surface streams that enter the glacier close to the location of major subglacial drainage pathways are routed quickly to the channels and then to the glacier snout streams that enter the glacier further away from the drainage pathways are routed slowly to the channels and then to the snout because they first flow through a distributed drainage system copyright 2008 john wiley sons ltd

automated monitoring of subglacial hydrological processes with ground penetrating radar gpr at high temporal resolution scope and potential pitfalls kulessa b a d booth a hobbs and a l hubbard 2008 automated monitoring of subglacial hydrological processes with ground penetrating radar gpr at high temporal resolution scope and potential pitfalls geophysical research letters 35 24 l24502

archaean re os age for siberian eclogites and constraints on archaean tectonics considerable uncertainty surrounds the nature and evolution of the earth s mantle in archaean times 2 5 gyr ago mantle derived eclogite xenoliths erupted by kimberlites provide important clues in this regard because their basaltic composition suggests that they may be remnants of an early 4 gyr magma ocean1 2 subducted archaean oceanic crust3 5 or crystallized high pressure mantle melts6 9 better constraints on the age and origin of mantle eclogites are thus important for our understanding of early earth processes here we present rhenium osmium isotope data for diamond bearing eclogites from the udachnaya kimberlite pipe in siberia which indicate formation in the archaean 2 9 0 4 gyr this age is too young for the eclogites to be remnants of early earth differentiation but overlaps the age range for crust generation and craton stabilization on both the aldan and anabar shields of the siberian craton 2 85 3 2 gyr 10 11 these data together with 3 1 gyr re os model ages for diamond bearing udachnaya peridotites12 show that the siberian craton lithosphere was at least 150 km thick the minimum required for diamond stability by the mid archaean

intra seasonal changes in deformation profiles revealed by borehole studies storglaciaren sweden in 1985 1987 and 1988 we measured deformation of bore holes in the ablation zone of storglaciaren a different hole was used each year deformation profiles were determined for four consecutive time periods between mid july and early september all three holes were in an area where the glacier lies in an overdeepened part of the bed up glacier from a riegel the first hole was approximately on the glacier center line while the others were midway between the center line and one or the other margin despite large standard errors variations in the deformation profiles during the melt season are broadly consistent with other data we thus believe that they are real and that they reflect changes in the stress field resulting from changes in drag at the bed a decrease in drag early in the melt season coupled with convergence of the bed contours towards the riegel is believed to be responsible for a previously documented increase in vertical velocity just up glacier from the riegal at this time of year also noteworthy but perhaps problematical was an abrupt transverse shear of m at a depth of 25 m near the center of the glacier injuly 1985 the shear took place in the zone in which cold ice near the surface gives way to temperate ice deeper in the glacier

borehole water level variations and the structure of the subglacial hydrological system of haut glacier d arolla valais switzerland late summer subglacial water pressures have been measured in a dense array of boreholes in the ablation area of haut glacier d arolla switzerland interpolated surfaces of minimum diurnal water pressure and diurnal water pressure variation suggest the presence of a subglacial channel within a more widespread distributed drainage system the channel flows along the centre of a variable pressure axis vpa some tens of metres wide that is characterized by low minimum diurnal water pressures frequently atmospheric and high diurnal water pressure variations these characteristics are transitional over a lateral distance of c 70 m to higher and more stable subglacial water pressures in the adjacent distributed system water pressure variations recorded in boreholes located close to the centre of the vpa reflect the delivery of surface derived meltwater to the glacier bed and result in a diurnally reversing transverse hydraulic gradient that drives water out from the channel into the distributed system during the afternoon and back to the channel overnight subglacial observations suggest that such flow occurs through a vertically confined sediment layer borehole turbidity records indicate that the resulting diurnal water flows are responsible for the mobilization and transport of fine debris in suspension analysis of the propagation velocity and amplitude attenuation of the diurnal pressure waves suggests that the hydraulic conductivity of the sediment layer decreases exponentially with distance from the channel falling from c 10 4 m s 1 at the channel boundary to c 10 7 ms 1 70m away these apparent hydraulic conductivities are consistent with darcian flow through clean sand and typical glacial till respectively we suggest that fine material is systematically flushed from basal sediments located adjacent to large melt season drainage channels beneath warm based glaciers this process may have important implications for patterns of glacier erosion hydrochemistry and dynamics

flow reorganizations in the panama seaway a cause for the demise of miocene corals 1 a large number of coral species in the caribbean sea disappeared in the early miocene based on climate model simulations we propose that this regional extinction is related to a flow reorganization in the panama seaway it is shown that large scale tectonic events such as the opening of drake passage and the closing of the tethys seaway reorganized the global ocean currents to induce a reversal of the volume transport between atlantic and pacific this flow reversal which is timed near the oligocene miocene boundary allowed cool pacific waters to enter the caribbean sea possibly affecting the habitat of warm water tolerant coral species

evolution of drainage system morphology at a land terminating greenlandic outlet glacier 1 the influence of meltwater on the dynamics and geomorphic impact of the greenland ice sheet is strongly controlled by the morphology of the ice sheet s drainage system however this system and its evolution through the melt season remain poorly understood here we present the results of an intensive programme of dye tracing experiments undertaken along the lower 14 km of a land terminating greenlandic outlet glacier over a period of four months during the 2010 melt season these data are interpreted in conjunction with observations of proglacial discharge englacial water storage surface melt rates and ice velocity to produce a detailed picture of the changing hydrology of the glacier following the onset of melt in the spring inputs to the drainage system regularly exceed outputs causing the englacial water level to rise to the ice sheet surface during this time there is a rapid transition from distributed to channelized drainage in those parts of the drainage system closed by ice deformation over winter as the melt season progresses channel efficiency increases and englacial storage and ice velocity decrease high velocity events continue to be observed following the channelization of the drainage system however indicating that hydrological forcing of ice velocity occurs despite the existence of channels during periods when meltwater inputs exceed the capacity of the subglacial drainage system

flow mechanism of glaciers on soft beds subhourly measurements of bed deformation bed shear strength subglacial water pressure and surface speed at storglaciaren a glacier in northern sweden showed that the shear strain rates of the bed decrease during periods of high water pressure and surface speed high water pressures appear to be accompanied by a reduction in the coupling of ice with the bed that is sufficient to reduce or eliminate shearing the instability of large ice masses may result from similar decoupling rather than from pervasive bed deformation as has been commonly thought

combined measurements of subglacial water pressure and surface velocity of findelengletscher switzerland conclusions about drainage system and sliding mechanism interpretation des mesures de pression dans les forages et des vitesses superficielles la comparaison avec les modeles suggere que l on a neglige le frottement du aux debris dans les modeles et qu il n existe jamais de chenaux cylindriques rectilignes

review of subglacial hydro mechanical coupling trapridge glacier yukon territory canada abstract the interaction of basal processes with the subglacial drainage system is a critical issue in understanding glacier dynamics since the recognition that many glaciers and ice masses overlie soft sediments rather than hard bedrock much research has been undertaken to investigate how mechanical and hydrological conditions of a deformable substrate control the coupling at the ice bed interface and thus affect fast ice flow and glacier surging in research undertaken on trapridge glacier a small surge type glacier in the st elias mountains yukon territory canada we have combined extensive field investigations using novel measurement techniques and theoretical modelling to study hydro mechanical coupling processes measurements of subglacial water pressure indicate that the basal water system can be dramatically inhomogeneous both spatially and temporally since ice bed coupling is strongly influenced by subglacial water pressure the stresses at the bed are also markedly heterogeneous and are expected to form a patchwork distribution which mimics the pressure distribution of the basal water system this heterogeneity in the stress field at the ice bed interface introduces a pronounced variability to the basal motion mechanics as such basal sliding and subglacial sediment deformation are not steady and continuous processes instead the variability of the subglacial water system leads to a spatial and temporal interplay of increased ice bed coupling at low water pressures at one site or time with ice bed decoupling during rising water pressures at other sites or times thus on the one hand there is downglacier shear deformation of the bed and accumulation of elastic strain in ice and sediment while on the other hand there is enhanced slip sliding of the glacier and upglacier shear motion of the bed due to an elastic relaxation of the sediment