geothermal history estimated from the coalification of organic matter abstract an empirical relationship is used between the rank of coal and the subsidence history as well as the geothermal condition within a sedimentary column to estimate geothermal gradients at some locations in the southern part of germany most of the boreholes investigated arc located in the middle part of the upper rhinegraben a higher temperature gradient is indicated during the lower tertiary up to 78 c km than during the upper tertiary up to 49 c km the recent temperature gradients up to 77 c km are higher than those estimated for the upper tertiary the coal rank of the borehole urach 3 reflects a thermal regime which agrees with the measured temperature gradient 46 c km two boreholes in the molasse trough show a low and constant thermal regime during the tertiary 23 to 25 c km which agrees with the thermal regime at present

a revised conceptual model of the tropical marine boundary layer part iii bragg scattering layer statistical properties abstractthis paper examines the structure and variability of the moisture field in the tropical marine boundary layer tmbl as defined by bragg scattering layers bsls observed with s band radar typically four to five bsls were present in the tmbl including the transition layer at the top of the surface based mixed layer the transition layer depth 350 m exhibited a weak diurnal cycle because of changes in the mixed layer depth bsls and the clear layers between them each had a median thickness of about 350 m and a lifetime over the radar of 8 4 h with about 25 having lifetimes longer than 20 h more fewer bsls were present when surface winds had a more southerly northerly component both bsls and clear layers increased in depth with increasing rain rates with the rainiest days producing layers that were about 100 m thicker than those on the driest days the analyses imply that the relative humidity rh field in the tmbl exhibits layering on scales observable by radar satellite and wind

diurnally modulated cumulus moistening in the preonset stage of the madden julian oscillation during dynamo abstractatmospheric soundings radar and air sea flux measurements collected during dynamics of the madden julian oscillation dynamo are employed to study mjo convective onset i e the transition from shallow to deep convection in the tropical indian ocean the findings indicate that moistening of the low midtroposphere during the preonset stage of the mjo is achieved by simultaneous changes in the convective cloud population and large scale circulation namely cumuliform clouds deepen and grow in areal coverage as the drying by large scale subsidence and horizontal westerly advection wane the reduction of large scale subsidence is tied to the reduction of column radiative cooling during the preonset stage which ultimately links back to the evolving cloud population while net column moistening in the preonset stage is tied to large scale circulation changes a new finding of this study is the high degree to which the locally driven diurnal cycle invigorates convective clouds and cumulus moiste

gravity waves generated by convection during twp ice i inertia gravity waves gravity waves are analyzed in radiosonde soundings taken during the tropical warm pool international cloud experiment twp ice campaign the properties of the inertia gravity waves are analyzed in part i whereas part ii focuses on high frequency gravity waves two groups of inertia gravity waves are detected group l long vertical wavelength in the middle stratosphere during the suppressed monsoon period and group s short vertical wavelength in the lower stratosphere during the monsoon break period waves belonging to group l propagate to the southeast with a mean intrinsic period of 35 h and have vertical and horizontal wavelengths of about 5 6 km and 3000 6000 km respectively ray tracing calculations indicate that these waves originate from a deep convective region near indonesia waves belonging to group s propagate to the south southeast with an intrinsic period vertical wavelength and horizontal wavelength of about 45 h 2 km and 2000 4000 km respectively these waves appear to originate from convection in the vicinity of new guinea

equatorial dry air intrusion and related synoptic variability in mjo initiation during dynamo abstractdynamics of the madden julian oscillation dynamo was conducted over the equatorial indian ocean io from october 2011 to march 2012 during mid to late november a strong madden julian oscillation mjo event denoted mjo 2 initiated in the western io and passed through the dynamo observation array dry air intrusions associated with synoptic variability in the equatorial region played a key role in the evolution of mjo 2 first a sharp dry air intrusion surging from the subtropics into the equatorial region suppresses convection in the itcz south of the equator this diminishes subsidence on the equator associated with the itcz convection which leads to an equatorward shift of convection it is viewed as a contributing factor for the onset of equatorial convection in mjo 2 once the mjo convection is established a second type of dry air intrusion is related to synoptic gyres within the mjo convective envelope the westward propagating gyres draw drier air from the subtropics into the equa

geochemistry and origin of saline groundwaters in the fennoscandian shield chemical and isotopic analyses of water from drill holes and mines throughout the fennoscandian shield show that distinct layers of groundwater are present an upper layer of fresh groundwater is underlain by several sharply differentiated saline layers which may differ in salinity relative abundance of solutes and o h sr and s isotope signature saline groundwater can be classified into four major groups based on geochemistry and presumed origin brackish and saline waters from 50 200 m depth in coastal areas around the baltic sea exhibit distinct marine chemical and isotopic fingerprints modified by reactions with host rocks these waters represent relict holocene seawater inland three types of saline groundwater are observed an uppermost layer of brackish and saline water from 300 900 m depth saline water and brines from 1000 2000 m depth and superdeep brines which have been observed to a depth of at least 11 km in the drill hole on the kola peninsula u s s r electrical and seismic studies in shield areas suggest that such brines are commonly present at even greater depths the salinity of all inland groundwaters is attributed predominantly to water rock interaction the main solutes are cl ca na and mg in varying proportions depending on the host rock lithology the abundance of dissolved gases increases with depth but varies from site to site the main gas components are n2 ch4 up to 87 vol and locally h2 the 13c value for methane is highly variable 25 to 46 and it is suggested that hydrothermal or metamorphic gases trapped within the surrounding rocks are the most obvious source of ch4 the uppermost saline water has meteoric oxygen hydrogen isotopic compositions whereas values from deeper water plot above the meteoric water line indicating considerably longer mean residence time and effective low temperature equilibration with host rocks geochemical and isotopic results from some localities demonstrate that the upper saline water cannot have been formed through simple mixing between fresh water and deep brines but rather is of independent origin the source of water itself has not been satisfactorily verified although superdeep brines at least may contain a significant proportion of relict precambrian hydrothermal or metamorphic fluids

chemical evolution of rare earth elements fractionation between colloidal and solution phases of filtered river water abstract within the dissolved fraction of connecticut river water there is large scale fractionation of rare earth elements between colloidal and solution phases colloidal particles carry a large part of the dissolved ree pool filtration through filters with progressively smaller pore size 0 45 0 22 and 0 025 m results in filtrates with lower absolute concentrations of ree and more fractionated compositions with decreasing pore size the filtrates have shale normalized abundances which become systematically more depleted in the lree relative to the hree hence both the solution and colloidal phases are significantly fractionated with respect to the dissolved fraction these conclusions are consistent with previous studies of ree in rivers estuaries and soils and with surface solution speciation models colloids play an important role in the aquatic geochemistry of rare earth elements they are responsible for the fractionation of ree during the estuarine removal of ree the removal of suspended and colloidal particles from river water leaves the solution phase of river water with compositions of ree as evolved as those of surface seawater hence the evolution of the composition of ree in river water and seawater is significantly influenced by colloid formation during chemical weathering on the continents

first observations of turbulence parameters in the troposphere over the bay of bengal and the arabian sea using radiosonde 1 this paper discusses the turbulence characteristics of the free atmosphere over the bay of bengal and the arabian sea during the premonsoon season of 2006 the turbulence scaling concepts developed over the past decades for application to oceanic mixing are used for retrieving turbulence properties in the free atmosphere from high resolution soundings as described by clayson and kantha 2008 the variability in the vertical turbulence structure over a large spatial region is studied using this novel method for the first time investigations revealed the presence of a highly turbulent band at upper troposphere below the cold point tropopause cpt with significant enhancements in thorpe length and eddy diffusion coefficient this increased turbulence is studied in conjunction with the observations of the tropical tropopause layer ttl it is seen that the lower and upper boundaries of this turbulence band nearly coincide with the height where the potential temperature lapse rate begins to show a decrease lrhmin and cold point tropopause respectively the ttl is the transition regime from convectively dominated troposphere to radiatively dominated stratosphere and is characterized by a decrease in the static stability the enhanced zonal and meridional wind shear observed in this region shows that the stability in this region is further weakened because of the breaking of kelvin helmholtz waves which results in the enhancement of turbulence the study reveals the potential of high resolution soundings to be used in the investigations of turbulence in the free atmosphere

evidence of gravity wave saturation and local turbulence production in the summer mesosphere and lower thermosphere during the state experiment this study utilizes the unique data set obtained during the structure and atmospheric turbulence environment state experiment conducted during june 1983 at poker flat alaska to examine the structure and characteristics of the wave field near the summer mesopause it is shown that the rocket and radar data together permit a much more detailed specification of wave parameters than would be possible using either data set alone the results of this analysis suggest that the wave field near the summer mesopause is composed in general of a superposition of wave motions which act collectively to produce regions in which the wave field is convectively or dynamically unstable these regions are found to correlate well with zones of enhanced turbulence and small scale wave activity suggesting the processes and effects of wave field saturation

origin of rare earth element signatures in groundwaters of circumneutral ph from southern nevada and eastern california usa concentrations of the rare earth elements ree were measured in circumneutral ph groundwaters from southern nevada and death valley ca groundwaters from the regional lower paleozoic carbonate rock aquifer cambrian devonian have flat shale normalized patterns that closely resemble the shale normalized patterns of the aquifer rock samples principally cambrian groundwaters associated with younger carbonate rocks chiefly permian in the study region exhibit heavy ree hree enriched shale normalized ree patterns with substantial negative ce anomalies that also mimic these carbonate rocks in addition groundwaters from the felsic volcanic rock aquifers have the same flat to light ree lree enriched shale normalized patterns with large negative eu anomalies as the felsic volcanic rocks the similar ree patterns of all the groundwaters and associated aquifer rocks studied suggest that the groundwaters inherited ree signatures from the host rocks through which they flow because negative ce anomalies are not an uncommon feature of carbonate rocks of marine origin the negative ce anomalies reported here for these groundwaters may reflect a permian marine ce signature previously we demonstrated that carbonate complexes dominate ree speciation in southern nevada and death valley groundwaters moreover solid liquid partitioning coefficients kd indicate that the affinity of lrees to sorb to aquifer surface sites is substantially greater than for the hrees in the southern nevada carbonate and felsic volcanic rock alluvial aquifers consequently the hrees enrichments reported here for groundwaters associated with younger paleozoic carbonate rocks compared to these source rocks is consistent with ree carbonate complexation and preferential removal of lrees to aquifer surface sites

radiosonde observations of partially trapped lee waves over tasmania australia a well defined family of lee waves over southern tasmania australia is analyzed using a routine radiosonde sounding released from hobart at 1100 utc june 18 1991 pronounced fluctuations in the ascent rate of the radiosonde are analyzed using a new technique called the horizontal projection method the dominant horizontal wavelength is found to be 8249 m an advanced very high resolution radiometer avhrr infrared satellite image at 1554 utc is used to check this calculation and gives a horizontal wavelength of 8 9 1 4 km the horizontal projection method takes account of the vertical variation of background flow and the trajectory of the radiosonde when the scorer parameter is a strong function of height as is the case with the 1100 utc sounding it is inappropriate to assume that the vertical wavenumber is constant with height in particular the vertical wavelength at low levels is about 4 5 km the waves become evanescent between the heights of 2 5 km and 9 km and above that the vertical wavelength is typically 10 15 km as a consistency check linear wave theory is used to calculate the resonant wave modes supported by the background profiles of wind and potential temperature these are the wave modes that are most likely responsible for the lee wave clouds seen in the avhrr satellite image the horizontal wavelength for the resonant wave mode is 8188 m in agreement with the estimates based on the avhrr satellite image and from the horizontal projection method the paper highlights the dangers of interpreting radiosonde soundings as vertical snapshots of the atmosphere and assuming that the vertical wavenumber can be characterized by a single value it is shown that treating the radiosonde sounding as a vertical profile and analysing wave like structures in the ascent rate using standard spectral methods gives an incorrect vertical wavelength of 1906 238 m the paper concludes that operational radiosonde soundings can be used to make accurate quantitative measurements of orographically generated waves provided that the vertical variation in the background flow and the motion of the radiosonde through the wave field are taken into account

convective characteristics of the madden julian oscillation over the central indian ocean observed by shipborne radar during dynamo abstractthis study investigates the convective population and environmental conditions during three mjo events over the central indian ocean in late 2011 using measurements collected from the research vessel r v roger revelle deployed in dynamics of the mjo dynamo radar based rainfall estimates from the revelle c band radar are first placed in the context of larger scale tropical rainfall measuring mission trmm rainfall data to demonstrate that the reduced revelle radar range captured the mjo convective evolution time series analysis and mjo phase based composites of revelle measurements both support the recharge discharge mjo theory time series of echo top heights indicate that convective deepening during the mjo onset occurs over a 12 16 day period composite statistics show evident recharging discharging features in convection and the environment population of shallow isolated convective cells sst cape and the lower tropospheric moisture increase recharge substantially approximately tw

observation of gravity wave generation and breaking in the lowermost stratosphere measurements with the aberystwyth vhf radar have revealed a striking illustration of gravity wave generation and breaking in the lowermost stratosphere horizontal wind measurements show an inertia gravity wave that was essentially monochromatic and persisted for longer than 5 days with a maximum perturbation amplitude of approximately 10 ms 1 radiosonde measurements show that this wave induced shear instability that led to intense turbulence close to the tropopause the event was associated with a highly curved jet stream over europe suggesting that geostrophic adjustment was a likely source mechanism

a revised conceptual model of the tropical marine boundary layer part ii detecting relative humidity layers using bragg scattering from s band radar abstractpersistent layers of enhanced equivalent radar reflectivity factor and reduced spectral width were commonly observed within cloud free regions of the tropical marine boundary layer tmbl with the national center for atmospheric research s pol radar during the rain in cumulus over the ocean rico field campaign bragg scattering is shown to be the primary source of these layers two mechanisms are proposed to explain the bragg scattering layers bsls the first involving turbulent mixing and the second involving detrainment and evaporation of cloudy air these mechanisms imply that bsls should exist in layers with tops bases defined by local relative humidity rh minima maxima the relationship between bsls and rh is explored an equation for the vertical gradient of radio refractivity n is derived and a scale analysis is used to demonstrate the close relationship between vertical rh and n gradients this is tested using the derived radar bsl boundary altitudes 131 surface based soundings

behavior of li rb and cs during basalt glass and olivine dissolution and chlorite smectite and zeolite precipitation from seawater experimental investigations and modelization between 50 and 300 c abstract this study investigates experimentally the behavior of li rb and cs during the hydrothermal alteration of a basalt glass and of forsterite the behavior of trace alkalis during the dissolution of a basalt glass and forsterite has been followed between 150 and 300 c rb and cs are preferentially leached from the glass while li exhibits a stoichiometric release with respect to silica on the other hand incongruent loss of li relative to si during forsterite dissolution reflects a crystallographic site energy control of the release of trace elements from crystalline silicates the partitioning of li rb and cs between hydrothermal solutions and chlorites smectites and zeolites has been experimentally investigated between 50 and 260 c the alteration phases were synthesized by altering silicate glasses in solutions containing the trace alkalis the lower the temperature the higher the exchange capacity of the mineral or the lower the ionic hydration energy then the more the element is incorporated into the solid phases computer simulations generated with the eq3 6 software package and our experimental data on distribution coefficients account for the behavior of alkali trace elements during the alteration of basalt glasses by seawater at mid ocean ridges

evolution properties and spatial variability of mjo convection near and off the equator during dynamo abstractthis study investigates the evolution structure and spatial variability of madden julian oscillation mjo convection observed during the 2011 12 dynamics of the mjo dynamo field campaign generally the c band radars located in the near equatorial indian ocean shared mobile atmospheric research and teaching radar smart r on addu atoll gan and nasa toga on the r v roger revelle revelle observed similar trends in echo top heights stratiform rain fraction and precipitation feature size across the mjo life cycle these trends are closely related to changes in mid to upper tropospheric moisture sea surface temperature sst zonal wind and diagnosed vertical air motions however the evolution of convection moisture and vertical air motion at the r v mirai mirai located in the intertropical convergence zone itcz at 8 s exhibited a pattern nearly opposite to gan and revelle when the mjo was active over the equator convection was suppressed around mirai owing to induced subsiden

the role of shallow cloud moistening in mjo and non mjo convective events over the arm manus site abstractobservations from the atmospheric radiation measurement program arm site at manus island in the western pacific and re analysis products are used to investigate moistening by shallow cumulus clouds and by the circulation in large scale convective events large scale convective events are defined as rainfall anomalies larger than one standard deviation for a minimum of three consecutive days over a 10 10 domain centered at manus these events are categorized into two groups madden julian oscillation mjo events with eastward propagation and non mjo events without propagation shallow cumulus clouds are identified as continuous time height echoes from 1 min cloud radar observations with their tops below the freezing level and their bases within the boundary layer daily moistening tendencies of shallow clouds estimated from differences between their mean liquid water content and precipitation over their presumed life spans and those of physical processes and advection from re analysis

characteristics of kelvin waves and gravity waves observed with radiosondes over indonesia profiles of wind velocity and temperature at 0 35 km were observed by means of radiosondes in west java indonesia during november 1992 and april 1993 and used to study the behavior of various atmospheric waves in the equatorial atmosphere an oscillation of zonal winds with a period of about 27 days was found in the troposphere which was associated with variations in humidity and cloud top height kelvin waves showed phase progression beginning at cloud top height 13 16 km and were particularly enhanced near the tropopause the kelvin waves strongly modulated the tropopause structure including the tropopause height minimum temperature and atmospheric stability a hodograph analysis was applied to determine the propagation characteristics of inertial gravity waves height variation of the vertical group velocity suggests that the gravity waves were generated in the troposphere while the horizontal phase velocity distribution suggests that they were interacting with the background mean zonal winds these wave activities were enhanced when tall convective clouds passed over the site suggesting that cumulus convection seems to play a key role in generating these waves in the equatorial region

turbulence characteristics over tropical station gadanki 13 5 n 79 2 e estimated using high resolution gps radiosonde data 1 seasonal variation of the turbulence parameters refractivity structure constant cn2 eddy dissipation rate and eddy diffusivity k is presented using 3 years april 2006 to march 2009 of high vertical resolution gps radiosonde measurements over the tropical station gadanki 13 5 n 79 2 e first a correlation analysis was done in order to study the relative contributions of temperature t and relative humidity rh to the refractive index gradient m a strong positive negative correlation between m and rh t gradients is noticed up to 10 km above 10 km a strong positive correlation between m and t gradients is seen except at altitudes near the tropopause in the present study we flag the turbulent layers using the thorpe sorting method and estimate the structure constant cn2 for the turbulent layers the probability of occurrence of cn2 is derived from the cumulative distribution at each height and is found to decrease from 10 7 to 10 17 m 2 3 with height the probability of the occurrence of cn2 conditioned to the occurrence of turbulence as a function of height is derived and it is found that only the mean and the 90th percentile profile reach an altitude of 27 km the demarcation between the boundary layer and the free atmosphere as well as between the troposphere and the stratosphere are quite clear from the turbulence profile which allows us to identify the boundary layer and tropopause heights from turbulence profiles thus the present analysis introduces an alternative approach to identify the height of the boundary layer as well as the tropopause and also to characterize the probability of turbulence and thickness of turbulent eddies in the atmosphere with a finer scale size down to 5 m for the first time from a tropical latitude

the occurrence of cirrus clouds associated with eastward propagating equatorial n 0 inertio gravity and kelvin waves in november 2011 during the cindy2011 dynamo campaign 1 cirrus cloud variability associated with n 0 eastward inertio gravity equatorial waves and equatorial kelvin waves both with the period of 4 days and equatorial kelvin wave with another periodicity 16 days were observed in the tropical indian ocean 8 0 s 80 5 e in november of 2011 during the cooperative indian ocean experiment on intraseasonal variability in the year 2011 cindy2011 dynamics of the madden julian oscillation dynamo field campaign using balloon borne cryogenic frostpoint hygrometers vaisala radiosondes and a shipborne high spectral resolution lidar system during early to mid november the cirrus cloud appearance corresponded primarily with high supersaturation and high relative humidity caused by the temperature disturbances associated with the 4 day waves between 12 km altitude and the cold point tropopause the cirrus clouds disappeared under the unfavorable downward wind and dry conditions that were caused by the 4 day waves although the 16 day wave was generating favorable conditions our multi instrument cirrus measurements revealed that we must consider the phases of various overlapping waves when estimating dehydration efficiency caused by cirrus clouds around the cold point tropopause

evolution of the population of precipitating convective systems over the equatorial indian ocean in active phases of the madden julian oscillation three dimensional radar reflectivity fields from a dual wavelength doppler polarimetric radar s polka deployed in the equatorialindian ocean are used to evaluate the composition of the populationof convective cloud elements during active phases of the mjo rainfall in active periods was intermittent occurring in 11 episodesofabout 2 4days separated byseveralnonrainydays dataforthese 2 dayperiodswerecomposited relative to the time of maximum rainfall analysis of the s polka data shows the makeup of the convective population during the rainfall episodes four types of echo structures were analyzed statistically for the 11 rainfallepisodes shallowconvectiveechoes sce deepconvectivecores dcc wideconvectiveechocores wcc and broad stratiform bsr echo regions sce and dcc events were most frequent before the maximum rainfall with the peak frequency of sce leading that of dccs wccs were most frequent during therainfallmaximum and bsr regionswere most frequentinthe later part oftherainfallepisode composited ecmwf interim re analysis era interim data and 3 hourly atmospheric soundings indicate that the 2 4 day episodes were related to the passage of equatorial waves in the early part of a rainfall episode the wave passageconditionswereunstable favoringdeeppenetratingconvectiveelements whileinthelaterperiod the wave divergence profile was commensurate with convective systems in late anvil producing stages these results support the stretched building block notion of the life cycle of tropical convection and confirm satellitebased interpretations of sce dcc wcc and bsr statistics in the composition of the convective population

distribution of rare earth elements in crystalline bedrock groundwaters oslo and bergen regions norway abstract one hundred and fifty norwegian bedrock groundwater samples from bergen and from vestfold oslofjord have been analysed by icp ms techniques at two laboratories for a large suite of trace elements including rare earth elements rees and y the bedrock lithologies include granites dominated by the permian drammen granite and permian latites rhomb porphyries from oslofjord and caledonian precambrian granitic and gneissic lithologies in the bergen area the rees show good correlation with each other with the exception of eu rees generally show a weak negative correlation with ph ree concentrations are highest in waters in acidic lithologies and generally decrease with increasing atomic weight yttrium la ce and nd are the most abundant rees in the waters with median concentrations exceeding 0 1 g l on crustal paas normalised plots distinct geochemical signatures are observed for the different lithologies most groundwaters exhibit negative eu anomalies on such plots except for latitic waters from the oslo area which show a positive eu anomaly aquifer host rock normalised plots for groundwaters from vestfold indicate minor enrichment in heavier rees and depletion in ce during water rock interaction

evolution of precipitation and convective echo top heights observed by trmm radar over the indian ocean during dynamo radar data from the tropical rainfall measuring mission show the evolution of echo tops of convective elements over the indian ocean and maritime continent during the dynamics of the madden julian oscillation dynamo field campaign of 2011 2012 echo top heights exhibited a bimodal distribution wherein cumulonimbi of moderate height constituted a congestus mode while vertically extensive cumulonimbus made up a deep mode an intraseasonal time scale dominated variability in these modes from october to january over much of the indian ocean over the maritime continent there was no clear intraseasonal signal in convective echo top heights where the intraseasonal oscillation was detected radar echoes evolved from being dominated by the congestus mode to being characterized by more deep mode convection on time scales of less than 1 week the areal coverage of congestus echoes began to increase 2 8 days prior to the rise in area of deep echoes these satellite derived results confirm that the time scale for convective deepening seen at individual dynamo observational sites is consistent with that of convection on the large scale over the indian ocean intraseasonal variability of zonal wind temperature and humidity as depicted by reanalysis is also consistent with that derived from rawinsonde observations during dynamo thus the gradual buildup of convection as depicted by recent versions of the discharge recharge hypothesis does not accurately describe evolutions of convection prior to mjo events observed during dynamo although cloud moistening processes may still be relevant on time scales of 1 week or less

gravity wave activity associated with tropical convection detected in toga coare sounding data upper air sounding data collected at santa cruz 10 s 165 e in the western tropical pacific ocean during november 1992 february 1993 have been used to estimate the gravity wave activity in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere large amplitude gravity waves with vertical wavelengths of 2 5 km were found in almost all the soundings time series describing the wave activity in two height ranges 10 17 km the upper troposphere and 17 24 km the lower stratosphere are presented and compared to simple measures of the convective cloud activity there is enhanced gravity wave activity associated with increased convection on intraseasonal timescales

vertical fluctuation energy in united states high vertical resolution radiosonde data as an indicator of convective gravity wave sources 1 convectively generated internal gravity waves at extratropical latitudes are difficult to identify by climatological analysis of the temperature and horizontal wind fields from radiosonde profiles using traditional analysis methods here we show that by analyzing ascent rate profiles we define a new variable vertical fluctuation energy ve we can identify convection sources in climatological analyses analysis of a 9 year time series 1998 2006 of united states high vertical resolution radiosonde data shows that ve maximizes in summer in midlatitudes within the troposphere 2 8 9 km and peaks at local afternoon early evening during the summer over most of the contiguous united states furthermore the apparent dominant vertical wavelength based on fourier analysis of the low pass filtered ascent rate fluctuations also increase and decrease with ve both on diurnal and seasonal timescales ve in the lower stratosphere however does not show this same relationship to convection but analysis of the vertical wavelength does show some of the features seen in tropospheric ve unlike midlatitude stations ve within both the troposphere and the lower stratosphere over tropical western pacific island stations is highly correlated with convective precipitation and inversely correlated with outgoing longwave radiation we interpret this difference by using the 4 d gravity wave regional or global ray tracer ray tracing model with a source spectrum representative of a convection source

a meridional scan of the stratospheric gravity wave field over the ocean in 2001 messo2001 1 in order to examine gravity wave characteristics over the ocean we conducted a radiosonde observation campaign to scan the stratosphere meridionally over the middle pacific with hakuho maru research vessel operated by the ocean research institute university of tokyo seventy vertical profiles of temperature winds and humidity were successfully obtained over a wide latitude range of 28 n to 48 s with an interval of 1 degree gravity wave energy and vertical wavenumber spectra were examined as a function of latitude gravity wave energy is maximized in the tropical region where the convection is active and in the middle latitude region where the subtropical westerly jet is situated the wave energy in the tropical region is greater than the climatology based on operational radiosonde observation over land regions the gravity wave amplitude does not necessarily increase with altitude in contradiction to simple vertical propagation the latitudinal distribution of wave energy rather suggests that gravity waves propagate meridionally toward higher latitudes an interesting feature is that a wave packet having large horizontal wind and temperature amplitudes is observed continuously over 7 days in the latitudinal region extending 26 degrees results of hodograph analysis indicate that the wave packet is due to an inertia gravity wave with horizontal and vertical wavelengths of about 1800 km and 4 5km respectively this inertia gravity wave is likely generated in association with vigorous convection in the intertropical convergence zone itcz in the northern hemisphere and propagated southward interhemispherically the results in this study show that there are strong nonstationary gravity wave sources over the ocean the importance of meridionally propagating gravity waves is discussed

convectively generated gravity waves observed from radiosonde data taken during mctex the properties of gravity waves generated by deep tropical convective systems are analysed from radiosonde soundings taken during the maritime continent thunderstorm experiment and the results compared against recent cloud scale numerical modelling of convectively generated waves fluctuations in the ascent rate of the radiosonde are used to characterize the high frequency waves whereas the zonal wind fluctuations are used to determine the properties of the inertia gravity waves the density weighted vertical velocity variance shows a pronounced diurnal cycle with the largest amplitude gravity waves developing during the early afternoon following the development of deep convection in contrast the density weighted horizontal velocity variance and by implication the inertia gravity wave activity shows no diurnal variation simple theoretical analysis shows that the observations on 27 november 1995 are consistent with a westward propagating gravity wave with a horizontal wavelength of 17 km and a source frequency equal to 0 007 rad s 1 these findings are consistent also with a high resolution numerical model simulation for the same day nonetheless the character of the high frequency gravity waves cannot be uniquely determined from a single radiosonde sounding copyright 2003 royal meteorological society

tropospheric turbulence over the tropical open ocean role of gravity waves a large set of soundings obtained in the indian ocean during 3 field campaigns is used to provide statistical characteristics of tropospheric turbulence and its link with gravity wave gw activity the thorpe method is used to diagnose turbulent regions of a few hundred meters depth above the mixed layer turbulence frequency varies from 10 in the lower troposphere up to 30 around 12km heights gw are captured by their signature in horizontal wind normalized temperature and balloon vertical ascent rate these parameters emphasize different parts of the wave spectrum from longer to shorter vertical wavelengths respectively composites are constructed in order to reveal the vertical structure of the waves and their link with turbulence the relatively longer wavelength gw described by their signature in temperature gwt are more active in the lower troposphere where they are associated with clear variations in moisture turbulence is then associated with minimum static stability and vertical shear stressing the importance of the former and the possibility of convective instability conversely the short waves described by their signature in balloon ascent rate gww are detected primarily in the upper troposphere and their turbulence is associated with a vertical shear maximum suggesting the importance of dynamic instability furthermore gww appear to be linked with local convection whereas gwt are more active in suppressed and dry phases in particular of the madden julian oscillation these waves maybe associated with remote sources such as organized convection or local fronts such as those associated with dry air intrusions

major and trace element compositions including ree of mineral thermal mine and surface waters in sw germany and implications for water rock interaction abstract the near surface water cycle in a geologically complex area comprises very different sources including meteoric metamorphic and magmatic ones fluids from these sources can react with sedimentary magmatic and or metamorphic rocks at various depths the current study reports a large number of major minor and trace element analyses of meteoric mineral thermal and mine waters from a geologically well known and variable area of about 200 150 km in sw germany the geology of this area comprises a variscan granitic and gneissic basement overlain in parts by triassic and jurassic shales sandstones and limestones in both the basement and the sedimentary rocks hydrothermal mineralization occurs including pb cu as zn u co and many others which were mined in former times mineral waters thermal waters and meteoric waters flowing through abandoned mines mine waters are distributed throughout the area although the mine waters concentrate in and around the schwarzwald the present analyses show that the major element composition of a particular water is determined by the type of surrounding rock e g crystalline or sedimentary rocks and the depth from which the water originates for waters from crystalline rocks it is the origin of the water that determines whether the sample is na cl dominant deeper origin or ca hco3 dominant shallow origin in contrast compositions of waters from sedimentary rocks are determined by the availability of easily soluble minerals like calcite ca hco3 dominant halite na cl dominant or gypsum ca so4 dominant major element data alone cannot therefore be used to trace the origin of a water however the combination of major element composition with trace element data can provide further information with respect to flow paths and fluid rock interaction processes accordingly trace element analyses showed that ce anomalies can be used as an indicator for the origin of a water whereas surface waters have negative or strongly negative ce anomalies waters originating from greater depths show no or only weak negative ce anomalies eu anomalies can be used to differentiate between host rocks waters from gneisses display positive eu anomalies whereas waters from granites have negative ones waters from sedimentary rocks do not display any eu anomalies rb and cs can also be indicators for the rock with which the fluid interacted rb and cs correlate positively in most waters with rb cs ratios of 2 which suggests that these waters are in equilibrium with the clay minerals in the rocks rb cs ratios 5 indicate reaction of a water with existing clay minerals whereas rb cs ratios the chemical compositions of carbonate precipitates from thermal waters indicate that rare earth elements rees rb and cs concentrations in the minerals are controlled by the incorporation of clay particles that adsorb these elements

mu radar and lidar observations of clear air turbulence underneath cirrus abstract turbulence generation mechanisms prevalent in the atmosphere are mainly shear instabilities breaking of internal buoyancy waves and convective instabilities such as thermal convection due to heating of the ground in the present work clear air turbulence underneath a cirrus cloud base is described owing to coincident observations from the vhf 46 5 mhz middle and upper atmosphere mu radar a rayleigh mie raman rmr lidar and a balloon radiosonde on 7 8 june 2006 at shigaraki japan 34 85 n 136 10 e time height cross section of lidar backscatter ratio obtained at 2206 lt 7 june 2006 showed the presence of a cirrus layer between 8 0 and 12 5 km msl downward penetrating structures of ice crystals with horizontal and vertical extents of 1 0 4 0 km and 200 800 m respectively have been detected at the cirrus cloud base for about 35 min at the same time the mu radar data revealed clear air turbulence layers developing downward from the cloud base in the environment of the protuberances

hydrogeochemistry groundwater ages and sources of salts in a granitic batholith on the canadian shield southeastern manitoba abstract the hydrogeochemistry of the lac du bonnet granitic batholith has been determined for the region of the whiteshell research area wra in southeastern manitoba canada this work forms part of the geosciences studies performed for the canadian nuclear fuel waste management program over the period 1980 1995 by atomic energy of canada limited aecl knowledge of the variation of groundwater chemistry and its causes is useful in assessing the performance and safety of a nuclear fuel waste vault located at depths of up to 1000 m in a crystalline rock formation of the canadian shield groundwaters and matrix pore fluids have been obtained by standard sampling methods from shallow piezometers in clay rich overburden from packer isolated borehole zones intersecting fractures or fault zones in the bedrock and from boreholes in unfractured rock in aecl s underground research laboratory url eighty six individual fracture groundwaters have been sampled and analysed from permeable zones in 53 boreholes drilled to depths of up to 1000 m in the lac du bonnet batholith in addition 28 groundwaters from piezometers in a large wetland area near the url have been sampled and analysed to determine the influence of clay rich overburden on the bedrock hydrogeochemistry analyses have been made for major and minor ions ph eh trace metals and stable and radioactive isotopes to characterise these groundwaters and relate them to their hydrogeologic regimes shallow groundwaters in the fractured bedrock are generally dilute tds 500 m na ca cl so4 waters of increasing salinity up to 50 g l with depth are found and in some fractures the waters have evolved to a ca na cl composition isotopic data indicate that these waters are warm climate and pre glacial in origin with residence times of over 1 ma pore fluids observed to drain from the unfractured rock matrix in the url facility are almost pure ca cl in composition 90 g l salinity and have a 2h 18o composition displaced well to the left of the global meteoric water line about which all other wra groundwaters lie this information indicates that these pore fluids have undergone prolonged water rock interaction and have residence times of 101 103 ma most of the deeper fracture groundwaters and pore fluids have low br cl ratios and moderate to high 34s values of dissolved so4 which indicates that their salinity could be derived from a marine source such as the basinal sedimentary brines and evaporites to the west of the batholith these fluids may have entered the batholith during early paleozoic times when sedimentary rocks were deposited over the granite and were driven by a hydraulic gradient resulting from higher ground in western canada the hydrogeochemical data and interpretations show that below 500 m in the wra fracture hosted groundwaters are very saline reducing and old and are therefore indicative of stagnant conditions over the period of concern for nuclear waste disposal 1 ma the intact rock matrix at these depths is extremely impermeable as indicated by the presence of pore fluids with unusual geochemical and isotopic characteristics the pore fluids may represent basinal brines that have evolved geochemically and isotopically to their current composition over periods as long as 103 ma

microphysical characteristics of mjo convection over the indian ocean during dynamo the microphysical characteristics of precipitating convection occurring in various stages of the madden julian oscillation mjo over the indian ocean are determined from data obtained from the national center for atmospheric research dual polarimetric doppler s band radar s polka deployed as part of the dynamics of the mjo dynamo field experiment active mjo events with increased rainfall occurred in october november and december 2011 during each of these active mjo phases in addition to enhanced rainfall convection became deeper and ice phase microphysics played a greater role s polka consistently showed nonoriented small ice particles dominating the radar echoes at altitudes of 9 10 km dry aggregates concentrated between 7 and 9 km and wet aggregates and graupel near the melting level 5 km graupel occurred mainly in actively convective towers while the wet aggregates occurred almost exclusively in the stratiform regions of mesoscale convective systems mcss during each of the three multiweek mjo active phases the maximum rainfall occurred in short bursts lasting a few days each multiday rainy period began with deepening convective elements and a concurrent increase in occurrence of dry aggregates which maximized just prior to organization into mcss the peak rainfall occurrence coincided with the maximum coverage of the radar domain by mcss reflecting large stratiform regions that exhibited the most frequent occurrence of wet aggregates during the december active mjo phase however the mcss were shallower and had a slightly lower tendency for wet aggregates in the stratiform regions and therefore generally weaker brightbands

distribution of cu co as and fe in mine waste sediment soil and water in and around mineral deposits and mines of the idaho cobalt belt usa abstract the distribution of cu co as and fe was studied downstream from mines and deposits in the idaho cobalt belt icb the largest co resource in the usa to evaluate potential contamination in ecosystems in the icb mine waste stream sediment soil and water were collected and analyzed for cu co as and fe in this area concentrations of cu in mine waste and stream sediment collected proximal to mines in the icb ranged from 390 to 19 000 g g exceeding the usepa target clean up level and the probable effect concentration pec for cu of 149 g g in sediment pec is the concentration above which harmful effects are likely in sediment dwelling organisms in addition concentrations of cu in mine runoff and stream water collected proximal to mines were highly elevated in the icb and exceeded the usepa chronic criterion for aquatic organisms of 6 3 g l at a water hardness of 50 mg l and an lc50 concentration for rainbow trout of 14 g l for cu in water concentrations of co in mine waste and stream sediment collected proximal to mines varied from 14 to 7400 g g and were highly elevated above regional background concentrations and generally exceeded the usepa target clean up level of 80 g g for co in sediment concentrations of co in water were as high as in 75 000 g l in the icb exceeding an lc50 of 346 g l for rainbow trout for co in water by as much as two orders of magnitude likely indicating an adverse effect on trout mine waste and stream sediment collected in the icb also contained highly elevated as concentrations that varied from 26 to 17 000 g g most of which exceeded the pec of 33 g g and the usepa target clean up level of 35 g g for as in sediment conversely most water samples had as concentrations that were below the 150 g l chronic criterion for protection of aquatic organisms and the usepa target clean up level of 14 g l there is abundant fe oxide in streams in the icb and several samples of mine runoff and stream water exceeded the chronic criterion for protection of aquatic organisms of 1000 g l for fe there has been extensive remediation of mined areas in the icb but because some mine waste remaining in the area contains highly elevated cu co as and fe inhalation or ingestion of mine waste particulates may lead to human exposure to these elements

gravity waves generated by convection during twp ice 2 high frequency gravity waves high frequency gravity waves are analyzed using radiosonde soundings taken during the tropical warm pool international cloud experiment twp ice the intrinsic periods of these waves are estimated to be between 10 and 50 min the high frequency wave activity in the stratosphere defined by mass weighted variance of the vertical motion of the sonde has a maximum following the afternoon local convection indicating that these waves are generated by local convection the wave activity is the strongest in the lower stratosphere below 22 km and during the suppressed monsoon period is modulated with a 3 4 day period the concentration of the wave activity in the lower stratosphere is consistent with the properties of the environment in which these waves propagate whereas its 3 4 day modulation is explained by the variation of the convection activity in the twp ice domain for shallow convection the wave activity has a weak tendency to increase as the rainfall intensity increases the wave activity associated with deep convection which typically occurs at high rainfall intensities is larger and has more spread than that associated with shallow convection

observations of kelvin helmholtz instability at a cloud base with the middle and upper atmosphere mu and weather radars 1 using the very high frequency 46 5 mhz middle and upper atmosphere radar mur ka band 35 ghz and x band 9 8 ghz weather radars a kelvin helmholtz kh instability occurring at a cloud base and its impact on modulating cloud bottom altitudes are described by a case study on 8 october 2008 at the shigaraki mu observatory japan 34 85 n 136 10 e kh braids were monitored by the mur along the slope of a cloud base gradually rising with time around an altitude of 5 0 km the kh braids had a horizontal wavelength of about 3 6 km and maximum crest to trough amplitude of about 1 6 km nearly monochromatic and out of phase vertical air motion oscillations exceeding 3 m s 1 with a period of 3 min 20 s were measured by the mur above and below the cloud base the axes of the billows were at right angles of the wind and wind shear both oriented east north east at their altitude the isotropy of the radar echoes and the large variance of doppler velocity in the kh billows including the braids indicate the presence of strong turbulence at the bragg 3 2 m scale after the passage of the cloud system the kh waves rapidly damped and the vertical scale of the kh braids progressively decreased down to about 100 m before their disappearance the radar observations suggest that the interface between clear air and cloud was conducive to the presence of the dynamical shear instability by reducing static stability and then the richardson number near the cloud base downward cloudy protuberances detected by the ka band radar had vertical and horizontal scales of about 0 6 1 1 and 3 2 km respectively and were clearly associated with the downward air motions observed oscillations of the reflectivity weighted doppler velocity measured by the x band radar indicate that falling ice particles underwent the vertical wind motions generated by the kh instability to form the protuberances the protuberances at the cloud base might be either kh billow clouds or perhaps some sort of mamma reflectivity weighted particle fall velocity computed from doppler velocities measured by the x band radar and the mur showed an average value of 1 3 ms 1 within the cloud and in the protuberance environment

ghosts of lithospheres past imaging an evolving lithospheric mantle in southern africa group ii 143 117 ma and group i kimberlites 108 74 ma intrude across the southwest boundary of the kaapvaal craton sampling the same volume of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle sclm in two time slices major and trace element analyses of 3699 peridotitic garnet xenocrysts were used to construct paleogeotherms for 17 kimberlite localities and to place each garnet at its depth of origin the ti contents of each garnet and the calculated x mg of its coexisting olivine were projected onto a southwest northeast section across the craton boundary and splines were used to interpolate between the virtual boreholes in each age group the sections show that the cratonic sclm extends at least 75 km southwest of the mapped craton boundary suggesting a dipping contact marked differences between the time slice sections show that between 117 and 108 ma the sclm on both sides of the craton boundary was heated and chemically refertilized by infiltrating asthenosphere derived melts thinning the depleted layer by 40 km the thermal and geochemical changes record a significant tectonothermal event that may be related to changes in the stress field associated with opening of the south atlantic or with mantle upwelling

the three atmospheric circulations over the indian ocean and the maritime continent and their modulation by the passage of the mjo abstractthe passage of the madden julian oscillation mjo over the indian ocean and the maritime continent is investigated during the episode of 23 30 november 2011 a meso nh convection permittin

radiosonde observations of equatorial atmosphere dynamics over indonesia 2 characteristics of gravity waves this paper discusses the characteristics of gravity waves in the equatorial region revealed by analyzing radiosonde measurements of wind velocity and temperature fluctuations at 0 35 km with a height resolution of 150 m made every 5 7 hours between february 27 and march 22 1990 in east java indonesia we conducted hodograph analysis to delineate vertical and horizontal propagation characteristics and found that most gravity waves were generated in the middle of the troposphere and that they propagated upward into the stratosphere the amplitudes of wind velocity and temperature fluctuations due to gravity waves were larger in the stratosphere than in the troposphere the direction of horizontal propagation of gravity waves was rather uniformly distributed in the troposphere but it became eastward in the lower stratosphere being opposite to that of the mean winds because of quasi biennial oscillation the vertical wavenumber spectra of wind velocity were described fairly well by a saturated model spectrum although their amplitudes were smaller in the stratosphere a typical vertical wavelength was 2 2 5 km while the horizontal phase velocities were 5 7 and 12 m s in the troposphere and stratosphere respectively the amplitudes of small scale gravity waves were significantly larger in the equatorial stratosphere than at middle latitudes time height variation of the wind velocity variance due to gravity waves showed a clear correlation with that for high relative humidity which implies that cloud convection is an important mechanism of gravity wave generation in the equatorial region

the event to event variability of the boreal winter mjo 1 during boreal winters perturbations of the convection by the madden julian oscillation mjo peak over three basins distributed in longitude south of the equator the eastern indian ocean io the south of the maritime continent mc and the western pacific ocean po we use the observed outgoing longwave radiation olr and low level wind to identify and characterize all wintertime mjo events between 1979 and 2010 there is a large event to event variability with some mjo events organized at the planetary scale having their amplitude well distributed over the 3 basins and some showing only basin scale organization with a convective perturbation peaking over one or two basins the average of the mjo amplitude for the three basins shows an intriguing decadal variability consistent for both olr and low level wind the disparity between the 3 basins is dominated by an alternation between mjo amplitude peaking on either the indian or the pacific ocean this indo pacific alternation depicted by an indo pacific index ipi is partly related to enso in el nino conditions there is not only an extension of the mjo perturbation further east but also an increase of the mjo perturbation over the western pacific and a diminution of the mjo perturbation over the eastern indian ocean

radiosonde observations of equatorial atmosphere dynamics over indonesia 1 equatorial waves and diurnal tides this paper describes the characteristics of the mean winds equatorial waves with periods ranging from 4 to 20 days and diurnal tides determined by analyzing the profiles of wind velocity temperature and humidity obtained every 5 7 hours in the height range up to about 35 km with a height resolution of 150 m during an observation campaign conducted february 27 to march 22 1990 in east java indonesia the structures of the mean winds in the troposphere and lower stratosphere seemed to be affected by the australian monsoon and the quasi biennial oscillation respectively frequency spectra indicated that the equatorial waves as well as the diurnal tides were dominant below about 25 km while gravity waves with periods shorter than 4 days became more significant above 25 km a 7 day oscillation showing an antiphase relation between the eastward and northward components and exhibiting large amplitudes was observed in the lower troposphere the time height variations of the activity of this 7 day oscillation were clearly correlated with a region of high relative humidity perturbations in the zonal wind and temperature with wave periods varying from 15 to 17 days were also enhanced in the troposphere while kelvin waves with periods of about 7 and 20 days were detected in the lower stratosphere and activity near the tropopause was conspicuously enhanced we found that the 20 day kelvin wave greatly modified the structure of the tropopause such as the minimum temperature the tropopause height and the values of the brunt vaisala frequency squared n2 which further suggests the effects of kelvin waves on the transportation of tropospheric water vapor into the stratosphere and on the downward mixing of stratospheric minor constituents into the troposphere the observed profiles of the diurnal oscillation were compared with those of a numerical model assuming only migrating tides which reasonably agreed above about 25 km below 25 km however the observed amplitudes were 1 1 5 m s exceeding those of the model about 10 times moreover the phase profiles involved fluctuations with small vertical scales suggesting interference by many nonmigrating tides with short vertical wavelengths

intermittent mixing in strongly stratified fluids as a random walk in strongly stratified geophysical fluids such as the stratosphere and the ocean the vertical mixing of tracers is largely due to patches of turbulence that are intermittent in time and space heuristic models for this type of mixing are studied which extend that of dewan 1981 a the recognition that in these models fluid particles undergo continuous time random walks allows the derivation of closed form results for the particle position statistics the particle dispersion is shown generally to be diffusive in the long time limit however the early time non diffusive regime is also analysed since a time scale estimate indicates its practical importance in particular for stratospheric mixing because the restratification of fluid patches previously homogenized by turbulence takes a finite time the probability for a fluid region to become turbulent may depend on the time elapsed since it has last been turbulent this introduces a memory effect whose consequences for the tracer mixing are analysed in detail using a simple non markovian model the heuristic models studied allow the large scale dispersive effects of the turbulent patches to be inferred from the properties of individual patches this highlights those properties that might most usefully be determined from investigations of the dynamics of the turbulent patches themselves