lithologic succession in the path fork coal bed breathitt formation middle pennsylvanian southeastern kentucky abstract the path fork coal bed breathitt formation middle pennsylvanian westphalian b on the pine mountain thrust sheet in southeastern kentucky and adjacent portions of virginia exhibits a lithologic succession which is traceable for about 25 km lateral continuity of lithotypes within the bed can be demonstrated using organic petrography palynology and ash geochemistry the lithologic continuity is a consequence of the initial levelling of the pre peat topography and the interaction of the peat with growing anticlines and synclines

the combined effects of gulf stream induced baroclinicity and upper level vorticity on u s east coast extratropical cyclogenesis abstract the atlantic surface cyclone intensification index ascii is a forecast index that quantifies the strength of low level baroclinicity in the coastal region of the carolinas it is based on the gradient between the coldest 24 h average air temperature at cape hatteras and wilmington north carolina and the temperature at the western boundary of the gulf stream the resulting prestorm baroclinic index psbi is used to forecast the probability that a cyclone in the domain will exhibit rapid cyclogenesis the initial ascii study covered the years 1982 90 this dataset was recently expanded to cover the years 1991 2002 which doubled the number of cyclone events in the sample these additional data provide similar position and slope of the linear regression fits to the previous values and explain as much as 30 of the variance in cyclone deepening rate despite operational value the neglect of upper tropospheric forcing as a predictor in the original ascii formulation precludes explanation of a l

tidal energy dissipation at the sill of sechelt inlet british columbia abstract the energy budget of a tidally active shallow silled fjord is discussed constriction of the flow over the shallow sill causes a reduction in tidal amplitude and a phase lag across the sill a generalized expression for the total power extracted from the barotropic tide by dissipation at the sill is derived as a function of the tidal amplitude difference and phase lag of the tidal elevation using tide gauge data from both sides of the sill at the entrance to sechelt inlet british columbia this generalized expression yields estimates for the energy flux of the barotropic tide which approach 100 mw during spring tides from direct measurements of the currents the estimated frictional dissipation is equal to the flux out of the barotropic tide within experimental error a small amount of the energy flux 5 is estimated to go into the generation of a tidal jet which dissipates within a few kilometers of the sill and contributes to the formation of a mid water layer

arsenic and lead concentrations in the pond creek and fire clay coal beds eastern kentucky coal field abstract the middle pennsylvanian breathitt formation westphalian b pond creek and fire clay coal beds are the 2 largest producing coal beds in eastern kentucky single channel samples from 22 localities in the pond creek coal bed were obtained from active coal mines in pike and martin countries kentucky and a total of 18 fire clay coal bed channel samples were collected from localities in the central portion of the coal field the overall objective of this study was to investigate the concentration and distribution of potentially hazardous elements in the fire clay and pond creek coal beds with particular emphasis on as and pb 2 elements that are included in the 1990 clean air act amendments as potential air toxics the 2 coals are discussed individually as the depositional histories are distinct the fire clay coal bed having more sites where relatively high s lithologies are encountered in an effort to characterize these coals 40 whole channel samples excluding 1 cm partings were analyzed for major minor and trace elements by x ray fluorescence and proton induced x ray emission spectroscopy previously analyzed samples were added to provide additional geographic coverage and lithotype samples from one site were analyzed in order to provide detail of vertical elemental trends the as and pb levels in the fire clay coal bed tend to be higher than in the pond creek coal bed one whole channel sample of the fire clay coal bed contains 1156 ppm as ash basis with a single lithotype containing 4000 ppm as ash basis most of the as and pb appears to be associated with pyrite which potentially can be removed in beneficiation particularly coarser pyrite disseminated finer pyrite may not be completely removable by cleaning in the examination of pyrite conducted in this study it does not appear that significant concentration of as or pb occurs in the finer pyrite forms the biggest potential problem of as or pb enriched pyrite is therefore one of refuse disposal

the comparison of a numerical model to observations of velocity and scalar data in burrard inlet and indian arm british columbia a laterally integrated time dependent numerical model of burrard inlet and indian arm is compared to time series of cyclesonde velocity and scalar data that have 10 m vertical resolution as long as deep water renewal is not occurring the model can reproduce the observed m2 and k1 tidal response in the basin of indian arm also although the rate of freshwater inflow into indian arm and burrard inlet is not large the simulated tidal response is noticeably improved if freshwater inflow is taken into account when deepwater renewal is observed to occur the model also simulates renewal but it does so poorly and the ability of the model to accurately simulate the m2 and k1 tide degrades significantly

airborne scatterometer detection of winds and sea surface roughness changes across the gulf stream front abstract this article investigates the scatterometer radar cross section distributions and wind stress spatial variability across a sea surface temperature sst front under different wind directions and synoptic scale atmospheric forcings shipboard meteorological measurements in concert with airborne k u band 14 0 ghz rotating scatterometer data show evidence of mesoscale circulation near the front during low ambient winds 4 m s blowing from the cold side of the sst front to the warm side the mesoscale signature is characterized by a 25 35 counterclockwise shift in the wind direction and a maximum of 4 9 db increase in the backscattering cross section across the front the mesoscale circulation is reduced when the wind direction reverses and the ambient wind flow increases to 13 6 m s the maximum cross section change across the front is reduced to 3 6 db the azimuthal characteristics of the scatterometer data are compared with the predictions of two scatterometer model functions according to the models the anisotropy of the short waves is inversely related to the wind speed such that the short wave directional spreads tend to broaden as the wind speed increases the scatterometer data however show greater short wave anisotropy at the higher wind speeds this measured difference could be caused by current velocity changes or by longwave directional changes across the front

paleoecology of the fire clay coal bed in a portion of the eastern kentucky coal field vertically continuous increment samples of the fire clay coal bed mid middle pennsylvanian late westphalian b collected from a portion of the central appalachian basin were studied palynologically petrographically and geochemically in order to partially reconstruct the paleoecology and processes associated with peat formation in the ancient fire clay paleomire results indicate that four compositional groups can be identified they are 1 a lycospora vitrinite dominant group characterized by high percentages of lycospora and vitrinite macerals and generally low but variable ash yields and sulfur contents 2 a mixed palynoflora high vitrinite group that petrographically is similar to group 1 except that it contains a more diverse palynoflora 3 a mixed palynoflora moderate low vitrinite group characterized by various admixtures of lycopsid fern and calamite miospores increased percentages of liptinite and inertinite macerals and low ash yields and sulfur contents and 4 a mixed palynoflora high ash yield group characterized by high percentages of small lycopsid fern and occasionally calamite and cordaite miospores high liptinite and inertinite contents high ash yields and moderate to high sulfur contents the fire clay coal bed contains a distinctive flint clay parting of probable volcanic origin that naturally divides the bed into two benches these two benches upper and lower are highly disparte in occurrence appearance and composition in the study area the lower bench generally is thin 0 5 m laterally discontinuous and mainly composed of dull mainly durain coal lithotypes ash yields typically are high sulfur contents generally are moderate to high compositional group 4 the mixed palynoflora high ash yield group defines all of the increments examined from the lower bench in contrast the upper bench is thick 0 75 m laterally continous and mainly comprised of bright mainly clarain coal lithotypes overall ash yields and sulfur contents for this bench are generally low although vertical variation is apparent all of the compositional groups occur in the upper bench in some columns notably those that are thick and uninterrupted by clastic partings groups 1 and 4 often occupy basal coal layers and groups 2 and 3 occur in higher layers other columns especially those taken in areas of thin 0 5 m fire clay coal are dominated by groups 1 and 4

a numerical model of stratified circulation in indian arm british columbia a laterally integrated numerical model has been developed for the study of stratified circulation in inlets the model is time dependent and includes advective terms horizontal and vertical turbulent diffusion of momentum and salt and variations in width and depth initial and boundary conditions based on winter measurements in burrard inlet and indian arm were used to study the inlet s response to tidal forcing the friction term was tuned to match calculated and observed dissipation rates evidence for a standing wave pattern in the response of the m2 and k1 tidal constituents is discussed a comparison of model results with cyclesonde current meter time series at two locations in indian arm is consistent with resonance a modal decomposition of the calculated response shows that most of the energy is contained in the barotropic and first baroclinic modes with the former dominating near the sill and the latter dominating in the deep basin second mode energy was significant for the k1 at some locations

geochemistry of the pond creek coal bed eastern kentucky coalfield the pond creek coal bed middle pennsylvanian breathitt formation is an important low sulfur resource in pike and martin countries in the eastern kentucky coalfield the mined area is crossed by the n20 e trending belfry anticline the pond creek coal bed has a higher sulfur content on the west side of the anticline the vertical trends in the ash geochemistry also vary across the anticline the sites to the east of the anticline represent deposition of peat through periods of relative stability with slow deposition bright lithotypes interspersed with periods of relatively rapid clastic deposition dull lithotypes both generally removed from marine influence comparison of elemental trends between the lowest bright lithotype and the second bright lithotype suggest that the swamp became less acidic with time an upward decrease in minor element concentration may be related to the influx of clays and other silicates present in the bone lithotype this bone may have acted as a relatively low nutrient soil for the growth of the plants which contributed to the overlying bright lithotype the sites to the west of the anticline were subjected to a greater marine influence than the eastern sites high k2o al2o3 ratios at the bottom and top of the coal bed and a high tio2 zr dull clarain near the bottom of the coal point to clastic influences on the geochemistry the relatively high cao percentages in the middle third of the coal bed suggest deposition at near neutral ph the upper third of the coal bed was dominated by syngenetic and epigenetic pyrite emplacement

numerical simulation of a mesolow over a gulf stream filament a three dimensional mesoscale numerical model is used to investigate mesoscale circulation over a gulf stream filament two numerical experiments are performed with different initial uniform ambient wind speeds u 0 1 m s 1 3 5 m s 1 and 7 m s 1 for a typical winter day it is found that for both low and moderate winds a closed mesoscale circulation forms over the gulf stream filament when the gulf stream filament was removed the model did not predict a mesoscale circulation the modeled circulation over the filament is in agreement with the observations suggesting that the atmospheric circulations over the filaments may be an important mechanism in the u s east coast cyclogenesis

arsenic bearing pyrite and marcasite in the fire clay coal bed middle pennsylvanian breathitt formation eastern kentucky abstract arsenic concentrations determined on 11 lithotype samples from the middle pennsylvanian breathitt group fire clay coal bed leslie county ky range from 1 to 418 ppm whole coal basis the 11 lithotype samples which vary in thickness from 4 to 18 cm were sampled from a continuous 1 38 m channel sample and were selected based on megascopic appearance vitrain rich versus attrital rich a lithotype that contains 418 ppm as is located near the top of the coal bed and is composed of 10 5 cm of bright clarain bands containing fusain that within short distances grade laterally into fe sulfide bands to determine the mode of occurrence of as in this lithotype the coal was examined with scanning electron microscopy and analyzed by energy dispersive x ray fluorescence massive framboidal cell filling cell wall replacement and radiating forms of fe sulfide were observed in the high as lithotype many of the radiating fe sulfide forms and one of the cell wall replacements contained as examination of the grains with optical light microscopy shows that the majority of radiating morphologies are pyrite the remainder are marcasite selected fe sulfide grains were also analyzed by electron microprobe microscopy arsenic concentrations within individual grains range from 0 0 wt to approximately 3 5 wt on the basis of morphology these fe sulfides are presumed to be of syngenetic origin and would probably be removed from the coal during physical coal cleaning thus eliminating a potential source of as from the coal combustion process however because the grains are radiating and have high surface area dissolution and release of as could occur if the pyrite is oxidized in refuse ponds

lateral variation in geochemistry petrology and palynology in the elswick coal bed pike county kentucky abstract the middle pennsylvanian langsettian westphalian a elswick coal bed correlative to the upper banner of virginia is a rare example of a mined high sulfur 2 coal in eastern kentucky a region known for low sulfur coals to characterize lateral variation in the geochemistry petrography and palynology of the elswick coal bed three sites were sampled along a southeast northwest transect within a single mine at the southeastern site the lower 101 cm of the 116 cm thick coal is dull generally dominated by durain and dull clarain while all benches at this site fit within the previously defined mixed palynoflora moderate low vitrinite group suggesting a stressed environment of deposition the palynology of the benches of the dull interval show greater diversity than might be expected just from the petrology lithology is generally similar between the sites but each site has some differences in the petrology overall the coal bed shows significant lateral variation in properties at the mine scale some of which can be attributed to the gain or loss of upper and lower lithologies either through an actual physical merging or through the change in character of lithotypes sulfur content varies between the three sites examined for this study site 3 located in the northwestern portion of the study area is characterized by a strikingly high sulfur zone 7 45 in the middle of the coal bed a feature missing at the other sites pyrite and marcasite in a mid seam lithotype at the northwestern site site 3 show signs of overgrowths indicating multiple generations of sulfide emplacement the high sulfur site 3 lithologies all have massive overgrowths of euhedral and framboidal pyrite fracture and cleat fill pyrite and sulfide emplacement in fusinite lumens sulfur is high throughout the mine area but variations are evident in the extent of secondary growth of sulfides

the internal tide and resonance in indian arm british columbia the nature of the internal tide in indian arm is discussed in the winter of 1983 1984 this internal tide was observed to change from a predominantly m2 internal response to a predominantly k1 one this change in the response is explained as a partial resonance response of the system during the 1983 1984 winter the resonance period steadily increased from 14 hours at the start to 22 hours at the end it is suggested that the enhanced internal response at the k1 frequency late in the winter is due to resonance the fitting of normal modes was done to look at the energy flux in indian arm about 20 30 of the energy flux is found to return from the head of the inlet a finding supporting the resonance hypothesis which requires energy to be reflected from the head

petrology and palynology of the no 5 block coal bed northeastern kentucky abstract the upper middle pennsylvanian middle westphalian d equivalent no 5 block coal bed eastern kentucky coal field of the central appalachian basin is a low sulfur compliance coal resource dominantly comprised of dull inertinite rich lithotypes ash yields tend to be highly variable in the no 5 block as does bed thickness and frequency of bed splitting this study describes the petrographic palynologic and geochemical characteristics of the no 5 block coal bed and reports on some temporal and spatial trends among these parameters in eastern northeastern kentucky petrographically the no 5 block coal is predominated by dull often high ash lithotypes with inertinite contents commonly exceeding 30 mmf the coal thins to the north northwest where it tends to be higher in vitrinite and sulfur content representatives of large and small lycopsids and ferns both tree like and small varieties dominate the no 5 block coal bed palynoflora calamite spores and cordaite pollen also occur but are less abundant small lycopsid densosporites spp and related crassicingulate genera and tree fern e g punctatisporites minutus laevigatosporites globosus spore taxa are most abundant in dull lithotypes bright lithotypes contain higher percentages of arboreous lycopsid spores lycospora spp regionally the no 5 block coal contains abundant torispora securis a tree fern spore specially adapted for desiccation prevention this along with overall high percentages of inertinite macerals suggest that peat accumulation may have taken place in a seasonally dry paleoclimate the no 5 block coal bed thickens rather dramatically in a nw se direction as does the frequency of coal bed splitting this phenomenon appears to be related to increased accomodation space in the southeastern portion of the study area perhaps via penecontemporaneous growth faulting maceral and palynomorph variations within the bed correspond with these changes thin coal along the northwestern margin tends to be vetrinite rich and contains abundant lycospora perhaps reflecting relatively stable peat forming conditions thicker coal to the southeast contains more inertinite high ash coal layers and inorganic partings spore floras contain more small lycopsid and tree fern components and are temporally variable perhaps indicating a more unstable peat forming environment

simulation of density driven frictional downslope flow in z coordinate ocean models abstract an important component of the ocean s thermohaline circulation is the sinking of dense water from continental shelves to abyssal depths such downslope flow is thought to be a consequence of bottom stress retarding the alongslope flow of density driven plumes in this paper the authors explore the potential for explicitly simulating this simple mechanism in z coordinate models a series of experiments are performed using a twin density coordinate model simulation as a standard of comparison the adiabatic nature of the experiments and the importance of bottom slope make it more likely that the density coordinate model will faithfully reproduce the solution the difficulty of maintaining the density signal as the plume descends the slope is found to be the main impediment to accurate simulation in the z coordinate model the results of process experiments suggest that the model solutions will converge when the z coordinate model has sufficient vertical resolution to resolve the bottom viscous laye

geochemistry of the blue gem coal bed knox county kentucky abstract the blue gem coal bed middle pennsylvanian westphalian b breathitt formation has low ash with some sample sites having less than 1 ash and low sulfur contents through parts of knox county kentucky most collection sites exhibit similar vertical elemental trends in ash geochemistry the relatively high ash 1 ash lower part of the bed displays enrichment in tio2 zr cr v and ni co zn rb and mn show enrichment at some sites a low ash 1 ash and a relative enrichment in sio2 k2o and rb and a relative decrease in cu ni co ba and mn when compared to the middle part of the bed principal components analysis indicates that the samples with an ash content 0 63 1 0 show associations for ni cu cr and co samples with between 1 01 2 0 ash display strong element associations that suggest increased clastic sediment contributions tio2 zr k2o rb sio2 the low ash content and the upwards decrease in trace concentrations both suggest that the blue gem peat swamp was ombrotrophic through at least a part of its geologic history

on deep water renewals in indian arm british columbia sensitivity to the production of turbulent kinetic energy caused by horizontal variations in the flow field abstract a two dimensional i e laterally averaged numerical model of the circulation in burrard inlet and indian arm near british columbia canada is used to examine the sensitivity of deep water renewal events in indian arm to the turbulent mixing in the lee of the narrow sills in burrard inlet horizontal variations in the flow field can have an important influence on the production of turbulent kinetic energy near the sills and therefore also on the renewal events in indian arm an ad hoc modification to the expression for the production of turbulent kinetic energy required to obtain an acceptable simulation downstream of second narrows in burrard inlet also results in a reasonable simulation of the observed circulation in indian arm the modified laterally averaged model can reproduce the main features of the circulation away from the narrow sills however it seems that a three dimensional model will be required if the circulation is to be simulated with greater accuracy and without the ad hoc

deep water renewal in the upper basin of loch sunart a scottish fjord abstract recording current meters were deployed near the surface and bottom in the upper basin of loch sunart during the summers of 1987 1989 and 1990 the measurements revealed frequent though irregular deep water renewal events when the basin water was replaced by density driven intrusions the data suggested that these events were induced by wind enhanced estuarine circulation during periods of low fresh water runoff a semi implicit laterally integrated estuarine model was modified to allow variable vertical grid spacing and to permit the sea surface to move vertically through the grid both modifications being necessary in order to apply the model to the sea loch environment a turbulence closure scheme was also incorporated the model can simulate the evolution of the salinity field over periods of several weeks and was used to examine the mechanisms that induce deep water renewal model results suggested that very weak stratification in the basin is required for renewal to occur and indicated

the simulation of deep water exchange in a fjord indian arm british columbia canada abstract a numerical model is used to simulate deep water renewals that were observed to occur in burrard inlet indian arm over a time period of about 100 days during winter 1984 85 the renewals bottom water flowing from burrard inlet into indian arm occurred or intensified during neap tide and caused a steady increase in the density near the bottom in indian arm the model successfully reproduces the renewal events for a simulation time of at least 85 days it uses a mellor yamada level two turbulence closure scheme for which the local turbulent energy production is balanced by local dissipation and for which the turbulent length scale is prescribed the length scale varies linearly with depth near the surface and bottom and is constrained to never be larger than 1 20 of the water depth and 2 the ozmidov length scale a lower bound is imposed on the vertical diffusion coefficients that depends on the brunt vaisala frequency n its magnitude for a given n is different in burrard inlet and in

a numerical investigation of the gulf stream and its meanders in response to cold air outbreaks the three dimensional princeton ocean model is used to examine the modification of the gulf stream and its meanders by cold air outbreaks two types of gulf stream meanders are found in the model meanders on the shoreward side of the gulf stream are baroclinically unstable they are affected little by the atmospheric forcing because their energy source is stored at the permanent thermocline well below the influence of the surface forcing meanders on the seaward side of the stream are both barotropically and baroclinically unstable the energy feeding these meanders is stored at the surface front separating the gulf stream and the sargasso sea which is greatly reduced in case of cold air outbreaks thus meanders there reduce strength and also seem to slow their downstream propagation due to the southward ekman flow heat budget calculations suggest two almost separable processes the oceanic heat released to the atmosphere during these severe cooling episodes comes almost exclusively from the upper water column transport of heat by meanders from the gulf stream to the shelf though it is large does not disrupt the principal balance it is balanced nicely with the net heat transport in the downstream direction

an analysis of the low frequency current fluctuations in the strait of georgia from june 1984 until january 1985 abstract a description of the low frequency ap 10 to 30 days period current fluctuations in the strait of georgia is presented velocity time series from four cyclesonde moorings and five current meter mooring spanning the time interval from june 1984 until january 1985 are analyzed emphasis is placed on identifying the forcing mechanisms and determining the spatial structure of low frequency flow the nonlinear interaction of semidiurnal tidal constituents with bottom topography caused a near bottom low frequency oscillation that was coherent over the span of the experimental array ap 11 km the tides were important elsewhere in the water column too and altogether directly accounted for 37 of the low frequency energy in the strait there is evidence of significant wind forcing an empirical orthogonal function analysis of the vertical structure of the current fluctuations yields strong evidence for the existence of wind forced ekman spirals typically the orthogonal modes that dominate the var

dependence of currents and density on the spring neap cycle and the diurnal inequality in burrard inlet british columbia simulations and observations abstract observations of the circulation in a hole near a constriction in burrard inlet are simulated using a two dimensional i e laterally integrated numerical model the model uses a level 2 version of the mellor yamada turbulence closure scheme during spring tides when mixing is at its most intense the density in the hole decreases increases during the large small floods and there is an up inlet current pulse into the hole during each flood regardless of the flood s strength during the large floods in particular the simulation is significantly improved if the explicit influence of horizontal spatial variations on the production of turbulent kinetic energy is taken into account during neap tides the simulated density is much less variable and the currents in the hole are much weaker in agreement with the observations the model differs from the observations in that the simulated current pulses are significantly weaker than the observed pulses possibly because the cross channel averages

a numerical model of the circulation in knight inlet british columbia canada abstract during spring 1988 a period of low freshwater runoff and summer 1989 a period of high freshwater runoff month long observations of velocity temperature and salinity were made throughout the water column in knight inlet both up inlet and down inlet of the sill measurements were made at depths of 2 4 6 9 and 12 m using s4 current meters at depths down to about 200 m using profiling current meters and at depths deeper than 200 m using aanderaa current meters anemometers were deployed at two locations along the inlet a laterally integrated two dimensional numerical model of the inlet that uses the mellor and yamada level 2 5 turbulence closure scheme and that accounts for the combined influence of the winds tides and freshwater runoff has been used to produce 30 day simulations of the velocity and density field in the inlet the vertical coordinate is transformed in the model so that very fine vertical resolution can be attained near the surface even though the tidal range is larg

the deepwater exchange cycle in indian arm british columbia abstract a silled fjord on the british columbia coast indian arm was used to study the exchange processes controlling deepwater exchange in fjords bottom water renewal took place during the winter of 1984 85 hydraulic control of the exchange is exerted over the long sill which restricts access to the fjord the maximum density at the sill occurs during neap tides no distinct peaks in the velocity at the sill are observed during periods of inflow reduced vertical mixing over the long sill during periods of neap tides sets the timing of the bottom water exchange during each inflow over the 1984 85 winter about 20 of the water in the fjord was replaced these exchanges occurred over periods of 5 10 days between the exchange years diffusion of the water in the basin is important in conditioning the water for the next exchange event the vertical diffusion coefficient k t was determined from an analysis of the salinity data and was found to be related to the buoyancy frequency n by the relationship k v n 1 6

the influence of the spring neap tidal cycle on currents and density in burrard inlet british columbia canada abstract tidal mixing through two constrictions at the entrance to a fjord type estuary in british colombia canada is studied from a mooring programme in the spring of 1995 and from ship born adcp measurements in the spring of 1997 time series from the moorings show that during spring tides currents at depth are as high as 1 5 m s 1 small floods bring outside water through the narrows relatively unmixed which sinks down to depth in contrast large floods result in intrusions of highly mixed water up to 1 kg m 3 lower in density during neap tides currents at depth are generally small density decreases slowly and turbulent vertical diffusion is believed to be the dominant process at depth analysis of vertical diffusion near the bottom at one station during neap tides produces estimates of the vertical eddy diffusivity which are somewhat higher than those from similar studies in other b c fjords results from the adcp study reveal the presence of strong vertical velocities downstream of the narrows during large floods possibly associated with hydraulic jumps the flow through the narrows at such times is indeed supercritical with respect to the first baroclinic mode

lower and lower middle pennsylvanian coal palynofloras southwestern virginia copyright c 1996 elsevier science b v all rights reserved lower and lower middle pennsylvanian coals recovered from an exploratory drilling program in southwestern virginia were analyzed for their palynomorph content results show them to be dominated by spores produced by arboreous lycopsids lycospora pellucida and lycospora pusilla generally are the most common species with others namely lycospora granulata l micropapillata and lycospora orbicula being locally abundant densosporites cristatisporites radiizonates and cingulizonates representing small lycopsids and granulatisporites produced by small ferns and perhaps some pteridosperms typically are sub dominant taxa the recovered palynofloras are similar in overall composition making individual coal bed identification and correlation very difficult if not impossible however the introduction and extinction of a few forms do assist the correlation of packages of strata on both an intra and interbasinal scale dictyotriletes bireticulatus is first observed in basal lee formation strata at about the level of the cove creek coal bed radiizonates aligerans and r striatus also appear more abundantly at this level although some forms have been observed in older pocahontas formation coals this level essentially coincides with the namurian c westphalian a boundary based on plant megafossil evidence laevigatosporites minor l vulgaris endosporites globiformis e zonalis and granasporites medius are first seen consistently just above the sewell coal bed radiizonates aligerans r striatus and densosporites irregularis are last seen in the early middle pennsylvanian at about the level of the splash dam coal bed schulzospora rara occurs throughout early and early middle pennsylvanian strata and is last seen in the manchester coal the manchester is directly overlain by the betsie shale a widespread marine unit the base of the betsie marks the westphalian a b contact when compared with palynomorph assemblage zonations published for the western interior and eastern interior basins early and early middle pennsylvanian palynofloras from the central appalachian basin compare most favorably with early morrowan strata analysis of bench samples indicates that lycospora typically dominates basal and middle portions of early and early middle pennsylvanian coals more terminal layers often contain higher percentages of granulatisporites and related trilete sphaerotriangular genera e g lophotriletes acanthotriletes deltoidsporar and densosporites and related trilete crassicingulate genera e g cristatisporites cingulizonates radiizonatesr this temporal change is consistently observed and may primarily reflect a water table change within the paleomires from consistently high covered with water or at least water logged most of the timer to intermittently low occasional substrate exposurer

multiple bench architecture and interpretations of original mire phases examples from the middle pennsylvanian of the central appalachian basin usa abstract coal seams often exhibit lateral and vertical variability in composition when sampled as a whole seam this variability is masked but if a seam is subdivided into correlateable components this variability can be tested and better understood herein an architectural approach is used to divide seams into intra seam components clastic splits and mineral partings as well as persistent fusain and durain layers can be used as intra seam bounding units to subdivide a seam into subdivisions called benches regional examination of lower and middle pennsylvanian age coal seams shows that many contain laterally persistent bounding surfaces that can be used to define multiple benches of coal within each seam inter bench analyses from some of the most extensively mined seams in the central appalachian basin show that individual benches often have different spatial and quality trends hence some component of whole seam variability is a function of changes in the relative contribution of these different benches to the seam as a whole many coal benches also exhibit intra bench variation in coal parameters intra bench variation can be analyzed in terms of parameters such as sulfur content and ash yield in order to address changes in coal quality for regional resource evaluation intra bench variation can also be analyzed in terms of a combination of palynologic petrographic and geochemical parameters termed compositional groups in order to better understand the development of the original mire systems compositional groups are defined by ranges of multiple criteria which are inferred to owe their origin to the mire type in which they formed vertical changes in compositional groups within coal benches can be used to infer paleo edaphic conditions during peat accumulation if seam thickness is a product of bench configuration and trends in compositional groups occur in benches then trends in quality can be marginally predicted based upon seam thickness and inferred bench architecture additionally changes in inter bench and intra bench thickness and compositional profiles can be used to infer original depositional controls such as paleotopography syndepositional structural movement and syndepositional clastic influx for more accurate reserve estimates

a modal decomposition of the internal tide in a deep strongly stratified inlet knight inlet british columbia this paper seeks to answer the question how much of the internal tide propagating up knight inlet british columbia is reflected by a right angled bend the internal tide in knight inlet is generated by the interaction of the barotropic tide with a shallow sill seaward of the bend it then propagates in both directions as a traveling kelvin wave the up inlet propagating wave then encounters the bend where some of it may be reflected the study is based upon 2 months of cyclesonde current meter data from four stations taken during the summers of 1981 and 1983 the vertical profiles of amplitude and phase of the m2 constituent of longitudinal velocity and density fluctuations are decomposed into a truncated series of normal modes for waves propagating both up inlet and down inlet at the two stations up inlet of the sill acceptable fits can be obtained using only two up inlet propagating waves indicating that the data are compatible with the low reflection found by webb and pond 1986 at the two stations seaward of the sill the up inlet energy flux is of the same order of magnitude as the down inlet flux indicating a second source of internal tide seaward of those two stations the results indicate that only 30 50 of the power removed from the barotropic tide is being fed into the internal tide in the summer

tidally forced internal wave mixing in a k e model framework applied to fjord basins abstract a simple method for including tidally forced internal wave mixing in a two equation turbulence closure framework the k e model is presented the purpose is to model the vertical mixing in the basin waters of stagnant sill fjords an internal wave energy iwe term of the form an where n is the buoyancy frequency and a is a weighted average of the locally available iwe is added to the equation for the turbulent kinetic energy tke the total available iwe f is given by the energy flux from the barotropic tide to baroclinic internal waves and a is determined assuming that all the available iwe is transferred to tke namely f an dv where the integral is taken over the entire volume of the fjord comparisons with observations from two scandinavian fjords show that the model successfully describes the vertical mixing in the basin water further the buoyancy term in the equation for dissipation of tke e is found to be irrelevant during stable stratification that is the empirical param

marine boundary layer structure and circulation in the region of offshore redevelopment of a cyclone during gale abstract marine boundary layer structure and circulation is documented for the 24 february 1986 case of offshore redevelopment of a cyclone during the genesis of atlantic lows experiment gale intensive observing period iop 9 mesoscale and satellite information emphasize that the onshore cyclone is not well organized as it moves offshore to the cold shelf waters with redevelopment occurring later over the gulf stream region within hours of redevelopment low level aircraft data were obtained in the region vertical aircraft profiles down by the national center for atmospheric research ncar king air in the vicinity of redevelopment over the gulf stream as well as the midshelf front region and cold shelf waters reveal two distinct boundary layers over the gulf stream region approximately 50 km south southwest of the redeveloping cyclone the near neutral marine boundary layer h l 6 6 capped by layered stratocumulus is characterized by a low cloud base 360 m relatively thick stratocumulus c

a numerical study of the tidal circulation and buoyancy effects in a scottish fjord loch torridon 1 the tidal and buoyancy driven circulation in loch torridon a scottish fjord is investigated using a three dimensional hydrostatic primitive equation model the predictions from the model have been quantitatively compared to available data gathered between 1998 and 2001 the model performed well in reproducing the tidal characteristics and density evolution of the fjord over the 3 month simulation period results show that tidal currents are dominated by the constraint imposed on the flow by the shallow sill separating the upper and middle basins the flow is strongly accelerated during flood and ebb tides and significant residual currents are generated that may influence exchange and residence times of the middle basin a strong baroclinic response to the flow over the sill is predicted throughout the fjord with a propagating linear m2 tide displacing isopycnals vertically by up to 32 m at the sill the formation of stationary lee waves on both flood and ebb tides is predicted with the wave generated during flood tide being notably larger as the growth of the ebb wave is inhibited by deep dense water this allows more energy to transfer into the seaward propagating internal tide as the tidal flow weakens the lee waves propagate over the sill and upstream estimates of the total vertical turbulent buoyancy flux in the fjord are made and the distribution of mixing over a tidal cycle is shown vertical mixing is seen to be highly spatially and temporally variable and strongly linked to the presence and dissipation of lee waves near the sill

a model study of density intrusions into and circulation within a deep silled estuary puget sound a laterally averaged hydrodynamical model is used to investigate episodic intrusions of denser more oceanic water across the shallow double silled entrance of puget sound and the resulting circulation within the interior deep basin tidal freshwater discharge and wind effects are also encompassed in model results model simulations were made of the 4 month period from december 1983 through march 1984 during that period hourly measurements of currents and salinity were made at the estuary entrance and on four moorings in the interior basin the first 60 days of salinity data were used with the model to choose rates of vertical turbulent mixing and the lag times between fresh water appearance at river gauges and its arrival in the main basin of the sound comparison of model results with the full 120 days of salinity and velocity data shows that the model incorporates the important circulation features of this estuary the model was then used to study intrusions and mixing in the sill region the model identifies these factors as controls on the occurrence and strength of intrusions the trans sill salinity gradient the intensity of tidal stirring and mixing over the sills the supply of fresher surface water resulting from river runoff and the winds time series of salinities in the interior basin show local maxima following local maxima in the trans sill salinity difference vertical transport in the sill region at both tidal and subtidal time scales is dominated by advection rather than diffusion though much of the vertical exchange occurs over the shallower sill a depth depression between the two entrance sills appears to be the site of significant overturning downwelling of surface water occurs on the landward side of both sills substantial freshening of the interior basin occurs during the winter months because river discharges are large and are stirred downward in the sill region to be entrained into landward bottom flows extraordinarily large river discharges can suppress the effect of large trans sill salinity differences with the effect of weakening potential intrusions winds can indirectly influence intrusions by longitudinally positioning fresher river influenced surface water in the sill region winds can directly influence intrusions via bottom compensation flows in admiralty inlet with northward winds encouraging intrusions and by changing salinities at the entrance to the sound and thus the trans sill salinity gradient