statistical analysis of the induced basel 2006 earthquake sequence introducing a probability based monitoring approach for enhanced geothermal systems summary geothermal energy is becoming an important clean energy source however the stimulation of a reservoir for an enhanced geothermal system egs is associated with seismic risk due to induced seismicity seismicity occurring due to the water injection at depth have to be well recorded and monitored to mitigate the seismic risk of a damaging event an appropriate alarm system needs to be in place for each individual experiment in recent experiments the so called traffic light alarm system based on public response local magnitude and peak ground velocity was used we aim to improve the pre defined alarm system by introducing a probability based approach we retrospectively model the ongoing seismicity in real time with multiple statistical forecast models and then translate the forecast to seismic hazard in terms of probabilities of exceeding a ground motion intensity level one class of models accounts for the water injection rate the main parameter that can be controlled by the operators during an experiment by translating the models into time varying probabilities of exceeding various intensity levels we provide tools which are well understood by the decision makers and can be used to determine thresholds non exceedance during a reservoir stimulation this however remains an entrepreneurial or political decision of the responsible project coordinators we introduce forecast models based on the data set of an egs experiment in the city of basel between 2006 december 2 and 8 approximately 11500 m 3 of water was injected into a 5km deep well at high pressures a six sensor borehole array was installed by the company geothermal explorers limited gel at depths between 300 and 2700 m around the well to monitor the induced seismicity the network recorded approximately 11200 events during the injection phase more than 3500 of which were located with the traffic light system actions where implemented after an ml 2 7 event the water injection was reduced and then stopped after another ml 2 5 event a few hours later an earthquake with ml 3 4 felt within the city occurred which led to bleed off of the well a risk study was later issued with the outcome that the experiment could not be resumed we analyse the statistical features of the sequence and show that the sequence is well modelled with the omori utsu law following the termination of water injection based on this model the sequence will last 31 29 14 years to reach the background level we introduce statistical models based on reasenberg and jones and epidemic type aftershock sequence etas models commonly used to model aftershock sequences we compare and test different model setups to simulate the sequences varying the number of fixed and free parameters for one class of the etas models we account for the flow rate at the injection borehole we test the models against the observed data with standard likelihood tests and find the etas model accounting for the on flow rate to perform best such a model may in future serve as a valuable tool for designing probabilistic alarm systems for egs experiments

controls on the transition from meandering to straight channels in the wetlands of the okavango delta botswana tooth s mccarthy t s 2004 controls on the transition from meandering to straight channels in the wetlands of the okavango delta botswana earth surface processes and landforms 29 13 1627 1649 rae2008

change in the probability for earthquakes in southern california due to the landers magnitude 7 3 earthquake the landers earthquake in june 1992 redistributed stress in southern california shutting off the production of small earthquakes in some regions while increasing the seismicity in neighboring regions up to the present this earthquake also changed the ratio of small to large events in favor of more small earthquakes within about 100 kilometers of the epicenter this implies that the probabilistic estimate for future earthquakes in southern california changed because of the landers earthquake the location of the strongest increase in probability for large earthquakes in southern california was the volume that subsequently produced the largest slip in the magnitude 7 1 hector mine earthquake of october 1999

forms and processes of two highly contrasting rivers in arid central australia and the implications for channel pattern discrimination and prediction tooth s nanson g c 2004 forms and processes of two highly contrasting rivers in arid central australia and the implications for channel pattern discrimination and prediction geological society of america bulletin 116 7 8 802 816 rae2008

grain size sediment transport regime and channel slope in alluvial rivers the general relationship between channel morphology and the grain size of sediment in the channel bed is an important but poorly known aspect of alluvial rivers an analysis of an equation for total sediment flux in the limits of suspension bedload and mixed modes of transport indicates distinct steady state regimes of channel morphology such regimes are readily seen in published data for modern alluvial rivers by way of a conventional shields plot or a plot of channel slope as a function of relative grain size d h and the ratio ws u where d and ws are respectively mean diameter and fall speed of bed sediments and h and u are respectively mean depth and friction velocity of the flow with slope and mode of transport in an alluvial river constrained by grain size and channel depth alone estimates of discharge and sediment flux follow directly introduction of the sediment flux relationship into conventional diffusion models for the evolution of an alluvial system provides nominal estimates of

tectonic implications and seismicity triggering during the 2008 baluchistan pakistan earthquake sequence abstract a damaging and widely felt moderate earthquake mw 6 4 hit the rural mountainous region of southwestern pakistan on october 28 2008 the main shock was followed by another earthquake of identical magnitude mw 6 4 on the next day the spatial distribution of aftershocks and focal mechanism revealed a nw se striking rupture with right lateral strike slip motion which is sympathetic to the nnw sse striking active mapped urghargai fault the occurrence of strike slip earthquakes suggests that along with the thrust faults strike slip faults too are present beneath the fold and thrust belt of sulaiman kirthar ranges and accommodates some of the relative motion of the indian and eurasian plates to assess the characteristics of this sequence the statistical parameters like aftershocks temporal decay b value of g r relationship partitioning of radiated seismic energy due to aftershocks and spatial fractal dimension d value have been examined the b value is estimated as 1 03 0 42 and suggests the tectonic genesis of the sequence and crustal heterogeneity within rock mass the low p value of 0 89 0 07 implies slow decay of aftershocks activity which is probably an evidence for low surface heat flow a value of spatial fractal dimension of 2 08 0 02 indicates random spatial distribution and that the source is a two dimensional plane filled up by fractures the static coseismic coulomb stress changes due to the foreshock mw 5 3 were found to increase stress by more than 0 04 bars at the hypocenter of the main shock thus promoting the failure the cumulative coseismic coulomb stress changes due to the foreshock and mainshocks suggest that most of the aftershocks occurred in the region of increased coulomb stress and to the se to the mainshock rupture

measuring the heterogeneity of the coseismic stress change following the 1999 mw7 6 chi chi earthquake seismicity quiescences are expected to occur in places where the stress has been decreased in particular following large main shocks however such quiescences can be delayed by hours to years and be preceded by an initial phase of earthquake triggering this can explain previous analyses arguing that seismicity shadows are rarely observed since they can only be seen after this triggering phase is over such is the case of the main rupture zone which experiences the strongest aftershock activity despite having been coseismically unloaded by up to tens of bars the 1999 m w 7 6 chi chi taiwan earthquake is characterized by the existence of several such delayed quiescences especially off the chelungpu fault on which the earthquake took place we here investigate whether these delays can be explained by a model of heterogeneous static stress transfer coupled with a rate and state friction law we model the distribution of coseismic small scale stress change by a gaussian law with mean tau bar and standard deviation the latter measures the level of local heterogeneity of the coseismic change in stress the model is shown to mimic the earthquake time series very well robust inversion of the tau bar and parameters can be achieved at various locations although on fault seismicity has not been observed for a sufficiently long time to provide more than lower bounds on those estimates for the chelungpu fault several quiescences have delays that can be well explained by local stress heterogeneity even at relatively large distances from the chi chi earthquake

groundwater evolution chemical sedimentation and carbonate brine formation on an island in the okavango delta swamp botswana abstract the okavango delta of semi arid northern botswana is a large alluvial fan 22 000 km2 covered by permanent and seasonal swamps from which 96 of the annual discharge is lost by evapotranspiration many small islands 1ha within the permanent swamps are the sites of accumulation of sodium carbonate salts and many contain saline pans the associated alkaline soils are toxic to vegetation an understanding of the processes involved in alkalinization could be of potential benefit to long term conservation planning in this unique ecosystem the relation between soil chemistry and mineralogy and swamp and groundwater chemistry were investigated on an island in the swamps the study revealed that the water table beneath the island is depressed and swamp water enters the groundwater regime of the island from the margins and below and flows toward the centre the water becomes progressively more saline initially owing to transpiration by trees and ultimately by evaporation in the central parts of the island as a result of increasing salinity amorphous sio2 and magnesium calcite precipitate in the soils beneath the marginal zone of the island raising the land surface while the more soluble alkali carbonates are concentrated in the centre of the island as surface crusts and brine ponds leaching of these salts into the soil during the rainy season and gravity driven flow of saline brines in the dry season causes the downward movement of al and fe in the central zone of the island k feldspar and possibly amorphous allophane develop in the deeper soils under the central zone of the island

chemical sedimentation in the semi arid environment of the okavango delta botswana abstract the okavango basin of northern botswana is an area of active diagenetic carbonate and silica accumulation the basin is formed by grabens which represent an extension of the east african rift system the okavango delta a large marshy alluvial fan 22 000 km2 occupies most of the surface area of the basin evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation by a factor of 3 and 96 of incoming water is lost to the atmosphere evaporative concentration of dissolved solids occurs and they precipitate in the capillary fringes of islands the less soluble components caco3 and sio2 precipitate in the soils which results in a significant volume increase which has important implications for the topography of the area and the character of the sediment fill the more soluble salts mainly alkali carbonates accumulate at the surface as efflorescent crusts but are leached into the soil during the rainy season this salt accumulation destroys vegetation swamp abandonment leads to leaching to greater depth and with reflooding to the removal of these salts possibly to form a deep saline groundwater mass balance calculations indicate that this form of chemical accumulation is the dominant aggradational process occurring in the delta at present

seismicity at the border between central and southern apennines italy re evaluation of the early 1984 instrumental earthquake abstract we re evaluate the 1984 abruzzo lazio earthquake on the basis of original seismological data discussed in light of previous interpretations from other authors this sequence characterized by two distinct mainshocks ms 5 8 and ms 5 2 neis having low spatial and temporal separation developed at the border between central and southern apennines the sequence originated in a narrow area adjacent to the main nw se structures belonging to the apenninic chain crossed by fault segments with different orientation the spatio temporal evolution of the seismicity the focal mechanisms of some aftershocks never obtained before and waveform analysis suggest that the sequence developed in several stages the beginning of the two main stages was marked by two events ms 5 8 and ms 5 2 and the entire sequence was strongly controlled by the structural heterogeneity in the medium involved in the stress release process the ruptures nucleated on a ene wsw striking fault segment belonging to the nne striking ortona roccamonfina tectonic line and propagated towards ene the presence of the nw se structures belonging to the apennine chain and their geometry acted as a barrier to the spread of the aftershocks northeastward as a consequence a local concentration of static stress in the area enclosed between the northern edge of the rupture segment of the first mainshock and the nw striking structures triggered the ms 5 2 event on a w e pre existing fault segment in turn the static stress changes due to the second mainshock activated adjacent ne sw and nw se fault segments the nw striking structures belonging to the apennines acted as a structural barrier halting the propagation of the ruptures nucleating on a fault segment that belongs to the nne striking ortona roccamonfina tectonic line

perturbation of the izmit earthquake aftershock decaying activity following the 1999 mw 7 2 duzce turkey earthquake triggering and quiescence patterns of seismicity in western turkey following the occurrence of the 12 november 1999 m w 7 2 duzce earthquake are investigated the changes in seismicity rate are analyzed along the north anatolian fault segments that had ruptured 3 months earlier during the 17 august 1999 m w 7 4 izmit earthquake detection of triggering and quiescence is done by comparing the seismicity rate that would be expected if the duzce earthquake had not happened to the actual observed rate the expected rates are estimated by extrapolating the preexisting seismicity pattern using two complementary models a simple omori utsu s law and the etas model fault segments located to the east of the izmit epicenter show a mild case of quiescence following the duzce earthquake these segments had previously experienced an anomalous triggering episode in the 5 days preceding the duzce earthquake correlated with the occurrence of two strong m w 5 izmit aftershocks however it is not clear whether this observed quiescence is real or spurious as it coincides with a local reconfiguration of the seismological network a temporary increase of 0 1 to 0 15 in completeness magnitude would be enough to explain this apparent deactivation fault segments located to the west of the izmit epicenter exhibit triggering of seismicity following the duzce earthquake this observed triggering is mostly restricted to a cluster of events located in the geothermal area of yalova the increase of seismicity rate is delayed by 18 hours after the waves travelling from the duzce rupture had hit this zone our analysis suggests that this 15 day long reactivation can be explained by a short lived perturbation the local seismic activity then sustaining itself for the remaining 15 days we argue that this particular behavior is likely to correspond to a case of dynamic triggering by the end of year 1999 the yalova cluster shows a significant quiescence that lasted for several months this shutting down does not coincide with the occurrence of any local earthquake that would be large enough to stress shadow this area suggesting an aseismic cause to this pattern these results highlight the fact that 1 seismicity triggered by a major earthquake is not restricted to areas loaded by static stress and 2 that seismic activity associated with geothermal geological settings is highly sensitive to stress perturbations but also to aseismic processes that can both delay reactivation and cause this activity to suddenly decrease

delayed seismicity rate changes controlled by static stress transfer on 15 june 2010 a m w5 7 earthquake occurred near ocotillo california in the yuha desert this event was the largest aftershock of the 4 april 2010 m w7 2 el mayor cucapah emc earthquake in this region the emc mainshock and subsequent ocotillo aftershock provide an opportunity to test the coulomb failure hypothesis cfs we explore the spatiotemporal correlation between seismicity rate changes and regions of positive and negative cfs change imparted by the ocotillo event based on simple cfs calculations we divide the yuha desert into three subregions one triggering zone and two stress shadow zones we find the nominal triggering zone displays immediate triggering one stress shadowed region experiences immediate quiescence and the other nominal stress shadow undergoes an immediate rate increase followed by a delayed shutdown we quantitatively model the spatiotemporal variation of earthquake rates by combining calculations of cfs change with the rate state earthquake rate formulation of dieterich 1994 assuming that each subregion contains a mixture of nucleation sources that experienced a cfs change of differing signs our modeling reproduces the observations including the observed delay in the stress shadow effect in the third region following the ocotillo aftershock the delayed shadow effect occurs because of intrinsic differences in the amplitude of the rate response to positive and negative stress changes and the time constants for return to background rates for the two populations we find that rate state models of time dependent earthquake rates are in good agreement with the observed rates and thus explain the complex spatiotemporal patterns of seismicity

response of seismicity to coulomb stress triggers and shadows of the 1999 mw 7 6 chi chi taiwan earthquake 1 the correlation between static coulomb stress increases and aftershocks has thus far provided the strongest evidence that stress changes promote seismicity a correlation that the chi chi earthquake well exhibits several studies have deepened the argument by resolving stress changes on aftershock focal mechanisms which removes the assumption that the aftershocks are optimally oriented for failure here one compares the percentage of planes on which failure is promoted after the main shock relative to the percentage beforehand for chi chi we find a 28 increase for thrust and an 18 increase for strike slip mechanisms commensurate with increases reported for other large main shocks however perhaps the chief criticism of static stress triggering is the difficulty in observing predicted seismicity rate decreases in the stress shadows or sites of coulomb stress decrease detection of sustained drops in seismicity rate demands a long catalog with a low magnitude of completeness and a high seismicity rate conditions that are met at chi chi we find four lobes with statistically significant seismicity rate declines of 40 90 for 50 months and they coincide with the stress shadows calculated for strike slip faults the dominant faulting mechanism the rate drops are evident in uniform cell calculations 100 month time series and by visual inspection of the m 3 seismicity an additional reason why detection of such declines has proven so rare emerges from this study there is a widespread increase in seismicity rate during the first 3 months after chi chi and perhaps many other main shocks that might be associated with a different mechanism

earthquakes casting stress shadows earthquakes may trigger or retard quakes on nearby faults but such relationships are difficult to verify observations showing that the landers earthquake in california shut down aftershocks from a preceding event validate such relationships

increased probability of large earthquakes near aftershock regions with relative quiescence it is shown that after a large earthquake of m6 class or over has taken place another event of similar size or larger is relatively more likely in the sense of rate per unit area to occur in the near field than in the far field in particular we show that the aftershock activity of the first event provides useful information for assessing the probability of a following large event in the neighborhood within a distance of a few degrees namely if the aftershock activity from the first event becomes relatively quiet compared to the normal decay the occurrence rate of larger events in the neighborhood is several times higher during the first decade after the main shock than would be the case for normal aftershock activity for measuring such phenomena precisely we need to model the normal aftershock activity in fact many aftershock sequences are more complex than the simple inverse power decay represented by the modified omori formula the epidemic type aftershock sequences etas model is a generalized version of the modified omori formula which fits well with various aftershock sequences including nonvolcanic type swarms using this model aftershock sequences are investigated for the 76 main shocks that occurred in and around japan during the last three quarters of a century the focus is placed on objective examination of whether or not in an aftershock sequence there exists a significant change point followed by relative quiescence that is a significant lowering of the seismicity from that predicted by the etas model relative quiescence can take place regardless of the seismicity level the extent of such quiescence if it exists is seen from the diagrams of cumulative numbers versus the transformed occurrence times based on the predicted occurrence rate by the estimated etas model it is thus demonstrated that relative quiescence can be a helpful factor in detecting anomalous aftershock activity this can then be used to forecast whether or not a large event is more likely to follow shortly within 6 years in the neighborhood within a distance of 3 of the initial event

the 1997 kagoshima japan earthquake doublet a quantitative analysis of aftershock rate changes we quantitatively map relative rate changes for the aftershock sequence following the second mainshock of the 1997 earthquake doublet m w 6 1 m w 6 0 in the kagoshima province japan using the spatial distribution of the modified omori law parameters for aftershocks that occurred during the 47 8 days between the two mainshocks we forecast the aftershock activity in the next 50 days and compare it to the actually observed rates the relative rate change map reveals four regions with statistically significant relative rate changes three negative and one positive our analysis suggests that the coseismic rate changes for off fault aftershocks could be explained by changes in static stress however to explain the activation and deactivation of on fault seismicity other mechanism such as unusual crustal properties and the presence of abundant crustal fluids are required

toggling of seismicity by the 1997 kagoshima earthquake couplet a demonstration of time dependent stress transfer 1 two m 6 well recorded strike slip earthquakes struck just 4 km and 48 days apart in kagoshima prefecture japan in 1997 providing an opportunity to study earthquake interaction aftershocks are abundant where the coulomb stress is calculated to have been increased by the first event and they abruptly stop where the stress is dropped by the second event this ability of the main shocks to toggle seismicity on and off argues that static stress changes play a major role in exciting aftershocks whereas the dynamic coulomb stresses which should only promote seismicity appear to play a secondary role if true the net stress changes from a sequence of earthquakes might be expected to govern the subsequent seismicity distribution however adding the stress changes from the two kagoshima events does not fully capture the ensuing seismicity such as its rate change temporal decay or migration away from the ends of the ruptures we therefore implement a stress transfer model that incorporates rate state friction in which seismicity is treated as a sequence of independent nucleation events that are dependent on the fault slip slip rate and elapsed time since the last event the model reproduces the temporal response of seismicity to successive stress changes including toggling decay and aftershock migration nevertheless the match of observed to predicted seismicity is quite imperfect due perhaps to inadequate knowledge of several model parameters however to demonstrate the potential of this approach we build a probabilistic forecast of larger earthquakes on the expected rate of small aftershocks taking advantage of the large statistical sample the small shocks afford not surprisingly such probabilities are highly time and location dependent during the first decade after the main shocks the seismicity rate and the chance of successive large shocks are about an order of magnitude higher than the background rate and are concentrated exclusively in the stress triggering zones

predicting channel patterns brewer paul lewin j 2001 predicting channel patterns geomorphology 40 pp 329 339 rae2008

spatial variability of seismicity parameters in aftershock zones the spatial variability of the b value of the frequency magnitude relationship and the decay rate of aftershocks as described by the p value of the modified omori law is investigated by using dense spatial grids we map out the distribution of b and p values within the landers northridge morgan hill and kobe aftershock sequences considerable spatial variability is found with b values of independent subvolumes ranging from 0 6 to 1 4 and p values ranging from 0 6 to 1 8 these systematic and statistically highly significant differences argue that it is an oversimplification to assign one single p and b value to an aftershock sequence that extends up to 100 km the spatial distribution of these two parameters is compared with the slip distribution during the mainshock suggesting that the areas of largest slip release correlate with high b value regions we hypothesize that the frictional heat created during the event may influence the p value distribution within an aftershock zone while applied shear stress crack density and pore pressure govern the frequency magnitude distribution by investigating the frequency magnitude distribution separately for preseismic and postseismic periods for the morgan hill mainshock we find that only the volume in the vicinity of the highest slip release shows a significant increase in the b value which decays to premainshock values within a year surrounding areas of the aftershock zone show an approximately constant b value with time because the aftershock hazard after a mainshock depends strongly on both the b and p value we propose that aftershock hazard assessment can be improved by taking into account the spatial distribution of the parameters

channel adjustment and a test of rational regime theory in a proglacial braided stream the upstream reach of the sunwapta river alberta provides a useful quasi experimental field case of channel adjustment in a proglacial stream historically the formation of a proglacial lake deprived the river of its coarse sediment supply for several decades and lead to a dramatic decrease in braiding intensity close to the lake while braiding intensity increased further downstream this response to the reduction of gravel input is consistent with previous experimental results subsequent construction activity and channelization close to the lake have contributed to the continuation of these temporal and spatial trends in channel pattern the current state of adjustment of the river morphology can be explained in the context of these historical changes using rational regime equations the study reach has no tributaries and bed material size decreases twofold along the reach while width and braiding intensity increase yet channel slope decreases by only 10 the absence of any significant change in discharge downstream along the reach allows testing of regime equations under conditions in which discharge is held constant the current downstream trends in slope and fluctuations in width are predicted reliably from rational regime equations but not by the existing empirical hydraulic geometry relations the rational equations incorporate the effect of grain size and slope on channel width and the effect of width and grain size on channel slope the regime equations are successful even though they were devised for single channel gravel streams the small 10 decrease in slope along the reach despite a halving of median grain size is attributed to the counteracting positive effect on slope of the downstream increase in braiding intensity and width the downstream increase in braiding intensity must be largely the result of decreasing grain size this confirms the influence of grain size on channel pattern thresholds and demonstrates using spatial transitions in channel pattern that channel pattern predictions based on stream power alone are inadequate

minimum magnitude of completeness in earthquake catalogs examples from alaska the western united states and japan we mapped the minimum magnitude of complete reporting m c for alaska the western united states and for the junec earthquake catalog of japan mc was estimated based on its departure from the linear frequency magnitude relation of the 250 closest earthquakes to grid nodes spaced 10 km apart in all catalogs studied mc was strongly heterogeneous in offshore areas the mc was typically one unit of magnitude higher than onshore on land also mc can vary by one order of magnitude over distance less than 50 km we recommend that seismicity studies that depend on complete sets of small earthquakes should be limited to areas with similar mc or the minimum magnitude for the analysis has to be raised to the highest com mon value of mc we believe that the data quality as reflected by the mc level should be used to define the spatial extent of seismicity studies where mc plays a role the method we use calculates the goodness of fit between a power law fit to the data and the observed frequency magnitude distribution as a function of a lower cutoff of the magnitude data mc is defined as the magnitude at which 90 of the data can be modeled by a power law fit mc in the 1990s is approximately 1 2 0 4 in most parts of california 1 8 0 4 in most of alaska aleutians and panhandle excluded and at a higher level in the junec catalog for japan various sources such as ex plosions and earthquake families beneath volcanoes can lead to distributions that cannot be fit well by power laws for the hokkaido region we demonstrate how neglecting the spatial variability of m c can lead to erroneous assumptions about deviations from self similarity of earthquake scaling

aftershocks halted by static stress shadows the role of permanent versus transient crustal stress changes in triggering earthquakes is debated analysis of the stress imparted by the joshua tree and nearby landers earthquakes in california in 1992 implies that a permanent drop in stress can halt aftershocks so such static stress changes should be incorporated into seismic hazard assessments

methods for measuring seismicity rate changes a review and a study of how the m w 7 3 landers earthquake affected the aftershock sequence of the m w 6 1 joshua tree earthquake the development of fault interaction models has triggered the need for an accurate estimation of seismicity rate changes following the occurrence of an earthquake several statistical methods have been developed in the past to serve this purpose each relying on different assumptions e g stationarity gaussianity pertaining to the seismicity process

hydraulic interpretation of cross stream variations in bed load transport the hydraulic control of bed load transport rates in nahal yatir and nahal eshtemoa two coarse grained ephemeral channels in the semiarid northern negev israel provides a rare opportunity to infer the spanwise variation in bed shear stress from an analysis of cross stream variations in bed load transport rate automatic sediment transport monitoring stations were used to obtain synchronous measurements of bed load discharge at a number of locations across the widths of two straight channel reaches in both streams channel average bed load fluxes demonstrated a common and well defined response to changing channel average shear stress and approximated the transporting capacity of the flow over much of the range of monitored discharges however transport rates measured at the channel margins are only half those at the channel centerline and at high discharges a marked asymmetry in the pattern of bed load transport develops across the central section of the widest channel this variation in bed load discharge over the two channel cross sections is thought to reflect lateral variations in shear stress induced by sidewall drag and more tentatively the generation and disposition of cellular secondary currents however no systematic relation is found for the ratios of sediment fluxes at off center sampling locations and those recorded at the channel center even though the off center locations are thought to move into and out of the region affected by sidewall drag as aspect ratio of the flow decreases and increases with changing water stage the results suggest that it is difficult to generalize about the changing influence of the sidewall on local shear and bed load as aspect ratio changes during the course of a flood

assessing elastic coulomb stress transfer models using seismicity rates in southern california and southwestern japan 1 we investigated whether observed changes in seismicity rate following the 1992 landers and 1995 kobe earthquakes correspond with predictions from coulomb stress transfer models to quantify the relationship between coulomb stress change and seismicity rate change we compared spatial changes in observed seismicity rates to the modeled changes in coulomb failure stress cfs for the two subject earthquakes we begin with the simplest and most common cfs model which assumes that regional stress orientations are uniform and the stress change is resolved on optimally oriented strike slip planes we then extended the cfs models to include the more geophysically realistic assumptions of spatially varying regional stress orientations and optimally oriented planes in three dimensions for all the tested cfs models we found that virtually everywhere seismicity rate changes could be resolved the rate increased regardless of whether the cfs theoretically promoted or inhibited failure and that we were not able to reliably resolve seismicity rate decreases an improvement in the correlation between the sign of the cfs and where rate increases occur when estimating the cfs on optimally oriented planes in three dimensions rather than two dimensions is a consequence of using optimally oriented planes and the ability to primarily observe rate increases the region of positive cfs increases by allowing more degrees of freedom so the correlation with positive rate change appears to increase the areas of highest seismicity rate following the main shock did not correlate with the sign or the magnitude of the cfs rather the areas most active after the main shock were also the most active before the main shock

a global search for stress shadows 1 debate continues regarding the relative proportion of earthquakes triggered by passing seismic waves versus static stress changes from a main shock static stress changes are expected to have long term effects on earthquake probabilities whereas dynamic stress changes due to the passing of seismic waves should not both mechanisms are expected to raise seismicity rates in some areas but only static stress change calculations predict rate decrease shadows thus identification of post main shock earthquake suppression is diagnostic of a static stress change process we note that in principle static stress change theory predicts suppression of particular earthquake mechanisms in a shadow zone rather than an overall rate reduction a stress shadow can therefore be characterized by a change in the average earthquake focal mechanism before and after a main shock that results from suppression of a given mechanism type we examined average mechanisms from 2 radii and 5 year periods before and after 119 ms 7 main shock earthquakes drawn from the harvard centroid moment tensor cmt catalog significant average mechanism changes caused by earthquake suppression were found in only two cases however by stacking the data we were able to resolve statistically significant suppression of particular post main shock focal mechanisms this indicates that while static stress shadows are subtle they are indeed present in the global catalog

response of alluvial rivers to slow active tectonic movement alluvial rivers respond to valley slope deformation caused by active tectonics in various ways depending on the rate and amount of surficial deformation and on the type of river on the basis of experimental results and field examples hypothetical models of river response to anticlinal uplift and synclinal subsidence were developed for different types of alluvial rivers an experimental braided channel responded to anticlinal uplift across the channel with degradation and terrace formation in the central part of the uplift with subsidence aggradation in the central reach was the main response transverse bars developed downstream of the subsidence axis an experimental meandering channel responded to slope steepening with a sinuosity increase bank erosion and point bar growth occurred downstream of the anticlinal axis and upstream of the synclinal axis upstream of the uplift axis and downstream of the subsidence axis where the slope was flattened water flooded over bars local convexity in longitudinal profiles of the middle rio grande new mexico is considered to be formed by a domal uplift local aggradation and degradation could be explained by the effect of uplift the san joaquin river california which is now highly controlled does not show clear adjustment to the rapid subsidence due to ground water withdrawal it shows however a channel pattern adjustment to active tectonic subsidence that has been occurring for a long time the san antonio and guadalupe rivers in texas both increase their sinuosity significantly where monoclinal movements steepen valley slopes

downstream variation in stream power abstract stream power has a significant influence on many form and process attributes of the fluvial system using a similar approach to that suggested by d m lawler in 1992 and 1995 a model is developed to explore how stream power might vary in the downstream direction based on the assumption that the longitudinal profile of the river has an exponential form no particular discharge is necessarily specified but near bankfull flows are regarded as significant morphologically and one such discharge is the focus here total stream power per unit channel length qs is predicted to peak at an intermediate location the position of which depends on the ratio b where b and are the downstream rates of change of discharge and slope respectively if b is a relatively conservative quantity then the form of the longitudinal profile and in particular its degree of concavity will have the major influence on the position of maximum stream power specific stream power w is even more sensitive to and is expected to peak closer to the headwaters about half way between source and the location of the stream power maximum although this will depend on how channel width w varies with distance from source the model is tested along three connected streams of different size in the catchment of the river trent taking advantage of a relationship between mean annual flood and link magnitude which enables this near bankfull discharge to be estimated at any point within the network the model is verified in so far as stream power does attain a mid basin maximum but the observed and predicted locations of the maxima do not always correspond largely because of the distinctive variation in discharge and especially slope along individual pathways for example maximum power lies far downstream along the trent because of the large increase in mid basin discharge associated with a series of large closely spaced tributaries the importance of slope is borne out by the near headwater locations for specific power maxima which tend to be further upstream than predicted along all three rivers as a result of the steepness of upper reaches the variety of geomorphic settings produces deviations from expectation which has implications for the movement and storage of material in the fluvial system

a comparison of seismicity characteristics and fault structure between stick slip experiments and nature fault zones contain structural complexity on all scales this complexity influences fault mechanics including the dynamics of large earthquakes as well as the spatial and temporal distribution of small seismic events incomplete earthquake records unknown stresses and unresolved fault structures within the crust complicate a quantitative assessment of the parameters that control factors affecting seismicity to better understand the relationship between fault structure and seismicity we examined dynamic faulting under controlled conditions in the laboratory by creating saw cut guided natural fractures in cylindrical granite samples the resulting rough surfaces were triaxially loaded to produce a sequence of stick slip events during these experiments we monitored stress strain and seismic activity after the experiments fault structures were imaged in thin sections and using computer tomography the laboratory fault zones showed many structural characteristics observed in upper crustal faults including zones of localized slip embedded in a layer of fault gouge laboratory faults also exhibited a several millimeter wide damage zone with decreasing micro crack density at larger distances from the fault axis in addition to the structural similarities we also observed many similarities between our observed distribution of acoustic emissions aes and natural seismicity the aes followed the gutenberg richter and omori utsu relationships commonly used to describe natural seismicity moreover we observed a connection between along strike fault heterogeneity and variations of the gutenberg richter b value as suggested by natural seismicity studies areas of low b value marked the nucleation points of large slip events and were located at large asperities within the fault zone that were revealed by post experimental tomography scans our results emphasize the importance of stick slip experiments for the study of fault mechanics the direct correlation of acoustic activity with fault zone structure is a unique characteristic of our laboratory studies that has been impossible to observe in nature

seismicity analysis through point process modeling a review the occurrence times of earthquakes can be considered to be a point process and suitable modeling of the conditional intensity function of a point process is useful for the investigation of various statistical features of seismic activity this manuscript summarizes likelihood based methods of analysis of point processes and reviews useful models for particular analyses of seismicity most of the analyses can be implemented by the computer programs published by the author and collaborators

forecasting the evolution of seismicity in southern california animations built on earthquake stress transfer 1 we develop a forecast model to reproduce the distribution of main shocks aftershocks and surrounding seismicity observed during 1986 2003 in a 300 310 km area centered on the 1992 m 7 3 landers earthquake to parse the catalog into frames with equal numbers of aftershocks we animate seismicity in log time increments that lengthen after each main shock this reveals aftershock zone migration expansion and densification we implement a rate state algorithm that incorporates the static stress transferred by each m 6 shock and then evolves coulomb stress changes amplify the background seismicity so small stress changes produce large changes in seismicity rate in areas of high background seismicity similarly seismicity rate declines in the stress shadows are evident only in areas with previously high seismicity rates thus a key constituent of the model is the background seismicity rate which we smooth from 1981 to 1986 seismicity the mean correlation coefficient between observed and predicted m 1 4 shocks the minimum magnitude of completeness is 0 52 for 1986 2003 and 0 63 for 1992 2003 a control standard aftershock model yields 0 54 and 0 52 for the same periods four m 6 0 shocks struck during the test period three are located at sites where the expected seismicity rate falls above the 92 percentile and one is located above the 75 percentile the model thus reproduces much but certainly not all of the observed spatial and temporal seismicity from which we infer that the decaying effect of stress transferred by successive main shocks influences seismicity for decades finally we offer a m 5 earthquake forecast for 2005 2015 assigning probabilities to 324 10 10 km cells

earthquake doublet in kagoshima japan rupture of asperities in a stress shadow two shallow moderate m 6 earthquakes occurred in the northwestern part of kagoshima prefecture kyushu southern japan i discuss the effect of the stress change due to the first earthquake 26 march 1997 on the occurrence of the second earthquake 13 may 1997 the rupture characteristics of the two earthquakes are inferred in two steps to form the basis of the discussion i first invert strong ground motion data to construct kinematic source models and then estimate the distribution of static stress drop from the derived dislocation distributions the rupture process of the march event is simple and well described with rupture of a single asperity patch of high stress drop on the other hand multiple asperities on conjugate faults ruptured during the may event the maximum value of static stress drop for both earthquakes is about 4 mpa and seems lower than those of other japanese intraplate earthquakes the hypocenter and the largest asperity of the may earthquake are located in a stress shadow caused by the march earthquake thus the rupture history of the may earthquake is difficult to explain with a static stress change model other mechanisms such as fluid migration and dynamic stresses were also investigated but failed to explain the triggering i propose the coupled effect of static change in shear stress and normal stress under the rate and state dependent friction law as a possible mechanism

remotely triggered seismicity in the yellowstone national park region by the 2002 mw 7 9 denali fault earthquake alaska coincident with the arrival of low frequency large amplitude surface waves of the mw 7 9 denali fault earthquake dfe an abrupt increase in seismicity was observed in the yellowstone national park region despite the large epicentral distance of 3100 km within the first 24 hr following the dfe mainshock we located more than 250 earthquakes which occurred throughout the entire yellowstone na tional park region the elevated seismicity rate continued for about 30 days and followed a modified omori law decay with a p value of 1 02 0 07 for a declus tered earthquake catalog the seismicity following the 2002 dfe uniquely stands out with a significance of 30r the increase in seismicity occurred over all magnitude bands in general we observed that seismicity following the dfe outlined the spatial pattern of past seismicity routinely observed in the yellowstone national parkregion however we found significant differences in triggered seismicity inside and outside the caldera earthquakes inside the yellowstone caldera occurred preferentially as clusters close to major hydrothermal systems were of larger magnitude and seis micity decayed more rapidly this suggests that either different trigger mechanisms were operating inside and outside the caldera or that the crust responded differently to the same trigger mechanism depending on its different mechanicalstate compared with other sites that experienced remote earthquake triggering following the 2002 dfe yellowstone showed the most vigorous earthquake activity we attribute this to strong directivity effects of the dfe which caused relatively large peak dynamic stresses 0 16 0 22 mpa in yellowstone and to the volcanic nature of yellowstone

testing the stress shadow hypothesis 1 a fundamental question in earthquake physics is whether aftershocks are predominantly triggered by static stress changes permanent stress changes associated with fault displacement or dynamic stresses temporary stress changes associated with earthquake shaking both classes of models provide plausible explanations for earthquake triggering of aftershocks but only the static stress model predicts stress shadows or regions in which activity is decreased by a nearby earthquake to test for whether a main shock has produced a stress shadow we calculate time ratios defined as the ratio of the time between the main shock and the first earthquake to follow it and the time between the last earthquake to precede the main shock and the first earthquake to follow it a single value of the time ratio is calculated for each 10 10 km bin within 1 5 fault lengths of the main shock epicenter large values of the time ratio indicate a long wait for the first earthquake to follow the main shock and thus a potential stress shadow whereas small values indicate the presence of aftershocks simulations indicate that the time ratio test should have sufficient sensitivity to detect stress shadows if they are produced in accordance with the rate and state friction model we evaluate the 1989 mw 7 0 loma prieta 1992 mw 7 3 landers 1994 mw 6 7 northridge and 1999 mw 7 1 hector mine main shocks for each main shock there is a pronounced concentration of small time ratios indicating the presence of aftershocks but the number of large time ratios is less than at other times in the catalog this suggests that stress shadows are not present by comparing our results to simulations we estimate that we can be at least 98 confident that the loma prieta and landers main shocks did not produce stress shadows and 91 and 84 confident that stress shadows were not generated by the hector mine and northridge main shocks respectively we also investigate the long hypothesized existence of a stress shadow following the 1906 san francisco bay area earthquake we find that while bay area catalog seismicity rates are lower in the first half of the twentieth century than in the last half of the nineteenth this seismicity contrast is also true outside of the bay area in regions not expected to contain a stress shadow this suggests that the rate change is due to a more system wide effect such as errors in the historical catalog or the decay of aftershocks of the larger 1857 fort tejon earthquake

avulsion mechanisms on the okavango fan botswana the control of a fluvial system by vegetation a study of the avulsion of a major distributory channel on the alluvial fan 22 000 km2 in area of the okavango river in northern botswana has revealed that channels serve as arterial systems distributing water which sustains large areas of permanent swamp the channels are vegetatively confined a primary channel defined here as a channel which receives water and sediment directly from the fan apex aggrades vertically as a result of bedload deposition the rate of aggradation increases downchannel and may exceed 5 cm yr 1 in the distal reaches rapid aggradation is associated with a decline in flow velocity this initiates a series of feedback mechanisms involving invasion of the channel by aquatic plants which trap floating plant debris further reducing flow rate and causing the channel water surface to become elevated thereby increasing rate of water loss from the channel accelerating blockage and aggradation the channel ultimately fails enhanced water loss from the channel promotes the growth of flanking swamp vegetation which confines the failing channel increased flow through the swamp erodes pre existing hippopotamus trails producing a secondary channel system which overlaps but does not connect directly to the failing reach of the primary channel the region of failure of the primary channel migrates upstream accompanied by headward propagation of the secondary channel system the swamp distal to the failed primary channel dessicates and is destroyed by peat fires secondary channels are stable and not prone to blockage comparison with avulsions described in other river systems indicates that the influence of plants in the okavango river system is exceptionally strong

seismicity rate changes along the central california coast due to stress changes from the 2003 m 6 5 san simeon and 2004 m 6 0 parkfield earthquakes abstract we investigated the relationship between seismicity rate changes and modeled coulomb static stress changes from the 2003 m 6 5 san simeon and the 2004 m 6 0 parkfield earthquakes in central california coulomb stress modeling indicates that the san simeon mainshock loaded parts of the rinconada hosgri and san andreas strike slip faults along with the reverse faults of the southern los osos domain all of these loaded faults except for the san andreas experienced a seismicity rate increase at the time of the san simeon mainshock the parkfield earthquake occurred 9 months later on the loaded portion of the san andreas fault the parkfield earthquake unloaded the hosgri fault and the reverse faults of the southern los osos domain which both experienced seismicity rate decreases at the time of the parkfield event although the decreases may be related to the decay of san simeon triggered seismicity coulomb stress unloading from the parkfield earthquake appears to have altered the aftershock decay rate of the southern cluster of san simeon aftershocks which is deficient compared to the expected number of aftershocks from the omori decay parameters based on the pre parkfield aftershocks dynamic stress changes cannot explain the deficiency of aftershocks providing evidence that static stress changes affect earthquake occurrence however a burst of seismicity following the parkfield earthquake at ragged point where the static stress was decreased provides evidence for dynamic stress triggering it therefore appears that both coulomb static stress changes and dynamic stress changes affect the seismicity rate

neotectonic effects on sinuosity and channel migration belle fourche river western south dakota short term instability in the behaviour of a small meandering alluvial channel is identified from the relation between sinuosity and either floodplain slope or channel slope within 17 reaches along an 81 kilometre section of the belle fourche river in western south dakota in reaches 1 to 4 and 11 to 17 the channel is relatively stable and sinuosity varies inversely with channel slope in reaches 5 to 10 sinuosity is positively related to floodplain slope sinuosity increases markedly in reaches 5 6 and 7 which are immediately downstream from a discontinuity in the long profile of the floodplain in association with an increase in floodplain slope immediately upstream from the discontinuity bankfull channel depth and sinuosity decrease and the area of the floodplain reworked by meander migration between 1939 and 1981 increases in association with a decrease in floodplain slope channel behaviour in reaches 5 to 10 is best explained as a consequence of neotectonic activity as indicated by changes in elevation recorded along geodetic survey lines that cross lineaments that may delimit the eastern boundary of the black hills uplift sinuosity acts as a barometer of the effects of neotectonic activity on alluvial channels initial indications of channel and floodplain instability due to neotectonic activity may be derived from evidence of anomalously active channel migration as documented from photographic or topographic sources

a constitutive law for rate of earthquake production and its application to earthquake clustering seismicity is modeled as a sequence of earthquake nucleation events in which the distribution of initial conditions over the population of nucleation sources and stress ing history control the timing of earthquakes the model is implemented using solutions for nucleation of unstable fault slip on faults with experimentally derived rate and state dependent fault properties this yields a general state variable constitutive formulation for rate of earthquake production resulting from an applied stressing history to illustrate and test the model some characteristics of seismicity following a stress step have been explored it is proposed that various features of earthquake clustering arise from sensi tivity of nucleation times to the stress changes induced by prior earthquakes the model gives the characteristic omori aftershock decay law and interprets aftershock parameters in terms of stress change and stressing rate earthquake data appear to support a model prediction that aftershock duration defined as the time for rates to return to the back ground seismicity rate is proportional to mainshock recurrence time observed spatial and temporal clustering of earthquake pairs arises as a consequence of the spatial depen dence of stress changes of the first event of the pair and stress sensitive time dependent nucleation applications of the constitutive formulation are not restricted to the simple stress step models investigated here it may be applied to stressing histories of arbitrary complexity the apparent success at modeling clustering phenomena suggests the possibil ity of using the formulation to estimate short to intermediate term earthquake probabil ities following occurrence of other earthquakes and for inversion of temporal variations of earthquake rates for changes in driving stress

analysis of shallow and deep earthquake doublets in the fiji tonga kermadec region for the fiji tonga kermadec area and for the period from january 1977 to july 2003 the harvard cmt catalogue lists 1022 shallow 410 intermediate and 633 deep earthquakes of moment magnitude from 4 9 to 8 0 the magnitude threshold above which the catalogue is complete is 5 3 5 4 and the number of earthquakes of magnitude above this value is 691 for shallow 329 for intermediate and 476 for deep events respectively the proportion of earthquakes associated with doublets and multiplets against the total number of earthquakes is approximately the same in both data sets and therefore all earthquake pairs were considered regardless of their magnitude we investigated all the pairs of earthquakes that occurred at a centroid distance of less than 40 60 or 90 km from each other and within a time interval of 200 300 or 450 days depending on their magnitude we found 208 pairs of shallow 31 of intermediate and 92 of deep events to ascertain whether these earthquakes in pairs are not connected by chance the possibility of their occurrence in an uncorrelated poissonian catalogue was considered it was assumed that in such a catalogue the inter event time is exponentially distributed the earthquake magnitude follows the gutenberg richter relation and the distribution of centroid distances between the events in pairs is controlled by its non parametric kernel estimate the probability of the appearance of the observed proportion of doublets of shallow earthquakes in the poissonian catalogue was found to be very low the low probability of occurrence in a semi random catalogue created by randomising centroid locations in the actual data set also indicates major importance of the distance criterion used for a doublet specification in general shallow earthquakes tend to form pairs at shorter distances and within shorter time intervals than deep earthquakes both the distance and the time intervals do not depend on the magnitude of involved events the largest number of pairs of deep earthquakes is observed at a depth of about 600 km and the proportion of deep events associated with doublets against the number of all events increases with depth from comparison of the focal mechanism of earthquakes in pairs measured by the 3 d rotation angle it follows that deep earthquakes forming pairs have a more diverse focal mechanism than shallow events the rotation angle for three quarters of shallow pairs and only for about one third of deep pairs is reasonably small the azimuth between two events forming a doublet is in about 60 65 of cases close to the strike of one of nodal planes of the first or the second event

reliability of coulomb stress changes inferred from correlated uncertainties of finite fault source models 1 static stress transfer is one physical mechanism to explain triggered seismicity coseismic stress change calculations strongly depend on the parameterization of the causative finite fault source model these models are uncertain due to uncertainties in input data model assumptions and modeling procedures however fault model uncertainties have usually been ignored in stress triggering studies and have not been propagated to assess the reliability of coulomb failure stress change cfs calculations we show how these uncertainties can be used to provide confidence intervals for co seismic cfs values we demonstrate this for the mw 5 9 june 2000 kleifarvatn earthquake in southwest iceland and systematically map these uncertainties a set of 2500 candidate source models from the full posterior fault parameter distribution was used to compute 2500 cfs maps we assess the reliability of the cfs values from the coefficient of variation cv and deem cfs values to be reliable where they are at least twice as large as the standard deviation cv 0 5 unreliable cfs values are found near the causative fault and between lobes of positive and negative stress change where a small change in fault strike causes cfs values to change sign the most reliable cfs values are found away from the source fault in the middle of positive and negative cfs lobes a likely general pattern using the reliability criterion our results support the static stress triggering hypothesis nevertheless our analysis also suggests that results from previous stress triggering studies not considering source model uncertainties may have lead to a biased interpretation of the importance of static stress triggering

grain size sediment transport and alluvial channel pattern abstract the shields parameter a dimensionless bed shear stress which can be expressed as a ratio of the slope depth and characteristic properties of bed material in an alluvial channel has been observed in natural rivers to take on modal values for the regimes of bedload mixed load and suspension transport dade w b friend p f 1998 grain size sediment transport regime and channel slope in alluvial rivers j geology 106 661 675 such conditions correspond to channel geometries associated with conserved sediment flux and thus to a state of approximate equilibrium in which the channels are neither aggrading nor degrading to a significant degree these findings are extended here to accommodate the effects of channel width in the context of a comprehensive data set on stable perennial rivers the new analysis reconciles existing empirical and theoretical approaches to predict alluvial channel geometry

downstream changes in dryland river channels the northern plains of arid central australia abstract many dryland rivers undergo marked downstream changes owing to factors such as infrequent floods flow transmission losses and typically few tributary inflows beyond the headwaters along the sandover bundey sandover bundey and woodforde rivers on the northern plains of arid central australia downstream channel changes are broadly similar in upland zones small rocky channels transporting sand and gravel gradually increase in size before entering piedmont zones where channels and narrow floodplains are confined by bedrock alluvial terraces or aeolian dunes in lower gradient lowland zones channels and floodplains remain confined and in the absence of tributary inflows channel cross sectional areas and discharges decrease downstream confining landforms are not present in floodout zones which results in splay formation increased floodplain widths and marked overall downstream decreases in cross sectional areas eventually channelised flow and bedload transport terminate although occasional large floods continue across extensive unchanneled alluvial surfaces termed floodouts these broad similarities apart downstream changes along the three rivers differ in detail the sandover is largely a single thread channel whereas many reaches of the sandover bundey and woodforde are anabranched on the small woodforde river downstream decreases in parameters such as cross sectional area and width are roughly linear on the larger sandover and sandover bundey downstream changes are more irregular particularly through the floodout zones where there are marked fluctuations in widths depths and bed slopes the irregular downstream changes typical of the lower reaches of these large rivers may be due to the reduced influence of vegetation on bankline stability and width adjustment relative to that of smaller rivers on the northern plains as in other drylands complex interactions between discharge sediment transport slope patterns of tributary drainage bank sediment type and vegetation result in variable patterns of downstream channel change